# From Quantum Unstable Systems to the Decaying Dark Energy: Cosmological Implications

Authors: Aleksander Stachowski; Marek Szydłowski; Krzysztof Urbanowski
Journal: Advances in High Energy Physics
 (2018)

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## Abstract

We consider a cosmology with decaying metastable dark energy and assume that a decay process of this metastable dark energy is a quantum decay process. Such an assumption implies among others that the evolution of the Universe is irreversible and violates the time reversal symmetry. We show that if we replace the cosmological timet appearing in the equation describing the evolution of the Universe by the Hubble cosmological scale time, then we obtain time dependent Λ(t) in the form of the series of even powers of the Hubble parameter H: Λ(t)=Λ(H). Our special attention is focused on radioactive-like exponential form of the decay process of the dark energy and on the consequences of this type decay.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

In the explanation of the Universe, we encounter the old problem of the cosmological constant, which is related to understanding why the measured value of the vacuum energy is so small in comparison with the value calculated using quantum field theory methods [1]. Because of a cosmological origin of the cosmological constant one must also address another problem. Namely, it is connected with our understanding, with a question of not only why the vacuum energy is not only small, but also, as current Type Ia supernova observations to indicate, why the present mass density of the Universe has the same order of magnitude [2].Both mentioned cosmological constant problems can be considered in the framework of the extension of the standard cosmologicalΛCDM model in which the cosmological constant (naturally interpreted as related to the vacuum energy density) is running and its value is changing during the cosmic evolution.Results of many recent observations lead to the conclusion that our Universe is in an accelerated expansion phase [3]. This acceleration can be explained as a result of a presence of dark energy. A detailed analysis of results of recent observations shows that there is a tension between local and primordial measurements of cosmological parameters [3]. It appears that this tension may be connected with dark energy evolving in time [4]. This paper is a contribution to the discussion of the nature of the dark energy. We consider the hypothesis that dark energy depends on time, ρde=ρde(t), and it is metastable: We assume that it decays with the increasing time t to ρbare: ρde(t)→ρbare≠0 as t→∞. The idea that vacuum energy decays was considered in many papers (see, e.g., [5, 6]). Shafieloo et al. [7] assumed that ρde(t) decays according to the radioactive exponential decay law. Unfortunately, such an assumption is not able to reflect all the subtleties of evolution in the time of the dark energy and its decay process. It is because the creation of the Universe is a quantum process. Hence the metastable dark energy can be considered as the value of the scalar field at the false vacuum state and therefore the decay of the dark energy should be considered as a quantum decay process. The radioactive exponential decay law does not reflect correctly all phases of the quantum decay process. In general, analysing quantum decay processes one can distinguish the following phases [8, 9]: (i) the early time initial phase, (ii) the canonical or exponential phase (when the decay law has the exponential form), and (iii) the late time nonexponential phase. The first phase and the third one are missed when one considers the radioactive decay law only. Simply they are invisible to the radioactive exponential decay law. For example, the theoretical analysis of quantum decay processes shows that at late times the survival probability of the system considered in its initial state (i.e., the decay law) should tend to zero as t→∞ much more slowly than any exponential function of time and that as a function of time it has the inverse power-like form at this regime of time [8, 10, 11]. So, all implications of the assumption that the decay process of the dark energy is a quantum decay process can be found only if we apply a quantum decay law to describe decaying metastable dark energy. This idea was used in [12], where the assumption made in [7] that ρde(t) decays according to the radioactive exponential decay law was improved by replacing that radioactive decay law by the survival probability P(t), that is, by the decay law derived assuming that the decay process is a quantum process.This is the place where one has to emphasize that the use of the assumption that dark energy depends on time and is decaying during time evolution leads to the conclusion that such a process is irreversible and violates a time reversal symmetry. (Consequences of this effect will be analysed in next sections of this paper) Note that the picture of the evolving Universe, which results from the solutions of the Einstein equations completed with quantum corrections appearing as the effect of treating the false vacuum decay as a quantum decay process, is consistent with the observational data. The evolution starts from the early time epoch with the runningΛ(t) and then it goes to the final accelerating phase expansion of the Universe. In such a scenario the standard cosmological ΛCDM model emerges from the quantum false vacuum state of the Universe.The paper is organised as follows: In Section2 one finds a short introduction of formalism necessary for considering decaying dark energy as a quantum decay process. Cosmological implications of a decaying dark energy are considered in Section 3. Section 4 contains conclusions.


## 2. Decay of a Dark Energy as a Quantum Decay Process

In the quantum decay theory of unstable systems, properties of the survival amplitudes(1)
A
t
=
ϕ
ϕ
tare usually analysed. Here a vector ϕ represents the unstable state of the system considered and ϕt is the solution of the Schrödinger equation(2)iħ∂∂tϕt=Hϕt.The initial condition for (2) in the case considered is usually assumed to be(3)ϕt=t0≡0=defϕ,or equivalently(4)A0=1.In (2) H denotes the complete (full), self-adjoint Hamiltonian of the system. We have ϕt=exp⁡-i/ħtHϕ. It is not difficult to see that this property and hermiticity of H imply that(5)At∗=A-t.Therefore, the decay probability of an unstable state (usually called the decay law), i.e., the probability for a quantum system to remain at time t in its initial state ϕ0≡ϕ,(6)Pt=defAt2≡AtAt∗,must be an even function of time [8]:(7)Pt=P-t.This last property suggests that, in the case of the unstable states prepared at some instantt0, say t0=0, initial condition (3) for evolution equation (2) should be formulated more precisely. Namely, from (7), it follows that the probabilities of finding the system in the decaying state ϕ at the instant, say t=T≫t0≡0, and at the instant t=-T are the same. Of course, this can never occur. In almost all experiments in which the decay law of a given unstable subsystem system is investigated this particle is created at some instant of time, say t0, and this instant of time is usually considered as the initial instant for the problem. From property (7) it follows that the instantaneous creation of the unstable subsystem system (e.g., a particle or an excited quantum level and so on) is practically impossible. For the observer, the creation of this object (i.e., the preparation of the state, |ϕ〉, representing the decaying subsystem system) is practically instantaneous. What is more, using suitable detectors he/she is usually able to prove that it did not exist at times t<t0. Therefore, if one looks for the solutions of Schrödinger equation (2) describing properties of the unstable states prepared at some initial instant t0 in the system and if one requires these solutions to reflect situations described above, one should complete initial conditions (3), (4) for (2) by assuming additionally that(8)ϕt<t0=0orAtt<t0=0.Equivalently, within the problem considered, one can use initial conditions (3), (4) and assume that time t may vary from t=t0>-∞ to t=+∞ only, that is, that t∈R+.Note that canonical (that is a classical radioactive) decay lawPc(t)=exp⁡-t/τ0 (where τ0 is a lifetime) does not satisfy property (7), which is valid only for the quantum decay law P(t). What is more, from (5) and (6) it follows that at very early times, i.e., at the Zeno times (see [8, 13]),(9)∂Pt∂tt=0=0,which implies that(10)Pt>e-t/τ0=defPctfort→0.So at the Zeno time region the quantum decay process is much slower than any decay process described by the canonical (or classical) decay law Pc(t).Now let us focus the attention on the survival amplitudeA(t). An unstable state |ϕ〉 can be modeled as wave packets using solutions of the following eigenvalue equation H|E〉=E|E〉, where E∈σc(H), and σc(H) denotes a continuum spectrum of H. Eigenvectors |E〉 are normalized as usual: 〈E|E′〉=δ(E-E′). Using vectors |E〉 we can model an unstable state as the following wave-packet:(11)ϕ≡ϕ=∫Emin∞cEEdE,where expansion coefficients cE are functions of the energy E and Emin is the lower bound of the spectrum σcH of H. The state |ϕ〉 is normalized ϕ|ϕ〉=1, which means that it has to be ∫Emin∞cE2dE=1. Now using the definition of the survival amplitude A(t) and the expansion (11) we can find A(t), which takes the following form within the formalism considered:(12)At≡At-t0=∫Emin∞ωEe-iEt-t0dE,where ω(E)≡cE2>0 and ωEdE is the probability to find the energy of the system in the state ϕ between E and E + dE. The last relation (12) means that the survival amplitude At is a Fourier transform of an absolute integrable function ωE. If we apply the Riemann-Lebesgue Lemma to integral (12) then one concludes that there must be At→0 as t→∞. This property and relation (12) are an essence of the Fock–Krylov theory of unstable states [14, 15].As it is seen from (12), the amplitude A(t) and thus the decay law P(t) of the unstable state |ϕ〉 are completely determined by the density of the energy distribution ω(E) for the system in this state [14, 15] (see also [8, 10, 11, 16–21]).In the general case the densityω(E) possesses properties analogous to the scattering amplitude; i.e., it can be decomposed into a threshold factor, a pole-function P(E) with a simple pole, and a smooth form factor F(E). There is ω(E)=Θ(E-Emin)(E-Emin)αlPEFE, where αl depends on the angular momentum l through αl=α+l [8] (see equation (6.1) in [8]), 0≤α<1) and ΘE is a step function: Θ(E)=0 for E≤0 and Θ(E)=1 for E>0. The simplest choice is to take α=0, l=0, F(E)=1 and to assume that P(E) has a Breit–Wigner (BW) form of the energy distribution density. (The mentioned Breit–Wigner distribution was found when the cross section of slow neutrons was analysed [22]) It turns out that the decay curves obtained in this simplest case are very similar in form to the curves calculated for the above described more general ω(E) (see [16] and analysis in [8]). So to find the most typical properties of the decay process it is sufficient to make the relevant calculations for ω(E) modeled by the Breit–Wigner distribution of the energy density ω(E)≡ωBW(E)=defN/2πΘ(E-Emin)Γ0/E-E02+Γ0/22, where N is a normalization constant. The parameters E0 and Γ0 correspond to the energy of the system in the unstable state and its decay rate at the exponential (or canonical) regime of the decay process. Emin is the minimal (the lowest) energy of the system. Inserting ωBW(E) into formula (12) for the amplitude A(t) and assuming for simplicity that t0=0, after some algebra, one finds that(13)At=N2πe-i/ħE0tIβΓ0tħ,where(14)Iβτ=def∫-β∞1η2+1/4e-iητdη.Here τ=Γ0t/ħ≡t/τ0, τ0 is the lifetime, τ0=ħ/Γ0, and β=E0-Emin/Γ0>0. The integral Iβ(τ) has the following structure:(15)Iβτ=Iβpoleτ+IβLτ,where(16)Iβpoleτ=∫-∞∞1η2+1/4e-iητdη≡2πe-τ/2,and(17)IβLτ=-∫+β∞1η2+1/4e+iητdη.(The integral IβL(τ) can be expressed in terms of the integral-exponential function [23–26] (for a definition, see [27, 28])) The result (15) means that there is a natural decomposition of the survival amplitude A(t) into two parts:(18)At=Act+ALt,where(19)Act=N2πe-i/ħE0tIβpoleΓ0tħ≡Ne-i/ħE0te-Γ0t/2,and(20)ALt=N2πe-i/ħE0tIβLΓ0tħ,and Ac(t) is the canonical part of the amplitude A(t) describing the pole contribution into A(t) and AL(t) represents the remaining part of A(t).From decomposition (18) it follows that in the general case within the model considered the survival probability (6) contains the following parts:(21)Pt=At2≡Act+ALt2=Act2+2RActALt∗+ALt2.This last relation is especially useful when one looks for a contribution of late time properties of the quantum unstable system to the survival amplitude.The late time form of the integralIβLτ and thus the late time form of the amplitude AL(t) can be relatively easy to find using analytical expression for AL(t) in terms of the integral-exponential functions or simply performing the integration by parts in (17). One finds for t→∞ (or τ→∞) that the leading term of the late time asymptotic expansion of the integral IβL(τ) has the following form:(22)IβLτ≃-iτeiβτβ2+1/4+…,τ→∞.Thus inserting (22) into (20) one can find late time form of AL(t).As was mentioned we consider the hypothesis that a dark energy depends on time,ρde=ρde(t), and decays with the increasing time t to ρbare: ρde(t)→ρbare≠0 as t→∞. We assume that it is a quantum decay process. The consequence of this assumption is that we should consider ρde(t0) (where t0 is the initial instant) as the energy of an excited quantum level (e.g., corresponding to the false vacuum state) and the energy density ρbare as the energy corresponding to the true lowest energy state (the true vacuum) of the system considered. Our hypothesis means that (ρde(t)-ρbare)→0 as t→∞. As it was said we assumed that the decay process of the dark energy is a quantum decay process: From the point of view of the quantum theory of decay processes this means that limt→∞(ρde(t)-ρbare)=0 according to the quantum mechanical decay law. Therefore if we define(23)ρ~det=defρdet-ρbare,our assumption means that the decay law for ρ~de(t) has the following form (see [12]):(24)ρ~det=ρ~det0Pt≡ρ~det0Act2+2RActALt∗+ALt2,where P(t) is given by relation (6), or, equivalently, our assumption means that the decay law for ρ~de(t) has the following form (compare [12]):(25)ρdet≡ρbare+ρ~det0Act2+2RActALt∗+ALt2,where ρ~de(t0)=ρdet0-ρbare and P(t) is replaced by (21). Taking into account the standard relation between ρde and the cosmological constant Λ we can write (26)Λefft≡Λbare+Λ~t0Act2+2RActALt∗+ALt2,where Λ~(t0)≡Λ~0=(Λ(t0)-Λbare). Thus within the considered case using definition (6) or relation (21) we can determine changes in time of the dark energy density ρde(t) (or running Λ(t)) knowing the general properties of survival amplitude A(t).The above described approach is self-consistent if we identifyρde(t0) with the energy E0 of the unstable system divided by the volume V0 (where V0 is the volume of the system at t=t0): ρde(t0)≡ρdeqft=defρde0=E0/V0 and ρbare=Emin/V0. Here ρdeqft is the vacuum energy density calculated using quantum field theory methods. In such a case(27)β=E0-EminΓ0≡ρde0-ρbareγ0>0,(where γ0=Γ0/V0), or equivalently Γ0/V0≡ρde0-ρbare/β.


## 3. Cosmological Implications of Decaying Vacuum

Let us consider cosmological implications of the parameterΛ with the time parameterized decaying part, derived in the previous section, in the form(28)Λ≡Λefft=Λbare+δΛt,where δΛt describes quantum corrections and it is given by a series with respect to 1/t; i.e.,(29)δΛt=∑n=1∞α2n1t2n,where t is the cosmological scale time and the functions Λeff(t) and δΛ(t) have a reflection symmetry with respect to the cosmological time δΛ(-t)=δΛ(t). The next step in deriving dynamical equations for the evolution of the Universe is to consider this parameter as a source of gravity which contributes to the effective energy density; i.e.,(30)3Ht2=ρmt+ρdet,where ρde(t) is identified as the energy density of the quantum decay process of vacuum(31)ρdet=Λbare+δΛt.In this paper, we assume that c=8πG=1. The Einstein field equation for the FRW metric reduces to(32)dHtdt=-12ρefft+pefft=-12ρmt+0+ρdet-ρdet,where ρeff=ρm+ρde, peff=0+pde, or(33)dHtdt=-12ρmt=-123Ht2-Λbare-δΛt.Szydlowski et al. [12] considered the radioactive-like decay of metastable dark energy. For the late time, this decay process has three consecutive phases: the phase of radioactive decay, the phase of damping oscillations, and finally the phase of power law decaying. When β>0 for t>ħ/Γ02β/β2+1/4, dark energy can be described in the following form (see (25) and [12]):(34)ρdet≈ρbare+ϵ4π2e-Γ0/ħt+4πe-Γ0/2ħtsinβΓ0/ħt1/4+β2Γ0/ħt+11/4+β2Γ0/ħt2,where ϵ, Γ0, and β are model parameters. Equation (34) results directly from (25): One only needs to insert (22) into formula for AL(t) and result (19) instead of Ac(t) into (25). In this paper, we consider the first phase of decay process, in other words, the phase of radioactive (exponential) decay.The model with the radioactive (exponential) decay of dark energy was investigated by Shafieloo et al. [7]. During the phase of the exponential decay of the vacuum(35)dδΛtdt=AδΛt,where A=const<0 (δΛ(t) is decaying).The set of equations (33) and (35) constitute a two-dimensional closed autonomous dynamical system in the form(36)dHtdt=-123Ht2-Λbare-δΛt,dδΛtdt=AδΛt.System (36) has the time dependent first integral in the form(37)ρmt=3Ht2-Λbare-δΛt.At the finite domain, system (36) possesses only one critical point representing the standard cosmological model (the running part of Λ vanishes, i.e., δΛ(t)=0).System (36) can be rewritten in variables(38)x=δΛt3H02,y=HtH0where H0 is the present value of the Hubble function. Then(39)dxdσ=AH0xdydσ=-123y2-3ΩΛbare-3x,where ΩΛbare=Λbare/3H02 and σ=H0t are a new reparametrized time. The phase portrait of system (39) is shown in Figure 1.Figure 1
The phase portrait of system (39). Critical point 1 x=0,y=Λbare/3H0 is the stable node and critical point 2 x=0,y=-Λbare/3H0 is the saddle. These critical points represent the de Sitter universes. Here, H0 is the present value of the Hubble function. The value of A is assumed as -H0. Note that the phase portrait is not symmetric under reflection H→-H. While critical point 1 is a global attractor, only a unique separatrix reaches critical point 2.Szydlowski et al. [12] demonstrated that the contribution of the energy density of the decaying quantum vacuum possesses three disjoint phases during the cosmic evolution. The phase of exponential decay like in the radioactive decay processes is long phase in the past and future evolution. Our estimation of model parameter shows that we are living in the Universe with the radioactive decay of the quantum vacuum.It is interesting that, during this phase, the Universe violates the reflection symmetry of the time:t→-t. In cosmology and generally in physics there is a fundamental problem of the origin of irreversibility in the Universe [29]. Note that in our model irreversibility is a consequence of the radioactive decay of the quantum vacuum.If we considered radioactivity (in which the time reversal symmetry is broken) then a direction of decaying vacuum is in accordance with the thermodynamical arrow of time. First, note that it is in some sense very natural that the dynamics of the Universe is in fact irreversible when the full quantum evolution is taken into account. Therefore, radioactive decay of vacuum irreversibility has a thermodynamic interpretation as far as the evolution of the Universe is concerned: in horizon thermodynamics the area of the cosmological horizon is interpreted as (beginning proportional to) the entropy, i.e., the Hawking entropy. In a system whereΛ decays as a result of irreversible quantum processes we obtain the very natural conclusion that the entropy of the Universe grows, in many cases without an upper bound [30, 31].In the general parameterization (29), of course, the symmetry of changing t→-t is present and this symmetry is also in a one-dimensional nonautonomous dynamical system describing the evolution of the Universe:(40)dHtdt=-123Ht2-Λbare-∑n=1∞α2nt-2n.In cosmology, especially in quantum cosmology, the analysis of the concept of time seems to be the key for the construction of an adequate quantum gravity theory, which we would like to apply to the description of early Universe.The good approximation of (40) is to replace in it the cosmological time by the Hubble cosmological scale time(41)tH=1H.In consequence, parameterization (29) can be rewritten in the new form(42)δΛt=δΛHt=∑n=1∞α2nHt2n.After putting this form into (40), we obtain dynamical system in an autonomous form with the preserved symmetry of time t→-t, H→-H. In Figure 2 presents a diagram of the evolution of the Hubble function obtained from the following one-dimensional dynamical system:(43)dHtdt=-123Ht2-Λbare-∑n=1∞α2nHt2n.For comparison, the evolution of the Hubble functions derived in the ΛCDM model, model (40), and model (43) are presented in Figure 3. For the existence of the de Sitter global attractor as t→∞ asymptotically a contribution coming from the decaying part of δΛHt=∑n=1∞α2nH(t)2n should be vanishing.Figure 2
The diagram of the evolution of the Hubble function with respect to the cosmological timet, which is described by (43) with α21≠0 and α2n=0 for every n>1. For illustration, two example values of the parameter α21= are chosen: -1 and -2. The top blue curve describes the evolution of the Hubble function in the ΛCDM model. The middle curve describes one for α21=-1 and the bottom red curve describes one for α21=-2. The Hubble function is expressed in km/sMpc and the cosmological time t is expressed in sMpc/km.Figure 3
The diagram of the evolution of the Hubble function with respect to the cosmological timet, which is described by (40) and (43) with α21≠0 and α2n=0 for every n>1. For illustration, the value of the parameter α21= is chosen as -0.3. The top blue curve describes the evolution of the Hubble function in the ΛCDM model. The middle curve describes one for (43) and the bottom red curve describes one for (40). The Hubble function is expressed in km/sMpc and the cosmological time t is expressed in sMpc/km. Note that these models are not qualitatively different.This condition guarantees for us a consistency of our model with astronomical observations of the accelerating phase of the Universe [3].If all parametersα2n for n>1 equal zero then the Hubble parameter is described by the following formula:(44)Ha=±ρm,0aα21-3+Λbare3-α21,or(45)Hz=±ρm,01+z3-α21+Λbare3-α21,where z=a-1-1 is redshift. From (44) we can obtain the following formula for the expanding Universe:(46)at=ρm,0Λbaresinh⁡3-α21Λbare2t2/3-α21.Figure4 presents the evolution of the scale factor, which is described by (46). Eq. (46) gives us the following formula:(47)Ht=Λbare3-α21coth⁡12Λbare3-α21t.Figure 4
The diagram of the evolution of the scale factor with respect to the cosmological timet, which is described by (46). For illustration, two example values of the parameter α21= are chosen: -1 and -2. The bottom blue curve describes the evolution of the scale factor in the ΛCDM model. The middle curve describes one for α21=-1 and the top red curve describes one for α21=-2. The cosmological time t is expressed in sMpc/km.In the extension of Friedmann equation (37) matter is contributed as well as dark energy. The total energy-momentum tensor Tμν=Tmμν+Tdeμν is of course conserved. However, between the matter and dark energy sectors exist an interaction—the energy density is transferred between these sectors. This process can be described by the system of equations(48)dρmtdt+3Htρmt=-dρdetdt=-dΛefftdt,dρdetdt=dΛefftdt,where it is assumed that pressure of matter pm=0 and pde=-ρde. The time variability of the matter and energy density of decaying vacuum are demonstrated in Figure 5.Figure 5
The diagram of the evolution of the parameterδ with respect to the cosmological time t. For illustration, two example values of the parameter A are chosen: A=-100km/sMpc (the top green curve) and A=-200km/sMpc (the middle red curve). For comparison the ΛCDM model with the parameter δ=0 is represented by the bottom blue curve. Here, the value of the parameter B is equal to 1. The cosmological time t is expressed in sMpc/km.In the special case of radioactive decay of vacuum (48) reduces to(49)dρmtdt+3Htρmt=-ABeAt=-AδΛt,dρdetdt=AδΛtor(50)1at3ddtat3ρmt=-ABeAt=-AδΛt⇒ρmtat3=ρm,0a03-∫ABeAtat3dt,dρdetdt=AδΛt.In the case of the interaction between matter and decaying dark energy, the natural consequence of conservation of the total energy-momentum tensorTμν is a modification of the standard formula for scaling matter.Letρm(t)=ρm,0a-3+δ(t), where δ(t) is a deviation from the canonical scaling of dust matter [32, 33]. Then we have(51)δt=ln⁡ρmt/ρm,0ln⁡at+3.


## 4. Conclusions

From our investigation of cosmological implications of effects of the quantum decay of metastable dark energy, one can derive following results:(i)
The cosmological models with the running cosmological parameter can be included in the framework of some extension of Friedmann equation. The new ingredient in the comparison with the standard cosmological model (ΛCDM model) is that the total energy-momentum tensor is conserved and the interaction takes place between the matter and dark energy sectors. In consequence the canonical scaling law ρm∝a-3 is modified. Because Λ(t) is decaying (dΛ/dt<0) energy of matter in the comoving volume ∝a3 is growing with time.(ii)
We have found that the appearance of the universal exponential contribution in energy density of the decaying vacuum can explain the irreversibility of the cosmic evolution. While the reversibilityt→-t is still present in the dynamical equation describing the evolutional scenario, in the first phase of radioactive decay, this symmetry is violated.(iii)
We have also compared the time evolution of the Hubble function in the model under consideration (whereΛ(t) is parameterized by the cosmological time) with Sola et al. [34] parameterization by the Hubble function. Note that both parameterizations coincide if time t is replaced by the Hubble scale time tH=1/H. If the evolution of the Universe is invariant in the scale, i.e., the scale factor a is changing in power law, then this correspondence is exact.



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