# Capsaicin Alleviates Vascular Endothelial Dysfunction and Cardiomyopathy via TRPV1/eNOS Pathway in Diabetic Rats

Authors: Qiuyue Wang; Caihui Zhang; Chen Yang; Yue Sun; Keyang Chen; Yao Lu
Journal: Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity
 (2022)

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## Abstract

Background. Endothelial dysfunction and cardiomyopathy are considered to be important vascular complications associated with diabetes. This study was designed to investigate whether capsaicin (CAP), a selective TRPV1 agonist, could prevent diabetes-induced endothelial dysfunction and cardiomyopathy. Methods. Male Sprague Dawley rats aged 8 weeks were injected intraperitoneally with streptozotocin (STZ, 50 mg/kg) to establish the diabetes model. The diabetic rats were randomly divided into the untreated diabetes group (DM, 10/group) and diabetes plus CAP treatment group (DM+CAP, 10/group); meanwhile, the nondiabetic healthy rats were used as normal controls (10/group). DM+CAP group were treated with CAP by gavage for 8 weeks. The cultured mouse vascular endothelial cells were exposed to different concentrations of glucose in the presence or absence of CAP treatment. The TRPV1 inhibitor capsazepine (CPZ) and eNOS inhibitor L-NAME were used in vivo and in vitro experiment. Results. CAP treatment significantly decreased the serum total cholesterol (TC) and total triglyceride (TG) and ameliorated the pathogenesis and fibrosis in the heart, while did not significantly improve plasma glucose level and the body weights of diabetic rats. In addition, CAP enhanced the expression of TRPV1 and eNOS in the heart and normalized the vascular permeability under diabetic state. Similarly, CAP treatment also increased nitric oxide and reduced reactive oxygen species. The same results were observed in cultured mouse vascular endothelial cells by CAP treatment. These beneficial effects of CAP were abolished by either CPZ or L-NAME. Conclusions. CAP might protect against hyperglycemia-induced endothelial dysfunction and diabetic cardiomyopathy through TRPV1/eNOS pathway.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

Diabetic cardiovascular disease is a major cause of mortality and morbidity in diabetic patients. In fact, diabetes-associated cardiac pathophysiological condition is considered a distinct process referred to as diabetic cardiomyopathy, also leads to poor prognosis [1]. Vascular endothelial dysfunction is thought to play a crucial role in the situation. High blood glucose sabotages the integrity of blood vessels and induces endothelial dysfunction. Reduction in the bioavailability of the nitric oxide (NO) subsequent to the reduction of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) is a characteristic of vascular endothelial dysfunction [2]. eNOS is involved in the regulation of vascular function. In the circulatory system, NO derived from eNOS is one of the critical signal molecules, functioning as a crux vasoactive factor related to endothelium-dependent relaxation [3]. Physiologically, NO curbs inflammation and vascular hyperplasia. Besides, high-glucose level leads to an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) in endothelial cells, which accelerates NO inactivation and decreases NO bioavailability [4, 5]. Oxidative stress is widely believed to play a role in the pathogenesis of diabetes and its complications [6]. Research has proved that appropriate treatments aimed at nitric oxide and oxidative stress have the potential to ameliorate hyperglycemia-induced vascular lesions [7].Transient receptor potential channels are a diverse group of proteins conserved in many species of mammals and are divided into 7 subgroups, one of which is the transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) subgroup [8]. TRPV1 exists in many tissues including vascular endothelial cells [9]. Activation of TRPV1 by capsaicin-mediated Ca2+ influx in endothelial cells can increase eNOS activity, then stimulates NO production [10]. Therefore, capsaicin is considered to have potential cardiovascular protective effects [11]. Obviously, our previous studies have also confirmed this conclusion [12, 13]. Similarly, there is evidence suggesting that TRPV1 can significantly increase NO production and improve endothelial function through specific targeting of PKA/eNOS phosphorylation [14]. Impairment in capsaicin-mediated vasodilation is associated with downregulation of TRPV1, but whether activated TRPV1 is able to alleviate endothelial cell dysfunction is unclear [15]. Interestingly, in a large Mediterranean population, regular consumption of chili pepper is associated with a lower risk of total and lower death of cardiovascular disease independent of cardiovascular risk factors or adherence to a Mediterranean diet [16]. Capsaicin, as a major component of chili pepper, is a TRPV1 agonist, can improve endothelial function by diet administration in rat model of renovascular hypertension [17]. Consequently, activation of TRPV1 is quite possible to protect noninsulin-dependent diabetes patients. However, in animal experiments, whether oral administration of capsaicin can increase NO and improve vascular endothelial function in T1DM rats is still not clear. Therefore, this study aims at investigating the intervention effects of the high selective agonist capsaicin in T1DM rats and related mechanism.


## 2. Materials and Methods

The animal study protocol was approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of Anhui Medical University and the procedures were conducted in accordance with the National Institutes of Health Animal Research Advisory Committee guidelines.


### 2.1. Animals

Male Sprague–Dawley rats (200-250 g) at 8 weeks old were bought from Anhui Medical Laboratory Animal Center and acclimated for 1 week then were injected intraperitoneally with streptozotocin (STZ, 50 mg/kg body weight) dissolved in 0.1 mol/l citrate buffer (pH 4.5) [18] to establish diabetes model, which was confirmed by fasting plasma glucose level more than 16.7 mmol/l. The diabetic rats were randomly divided into untreated diabetic group (DM) and diabetes plus capsaicin treatment group (DM+CAP); meanwhile, the nondiabetic healthy rats were used as normal controls (NC). The rats in DM+CAP group received oral gavage of CAP at the dose of 0.5 mg/kg/per rat for a duration of 8 weeks, and the rats in the untreated DM group received the vehicle solution, using disposable feeding needle. Diabetic rats were, respectively, gavageded with the combination of capsaicin and the TRPV1 inhibitor capsazepine (CPZ, 5 mg/kg) or the eNOS inhibitor Nnitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, 100 mg/kg) in the DM+CAP+CPZ group or DM+CAP+L-NAME group [19]. After the completion of the 8 weeks’ treatment, all rats were anesthetized and then sacrificed [20]. Then, the heart and aortic arch were removed and deep frozen until analyzed.


### 2.2. Detection of Total Cholesterol and Triglycerides

The contents of TC and TG in serum were, respectively, determined by assay kits (Nanjing Jiancheng Bioengineering Research Institute, China).


### 2.3. In Vivo Permeability Assay

Endothelial permeability in the aortic arch was detected using Evans blue (1%, 30 min). The anesthetized rats were injected with Evans blue dye through the caudal vein, and the aorta was taken out after circulating for half an hour. After the stained aorta was photographed, the dye was extracted with deionized formamide, and the absorbance at 620 nm was measured by microplate reader [21, 22].


### 2.4. Immunohistochemistry

Rats were anesthetized and then sacrificed by exsanguination; the aortic arch and heart were isolated, dissected, and fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde and embedded in paraffin. After paraffin section, 4 mm sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin. At the same time, the heart’s paraffin sections were stained with Aniline blue and Ponceau S to observe tissue fibrosis. Prepared heart slides were stained with periodic acid Schiff’s reagent (PAS) for glycogen and evaluated by light microscopy.′


### 2.5. Cell Culture

MVECs (catlog# C166 ATCC, Allendale, NJ, USA) were grown in DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS and 1% antibiotics. Cultured cells were maintained at 37°C in a humidified atmosphere of 95% O2, 5% CO2. The cells were seeded with suitable density and divided into different groups, which included normal-glucose concentration group (NG: 5.5 mmol/l), high-glucose concentration group (HG: 25 mmol/l), and high-glucose concentration plus 1 μmol/l capsaicin group (HG + CAP) [23].


### 2.6. Western Blot Analysis

Total proteins were separated on a 10% Bis–Tris CriterionTM XT Precast Gel (Bio-Rad, MarneLa-Coquette, France) and transferred to an Immobilon polyvinylidene difuoride (PVDF) membrane (Millipore, Molsheim, France) as described (REF: PMID: 30797815). Antibodies against -TRPV1 (1 : 1000, rabbit) from Abcam (Oakville, Canada) and -eNOS (1/1000, rabbit) were incubated with membranes overnight at 4°C. Membranes were incubated for 1 h at room temperature with a corresponding horseradish peroxidase- (HRP-) conjugated secondary antibody (1/2000, Sigma-Aldrich) and developed using the Luminata™ Forte Western HRP substrate with BeyoECL Plus (Beyotime, Wuhan, China). The relative quantity of the protein of interest compared with the reference proteinβ-actin (1/5000, mouse, Santa Cruz) was measured with Image J software (NIH, USA).


### 2.7. Immunofluorescence

The expression of TRPV1 and eNOS in the heart and aorta of rats was detected using immunofluorescence as described (Ref. PMID: 20950828; PMID: 27733157). Concisely, frozen slides were incubated with anti-TRPV1 (1 : 100, NeuroMab, USA) and anti-eNOS (1 : 100, Cell Signaling Technology, USA), followed by corresponding Alexa Fluor-conjugated secondary antibody (1 : 200) before imaging using a fluorescence microscope.


### 2.8. Nitric Oxide Detection

The rat heart tissue and mouse vascular endothelial cells were used to detect the content of nitric oxide with Griess reagents (Beyotime, Wuhan, China) by the manufacturer’s instruction as described (Ref: PMID: 16390827). Also, nitric oxide concentrations of cell culture medium and of rats’ serum were tested by the same way [24].


### 2.9. Hydrogen Peroxide Detection

Preparation of serum samples: 50 mM phosphate buffer was prepared at pH 6.0. The sample was diluted 50 times with 50 mM phosphate buffer. 96 well UV microplate method was used to determine the marker curve. Determination of hydrogen peroxide concentration: the hydrogen peroxide detection reagent was dissolved and kept on ice. 50μl sample and 100 μl hydrogen peroxide detection reagent were, respectively, added into each well that was shaken gently and mixed thoroughly. The plate was leaved at room temperature (15-30°C) for 30 minutes and then detected at A560 or A540-570 nm immediately. The concentration of hydrogen peroxide in the sample was calculated according to the standard curve [25].


### 2.10. Detection of Reactive Oxygen Species

After the rats were euthanized and killed, the hearts were removed rapidly. The heart tissues were soaked in paraformaldehyde, dehydrated, embedded, and made into frozen sections, stained with ROS probe. In addition, DCFH-DA ROS fluorescent probe was used to detect the treated cell samples [26]. The results were observed by fluorescence microscope. The relative fluorescence intensities of the samples were measured with Image J software (NIH, USA).


### 2.11. Permeability Assay

The mixed base glue (Matrigel) was dissolved with coating buffer (0.01 M Tris, pH 8.0 + 0.7% NaCl) to 200-300μg/ml, 2 ml in total. The solution was placed on ice. The mixed coating solution was injected into 24 chambers (Transwell insert, including filter membrane, pore size 0.4-8 μm) with a sterile syringe at 100 μl/well. The 24-well plate containing 24 chambers was incubated at 37°C for 2 h, then the coating solution in each chamber was removed and 100 μl of mouse vascular endothelial cells at 2-5 × 105 was injected into each chamber, which was incubated at 37°C for 1 h to make the cells adhere to the bottom, then 200 μl/well complete medium was added into each chamber. At the same time, 1 ml complete medium was added to each well of the supporting plate. For the treatments, normal-glucose (NC, 5.5 mM) and high-glucose (HG, 25 mM) medium and HG + capsaicin were added to the corresponding chambers and incubated at 37°C for 24 h. All chambers were transferred into a new sterile 24-well supporting plate (each well contained 1 ml fresh complete medium), the old medium in the chambers was removed, and 150 μl FITC dextran solution was gently added into each chamber (final medium concentration, 10 μg/ml), which was placed in dark at room temperature and gently shaken for 20 minutes. 100 μl medium containing FITC from each well of the supporting plate was taken and injected into the corresponding well of the black 96-well plate, which was then placed in the fluorescence reader and measured at the absorption values of 485 and 535 nm, respectively. FITC-dextran flux was valued as a ratio of fluorescence intensities in the lower compartment (20 min) to those in the upper compartment (0 min). The data were expressed as a percentage compared with control [27].


### 2.12. Annexin V/PI Double Staining

The cell culture medium in wells of the plate was removed and washed it once by PBS. 5μl annexin V-FITC and 10 μl propidium iodide staining solution were, respectively, added into the wells and gently mixed. The plate was incubated at room temperature (20-25°C) in dark for 20 min and then placed in ice bath. The plate was observed under the fluorescence microscope, annexin V-FITC showed green fluorescence and propidium iodide (PI) showed red fluorescence [28].


### 2.13. Fluo-4 AM Staining

The cell culture medium in wells of the plate was removed and washed it once by PBS. The 5μM fluo-4 am probe solution diluted with PBS was added into the wells and gently mixed. After incubated in the dark at 37°C for 30 minutes, the six-well plate was observed under the fluorescence microscope. Fluo-4 showed green fluorescence [29].


### 2.14. Statistical Analysis

The results are expressed as the means ± SD, andn indicated sample size in each group. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey’s post-hoc analysis to compare the differences among the groups. p<0.05 was considered significant.


## 2.1. Animals

Male Sprague–Dawley rats (200-250 g) at 8 weeks old were bought from Anhui Medical Laboratory Animal Center and acclimated for 1 week then were injected intraperitoneally with streptozotocin (STZ, 50 mg/kg body weight) dissolved in 0.1 mol/l citrate buffer (pH 4.5) [18] to establish diabetes model, which was confirmed by fasting plasma glucose level more than 16.7 mmol/l. The diabetic rats were randomly divided into untreated diabetic group (DM) and diabetes plus capsaicin treatment group (DM+CAP); meanwhile, the nondiabetic healthy rats were used as normal controls (NC). The rats in DM+CAP group received oral gavage of CAP at the dose of 0.5 mg/kg/per rat for a duration of 8 weeks, and the rats in the untreated DM group received the vehicle solution, using disposable feeding needle. Diabetic rats were, respectively, gavageded with the combination of capsaicin and the TRPV1 inhibitor capsazepine (CPZ, 5 mg/kg) or the eNOS inhibitor Nnitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, 100 mg/kg) in the DM+CAP+CPZ group or DM+CAP+L-NAME group [19]. After the completion of the 8 weeks’ treatment, all rats were anesthetized and then sacrificed [20]. Then, the heart and aortic arch were removed and deep frozen until analyzed.


## 2.2. Detection of Total Cholesterol and Triglycerides

The contents of TC and TG in serum were, respectively, determined by assay kits (Nanjing Jiancheng Bioengineering Research Institute, China).


## 2.3. In Vivo Permeability Assay

Endothelial permeability in the aortic arch was detected using Evans blue (1%, 30 min). The anesthetized rats were injected with Evans blue dye through the caudal vein, and the aorta was taken out after circulating for half an hour. After the stained aorta was photographed, the dye was extracted with deionized formamide, and the absorbance at 620 nm was measured by microplate reader [21, 22].


## 2.4. Immunohistochemistry

Rats were anesthetized and then sacrificed by exsanguination; the aortic arch and heart were isolated, dissected, and fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde and embedded in paraffin. After paraffin section, 4 mm sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin. At the same time, the heart’s paraffin sections were stained with Aniline blue and Ponceau S to observe tissue fibrosis. Prepared heart slides were stained with periodic acid Schiff’s reagent (PAS) for glycogen and evaluated by light microscopy.′


## 2.5. Cell Culture

MVECs (catlog# C166 ATCC, Allendale, NJ, USA) were grown in DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS and 1% antibiotics. Cultured cells were maintained at 37°C in a humidified atmosphere of 95% O2, 5% CO2. The cells were seeded with suitable density and divided into different groups, which included normal-glucose concentration group (NG: 5.5 mmol/l), high-glucose concentration group (HG: 25 mmol/l), and high-glucose concentration plus 1 μmol/l capsaicin group (HG + CAP) [23].


## 2.6. Western Blot Analysis

Total proteins were separated on a 10% Bis–Tris CriterionTM XT Precast Gel (Bio-Rad, MarneLa-Coquette, France) and transferred to an Immobilon polyvinylidene difuoride (PVDF) membrane (Millipore, Molsheim, France) as described (REF: PMID: 30797815). Antibodies against -TRPV1 (1 : 1000, rabbit) from Abcam (Oakville, Canada) and -eNOS (1/1000, rabbit) were incubated with membranes overnight at 4°C. Membranes were incubated for 1 h at room temperature with a corresponding horseradish peroxidase- (HRP-) conjugated secondary antibody (1/2000, Sigma-Aldrich) and developed using the Luminata™ Forte Western HRP substrate with BeyoECL Plus (Beyotime, Wuhan, China). The relative quantity of the protein of interest compared with the reference proteinβ-actin (1/5000, mouse, Santa Cruz) was measured with Image J software (NIH, USA).


## 2.7. Immunofluorescence

The expression of TRPV1 and eNOS in the heart and aorta of rats was detected using immunofluorescence as described (Ref. PMID: 20950828; PMID: 27733157). Concisely, frozen slides were incubated with anti-TRPV1 (1 : 100, NeuroMab, USA) and anti-eNOS (1 : 100, Cell Signaling Technology, USA), followed by corresponding Alexa Fluor-conjugated secondary antibody (1 : 200) before imaging using a fluorescence microscope.


## 2.8. Nitric Oxide Detection

The rat heart tissue and mouse vascular endothelial cells were used to detect the content of nitric oxide with Griess reagents (Beyotime, Wuhan, China) by the manufacturer’s instruction as described (Ref: PMID: 16390827). Also, nitric oxide concentrations of cell culture medium and of rats’ serum were tested by the same way [24].


## 2.9. Hydrogen Peroxide Detection

Preparation of serum samples: 50 mM phosphate buffer was prepared at pH 6.0. The sample was diluted 50 times with 50 mM phosphate buffer. 96 well UV microplate method was used to determine the marker curve. Determination of hydrogen peroxide concentration: the hydrogen peroxide detection reagent was dissolved and kept on ice. 50μl sample and 100 μl hydrogen peroxide detection reagent were, respectively, added into each well that was shaken gently and mixed thoroughly. The plate was leaved at room temperature (15-30°C) for 30 minutes and then detected at A560 or A540-570 nm immediately. The concentration of hydrogen peroxide in the sample was calculated according to the standard curve [25].


## 2.10. Detection of Reactive Oxygen Species

After the rats were euthanized and killed, the hearts were removed rapidly. The heart tissues were soaked in paraformaldehyde, dehydrated, embedded, and made into frozen sections, stained with ROS probe. In addition, DCFH-DA ROS fluorescent probe was used to detect the treated cell samples [26]. The results were observed by fluorescence microscope. The relative fluorescence intensities of the samples were measured with Image J software (NIH, USA).


## 2.11. Permeability Assay

The mixed base glue (Matrigel) was dissolved with coating buffer (0.01 M Tris, pH 8.0 + 0.7% NaCl) to 200-300μg/ml, 2 ml in total. The solution was placed on ice. The mixed coating solution was injected into 24 chambers (Transwell insert, including filter membrane, pore size 0.4-8 μm) with a sterile syringe at 100 μl/well. The 24-well plate containing 24 chambers was incubated at 37°C for 2 h, then the coating solution in each chamber was removed and 100 μl of mouse vascular endothelial cells at 2-5 × 105 was injected into each chamber, which was incubated at 37°C for 1 h to make the cells adhere to the bottom, then 200 μl/well complete medium was added into each chamber. At the same time, 1 ml complete medium was added to each well of the supporting plate. For the treatments, normal-glucose (NC, 5.5 mM) and high-glucose (HG, 25 mM) medium and HG + capsaicin were added to the corresponding chambers and incubated at 37°C for 24 h. All chambers were transferred into a new sterile 24-well supporting plate (each well contained 1 ml fresh complete medium), the old medium in the chambers was removed, and 150 μl FITC dextran solution was gently added into each chamber (final medium concentration, 10 μg/ml), which was placed in dark at room temperature and gently shaken for 20 minutes. 100 μl medium containing FITC from each well of the supporting plate was taken and injected into the corresponding well of the black 96-well plate, which was then placed in the fluorescence reader and measured at the absorption values of 485 and 535 nm, respectively. FITC-dextran flux was valued as a ratio of fluorescence intensities in the lower compartment (20 min) to those in the upper compartment (0 min). The data were expressed as a percentage compared with control [27].


## 2.12. Annexin V/PI Double Staining

The cell culture medium in wells of the plate was removed and washed it once by PBS. 5μl annexin V-FITC and 10 μl propidium iodide staining solution were, respectively, added into the wells and gently mixed. The plate was incubated at room temperature (20-25°C) in dark for 20 min and then placed in ice bath. The plate was observed under the fluorescence microscope, annexin V-FITC showed green fluorescence and propidium iodide (PI) showed red fluorescence [28].


## 2.13. Fluo-4 AM Staining

The cell culture medium in wells of the plate was removed and washed it once by PBS. The 5μM fluo-4 am probe solution diluted with PBS was added into the wells and gently mixed. After incubated in the dark at 37°C for 30 minutes, the six-well plate was observed under the fluorescence microscope. Fluo-4 showed green fluorescence [29].


## 2.14. Statistical Analysis

The results are expressed as the means ± SD, andn indicated sample size in each group. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey’s post-hoc analysis to compare the differences among the groups. p<0.05 was considered significant.


## 3. Results

### 3.1. Capsaicin Intervention Improved Body Weight, Blood Lipid, and Cardiac Fibrosis of Diabetic Rats

After 2 months’ intervention, it is obvious that capsaicin moderately increased the body weights of diabetic rats in the DM+CAP group but did not improve the hyperglycemia caused by diabetes (Figures1(a) and 1(b)). In addition, diabetes was often accompanied by hyperlipidemia. Similarly, our current data suggested that capsaicin treatment significantly lowered the serum levels of TC and TG (Figures 1(c) and 1(d)). To explore the role of capsaicin in the correction of diabetic cardiomyopathy, myocardial tissue by HE staining was detected. Our current data showed that the overt pathological changes in myocardium were observed in diabetic rats, which was ameliorated by capsaicin treatment (Figure 1(e)). Simultaneously, compared with the NC group, Masson’s trichrome, and PAS staining of rat heart sections demonstrated more severe fibrosis in myocardium in DM group, while capsaicin treatment also ameliorated the fibrosis in DM + CAP group (Figure 1(e)). The protective effects of capsaicin on myocardial overt pathological changes and fibrosis in diabetic rats were both abolished by either the inhibitor of TRPV1 (CPZ) or the inhibitor of eNOS (L-NAME) (Figure 1(e)).Figure 1
Blood glucose, weight, total cholesterol and triglycerides, myocardial pathological injury in rats. (a–b) Body weight is different in the NC, DM, and CAP group. Blood glucose in the DM and CAP group are higher than NC group. (c–d) Total cholesterol and triglycerides. (e) Representative images of H&E-stained, Masson-stained, and PAS-stained heart sections. The scale bar represents 50μm. Data are presented as mean ± SD (n =10 per group). ∗∗∗p<0.001, ∗∗p<0.01, and ∗p<0.05.
(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)


### 3.2. Capsaicin by TRPV1/eNOS Activation Attenuates Heart Oxidative Stress and Increases the Level of NO in Diabetic Rats

To investigate the mechanism underlying the capsaicin function, the immunofluorescence was carried out to detect the signaling-related proteins. Our current results demonstrated that TRPV1 and eNOS expression was sharply decreased in diabetic rats, compared with that in healthy controls (Figure2(a)). Nevertheless, this decrease caused by diabetes was reversed by capsaicin treatment in DM+CAP group (Figure 2(a)). Consistent with the immunofluorescence data, protein expression in rat heart tissues was also assayed by immunoblots, showing that diabetes markedly lowered the expression of TRPV1 and eNOS, but capsaicin treatment dramatically recovered the expression (Figures 2(b) and 2(c)). Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) is an isoenzyme, which exists in endothelial cells, macrophages, nerve phagocytes, and nerve cells, respectively. In heart tissue, nitric oxide in vascular endothelial cells mainly comes from eNOS. In the present study, we found that the change of nitric oxide content was consistent with eNOS expression in different groups in rat heart tissue (Figure 2(d)). In addition, fluorescent probe for detecting reactive oxygen species indicated that capsaicin treatment reduced ROS production in diabetic rat hearts (Figure 2(e)).Figure 2
TRPV1/eNOS activation by capsaicin attenuates heart oxidative stress and increases the level of NO in diabetic rats. (a) Representative immunofluorescence images showing the coexpression of TRPV1 and eNOS in the heart from the NC, DM, and CAP group (bar denotes 50μm). (b–c) The protein expression of TRPV1 and eNOS in the hearts of rat was determined by Western blotting. Quantitative analysis of TRPV1 and eNOS for Western blotting (n =4 per group). (d) The content of nitric oxide in heart tissue. (e) Representative oxidative stress images detected by DAF-2 DA in heart tissue. Data are presented as mean ± SD. ∗∗∗∗p<0.001, ∗∗∗p<0.001, ∗∗p<0.01, and ∗p<0.05 represent significant differences in the NC, DM, and CAP group.
(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)


### 3.3. Capsaicin by TRPV1/eNOS Activation Attenuates Vascular Oxidative Stress and Increases the Level of NO in Diabetic Rats

Vascular HE staining showed that the blood vessel wall of diabetic rat was thicker than that of normal rat, while CAP treatment significantly improved the pathogenic thickness (Figure3(a)). Immunohistochemical assay indicated that vascular intercellular adhesion molecules (vcam-1) expression was significantly elevated in endothelial and smooth muscle cells from diabetic rats, and that capsaicin treatment overtly mitigated the elevation of vcam-1 in DM+CAP group (Figure 3(b)). For in vivo permeability assay, Miles method was taken to look at the leakage of blood vessels in normal and diabetic rats. Our current data showed the permeability was significantly increased in diabetes compared with normal rats, while capsaicin treatment normalized the vascular permeability under diabetic state (Figure 3(c)). The results of vascular immunofluorescence showed the drastic decrease of TRPV1 and eNOS expression in rat blood vessel in untreated diabetic group, which was substantially ameliorated by capsaicin treatment (Figure 3(d)). Concomitantly, capsaicin also greatly reversed the NO production and sharply suppressed the ROS increase in diabetic rats (Figures 3(e) and 3(f)).Figure 3
TRPV1/eNOS activation by capsaicin attenuates vascular oxidative stress and increases the level of NO in diabetic rats. (a–b) Vascular structure assessed by eosin/hematoxylin coloration, expression of vcam-1 by immunohistochemistry. The scale bar represents 500μm and 50 μm. (c) Vascular permeability assay by Evans blue and the analysis of statistical. (d) Representative immunofluorescence images showing the expression of TRPV1 and eNOS in the blood vessel. (e–f) The content of nitric oxide and hydrogen peroxide in serum. Data are presented as mean ± SD. ∗∗∗∗p<0.001, ∗∗∗p<0.001, and ∗p<0.05 represent significant differences in the NC, DM, and CAP group.
(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)(f)


### 3.4. Capsaicin by Activation TRPV1/eNOS Alleviates Oxidative Stress, Permeability, and Cell Apoptosis and Increases the Level of NO in Mouse Vascular Endothelial Cells in High Glucose

To further elucidate the capsaicin function in regulating intercellular permeability, the murine vascular endothelial cells were, respectively, cultured in normal-glucose (NG) and high-glucose (HG) medium, and capsaicin plus HG. The results of these cell immunofluorescence experiments demonstrated that the protein expression levels of TRPV1 and eNOS were significantly downregulated in HG compared with those in NG, however, the capsaicin treatment markedly reversed the decrease in HG+CAP group (Figure4(a)). Likewise, the WB assay indicated the similar results in the cultured cells by HG or HG + capsaicin (Figure 4(b)). The concentrations of NO produced by eNOS in cultured cells and medium were verified under the different conditions, showing that HG significantly suppressed NO production, while capsaicin treatment normalized NO levels compared with the NC (Figures 4(c) and 4(d)). Additionally, oxidative stress is a key factor in the damage of endothelial cells caused by HG. Our current data suggested that ROS levels were sharply elevated by HG, implying the oxidative stress induced by HG. However, capsaicin substantially reduced the oxidative stress (Figure 4(e)). Endothelial cell permeability assay also verified that endothelial cell barrier was destroyed by high-glucose environment and capsaicin treatment improved its function and reduced material leakage, which was invalidated after TRPV1 or eNOS inhibitor treatment (Figure 4(f)). In situ fluorescence detection of annexin V-FITC/PI cell apoptosis, the protective effect of capsaicin on apoptosis impelled by high glucose disappeared after the addition of inhibitor of TRPV1 or eNOS (Figure 5(a)). In situ fluorescence probe was applied for the detection of endothelial cell intracellular calcium; the result showed that the intracellular calcium ion concentration decreased in high-glucose (HG) medium. Then, capsaicin treatment restored intracellular calcium ion concentration in HG medium, which was abolished by the addition of CPZ (TRPV1 inhibitor), but not by the L-NAME (eNOS inhibitor) (Figure 5(b)).Figure 4
Capsaicin by activation TRPV1/eNOS alleviates oxidative stress and permeability and increases the level of NO in mouse vascular endothelial cells in high-glucose. (a) Representative immunofluorescence staining of TRPV1 and eNOS. The scale bar represents 20μm. (b) The protein expression of TRPV1 and eNOS was determined by western blotting and quantitative analysis. (c–d) The content of nitric oxide in cell and cell culture medium. (e) Representative images detected by DAF-2 DA and quantitative analysis. (f) Permeability of mouse vascular endothelial cells to FITC- dextran after stimulation with normal-glucose (NG, glucose 5.5 mmol/L), high-glucose (HG, glucose 25 mmol/L), HG+capsaicin (HG+CAP, Cap 1 μmol/L), high-glucose pretreated with CPZ 10 μmol/L 2 hr, then capsaicin 1 μmol/L 24 hr (HG+CAP+CPZ) or high-glucose pretreated with 400 μmol/L NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, an eNOS inhibitor) for 2 hr, then capsaicin for 24 hr (HG+CAP+L-NAME). Data are presented as mean ± SD. ∗∗∗∗p<0.001, ∗∗∗p<0.001, ∗∗p<0.01, and ∗p<0.05.
(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)(f)Figure 5
Capsaicin by activation TRPV1/eNOS prevents endothelial cell apoptosis induced by high glucose. Apoptosis (a) and calcium concentration. (b) of endothelial cells after stimulation with normal-glucose (NG, glucose 5.5mmol/L), high-glucose (HG, glucose 25 mmol/L), HG+capsaicin (HG+CAP, Cap 1μmol/L), high-glucose pretreated with CPZ 10 μmol/L 2 hr, then capsaicin 1 μmol/L 24 hr (HG+CAP+CPZ) or high-glucose pretreated with 400 μmol/L NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, an eNOS inhibitor) for 2 hr, then capsaicin for 24 hr (HG+CAP+L-NAME).
(a)(b)


## 3.1. Capsaicin Intervention Improved Body Weight, Blood Lipid, and Cardiac Fibrosis of Diabetic Rats

After 2 months’ intervention, it is obvious that capsaicin moderately increased the body weights of diabetic rats in the DM+CAP group but did not improve the hyperglycemia caused by diabetes (Figures1(a) and 1(b)). In addition, diabetes was often accompanied by hyperlipidemia. Similarly, our current data suggested that capsaicin treatment significantly lowered the serum levels of TC and TG (Figures 1(c) and 1(d)). To explore the role of capsaicin in the correction of diabetic cardiomyopathy, myocardial tissue by HE staining was detected. Our current data showed that the overt pathological changes in myocardium were observed in diabetic rats, which was ameliorated by capsaicin treatment (Figure 1(e)). Simultaneously, compared with the NC group, Masson’s trichrome, and PAS staining of rat heart sections demonstrated more severe fibrosis in myocardium in DM group, while capsaicin treatment also ameliorated the fibrosis in DM + CAP group (Figure 1(e)). The protective effects of capsaicin on myocardial overt pathological changes and fibrosis in diabetic rats were both abolished by either the inhibitor of TRPV1 (CPZ) or the inhibitor of eNOS (L-NAME) (Figure 1(e)).Figure 1
Blood glucose, weight, total cholesterol and triglycerides, myocardial pathological injury in rats. (a–b) Body weight is different in the NC, DM, and CAP group. Blood glucose in the DM and CAP group are higher than NC group. (c–d) Total cholesterol and triglycerides. (e) Representative images of H&E-stained, Masson-stained, and PAS-stained heart sections. The scale bar represents 50μm. Data are presented as mean ± SD (n =10 per group). ∗∗∗p<0.001, ∗∗p<0.01, and ∗p<0.05.
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## 3.2. Capsaicin by TRPV1/eNOS Activation Attenuates Heart Oxidative Stress and Increases the Level of NO in Diabetic Rats

To investigate the mechanism underlying the capsaicin function, the immunofluorescence was carried out to detect the signaling-related proteins. Our current results demonstrated that TRPV1 and eNOS expression was sharply decreased in diabetic rats, compared with that in healthy controls (Figure2(a)). Nevertheless, this decrease caused by diabetes was reversed by capsaicin treatment in DM+CAP group (Figure 2(a)). Consistent with the immunofluorescence data, protein expression in rat heart tissues was also assayed by immunoblots, showing that diabetes markedly lowered the expression of TRPV1 and eNOS, but capsaicin treatment dramatically recovered the expression (Figures 2(b) and 2(c)). Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) is an isoenzyme, which exists in endothelial cells, macrophages, nerve phagocytes, and nerve cells, respectively. In heart tissue, nitric oxide in vascular endothelial cells mainly comes from eNOS. In the present study, we found that the change of nitric oxide content was consistent with eNOS expression in different groups in rat heart tissue (Figure 2(d)). In addition, fluorescent probe for detecting reactive oxygen species indicated that capsaicin treatment reduced ROS production in diabetic rat hearts (Figure 2(e)).Figure 2
TRPV1/eNOS activation by capsaicin attenuates heart oxidative stress and increases the level of NO in diabetic rats. (a) Representative immunofluorescence images showing the coexpression of TRPV1 and eNOS in the heart from the NC, DM, and CAP group (bar denotes 50μm). (b–c) The protein expression of TRPV1 and eNOS in the hearts of rat was determined by Western blotting. Quantitative analysis of TRPV1 and eNOS for Western blotting (n =4 per group). (d) The content of nitric oxide in heart tissue. (e) Representative oxidative stress images detected by DAF-2 DA in heart tissue. Data are presented as mean ± SD. ∗∗∗∗p<0.001, ∗∗∗p<0.001, ∗∗p<0.01, and ∗p<0.05 represent significant differences in the NC, DM, and CAP group.
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## 3.3. Capsaicin by TRPV1/eNOS Activation Attenuates Vascular Oxidative Stress and Increases the Level of NO in Diabetic Rats

Vascular HE staining showed that the blood vessel wall of diabetic rat was thicker than that of normal rat, while CAP treatment significantly improved the pathogenic thickness (Figure3(a)). Immunohistochemical assay indicated that vascular intercellular adhesion molecules (vcam-1) expression was significantly elevated in endothelial and smooth muscle cells from diabetic rats, and that capsaicin treatment overtly mitigated the elevation of vcam-1 in DM+CAP group (Figure 3(b)). For in vivo permeability assay, Miles method was taken to look at the leakage of blood vessels in normal and diabetic rats. Our current data showed the permeability was significantly increased in diabetes compared with normal rats, while capsaicin treatment normalized the vascular permeability under diabetic state (Figure 3(c)). The results of vascular immunofluorescence showed the drastic decrease of TRPV1 and eNOS expression in rat blood vessel in untreated diabetic group, which was substantially ameliorated by capsaicin treatment (Figure 3(d)). Concomitantly, capsaicin also greatly reversed the NO production and sharply suppressed the ROS increase in diabetic rats (Figures 3(e) and 3(f)).Figure 3
TRPV1/eNOS activation by capsaicin attenuates vascular oxidative stress and increases the level of NO in diabetic rats. (a–b) Vascular structure assessed by eosin/hematoxylin coloration, expression of vcam-1 by immunohistochemistry. The scale bar represents 500μm and 50 μm. (c) Vascular permeability assay by Evans blue and the analysis of statistical. (d) Representative immunofluorescence images showing the expression of TRPV1 and eNOS in the blood vessel. (e–f) The content of nitric oxide and hydrogen peroxide in serum. Data are presented as mean ± SD. ∗∗∗∗p<0.001, ∗∗∗p<0.001, and ∗p<0.05 represent significant differences in the NC, DM, and CAP group.
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## 3.4. Capsaicin by Activation TRPV1/eNOS Alleviates Oxidative Stress, Permeability, and Cell Apoptosis and Increases the Level of NO in Mouse Vascular Endothelial Cells in High Glucose

To further elucidate the capsaicin function in regulating intercellular permeability, the murine vascular endothelial cells were, respectively, cultured in normal-glucose (NG) and high-glucose (HG) medium, and capsaicin plus HG. The results of these cell immunofluorescence experiments demonstrated that the protein expression levels of TRPV1 and eNOS were significantly downregulated in HG compared with those in NG, however, the capsaicin treatment markedly reversed the decrease in HG+CAP group (Figure4(a)). Likewise, the WB assay indicated the similar results in the cultured cells by HG or HG + capsaicin (Figure 4(b)). The concentrations of NO produced by eNOS in cultured cells and medium were verified under the different conditions, showing that HG significantly suppressed NO production, while capsaicin treatment normalized NO levels compared with the NC (Figures 4(c) and 4(d)). Additionally, oxidative stress is a key factor in the damage of endothelial cells caused by HG. Our current data suggested that ROS levels were sharply elevated by HG, implying the oxidative stress induced by HG. However, capsaicin substantially reduced the oxidative stress (Figure 4(e)). Endothelial cell permeability assay also verified that endothelial cell barrier was destroyed by high-glucose environment and capsaicin treatment improved its function and reduced material leakage, which was invalidated after TRPV1 or eNOS inhibitor treatment (Figure 4(f)). In situ fluorescence detection of annexin V-FITC/PI cell apoptosis, the protective effect of capsaicin on apoptosis impelled by high glucose disappeared after the addition of inhibitor of TRPV1 or eNOS (Figure 5(a)). In situ fluorescence probe was applied for the detection of endothelial cell intracellular calcium; the result showed that the intracellular calcium ion concentration decreased in high-glucose (HG) medium. Then, capsaicin treatment restored intracellular calcium ion concentration in HG medium, which was abolished by the addition of CPZ (TRPV1 inhibitor), but not by the L-NAME (eNOS inhibitor) (Figure 5(b)).Figure 4
Capsaicin by activation TRPV1/eNOS alleviates oxidative stress and permeability and increases the level of NO in mouse vascular endothelial cells in high-glucose. (a) Representative immunofluorescence staining of TRPV1 and eNOS. The scale bar represents 20μm. (b) The protein expression of TRPV1 and eNOS was determined by western blotting and quantitative analysis. (c–d) The content of nitric oxide in cell and cell culture medium. (e) Representative images detected by DAF-2 DA and quantitative analysis. (f) Permeability of mouse vascular endothelial cells to FITC- dextran after stimulation with normal-glucose (NG, glucose 5.5 mmol/L), high-glucose (HG, glucose 25 mmol/L), HG+capsaicin (HG+CAP, Cap 1 μmol/L), high-glucose pretreated with CPZ 10 μmol/L 2 hr, then capsaicin 1 μmol/L 24 hr (HG+CAP+CPZ) or high-glucose pretreated with 400 μmol/L NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, an eNOS inhibitor) for 2 hr, then capsaicin for 24 hr (HG+CAP+L-NAME). Data are presented as mean ± SD. ∗∗∗∗p<0.001, ∗∗∗p<0.001, ∗∗p<0.01, and ∗p<0.05.
(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)(f)Figure 5
Capsaicin by activation TRPV1/eNOS prevents endothelial cell apoptosis induced by high glucose. Apoptosis (a) and calcium concentration. (b) of endothelial cells after stimulation with normal-glucose (NG, glucose 5.5mmol/L), high-glucose (HG, glucose 25 mmol/L), HG+capsaicin (HG+CAP, Cap 1μmol/L), high-glucose pretreated with CPZ 10 μmol/L 2 hr, then capsaicin 1 μmol/L 24 hr (HG+CAP+CPZ) or high-glucose pretreated with 400 μmol/L NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, an eNOS inhibitor) for 2 hr, then capsaicin for 24 hr (HG+CAP+L-NAME).
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## 4. Discussion

At present, ointments and patches containing capsaicin are often used for pain treatment [30, 31]. However, as an agonist of TRPV1, the mechanism of capsaicin-mediated improvement in the metabolic diseases is still not completely elucidated. Vascular endothelial dysfunction, as a major hallmark in diabetic cardiomyopathy, may potentially play a role in the development of other diabetic cardiovascular complications like atherosclerosis [32]. When the endothelial cell metabolism is normal, the cells are quiescent and remain in vascular homeostasis. Vascular barrier composed of endothelial cells is essential for vascular permeability, and vital to maintain vascular function. However, overproduction of AGEs in diabetes increases endothelial cell permeability, inhibits eNOS activity, and activates both NADPH oxidase (NOX) and NF-кB [32]. Another hallmark of endothelial dysfunction is a deficiency in the bioavailability of NO, and diabetes-induced inhibition of nitric oxide is attributable to the inhibition of eNOS, but it is not clear whether it is related to TRPV1. Our current study is aimed to explore the relationship between endothelial dysfunction and TRPV1 in diabetes, particularly under capsaicin treatment.Our present findings reveal that in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, the morphological fibrosis caused by diabetes is improved by capsaicin treatment, not only in the heart but also in the blood vessels. As an important factor mediating the adhesion between leukocytes and vascular endothelial cells, vascular intercellular adhesion molecules (vcam-1) play an important role in vascular injury. In normal arteries, it is intermittently expressed in endothelial and smooth muscle cells, and the density is higher where plaques are easy to form [33]. By vascular immunohistochemistry, we found that the upregulation of vcam-1 in diabetes was downregulated after capsaicin treatment. Thereafter, endothelial permeability in the aortic arch was studied using Evans blue to better understand the changes of vascular function. Our current results indicated that capsaicin may truly improve diabetic vascular disorders. In order to reveal the role of TRPV1 in cardiovascular complications of diabetes, we performed immunofluorescence localization and protein quantitative analysis in cardiac tissue and blood vessel. Immunofluorescence allowed us to observe that TRPV1 in blood vessels and heart tissues was downregulated under hyperglycemia and recovered after capsaicin treatment. The double label staining of eNOS and TRPV1 highlighted that eNOS was significantly activated. Quantitative analysis for target protein assayed by Western blotting also verified our conclusions. eNOS relaxes blood vessels through the synthesis of nitric oxide, so we detected the changes of nitric oxide content in the serum and heart to verify that TRPV1 activates eNOS. Excessive release of free radicals damaged vascular function, and eNOS can also reduce the production of reactive oxygen species while releasing nitric oxide. For the changes of reactive oxygen species, we selected fluorescent probes to label heart tissue and endothelial cells in vivo. Our findings revealed that the upregulation of eNOS by capsaicin treatment really suppressed the ROS production. Our in vitro cell experiments confirmed the findings obtained in vivo. Specifically, high glucose reduced the expression of TRPV1/eNOS and NO production, while activation of TRPV1 by capsaicin-mediated Ca2+ influx in endothelial cells can increase eNOS activity then stimulate NO production, which implies a novel mechanism underlying capsaicin-mediated amelioration of cardiomyopathy and endothelial dysfunction under diabetes condition.


## 5. Conclusions

Taken together, our current study suggested that capsaicin intervention may improve the diabetic cardiomyopathy and blood vessel endothelial dysfunction via upregulating TRPV1/eNOS pathway as illustrated in Figure6. Our findings in the current study may facilitate clinical trials to extend the application of capsaicin in patients with diabetes, and also might shed a new light into clinical treatment for diabetic complications.Figure 6
Upregulation of eNOS by TRPV1 activation attenuates hyperglycemia-induced ROS production in endothelial dysfunction. Schematic showing that hyperglycemia triggers endothelial dysfunction by downregulated expression of TRPV1/eNOS, exacerbates oxidative stress, and decreases the level of NO. Capsaicin by activation TRPV1/eNOS alleviates oxidative stress and increases the level of NO in endothelial cells and reduces vascular permeability and ameliorates apoptosis and fibrosis in heart tissue.



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