# Comparative Medical Ethnobotany of the Senegalese Community Living in Turin (Northwestern Italy) and in Adeane (Southern Senegal)

Authors: Rachele Ellena; Cassandra L. Quave; Andrea Pieroni
Journal: Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
 (2012)

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## Abstract

A medico-ethnobotanical survey was conducted among the Senegalese migrant communities of Turin (Piedmont, NW Italy) and their peers living in Adeane (Casamance, Southern Senegal), both among healers and laypeople. Through 27 in-depth interviews, 71 medicinal plant taxa were recorded and identified in Adeane and 41 in Turin, for a total of 315 different folk remedies recorded in Senegal and 62 in Turin. The large majority of the medicinal plants recorded among Senegalese migrants in Turin were also used in their country of origin. These findings demonstrate the resilience of home remedies among migrants and consequently the role they should have in shaping public health policies devoted to migrant groups in Western Countries, which seek to seriously take into account culturally sensitive approaches, that is, emic health-seeking strategies.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

In the last decade, the ethnobotany of migrant populations, especially in Western countries, has become the focus of a number of studies, which have investigated the trajectories of change of Traditional Medicines (TMs) and especially Traditional Knowledge (TK) concerning medicinal plants. Moreover, such studies have made progress in gaining a better understanding of newcomers’ health-seeking strategies. These data are crucial in the implementation of culturally sensitive approaches in public health and nutritional policies in the host countries and/or to improve phyto-pharmacovigilance [1–5].In particular, in Europe, the ethnobotanical knowledge of various migrant groups has been studied in different (mainly urban) contexts: Turkish and Russian migrants in Germany [6, 7]; Thai women in Sweden [8]; Surinamese migrants in The Netherlands [9, 10]; South-Asians [11–14] and Andeans in England [15–17]. From these previous studies, three key findings have emerged so far.(i)
Newcomers’ TK and related domestic practices may show various degrees of resilience (i.e., the attitude to recover from the changes, which originate from the displacement).(ii)
The resilience is highly dependent on practical circumstances (distance between the home and the host countries, corresponding to possibilities of frequent travel), but also on complex cultural exchanges ongoing between the diasporas and the autochthonous and/or other migrant populations. For example, factors such as (1) the occurrence of relevant transnational social and trade networks between the migrants and their home country, (2) the availability of traditional practitioners and/or herbs and food plant items in food shops in the host country, (3) identity-bound perceptions in relation to specific botanicals (which may be considered culturally important), (4) laws in place in the host countries allowing or tolerating the occurrence of non-autochthonous food/medicinal plants, and (5) multicultural approaches in the institutionalised public health frameworks of the host country, all play crucial roles in determining the resilience and sustainability of these TM practices in the migrants’ host country.(iii)
The aforementioned cultural negotiations that impact TK resilience are rapidly changing on both temporal and spatial scales, and even the “representation” of plants and remedies related to “traditions” is in a state of flux among generations over time.In Italy, no ethnobotanical study has addressed these specific issues thus far, despite the fact that the country has faced tremendous changes in its social structure over the last two decades. In fact, these changes are due in large part to the arrival of a significant number of young and middle-aged migrants from Africa and especially Eastern Europe (most notably, Romanians and Albanians). Nowadays, it is estimated that five million migrants live in Italy, with an increase of three million in the last ten years [18]. The large majority of migrants live in the Central-Northern regions of the country; one-fifth of which are Romanians, followed by Albanians and Moroccans. The Senegalese are quantitatively the 17th largest migrant community in Italy, but they represent the biggest “black” African community in the country, encompassing approximately 73,000 members. Moreover, this community is also historically one of the most important migrant groups in Italy, as it formed a significant presence already in the 1980’s [18].Recent sociological studies have pointed out the existence of a Senegalese transmigrant movement made of people who are regular “comers and goers” between Africa and Europe and that their perception of a successful return is still associated—in contrast with other African communities—with permanent return to their homeland. This final aim is, however, generally compromised with aspirations of economic advancement and family obligations [19, 20]. Most of the earnings of Senegalese migrants are used for investment in housing in their home country, significantly altering the landscape of local cities [21].Despite the fact that a study has well demonstrated the link between depression and rapid changes in the social organisation among Senegalese migrants [22], a fair public debate on culturally sensitive approaches in transcultural health policies is still lacking in Italy. This could be due to the state of political discourse in Italy, which has been highly influenced over the last years by instances of xenophobia, and which has subsequently affected several political actors and policy makers [23–27].The aims of this study were to record uses of natural remedies (including food preparations perceived as “healthy”) among the Senegalese community of Turin (Northern Italy) and in their country of origin, to compare these two ethnobotanies and to consequently formulate considerations on how TK changed or is changing following displacement of Senegalese citizens.


## 2. Material and Methods

### 2.1. The Study Area and Fieldwork

#### 2.1.1. Turin, Italy

Turin (approx. 900,000 inhabitants, Piedmont, NW Italy, Figure1) hosts an important Senegalese migrant community counting approx. 1,200 members (2004) [28]. The most significant influx of Senegalese in Turin only began at the end of 1980s. At that time, young males migrated to Italy from various areas of the Senegalese countryside and especially from those areas which were badly affected by the great drought of the 1970s. Traditionally, families gave their fourth or fifth child away to the Islamic brotherhood of believers for instruction in the faith and to work for the order, mainly engaging in agricultural activities. With the advance of desertification, however, the practice of agriculture was increasingly difficult and, as a consequence, the order allowed young people to move abroad to work in industry and services [28].Figure 1
Location of the study sites.It was therefore a progressive flow, and not a mass migration, that characterized the Senegalese emigration to Italy. As often happens, the journey for many has been fragmented at various stages due to issues such as the search of a visa or other means of entry into the country. However, in Turin, the first arrivals had no intention of staying, since their aim was to work hard for a few years and return the home country. With time, however, things have changed, resulting in more stable settlements in the Italian landscape [28].


#### 2.1.2. Adeane, Senegal

Adeane is a town of 9,000 inhabitants, located an hour’s drive from Ziguinchor, the largest urban centre in the region of Casamance, Southern Senegal (Figure1). The climate in Casamance is the most humid of the country and subtropical forests prevail in the landscape. The abundance of rain in the Casamance permits the cultivation of a wide variety of crops.The Casamance is inhabited mainly by the Jola ethnic group (Diola, in the French transliteration), which constitute approximately 60% of the population. Those of the Wolof ethnic group, which represent the ethnic majority in Senegal, constitute only 5% in the Casamance region. The largest portion of the Casamance inhabitants identifies their religious beliefs with Islam, while 17% are Catholics. This isolation has determined a strong regional identity and thus the culture of its people as well as its environmental heritage has been well preserved for a long time. The regional economy is based in part on tourism, especially along the coast and on the sale of crops like rice, peanuts, and millet.


#### 2.1.3. The Fieldwork

Fieldwork was conducted over a period of one month (November 2010) in Turin and over a period of a second month (December 2010) in Adeane (Casamance, Southern Senegal). Turin was selected as a field site because it is the home of a vibrant Senegalese community, while the area of Casamance in Senegal was chosen because it is considered the most biological and cultural diverse region of the country, as well as the most conservative in terms of folk practices.Participants in Turin were selected using snowball techniques among the first generation of Senegalese migrants (n=8, all males), while in Casamance the same technique was used to select “laypeople” (n=15, 7 females and 8 males). Additionally, in Adeane 4 healers (3 males and 1 female) were also interviewed. Prior Informed Consent (PIC) was obtained verbally before commencing each interview. Ethical guidelines followed the International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics [29].Questions concerning the use of medicinal and/or food plants were asked via a previous free listing of pathologies and related use of “home remedies.” For each named item, the field researcher (RE) asked for exact details of how the home medicine/food was prepared and its folk medical/food use. Interviews were conducted in Italian in Turin and in French in Casamance.In Casamance, the named plant items were collected, when available, photographed, dried, identified by a local plant taxonomist (Professor Amadou Tidiane, Department of Agricultural Studies, University of Ziguinchor, Senegal) and via the West African plants photo database [30], and deposited at the Herbarium of the University of Gastronomic Sciences, Pollenzo, Italy. The nomenclature follows IPNI [31], with family assignments following the current Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III recommendations [32, 33].


### 2.2. Data Analysis

The ethnobotanical data collected from Turin and Adeane were compared with each other. Moreover, the ethnobotanical data were compared with the preexisting literature on Senegalese TM and the traditional pharmacopoeia of Senegal [34–36].


## 2.1. The Study Area and Fieldwork

### 2.1.1. Turin, Italy

Turin (approx. 900,000 inhabitants, Piedmont, NW Italy, Figure1) hosts an important Senegalese migrant community counting approx. 1,200 members (2004) [28]. The most significant influx of Senegalese in Turin only began at the end of 1980s. At that time, young males migrated to Italy from various areas of the Senegalese countryside and especially from those areas which were badly affected by the great drought of the 1970s. Traditionally, families gave their fourth or fifth child away to the Islamic brotherhood of believers for instruction in the faith and to work for the order, mainly engaging in agricultural activities. With the advance of desertification, however, the practice of agriculture was increasingly difficult and, as a consequence, the order allowed young people to move abroad to work in industry and services [28].Figure 1
Location of the study sites.It was therefore a progressive flow, and not a mass migration, that characterized the Senegalese emigration to Italy. As often happens, the journey for many has been fragmented at various stages due to issues such as the search of a visa or other means of entry into the country. However, in Turin, the first arrivals had no intention of staying, since their aim was to work hard for a few years and return the home country. With time, however, things have changed, resulting in more stable settlements in the Italian landscape [28].


### 2.1.2. Adeane, Senegal

Adeane is a town of 9,000 inhabitants, located an hour’s drive from Ziguinchor, the largest urban centre in the region of Casamance, Southern Senegal (Figure1). The climate in Casamance is the most humid of the country and subtropical forests prevail in the landscape. The abundance of rain in the Casamance permits the cultivation of a wide variety of crops.The Casamance is inhabited mainly by the Jola ethnic group (Diola, in the French transliteration), which constitute approximately 60% of the population. Those of the Wolof ethnic group, which represent the ethnic majority in Senegal, constitute only 5% in the Casamance region. The largest portion of the Casamance inhabitants identifies their religious beliefs with Islam, while 17% are Catholics. This isolation has determined a strong regional identity and thus the culture of its people as well as its environmental heritage has been well preserved for a long time. The regional economy is based in part on tourism, especially along the coast and on the sale of crops like rice, peanuts, and millet.


### 2.1.3. The Fieldwork

Fieldwork was conducted over a period of one month (November 2010) in Turin and over a period of a second month (December 2010) in Adeane (Casamance, Southern Senegal). Turin was selected as a field site because it is the home of a vibrant Senegalese community, while the area of Casamance in Senegal was chosen because it is considered the most biological and cultural diverse region of the country, as well as the most conservative in terms of folk practices.Participants in Turin were selected using snowball techniques among the first generation of Senegalese migrants (n=8, all males), while in Casamance the same technique was used to select “laypeople” (n=15, 7 females and 8 males). Additionally, in Adeane 4 healers (3 males and 1 female) were also interviewed. Prior Informed Consent (PIC) was obtained verbally before commencing each interview. Ethical guidelines followed the International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics [29].Questions concerning the use of medicinal and/or food plants were asked via a previous free listing of pathologies and related use of “home remedies.” For each named item, the field researcher (RE) asked for exact details of how the home medicine/food was prepared and its folk medical/food use. Interviews were conducted in Italian in Turin and in French in Casamance.In Casamance, the named plant items were collected, when available, photographed, dried, identified by a local plant taxonomist (Professor Amadou Tidiane, Department of Agricultural Studies, University of Ziguinchor, Senegal) and via the West African plants photo database [30], and deposited at the Herbarium of the University of Gastronomic Sciences, Pollenzo, Italy. The nomenclature follows IPNI [31], with family assignments following the current Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III recommendations [32, 33].


## 2.1.1. Turin, Italy

Turin (approx. 900,000 inhabitants, Piedmont, NW Italy, Figure1) hosts an important Senegalese migrant community counting approx. 1,200 members (2004) [28]. The most significant influx of Senegalese in Turin only began at the end of 1980s. At that time, young males migrated to Italy from various areas of the Senegalese countryside and especially from those areas which were badly affected by the great drought of the 1970s. Traditionally, families gave their fourth or fifth child away to the Islamic brotherhood of believers for instruction in the faith and to work for the order, mainly engaging in agricultural activities. With the advance of desertification, however, the practice of agriculture was increasingly difficult and, as a consequence, the order allowed young people to move abroad to work in industry and services [28].Figure 1
Location of the study sites.It was therefore a progressive flow, and not a mass migration, that characterized the Senegalese emigration to Italy. As often happens, the journey for many has been fragmented at various stages due to issues such as the search of a visa or other means of entry into the country. However, in Turin, the first arrivals had no intention of staying, since their aim was to work hard for a few years and return the home country. With time, however, things have changed, resulting in more stable settlements in the Italian landscape [28].


## 2.1.2. Adeane, Senegal

Adeane is a town of 9,000 inhabitants, located an hour’s drive from Ziguinchor, the largest urban centre in the region of Casamance, Southern Senegal (Figure1). The climate in Casamance is the most humid of the country and subtropical forests prevail in the landscape. The abundance of rain in the Casamance permits the cultivation of a wide variety of crops.The Casamance is inhabited mainly by the Jola ethnic group (Diola, in the French transliteration), which constitute approximately 60% of the population. Those of the Wolof ethnic group, which represent the ethnic majority in Senegal, constitute only 5% in the Casamance region. The largest portion of the Casamance inhabitants identifies their religious beliefs with Islam, while 17% are Catholics. This isolation has determined a strong regional identity and thus the culture of its people as well as its environmental heritage has been well preserved for a long time. The regional economy is based in part on tourism, especially along the coast and on the sale of crops like rice, peanuts, and millet.


## 2.1.3. The Fieldwork

Fieldwork was conducted over a period of one month (November 2010) in Turin and over a period of a second month (December 2010) in Adeane (Casamance, Southern Senegal). Turin was selected as a field site because it is the home of a vibrant Senegalese community, while the area of Casamance in Senegal was chosen because it is considered the most biological and cultural diverse region of the country, as well as the most conservative in terms of folk practices.Participants in Turin were selected using snowball techniques among the first generation of Senegalese migrants (n=8, all males), while in Casamance the same technique was used to select “laypeople” (n=15, 7 females and 8 males). Additionally, in Adeane 4 healers (3 males and 1 female) were also interviewed. Prior Informed Consent (PIC) was obtained verbally before commencing each interview. Ethical guidelines followed the International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics [29].Questions concerning the use of medicinal and/or food plants were asked via a previous free listing of pathologies and related use of “home remedies.” For each named item, the field researcher (RE) asked for exact details of how the home medicine/food was prepared and its folk medical/food use. Interviews were conducted in Italian in Turin and in French in Casamance.In Casamance, the named plant items were collected, when available, photographed, dried, identified by a local plant taxonomist (Professor Amadou Tidiane, Department of Agricultural Studies, University of Ziguinchor, Senegal) and via the West African plants photo database [30], and deposited at the Herbarium of the University of Gastronomic Sciences, Pollenzo, Italy. The nomenclature follows IPNI [31], with family assignments following the current Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III recommendations [32, 33].


## 2.2. Data Analysis

The ethnobotanical data collected from Turin and Adeane were compared with each other. Moreover, the ethnobotanical data were compared with the preexisting literature on Senegalese TM and the traditional pharmacopoeia of Senegal [34–36].


## 3. Results and Discussion

### 3.1. The Medical Ethnobotany of the Senegalese Migrants in Turin

Table1 reports all medicinal plants quoted by the Senegalese migrants in Turin. In total, 47 folk taxa were recorded as medicinally used in Turin; 41 of these have been botanically identified. Of these remedies, only a few (eight) could be considered food medicines, thus contradicting what previous studies among migrants medical ethnobotanies have found [6, 13, 17]. This may be due to the fact that regular provision of African vegetables and other fresh food ingredients is scarce in Turin, where generally only dried spices and medicinal plants are imported. Another explanation may be that the Senegalese migrant community in Turin is mainly represented by males, who—in contrast to women—are not holders of culinary knowledge and therefore they do not generally have experience in managing healthcare via the diet within the domestic domain.Table 1
Medicinal plant remedies used by Senegalese migrants in Turin.
Botanical taxon, family, and voucher specimen codeLocal name(s)Part(s) usedPreparation and administrationFolk medical use (used against/to regulate)QsAdansonia digitataL. (Bombacaceae)BaobobSeedEatenDiarrhoea+SeedGrind the seeds and put the powder on the lipsBurning lipsGrind the seeds and put the powder on the painful toothToothacheAcacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN15Mbano (m) Nep nep (w)RootMake a decoction and drink just a little bitIndigestion+++Externally appliedWoundsBarkDrink the beverage together withTamarindus indica fruit pulp and Hibiscus sabdariffa flowersFatigueGrind it, add salt, and put it on the haematomaHaematoma+++Acacia tortilis(Forssk.)  Hayne (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN05Senjen (w)RootDrink the decoctionEye inflammations BellyacheDrink the decoction while eating some sugar, repeating the procedure three times a dayWormsMacerated in water for two days; the macerate drunkSexual impotence Stomachache Kidney troublesAdansonia digitata L. (Malvaceae) UNISGSEN20Buy (w)Baobab (f)FruitDrink the beverage made using the pulp around the seedsDiarrhoea+++Same as above, addingHibiscus sabdariffaflowerDiarrhoeaAllium cepa L.  (Amaryllidaceae)CibolleBulbEatenSexual impotence Cold+Allium sativum L. (Amaryllidaceae)Ail (f) Ladji (w)BulbPut a piece of garlic on the right wrist if the sore tooth is in the upper jaw and vice versa for the lower jaw (chanting Koran’s verses helps the pain to disappear)ToothacheSexual impotence+++EatenIntestinal worms Lowering the blood pressure Cold and cold preventionAnacardium occidentaleL. (Anacardiaceae)AnacardoSeedDrunkAntibiotic+Annona senegalensisPers. (Annonaceae)SuncunLeafPut (powdered) on the fireMagic remedy (supposed to counteract bad spirits)+Arachis hypogaea L. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN16Arachide (f) Gerte (w)SeedEat the seedsStomachache+Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile (Zygophyllaceae)Dattier du désert (f) Soumpu Gurp Petit colaLeafGrind the leaves and drink the infusion prepared with the powdered leavesSore throat+++FruitChew the fruit without ingesting itStomachache Digestive Fatigue NauseaCalotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton  (Apocynaceae) UNISGSEN55Kipampaan (p)Poftan (m) Pomme de Sodome (f)RootCut the roots into small pieces, put it intoa cotton handkerchief, squeeze, it and inhale the aromaSinusitis+Stems juiceExternally appliedWoundsLeafDrink the infusion prepared with ground leavesConstipation+++Cassia italica(Mill) Sprengel  (Fabaceae)Layduur (w)Drink the infusion prepared with ground leavesIntoxicationRootLeave the root soaking all night and drink the water in the morning, before breakfastIntestinal wormsCassia occidentalis L.  (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN11Adiana (w)Bantaare (p) Bentamarè (s) Kassala (m) Mbanta xobi (w)LeafPut leaves around the headHeadache+BathsFatigueCassia tora L. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN76Cassepuante (f) Ndur (w)LeafUse it as a mouthwashMouth infections+Ceratotheca sesamoidesEndl. (Pedaliaceae)Jorokh lane (w)LeafPut the leaf into water at room temperature and after it releases oil, apply the oil to the bodyHigh fever+Dried leaf is soaked in water; the water is drunkBellyacheCitrus limon(L.) Osbeck. (Rutaceae)Citron (f)Limon (w)FruitDrink the juiceTo lose weight Digestive Strengthening Malaria (drunk in the coffee)++Combretum aculeatumVent. (Combretaceae)Sawat (w)LeafPut ground leaves and sugar into water and instil the solution in the eyesWhite spot in the eye on the pupil+Combretum glutinosumPerr. ex DC. (Combretaceae)Chigommier (f) Rat (w)LeafDrink the decoctionBronchitis/coughSexual impotence+LeafDrink the decoction (sometimes adding cloves)Cold Flue Lung infections Sore throat Antihypertensive+++Combretum micranthumG. Don (Combretaceae) UNISGSEN10Quinkeliba (f)Sekhaw (w)FlowerDrink the decoction with milk every morningEnhancing the “well-being”Make a decoction withXylopia aethiopicaseeds and cloves (Eugenia caryophillataflower buds)Vision problemsDioscoreaspp. (Dioscoreaceae) UNISGSEN83Igname (f) Yam (w)RootEat the rootTo gain weight+Elaeis guineensisJacq. (Arecaceae)Palmier à huile (f) Tiir (w)Fruit→ OilAdd oil and coffee toVitellaria paradoxa butter and dab on the bodyTo get rid of the “dead” blood when feeling weak+Dab on the bodyBoilsEucalyptus globulusLabill. (Myrtaceae) UNISGSEN88Eucaliptus (f)Khotta bu tel (w)LeafPut it around the head while listening to the reading of the KoranHeadache+Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb (Myrtaceae) UNISGSEN38Girofle (f) Xorompole (w)Flower budUse the infusion prepared withXylopiaaethiopica seeds andCombretum micranthum flowerVision problems+Euphorbia balsamiferaAit. (Euphorbiaceae)SalanSalan mbechiBranchCut the branch and put the latex on the woundWounds++RootDrink the decoctionBellyacheFicus iteophylla Miq. (Moraceae)Xassum loro (w)LeafDrink the decoctionDigestive asthma+++LeafDab on the affected partBackache skin allergiesGrewia bicolor Juss. (Malvaceae)Kel (w)LeafDrink the decoctionFatigue Bronchitis/cough Digestive++Guiera senegalensis J.F. Gmel. (Combretaceae) UNISGSEN18Ngueer (w) Mamakumkoyo (m) Mamankuiò (s)RootDrink the decoctionCold+++LeafDrink the decoctionBronchitis/cough kidney troubles Fatigue stomachachePut the infusion into the eyesItchy eyes+++Flower (red)Drink the decoctionBellyaches Menstrual pains Preventing ageing Fatigue Fever Improving the blood circulationHibiscus sabdariffa L. (Malvaceae) UNISGSEN12Bissap (w)Karkadè (f)Put the infusion into the eyesEye problemsDrink the beverage together withTamarindus indica fruit pulp and Acacia niloticabarkFatigueFlower (white)As a food medicine—as a main ingredient of a dish prepared with boiled meat of fish, cooked with tamarind and chilies (lakk bissap)FatigueMaerua crassifolia Forssk (Capparaceae)Sothiou (w) Sothiou suukarBranchChew the branchHalitosis+Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae) UNISGSEN37Manguier (f) Màngo joolaa (w)LeafDrink the decoctionTetanus++Manihot esculentaCrantz (Euphorbiaceae) UNISGSEN07Gnambi (w)Manioc (f) Mañok (m)RootEat the rootTo gain weight+Moringa oleiferaLam. (Moringaceae)NebedaiLeafEaten in sauces, generally accompaniedwith meat and couscousDiabetes+Musa paradisiacaL. (Musaceae)Bananier (f)LeafTopical application of the leaf infusionBurns+Panicum miliaceumL. (Poaceae)Mil (f)FruitEat millet (couscous)To gain weightFatigue+Parinari macrophyllaSabine (Chrysobalanaceae)New (w)TambaLeafDrink the infusion made from 7 leavesHigh blood pressure+LeafDrink the infusionStomachachePiper nigrumL. (Piperaceae)Mex pobare (w) Poivre noir (f)FruitEat the dried berryRunny nose+Tamarindus indicaL. (Fabaceae)Tamarin (f) Daqaar (w)FruitpulpEaten, or drunk, in a beverage made adding the bark ofAcacia niloticaand the flower ofHibiscus sabdariffaFatigue+Terminalia catappaL. (Combretaceae)Badamier (f)Toubab (w) Xopp kerteNot specifiedNot specifiedAntibiotic, antifungal+Add salt to the butter and dab on the backBackache+++Vitellaria paradoxaC.F. Gaertn. (Sapotaceae)Karitè (f)Seed→butterAdd coffee,Elaeis guineensis’ oil and dab on the bodyTo get rid of the “dead” blood when feeling weakDab the butter on the bodyMassage on the child’s body, to make the child stronger.Bone strengtheningDab the butter on hairHair lossDrink the decoction, also a spice in the coffeeSexual impotence++Xylopia aethiopica A. Rich. (Annonaceae) UNISGSEN70Diar (w) JarSeedInstill the infusion of seeds into the eyesEye problems,conjunctivitisInstill the infusion of seeds into the earOtitisPour the infusion made from the seeds,Eugenia caryophyllataflower buds andCombretum micranthum flowerVision problemsZingiber officinaleRoscoe (Zingiberaceae) UNISGSEN09Djindjer (w) Djinjeroo (m) Gingembre (f)Fresh rhizomeEaten, or juice drunk, or decoctionSexual impotence Blood circulation+++LeafDrink the decoctionWormsNot identifiedBerbef (w)Use the rough leaf like a sponge under the showerPruritus+FruitMake a pasta and dab on the skinItchinessNot identifiedBonyeAntibiotic+Not identifiedKhambata (w)LeafDrink the infusionHeadache+Not identifiedNdiadameFruitCook it slowly and eat it; it is really bitterIntestinal worms+Not identifiedSangol (w)RootPut it in water for up to two minutes and drink it (very bitter)Intestinal worms+LeafSoak in water and externally apply on the skinItchinessNot identifiedWatenobout (w)BranchPut the latex that comes out of the broken branch on the woundWounds+(f): French; (m): Mandingo; (p): Pulaar; (w): Wolof; Qs: quotations: + quoted by 1 or 2 informants only; ++ quoted by 3, 4, or 5 informants; +++ quoted by 5 informants or more.All remedies quoted in Turin are generally bought in small ethnic food shops and mini-supermarkets located in city centre and managed by African and/or Chinese migrant entrepreneurs. A few of the most quoted taxa (Acacia, Adansonia, Guiera, Hibiscus) are well-known African medicinal plants, which are however lacking in the Western TM pharmacopoeia.


### 3.2. The Medical Ethnobotany of Adeane in Senegal

Table2 reports all medicinal plants quoted in Adeane. In total, 71 species, representing 31 botanical families, were recorded as components to TMs in Adeane. However, although the large majority of recorded medicinal taxa were found in the reviews of the Senegalese TM [34–36], only a minority (<40%) of the actual medicinal plant uses are reported in the considered literature. This confirms the highly dynamic character of the home medicines in rural Africa and highlights the urgent need for inventorying folk plant uses beyond those that are cited in the “standardized” TM reviews.Table 2
Plants used as medicines in Adeane, Casamance, Southern Senegal.
Botanical taxon, family, and voucher specimen codeLocal name(s)Part(s) usedPreparation and administrationFolk medical use(used against/to regulate)HealersLaypeopleQsAcacia albida Delile (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN019Kade (f) Kadd (w) BaransangoRoot BarkInstill the infusion in the eyeVision problems+3Acacia nilotica(L.)Willd. ex Delile (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN15Acaciamlotique (f) Nep nep (w)  Mbano (m)RootApply the infusion externallyHerpes+2Toothache+Acacia seyal Delile (Fabaceae)SuuroLeafTopical application of liquid resulting from pressed leavesToothache+1Soak in water for some time and drinkTapeworm+11Stomachache+Bellyache(abdominal pains)++Drink the cold infusionRheumatism+Apply the infusion on hairStrengthening the hair+Boiled in water and the vapour is inhaledCold+Cold infusion is drunkBlood pressure+Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN05Senjen (w)RootEat it with riceSterility+Make aerosol with the infusion?Lung cancer+Drink the infusionBloodstream+Eat it with riceUlcer+Eat it with riceGastritis+Eat it with riceKidney problems+Drink the infusionMenstrual pain+Malaria+Topical application of the infusionHerpes+Topical application of the infusionBoil+Drink the infusionFatigue++Drink the infusionTuberculosis++LeafPowdered leaf applied to burn and bandaged together with the oil ofArachis hypogaeaBurns+12Drink the seed juice together with the flowers ofHibiscus sabdariffaFatigue++Adansonia digitataL. (Malvaceae) UNISGSEN20Baobab (f) Guy (w)SeedsEat the seedsDiarrhoea++Eat the seeds together withCitrus limon juiceLack of appetite+Use it withAcacia albida, Guiera senegalensis, Parkia biglobosa, Annona senegalensis, Soora(nonidentified plant), andFicus sycomorusHeadache, sore throat, cold taken as result of wind+Allium cepa L.  (Amaryllidaceae)Oignon (f)BulbInfusion with leaves ofCitrus limonSore throat+1Drink the infusion in the morningBlood pressure+8Allium sativum L. (Amaryllidaceae)Ail (f) Ladji (w)BulbEat it raw in the morningIntestinal worms+Eat it while marabout recites verses of the KoranDepression+Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. (Xanthorrhoeaceae)Leaf gelUse it withVitellaria paradoxaTuberculosis+2Use it withVitellaria paradoxaHair loss+Drink the infusionToothache+3Anacardium occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae)Pomme-cajou (f)Darkasa (w) Bara diamboo (m)BarkRheumatism+Put it in cold water for a while and drink itToothache+Blood pressure+Drink the infusionDiabetes+3Put the powder on the woundWounds+Drink the infusionRheumatism+Drink the infusionBloodstream+Annona senegalensis Pers. (Annonaceae) UNISGSEN36Sunkun (m)LeafDrink the infusion withMusa paradisiaca leaves and Combretum micranthumBlood pressure+Use it withPiliostigma reticulatumHeadache+Use it withPiliostigma reticulatumTuberculosis+Use it withAcacia albida, Guiera senegalensis, Parkia biglobosa, Adansonia digitata, Soora(nonidentified plant), andFicus sycomorusHeadache, Sore throat, Cold taken as result of wind+LeafUse it withAcacia albida and Parkia biglobosaDepression+FruitUse it with oil ofElaeis guineensis’ oilHair+3Arachis hypogaea L.  (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN16Arachides (f) Gerte (w) Jamba katalig (m)LeafInhale the infusion prepared together with the leaves ofMangifera indicaGeneral health+Seed→oilMix peanut oil together with the powdered leaves ofAdansonia digitataand apply to burns before bandagingBurns+FruitEat the fruit fresh, not toastedCold+Wrap the leaf around the headHeadache+3Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae) UNISGSEN63Cassia, Neem (f) Niim, Ni va (w) Bantare (m)LeafInfuse with hot water and inhale the steamFatigue+Topical application of the infusionSkin problems+Use it withCarica papayaand Citrus limonCold+Make an infusion with shade-dried leavesDiabetes++3Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex J.C. Wendl. (Poaceae) UNISGSEN54Bambou (f)Lonk (w)LeafDrink the infusion withCombretum micranthum leavesHigh blood pressure+Make an infusion, drink someof it, and make aerosol with the resting waterBloodstream+Drink the infusionObesity+Beta vulgaris L.  (Chenopodiaceae)Betterave (f) Beteraaw (m)RootEat itBloodstream+1Eat itAnemia+Borassus flabellifer L. (Arecaceae) UNISGSEN89Ronier (f) Kòoni (w)FruitBurnt and pressed, pour resulting liquid into the earEarache+1Malaria+6Fatigue+LeafWarm the leaf up and wrap it around the neckSore neck+Topical application of juice from leaf on toothToothache+Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton  (Apocynaceae) UNISGSEN55Pomme de Sodome (f) Poftan (m) Kipampaan (p)Wrap the leaf around the sore kneeSore knees+Wrap the leaf around the headHeadache+RootUse it withOcimum basilicumRheumatism+Leaf ?Use it withMànganaso(unidentified plant) and Jatropha curcas.Drink it and vomit everything yellowYellow fever+Use it withJatropha curcasand Mànganaso(unidentified plant)Syphilis+Cannabis  sativa L. (Cannabaceae)MarijuanaSeedsDrink the infusionAsthma+1Drink the infusionLack of appetite5Drink a glass of water with a chili pepper in itIntestinal worms+Capsicum annuum L. (Solanaceae)Kani (w)FruitMix lemon juice (Citrus limo) together with a chili pepper and gargle with the solutionSore throat+Put in a small pan withJatropha curcas, and drinkHair loss+Put it in lemon juice (Citrus limon) and drink itConstipation+Eat up the oil that comes out of the nut and dab it on the body three times a day withVitellaria paradoxabutterSore back+9Mix it with oil ofElaeis guineensis and butter of Vitellaria paradoxaand then dab it on hairStrengthening the hair+Drink a spoonful every dayPoor memory+Drink a spoonful of itCough+Drink a spoonful of itSore throat+Topical application of the oilEye problems+Carapa procera DC. (Meliaceae) UNISGSEN43Tulukuna (m)Seed→oilInstill oil into the earsEarache+Drink a spoonful of itFever+Drink a spoonful of itFlu+Dab it on the skin in the area over the kidneysKidneys problems+Drink a spoonful of itBellyache+Use it before breakfastTapeworm+Dab it on affected musclesSore muscles+Peel it and apply to the sore toothToothache+8Use it withCitrus limon and Azadirachta indicaCold+RootDrink the infusion, adding saltSyphilis (2)++LeafDrink the infusionAnemia+Use it together withPsidium guajava leavesCystitis+Carica papaya L.  (Caricaceae) UNISGSEN21Papayer (f) Papaayo (w)SeedsDry the seeds in the sun, powder, and add to foodIntestinal worms+FruitEat a soup with a ripe papaya in it together with chicken and a root ofTinospora bakisYellow fever+Boil the unripe fruit with undecorticated rice or simply eat the fruit, raw. Another remedy is to crack an egg over the unripe papaya and eat itYellow fever++LeafDrink the infusion together with the budsYellow fever+Add the following to water: dry leaves ofMusa paradisiaca,little unripe fruits and leaves of Citrus limon,leaves of Cassia occidentalis,leaves of Mangifera indica,leaves ofZiziphus mauritiana and drinkMalaria+FruitEat it together withParkia biglobosa leavesYellow fever+FlowerCrumble flower into the water and drinkHeadache+14LeafWrap around the headHeadache+Cassia occidentalisL. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN11Mbanta xobi orAdiana (w) Kasalaa (m) Bentamarè (s)LeafWrap around the headConjunctivitis+Flowe?Drink the infusionMenstrual pain+LeafPut it in water for a while and wash yourself with itCold (Especially for children)+Flower?Drink the infusionFor pregnant women+LeafDrop juice from pressed leavesinto the earProblems of the eardrum+LeafAdd the following to water: dry leaves ofMusa paradisiaca,little unripe fruits and leaves ofCitrus limon,leaves of Mangifera indica,leaves of Carica papaya, and leaves of Ziziphus mauritianaMalaria+Cassia tora L.  (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN76Cassepuante (f) Ndur (w)Blemishes on scalp which may extend to the whole body+2Use it withFicus umbellataSkin fungus+FruitEat itBellyache+3RootPut little plants’ roots in water and then drink the water It is going to fizzFatigue+Ceiba pentandra(L.) Gaertn.  (Malvaceae)Fromager, Kapotier (f) Bantau Bentene (w)BarkUse infusion made with the bark as a mouthwashToothache+Root?Cancer+Bark?Pour the infusion on the baby’s head during baptismInfant strength and protection+RootGood for the blood because of the red colourBlood++LeafMake an infusion together with leaves ofAllium cepaSore throat+9FruitDrink the juiceSore throat+Drink the juiceTo lose weight+Use the juice together withCapsicum to gargleSore throat+Leaf and FruitDrink a beverage made with lemon leaf and fruit (Citrus limon)Headache+FruitPut the juice on the affected part together withPanicum miliaceumflourHerpes+FruitDrink the infusion with lemon juice (Citrus limon) together with two roots of the Gossypium barbadenseSexual weakness+Citrus limon(L.) Burm. (Rutaceae)Citron (f)Limon (w)Leaf and FruitDrink a beverage made with little lemons and leavesCold+FruitDrink the juiceCold+Use it withCarica papaya and Azadirachta indicaCold+Leaf and fruitAdd the following to water: dry leaves ofMusa paradisiaca,little unripe fruits and leaves ofCitrus limon,leaves of Mangifera indica,leaves of Carica papaya,leaves of Cassia occidentalis,leaves of Ziziphus mauritianaand drinkMalaria+Eaten withCarica papayaMalaria Yellow fever+Use it withGuiera senegalensisAsthma+FruitDrink the juiceObesity+Drink the infusion together withGossypium barbadenseHigh blood pressure+Dink the juice with honeyLiver+Cola cordifolia (Cav.) R. Br. (Malvaceae)Kaba/TabaLeafDrink the infusionMalnutrition+1Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl. (Malvaceae) UNISGSEN85Ptit cola (f) Kola (w) Goro (p)SeedChew itStimulant+1Drink the infusionCough+2Combretum glutinosumPerr. ex DC. (Combretaceae)Chigommier (f) Rat (w)LeafDrink the infusionBronchitis+Drink the infusionSore throat+Drink the infusionCold+LeafIngested together withTamarindus indicafruit pulpBlood pressure++9Drink the infusion withMusa paradisiaca’s leaf and Annona senegalensisBlood pressure+Drink the infusionDiabetes+Use it withTamarindus indicaAsthma+LeafObesity+Combretum micranthum G. Don (Combretaceae) UNISGSEN10Kinkeliba (f)Sekhaw (w)Drink the infusionBloodstream++Drink the infusion with these leaves together withBambusa vulgaris leavesHigh blood pressure+Drink the infusion without sugarMalnutrition+FlowerDrink the infusion with cloves (Eugenia caryophillata) and Xylopia aethipioca seedsVision problems+LeafDrink the infusionBellyache+Dialium guineense Willd. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN17Solom (w)BarkMake aerosol with the infusionAsthma+1Datura inoxia Mill. (Solanaceae) UNISGSEN91Datura (f) KubejaaraLeafBurn the wood and mix the wood ash with powdered leaf ashExternal Use only—highly hallucinogenic if used internallyAllergies+1Daucus carota L. (Apiaceae)Carotte (f)LeafDrink the infusionBreast cancer+1Dioscoreaspp. (Dioscoreaceae) UNISGSEN83ImuamIgname (f)Yam (w)RootEat itTo gain weight+2LeafBoil the leavesAsthma+Put the oil on the hairHair+6Fruit→oilTopical applicationToothache+Pour in the earsEarache+Use the palm oil together withSooto noir (Ficus capensis Thumb.?) powdered rootLiver problems+Elaeis guineensisJacq. (Arecaceae)Palmier à huile (f)Tiir (w)Attach the root ofMoringa oleiferato the affected area and then cover the sore part with palm oil. Do not leave the root in place too long or it will cause an infection.Rheumatism+SeedsWear a necklace made out of these seedsSore throat+Break the seed and eat the internal partGastritis+RootPut them in wine and drink itSterility+Skin fungus+Fruit→oilUse the palm oil together with peanuts (Arachis hypogea) and dab on hair.Hair+Use it together withVitellaria paradoxa butter and Carapa procera,dab on hairHair+Apply it on the cuts together withHessawaneTetanus+Drink the infusion withJatropha curcasCough+1Erythrina senegalensis DC. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN34Erythrine du Senegal (f) Dolliw fatuRootDrink the infusionSyphilis+Drink the infusionMenstrual pain+Eucalyptus globulusLabill. (Myrtaceae) UNISGSEN88Eucaliptus (f) Khotta bu tel (w)LeafDrink the infusionBlood pressure+1Make an infusion and use it as mouthwashToothache+3Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb. (Myrtaceae) UNISGSEN38Girofle (f) Xorompole (w)Flower budDrink the infusionConjunctivitis+Make infusion with seeds ofXylopia aethiopica and Combretum micranthum flower and apply on eyesVision problems+Euphorbia balsamifera Ait. (Euphorbiaceae)Salan Salana Salan MbechiBranchCut a branch and put the lymph on the woundWounds+3Toothache+Ficus elasticaRoxb. ex Hornem.  (Moraceae) UNISGSEN59Yirif asotuLeaf and barkDrink the infusionLow blood pressure+2LeafDrink the infusionCold+Ficus sycomorusssp. gnaphalocarpa(Miq.) C.C. Berg (Moraceae) UNISGSEN42Ficus (f) Sooto (m)RootDrink the infusionFatigue+2LeafPowder branches and leaves together withJamba Sabooleaves and drink some of it. Wash yourself with the rest of it. Do not eat fish in the meantime.AIDS+Ficus umbellata Vahl  (Moraceae) UNISGSEN68Ñokolokotò (m)LeafUse it withCassia toraSkin fungus+1LeafCough+4Gossypium barbadense L. (Malvaceae)Cotonnier (f) Uiten (w)RootDrink the infusion together with lemon juice (Citrus limon)High blood pressure+Drink the infusion made with two roots together with lemon juice(Citrus limon)Sexual weakness+Drink the infusion three times a dayCough+13Chew it and put it on the sore toothToothache+Dry it and use it every daySores+Guiera senegalensisJ.F. Gmel (Combretaceae) UNISGSEN18Guiera du Senegal (f) Ngeer (w)Mamakumkoyo (m)LeafMake an infusion together with the lemon leaves (Citrus limon)Asthma+Drink the infusion with Valda pastille (industrial pastille based on menthol and eucalyptus essential oil)Cold+Make infusion and apply to hairHair+Drink the infusionInsomnia+Apply chewed leaf onto the wound or powder it and put it onWounds++Drink the infusion together withMànganaso’s root (unidentified plant)Intestinal worms+Infusion prepared withAdansonia digitata, Acacia albida, Parkia biglobosa, Annona senegalensis, Soora Soora(nonidentified plant),and Ficus sycomorusHeadache, sore throat, or cold taken as result of the wind+Leaf and FlowerDrink the infusionBloodstream+12FlowerFlu+FruitMake a juice together withAdansonia digitataseedsFatigue++FlowerLack of appetite+Hibiscus sabdariffaL. (Malvaceae) UNISGSEN12Karkadè (f) Bisaab (w)Use it withTamarindus indicaand Acacia niloticaFatigue+FlowerUse it withPhaseolus vulgaris seedsAnemia+Use it with seeds ofPhaseolus vulgarisFatigue+FruitRemove the seeds and squeeze the fruit juice into the eyes.Conjunctivitis+LeafMake an infusion together with the young leaves ofPsidium guajava, drink it, and eat the leavesDiarrhoea++Holarrhena floribundaT. Durand & Schinz  (Apocynaceae) UNISGSEN67Jarko (m)Sexually transmitted diseases+2Drink the tisaneProstate Abortion+Collect pieces of bark that face east during sunset and then drink it in 5 litres of waterCancer+6Collect pieces of bark that face east during sunset and then drink it in 5 litres of waterSyphilis+Jatropha curcasL. (Euphorbiaceae)Pignon d’Inde (f)Tabanana (w) Tabanano (m)Bark and RootDrink the infusion together with roots ofErythrina senegalensisin itCough+Put it in a small pan withCapsicumand drinkHair loss+Powder it together withKunjunburun and eat it on riceSyphilis+Use it withCalotropis procera and Mànganaso(unidentified plant)Yellow fever+Drink a tisane made with the bark together withAcacia tortilis.Intestinal worms++5Boil it in the water or put it into cold water for 2 hours and then drink it.Fatigue+Make aerosol with itFatigue+Khaya senegalensis(Desr.) A. Juss.  (Meliaceae)Cailsedrat (f)Xai, kay (w)BarkPut in water and drink it“Makes blood”+Make cold infusion and drinkKidney problems+Anemia+Put the bark in a bottle and drink it.Tuberculosis+Lawsonia inermisL.  (Lythraceae) UNISGSEN69Hennè (f)Fuden (w)Leaf?Soak it together with the leaves ofPsidium guajavaand then drink it. The leaves needs to be fresh, not dried.Stomachache+1Leptadenia hastataVatke (Apocynaceae)Mboom (w)Duto (m)LeafAttach the leaves to the back together with hawk’s bonesKidney problems+1RootScrape at the bark, put it into water, and drink itSnakebite+Lippia chevalieriMoldenke (Verbenaceae)SamfitòLeafDrink the infusionBoils+1Maerua crassifolia Forssk. (Capparaceae)Sothiou (w)Sothiou suukarBranchRub the stick on the teethClean teeth+2Chew the branch. Its bark tastes like sugarHaemorrhoids+LeafMake an infusion, with 1.5 L water and a handful of leaves (some say to use only the ones on the floor, others to add salt to the infusion)Tetanus++13LeafDrink infusionPoor memory+Mangifera indicaL.  (Anacardiaceae) UNISGSEN37Manguier (f)Màngo joolaa (w)Bark?Hot infusion and inhale it together with peanut (Arachis hypogaea) leavesGeneral health+BarkMake aerosol with itToothache+LeafToothache++LeafAdd to water: dry leaves ofMusa paradisiaca,little unripe fruits and leaves ofCitrus limon,leaves of Mangifera indica,leaves of Carica papaya,leaves of Cassia occidentalis,and leaves of Ziziphus mauritianaMalaria+FruitEat three fruitsConstipation+Manihot esculenta Crantz (Euphorbiaceae) UNISGSEN07Manioc (f) Gnambi (w) Mañok (m)LeafDrink the infusion together with milk curdle and then massage the chestLung cancer+1Make aerosol with the infusionAsthma+LeafDry in the shade, powder, and eat with foodDiabetes+12LeafDry it in the shade and then crush it and eat in on riceDiabetes+SeedDry the seeds on the fire, powder, mix with water, and drinkDiabetes+Moringa oleiferaLam. (Moringaceae) UNISGSEN39Moringa (f)Nebedaay (w)Nebedayo (m)RootGrind the root and put it on the fire then dab and bandageSore knees+BarkSoak the root in water for few seconds and then drinkSore neck+LeafPut the leaf in water and wash your eyes with itEye allergies+BarkSoak it in warm (not boiling) water and then drink itKidney problems+RootAttach the root to the affected area, withElaeis guineensis oil. Do not leave it too long or the root will cause an infection on the sore part.Rheumatism+LeafDry the leaves in the shade and eat it withPhaseolus vulgarisBlood pressure+SeedPut the seeds on the fire, grind into a powder and drink with waterBlood pressure+LeafCut the leaves and dry them in the sun for 24 hoursGeneral health+4Musa paradisiacaL.  (Musaceae)Bananier (f)FruitEat itStomachache+LeafInfusion withCombretum micranthum and Annona senegalensisBlood pressure+Add to water: dry leaves ofMusa paradisiaca,little unripe fruits and leaves ofCitrus limon,leaves of Mangifera indica,leaves of Carica papaya,leaves of Cassia occidentalis, and leaves of Ziziphus mauritianaMalaria+LeafDrink the infusionHeadache+3Ocimum basilicum L.  (Lamiaceae) UNISGSEN13Basilic (f)Ngungun (m)SeedsPut the seed into the eyes and everything comes outEye problems+Leaf?Use it withCalotropis proceraRheumatism+Panicum miliaceumL.(Poaceae)Mil (f)FruitUse the powder (pollen) that falls down during the harvest to massage the body with water and salt. Leave it on half an hour and then wash it away.Allergies+2Apply millet powder together with lemon juice (Citrus limon) on the affected areaHerpes+Cut the bark into pieces, boil, and use the water as mouthwashToothache+2Parinari macrophyllaSabine (Chrysobalanaceae)New (w)TambaBarkMake an infusion and drinkSore throat+Make an infusion and drink it before mealsHelps in digestion+Put the leaf powder on the burnsBurns+5LeafEat the leaves together withCarica papayafruitYellow fever+Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R.Br. ex G. Don (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN87Minosa purpre (f) Uul (w) Nete, Nere (m)Drink the infusion with powdered leaf and milkUlcer+Use it together withAcacia albidaand Annona senegalensisDepression+Use it withAcacia albida, Guiera senegalensis, Annona senegalensis, Adansonia digitata, Soora(nonidentified plant), and Ficus sycomorusHeadache, sore throat, and cold taken as result of the wind+SeedCook them with riceDiabetes+Use withHibiscus sabdariffaFatigue+3Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN35Harricot blanche (f) Niebè (w) ÑebbeSeedsMake an infusion with seven seeds and eat themBreast cancer+Use it withHibiscus sabdariffaAnaemia+Leaf?Eat it together withMoringa oleifera’s sundried leavesBlood pressure+Put the red liquid inside the bark on the wound then powder the bark and put it on the woundWounds++3Piliostigma reticulatum(DC.) Hochst. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN77Fara (m)Kankuran (p)BarkUse it withAnnona senegalensisTuberculosis+Drink the infusionChronic cough+Piper nigrumL. (Piperaceae)Poivre noir (f) Mex Pobare (w)SeedDrink boiled milk with pepper in itSore throat+Prosopis africana(Guill. & Perr.) Taub. (Fabaceae)Yiir (w)BarkDrink the decoctionAnaemia+1LeafMake aerosol useful to swat and then drink the waterVertigo+1Prosopis juliflora(Sw.) DC.  (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN26Banaanagolo (w)LeafMake aerosol useful to swat and then drink the waterPregnant women+LeafDrink the infusionBellyache+Young leafMake an infusion withHibiscus sabdariffa leaves, drink it, and eat the leavesDiarrhoea++10LeafDrink the infusionBellyache+Psidium guajavaL. (Myrtaceae) UNISGSEN31Goyave (f)Guyaab (w)Use it together withCarica papayaleafCystitis+FruitEat the fruitBellyache+Drink the infusionDiarrhoea+LeafDrink the infusion made with young leavesDiarrhoea+Soak the leaves together withLawsonia inermis, and then drink it. The leaves need to be fresh, not driedStomachache+Saba senegalensis (A.DC.) Pichon  (Apocynaceae) UNISGSEN76Màdd (w) Mat mat (m)LeafDrink the infusionIntestinal worms+2FruitBoil the fruitMalnutrition+LeafMake an infusionSkin fungus+5Solanum lycopersicumL.  (Solanaceae)Tomate (f)Tamaate (w)Crush the leaf and put the juice and the leaf inside the earEarache+FruitApply tomato sauce on the woundWounds++Eat it rawSmallpox+Solanum tuberosumL.  (Solanaceae)Pomme de terre (f)Pombiteer (w)LeafMake an infusion and give it to the 1-week-old baby to drinkStrong child+1FruitEat it rawMenstrual pain+Use it withCombretum micranthumAsthma+FruitBoil it and wash your eyes with itVision problems+4Tamarindus indica L.  (Fabaceae)Tamarin (f)Daqaar (w)Add salt and rinse your mouth with itToothache+Karitè butter together with the bark ofTamarindus indicaBruises+BarkUse it withHibiscus sabdariffa and the bark of Acacia niloticaFatigue+Use it withCombretum micranthumBlood pressure+Tinospora bakis (A. Rich.) Miers  (Menispermaceae)Bakis (w)RootEat the root in a soup with a ripeCarica papayaand chickenYellow fever+1Massage the neckSore neck (2)++11Massage the bodyCold+Put it on the sore partBruises+Massage the chest with Karitè butterChronic cough+Add salt to the butter and dab on the backBackache+Karitè butter together with the bark ofTamarindus indicaBruises+Massage and dab the sore part of the bodyRheumatism+Vitellaria paradoxaC.F. Gaertn.  (Sapotaceae)Karitè (f)Seed→butterApply on herpesHerpes+Use it withCarapa procera and Elaeis guineensis’ oilHair loss+Use it together withCarapa procera’s nut oil and dab it on the body three times a dayBackache+Dab on the hairStronger hair+Use it together with a stick to apply this partFractures+Add coffee and tyr (red oil)To get rid of the dead blood, against fatigue+Use it withAloe veraTuberculosis+Use it withAloe veraHair loss+Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich. (Annonaceae) UNISGSEN70Diar (w)JarFruit SeedThe seeds are used to prepare the “Touba Coffee”Blood pressure+3(f): French; (m): Mandingo; (p): Pulaar; (w): Wolof; Qs: quotations (number of informants, who have quoted a specific taxon); ?: uncertain information.Documentation and evaluation of these home remedies are very important, since they represent a means of primary healthcare for most. Figure2 illustrates the overlaps between the plants quoted in Casamance by healers and laypeople. Laypeople’s knowledge of medical plants is quite remarkable and confirms that the actual practice of household phytotherapy in Africa is much broader of what we sometimes label as “Traditional Medicine,” which is generally restricted to the knowledge, practices, and beliefs of healers. Moreover, despite living in the same village, while healers and laypeople use in large part the same medicinal plants (Figure 2), the actual plant reports (plant-based preparations used for a given health problem) are highly divergent (Figure 3). These findings confirm a remarkable “internal” variability of the African medical ethnobotanies, as a recent study in rural Mozambique also pointed out [37].Figure 2
Overlap between the folk medicinal taxa quoted by healers and laypeople in Adeane.Figure 3
Overlap between the medicinal plant reports quoted by healers and laypeople in Adeane (a single medicinal plant report is defined as “a given taxon x, prepared as y, used for z”).


### 3.3. Comparison between the Senegalese Medical Ethnobotanies of Turin and Adeane

A comparison between the laypeople’s medical ethnobotany in Turin and Adeane demonstrates that Senegalese in Senegal use more plants than Senegalese in Turin (Figure4). This may be due to an objective difficulty to acquire all African plants used in country of origin in the new cultural environment in Italy and also to an adaptation process. Migrants moved in fact from their original rural areas in Senegal (where the use of herbal TMs is widespread) to urban environments in Europe, where practices of use of medicinal plants are only available within the context of Western modern herbalism and phytotherapy: Senegalese TM practitioners seem in fact not to be present in Turin. Moreover, migrants from Senegal in Turin also generally rely on Western pharmaceuticals.Figure 4
Overlap between the botanical genera quoted as medicinally used in Turin and Adeane (by laypeople).However, the large majority of the medicinal botanical genera recorded in Turin are also used in the country of origin, thus confirming some resilience of original practices following displacement into another landscape. The fact that a few other genera (twelve) have been quoted instead by migrants in Turin, but not in Adeane, could possibly be explained in two ways.(i)
Senegalese migrants living in Turin did not all come from the southern part of Senegal. For instance, a few of them may have brought plant uses to Turin that are unknown in the folk medicine of Southern Senegal.(ii)
A few genera recorded quoted in Turin (i.e.,Hibiscus, Zingiber) may represent the result of cross-cultural exchanges of TMs with other migrant populations in Turin, especially with the North African migrants, who also share the same religion, and with members of the Chinese migrant community who own ethnic food markets in Turin.Out of this comparative study, a few plant families have emerged as being integral to the TM practices of the Senegalese study participants both in Turin and Adeane. In particular, a great variety of Fabaceae species were quoted as having medicinal applications in Turin (7 species) and Adeane (15 species). The second and third most represented botanical families amongst the Turin participants were Combretaceae and Malvaceae, with 5 and 3 species quoted, respectfully. In Adeane, however, Malvaceae was the second most quoted family (5 species), followed by Apocynaceae and Solanaceae (4 species each), and then Combretaceae, Myrtaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Meliaceae, represented by 3 species each.Interestingly, despite the presence of a thriving Senegalese community in the north Italian landscape for more than 30 years, relatively few Italian medicinal plants appear to have been incorporated into the TM practices of this group. Take, for example, the notable lack of incorporation of several European mints (Lamiaceae) in the TM practices of the Senegalese in Turin. Various Lamiaceae species, such as mint, basil, peppermint, rosemary, thyme, horehound, and oregano, grow in the wild and/or are cultivated in the Italian countryside and the use of such species for medicinal purposes dates back to more than 2,000 years ago in this region, as evidenced by their presence in the ancient textbooks of the MediterraneanMateria Medica[38]. Moreover, the important use of Lamiaceae species as medicinal plants is crucial also in the medico-ethnobotanical literature of Piedmont ([39] and references therein). The conspicuous absence of Lamiaceae uses in the Senegalese migrant community is maybe reflective of their isolation from the Italian environmental and medical landscape, which may have been further enhanced by the characteristic male composition of the Senegalese community in Italy.


## 3.1. The Medical Ethnobotany of the Senegalese Migrants in Turin

Table1 reports all medicinal plants quoted by the Senegalese migrants in Turin. In total, 47 folk taxa were recorded as medicinally used in Turin; 41 of these have been botanically identified. Of these remedies, only a few (eight) could be considered food medicines, thus contradicting what previous studies among migrants medical ethnobotanies have found [6, 13, 17]. This may be due to the fact that regular provision of African vegetables and other fresh food ingredients is scarce in Turin, where generally only dried spices and medicinal plants are imported. Another explanation may be that the Senegalese migrant community in Turin is mainly represented by males, who—in contrast to women—are not holders of culinary knowledge and therefore they do not generally have experience in managing healthcare via the diet within the domestic domain.Table 1
Medicinal plant remedies used by Senegalese migrants in Turin.
Botanical taxon, family, and voucher specimen codeLocal name(s)Part(s) usedPreparation and administrationFolk medical use (used against/to regulate)QsAdansonia digitataL. (Bombacaceae)BaobobSeedEatenDiarrhoea+SeedGrind the seeds and put the powder on the lipsBurning lipsGrind the seeds and put the powder on the painful toothToothacheAcacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN15Mbano (m) Nep nep (w)RootMake a decoction and drink just a little bitIndigestion+++Externally appliedWoundsBarkDrink the beverage together withTamarindus indica fruit pulp and Hibiscus sabdariffa flowersFatigueGrind it, add salt, and put it on the haematomaHaematoma+++Acacia tortilis(Forssk.)  Hayne (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN05Senjen (w)RootDrink the decoctionEye inflammations BellyacheDrink the decoction while eating some sugar, repeating the procedure three times a dayWormsMacerated in water for two days; the macerate drunkSexual impotence Stomachache Kidney troublesAdansonia digitata L. (Malvaceae) UNISGSEN20Buy (w)Baobab (f)FruitDrink the beverage made using the pulp around the seedsDiarrhoea+++Same as above, addingHibiscus sabdariffaflowerDiarrhoeaAllium cepa L.  (Amaryllidaceae)CibolleBulbEatenSexual impotence Cold+Allium sativum L. (Amaryllidaceae)Ail (f) Ladji (w)BulbPut a piece of garlic on the right wrist if the sore tooth is in the upper jaw and vice versa for the lower jaw (chanting Koran’s verses helps the pain to disappear)ToothacheSexual impotence+++EatenIntestinal worms Lowering the blood pressure Cold and cold preventionAnacardium occidentaleL. (Anacardiaceae)AnacardoSeedDrunkAntibiotic+Annona senegalensisPers. (Annonaceae)SuncunLeafPut (powdered) on the fireMagic remedy (supposed to counteract bad spirits)+Arachis hypogaea L. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN16Arachide (f) Gerte (w)SeedEat the seedsStomachache+Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile (Zygophyllaceae)Dattier du désert (f) Soumpu Gurp Petit colaLeafGrind the leaves and drink the infusion prepared with the powdered leavesSore throat+++FruitChew the fruit without ingesting itStomachache Digestive Fatigue NauseaCalotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton  (Apocynaceae) UNISGSEN55Kipampaan (p)Poftan (m) Pomme de Sodome (f)RootCut the roots into small pieces, put it intoa cotton handkerchief, squeeze, it and inhale the aromaSinusitis+Stems juiceExternally appliedWoundsLeafDrink the infusion prepared with ground leavesConstipation+++Cassia italica(Mill) Sprengel  (Fabaceae)Layduur (w)Drink the infusion prepared with ground leavesIntoxicationRootLeave the root soaking all night and drink the water in the morning, before breakfastIntestinal wormsCassia occidentalis L.  (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN11Adiana (w)Bantaare (p) Bentamarè (s) Kassala (m) Mbanta xobi (w)LeafPut leaves around the headHeadache+BathsFatigueCassia tora L. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN76Cassepuante (f) Ndur (w)LeafUse it as a mouthwashMouth infections+Ceratotheca sesamoidesEndl. (Pedaliaceae)Jorokh lane (w)LeafPut the leaf into water at room temperature and after it releases oil, apply the oil to the bodyHigh fever+Dried leaf is soaked in water; the water is drunkBellyacheCitrus limon(L.) Osbeck. (Rutaceae)Citron (f)Limon (w)FruitDrink the juiceTo lose weight Digestive Strengthening Malaria (drunk in the coffee)++Combretum aculeatumVent. (Combretaceae)Sawat (w)LeafPut ground leaves and sugar into water and instil the solution in the eyesWhite spot in the eye on the pupil+Combretum glutinosumPerr. ex DC. (Combretaceae)Chigommier (f) Rat (w)LeafDrink the decoctionBronchitis/coughSexual impotence+LeafDrink the decoction (sometimes adding cloves)Cold Flue Lung infections Sore throat Antihypertensive+++Combretum micranthumG. Don (Combretaceae) UNISGSEN10Quinkeliba (f)Sekhaw (w)FlowerDrink the decoction with milk every morningEnhancing the “well-being”Make a decoction withXylopia aethiopicaseeds and cloves (Eugenia caryophillataflower buds)Vision problemsDioscoreaspp. (Dioscoreaceae) UNISGSEN83Igname (f) Yam (w)RootEat the rootTo gain weight+Elaeis guineensisJacq. (Arecaceae)Palmier à huile (f) Tiir (w)Fruit→ OilAdd oil and coffee toVitellaria paradoxa butter and dab on the bodyTo get rid of the “dead” blood when feeling weak+Dab on the bodyBoilsEucalyptus globulusLabill. (Myrtaceae) UNISGSEN88Eucaliptus (f)Khotta bu tel (w)LeafPut it around the head while listening to the reading of the KoranHeadache+Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb (Myrtaceae) UNISGSEN38Girofle (f) Xorompole (w)Flower budUse the infusion prepared withXylopiaaethiopica seeds andCombretum micranthum flowerVision problems+Euphorbia balsamiferaAit. (Euphorbiaceae)SalanSalan mbechiBranchCut the branch and put the latex on the woundWounds++RootDrink the decoctionBellyacheFicus iteophylla Miq. (Moraceae)Xassum loro (w)LeafDrink the decoctionDigestive asthma+++LeafDab on the affected partBackache skin allergiesGrewia bicolor Juss. (Malvaceae)Kel (w)LeafDrink the decoctionFatigue Bronchitis/cough Digestive++Guiera senegalensis J.F. Gmel. (Combretaceae) UNISGSEN18Ngueer (w) Mamakumkoyo (m) Mamankuiò (s)RootDrink the decoctionCold+++LeafDrink the decoctionBronchitis/cough kidney troubles Fatigue stomachachePut the infusion into the eyesItchy eyes+++Flower (red)Drink the decoctionBellyaches Menstrual pains Preventing ageing Fatigue Fever Improving the blood circulationHibiscus sabdariffa L. (Malvaceae) UNISGSEN12Bissap (w)Karkadè (f)Put the infusion into the eyesEye problemsDrink the beverage together withTamarindus indica fruit pulp and Acacia niloticabarkFatigueFlower (white)As a food medicine—as a main ingredient of a dish prepared with boiled meat of fish, cooked with tamarind and chilies (lakk bissap)FatigueMaerua crassifolia Forssk (Capparaceae)Sothiou (w) Sothiou suukarBranchChew the branchHalitosis+Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae) UNISGSEN37Manguier (f) Màngo joolaa (w)LeafDrink the decoctionTetanus++Manihot esculentaCrantz (Euphorbiaceae) UNISGSEN07Gnambi (w)Manioc (f) Mañok (m)RootEat the rootTo gain weight+Moringa oleiferaLam. (Moringaceae)NebedaiLeafEaten in sauces, generally accompaniedwith meat and couscousDiabetes+Musa paradisiacaL. (Musaceae)Bananier (f)LeafTopical application of the leaf infusionBurns+Panicum miliaceumL. (Poaceae)Mil (f)FruitEat millet (couscous)To gain weightFatigue+Parinari macrophyllaSabine (Chrysobalanaceae)New (w)TambaLeafDrink the infusion made from 7 leavesHigh blood pressure+LeafDrink the infusionStomachachePiper nigrumL. (Piperaceae)Mex pobare (w) Poivre noir (f)FruitEat the dried berryRunny nose+Tamarindus indicaL. (Fabaceae)Tamarin (f) Daqaar (w)FruitpulpEaten, or drunk, in a beverage made adding the bark ofAcacia niloticaand the flower ofHibiscus sabdariffaFatigue+Terminalia catappaL. (Combretaceae)Badamier (f)Toubab (w) Xopp kerteNot specifiedNot specifiedAntibiotic, antifungal+Add salt to the butter and dab on the backBackache+++Vitellaria paradoxaC.F. Gaertn. (Sapotaceae)Karitè (f)Seed→butterAdd coffee,Elaeis guineensis’ oil and dab on the bodyTo get rid of the “dead” blood when feeling weakDab the butter on the bodyMassage on the child’s body, to make the child stronger.Bone strengtheningDab the butter on hairHair lossDrink the decoction, also a spice in the coffeeSexual impotence++Xylopia aethiopica A. Rich. (Annonaceae) UNISGSEN70Diar (w) JarSeedInstill the infusion of seeds into the eyesEye problems,conjunctivitisInstill the infusion of seeds into the earOtitisPour the infusion made from the seeds,Eugenia caryophyllataflower buds andCombretum micranthum flowerVision problemsZingiber officinaleRoscoe (Zingiberaceae) UNISGSEN09Djindjer (w) Djinjeroo (m) Gingembre (f)Fresh rhizomeEaten, or juice drunk, or decoctionSexual impotence Blood circulation+++LeafDrink the decoctionWormsNot identifiedBerbef (w)Use the rough leaf like a sponge under the showerPruritus+FruitMake a pasta and dab on the skinItchinessNot identifiedBonyeAntibiotic+Not identifiedKhambata (w)LeafDrink the infusionHeadache+Not identifiedNdiadameFruitCook it slowly and eat it; it is really bitterIntestinal worms+Not identifiedSangol (w)RootPut it in water for up to two minutes and drink it (very bitter)Intestinal worms+LeafSoak in water and externally apply on the skinItchinessNot identifiedWatenobout (w)BranchPut the latex that comes out of the broken branch on the woundWounds+(f): French; (m): Mandingo; (p): Pulaar; (w): Wolof; Qs: quotations: + quoted by 1 or 2 informants only; ++ quoted by 3, 4, or 5 informants; +++ quoted by 5 informants or more.All remedies quoted in Turin are generally bought in small ethnic food shops and mini-supermarkets located in city centre and managed by African and/or Chinese migrant entrepreneurs. A few of the most quoted taxa (Acacia, Adansonia, Guiera, Hibiscus) are well-known African medicinal plants, which are however lacking in the Western TM pharmacopoeia.


## 3.2. The Medical Ethnobotany of Adeane in Senegal

Table2 reports all medicinal plants quoted in Adeane. In total, 71 species, representing 31 botanical families, were recorded as components to TMs in Adeane. However, although the large majority of recorded medicinal taxa were found in the reviews of the Senegalese TM [34–36], only a minority (<40%) of the actual medicinal plant uses are reported in the considered literature. This confirms the highly dynamic character of the home medicines in rural Africa and highlights the urgent need for inventorying folk plant uses beyond those that are cited in the “standardized” TM reviews.Table 2
Plants used as medicines in Adeane, Casamance, Southern Senegal.
Botanical taxon, family, and voucher specimen codeLocal name(s)Part(s) usedPreparation and administrationFolk medical use(used against/to regulate)HealersLaypeopleQsAcacia albida Delile (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN019Kade (f) Kadd (w) BaransangoRoot BarkInstill the infusion in the eyeVision problems+3Acacia nilotica(L.)Willd. ex Delile (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN15Acaciamlotique (f) Nep nep (w)  Mbano (m)RootApply the infusion externallyHerpes+2Toothache+Acacia seyal Delile (Fabaceae)SuuroLeafTopical application of liquid resulting from pressed leavesToothache+1Soak in water for some time and drinkTapeworm+11Stomachache+Bellyache(abdominal pains)++Drink the cold infusionRheumatism+Apply the infusion on hairStrengthening the hair+Boiled in water and the vapour is inhaledCold+Cold infusion is drunkBlood pressure+Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN05Senjen (w)RootEat it with riceSterility+Make aerosol with the infusion?Lung cancer+Drink the infusionBloodstream+Eat it with riceUlcer+Eat it with riceGastritis+Eat it with riceKidney problems+Drink the infusionMenstrual pain+Malaria+Topical application of the infusionHerpes+Topical application of the infusionBoil+Drink the infusionFatigue++Drink the infusionTuberculosis++LeafPowdered leaf applied to burn and bandaged together with the oil ofArachis hypogaeaBurns+12Drink the seed juice together with the flowers ofHibiscus sabdariffaFatigue++Adansonia digitataL. (Malvaceae) UNISGSEN20Baobab (f) Guy (w)SeedsEat the seedsDiarrhoea++Eat the seeds together withCitrus limon juiceLack of appetite+Use it withAcacia albida, Guiera senegalensis, Parkia biglobosa, Annona senegalensis, Soora(nonidentified plant), andFicus sycomorusHeadache, sore throat, cold taken as result of wind+Allium cepa L.  (Amaryllidaceae)Oignon (f)BulbInfusion with leaves ofCitrus limonSore throat+1Drink the infusion in the morningBlood pressure+8Allium sativum L. (Amaryllidaceae)Ail (f) Ladji (w)BulbEat it raw in the morningIntestinal worms+Eat it while marabout recites verses of the KoranDepression+Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. (Xanthorrhoeaceae)Leaf gelUse it withVitellaria paradoxaTuberculosis+2Use it withVitellaria paradoxaHair loss+Drink the infusionToothache+3Anacardium occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae)Pomme-cajou (f)Darkasa (w) Bara diamboo (m)BarkRheumatism+Put it in cold water for a while and drink itToothache+Blood pressure+Drink the infusionDiabetes+3Put the powder on the woundWounds+Drink the infusionRheumatism+Drink the infusionBloodstream+Annona senegalensis Pers. (Annonaceae) UNISGSEN36Sunkun (m)LeafDrink the infusion withMusa paradisiaca leaves and Combretum micranthumBlood pressure+Use it withPiliostigma reticulatumHeadache+Use it withPiliostigma reticulatumTuberculosis+Use it withAcacia albida, Guiera senegalensis, Parkia biglobosa, Adansonia digitata, Soora(nonidentified plant), andFicus sycomorusHeadache, Sore throat, Cold taken as result of wind+LeafUse it withAcacia albida and Parkia biglobosaDepression+FruitUse it with oil ofElaeis guineensis’ oilHair+3Arachis hypogaea L.  (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN16Arachides (f) Gerte (w) Jamba katalig (m)LeafInhale the infusion prepared together with the leaves ofMangifera indicaGeneral health+Seed→oilMix peanut oil together with the powdered leaves ofAdansonia digitataand apply to burns before bandagingBurns+FruitEat the fruit fresh, not toastedCold+Wrap the leaf around the headHeadache+3Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae) UNISGSEN63Cassia, Neem (f) Niim, Ni va (w) Bantare (m)LeafInfuse with hot water and inhale the steamFatigue+Topical application of the infusionSkin problems+Use it withCarica papayaand Citrus limonCold+Make an infusion with shade-dried leavesDiabetes++3Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex J.C. Wendl. (Poaceae) UNISGSEN54Bambou (f)Lonk (w)LeafDrink the infusion withCombretum micranthum leavesHigh blood pressure+Make an infusion, drink someof it, and make aerosol with the resting waterBloodstream+Drink the infusionObesity+Beta vulgaris L.  (Chenopodiaceae)Betterave (f) Beteraaw (m)RootEat itBloodstream+1Eat itAnemia+Borassus flabellifer L. (Arecaceae) UNISGSEN89Ronier (f) Kòoni (w)FruitBurnt and pressed, pour resulting liquid into the earEarache+1Malaria+6Fatigue+LeafWarm the leaf up and wrap it around the neckSore neck+Topical application of juice from leaf on toothToothache+Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton  (Apocynaceae) UNISGSEN55Pomme de Sodome (f) Poftan (m) Kipampaan (p)Wrap the leaf around the sore kneeSore knees+Wrap the leaf around the headHeadache+RootUse it withOcimum basilicumRheumatism+Leaf ?Use it withMànganaso(unidentified plant) and Jatropha curcas.Drink it and vomit everything yellowYellow fever+Use it withJatropha curcasand Mànganaso(unidentified plant)Syphilis+Cannabis  sativa L. (Cannabaceae)MarijuanaSeedsDrink the infusionAsthma+1Drink the infusionLack of appetite5Drink a glass of water with a chili pepper in itIntestinal worms+Capsicum annuum L. (Solanaceae)Kani (w)FruitMix lemon juice (Citrus limo) together with a chili pepper and gargle with the solutionSore throat+Put in a small pan withJatropha curcas, and drinkHair loss+Put it in lemon juice (Citrus limon) and drink itConstipation+Eat up the oil that comes out of the nut and dab it on the body three times a day withVitellaria paradoxabutterSore back+9Mix it with oil ofElaeis guineensis and butter of Vitellaria paradoxaand then dab it on hairStrengthening the hair+Drink a spoonful every dayPoor memory+Drink a spoonful of itCough+Drink a spoonful of itSore throat+Topical application of the oilEye problems+Carapa procera DC. (Meliaceae) UNISGSEN43Tulukuna (m)Seed→oilInstill oil into the earsEarache+Drink a spoonful of itFever+Drink a spoonful of itFlu+Dab it on the skin in the area over the kidneysKidneys problems+Drink a spoonful of itBellyache+Use it before breakfastTapeworm+Dab it on affected musclesSore muscles+Peel it and apply to the sore toothToothache+8Use it withCitrus limon and Azadirachta indicaCold+RootDrink the infusion, adding saltSyphilis (2)++LeafDrink the infusionAnemia+Use it together withPsidium guajava leavesCystitis+Carica papaya L.  (Caricaceae) UNISGSEN21Papayer (f) Papaayo (w)SeedsDry the seeds in the sun, powder, and add to foodIntestinal worms+FruitEat a soup with a ripe papaya in it together with chicken and a root ofTinospora bakisYellow fever+Boil the unripe fruit with undecorticated rice or simply eat the fruit, raw. Another remedy is to crack an egg over the unripe papaya and eat itYellow fever++LeafDrink the infusion together with the budsYellow fever+Add the following to water: dry leaves ofMusa paradisiaca,little unripe fruits and leaves of Citrus limon,leaves of Cassia occidentalis,leaves of Mangifera indica,leaves ofZiziphus mauritiana and drinkMalaria+FruitEat it together withParkia biglobosa leavesYellow fever+FlowerCrumble flower into the water and drinkHeadache+14LeafWrap around the headHeadache+Cassia occidentalisL. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN11Mbanta xobi orAdiana (w) Kasalaa (m) Bentamarè (s)LeafWrap around the headConjunctivitis+Flowe?Drink the infusionMenstrual pain+LeafPut it in water for a while and wash yourself with itCold (Especially for children)+Flower?Drink the infusionFor pregnant women+LeafDrop juice from pressed leavesinto the earProblems of the eardrum+LeafAdd the following to water: dry leaves ofMusa paradisiaca,little unripe fruits and leaves ofCitrus limon,leaves of Mangifera indica,leaves of Carica papaya, and leaves of Ziziphus mauritianaMalaria+Cassia tora L.  (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN76Cassepuante (f) Ndur (w)Blemishes on scalp which may extend to the whole body+2Use it withFicus umbellataSkin fungus+FruitEat itBellyache+3RootPut little plants’ roots in water and then drink the water It is going to fizzFatigue+Ceiba pentandra(L.) Gaertn.  (Malvaceae)Fromager, Kapotier (f) Bantau Bentene (w)BarkUse infusion made with the bark as a mouthwashToothache+Root?Cancer+Bark?Pour the infusion on the baby’s head during baptismInfant strength and protection+RootGood for the blood because of the red colourBlood++LeafMake an infusion together with leaves ofAllium cepaSore throat+9FruitDrink the juiceSore throat+Drink the juiceTo lose weight+Use the juice together withCapsicum to gargleSore throat+Leaf and FruitDrink a beverage made with lemon leaf and fruit (Citrus limon)Headache+FruitPut the juice on the affected part together withPanicum miliaceumflourHerpes+FruitDrink the infusion with lemon juice (Citrus limon) together with two roots of the Gossypium barbadenseSexual weakness+Citrus limon(L.) Burm. (Rutaceae)Citron (f)Limon (w)Leaf and FruitDrink a beverage made with little lemons and leavesCold+FruitDrink the juiceCold+Use it withCarica papaya and Azadirachta indicaCold+Leaf and fruitAdd the following to water: dry leaves ofMusa paradisiaca,little unripe fruits and leaves ofCitrus limon,leaves of Mangifera indica,leaves of Carica papaya,leaves of Cassia occidentalis,leaves of Ziziphus mauritianaand drinkMalaria+Eaten withCarica papayaMalaria Yellow fever+Use it withGuiera senegalensisAsthma+FruitDrink the juiceObesity+Drink the infusion together withGossypium barbadenseHigh blood pressure+Dink the juice with honeyLiver+Cola cordifolia (Cav.) R. Br. (Malvaceae)Kaba/TabaLeafDrink the infusionMalnutrition+1Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl. (Malvaceae) UNISGSEN85Ptit cola (f) Kola (w) Goro (p)SeedChew itStimulant+1Drink the infusionCough+2Combretum glutinosumPerr. ex DC. (Combretaceae)Chigommier (f) Rat (w)LeafDrink the infusionBronchitis+Drink the infusionSore throat+Drink the infusionCold+LeafIngested together withTamarindus indicafruit pulpBlood pressure++9Drink the infusion withMusa paradisiaca’s leaf and Annona senegalensisBlood pressure+Drink the infusionDiabetes+Use it withTamarindus indicaAsthma+LeafObesity+Combretum micranthum G. Don (Combretaceae) UNISGSEN10Kinkeliba (f)Sekhaw (w)Drink the infusionBloodstream++Drink the infusion with these leaves together withBambusa vulgaris leavesHigh blood pressure+Drink the infusion without sugarMalnutrition+FlowerDrink the infusion with cloves (Eugenia caryophillata) and Xylopia aethipioca seedsVision problems+LeafDrink the infusionBellyache+Dialium guineense Willd. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN17Solom (w)BarkMake aerosol with the infusionAsthma+1Datura inoxia Mill. (Solanaceae) UNISGSEN91Datura (f) KubejaaraLeafBurn the wood and mix the wood ash with powdered leaf ashExternal Use only—highly hallucinogenic if used internallyAllergies+1Daucus carota L. (Apiaceae)Carotte (f)LeafDrink the infusionBreast cancer+1Dioscoreaspp. (Dioscoreaceae) UNISGSEN83ImuamIgname (f)Yam (w)RootEat itTo gain weight+2LeafBoil the leavesAsthma+Put the oil on the hairHair+6Fruit→oilTopical applicationToothache+Pour in the earsEarache+Use the palm oil together withSooto noir (Ficus capensis Thumb.?) powdered rootLiver problems+Elaeis guineensisJacq. (Arecaceae)Palmier à huile (f)Tiir (w)Attach the root ofMoringa oleiferato the affected area and then cover the sore part with palm oil. Do not leave the root in place too long or it will cause an infection.Rheumatism+SeedsWear a necklace made out of these seedsSore throat+Break the seed and eat the internal partGastritis+RootPut them in wine and drink itSterility+Skin fungus+Fruit→oilUse the palm oil together with peanuts (Arachis hypogea) and dab on hair.Hair+Use it together withVitellaria paradoxa butter and Carapa procera,dab on hairHair+Apply it on the cuts together withHessawaneTetanus+Drink the infusion withJatropha curcasCough+1Erythrina senegalensis DC. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN34Erythrine du Senegal (f) Dolliw fatuRootDrink the infusionSyphilis+Drink the infusionMenstrual pain+Eucalyptus globulusLabill. (Myrtaceae) UNISGSEN88Eucaliptus (f) Khotta bu tel (w)LeafDrink the infusionBlood pressure+1Make an infusion and use it as mouthwashToothache+3Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb. (Myrtaceae) UNISGSEN38Girofle (f) Xorompole (w)Flower budDrink the infusionConjunctivitis+Make infusion with seeds ofXylopia aethiopica and Combretum micranthum flower and apply on eyesVision problems+Euphorbia balsamifera Ait. (Euphorbiaceae)Salan Salana Salan MbechiBranchCut a branch and put the lymph on the woundWounds+3Toothache+Ficus elasticaRoxb. ex Hornem.  (Moraceae) UNISGSEN59Yirif asotuLeaf and barkDrink the infusionLow blood pressure+2LeafDrink the infusionCold+Ficus sycomorusssp. gnaphalocarpa(Miq.) C.C. Berg (Moraceae) UNISGSEN42Ficus (f) Sooto (m)RootDrink the infusionFatigue+2LeafPowder branches and leaves together withJamba Sabooleaves and drink some of it. Wash yourself with the rest of it. Do not eat fish in the meantime.AIDS+Ficus umbellata Vahl  (Moraceae) UNISGSEN68Ñokolokotò (m)LeafUse it withCassia toraSkin fungus+1LeafCough+4Gossypium barbadense L. (Malvaceae)Cotonnier (f) Uiten (w)RootDrink the infusion together with lemon juice (Citrus limon)High blood pressure+Drink the infusion made with two roots together with lemon juice(Citrus limon)Sexual weakness+Drink the infusion three times a dayCough+13Chew it and put it on the sore toothToothache+Dry it and use it every daySores+Guiera senegalensisJ.F. Gmel (Combretaceae) UNISGSEN18Guiera du Senegal (f) Ngeer (w)Mamakumkoyo (m)LeafMake an infusion together with the lemon leaves (Citrus limon)Asthma+Drink the infusion with Valda pastille (industrial pastille based on menthol and eucalyptus essential oil)Cold+Make infusion and apply to hairHair+Drink the infusionInsomnia+Apply chewed leaf onto the wound or powder it and put it onWounds++Drink the infusion together withMànganaso’s root (unidentified plant)Intestinal worms+Infusion prepared withAdansonia digitata, Acacia albida, Parkia biglobosa, Annona senegalensis, Soora Soora(nonidentified plant),and Ficus sycomorusHeadache, sore throat, or cold taken as result of the wind+Leaf and FlowerDrink the infusionBloodstream+12FlowerFlu+FruitMake a juice together withAdansonia digitataseedsFatigue++FlowerLack of appetite+Hibiscus sabdariffaL. (Malvaceae) UNISGSEN12Karkadè (f) Bisaab (w)Use it withTamarindus indicaand Acacia niloticaFatigue+FlowerUse it withPhaseolus vulgaris seedsAnemia+Use it with seeds ofPhaseolus vulgarisFatigue+FruitRemove the seeds and squeeze the fruit juice into the eyes.Conjunctivitis+LeafMake an infusion together with the young leaves ofPsidium guajava, drink it, and eat the leavesDiarrhoea++Holarrhena floribundaT. Durand & Schinz  (Apocynaceae) UNISGSEN67Jarko (m)Sexually transmitted diseases+2Drink the tisaneProstate Abortion+Collect pieces of bark that face east during sunset and then drink it in 5 litres of waterCancer+6Collect pieces of bark that face east during sunset and then drink it in 5 litres of waterSyphilis+Jatropha curcasL. (Euphorbiaceae)Pignon d’Inde (f)Tabanana (w) Tabanano (m)Bark and RootDrink the infusion together with roots ofErythrina senegalensisin itCough+Put it in a small pan withCapsicumand drinkHair loss+Powder it together withKunjunburun and eat it on riceSyphilis+Use it withCalotropis procera and Mànganaso(unidentified plant)Yellow fever+Drink a tisane made with the bark together withAcacia tortilis.Intestinal worms++5Boil it in the water or put it into cold water for 2 hours and then drink it.Fatigue+Make aerosol with itFatigue+Khaya senegalensis(Desr.) A. Juss.  (Meliaceae)Cailsedrat (f)Xai, kay (w)BarkPut in water and drink it“Makes blood”+Make cold infusion and drinkKidney problems+Anemia+Put the bark in a bottle and drink it.Tuberculosis+Lawsonia inermisL.  (Lythraceae) UNISGSEN69Hennè (f)Fuden (w)Leaf?Soak it together with the leaves ofPsidium guajavaand then drink it. The leaves needs to be fresh, not dried.Stomachache+1Leptadenia hastataVatke (Apocynaceae)Mboom (w)Duto (m)LeafAttach the leaves to the back together with hawk’s bonesKidney problems+1RootScrape at the bark, put it into water, and drink itSnakebite+Lippia chevalieriMoldenke (Verbenaceae)SamfitòLeafDrink the infusionBoils+1Maerua crassifolia Forssk. (Capparaceae)Sothiou (w)Sothiou suukarBranchRub the stick on the teethClean teeth+2Chew the branch. Its bark tastes like sugarHaemorrhoids+LeafMake an infusion, with 1.5 L water and a handful of leaves (some say to use only the ones on the floor, others to add salt to the infusion)Tetanus++13LeafDrink infusionPoor memory+Mangifera indicaL.  (Anacardiaceae) UNISGSEN37Manguier (f)Màngo joolaa (w)Bark?Hot infusion and inhale it together with peanut (Arachis hypogaea) leavesGeneral health+BarkMake aerosol with itToothache+LeafToothache++LeafAdd to water: dry leaves ofMusa paradisiaca,little unripe fruits and leaves ofCitrus limon,leaves of Mangifera indica,leaves of Carica papaya,leaves of Cassia occidentalis,and leaves of Ziziphus mauritianaMalaria+FruitEat three fruitsConstipation+Manihot esculenta Crantz (Euphorbiaceae) UNISGSEN07Manioc (f) Gnambi (w) Mañok (m)LeafDrink the infusion together with milk curdle and then massage the chestLung cancer+1Make aerosol with the infusionAsthma+LeafDry in the shade, powder, and eat with foodDiabetes+12LeafDry it in the shade and then crush it and eat in on riceDiabetes+SeedDry the seeds on the fire, powder, mix with water, and drinkDiabetes+Moringa oleiferaLam. (Moringaceae) UNISGSEN39Moringa (f)Nebedaay (w)Nebedayo (m)RootGrind the root and put it on the fire then dab and bandageSore knees+BarkSoak the root in water for few seconds and then drinkSore neck+LeafPut the leaf in water and wash your eyes with itEye allergies+BarkSoak it in warm (not boiling) water and then drink itKidney problems+RootAttach the root to the affected area, withElaeis guineensis oil. Do not leave it too long or the root will cause an infection on the sore part.Rheumatism+LeafDry the leaves in the shade and eat it withPhaseolus vulgarisBlood pressure+SeedPut the seeds on the fire, grind into a powder and drink with waterBlood pressure+LeafCut the leaves and dry them in the sun for 24 hoursGeneral health+4Musa paradisiacaL.  (Musaceae)Bananier (f)FruitEat itStomachache+LeafInfusion withCombretum micranthum and Annona senegalensisBlood pressure+Add to water: dry leaves ofMusa paradisiaca,little unripe fruits and leaves ofCitrus limon,leaves of Mangifera indica,leaves of Carica papaya,leaves of Cassia occidentalis, and leaves of Ziziphus mauritianaMalaria+LeafDrink the infusionHeadache+3Ocimum basilicum L.  (Lamiaceae) UNISGSEN13Basilic (f)Ngungun (m)SeedsPut the seed into the eyes and everything comes outEye problems+Leaf?Use it withCalotropis proceraRheumatism+Panicum miliaceumL.(Poaceae)Mil (f)FruitUse the powder (pollen) that falls down during the harvest to massage the body with water and salt. Leave it on half an hour and then wash it away.Allergies+2Apply millet powder together with lemon juice (Citrus limon) on the affected areaHerpes+Cut the bark into pieces, boil, and use the water as mouthwashToothache+2Parinari macrophyllaSabine (Chrysobalanaceae)New (w)TambaBarkMake an infusion and drinkSore throat+Make an infusion and drink it before mealsHelps in digestion+Put the leaf powder on the burnsBurns+5LeafEat the leaves together withCarica papayafruitYellow fever+Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R.Br. ex G. Don (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN87Minosa purpre (f) Uul (w) Nete, Nere (m)Drink the infusion with powdered leaf and milkUlcer+Use it together withAcacia albidaand Annona senegalensisDepression+Use it withAcacia albida, Guiera senegalensis, Annona senegalensis, Adansonia digitata, Soora(nonidentified plant), and Ficus sycomorusHeadache, sore throat, and cold taken as result of the wind+SeedCook them with riceDiabetes+Use withHibiscus sabdariffaFatigue+3Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN35Harricot blanche (f) Niebè (w) ÑebbeSeedsMake an infusion with seven seeds and eat themBreast cancer+Use it withHibiscus sabdariffaAnaemia+Leaf?Eat it together withMoringa oleifera’s sundried leavesBlood pressure+Put the red liquid inside the bark on the wound then powder the bark and put it on the woundWounds++3Piliostigma reticulatum(DC.) Hochst. (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN77Fara (m)Kankuran (p)BarkUse it withAnnona senegalensisTuberculosis+Drink the infusionChronic cough+Piper nigrumL. (Piperaceae)Poivre noir (f) Mex Pobare (w)SeedDrink boiled milk with pepper in itSore throat+Prosopis africana(Guill. & Perr.) Taub. (Fabaceae)Yiir (w)BarkDrink the decoctionAnaemia+1LeafMake aerosol useful to swat and then drink the waterVertigo+1Prosopis juliflora(Sw.) DC.  (Fabaceae) UNISGSEN26Banaanagolo (w)LeafMake aerosol useful to swat and then drink the waterPregnant women+LeafDrink the infusionBellyache+Young leafMake an infusion withHibiscus sabdariffa leaves, drink it, and eat the leavesDiarrhoea++10LeafDrink the infusionBellyache+Psidium guajavaL. (Myrtaceae) UNISGSEN31Goyave (f)Guyaab (w)Use it together withCarica papayaleafCystitis+FruitEat the fruitBellyache+Drink the infusionDiarrhoea+LeafDrink the infusion made with young leavesDiarrhoea+Soak the leaves together withLawsonia inermis, and then drink it. The leaves need to be fresh, not driedStomachache+Saba senegalensis (A.DC.) Pichon  (Apocynaceae) UNISGSEN76Màdd (w) Mat mat (m)LeafDrink the infusionIntestinal worms+2FruitBoil the fruitMalnutrition+LeafMake an infusionSkin fungus+5Solanum lycopersicumL.  (Solanaceae)Tomate (f)Tamaate (w)Crush the leaf and put the juice and the leaf inside the earEarache+FruitApply tomato sauce on the woundWounds++Eat it rawSmallpox+Solanum tuberosumL.  (Solanaceae)Pomme de terre (f)Pombiteer (w)LeafMake an infusion and give it to the 1-week-old baby to drinkStrong child+1FruitEat it rawMenstrual pain+Use it withCombretum micranthumAsthma+FruitBoil it and wash your eyes with itVision problems+4Tamarindus indica L.  (Fabaceae)Tamarin (f)Daqaar (w)Add salt and rinse your mouth with itToothache+Karitè butter together with the bark ofTamarindus indicaBruises+BarkUse it withHibiscus sabdariffa and the bark of Acacia niloticaFatigue+Use it withCombretum micranthumBlood pressure+Tinospora bakis (A. Rich.) Miers  (Menispermaceae)Bakis (w)RootEat the root in a soup with a ripeCarica papayaand chickenYellow fever+1Massage the neckSore neck (2)++11Massage the bodyCold+Put it on the sore partBruises+Massage the chest with Karitè butterChronic cough+Add salt to the butter and dab on the backBackache+Karitè butter together with the bark ofTamarindus indicaBruises+Massage and dab the sore part of the bodyRheumatism+Vitellaria paradoxaC.F. Gaertn.  (Sapotaceae)Karitè (f)Seed→butterApply on herpesHerpes+Use it withCarapa procera and Elaeis guineensis’ oilHair loss+Use it together withCarapa procera’s nut oil and dab it on the body three times a dayBackache+Dab on the hairStronger hair+Use it together with a stick to apply this partFractures+Add coffee and tyr (red oil)To get rid of the dead blood, against fatigue+Use it withAloe veraTuberculosis+Use it withAloe veraHair loss+Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich. (Annonaceae) UNISGSEN70Diar (w)JarFruit SeedThe seeds are used to prepare the “Touba Coffee”Blood pressure+3(f): French; (m): Mandingo; (p): Pulaar; (w): Wolof; Qs: quotations (number of informants, who have quoted a specific taxon); ?: uncertain information.Documentation and evaluation of these home remedies are very important, since they represent a means of primary healthcare for most. Figure2 illustrates the overlaps between the plants quoted in Casamance by healers and laypeople. Laypeople’s knowledge of medical plants is quite remarkable and confirms that the actual practice of household phytotherapy in Africa is much broader of what we sometimes label as “Traditional Medicine,” which is generally restricted to the knowledge, practices, and beliefs of healers. Moreover, despite living in the same village, while healers and laypeople use in large part the same medicinal plants (Figure 2), the actual plant reports (plant-based preparations used for a given health problem) are highly divergent (Figure 3). These findings confirm a remarkable “internal” variability of the African medical ethnobotanies, as a recent study in rural Mozambique also pointed out [37].Figure 2
Overlap between the folk medicinal taxa quoted by healers and laypeople in Adeane.Figure 3
Overlap between the medicinal plant reports quoted by healers and laypeople in Adeane (a single medicinal plant report is defined as “a given taxon x, prepared as y, used for z”).


## 3.3. Comparison between the Senegalese Medical Ethnobotanies of Turin and Adeane

A comparison between the laypeople’s medical ethnobotany in Turin and Adeane demonstrates that Senegalese in Senegal use more plants than Senegalese in Turin (Figure4). This may be due to an objective difficulty to acquire all African plants used in country of origin in the new cultural environment in Italy and also to an adaptation process. Migrants moved in fact from their original rural areas in Senegal (where the use of herbal TMs is widespread) to urban environments in Europe, where practices of use of medicinal plants are only available within the context of Western modern herbalism and phytotherapy: Senegalese TM practitioners seem in fact not to be present in Turin. Moreover, migrants from Senegal in Turin also generally rely on Western pharmaceuticals.Figure 4
Overlap between the botanical genera quoted as medicinally used in Turin and Adeane (by laypeople).However, the large majority of the medicinal botanical genera recorded in Turin are also used in the country of origin, thus confirming some resilience of original practices following displacement into another landscape. The fact that a few other genera (twelve) have been quoted instead by migrants in Turin, but not in Adeane, could possibly be explained in two ways.(i)
Senegalese migrants living in Turin did not all come from the southern part of Senegal. For instance, a few of them may have brought plant uses to Turin that are unknown in the folk medicine of Southern Senegal.(ii)
A few genera recorded quoted in Turin (i.e.,Hibiscus, Zingiber) may represent the result of cross-cultural exchanges of TMs with other migrant populations in Turin, especially with the North African migrants, who also share the same religion, and with members of the Chinese migrant community who own ethnic food markets in Turin.Out of this comparative study, a few plant families have emerged as being integral to the TM practices of the Senegalese study participants both in Turin and Adeane. In particular, a great variety of Fabaceae species were quoted as having medicinal applications in Turin (7 species) and Adeane (15 species). The second and third most represented botanical families amongst the Turin participants were Combretaceae and Malvaceae, with 5 and 3 species quoted, respectfully. In Adeane, however, Malvaceae was the second most quoted family (5 species), followed by Apocynaceae and Solanaceae (4 species each), and then Combretaceae, Myrtaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Meliaceae, represented by 3 species each.Interestingly, despite the presence of a thriving Senegalese community in the north Italian landscape for more than 30 years, relatively few Italian medicinal plants appear to have been incorporated into the TM practices of this group. Take, for example, the notable lack of incorporation of several European mints (Lamiaceae) in the TM practices of the Senegalese in Turin. Various Lamiaceae species, such as mint, basil, peppermint, rosemary, thyme, horehound, and oregano, grow in the wild and/or are cultivated in the Italian countryside and the use of such species for medicinal purposes dates back to more than 2,000 years ago in this region, as evidenced by their presence in the ancient textbooks of the MediterraneanMateria Medica[38]. Moreover, the important use of Lamiaceae species as medicinal plants is crucial also in the medico-ethnobotanical literature of Piedmont ([39] and references therein). The conspicuous absence of Lamiaceae uses in the Senegalese migrant community is maybe reflective of their isolation from the Italian environmental and medical landscape, which may have been further enhanced by the characteristic male composition of the Senegalese community in Italy.


## 4. Conclusion

Our study illustrates that the herbal medicines used by the Senegalese in Turin are very different from those of the Italian herbal landscape and that the migrant population in Turin is instead reliant on the undependable trade and movement of plant materials from their homeland to ethnic markets in the city. This shows maybe a scarce integration of this African community into the host society.Moreover, the access and availability of important original medicines, especially medicinal foods, are greatly diminished in Turin, creating a significant disruption in their TM system. This may also have been influenced by the general lack of female Senegalese migrants, who would typically be the ones in charge of TM and “health” foods in the domestic setting.The issues relevant to primary TM practice in migrant communities are often compounded by a lack of specific health policies, which are able to address migrant needs. This problem is, of course, not isolated to the case of migrants in Italy, but is also relevant to many other Western countries, where the healthcare needs of burgeoning migrant populations are often conspicuously absent in health policy and legislation.By having a better understanding of both the migrant folk pharmacopoeia and the state of TK transmission with regards to health, more culturally sensitive health policies could be developed. In particular, the increasing occurrence of newcomers in Italy should foster more pluralistic approaches in the management of CAMs by the regional authorities, as well as consequently addressing measures aimed to improve the information on potentialities and risks of “home-made” herbal remedies.



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*Source: 604363-2012-06-18.xml*