# Which Plants for What Ailments: A Quantitative Analysis of Medicinal Ethnobotany of Ile-Ife, Osun State, Southwestern Nigeria

Authors: Yusuf Ola Mukaila; Olaniran Temitope Oladipo; Ifeoluwa Ogunlowo; Abdulwakeel Ayokun-nun Ajao; Saheed Sabiu
Journal: Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
 (2021)

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## Abstract

Studies on medicinal ethnobotany in rural areas and communities are important for documentation and generation of indigenous knowledge on the medicinal use of plants, as well as identification of new botanicals of pharmacological significance. This paper presents, for the first time, the quantitative ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants in Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria. The ethnobotanical survey was carried out by conducting semistructured interviews with 70 informants/collaborators. Data were analyzed using various quantitative indices, namely, Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index (EKI), Species Popularity Index (SPI), Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), Cultural Importance Index (CII), Informant Consensus Factor (FIC), Fidelity Level (FL), and Species Therapeutic Index (STI). A total of 87 plant species belonging to 43 families were documented along with their medicinal uses. Euphorbiaceae is the most implicated family (9%) of the plants documented, and herbs (36%) were the prevalent life form while leaf (46%) was the most used plant part. Fevers are the most common diseases treated with the medicinal plants with 1012 use-reports, followed by skin diseases with 314 use-reports while the most common mode of preparation is decoction (37%). Telfaria occidentalis has the highest SPI and RFC (0.99, 0.99) while Khaya grandifoliola has the highest CII of 1.91. The community has EKI of 0.57 indicating a good knowledge of medicinal plants around them. Species such as Citrus aurantifolia, Khaya grandifoliola, and Ocimum gratissimum have high quantitative indices suggesting that they are effective in the treatment of various diseases in the community and therefore should be considered for pharmacological studies to validate their folkloric usages.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

A large percentage of the population of developing countries depends partially or completely on herbal or traditional medicine to treat an array of ailments [1–3]. In Nigeria, this is attributed to inadequate and unevenly distributed government health care services and the fact that a substantial number of the population (48%) live below the international poverty level [4, 5]. The gradual disappearance of the traditional knowledge about plants due to oral transmission has been reported [6] while many medicinal plant species are reportedly at the risk of extinction due to indiscriminate exploitation of these valuable resources and the rapid expansion of human settlements [7]. All these culminated into the declaration of preservation and documentation of indigenous use of the plant as one of the seven cogent priorities for strategic action in plant science at the 19th International Botanical Conference in Shenzhen, China [8].Until recently, little or no attention was paid to the field of ethnobotany in Nigeria; therefore, research in the ethnobotany field is relatively few in the country [9]. This is also partly associated with little or no funding for ethnobotanical research as well as a lack of expertise in the field [9]. Ile-Ife is a town in Nigeria believed to be the ancestral home of the Yoruba people and the first settlement in the southwestern part of Nigeria founded around 500BC. Premise to the rich cultural heritage of Ile-Ife town, it is expected that there will be valuable medicinal ethnobotanical knowledge in the community. Interestingly, the dependence of people of Ile-Ife on herbal and traditional medicines has been emphasized [10]. To our surprise, there is no study on medicinal ethnobotany of Ile-Ife up to date. Therefore, this study aims to (1) determine how and what plant species are used in the community to treat different ailments; (2) quantify the medicinal ethnobotanical knowledge in Ile-Ife with the view to provide baseline data for standard comparison on the future ethnobotanical study in other parts of the country; (3) use different statistical models to determine the most important plant species for particular aliment, the fidelity level, and agreement on the medicinal use of plant species for ailments in the community.


## 2. Materials and Methods

### 2.1. Study Area

Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria, lies within the tropical savannah climate zone of West Africa with an annual average temperature of 26.2°C, the average rainfall is between 1000 and 1250 mm, the mean relative humidity is 75–100%, and the main source of water is the Opa River. It has an undulating terrain, under which lies extensive metamorphic rock, and the soils are made up of sandy soils on the lower slopes and clay soils on the upper [11]. The original climax vegetation of Ile-Ife was said to be a lowland rainforest with a dry deciduous forest subtype [12, 13], though it was later reported that some of these have been destroyed by land overuse, overgrazing, as well as large buildings, owing to modernization leaving scattered fallow land and remnants of secondary lowland forest (Figure 1) [15].Figure 1
Map of Ile-Ife showing the major areas [14].


### 2.2. Data Collection and Informants/Collaborators

The informants/collaborators were informed of the scope of the work prior to the start of the study, and they all gave permission that the information (medicinal knowledge) could be published, but some of the informants did not consent to having their personal information published. Ile-Ife is home to the Obafemi Awolowo University, and studies have been conducted around the town over the years; therefore, the informants are somewhat familiar with the idea of interviews for research purpose. The study was formally approved by the Obafemi Awolowo University Postgraduate Committee, and all ethical principles of data collections concerning the traditional resource rights as stated in the latest edition (2008) of the International Society of Ethnobiology (2006) were followed [16]. For the purpose of gathering medicinal ethnobotanical knowledge, 70 informants/collaborators were interviewed comprising 31 women and 39 men all of whom were above the age of 30 years. Twenty-seven (27) of them were herbalists and nineteen (19) were herb-sellers while others were individuals who regularly and commonly use herbal medicines. Other detailed sociocultural data of the informants/collaborators were also collected (Supplementary Table 1).


### 2.3. Survey Methodology

A multistage sampling procedure was adopted for the fieldwork. At the initial stage, Ile-Ife was purposively selected for the study because of the lack of medicinal ethnobotanical data and then a simple random sampling technique was used to select ten areas within Ile-Ife. Lastly, the snowball sampling technique was used to select key informants/collaborators including herbalists, herb-sellers, farmers, and other regular people in the community. Semistructured interviews were then conducted with the selected informants [17]. The survey was conducted between March and November 2019.In the exploratory phase, we visited the community and asked 200 random people who they would recommend if one wanted to know about the medicinal use of plants or have ailments requiring the use of herbal medicines. This enables us to identify and familiarize with people with rich medicinal ethnobotanical knowledge in the community. After this, several field trips were undertaken to the community for the purpose of the interview, and 70 informants/collaborators in total were interviewed. The interviews were conducted in Yoruba (the local language) so that the informants can properly and adequately express themselves, even though some of them can roughly express themselves in English language. Plants mentioned were recorded with their vernacular names, and ailments treated were also recorded. Other information recorded included the source of the plant (cultivated or wild), mode of preparation of the plant materials, and plant parts used. Informants were also questioned on how they are passing down their knowledge of medicinal plants. With the help of the informants/collaborators, all plants mentioned were collected, photographs detailing the life form of each plant were taken and plant specimens were collected for identification, and voucher specimens were deposited at the Obafemi Awolowo University (IFE) herbarium. Plant names were listed in accordance with the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and validated using the Plant List database (http://www.theplantlist.org) and IPNI (https://www.ipni.org).


### 2.4. Quantitative Analyses

#### 2.4.1. Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index and Species Popularity Index

The Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index is used in determining the approximate amount of medicinal plant knowledge left in a community while the Species Popularity Index tells us the most widely used species in the community [17]. For the purpose of comparing the level of extant knowledge in the community to other communities and to determine the rate at which the knowledge is disappearing, the matrix method developed by DeBeer and Van Wyk [17] was used to quantify the ethnobotanical knowledge. All photographs taken on the field trips were compiled in a flip-file and used for this purpose. In addition to this, the matrix was also used to calculate the level to which the people recognize medicinal plants and their uses which was expressed as the Species Popularity Index (SPI). 50 of the 70 informants/collaborators chosen based on their willingness and interest in the study were selected for this purpose. The flip-file was shown to each informants and their responses were quantified as follows: the informant recognizes the plant but does not know its name nor use(s) = 1; the informant/collaborator recognizes the plant and has one or more names for it but does not know its use(s) = 3 (1 + 2 = 3); the informant/collaborator recognizes the plant and knows one or more names and one or more use(s) = 6 (1 + 2 + 3 = 6); in some rare cases, the informant/collaborator knows the species and its use(s) but cannot recall a name = 4 (1 + 0 + 3 = 4). The individual Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index (EKI) values were calculated by adding the total scores for each informant/collaborator and dividing that value by the maximum possible score. The SPI values are calculated in a similar manner by simply adding the total score for each species and dividing that value by the maximum possible score (50 × 6).


#### 2.4.2. Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC)

This gives an idea of the most used plant species in the community and calculated by the following [18]:(1)RFC=frequency of citationtotal number of informants70.


#### 2.4.3. Cultural Importance Index (CII)

This is a measure of the importance of a particular plant species to the community. It is derived by dividing the number of separate uses recorded for a plant species by the total number of informants/collaborators [19]:(2)CII=number of use reporttotal number of informants70.


#### 2.4.4. Informant Consensus Factor (FIC)

This is used for the ailment categories; it is a measure of the agreement among informants/collaborators that the plants species can treat a disease category [20]:(3)FIC=Nur−NtNur−1,where Nur = number of use-reports for a particular disease category and Nt = total number of plants mentioned by all informants/collaborators for the disease category.


#### 2.4.5. Fidelity Level (FL)

This is the percentage of informants/collaborators claiming the use of certain plants for the same major purpose [21] calculated as follows:(4)FL%=NpNa×100,where Np is the number of informants/collaborators that claim a use for a plant species to treat a particular disease, and Na is the number of informants/collaborators that use the plant species as a medicine to treat any given disease.


#### 2.4.6. Species Therapeutic Index (STI)

This is an index used to evaluate the importance of a particular plant species in treating a particular ailment category. It is calculated as the ratio of the number of use-reports of a species for an ailment category to the total number of use-reports for that ailment [6]:(5)STI=number of use record of a species for an ailment categorytotal number of use record for that ailment category.


## 2.1. Study Area

Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria, lies within the tropical savannah climate zone of West Africa with an annual average temperature of 26.2°C, the average rainfall is between 1000 and 1250 mm, the mean relative humidity is 75–100%, and the main source of water is the Opa River. It has an undulating terrain, under which lies extensive metamorphic rock, and the soils are made up of sandy soils on the lower slopes and clay soils on the upper [11]. The original climax vegetation of Ile-Ife was said to be a lowland rainforest with a dry deciduous forest subtype [12, 13], though it was later reported that some of these have been destroyed by land overuse, overgrazing, as well as large buildings, owing to modernization leaving scattered fallow land and remnants of secondary lowland forest (Figure 1) [15].Figure 1
Map of Ile-Ife showing the major areas [14].


## 2.2. Data Collection and Informants/Collaborators

The informants/collaborators were informed of the scope of the work prior to the start of the study, and they all gave permission that the information (medicinal knowledge) could be published, but some of the informants did not consent to having their personal information published. Ile-Ife is home to the Obafemi Awolowo University, and studies have been conducted around the town over the years; therefore, the informants are somewhat familiar with the idea of interviews for research purpose. The study was formally approved by the Obafemi Awolowo University Postgraduate Committee, and all ethical principles of data collections concerning the traditional resource rights as stated in the latest edition (2008) of the International Society of Ethnobiology (2006) were followed [16]. For the purpose of gathering medicinal ethnobotanical knowledge, 70 informants/collaborators were interviewed comprising 31 women and 39 men all of whom were above the age of 30 years. Twenty-seven (27) of them were herbalists and nineteen (19) were herb-sellers while others were individuals who regularly and commonly use herbal medicines. Other detailed sociocultural data of the informants/collaborators were also collected (Supplementary Table 1).


## 2.3. Survey Methodology

A multistage sampling procedure was adopted for the fieldwork. At the initial stage, Ile-Ife was purposively selected for the study because of the lack of medicinal ethnobotanical data and then a simple random sampling technique was used to select ten areas within Ile-Ife. Lastly, the snowball sampling technique was used to select key informants/collaborators including herbalists, herb-sellers, farmers, and other regular people in the community. Semistructured interviews were then conducted with the selected informants [17]. The survey was conducted between March and November 2019.In the exploratory phase, we visited the community and asked 200 random people who they would recommend if one wanted to know about the medicinal use of plants or have ailments requiring the use of herbal medicines. This enables us to identify and familiarize with people with rich medicinal ethnobotanical knowledge in the community. After this, several field trips were undertaken to the community for the purpose of the interview, and 70 informants/collaborators in total were interviewed. The interviews were conducted in Yoruba (the local language) so that the informants can properly and adequately express themselves, even though some of them can roughly express themselves in English language. Plants mentioned were recorded with their vernacular names, and ailments treated were also recorded. Other information recorded included the source of the plant (cultivated or wild), mode of preparation of the plant materials, and plant parts used. Informants were also questioned on how they are passing down their knowledge of medicinal plants. With the help of the informants/collaborators, all plants mentioned were collected, photographs detailing the life form of each plant were taken and plant specimens were collected for identification, and voucher specimens were deposited at the Obafemi Awolowo University (IFE) herbarium. Plant names were listed in accordance with the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and validated using the Plant List database (http://www.theplantlist.org) and IPNI (https://www.ipni.org).


## 2.4. Quantitative Analyses

### 2.4.1. Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index and Species Popularity Index

The Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index is used in determining the approximate amount of medicinal plant knowledge left in a community while the Species Popularity Index tells us the most widely used species in the community [17]. For the purpose of comparing the level of extant knowledge in the community to other communities and to determine the rate at which the knowledge is disappearing, the matrix method developed by DeBeer and Van Wyk [17] was used to quantify the ethnobotanical knowledge. All photographs taken on the field trips were compiled in a flip-file and used for this purpose. In addition to this, the matrix was also used to calculate the level to which the people recognize medicinal plants and their uses which was expressed as the Species Popularity Index (SPI). 50 of the 70 informants/collaborators chosen based on their willingness and interest in the study were selected for this purpose. The flip-file was shown to each informants and their responses were quantified as follows: the informant recognizes the plant but does not know its name nor use(s) = 1; the informant/collaborator recognizes the plant and has one or more names for it but does not know its use(s) = 3 (1 + 2 = 3); the informant/collaborator recognizes the plant and knows one or more names and one or more use(s) = 6 (1 + 2 + 3 = 6); in some rare cases, the informant/collaborator knows the species and its use(s) but cannot recall a name = 4 (1 + 0 + 3 = 4). The individual Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index (EKI) values were calculated by adding the total scores for each informant/collaborator and dividing that value by the maximum possible score. The SPI values are calculated in a similar manner by simply adding the total score for each species and dividing that value by the maximum possible score (50 × 6).


### 2.4.2. Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC)

This gives an idea of the most used plant species in the community and calculated by the following [18]:(1)RFC=frequency of citationtotal number of informants70.


### 2.4.3. Cultural Importance Index (CII)

This is a measure of the importance of a particular plant species to the community. It is derived by dividing the number of separate uses recorded for a plant species by the total number of informants/collaborators [19]:(2)CII=number of use reporttotal number of informants70.


### 2.4.4. Informant Consensus Factor (FIC)

This is used for the ailment categories; it is a measure of the agreement among informants/collaborators that the plants species can treat a disease category [20]:(3)FIC=Nur−NtNur−1,where Nur = number of use-reports for a particular disease category and Nt = total number of plants mentioned by all informants/collaborators for the disease category.


### 2.4.5. Fidelity Level (FL)

This is the percentage of informants/collaborators claiming the use of certain plants for the same major purpose [21] calculated as follows:(4)FL%=NpNa×100,where Np is the number of informants/collaborators that claim a use for a plant species to treat a particular disease, and Na is the number of informants/collaborators that use the plant species as a medicine to treat any given disease.


### 2.4.6. Species Therapeutic Index (STI)

This is an index used to evaluate the importance of a particular plant species in treating a particular ailment category. It is calculated as the ratio of the number of use-reports of a species for an ailment category to the total number of use-reports for that ailment [6]:(5)STI=number of use record of a species for an ailment categorytotal number of use record for that ailment category.


## 2.4.1. Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index and Species Popularity Index

The Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index is used in determining the approximate amount of medicinal plant knowledge left in a community while the Species Popularity Index tells us the most widely used species in the community [17]. For the purpose of comparing the level of extant knowledge in the community to other communities and to determine the rate at which the knowledge is disappearing, the matrix method developed by DeBeer and Van Wyk [17] was used to quantify the ethnobotanical knowledge. All photographs taken on the field trips were compiled in a flip-file and used for this purpose. In addition to this, the matrix was also used to calculate the level to which the people recognize medicinal plants and their uses which was expressed as the Species Popularity Index (SPI). 50 of the 70 informants/collaborators chosen based on their willingness and interest in the study were selected for this purpose. The flip-file was shown to each informants and their responses were quantified as follows: the informant recognizes the plant but does not know its name nor use(s) = 1; the informant/collaborator recognizes the plant and has one or more names for it but does not know its use(s) = 3 (1 + 2 = 3); the informant/collaborator recognizes the plant and knows one or more names and one or more use(s) = 6 (1 + 2 + 3 = 6); in some rare cases, the informant/collaborator knows the species and its use(s) but cannot recall a name = 4 (1 + 0 + 3 = 4). The individual Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index (EKI) values were calculated by adding the total scores for each informant/collaborator and dividing that value by the maximum possible score. The SPI values are calculated in a similar manner by simply adding the total score for each species and dividing that value by the maximum possible score (50 × 6).


## 2.4.2. Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC)

This gives an idea of the most used plant species in the community and calculated by the following [18]:(1)RFC=frequency of citationtotal number of informants70.


## 2.4.3. Cultural Importance Index (CII)

This is a measure of the importance of a particular plant species to the community. It is derived by dividing the number of separate uses recorded for a plant species by the total number of informants/collaborators [19]:(2)CII=number of use reporttotal number of informants70.


## 2.4.4. Informant Consensus Factor (FIC)

This is used for the ailment categories; it is a measure of the agreement among informants/collaborators that the plants species can treat a disease category [20]:(3)FIC=Nur−NtNur−1,where Nur = number of use-reports for a particular disease category and Nt = total number of plants mentioned by all informants/collaborators for the disease category.


## 2.4.5. Fidelity Level (FL)

This is the percentage of informants/collaborators claiming the use of certain plants for the same major purpose [21] calculated as follows:(4)FL%=NpNa×100,where Np is the number of informants/collaborators that claim a use for a plant species to treat a particular disease, and Na is the number of informants/collaborators that use the plant species as a medicine to treat any given disease.


## 2.4.6. Species Therapeutic Index (STI)

This is an index used to evaluate the importance of a particular plant species in treating a particular ailment category. It is calculated as the ratio of the number of use-reports of a species for an ailment category to the total number of use-reports for that ailment [6]:(5)STI=number of use record of a species for an ailment categorytotal number of use record for that ailment category.


## 3. Results and Discussion

### 3.1. The Inventory

During the interview, a preliminary checklist of 78 plant species was recorded, but while on the field trips for collection and identification, informants/collaborators would often see a plant and give its name and medicinal uses; therefore, 9 plants were added at the end of the field trips, making a total of 87. Table1 presents the scientific names of the 87 plants with their author citation, and plant names have been crosschecked for spelling errors using the Plant List database (http://www.theplantlist.org) and IPNI (https://www.ipni.org). This number is relatively high when compared with previous studies from Ilesa, a neighboring community where 44 medicinal plant species were recorded [22]. The medicinal plants species documented during the interview and collection phase have a total of 3495 use-reports (Table 2), and pictorial representation of some of the plants as deposited at IFE herbarium is herewith provided (Figure 2). Also, a total of 16 vernacular names are reported, for the first time, in this study and are denoted with bold text in Table 1.Table 1
Inventory of medicinal plants in Ile-Ife.
Plant nameFamilyCommon nameYoruba nameVoucher numberLife formFCRFCAmaranthus spinosus L.AmaranthaceaeSpiny amaranthTete elegunIFE17849Herb60.09Crinum jagus (Thompson) DandyAmaryllidaceaeChristopher’s lillyOgede odo, Isu meriiIFE17895Herb330.47Anacardium occidentale L.AnarcadiaceaeCashewKashuIFE17908Tree100.12Mangifera indica L.AnarcadiaceaeMangoMongoroIFE17874Tree630.90Spondias mombin L.AnarcadiaceaeHog plumIyeyeIFE17879Tree130.33Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. RichAnnonaceaeGuinea pepperEeru alamo, Eeru awonkaIFE17825Tree550.79Alstonia boonei De Wild.ApocynaceaeStool woodAhunIFE17914Tree480.69Calotropis procera R.B.ApocynaceaeGiant milkweedBomubomuIFE17912Shrub530.76Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel.ApocynaceaeDevil’s pepperAsofeyeje,OlooraIFE17897Shrub510.71Anchomanes difformis (Blume) Eng.AraceaeForest anchomanesIsu ogirisakoIFE17899Herb70.10Caladium bicolor Vent.AraceaeAngel wingsEje jesu,Lefun-losunIFE17832Herb110.16Elaeis guineenses Jacq.ArecaceaeOil palmOpe-eyinIFE17913Tree130.19Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L.AsteraceaeBilly goat weedImi-esu,Apasa, Rerin-komi, Oorugun, JeminihoIFE17827Herb490.70Bidens pilosa L.AsteraceaeBlack JackMolaganran, tamolaganranIFE17916Herb120.17Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob.AsteraceaeSiam weedAkintolaIFE17882Herb570.81Melanthera scandens (Schumach. & Thonn.) RobertyAsteraceaeBlack antherAko yunrunIFE17845Herb160.23Vernonia amygdalina DelileAsteraceaeBitter leafEwuroIFE17880Herb640.91Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth.BignoniaceaeSausage treePandoroIFE17864Tree350.50Newbouldia laevis Seem.BignoniaceaeBoundary treeAkokoIFE17907Shrub400.57Bixa orellana L.BixaceaeLipstick plantLaaliIFE17883Shrub330.47Heliotropium indicum L.BoraginaceaeIndian heliotropeOgbe-ori-akukoIFE17835Herb180.26Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.BromeliaceaePineappleOpe oyinboIFE17894Herb330.47Carica papaya L.CaricaceaePawpawIbepeIFE17858Tree610.87Garcinia kola HeckelClusiaceaeBitter kolaOrogboIFE17916Tree540.77Cnestis ferruginea Vahl ex DCConnaraceaeWitch’s breadAkara ijeIFE17829Tree40.06kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers.CrassulaceaeCathedral bellAbamodaIFE17909Herb20.03Adenopus breviflorus BenthCucurbitaceaeSpirit’s melonTaagiriIFE17893Climber140.20Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.CucurbitaceaeBitter appleEgusi baaraIFE17918Climber380.54Luffa cylinderica (L.) M. RoemCucurbitaceaeSponge gourdKankan ayabaIFE17898Climber290.41Momordica charantia L.CucurbitaceaeBitter melonEjinrin, Igbole ajaIFE17834Climber480.69Telfaria occidentalis Hook. F.CucurbitaceaeFluted pumpkinUgu, ApirokoIFE17902Climber690.99Euphorbia lateriflora Schum. & Thonn.EuphorbiaceaeSpurgeEnu opiriIFE17896Herb140.20Alchornea cordifolia Mull Arg.EuphorbiaceaeChristmas bushIsinIFE17846Shrub30.04Bridelia ferruginea BenthEuphorbiaceaeBrideliaIraIFE17828Tree140.20Euphorbia hirta L.EuphorbiaceaeAsthma plantKannajogbeIFE17870Herb30.04Jatropha curcas L.EuphorbiaceaeBarbados nutBotuje, Lapalapa funfun,IyalodeIFE17900Shrub350.50Jatropha gossypiifolia L.EuphorbiaceaeBellyache bushBotuje, Lapalapa pupa,IyalodeIFE17890Shrub390.56Jatropha multifida L.EuphorbiaceaeCoral bushOgegeIFE17891Shrub90.13Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn.EuphorbiaceaeGale of the windEyin-olobeIFE17822Herb350.35Abrus precatorius L.FabaceaeRosary peaOmisinmisin, Oju-ologboIFE17887Climber230.33Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.FabaceaeVelvet beanYerepeIFE17873Climber460.66Senna alata (L.) Roxb.FabaceaeCandle plantAsunran,AjaawaIFE17836Shrub440.62Senna hirsuta (L.) Irwin & BarnebyFabaceaeWoolly sennaRereIFE17889Herb170.24Senna siamea Lam.FabaceaeKassod treeKasiaIFE17911Tree290.41Tetrapleura tetraptera Schum&Thon (Taub.)FabaceaeAidanAridanIFE17841Tree260.37Anthocleista djalonensis A. Chev.GentianaceaeCabbage treeSapo-sapoIFE17885Tree430.61Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex O’Rorke) Baill.IrvingaceaeWild mangoOoroIFE17888Tree180.26Ocimum gratissimum L.LamiaceaeClove basilEfinrin nla, ForomobaIFE17840Herb620.89Persea americana Mill.LauraceaePearPia nlaIFE17877Tree340.49Allium sativum L.LiliaceaeGarlicAyuuIFE17919Herb550.79Corchorus olitorus L.MalvaceaeJuteEwedu, Ewe OoyoIFE17905Herb340.49Gossypium hirsutum L.MalvaceaeCotton plantOwuIFE17844Shrub550.79Hibiscus spp.MalvaceaeAfaimonikonimora, SikiniminiIFE17920Herb50.07Sida acuta Burm. F.MalvaceaeWireweedOsepotuIFE17868Herb50.07Sida veronicifolia Lam.MalvaceaeHeart leafEesi ileIFE17921Herb50.07Theobroma cacao L.MalvaceaeCocoaKokoIFE17826Shrub250.36Azadirachta indica A. Juss.MeliaceaeNeem treeDogoyaroIFE17839Tree490.70Entandrophragma angolense D.C.MeliaceaeTiama mahoganyIjeboIFE17859Tree130.19Khaya grandifoliola C. DC.MeliaceaeMahoganyOganwoIFE17922Tree540.77Sphenocentrum jollyanum Pierr.MenispermaceaeRed medicineAkerejuponIFE17867Shrub410.59Triclisia subcordata Oliv.MenispermaceaeRed ropeKanranjongbonIFE17830Climber50.07Ficus exasperata VahlMoraceaeSandpaper treeEepin, IpinIFE17837Tree390.55Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) FosbergMoraceaeBreadfruitGbere, BerefurutuIFE17915Tree80.11Moraceae;Ficus sur Forrsk.MoraceaeCape figOpotoIFE17831Tree10.01Moringa oleifera Lam.MoringaceaeMoringaEwe igbale, MuringaIFE17910Tree250.36Musa paradisiaca L.MusaceaeBananaOgede agbagbaIFE17892Herb290.41Pycnanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb.MyristicaceaeAfrican nutmegAkomuIFE17906Tree260.37Argemone mexicana L.PapaveraceaeMexican pricky weedEgeleIFE17923Herb90.09Parquetina nigrescens (Afzel.) BullockPeriplocaceaeAfrican parquentinaOgboIFE17824Climber290.41Peperomia pellucida (L.)PiperaceaeRat earRinrin, IrinrinIFE17865Herb260.37Plumbago zeylannica L.PlumbaginaceaeCeylon leadwortInabiriIFE17843Herb90.13Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex J.C. Wendl.PoaceaeBambooOparunIFE17869Shrub480.69Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf.PoaceaeLemon grassKooko oba, Ewe tiiIFE17847Herb300.43Saccharum officinarum L.PoaceaeSugarcaneIrekeIFE17884Herb80.11Zea mays L.PoaceaeMaizeAgbadoIFE17848Herb110.16Securidaca longipedunculata Fresen.PolygalaceaeViolet treeIpetaIFE17857Tree120.17Morinda lucida Benth.RubiaceaeBrimstone treeOruwoIFE17860Tree420.60Nauclea latifolia Sm.RubiaceaeAfrican peachEgbesiIFE17875Tree310.44Plukenetia conophora Mull Arg.RubiaceaeWalnutAwusaIFE17875Climber240.16Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) SwingleRutaceaeLime orangeOrombo, Osan weweIFE17823Shrub660.94Citrus sinensis L.RutaceaeOrangeOsan mimuIFE17904Shrub570.81Lecaniodiscus cupanioides Planch.SapindaceaeAka, AkikaIFE17842Tree80.11Hannoa undulata Guill & PerrSimaroubaceaeHotoroOrijinIFE17871Tree280.40Solanum dasyphyllum Schum & Thonn.SolanaceaeThorny eggplantMafowokan omo mi,igbagun, bobo awodiIFE17886Shrub190.27Solanum verbascifolium L.SolanaceaePotato treeYewuruIFE17881Shrub170.24Laportea aestuans (L.) ChewUrticaceaeWest Indian woodnettleOlojongboduLapotiaIFE17866Herb210.30Aframomum melegueta K. Schum.ZingiberaceaeGrains of paradiseAtaareIFE17862Herb210.30Newly recorded vernacular names are written in bold texts. FC: frequency of citation; RFC: relative frequency of citation.Table 2
Medicinal plants in Ile-Ife and their uses.
Plant nameSourcePart(s) usedMedicinal use(s) and mode of preparation with their individual use-reportsNurCIIAmaranthus spinosusWildLeafLeaf paste is mixed with local soap and used to bath children having teething problem (6)60.09Crinum jagusCultivated WildBulb1. The bulb is heated and squeezed to produce juice and honey is added and used for convulsion (23)460.662. Decoction of the bulb andXylopia aethiopica is used for convulsion (18)3. The bulb is infused in water with alum to treat asthma (5)Anacardium occidentaleCultivated WildSeedDecoction of the seed is used to treat high blood pressure (10)100.12Mangifera indica L.Cultivated WildLeaf, stem barkDecoction of leaf and stem bark in fermented maize water is used for malaria (63)630.90Spondias mombin L.WildFruit, stem bark1. Dried fruits are powdered withXylopia aethiopica and mixed with palm kernel oil to treat dandruff (13)330.472. Decoction of the stem bark with potash is used to treat fibroid (20)Xylopia aethiopicaWildFruit1. Decoction of fruit is taken for gonorrhea (41)630.902. Powdered fruit is mixed with sulphur and added to cream to treat skin diseases (22)Alstonia booneiWildStem bark1. Decoction of the bark is drunk for malaria (40)931.332. Bark is infused in palm wine and drunk to treat malaria (22)3. The stem bark is infused in local gin and rubbed on the body to treat measles (31)Calotropis proceraCultivatedLeaf, latex1. The latex is applied topically for boil (46)1021.462. Leaf is macerated in water and drunk to treat measles (19)3. The latex is applied to aching tooth (37)Rauvolfia vomitoriaWildLeaf, stem bark, root1. Stem bark is infused in alcohol to treat pile and backache (31)690.992. Decoction of the leaf and root is used to treat yellow fever (16)3. Powdered dry root is swallowed with water to treat insomnia (22)Anchomanes difformisTuberThe tuber is cut, infused in water, and taken to treat stroke (7)70.10Caladium bicolorCultivated WildLeafMaceration of leaf in fermented maize water is used to treat stomach ulcer (11)110.16Elaeis guineenseCultivated WildRootDecoction of the root with potash is used to treat hernia (13)130.19Ageratum conyzoidesWildLeaf1. Leaf juice is applied to minor wound to stop bleeding (43)690.992. Whole plant decoction is used to bath baby to prevent measles (17)3. Maceration of the leaves with the fruit juice ofCitrus aurantifolia is used to treat female infertility (9)Bidens pilosaWildLeafDecoction of leaf is taken for rheumatism (12)120.17Chromolaena odorataWildLeaf1. Leaf maceration is used for diarrhea (22)781.112. Leaf maceration is used for malaria (56)Melanthera scandensWildLeafLeaf maceration is used for diarrhea (16)160.23Vernonia amygdalinaCultivatedLeaf1. Leaf is macerated in water to treat diabetes (43)1161.662.Leaf juice is mixed with palm oil and drunk to treat measles (52)3. The leaf is squeezed and stuffed in the nostrils to control epistaxis (21)Kigelia africanaFruit, root1. Decoction of the fruits is used for convulsion (25)881.262. Infuse in water and salt for dizziness (31)3. Dried root is grinded and mixed with palm oil to treat dizziness (23)4. Infusion of the root in palm wine is used to treat yellow fever (9)Newbouldia laevisWildLeaf1. Decoction of stem bark is used for hypertension (35)500.712. Decoction of leaves and fruits ofCitrus aurantifolia is used to treat yellow fever (15)Bixa orellanaWildLeaf1. Leaf juice is used for eczema (23)350.502. Decoction of the leaf,Citrus aurantifolia, and fermented maize water is used to treat malaria (12)Heliotropium indicumWildLeafDecoction of the leaf is taken to treat skin diseases (18)180.26Ananas comosusFruit1. Decoction of fruit is taken for gonorrhea (29)400.572. Decoction of unripe fruit is used to ease difficult labor (11)Carica papayaCultivated WildLeaf, fruit, root1. Cold water infusion of the fruits is used for malaria (26)891.272. Decoction of unripe fruit is used to ease difficult labor (39)3. Decoction of the root and root ofParkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R.Br. Ex G.Don. is used to treat malaria (19)4. Leaf is macerated with 7UP drink to treat typhoid (31)Garcinia kolaCultivated WildFruit, root, stem bark1. Fruits are chewed for cough (51)751.072. Decoction of the root and stem bark is used for cough (24)Cnestis ferrugineaWildFruitFruits are chewed and then applied to snakebite wounds (4)40.06kalanchoe pinnataCultivated WildLeafDecoction of leaf with salt water is used to treat cough (2)20.03Adenopus breviflorusWildFruitDecoction of fruit and leaves ofNewbouldia laevis is used to treat measles (14)140.20Citrullus colocynthisLeaf, pod, fruit1. Leaves are macerated in local gin and drunk for gonorrhea (16)500.712. Pod is cut into pieces and infused in local gin withAllium sativum to treat pile (25)3. Decoction of the fruit, fruits ofAnanas comosus, Citrus aurantifolia, Xylopia aethiopica, and potash is taken to treat gonorrhea (9)Luffa cylindericaWildFruitFresh fruits are heated then squeezed to produce juice which is topically applied to stretch marks (29)290.41Momordica charantiaWildLeaf1. Leaf is macerated in water to treat pile and also used as aphrodisiac (35)871.242. Macerate with water and salt for syphilis (17)3. Macerate in water and salt and drink to treat stomach ache (35)Telfaria occidentalisCultivatedLeafMaceration of leaf is mixed with malt drinks to improve blood level (69)690.99Euphorbia laterifloraCultivated WildLeaf, latex1. Latex is applied to whitlow (11)200.292. Leaf is macerated and used to bath to treat skin diseases (9)Alchornea cordifoliaWildFruitFruits are chewed to treat cough (3)30.04Bridelia ferrugineaWildStem barkThe dried bark is grinded and mixed with the fruit juice ofCitrus aurantifolia to treat typhoid (14)140.20Euphorbia hirtaWildWhole plantWhole plant juice is applied to fresh wound especially cuts (3)30.04Jatropha curcasCultivatedLeaf1. Macerate in salt water and drink for dysentery (9)390.562. Leaf is macerated and mixed with local chalk and taken orally to prevent miscarriage (30)Jatropha gossypiifoliaCultivatedLeaf1. Leaf is macerated in water to treat gonorrhea (19)420.602. Leaves are macerated in water and drunk to prevent difficult labor (23)Jatropha multifidaCultivated WildLeaf stalkLeaf stalk is used to wash tongue for coated tongue (9)90.13Phyllanthus amarusWildWhole plant1. Decoction of whole plant is used for fever (19)480.682. The whole plant is cut into pieces and infused in the fruit juice ofCitrus aurantifolia and used as aphrodisiac and to treat backache (29)Abrus precatoriusWildLeafThe leaves are chewed to treat cough (23)230.33Mucuna pruriensWildLeaf1. Leaf maceration is taken as blood supplement (44)751.072. Leaf maceration is used to treat measles (31)Senna alataCultivated WildLeaf, inflorescence1. Young leaves are macerated in water, mixed with salt, and used for skin diseases (38)1091.562. Leaves are powdered, mixed with sulphur, alum, and any cream, and used for skin diseases (33)3. Leaves are macerated in water, and potash is added and drunk for pile (13)4. Inflorescence is dried and powdered with potash to treat female infertility (25)Senna hirsutaWildLeafLeaf is pounded and added to the fruit juice ofCitrus aurantifolia to treat typhoid (17)170.24Senna siameaCultivated WildLeaf, stem barkDecoction of leaf and bark is used for malaria (29)290.41Tetrapleura tetrapteraCultivated WildLeaf, seed1. Leaf is macerated and alum is added to treat cough (23)300.432. Dried seeds are powdered and mixed with cold pap to treat stroke (7)Anthocleista djalonensisWildStem bark, root1. Decoction of the stem bark is used to treat malaria (39)701.002. Decoction of the root and leaves ofPhyllanthus amarus is used to treat pile (31)Irvingia gabonensisCultivated WildLeafMacerate with leaf ofHibiscus spp. to treat gonorrhea (18)180.26Ocimum gratissimumCultivatedLeaf1. Leaf juice is applied to fresh wound (43)1031.472. Leaves are macerated in water and drunk to treat malaria (60)Persea americanaCultivated WildLeaf1. Decoction of the leaf is taken to treat stroke (29)600.862. Decoction of the leaf is used to treat high blood pressure (31)Allium sativumCultivated WildBulb1. Infusion of the bulb in alcohol is used to treat pile (32)1071.532. The bulbs are eaten to treat stomach ulcer (53)3. Infusion of the bulbs in fruit juice ofCitrus aurantifolia is used to treat hypertension (22)Corchorus olitoriusCultivatedLeaf1. Leaves are cooked without salt to treat measles (24)420.602. Leaves are macerated in cold water and drunk during difficult labor (18)Gossypium hirsutumCultivated WildLeaf1. Decoction of leaf is used for malaria (51)821.172. Decoction of the leaf and leaf ofCitrus aurantifolia is used as blood tonic (31)Hibiscus spp.WildLeafMacerate the leaf together with leaves ofAgeratum conyzoides and Irvingia gabonensis and taken to treat gonorrhea (5)50.07Sida acutaWildLeafLeaves are macerated in local gin and drunk to treat syphilis (5)50.07Sida veronicifoliaWildLeafLeaf is macerated in water to treat pile (5)50.07Theobroma cacaoCultivated WildLeafDecoction of the leaf and seeds ofSorghum bicolor (L.) Moench is used as blood tonic (25)250.36Azadirachta indicaCultivated WildLeafDecoction of the leaf and leaf ofCymbopogon citratus is taken to treat malaria (49)490.70Entandrophragma angolenseWildStem barkDecoction of the bark is used to treat malaria (13)130.19Khaya grandifoliolaWildLeaf, stem bark1. Decoction of leaf and stem bark is used for rheumatism (17)1341.912. Decoction of stem bark is used to treat yellow fever (47)3. Decoction of the bark is used to treat malaria (49)4. Infusion of the bark in water is taken to treat skin diseases (21)Sphenocentrum jollyanumWildRoot, stem bark1. Dried root is powdered and mixed with pap to treat typhoid (38)670.962. Stem bark is dried and powdered and taken with pap to treat stomach ache (29)Triclisia subcordataWildRootPowdered dry root is mixed with black soap and used to wash the breast in cases of breast cancer (5)50.07Ficus exasperataWildLeaf, latex1. Decoction of leaf is used for high blood pressure (31)680.812. Leaves are macerated and potash is added and taken for syphilis (3)3. Leaves are macerated with the leaves ofVernonia amygdalina and used as aphrodisiac (23)4. The latex is mixed with palm oil and sugar to treat cough (11)Artocarpus altilisCultivated WildRoot, stem barkDecoction of root and stem bark is used for dizziness (8)80.11Ficus surWildLeafLeaf is macerated in water and drunk to cleanse blood (1)10.01Moringa oleiferaCultivated WildRoot, stem bark1. Decoction of the root, fruits ofCitrus aurantifolia, and potash is used to treat syphilis (19)280.402. Dry stem bark is powdered with local chalk, mixed with local gin, and used as first aid of any ailment (9)Musa paradisiacaCultivated WildFruit, stem1. Unripe fruit is cooked and eaten for diabetes (19)360.512. Decoction of the stem and leaves ofFicus exasperata is used to treat hypertension (11)3. Unripe dry fruit is powdered and mixed with cold pap and taken to treat male impotence (6)Pycnanthus angolensisWildLeaf, stem bark1. Latex from the stem is used to treat cough (14)350.502. Decoction of the leaf and stem bark is used to treat insomnia and hypertension (21)Argemone mexicanaCultivated WildLeaf1. Leaves are macerated in water used to bath and drunk for measles (9)90.092. Decoction of leaf in fermented maize water is used to treat yellow fever (10)Parquetina nigrescensWildLeafMaceration of leaf is mixed with milk to improve blood level (29)290.41Peperomia pellucidaWildLeafLeaf juice is applied to boil (26)260.37Plumbago zeylanicaWildRootRoot is powdered withMondia whitei (Hook. F.) Skeels and mixed with food used as aphrodisiac (9)90.13Bambusa vulgarisWildLeaf1. Decoction of leaf is used for hypertension (29)700.102. Decoction of the leaf and fruits ofCitrus aurantifolia is used to treat malaria (41)Cymbopogon citratusCultivatedLeafDecoction of the leaf and fruits and leaves ofCitrus aurantifolia is used to treat malaria and yellow fever (30)300.43Saccharum officinarumCultivatedLeaf, stemDecoction of the leaf and stem is used to treat malaria (18)80.11Zea maysCultivatedInflorescenceDecoction of the inflorescence is used for measles (11)110.16Securidaca longipedunculataWildRootDried root is powdered with seeds ofAframomum melegueta K. Schum. and swallowed for diabetes (12)120.17Morinda lucidaCultivated WildLeaf, stem bark1. Leaf is macerated in water to treat diabetes (19)590.842. Decoction of leaf and stem bark is used for malaria (40)Nauclea latifolia treeWildLeaf, stem bark, root1. Decoction of bark is drunk to treat malaria (26)440.632. Decoction of the leaf, root, and stem bark is used to treat insanity (5)3. Decoction of the leaf is used to treat pile (13)Plukenetia conophoraWildFruitDecoction of the fruits and cook fruits are used to treat snakebites (24)240.16Citrus aurantifoliaCultivated WildFruit1. Decoction of fruit is taken for gonorrhea (7)1201.712. Fruits are infused in water to treat malaria (55)3. Juice from the fruit is used to treat indigestion, stomach ache, and vomiting (58)Citrus sinensisCultivated WildLeaf, stem barkDecoction of the leaves and stem bark is used to treat malaria (57)570.81Lecaniodiscus cupanioidesWildRootDecoction of root is taken for menstrual pains (8)80.11Hannoa undulataCultivated WildLeafLeaf juice is rubbed on affected area to treat skin disease (28)280.40Solanum dasyphyllumCultivated WildLeafLeaf is powdered with seeds ofXylopia aethiopica, mixed with local soap, and used to bath for measles (19)190.27Solanum verbascifoliumWildLeafMaceration of leaf in fruit juice ofCitrus aurantifolia is used to treat female infertility (17)170.24Laportea aestuansWildLeafLeaf is powdered and mixed with shea butter, rubbed on affected area to treat skin diseases (21)210.59Aframomum meleguetaCultivated WildSeedsPowdered seeds are mixed with palm oil to treat stomach ache (21)210.30Numbers in parentheses represent individual number of use-reports for each use. Nur: total number of use-reports for each plant species; CII: Cultural Importance Index.Figure 2
Some of the recorded medicinal plants: (a)Rauvolfia vomitoria, (b) Senna alata, (c) Crinum jagus, (d) Kigelia africana, (e) Peperomia pellucida, (f) Solanum verbascifolium, (g) Cnestis ferruginea, (h) Ageratum conyzoides, and (i) Jatropha multifida. Photos by Yusuf Ola Mukaila.
(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)(f)(g)(h)(i)


### 3.2. Taxonomic Diversity of the Recorded Medicinal Plants

The 87 plant species documented spread across 43 families. The most implicated family is Euphorbiaceae (8 species), followed by Fabaceae, and Malvaceae (6 species), Asteraceae, and Cucurbitaceae (5 species), and Poaceae (4 species) (Figure3). Species in the family Euphorbiaceae are known to have metabolites of utmost pharmacological significance such as alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolics, diterpenoids, flavonoids, tannins, cycloartenol, lectin, and taraxerol [23, 24]. Families Asteraceae and Fabaceae have also been reported as the most implicated medicinal plant families in some other ethnobotanical studies [25–28]. Over 50% (49) of these plant species are sourced only in the wild. These plant species are the sources of medicine to the community, and their conservation is therefore of utmost importance; most of our informants/collaborators are aware of this, but only a few agreed that the plants are being overexploited. They attribute the scarcity of any plant species to seasonal changes and claim it will naturally regenerate in some other seasons while others attribute it to urbanization.Figure 3
Plant families with the highest number of medicinal plants.Based on the life forms of the medicinal plant species, herbs were the commonest (31) closely followed by trees (29), while shrubs (17), and climbers (10) were also represented. This is consistent with previous studies [26, 29, 30] where herbs were reported as the most prevalent life form of the medicinal plants used in different communities. The abundance of the herbaceous life forms as herbal medicine around the world has been related to wide distribution [26] and the ease of collection [30]. Trees were also said to be common because of their availability all-round the year [31] and the fact that it has several parts that may be considered for use as medicine.


### 3.3. Plant Parts Used

The parts of the plants used for these medicinal prescriptions include leaf, root, stem bark, seeds, fruits, inflorescence, latex, leaf stalk, pod, tuber, bulb, and sometimes the whole plant. The leaves of 55 of the recorded plant species were recommended for various herbal preparations thus making it the most used part (Figure4). The prevalence of leaf as the most used plant part was recorded in some other literature studies [6, 32, 33], and this has been attributed to ease of access to the leaf than other parts [34] and not necessarily the superior effectiveness of the leaves [35]. The use of leaf has also been reported to favour conservation as regeneration of leaf is easier than most of the other parts [26]. Other parts that have relatively high mention were the stem bark mentioned 19 times followed by root and fruit cited 14 times each.Figure 4
Plant part used for the herbal preparation.


### 3.4. Mode of Preparation

There were 150 responses in total for the mode of preparations, 56 of which recommended a decoction of the plant materials making decoction the most preferred mode of preparation, followed by maceration (37 times) and powdering (17 times). Other modes of preparation include leaf paste, juicing, cooking, infusion, pounding, direct application (mostly for plant latex), and chewing (Figure5). The frequency of decoction as the most used mode of preparation has been reported in many literature studies [26, 28, 36]. The informants/collaborators preferred this method because it is thought to be able to extract the content of the herb better and faster though this may not be scientifically true as infusion was reported to preserve volatile and medicinal substances which may get lost during boiling [28]. Noticeably, methods such as chewing, juicing, and direct application are mostly used for ailments such as snake bites and cuts which could be related to the urgency of such ailments. There are instances where the plants are used in combination with other plants (polyherbal recipe) like in the treatment of hypertension with the decoction of the stem of Musa paradisiaca and leaves of Ficus exasperata while in some cases they are combined with nonplant materials such as salt, honey, sulphur, chalk, or potash. However, the informants/collaborators did not give information on whether polyherbal formulas are more effective than those with individual plants. However, it has been reported that synergism of phytochemicals in polyherbal formulas elicits a significant phytotherapeutic efficacy when compared with those with individual plants [37, 38].Figure 5
Mode of preparation of the herbal remedies.


### 3.5. Ailments Treated with Medicinal Plants in Ile-Ife

Medical conditions treated with the mentioned medicinal plants are listed in Table3. This list is based on the perception of similar ailments in the community because virtually the same group of plants is used for ailments that are thought to be similar. Table 3 shows that treatment of illnesses with medicinal plants is not restricted to minor ailments though some very serious medical conditions are referred to hospitals even by the traditional healers. It is also a common practice to discontinue hospital treatment after a while and complete the treatment with herbal medicines mostly due to financial issues. It is noteworthy that the perception of disease by some of the informants/collaborators is different from the medical perception and this sometimes guides their choice of plant. For example, an informant/collaborator explained that to prescribe medicinal plants for diabetes, the plant must have bitter taste since diabetes is believed to be caused by excess sugar and it can be countered by any bitter-tasting medicinal plant.Table 3
Summary of ailments treated with medicinal plants in Ile-Ife based on the number of use-reports for each medical condition.
Medical conditionsMain plants used (use record, STI, FL)Total number of plants usedTotal use recordsFICFevers (malaria, typhoid, and yellow fevers)Khaya grandifoliola (98, 0.10, 153.1)2510120.98Carica papaya (88, 0.09, 144.3)Mangifera indica (63, 0.06, 100.0)Alstonia boonei (62, 0.06, 129.2)Ocimum gratissimum (60, 0.06, 96.8)Skin diseases and boilsSenna alata (71, 0.23, 161.3)123140.96Calotropis procera (46, 0.15, 86.8)Luffa cylindrica (29, 0.09, 100)Hannoa undulata (28, 0.09, 100)Peperomia pellucida (26, 0.08, 100.0)Pile, hemorrhoid, backache, and aphrodisiacsPhyllanthus amarus (49, 0.16, 89.1)123010.96Momordica charantia (35, 0.12, 56.5)Allium sativum (32, 0.11, 58.2)Anthocleista djalonensis (31, 0.10, 64.6)Rauvolfia vomitoria (31, 0.10, 60.8)MeaslesVernonia amygdalina (52, 0.23, 74.3)102240.96Alstonia boonei (31, 0.14, 64.6)Mucuna pruriens (31, 0.14, 60.8)Corchorus olitorius (24, 0.10, 70.6)Solanum dasyphyllum (19, 0.08, 100)Stomach ache, stomach ulcer, indigestion, and vomitingCitrus aurantifolia (58, 0.28, 97.1)62070.98Allium sativum (53, 0.26, 96.4)Momordica charantia (35, 0.17, 56.5)Sphenocentrum jollyanum (29, 0.14, 63.0)Aframomum melegueta (21, 0.10, 100)Blood tonicsTelfaria occidentalis (69, 0.35, 100.0)61990.97Mucuna pruriens (44, 0.22, 86.3)Gossypium hirsutum (31, 0.16, 52.5)Parquetina nigrescens (29, 0.15, 100.0)Theobroma cacao (25, 0.13, 100.0)Sexually transmitted diseasesXylopia aethiopica (41, 0.22, 74.5)111880.95Ananas comosus (29, 0.15, 87.9)Citrullus colocynthis (25, 0.13, 66.8)Moringa oleifera (19, 0.10, 76.0)Jatropha gossypiifolia (19, 0.10, 48.7)CoughGarcinia kola (75, 0.50, 138.9)71510.96Abrus precatorius (23, 0.15, 100)Tetrapleura tetraptera (23, 0.15, 88.5)Pycnanthus angolensis (14, 0.09, 53.8)Ficus exasperata (11, 0.07, 19.0)High blood pressure and strokePersea americana (60, 0.40, 176.5)61500.97Newbouldia laevis (35, 0.23, 87.5)Ficus exasperata (31, 0.21, 53.4)Anacardium occidentale (10, 0.07, 100.0)DiabetesVernonia amygdalina (43, 0.46, 61.4)4930.97Musa paradisiaca (19, 0.20, 65.5)Morinda lucida (19, 0.20, 45.2)Difficult laborCarica papaya (39, 0.43, 63.9)4910.97Jatropha gossypiifolia (23, 0.25, 59.0)Corchorus olitorius (18, 0.20, 52.9)WoundsAgeratum conyzoides (43, 0.48, 87.8)3890.98Ocimum gratissimum (43, 0.48, 69.4)Female infertilityJatropha curcas (30, 0.37, 85.7)4810.96Senna alata (25, 0.31, 37.9)Solanum verbascifolium (17, 0.21,100)ConvulsionCrinum jagus (41, 0.62, 124.2)2660.99Kigelia africana (25, 0.38, 71.4)DizzinessKigelia africana (54, 0.87, 154.3)Artocarpus altilis (8, 0.13, 100.0)2620.98Diarrhea and dysenteryChromolaena odorata (22, 0.47, 38.6)3470.96Melanthera scandens (16, 0.34, 100)InsomniaPycnanthus angolensis (21, 0.59, 80.8)2430.98Rauvolfia vomitoria (22, 0.51, 43.1),Toothache and infant teething problemsCalotropis procera (37, 0.86, 69.8)2430.98Amaranthus spinosus (6, 0.14, 100.0)RheumatismKhaya grandifoliola (17, 0.59, 26.6)2290.96Bidens pilosa (12, 0.41, 100.0)SnakebitePlukenetia conophora (24, 0.86, 100.0)2280.96Cnestis ferruginea (4, 0.14, 100.0),EpistasisVernonia amygdalina (21, 1.00, 100.0)1211.00FibroidSpondias mombin (20, 1.00, 100.0)1201.00DandruffSpondias mombin (13, 1.00, 100.0)1131.00HerniaElaeis guineense (13, 1.00, 100.0)1131.00WhitlowEuphorbia lateriflora (11, 1.00, 100.0)1111.00Coated tongueJatropha multifida (9, 1.00, 100.0)191.00Menstrual problemLecaniodiscus cupanioides (8, 1.00, 100.0)181.00Male infertilityMusa paradisiaca (6, 1.00, 100.0)161.00AsthmaCrinum jagus (5, 1.00, 15.2)151.00Breast cancerTriclisia subcordata (5, 1.00, 100.0)151.00InsanityNauclea latifolia (5, 1.00, 100.0)151.00The most used species in the treatment of ailment’s category is written in bold text.The most common ailment in Ile-Ife is fever with 1012 use-reports, followed by skin diseases with 314 use-reports. This is corroborated by the fact that 39% of Nigerian deaths are linked to fever of all kinds [39]. It is important to note that some of the remedies prescribed have some silent spiritual undertone, and a typical example is in the treatment of gonorrhea with the decoction of the fruits of Citrullus colocynthis, Ananas comosus, Citrus aurantifolia, Xylopia aethiopica, and potash. Informants/collaborators maintained that these materials must be arranged in the pot, respectively, starting with Citrullus colocynthis and that water from the pot must not pour out of it while cooking else the preparation loses its potency. This is not uncommon as it has been reported that the herbal healing system contains inherent spiritual belief called shamanism [40].


### 3.6. Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC)

In this study, the RFC value was as low as 0.01 (Ficus sur) and as high as 0.99 (Telfaria occidentalis). This value may have been affected by the fact that some plants are very popular because they serve other important roles apart from medicinal. For example, the highest RFC value was recorded for Telfaria occidentalis used in only one disease category with several other substitutes, perhaps this high RFC is due to the fact that this plant is a widely eaten vegetable in the study area.


### 3.7. Cultural Importance Index (CII)

Khaya grandifoliola has the highest CII of 1.91 followed by Citrus aurantifolia (1.71), Vernonia amygdalina (1.66), and Senna alata (1.56) while Ficus sur (0.01) had the lowest score. High CII values are a potential indicator of overexploitation [26], therefore, conservation steps should be taken on these plants, and it is also an indication that the plants have higher chances of being biologically active [20] and therefore should be considered for phytochemical and pharmacological screening.


### 3.8. Informant Consensus Factor (FIC)

Informant Consensus Factor (FIC) is a quantitative analysis calculated to give an idea of the agreement among informants/collaborators that a plant or group of plants species can cure a particular disease category. Here, the FIC seems to be very high for all cited ailments (all FIC values lie between 0.9 and 1), while this literarily means that there is a high probability that the cited plants can cure the respective diseases and it could also mean that the information has been derived and passed from a single source which leads to uniformity in the information provided. FIC is also affected by large sample size; for example, there is a high probability of getting repeated information when the sample size is more than 50, and repeated information drives FIC values close to 1. In the study by Nortje and Van Wyk [6], only 16 informants were considered, and some FIC value was as low as 0, for a case where only one informant gave a remedy for a particular disease, notwithstanding, the value of 0 could quickly change to 1 if two informants gave the same plant as a remedy to the same disease, making FIC values relatively unreliable in some cases. In fact, Nortje and Van Wyk [6] posited that in ranking diseases based on several quantitative analyses, FIC values have a lower correlation in comparison to other quantitative analyses used.


### 3.9. Species Therapeutic Index (STI)

Based on the number of use-reports, the most used species in the treatment of each ailment’s category is written in bold text in Table3. Species Therapeutic Index values usually range from 0 to 1. In this study, low STI value was observed for species in several ailments’ category due to a lack of specificity of plant species used to cure such ailments. For example, Khaya grandifoliola had the highest STI of 0.10 among several plants used for fever and it has been reported that majority of all the recorded ethnobotanical uses of K. grandifoliola have been for fever-related ailments while there is scientific evidence supporting its ethnobotanical use for this purpose [41]. Phyllanthus amarus had an STI of 0.16 being the highest among plants used for pile, hemorrhoids, backache, and aphrodisiac, and the extensive use of this plant in this category has been reported to be supported by scientific evidence [42]. Nevertheless, there are species with high STI (greater than 0.5); for example, Persea americana had an STI of 0.52 in treating high blood pressure while Garcinia kola with an STI of 0.60 is used to treat cough. Species such as Elaeis guineense, Euphorbia lateriflora, Lecaniodiscus cupanioides, Nauclea orientalis, Spondias mombin, and Triclisia subcordata have maximum STI of 1.00 being the only species recommended for the treatment of hernia, whitlow, menstrual problems, psychosis, fibroid, and breast cancer, respectively.


### 3.10. Fidelity Level (FL)

While the STI compares the relative importance of a plant species in treating a particular ailment, the FL identifies the most preferred medicinal use of a species in comparison to its other uses. FL values traditionally can be up to 100% when there are low citations for a species or when the species is used in treating only one ailment. In this study, FL values are above 100% in few cases because the number of use-reports for the ailments surpassed the number of informants/collaborators since a plant can be used in different ways to treat an ailment. For example,Senna alata is used in two different ways to treat skin diseases and therefore has an FL value of 161%. Also, more than one species in an ailment category can have an FL value of 100% or above; likewise, a species with very low STI owing to few citations can have an FL value of 100% if it is used to treat only one ailment. In many cases, a corresponding high FL value with STI values was observed. For example, Khaya grandifoliola used for fever (153.1%, 0.10), Senna alata used for skin diseases (161.4%, 0.23), Telfaria occidentalis used as blood tonic (100%, 0.35), Persea americana used for high blood pressure (176.5%, 0.40), Garcinia kola used for cough (138.9%, 0.50), Carica papaya used for difficult labor (63.9%, 0.43), Crinum jagus used for convulsion (124.2%, 0.62), and Kigelia africana used for dizziness (154.3%, 0.87) all have the highest STI and FL values in their corresponding ailment categories.


### 3.11. Quantification of the Knowledge of Medicinal Plants in Ile-Ife

This was carried out using the matrix method proposed by DeBeer and VanWyk [17] to calculate the level of medicinal plant knowledge in the community (EKI) and estimate the popularity of each medicinal plant in the community (SPI). This method provides data that will serve as a means of comparison with other communities or with subsequent studies carried out in the same community years to come. In the case of subsequent studies in the same community, it will reveal if there is a loss in medicinal plant knowledge (if the EKI becomes lower than previously recorded) and the rate at which this knowledge is lost can then be evaluated. It can also accurately measure the medicinal knowledge of informants/collaborators by helping them remember information that they would ordinarily have forgotten (showing them pictures of the plant). A matrix method is an important tool because it considers all levels of knowledge, i.e., recognition, naming, and medicinal use of plants [17]. Because we were not given permission to publish personal information of informants, letter codes have been used to represent each informant starting from AA to AY and BA to BY. The EKI for each informant has been calculated taking into consideration the three levels of knowledge (Table 4). The results give values ranging from 0.42 to 0.87 for all the informants. The overall average EKI for all informants is 0.57 which is higher in comparison to DeBeer and VanWyk (0.50) [17], Mhlongo and VanWyk (0.25) [27], and Nortje and VanWyk (0.52) [6]. This value is impacted by the fact that many food plants are used in medicines and therefore almost everyone recognizes and can give a name to them. Most of the herbalists and herb-sellers have a higher EKI than other regular people meaning that a substantial amount of the knowledge reside with these group of people. When asked how they are passing on the knowledge, most of them said they have no apprentice with a few having a maximum of two. Therefore, urgent documentation measures should be taken in other rural communities before this knowledge disappears. The SPI values usually range from 0 to 1. Just like the EKI values, the SPI values are impacted by the abundance of common weed and regular food plants in the inventory of medicinal plants. For example, Telfaria occidentalis has the highest SPI despite having only 69 use-reports and a CII of 0.99, while Khaya grandifoliola with a CII of 1.91 and 134 use-reports did not feature in the top ten plants with the highest SPI. SPI for medicinal use of plant is therefore unreliable. It would be a more accurate measurement of the popularity of a species when considering the overall ethnobotany of a community. Another setback in this method is the possibility of misidentification; for example, in the course of this study, some informants/collaborators identified Citrullus colocynthis as Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai due to the very close similarity in their fruits and leaves.Table 4
Matrix of 87 medicinal plants and the result of 50 informants’ knowledge about the medicinal plants.
Plant speciesInformantsAAABACADAEAFAGAHAIAJAKALAMANAOAPAQARASATAUAVAWAXAYBABBBCBDBEBFBGBHBIBJBKBLBMBNBOBPBQBRBSBTBUBVBWBXBYSPIAgeratum conyzoides613336616316611361633310036366316633301161333660130.54Ocimum gratissimum366636666666366663663633336666366666333666663333630.82Ananas comosus633333663336333363333633366633333633336363333336330.63Citrus aurantifolia663666666666666666666636666666666666666666366666660.97Xylopia aethiopica316133616666601060061366116310166666101063603063300.52Chromolaena odorata133361616613131661663331366333336333331366661633310.59Melanthera scandens663311601611300361631316633100366361101331361660010.46Alstonia boonei616333631616610666363666366136116663116663366113330.66Mangifera indica636666636666336663666666366666366666636666663666630.90Cassia siamea103163316163331011313360063661033136030331103360000.40Carica papaya333636636366333363363666336366336633363666333633330.71Bixa orellana L.663136666033031161060003303666616663306633633011100.53Kigelia africana131363630130306361116331166310306666661466361066660.55Zea mays333333333333333363363333333333336633333363333333330.55Sida veronicifolia103300100000000301160100006000601333100060100300100.18Vernonia amygdalina666663666366666366666666666366666666666666666666660.94Morinda lucida636336601636631661663663306136366636613166663166600.69Crinum jagus036131616136116066661360316110306663616063363631010.53Rauvolfia vomitoria666616636666661661466666106366366603333366611166630.74Aframomum melegueta336333636333633333666333336333366663333366363333330.65Euphorbia lateriflora000133306631100061060001363660313100063131611031600.35Khaya grandifoliola636661631366663361666636666636066613666666663633610.79Ficus exasperata331660631333036163363666116061336663316666133331330.56Elaeis guineense333333633363333363633333333363336663333333336633330.60Senna alata613636663311061366061106366601636366631361163636630.63Pycnanthus angolensis013661333661063331333663113100403603163313606130160.47Garcinia kola636633636663366363666663666663636666633663333663630.81Saccharum officinarum333363333333333633333336333336333633633333333333360.57Bambusa vulgaris333666636666363366363663336336336663633663666363630.77Jatropha curcas636333633336633363666333366336336636333366633636630.71Jatropha gossypiifolia636333633336633363666333366336336636333366633636630.71Momordica charantia613666616631331466363610666666331166666663663613610.71Sphenocentrum jollyanum103361613636611661366666336166166613616661163066600.64Phyllanthus amarus316606666331103366366610136316006606313666161316060.58Mucuna pruriens331363336663163363366363136161366311636663363366630.66Parquetina nigrescens306313303661601611633316666141111131303336631631060.50Telfaria occidentalis666666666666666666666636666666666666666666666666660.99Musa paradisiaca333336663333333663663336333333336333333363333336330.61Corchorus olitorius333366633336636363363666366333636633363363363333630.70Gossypium hirsutum333366636663636666366333366636336666636363663666360.80Adenopus breviflorus136313636336631333436336163366613331336133661666310.61Solanum dasyphyllum003136116161331361363100033661036300313361633131600.43Argemone mexicana101100603110010030331001106010316616010001013300000.22Spondias mombin333366613336313133361136136336316631316163361611130.55Plumbago zeylanica603000330001310010133163330101000136110130010300310.24Jatropha multifida313131336333110360163663136331313633301361611333130.47Calotropis procera333666636166633663366336636366366633666166336363630.77Allium sativum666666636636363666663636636666666633666363663666360.87Anthocleista djalonensis633663633366301360361163136366136614103163636636660.62Euphorbia hirta106001110011111016111010101111000011101111060100010.16Irvingia gabonensis330161616333316063163316336313336663111663330361160.54Adansonia digitata306163616636633160663636303630603313636633161333130.58Citrus sinensis666366666666366363666663666666666663666666666666660.94Securidaca longipedunculata301310100636300160633106013600001600031063366130300.35Tetrapleura tetraptera360113613161010161363161106610106631316363633613030.46Bryophyllum pinnatum103313301133101310133316033000103613101036130103000.28Nauclea latifolia636033610313636063361336006131366633613163001163030.49Sida acuta333311333311331363163331313333316333333166333133130.47Ficus sur000000330003000141133000103036303311303130100133000.21Azadirachta indica366636666631636663666666666363366336666666363666660.87Triclisia subcordata000330000160311000061003006133003300001301311161000.22Hannoa undulata363611633366116363663610316666116663631663316161630.64Anchomanes difformis000313063100130060363031133010133131030661310031010.29Entandrophragma angolense313601613311103130361316366010136631101360063601130.41Theobroma cacao633666633666666666663663636366366636366663366363630.84Abrus precatorius101333631330013331361130013333013300613033133111030.33Cymbopogon citratus636666666636663666366636636363666666366663666666660.90Lecaniodiscus cupanioides103033600313300160063010036330066133110361331310000.34Persea americana633336663333663363363666366366366636366666363333330.75Cnestis ferruginea133311031631001101063360110103110610000101300116110.26Bridelia ferruginea313633606603310066331600346610136661131361341030360.48Heliotropium indicum663331313666113361163631316613636336611163163311110.55Alchornea cordifolia001331363101316110361313133110136001316130363133110.35Anacardium occidentale336636333336333333363333336333636633333363333333360.61Plukenetia conophora630010360130031611106160333301110011063616100660600.36Senna hirsuta313131611116131063161113616161116613633361030311110.42Luffa cylindrica631366613601060366163603136013336633366161366363630.43Laportea aestuans116331613336161161366633336116116663361361331101630.53Bidens pilosa003631301366163111661301613301113113631336316003300.41Peperomia pellucida333136613366336161363166666316606613136166313331360.62Caladium bicolor131613630613133363160336166133333661363113630136310.51Solanum verbascifolium131011633366100063661311111136631341111363136131330.43Artocarpus altilis333363333306633333333633333636363333333663333303630.57Newbouldia laevis666016616363136063366631666301636663613361661316660.68Citrullus colocynthis336333663633666663663363336663336666363366336663660.77Hibiscus spp.011303130336016100031106311013113600133636110163130.34Amaranthus spinosus333333610363633333160631333311066336333366333330130.52EKI (m)0.550.430.580.560.560.550.810.440.570.600.580.620.510.460.460.470.810.420.560.870.530.610.530.560.460.540.820.520.540.540.470.490.810.800.510.550.550.470.550.550.840.570.570.620.500.540.580.500.540.47Average EKI (m)0.57The figures are recorded as follows: if an informant recognizes the plant but does not know its name or any use(s) = 1; if an informant recognizes the plant and has one or more names for it, but no medicinal use(s) = 3 (1 + 2 = 3); if the informant recognizes the plant, knows one or more names and one or more use(s) = 6 (1 + 2+3 = 6); on few occasions, the informant knows the plant and its use(s) but cannot give a name or forgot the name = 4 (1 + 0+3 = 4); in some cases, the informant cannot recognize the plant or give a name to it and also has no medicinal use for it = 0.The following 20 plant species arranged according to their importance based on the quantitative analysis can be considered as the most important medicinal plant species in Ile-Ife:Citrus aurantifolia (RFC: 0.94, CII: 1.71, SPI: 0.97), Vernonia amygdalina (RFC: 0.91, CII: 1.66, SPI: 0.94), Khaya grandifoliola (RFC: 0.77, CII: 1.91, SPI: 0.79), Allium sativum (RFC: 0.79, CII: 1.53, SPI: 0.87), Ocimum gratissimum (RFC: 0.89, CII: 1.47, SPI: 0.82), Calotropis procera (RFC: 0.76, CII: 1.46, SPI: 0.77), Telfaria occidentalis (RFC: 0.99, CII: 0.99, SPI: 0.99), Carica papaya (RFC: 0.87, CII: 1.27, SPI: 0.71), Senna alata (RFC: 0.62, CII: 1.56, SPI: 0.63), Gossypium hirsutum (RFC: 0.79, CII: 1.17, SPI: 0.80), Mangifera indica (RFC: 0.90, CII: 0.90, SPI: 0.90), Alstonia boonei (RFC: 0.69, CII: 1.33, SPI: 0.66), Garcinia kola (RFC: 0.77, CII: 1.07, SPI: 0.81), Momordica charantia (RFC: 0.69, CII: 1.24, SPI: 0.71), Citrus sinensis (RFC: 0.81, CII: 0.81, SPI: 0.94), Chromolaena odorata (RFC: 0.81, CII: 1.11, SPI: 0.59), Bambusa vulgaris (RFC: 0.69, CII: 1.00, SPI: 0.77), Rauvolfia vomitoria (RFC: 0.73, CII: 0.99, SPI: 0.74), Kigelia africana (RFC: 0.50, CII: 1.26, SPI: 0.55), and Azadirachta indica (RFC: 0.70, CII: 0.70, SPI: 0.87).


## 3.1. The Inventory

During the interview, a preliminary checklist of 78 plant species was recorded, but while on the field trips for collection and identification, informants/collaborators would often see a plant and give its name and medicinal uses; therefore, 9 plants were added at the end of the field trips, making a total of 87. Table1 presents the scientific names of the 87 plants with their author citation, and plant names have been crosschecked for spelling errors using the Plant List database (http://www.theplantlist.org) and IPNI (https://www.ipni.org). This number is relatively high when compared with previous studies from Ilesa, a neighboring community where 44 medicinal plant species were recorded [22]. The medicinal plants species documented during the interview and collection phase have a total of 3495 use-reports (Table 2), and pictorial representation of some of the plants as deposited at IFE herbarium is herewith provided (Figure 2). Also, a total of 16 vernacular names are reported, for the first time, in this study and are denoted with bold text in Table 1.Table 1
Inventory of medicinal plants in Ile-Ife.
Plant nameFamilyCommon nameYoruba nameVoucher numberLife formFCRFCAmaranthus spinosus L.AmaranthaceaeSpiny amaranthTete elegunIFE17849Herb60.09Crinum jagus (Thompson) DandyAmaryllidaceaeChristopher’s lillyOgede odo, Isu meriiIFE17895Herb330.47Anacardium occidentale L.AnarcadiaceaeCashewKashuIFE17908Tree100.12Mangifera indica L.AnarcadiaceaeMangoMongoroIFE17874Tree630.90Spondias mombin L.AnarcadiaceaeHog plumIyeyeIFE17879Tree130.33Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. RichAnnonaceaeGuinea pepperEeru alamo, Eeru awonkaIFE17825Tree550.79Alstonia boonei De Wild.ApocynaceaeStool woodAhunIFE17914Tree480.69Calotropis procera R.B.ApocynaceaeGiant milkweedBomubomuIFE17912Shrub530.76Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel.ApocynaceaeDevil’s pepperAsofeyeje,OlooraIFE17897Shrub510.71Anchomanes difformis (Blume) Eng.AraceaeForest anchomanesIsu ogirisakoIFE17899Herb70.10Caladium bicolor Vent.AraceaeAngel wingsEje jesu,Lefun-losunIFE17832Herb110.16Elaeis guineenses Jacq.ArecaceaeOil palmOpe-eyinIFE17913Tree130.19Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L.AsteraceaeBilly goat weedImi-esu,Apasa, Rerin-komi, Oorugun, JeminihoIFE17827Herb490.70Bidens pilosa L.AsteraceaeBlack JackMolaganran, tamolaganranIFE17916Herb120.17Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob.AsteraceaeSiam weedAkintolaIFE17882Herb570.81Melanthera scandens (Schumach. & Thonn.) RobertyAsteraceaeBlack antherAko yunrunIFE17845Herb160.23Vernonia amygdalina DelileAsteraceaeBitter leafEwuroIFE17880Herb640.91Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth.BignoniaceaeSausage treePandoroIFE17864Tree350.50Newbouldia laevis Seem.BignoniaceaeBoundary treeAkokoIFE17907Shrub400.57Bixa orellana L.BixaceaeLipstick plantLaaliIFE17883Shrub330.47Heliotropium indicum L.BoraginaceaeIndian heliotropeOgbe-ori-akukoIFE17835Herb180.26Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.BromeliaceaePineappleOpe oyinboIFE17894Herb330.47Carica papaya L.CaricaceaePawpawIbepeIFE17858Tree610.87Garcinia kola HeckelClusiaceaeBitter kolaOrogboIFE17916Tree540.77Cnestis ferruginea Vahl ex DCConnaraceaeWitch’s breadAkara ijeIFE17829Tree40.06kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers.CrassulaceaeCathedral bellAbamodaIFE17909Herb20.03Adenopus breviflorus BenthCucurbitaceaeSpirit’s melonTaagiriIFE17893Climber140.20Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.CucurbitaceaeBitter appleEgusi baaraIFE17918Climber380.54Luffa cylinderica (L.) M. RoemCucurbitaceaeSponge gourdKankan ayabaIFE17898Climber290.41Momordica charantia L.CucurbitaceaeBitter melonEjinrin, Igbole ajaIFE17834Climber480.69Telfaria occidentalis Hook. F.CucurbitaceaeFluted pumpkinUgu, ApirokoIFE17902Climber690.99Euphorbia lateriflora Schum. & Thonn.EuphorbiaceaeSpurgeEnu opiriIFE17896Herb140.20Alchornea cordifolia Mull Arg.EuphorbiaceaeChristmas bushIsinIFE17846Shrub30.04Bridelia ferruginea BenthEuphorbiaceaeBrideliaIraIFE17828Tree140.20Euphorbia hirta L.EuphorbiaceaeAsthma plantKannajogbeIFE17870Herb30.04Jatropha curcas L.EuphorbiaceaeBarbados nutBotuje, Lapalapa funfun,IyalodeIFE17900Shrub350.50Jatropha gossypiifolia L.EuphorbiaceaeBellyache bushBotuje, Lapalapa pupa,IyalodeIFE17890Shrub390.56Jatropha multifida L.EuphorbiaceaeCoral bushOgegeIFE17891Shrub90.13Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn.EuphorbiaceaeGale of the windEyin-olobeIFE17822Herb350.35Abrus precatorius L.FabaceaeRosary peaOmisinmisin, Oju-ologboIFE17887Climber230.33Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.FabaceaeVelvet beanYerepeIFE17873Climber460.66Senna alata (L.) Roxb.FabaceaeCandle plantAsunran,AjaawaIFE17836Shrub440.62Senna hirsuta (L.) Irwin & BarnebyFabaceaeWoolly sennaRereIFE17889Herb170.24Senna siamea Lam.FabaceaeKassod treeKasiaIFE17911Tree290.41Tetrapleura tetraptera Schum&Thon (Taub.)FabaceaeAidanAridanIFE17841Tree260.37Anthocleista djalonensis A. Chev.GentianaceaeCabbage treeSapo-sapoIFE17885Tree430.61Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex O’Rorke) Baill.IrvingaceaeWild mangoOoroIFE17888Tree180.26Ocimum gratissimum L.LamiaceaeClove basilEfinrin nla, ForomobaIFE17840Herb620.89Persea americana Mill.LauraceaePearPia nlaIFE17877Tree340.49Allium sativum L.LiliaceaeGarlicAyuuIFE17919Herb550.79Corchorus olitorus L.MalvaceaeJuteEwedu, Ewe OoyoIFE17905Herb340.49Gossypium hirsutum L.MalvaceaeCotton plantOwuIFE17844Shrub550.79Hibiscus spp.MalvaceaeAfaimonikonimora, SikiniminiIFE17920Herb50.07Sida acuta Burm. F.MalvaceaeWireweedOsepotuIFE17868Herb50.07Sida veronicifolia Lam.MalvaceaeHeart leafEesi ileIFE17921Herb50.07Theobroma cacao L.MalvaceaeCocoaKokoIFE17826Shrub250.36Azadirachta indica A. Juss.MeliaceaeNeem treeDogoyaroIFE17839Tree490.70Entandrophragma angolense D.C.MeliaceaeTiama mahoganyIjeboIFE17859Tree130.19Khaya grandifoliola C. DC.MeliaceaeMahoganyOganwoIFE17922Tree540.77Sphenocentrum jollyanum Pierr.MenispermaceaeRed medicineAkerejuponIFE17867Shrub410.59Triclisia subcordata Oliv.MenispermaceaeRed ropeKanranjongbonIFE17830Climber50.07Ficus exasperata VahlMoraceaeSandpaper treeEepin, IpinIFE17837Tree390.55Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) FosbergMoraceaeBreadfruitGbere, BerefurutuIFE17915Tree80.11Moraceae;Ficus sur Forrsk.MoraceaeCape figOpotoIFE17831Tree10.01Moringa oleifera Lam.MoringaceaeMoringaEwe igbale, MuringaIFE17910Tree250.36Musa paradisiaca L.MusaceaeBananaOgede agbagbaIFE17892Herb290.41Pycnanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb.MyristicaceaeAfrican nutmegAkomuIFE17906Tree260.37Argemone mexicana L.PapaveraceaeMexican pricky weedEgeleIFE17923Herb90.09Parquetina nigrescens (Afzel.) BullockPeriplocaceaeAfrican parquentinaOgboIFE17824Climber290.41Peperomia pellucida (L.)PiperaceaeRat earRinrin, IrinrinIFE17865Herb260.37Plumbago zeylannica L.PlumbaginaceaeCeylon leadwortInabiriIFE17843Herb90.13Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex J.C. Wendl.PoaceaeBambooOparunIFE17869Shrub480.69Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf.PoaceaeLemon grassKooko oba, Ewe tiiIFE17847Herb300.43Saccharum officinarum L.PoaceaeSugarcaneIrekeIFE17884Herb80.11Zea mays L.PoaceaeMaizeAgbadoIFE17848Herb110.16Securidaca longipedunculata Fresen.PolygalaceaeViolet treeIpetaIFE17857Tree120.17Morinda lucida Benth.RubiaceaeBrimstone treeOruwoIFE17860Tree420.60Nauclea latifolia Sm.RubiaceaeAfrican peachEgbesiIFE17875Tree310.44Plukenetia conophora Mull Arg.RubiaceaeWalnutAwusaIFE17875Climber240.16Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) SwingleRutaceaeLime orangeOrombo, Osan weweIFE17823Shrub660.94Citrus sinensis L.RutaceaeOrangeOsan mimuIFE17904Shrub570.81Lecaniodiscus cupanioides Planch.SapindaceaeAka, AkikaIFE17842Tree80.11Hannoa undulata Guill & PerrSimaroubaceaeHotoroOrijinIFE17871Tree280.40Solanum dasyphyllum Schum & Thonn.SolanaceaeThorny eggplantMafowokan omo mi,igbagun, bobo awodiIFE17886Shrub190.27Solanum verbascifolium L.SolanaceaePotato treeYewuruIFE17881Shrub170.24Laportea aestuans (L.) ChewUrticaceaeWest Indian woodnettleOlojongboduLapotiaIFE17866Herb210.30Aframomum melegueta K. Schum.ZingiberaceaeGrains of paradiseAtaareIFE17862Herb210.30Newly recorded vernacular names are written in bold texts. FC: frequency of citation; RFC: relative frequency of citation.Table 2
Medicinal plants in Ile-Ife and their uses.
Plant nameSourcePart(s) usedMedicinal use(s) and mode of preparation with their individual use-reportsNurCIIAmaranthus spinosusWildLeafLeaf paste is mixed with local soap and used to bath children having teething problem (6)60.09Crinum jagusCultivated WildBulb1. The bulb is heated and squeezed to produce juice and honey is added and used for convulsion (23)460.662. Decoction of the bulb andXylopia aethiopica is used for convulsion (18)3. The bulb is infused in water with alum to treat asthma (5)Anacardium occidentaleCultivated WildSeedDecoction of the seed is used to treat high blood pressure (10)100.12Mangifera indica L.Cultivated WildLeaf, stem barkDecoction of leaf and stem bark in fermented maize water is used for malaria (63)630.90Spondias mombin L.WildFruit, stem bark1. Dried fruits are powdered withXylopia aethiopica and mixed with palm kernel oil to treat dandruff (13)330.472. Decoction of the stem bark with potash is used to treat fibroid (20)Xylopia aethiopicaWildFruit1. Decoction of fruit is taken for gonorrhea (41)630.902. Powdered fruit is mixed with sulphur and added to cream to treat skin diseases (22)Alstonia booneiWildStem bark1. Decoction of the bark is drunk for malaria (40)931.332. Bark is infused in palm wine and drunk to treat malaria (22)3. The stem bark is infused in local gin and rubbed on the body to treat measles (31)Calotropis proceraCultivatedLeaf, latex1. The latex is applied topically for boil (46)1021.462. Leaf is macerated in water and drunk to treat measles (19)3. The latex is applied to aching tooth (37)Rauvolfia vomitoriaWildLeaf, stem bark, root1. Stem bark is infused in alcohol to treat pile and backache (31)690.992. Decoction of the leaf and root is used to treat yellow fever (16)3. Powdered dry root is swallowed with water to treat insomnia (22)Anchomanes difformisTuberThe tuber is cut, infused in water, and taken to treat stroke (7)70.10Caladium bicolorCultivated WildLeafMaceration of leaf in fermented maize water is used to treat stomach ulcer (11)110.16Elaeis guineenseCultivated WildRootDecoction of the root with potash is used to treat hernia (13)130.19Ageratum conyzoidesWildLeaf1. Leaf juice is applied to minor wound to stop bleeding (43)690.992. Whole plant decoction is used to bath baby to prevent measles (17)3. Maceration of the leaves with the fruit juice ofCitrus aurantifolia is used to treat female infertility (9)Bidens pilosaWildLeafDecoction of leaf is taken for rheumatism (12)120.17Chromolaena odorataWildLeaf1. Leaf maceration is used for diarrhea (22)781.112. Leaf maceration is used for malaria (56)Melanthera scandensWildLeafLeaf maceration is used for diarrhea (16)160.23Vernonia amygdalinaCultivatedLeaf1. Leaf is macerated in water to treat diabetes (43)1161.662.Leaf juice is mixed with palm oil and drunk to treat measles (52)3. The leaf is squeezed and stuffed in the nostrils to control epistaxis (21)Kigelia africanaFruit, root1. Decoction of the fruits is used for convulsion (25)881.262. Infuse in water and salt for dizziness (31)3. Dried root is grinded and mixed with palm oil to treat dizziness (23)4. Infusion of the root in palm wine is used to treat yellow fever (9)Newbouldia laevisWildLeaf1. Decoction of stem bark is used for hypertension (35)500.712. Decoction of leaves and fruits ofCitrus aurantifolia is used to treat yellow fever (15)Bixa orellanaWildLeaf1. Leaf juice is used for eczema (23)350.502. Decoction of the leaf,Citrus aurantifolia, and fermented maize water is used to treat malaria (12)Heliotropium indicumWildLeafDecoction of the leaf is taken to treat skin diseases (18)180.26Ananas comosusFruit1. Decoction of fruit is taken for gonorrhea (29)400.572. Decoction of unripe fruit is used to ease difficult labor (11)Carica papayaCultivated WildLeaf, fruit, root1. Cold water infusion of the fruits is used for malaria (26)891.272. Decoction of unripe fruit is used to ease difficult labor (39)3. Decoction of the root and root ofParkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R.Br. Ex G.Don. is used to treat malaria (19)4. Leaf is macerated with 7UP drink to treat typhoid (31)Garcinia kolaCultivated WildFruit, root, stem bark1. Fruits are chewed for cough (51)751.072. Decoction of the root and stem bark is used for cough (24)Cnestis ferrugineaWildFruitFruits are chewed and then applied to snakebite wounds (4)40.06kalanchoe pinnataCultivated WildLeafDecoction of leaf with salt water is used to treat cough (2)20.03Adenopus breviflorusWildFruitDecoction of fruit and leaves ofNewbouldia laevis is used to treat measles (14)140.20Citrullus colocynthisLeaf, pod, fruit1. Leaves are macerated in local gin and drunk for gonorrhea (16)500.712. Pod is cut into pieces and infused in local gin withAllium sativum to treat pile (25)3. Decoction of the fruit, fruits ofAnanas comosus, Citrus aurantifolia, Xylopia aethiopica, and potash is taken to treat gonorrhea (9)Luffa cylindericaWildFruitFresh fruits are heated then squeezed to produce juice which is topically applied to stretch marks (29)290.41Momordica charantiaWildLeaf1. Leaf is macerated in water to treat pile and also used as aphrodisiac (35)871.242. Macerate with water and salt for syphilis (17)3. Macerate in water and salt and drink to treat stomach ache (35)Telfaria occidentalisCultivatedLeafMaceration of leaf is mixed with malt drinks to improve blood level (69)690.99Euphorbia laterifloraCultivated WildLeaf, latex1. Latex is applied to whitlow (11)200.292. Leaf is macerated and used to bath to treat skin diseases (9)Alchornea cordifoliaWildFruitFruits are chewed to treat cough (3)30.04Bridelia ferrugineaWildStem barkThe dried bark is grinded and mixed with the fruit juice ofCitrus aurantifolia to treat typhoid (14)140.20Euphorbia hirtaWildWhole plantWhole plant juice is applied to fresh wound especially cuts (3)30.04Jatropha curcasCultivatedLeaf1. Macerate in salt water and drink for dysentery (9)390.562. Leaf is macerated and mixed with local chalk and taken orally to prevent miscarriage (30)Jatropha gossypiifoliaCultivatedLeaf1. Leaf is macerated in water to treat gonorrhea (19)420.602. Leaves are macerated in water and drunk to prevent difficult labor (23)Jatropha multifidaCultivated WildLeaf stalkLeaf stalk is used to wash tongue for coated tongue (9)90.13Phyllanthus amarusWildWhole plant1. Decoction of whole plant is used for fever (19)480.682. The whole plant is cut into pieces and infused in the fruit juice ofCitrus aurantifolia and used as aphrodisiac and to treat backache (29)Abrus precatoriusWildLeafThe leaves are chewed to treat cough (23)230.33Mucuna pruriensWildLeaf1. Leaf maceration is taken as blood supplement (44)751.072. Leaf maceration is used to treat measles (31)Senna alataCultivated WildLeaf, inflorescence1. Young leaves are macerated in water, mixed with salt, and used for skin diseases (38)1091.562. Leaves are powdered, mixed with sulphur, alum, and any cream, and used for skin diseases (33)3. Leaves are macerated in water, and potash is added and drunk for pile (13)4. Inflorescence is dried and powdered with potash to treat female infertility (25)Senna hirsutaWildLeafLeaf is pounded and added to the fruit juice ofCitrus aurantifolia to treat typhoid (17)170.24Senna siameaCultivated WildLeaf, stem barkDecoction of leaf and bark is used for malaria (29)290.41Tetrapleura tetrapteraCultivated WildLeaf, seed1. Leaf is macerated and alum is added to treat cough (23)300.432. Dried seeds are powdered and mixed with cold pap to treat stroke (7)Anthocleista djalonensisWildStem bark, root1. Decoction of the stem bark is used to treat malaria (39)701.002. Decoction of the root and leaves ofPhyllanthus amarus is used to treat pile (31)Irvingia gabonensisCultivated WildLeafMacerate with leaf ofHibiscus spp. to treat gonorrhea (18)180.26Ocimum gratissimumCultivatedLeaf1. Leaf juice is applied to fresh wound (43)1031.472. Leaves are macerated in water and drunk to treat malaria (60)Persea americanaCultivated WildLeaf1. Decoction of the leaf is taken to treat stroke (29)600.862. Decoction of the leaf is used to treat high blood pressure (31)Allium sativumCultivated WildBulb1. Infusion of the bulb in alcohol is used to treat pile (32)1071.532. The bulbs are eaten to treat stomach ulcer (53)3. Infusion of the bulbs in fruit juice ofCitrus aurantifolia is used to treat hypertension (22)Corchorus olitoriusCultivatedLeaf1. Leaves are cooked without salt to treat measles (24)420.602. Leaves are macerated in cold water and drunk during difficult labor (18)Gossypium hirsutumCultivated WildLeaf1. Decoction of leaf is used for malaria (51)821.172. Decoction of the leaf and leaf ofCitrus aurantifolia is used as blood tonic (31)Hibiscus spp.WildLeafMacerate the leaf together with leaves ofAgeratum conyzoides and Irvingia gabonensis and taken to treat gonorrhea (5)50.07Sida acutaWildLeafLeaves are macerated in local gin and drunk to treat syphilis (5)50.07Sida veronicifoliaWildLeafLeaf is macerated in water to treat pile (5)50.07Theobroma cacaoCultivated WildLeafDecoction of the leaf and seeds ofSorghum bicolor (L.) Moench is used as blood tonic (25)250.36Azadirachta indicaCultivated WildLeafDecoction of the leaf and leaf ofCymbopogon citratus is taken to treat malaria (49)490.70Entandrophragma angolenseWildStem barkDecoction of the bark is used to treat malaria (13)130.19Khaya grandifoliolaWildLeaf, stem bark1. Decoction of leaf and stem bark is used for rheumatism (17)1341.912. Decoction of stem bark is used to treat yellow fever (47)3. Decoction of the bark is used to treat malaria (49)4. Infusion of the bark in water is taken to treat skin diseases (21)Sphenocentrum jollyanumWildRoot, stem bark1. Dried root is powdered and mixed with pap to treat typhoid (38)670.962. Stem bark is dried and powdered and taken with pap to treat stomach ache (29)Triclisia subcordataWildRootPowdered dry root is mixed with black soap and used to wash the breast in cases of breast cancer (5)50.07Ficus exasperataWildLeaf, latex1. Decoction of leaf is used for high blood pressure (31)680.812. Leaves are macerated and potash is added and taken for syphilis (3)3. Leaves are macerated with the leaves ofVernonia amygdalina and used as aphrodisiac (23)4. The latex is mixed with palm oil and sugar to treat cough (11)Artocarpus altilisCultivated WildRoot, stem barkDecoction of root and stem bark is used for dizziness (8)80.11Ficus surWildLeafLeaf is macerated in water and drunk to cleanse blood (1)10.01Moringa oleiferaCultivated WildRoot, stem bark1. Decoction of the root, fruits ofCitrus aurantifolia, and potash is used to treat syphilis (19)280.402. Dry stem bark is powdered with local chalk, mixed with local gin, and used as first aid of any ailment (9)Musa paradisiacaCultivated WildFruit, stem1. Unripe fruit is cooked and eaten for diabetes (19)360.512. Decoction of the stem and leaves ofFicus exasperata is used to treat hypertension (11)3. Unripe dry fruit is powdered and mixed with cold pap and taken to treat male impotence (6)Pycnanthus angolensisWildLeaf, stem bark1. Latex from the stem is used to treat cough (14)350.502. Decoction of the leaf and stem bark is used to treat insomnia and hypertension (21)Argemone mexicanaCultivated WildLeaf1. Leaves are macerated in water used to bath and drunk for measles (9)90.092. Decoction of leaf in fermented maize water is used to treat yellow fever (10)Parquetina nigrescensWildLeafMaceration of leaf is mixed with milk to improve blood level (29)290.41Peperomia pellucidaWildLeafLeaf juice is applied to boil (26)260.37Plumbago zeylanicaWildRootRoot is powdered withMondia whitei (Hook. F.) Skeels and mixed with food used as aphrodisiac (9)90.13Bambusa vulgarisWildLeaf1. Decoction of leaf is used for hypertension (29)700.102. Decoction of the leaf and fruits ofCitrus aurantifolia is used to treat malaria (41)Cymbopogon citratusCultivatedLeafDecoction of the leaf and fruits and leaves ofCitrus aurantifolia is used to treat malaria and yellow fever (30)300.43Saccharum officinarumCultivatedLeaf, stemDecoction of the leaf and stem is used to treat malaria (18)80.11Zea maysCultivatedInflorescenceDecoction of the inflorescence is used for measles (11)110.16Securidaca longipedunculataWildRootDried root is powdered with seeds ofAframomum melegueta K. Schum. and swallowed for diabetes (12)120.17Morinda lucidaCultivated WildLeaf, stem bark1. Leaf is macerated in water to treat diabetes (19)590.842. Decoction of leaf and stem bark is used for malaria (40)Nauclea latifolia treeWildLeaf, stem bark, root1. Decoction of bark is drunk to treat malaria (26)440.632. Decoction of the leaf, root, and stem bark is used to treat insanity (5)3. Decoction of the leaf is used to treat pile (13)Plukenetia conophoraWildFruitDecoction of the fruits and cook fruits are used to treat snakebites (24)240.16Citrus aurantifoliaCultivated WildFruit1. Decoction of fruit is taken for gonorrhea (7)1201.712. Fruits are infused in water to treat malaria (55)3. Juice from the fruit is used to treat indigestion, stomach ache, and vomiting (58)Citrus sinensisCultivated WildLeaf, stem barkDecoction of the leaves and stem bark is used to treat malaria (57)570.81Lecaniodiscus cupanioidesWildRootDecoction of root is taken for menstrual pains (8)80.11Hannoa undulataCultivated WildLeafLeaf juice is rubbed on affected area to treat skin disease (28)280.40Solanum dasyphyllumCultivated WildLeafLeaf is powdered with seeds ofXylopia aethiopica, mixed with local soap, and used to bath for measles (19)190.27Solanum verbascifoliumWildLeafMaceration of leaf in fruit juice ofCitrus aurantifolia is used to treat female infertility (17)170.24Laportea aestuansWildLeafLeaf is powdered and mixed with shea butter, rubbed on affected area to treat skin diseases (21)210.59Aframomum meleguetaCultivated WildSeedsPowdered seeds are mixed with palm oil to treat stomach ache (21)210.30Numbers in parentheses represent individual number of use-reports for each use. Nur: total number of use-reports for each plant species; CII: Cultural Importance Index.Figure 2
Some of the recorded medicinal plants: (a)Rauvolfia vomitoria, (b) Senna alata, (c) Crinum jagus, (d) Kigelia africana, (e) Peperomia pellucida, (f) Solanum verbascifolium, (g) Cnestis ferruginea, (h) Ageratum conyzoides, and (i) Jatropha multifida. Photos by Yusuf Ola Mukaila.
(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)(f)(g)(h)(i)


## 3.2. Taxonomic Diversity of the Recorded Medicinal Plants

The 87 plant species documented spread across 43 families. The most implicated family is Euphorbiaceae (8 species), followed by Fabaceae, and Malvaceae (6 species), Asteraceae, and Cucurbitaceae (5 species), and Poaceae (4 species) (Figure3). Species in the family Euphorbiaceae are known to have metabolites of utmost pharmacological significance such as alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolics, diterpenoids, flavonoids, tannins, cycloartenol, lectin, and taraxerol [23, 24]. Families Asteraceae and Fabaceae have also been reported as the most implicated medicinal plant families in some other ethnobotanical studies [25–28]. Over 50% (49) of these plant species are sourced only in the wild. These plant species are the sources of medicine to the community, and their conservation is therefore of utmost importance; most of our informants/collaborators are aware of this, but only a few agreed that the plants are being overexploited. They attribute the scarcity of any plant species to seasonal changes and claim it will naturally regenerate in some other seasons while others attribute it to urbanization.Figure 3
Plant families with the highest number of medicinal plants.Based on the life forms of the medicinal plant species, herbs were the commonest (31) closely followed by trees (29), while shrubs (17), and climbers (10) were also represented. This is consistent with previous studies [26, 29, 30] where herbs were reported as the most prevalent life form of the medicinal plants used in different communities. The abundance of the herbaceous life forms as herbal medicine around the world has been related to wide distribution [26] and the ease of collection [30]. Trees were also said to be common because of their availability all-round the year [31] and the fact that it has several parts that may be considered for use as medicine.


## 3.3. Plant Parts Used

The parts of the plants used for these medicinal prescriptions include leaf, root, stem bark, seeds, fruits, inflorescence, latex, leaf stalk, pod, tuber, bulb, and sometimes the whole plant. The leaves of 55 of the recorded plant species were recommended for various herbal preparations thus making it the most used part (Figure4). The prevalence of leaf as the most used plant part was recorded in some other literature studies [6, 32, 33], and this has been attributed to ease of access to the leaf than other parts [34] and not necessarily the superior effectiveness of the leaves [35]. The use of leaf has also been reported to favour conservation as regeneration of leaf is easier than most of the other parts [26]. Other parts that have relatively high mention were the stem bark mentioned 19 times followed by root and fruit cited 14 times each.Figure 4
Plant part used for the herbal preparation.


## 3.4. Mode of Preparation

There were 150 responses in total for the mode of preparations, 56 of which recommended a decoction of the plant materials making decoction the most preferred mode of preparation, followed by maceration (37 times) and powdering (17 times). Other modes of preparation include leaf paste, juicing, cooking, infusion, pounding, direct application (mostly for plant latex), and chewing (Figure5). The frequency of decoction as the most used mode of preparation has been reported in many literature studies [26, 28, 36]. The informants/collaborators preferred this method because it is thought to be able to extract the content of the herb better and faster though this may not be scientifically true as infusion was reported to preserve volatile and medicinal substances which may get lost during boiling [28]. Noticeably, methods such as chewing, juicing, and direct application are mostly used for ailments such as snake bites and cuts which could be related to the urgency of such ailments. There are instances where the plants are used in combination with other plants (polyherbal recipe) like in the treatment of hypertension with the decoction of the stem of Musa paradisiaca and leaves of Ficus exasperata while in some cases they are combined with nonplant materials such as salt, honey, sulphur, chalk, or potash. However, the informants/collaborators did not give information on whether polyherbal formulas are more effective than those with individual plants. However, it has been reported that synergism of phytochemicals in polyherbal formulas elicits a significant phytotherapeutic efficacy when compared with those with individual plants [37, 38].Figure 5
Mode of preparation of the herbal remedies.


## 3.5. Ailments Treated with Medicinal Plants in Ile-Ife

Medical conditions treated with the mentioned medicinal plants are listed in Table3. This list is based on the perception of similar ailments in the community because virtually the same group of plants is used for ailments that are thought to be similar. Table 3 shows that treatment of illnesses with medicinal plants is not restricted to minor ailments though some very serious medical conditions are referred to hospitals even by the traditional healers. It is also a common practice to discontinue hospital treatment after a while and complete the treatment with herbal medicines mostly due to financial issues. It is noteworthy that the perception of disease by some of the informants/collaborators is different from the medical perception and this sometimes guides their choice of plant. For example, an informant/collaborator explained that to prescribe medicinal plants for diabetes, the plant must have bitter taste since diabetes is believed to be caused by excess sugar and it can be countered by any bitter-tasting medicinal plant.Table 3
Summary of ailments treated with medicinal plants in Ile-Ife based on the number of use-reports for each medical condition.
Medical conditionsMain plants used (use record, STI, FL)Total number of plants usedTotal use recordsFICFevers (malaria, typhoid, and yellow fevers)Khaya grandifoliola (98, 0.10, 153.1)2510120.98Carica papaya (88, 0.09, 144.3)Mangifera indica (63, 0.06, 100.0)Alstonia boonei (62, 0.06, 129.2)Ocimum gratissimum (60, 0.06, 96.8)Skin diseases and boilsSenna alata (71, 0.23, 161.3)123140.96Calotropis procera (46, 0.15, 86.8)Luffa cylindrica (29, 0.09, 100)Hannoa undulata (28, 0.09, 100)Peperomia pellucida (26, 0.08, 100.0)Pile, hemorrhoid, backache, and aphrodisiacsPhyllanthus amarus (49, 0.16, 89.1)123010.96Momordica charantia (35, 0.12, 56.5)Allium sativum (32, 0.11, 58.2)Anthocleista djalonensis (31, 0.10, 64.6)Rauvolfia vomitoria (31, 0.10, 60.8)MeaslesVernonia amygdalina (52, 0.23, 74.3)102240.96Alstonia boonei (31, 0.14, 64.6)Mucuna pruriens (31, 0.14, 60.8)Corchorus olitorius (24, 0.10, 70.6)Solanum dasyphyllum (19, 0.08, 100)Stomach ache, stomach ulcer, indigestion, and vomitingCitrus aurantifolia (58, 0.28, 97.1)62070.98Allium sativum (53, 0.26, 96.4)Momordica charantia (35, 0.17, 56.5)Sphenocentrum jollyanum (29, 0.14, 63.0)Aframomum melegueta (21, 0.10, 100)Blood tonicsTelfaria occidentalis (69, 0.35, 100.0)61990.97Mucuna pruriens (44, 0.22, 86.3)Gossypium hirsutum (31, 0.16, 52.5)Parquetina nigrescens (29, 0.15, 100.0)Theobroma cacao (25, 0.13, 100.0)Sexually transmitted diseasesXylopia aethiopica (41, 0.22, 74.5)111880.95Ananas comosus (29, 0.15, 87.9)Citrullus colocynthis (25, 0.13, 66.8)Moringa oleifera (19, 0.10, 76.0)Jatropha gossypiifolia (19, 0.10, 48.7)CoughGarcinia kola (75, 0.50, 138.9)71510.96Abrus precatorius (23, 0.15, 100)Tetrapleura tetraptera (23, 0.15, 88.5)Pycnanthus angolensis (14, 0.09, 53.8)Ficus exasperata (11, 0.07, 19.0)High blood pressure and strokePersea americana (60, 0.40, 176.5)61500.97Newbouldia laevis (35, 0.23, 87.5)Ficus exasperata (31, 0.21, 53.4)Anacardium occidentale (10, 0.07, 100.0)DiabetesVernonia amygdalina (43, 0.46, 61.4)4930.97Musa paradisiaca (19, 0.20, 65.5)Morinda lucida (19, 0.20, 45.2)Difficult laborCarica papaya (39, 0.43, 63.9)4910.97Jatropha gossypiifolia (23, 0.25, 59.0)Corchorus olitorius (18, 0.20, 52.9)WoundsAgeratum conyzoides (43, 0.48, 87.8)3890.98Ocimum gratissimum (43, 0.48, 69.4)Female infertilityJatropha curcas (30, 0.37, 85.7)4810.96Senna alata (25, 0.31, 37.9)Solanum verbascifolium (17, 0.21,100)ConvulsionCrinum jagus (41, 0.62, 124.2)2660.99Kigelia africana (25, 0.38, 71.4)DizzinessKigelia africana (54, 0.87, 154.3)Artocarpus altilis (8, 0.13, 100.0)2620.98Diarrhea and dysenteryChromolaena odorata (22, 0.47, 38.6)3470.96Melanthera scandens (16, 0.34, 100)InsomniaPycnanthus angolensis (21, 0.59, 80.8)2430.98Rauvolfia vomitoria (22, 0.51, 43.1),Toothache and infant teething problemsCalotropis procera (37, 0.86, 69.8)2430.98Amaranthus spinosus (6, 0.14, 100.0)RheumatismKhaya grandifoliola (17, 0.59, 26.6)2290.96Bidens pilosa (12, 0.41, 100.0)SnakebitePlukenetia conophora (24, 0.86, 100.0)2280.96Cnestis ferruginea (4, 0.14, 100.0),EpistasisVernonia amygdalina (21, 1.00, 100.0)1211.00FibroidSpondias mombin (20, 1.00, 100.0)1201.00DandruffSpondias mombin (13, 1.00, 100.0)1131.00HerniaElaeis guineense (13, 1.00, 100.0)1131.00WhitlowEuphorbia lateriflora (11, 1.00, 100.0)1111.00Coated tongueJatropha multifida (9, 1.00, 100.0)191.00Menstrual problemLecaniodiscus cupanioides (8, 1.00, 100.0)181.00Male infertilityMusa paradisiaca (6, 1.00, 100.0)161.00AsthmaCrinum jagus (5, 1.00, 15.2)151.00Breast cancerTriclisia subcordata (5, 1.00, 100.0)151.00InsanityNauclea latifolia (5, 1.00, 100.0)151.00The most used species in the treatment of ailment’s category is written in bold text.The most common ailment in Ile-Ife is fever with 1012 use-reports, followed by skin diseases with 314 use-reports. This is corroborated by the fact that 39% of Nigerian deaths are linked to fever of all kinds [39]. It is important to note that some of the remedies prescribed have some silent spiritual undertone, and a typical example is in the treatment of gonorrhea with the decoction of the fruits of Citrullus colocynthis, Ananas comosus, Citrus aurantifolia, Xylopia aethiopica, and potash. Informants/collaborators maintained that these materials must be arranged in the pot, respectively, starting with Citrullus colocynthis and that water from the pot must not pour out of it while cooking else the preparation loses its potency. This is not uncommon as it has been reported that the herbal healing system contains inherent spiritual belief called shamanism [40].


## 3.6. Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC)

In this study, the RFC value was as low as 0.01 (Ficus sur) and as high as 0.99 (Telfaria occidentalis). This value may have been affected by the fact that some plants are very popular because they serve other important roles apart from medicinal. For example, the highest RFC value was recorded for Telfaria occidentalis used in only one disease category with several other substitutes, perhaps this high RFC is due to the fact that this plant is a widely eaten vegetable in the study area.


## 3.7. Cultural Importance Index (CII)

Khaya grandifoliola has the highest CII of 1.91 followed by Citrus aurantifolia (1.71), Vernonia amygdalina (1.66), and Senna alata (1.56) while Ficus sur (0.01) had the lowest score. High CII values are a potential indicator of overexploitation [26], therefore, conservation steps should be taken on these plants, and it is also an indication that the plants have higher chances of being biologically active [20] and therefore should be considered for phytochemical and pharmacological screening.


## 3.8. Informant Consensus Factor (FIC)

Informant Consensus Factor (FIC) is a quantitative analysis calculated to give an idea of the agreement among informants/collaborators that a plant or group of plants species can cure a particular disease category. Here, the FIC seems to be very high for all cited ailments (all FIC values lie between 0.9 and 1), while this literarily means that there is a high probability that the cited plants can cure the respective diseases and it could also mean that the information has been derived and passed from a single source which leads to uniformity in the information provided. FIC is also affected by large sample size; for example, there is a high probability of getting repeated information when the sample size is more than 50, and repeated information drives FIC values close to 1. In the study by Nortje and Van Wyk [6], only 16 informants were considered, and some FIC value was as low as 0, for a case where only one informant gave a remedy for a particular disease, notwithstanding, the value of 0 could quickly change to 1 if two informants gave the same plant as a remedy to the same disease, making FIC values relatively unreliable in some cases. In fact, Nortje and Van Wyk [6] posited that in ranking diseases based on several quantitative analyses, FIC values have a lower correlation in comparison to other quantitative analyses used.


## 3.9. Species Therapeutic Index (STI)

Based on the number of use-reports, the most used species in the treatment of each ailment’s category is written in bold text in Table3. Species Therapeutic Index values usually range from 0 to 1. In this study, low STI value was observed for species in several ailments’ category due to a lack of specificity of plant species used to cure such ailments. For example, Khaya grandifoliola had the highest STI of 0.10 among several plants used for fever and it has been reported that majority of all the recorded ethnobotanical uses of K. grandifoliola have been for fever-related ailments while there is scientific evidence supporting its ethnobotanical use for this purpose [41]. Phyllanthus amarus had an STI of 0.16 being the highest among plants used for pile, hemorrhoids, backache, and aphrodisiac, and the extensive use of this plant in this category has been reported to be supported by scientific evidence [42]. Nevertheless, there are species with high STI (greater than 0.5); for example, Persea americana had an STI of 0.52 in treating high blood pressure while Garcinia kola with an STI of 0.60 is used to treat cough. Species such as Elaeis guineense, Euphorbia lateriflora, Lecaniodiscus cupanioides, Nauclea orientalis, Spondias mombin, and Triclisia subcordata have maximum STI of 1.00 being the only species recommended for the treatment of hernia, whitlow, menstrual problems, psychosis, fibroid, and breast cancer, respectively.


## 3.10. Fidelity Level (FL)

While the STI compares the relative importance of a plant species in treating a particular ailment, the FL identifies the most preferred medicinal use of a species in comparison to its other uses. FL values traditionally can be up to 100% when there are low citations for a species or when the species is used in treating only one ailment. In this study, FL values are above 100% in few cases because the number of use-reports for the ailments surpassed the number of informants/collaborators since a plant can be used in different ways to treat an ailment. For example,Senna alata is used in two different ways to treat skin diseases and therefore has an FL value of 161%. Also, more than one species in an ailment category can have an FL value of 100% or above; likewise, a species with very low STI owing to few citations can have an FL value of 100% if it is used to treat only one ailment. In many cases, a corresponding high FL value with STI values was observed. For example, Khaya grandifoliola used for fever (153.1%, 0.10), Senna alata used for skin diseases (161.4%, 0.23), Telfaria occidentalis used as blood tonic (100%, 0.35), Persea americana used for high blood pressure (176.5%, 0.40), Garcinia kola used for cough (138.9%, 0.50), Carica papaya used for difficult labor (63.9%, 0.43), Crinum jagus used for convulsion (124.2%, 0.62), and Kigelia africana used for dizziness (154.3%, 0.87) all have the highest STI and FL values in their corresponding ailment categories.


## 3.11. Quantification of the Knowledge of Medicinal Plants in Ile-Ife

This was carried out using the matrix method proposed by DeBeer and VanWyk [17] to calculate the level of medicinal plant knowledge in the community (EKI) and estimate the popularity of each medicinal plant in the community (SPI). This method provides data that will serve as a means of comparison with other communities or with subsequent studies carried out in the same community years to come. In the case of subsequent studies in the same community, it will reveal if there is a loss in medicinal plant knowledge (if the EKI becomes lower than previously recorded) and the rate at which this knowledge is lost can then be evaluated. It can also accurately measure the medicinal knowledge of informants/collaborators by helping them remember information that they would ordinarily have forgotten (showing them pictures of the plant). A matrix method is an important tool because it considers all levels of knowledge, i.e., recognition, naming, and medicinal use of plants [17]. Because we were not given permission to publish personal information of informants, letter codes have been used to represent each informant starting from AA to AY and BA to BY. The EKI for each informant has been calculated taking into consideration the three levels of knowledge (Table 4). The results give values ranging from 0.42 to 0.87 for all the informants. The overall average EKI for all informants is 0.57 which is higher in comparison to DeBeer and VanWyk (0.50) [17], Mhlongo and VanWyk (0.25) [27], and Nortje and VanWyk (0.52) [6]. This value is impacted by the fact that many food plants are used in medicines and therefore almost everyone recognizes and can give a name to them. Most of the herbalists and herb-sellers have a higher EKI than other regular people meaning that a substantial amount of the knowledge reside with these group of people. When asked how they are passing on the knowledge, most of them said they have no apprentice with a few having a maximum of two. Therefore, urgent documentation measures should be taken in other rural communities before this knowledge disappears. The SPI values usually range from 0 to 1. Just like the EKI values, the SPI values are impacted by the abundance of common weed and regular food plants in the inventory of medicinal plants. For example, Telfaria occidentalis has the highest SPI despite having only 69 use-reports and a CII of 0.99, while Khaya grandifoliola with a CII of 1.91 and 134 use-reports did not feature in the top ten plants with the highest SPI. SPI for medicinal use of plant is therefore unreliable. It would be a more accurate measurement of the popularity of a species when considering the overall ethnobotany of a community. Another setback in this method is the possibility of misidentification; for example, in the course of this study, some informants/collaborators identified Citrullus colocynthis as Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai due to the very close similarity in their fruits and leaves.Table 4
Matrix of 87 medicinal plants and the result of 50 informants’ knowledge about the medicinal plants.
Plant speciesInformantsAAABACADAEAFAGAHAIAJAKALAMANAOAPAQARASATAUAVAWAXAYBABBBCBDBEBFBGBHBIBJBKBLBMBNBOBPBQBRBSBTBUBVBWBXBYSPIAgeratum conyzoides613336616316611361633310036366316633301161333660130.54Ocimum gratissimum366636666666366663663633336666366666333666663333630.82Ananas comosus633333663336333363333633366633333633336363333336330.63Citrus aurantifolia663666666666666666666636666666666666666666366666660.97Xylopia aethiopica316133616666601060061366116310166666101063603063300.52Chromolaena odorata133361616613131661663331366333336333331366661633310.59Melanthera scandens663311601611300361631316633100366361101331361660010.46Alstonia boonei616333631616610666363666366136116663116663366113330.66Mangifera indica636666636666336663666666366666366666636666663666630.90Cassia siamea103163316163331011313360063661033136030331103360000.40Carica papaya333636636366333363363666336366336633363666333633330.71Bixa orellana L.663136666033031161060003303666616663306633633011100.53Kigelia africana131363630130306361116331166310306666661466361066660.55Zea mays333333333333333363363333333333336633333363333333330.55Sida veronicifolia103300100000000301160100006000601333100060100300100.18Vernonia amygdalina666663666366666366666666666366666666666666666666660.94Morinda lucida636336601636631661663663306136366636613166663166600.69Crinum jagus036131616136116066661360316110306663616063363631010.53Rauvolfia vomitoria666616636666661661466666106366366603333366611166630.74Aframomum melegueta336333636333633333666333336333366663333366363333330.65Euphorbia lateriflora000133306631100061060001363660313100063131611031600.35Khaya grandifoliola636661631366663361666636666636066613666666663633610.79Ficus exasperata331660631333036163363666116061336663316666133331330.56Elaeis guineense333333633363333363633333333363336663333333336633330.60Senna alata613636663311061366061106366601636366631361163636630.63Pycnanthus angolensis013661333661063331333663113100403603163313606130160.47Garcinia kola636633636663366363666663666663636666633663333663630.81Saccharum officinarum333363333333333633333336333336333633633333333333360.57Bambusa vulgaris333666636666363366363663336336336663633663666363630.77Jatropha curcas636333633336633363666333366336336636333366633636630.71Jatropha gossypiifolia636333633336633363666333366336336636333366633636630.71Momordica charantia613666616631331466363610666666331166666663663613610.71Sphenocentrum jollyanum103361613636611661366666336166166613616661163066600.64Phyllanthus amarus316606666331103366366610136316006606313666161316060.58Mucuna pruriens331363336663163363366363136161366311636663363366630.66Parquetina nigrescens306313303661601611633316666141111131303336631631060.50Telfaria occidentalis666666666666666666666636666666666666666666666666660.99Musa paradisiaca333336663333333663663336333333336333333363333336330.61Corchorus olitorius333366633336636363363666366333636633363363363333630.70Gossypium hirsutum333366636663636666366333366636336666636363663666360.80Adenopus breviflorus136313636336631333436336163366613331336133661666310.61Solanum dasyphyllum003136116161331361363100033661036300313361633131600.43Argemone mexicana101100603110010030331001106010316616010001013300000.22Spondias mombin333366613336313133361136136336316631316163361611130.55Plumbago zeylanica603000330001310010133163330101000136110130010300310.24Jatropha multifida313131336333110360163663136331313633301361611333130.47Calotropis procera333666636166633663366336636366366633666166336363630.77Allium sativum666666636636363666663636636666666633666363663666360.87Anthocleista djalonensis633663633366301360361163136366136614103163636636660.62Euphorbia hirta106001110011111016111010101111000011101111060100010.16Irvingia gabonensis330161616333316063163316336313336663111663330361160.54Adansonia digitata306163616636633160663636303630603313636633161333130.58Citrus sinensis666366666666366363666663666666666663666666666666660.94Securidaca longipedunculata301310100636300160633106013600001600031063366130300.35Tetrapleura tetraptera360113613161010161363161106610106631316363633613030.46Bryophyllum pinnatum103313301133101310133316033000103613101036130103000.28Nauclea latifolia636033610313636063361336006131366633613163001163030.49Sida acuta333311333311331363163331313333316333333166333133130.47Ficus sur000000330003000141133000103036303311303130100133000.21Azadirachta indica366636666631636663666666666363366336666666363666660.87Triclisia subcordata000330000160311000061003006133003300001301311161000.22Hannoa undulata363611633366116363663610316666116663631663316161630.64Anchomanes difformis000313063100130060363031133010133131030661310031010.29Entandrophragma angolense313601613311103130361316366010136631101360063601130.41Theobroma cacao633666633666666666663663636366366636366663366363630.84Abrus precatorius101333631330013331361130013333013300613033133111030.33Cymbopogon citratus636666666636663666366636636363666666366663666666660.90Lecaniodiscus cupanioides103033600313300160063010036330066133110361331310000.34Persea americana633336663333663363363666366366366636366666363333330.75Cnestis ferruginea133311031631001101063360110103110610000101300116110.26Bridelia ferruginea313633606603310066331600346610136661131361341030360.48Heliotropium indicum663331313666113361163631316613636336611163163311110.55Alchornea cordifolia001331363101316110361313133110136001316130363133110.35Anacardium occidentale336636333336333333363333336333636633333363333333360.61Plukenetia conophora630010360130031611106160333301110011063616100660600.36Senna hirsuta313131611116131063161113616161116613633361030311110.42Luffa cylindrica631366613601060366163603136013336633366161366363630.43Laportea aestuans116331613336161161366633336116116663361361331101630.53Bidens pilosa003631301366163111661301613301113113631336316003300.41Peperomia pellucida333136613366336161363166666316606613136166313331360.62Caladium bicolor131613630613133363160336166133333661363113630136310.51Solanum verbascifolium131011633366100063661311111136631341111363136131330.43Artocarpus altilis333363333306633333333633333636363333333663333303630.57Newbouldia laevis666016616363136063366631666301636663613361661316660.68Citrullus colocynthis336333663633666663663363336663336666363366336663660.77Hibiscus spp.011303130336016100031106311013113600133636110163130.34Amaranthus spinosus333333610363633333160631333311066336333366333330130.52EKI (m)0.550.430.580.560.560.550.810.440.570.600.580.620.510.460.460.470.810.420.560.870.530.610.530.560.460.540.820.520.540.540.470.490.810.800.510.550.550.470.550.550.840.570.570.620.500.540.580.500.540.47Average EKI (m)0.57The figures are recorded as follows: if an informant recognizes the plant but does not know its name or any use(s) = 1; if an informant recognizes the plant and has one or more names for it, but no medicinal use(s) = 3 (1 + 2 = 3); if the informant recognizes the plant, knows one or more names and one or more use(s) = 6 (1 + 2+3 = 6); on few occasions, the informant knows the plant and its use(s) but cannot give a name or forgot the name = 4 (1 + 0+3 = 4); in some cases, the informant cannot recognize the plant or give a name to it and also has no medicinal use for it = 0.The following 20 plant species arranged according to their importance based on the quantitative analysis can be considered as the most important medicinal plant species in Ile-Ife:Citrus aurantifolia (RFC: 0.94, CII: 1.71, SPI: 0.97), Vernonia amygdalina (RFC: 0.91, CII: 1.66, SPI: 0.94), Khaya grandifoliola (RFC: 0.77, CII: 1.91, SPI: 0.79), Allium sativum (RFC: 0.79, CII: 1.53, SPI: 0.87), Ocimum gratissimum (RFC: 0.89, CII: 1.47, SPI: 0.82), Calotropis procera (RFC: 0.76, CII: 1.46, SPI: 0.77), Telfaria occidentalis (RFC: 0.99, CII: 0.99, SPI: 0.99), Carica papaya (RFC: 0.87, CII: 1.27, SPI: 0.71), Senna alata (RFC: 0.62, CII: 1.56, SPI: 0.63), Gossypium hirsutum (RFC: 0.79, CII: 1.17, SPI: 0.80), Mangifera indica (RFC: 0.90, CII: 0.90, SPI: 0.90), Alstonia boonei (RFC: 0.69, CII: 1.33, SPI: 0.66), Garcinia kola (RFC: 0.77, CII: 1.07, SPI: 0.81), Momordica charantia (RFC: 0.69, CII: 1.24, SPI: 0.71), Citrus sinensis (RFC: 0.81, CII: 0.81, SPI: 0.94), Chromolaena odorata (RFC: 0.81, CII: 1.11, SPI: 0.59), Bambusa vulgaris (RFC: 0.69, CII: 1.00, SPI: 0.77), Rauvolfia vomitoria (RFC: 0.73, CII: 0.99, SPI: 0.74), Kigelia africana (RFC: 0.50, CII: 1.26, SPI: 0.55), and Azadirachta indica (RFC: 0.70, CII: 0.70, SPI: 0.87).


## 4. Conclusion

Ethnobotanical knowledge is reported to be disappearing at alarming rates [43]. The present study revealed this to be true as many of the indigenes showed very little ethnobotanical knowledge during the exploratory phase. Notwithstanding, we were directed to people perceived by the indigenes to be more knowledgeable and most of them were elderly people, and some of whom confirmed the poor attitude of the indigenes towards traditional healing. This was attributed to the constant campaign by the government for people to visit hospitals and not traditional healers. They also added that people now only visit traditional healing homes if the ailment is thought to be spiritual. It has always been thought that the major reason for the loss of valuable ethnobotanical knowledge is because they are passed down orally and lost along the line [9, 43]; however, a few of our informants/collaborators brought out books containing medicinal uses of plants during interviews. They attributed the loss of medicinal ethnobotany of Ile-Ife to radical religious ideology and nonchalant attitude of the present generation. In view of this, the need to systematically record our indigenous knowledge of plants cannot be overemphasized. Despite the traditional and cultural status of Ile-Ife among the Yorubas, the ethnobotany of Ile-Ife has until now remained unrecorded and this study has shown that there are at least 87 medicinal plants used in Ile-Ife. There are also some nonplant materials used in combination therapy which include honey, chalk, salt, potash, sulphur, and alum. It is worthy of note that the perception of ailments is different from the medical perception, and it is encouraged that this should be studied further. Using several quantitative analyses, 20 medicinal plants have been identified to be the most important in the ethnomedicine of Ile-Ife, and this will correlate with possible overexploitation of these species and therefore conservation steps must be taken. The matrix method has been used to quantify the ethnobotanical knowledge of the community, being the first time, this is used in the country, and it will serve as a standard of comparison when subsequent studies are carried out in other parts of the country. During the course of this study, there were occasional mentions of other ethnobotanical uses of the plant including ritual uses and crafts. While studies on other ethnobotanical uses of plants in Ile-Ife, Nigeria, are imperative, global comprehensive records of botanicals, to preserve both the indigenous knowledge and have holistic details of their ethnobotanical uses, is recommended.



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*Source: 5711547-2021-08-03.xml*