# Traditional Herbal Knowledge among the Inhabitants: A Case Study in Urgam Valley of Chamoli Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India

Authors: Ankit Singh; Robbie Hart; Sudeep Chandra; M. C. Nautiyal; Alexander K. Sayok
Journal: Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
 (2019)

---

## Abstract

The Indian Himalaya is rich in plant species, including many medicinal plants, greatly valued by local inhabitants for health care needs. The study in Urgam Valley of Uttarakhand, India, is to identity and document traditional knowledge of medicinal plants. The study revealed high consensus on medicinal plant usage, with 51 species belonging to 31 families used for local health care. Number of species and uses known increases with age, and elders and specialist healers retain higher levels of traditional medicinal plant knowledge, having unique knowledge of medicinal plants and their uses as well as preparation.


---

## Body

## 1. Introduction

India is rich in floral diversity, with more than 17,000 angiosperm species, 64 gymnosperms, 1,200 pteridophytes, 2,850 bryophytes, and 2,021 lichens [1]. Out of the total, 7,500 species have been reported to have medicinal uses [2]. Diverse topography and climatic conditions provide the Indian Himalaya with an especially rich medicinal plants, whereby alpine areas being the major source of important medicinal plants.Inhabitants of rural and remote areas still rely on plants as a major component of their health care systems. Indigenous medicines provide considerable economic benefits to local people [3]. The World Health Organization (WHO) mentioned that about 25% of modern medicines are developed from plant sources used traditionally; and research on traditional medicinal herbal plants leads to discovery of 75% of herbal drugs [3, 4]Locals acquire knowledge of the economic values and medicinal properties of many plants through need, observation, trial and error, and the transmitted experiences of elders. Often, knowledge is concentrated in specialist healers. Most diseases cured by local herbalist are common problems such as respiratory diseases, aches and pains, wounds, and musculoskeletal ailments. Inhabitants often use local medicinal plants without prior advice of local traditional healers because they are using these plants since generations [5]. This knowledge may be passed secretively from one generation to the next through word of mouth [6] or inherited via medico-spiritual manuscripts [7]. Although knowledge of these valuable plants is often restricted within lineages or in other ways, ensuring that the younger generations in these areas acquire this knowledge is essential to its continuity in use and sustainability. Medicinal plant richness of the Indian Himalaya is exemplified in Garhwal Himalaya, within northwestern India. This study focused on traditional herbal medicines of Urgam, a mountain valley in the Garhwal Himalaya rich in medicinal plants which are still used by local inhabitants and specialist healers.


## 2. Materials and Methods

### 2.1. The Study Area

Urgam Valley (30°30′20.93′′ to 30°34′12.35′′N and 79°26′14.02′′ to 79°30′17.26′′ E) is located in north-eastern Chamoli district in Uttarakhand, India (Figure1). The valley joins the Kalp Ganga Valley at 1,300 m amsl to the surrounding mountain tops above 3,000 m amsl. Crops consist mainly of three types, namely, Rabi, Kharif, and Zaid. The main Rabi crops of the region are Wheat and Mustard and Kharif crop are Rice, Maize, Finger millet, Barnyard grasses, and Amaranthus. Zaid crops include Beans, Cucumber, and pumpkin. Among the fruits are Apple, Peach, Cherry, and Walnut. Annual rainfall ranges from 2000 to 2500 mm while temperature ranges from 15 to 35°C during summer and -2 to 15°C in winter. Urgam Valley spans over a wide spread of topographic and climatic conditions, namely, alpine, subalpine, and temperate zones provide a range of plant habitats.Figure 1
Urgam Valley in Chamoli District of Uttarakhand, India.


### 2.2. Field Survey and Data Collection

Local surveys including uses of medicinal plants of Urgam Valley were done between August 2015 and July 2016. Ninety-six informants were randomly selected in 11 villages. After giving prior informed consent, informants answered questionnaires (see the Appendix) in the local language (Garhwali), with photos of 110 medicinal plants as references. Answers were elicited based on plant species (“what do you know about [plants name]?” and based on disease condition (“which plants you use when suffering from [disease name]?”).The questionnaires were then compiled detailed information for each plant on local name, life form, local uses, method of use or drug preparation, and amount of use (dose). Apart from the general population survey of villagers and shepherds, local male (Vaidyas) and female specialists (Daai) were also sought to compare their knowledge to that of the general population.


### 2.3. Plant Collection and Identification

Voucher specimens were prepared for the traditionally used plants documented in this study. Specimens were identified using Flora of District Garhwal [8] and Flora of Chamoli [9] and in comparison with the specimens of Garhwal University Herbarium, Srinagar Garhwal (GUH). Plant specimens were mounted on herbarium sheets and preserved in HAPPRC Herbarium. Plant names reported here were matched using The Plant List [10].


### 2.4. Data Analysis

#### 2.4.1. Comparing Consensus in Plant Use across Categories of Use

An informant consensus factor(ICF)was used to measure the consensus in plant use for a given illness treatment in the study area. To develop this consensus, all treated diseases were grouped into nine categories: (a) gastrointestinal disorders, (b) fever and aches, (c) diseases of the skin, (d) remove weakness, immunomodulator, anaemia, (e) ophthalmologic complaints, (f) poisonous bite, (g) dental problems, (h) ear ache, and (i) hearing problems. Within these categories, ICF was calculated according to the following formula [11]:(1)ICF=Nur-NtaxaNur-1,whereNur refers to the number of use-reports for a particular ailment category andNtaxa refers to the number of taxa used for a particular ailment category by all informants. ICF value ranges from 0 to 1. A high ICF value (close to 1.0) indicates “consensus” indicating relatively few taxa is reported by a large proportion of informants for an ailment category.


#### 2.4.2. Comparing Plants and Uses across Informants

To test whether the traditional medicinal plant knowledge varied with age, the total plants or total uses reported by each informant (excluding healers) were summed up and ran linear regressions and natural spline regressions, using the package splines [12] in the R statistical framework (Version 3.3.0).To test whether healers reported a different set of plants and uses altogether, the 89 informants who had reported more than 10 species were compared. A matrix with plants as columns and informants were constructed as rows, calculated Bray-Curtis distances among each pair of informants based on how similar their answers were, and used nonmetric multidimensional scaling to plot informants based on these distances. To calculate the significance of specialist healer status, the fit of this factor on the location of informants in the ordination space was compared to that of 999 randomized shuffles using the R package vegan [13].


## 2.1. The Study Area

Urgam Valley (30°30′20.93′′ to 30°34′12.35′′N and 79°26′14.02′′ to 79°30′17.26′′ E) is located in north-eastern Chamoli district in Uttarakhand, India (Figure1). The valley joins the Kalp Ganga Valley at 1,300 m amsl to the surrounding mountain tops above 3,000 m amsl. Crops consist mainly of three types, namely, Rabi, Kharif, and Zaid. The main Rabi crops of the region are Wheat and Mustard and Kharif crop are Rice, Maize, Finger millet, Barnyard grasses, and Amaranthus. Zaid crops include Beans, Cucumber, and pumpkin. Among the fruits are Apple, Peach, Cherry, and Walnut. Annual rainfall ranges from 2000 to 2500 mm while temperature ranges from 15 to 35°C during summer and -2 to 15°C in winter. Urgam Valley spans over a wide spread of topographic and climatic conditions, namely, alpine, subalpine, and temperate zones provide a range of plant habitats.Figure 1
Urgam Valley in Chamoli District of Uttarakhand, India.


## 2.2. Field Survey and Data Collection

Local surveys including uses of medicinal plants of Urgam Valley were done between August 2015 and July 2016. Ninety-six informants were randomly selected in 11 villages. After giving prior informed consent, informants answered questionnaires (see the Appendix) in the local language (Garhwali), with photos of 110 medicinal plants as references. Answers were elicited based on plant species (“what do you know about [plants name]?” and based on disease condition (“which plants you use when suffering from [disease name]?”).The questionnaires were then compiled detailed information for each plant on local name, life form, local uses, method of use or drug preparation, and amount of use (dose). Apart from the general population survey of villagers and shepherds, local male (Vaidyas) and female specialists (Daai) were also sought to compare their knowledge to that of the general population.


## 2.3. Plant Collection and Identification

Voucher specimens were prepared for the traditionally used plants documented in this study. Specimens were identified using Flora of District Garhwal [8] and Flora of Chamoli [9] and in comparison with the specimens of Garhwal University Herbarium, Srinagar Garhwal (GUH). Plant specimens were mounted on herbarium sheets and preserved in HAPPRC Herbarium. Plant names reported here were matched using The Plant List [10].


## 2.4. Data Analysis

### 2.4.1. Comparing Consensus in Plant Use across Categories of Use

An informant consensus factor(ICF)was used to measure the consensus in plant use for a given illness treatment in the study area. To develop this consensus, all treated diseases were grouped into nine categories: (a) gastrointestinal disorders, (b) fever and aches, (c) diseases of the skin, (d) remove weakness, immunomodulator, anaemia, (e) ophthalmologic complaints, (f) poisonous bite, (g) dental problems, (h) ear ache, and (i) hearing problems. Within these categories, ICF was calculated according to the following formula [11]:(1)ICF=Nur-NtaxaNur-1,whereNur refers to the number of use-reports for a particular ailment category andNtaxa refers to the number of taxa used for a particular ailment category by all informants. ICF value ranges from 0 to 1. A high ICF value (close to 1.0) indicates “consensus” indicating relatively few taxa is reported by a large proportion of informants for an ailment category.


### 2.4.2. Comparing Plants and Uses across Informants

To test whether the traditional medicinal plant knowledge varied with age, the total plants or total uses reported by each informant (excluding healers) were summed up and ran linear regressions and natural spline regressions, using the package splines [12] in the R statistical framework (Version 3.3.0).To test whether healers reported a different set of plants and uses altogether, the 89 informants who had reported more than 10 species were compared. A matrix with plants as columns and informants were constructed as rows, calculated Bray-Curtis distances among each pair of informants based on how similar their answers were, and used nonmetric multidimensional scaling to plot informants based on these distances. To calculate the significance of specialist healer status, the fit of this factor on the location of informants in the ordination space was compared to that of 999 randomized shuffles using the R package vegan [13].


## 2.4.1. Comparing Consensus in Plant Use across Categories of Use

An informant consensus factor(ICF)was used to measure the consensus in plant use for a given illness treatment in the study area. To develop this consensus, all treated diseases were grouped into nine categories: (a) gastrointestinal disorders, (b) fever and aches, (c) diseases of the skin, (d) remove weakness, immunomodulator, anaemia, (e) ophthalmologic complaints, (f) poisonous bite, (g) dental problems, (h) ear ache, and (i) hearing problems. Within these categories, ICF was calculated according to the following formula [11]:(1)ICF=Nur-NtaxaNur-1,whereNur refers to the number of use-reports for a particular ailment category andNtaxa refers to the number of taxa used for a particular ailment category by all informants. ICF value ranges from 0 to 1. A high ICF value (close to 1.0) indicates “consensus” indicating relatively few taxa is reported by a large proportion of informants for an ailment category.


## 2.4.2. Comparing Plants and Uses across Informants

To test whether the traditional medicinal plant knowledge varied with age, the total plants or total uses reported by each informant (excluding healers) were summed up and ran linear regressions and natural spline regressions, using the package splines [12] in the R statistical framework (Version 3.3.0).To test whether healers reported a different set of plants and uses altogether, the 89 informants who had reported more than 10 species were compared. A matrix with plants as columns and informants were constructed as rows, calculated Bray-Curtis distances among each pair of informants based on how similar their answers were, and used nonmetric multidimensional scaling to plot informants based on these distances. To calculate the significance of specialist healer status, the fit of this factor on the location of informants in the ordination space was compared to that of 999 randomized shuffles using the R package vegan [13].


## 3. Results

### 3.1. Demographic Features of Informants

A total of 96 people were interviewed consisting of seven local healers from both female (Daai) and male (Vaidyas healers). Most (48 participants or 50%) were 41-60 years old with 27 informants or 28.1% were 40 years old and younger. Seventeen were illiterate, while 4 young practitioners held a tertiary education (degree/diploma) (Table1).Table 1
Demographic characteristic of informants.
Variables Categories Number Age 20-30 9  31-40 17  41-50 22  51-60 26  61-70 19  71-80 3  Gender / specialist Male (general) 72  Female (general) 17  Male specialist healer 4  Female specialist healer 3  Education level Illiterate 17  1-5 27  6-10 22  10-12 26  >12 4  Source of knowledge By parents 71  By other 20  Self-experiments 5  Total  96


### 3.2. Traditional Medicinal Plants Diversity

Fifty-one species representing 31 families are used by local inhabitants of Urgam Valley in Chamoli Garhwal for local health care (see Table2). Out of 31 families, most (21 families) were dicotyledons, 9 were monocotyledons, and 1 was gymnosperm. The most represented families were asteraceae (7 species), followed by lamiaceae, amaryllidaceae, and apiaceae (3 species each) (Figure 2). Most species (39 species, 77%) were herbaceous plants, though trees (7 species, 14%), climbers (3 species, 6%), and shrubs (2 species, 4%) were also included.Table 2
Herbal medicine and mode of administration by inhabitants of Urgam Valley in Chamoli Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India.
S.N. Scientific name, Family and collection number Local name Life forms Parts used Mode of preparation Doses and administration Diseases treated UR Pharmacological activity 1 Aconitum balfourii Stapf. Syn. Aconitum lethale Griff Ranunculaceae HAPPRC ASR 4103 Figure 5(a) Meetha/Bhngwa Herb Root Decoction (in cow urine), Paste 1/2 drop once a day Snake bite 11 Diaphoretic, diuretic, analgesic,febrifuge, anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, anti-pyretic, vermifuge, powerful sedative, narcotic and poison [14, 15]  2 Aconitum heterophyllum Wall.ex Royle Ranunculaceae HAPPRC ASR 4104 Figure 5(b) Atees Herb Root Juice, Powder 1/2 teaspoonwith lukewarm water Stomach ache, fever 69 Anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, Antibacterial, Immunomodulatory, Anthelminthic, Antihyperlipidemic, analgesic [14, 16–19]  3 Ajuga parviflora Benth. Lamiaceae HAPPRC ASR 4168 Neelkanthi Herb Whole plant Powder or decoction 1/2-1 teaspoon 3 times a day with water Stomach ache, fever 29 Hypertension, malaria, pneumonia, edema, as anthelmintic, antifungal, hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, expectorant, antitumor and antimicrobial agents [20, 21]  4 Allium cepa L. Amaryllidaceae HAPPRC ASR 4120 Pyaj Herb Bulb Juice 1-3 drops Ear ache 48 Antitumor, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-allergic and molluscicidalactivity [22, 23]  5 Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae HAPPRC ASR 4121 Lehsun Herb Whole plants Paste 1/2 teaspoon Burnt, Cut 23 Antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, anti-parasitic, cardiovascular [24]  6 Allium wallichii Kunth. Amaryllidaceae HAPPRC ASR 4125 Lainka Herb Leaves Powder 1/2 -1 teaspoon with water Gastric 12 Anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, and anti-cancer [25]  7 Angelica glauca Edgew Apiaceae HAPPRC ASR 4146 Choru Herb Root Powder 1/2 teaspoon with water Gastric 9 Antioxidant, antimicrobial, and phytotoxic [26]  8 Artemisia nilagirica (C.B Clarke) Pamp. Asteraceae HAPPRC ASR 4136 Kunja Herb Leaves Juice 1 teaspoon Cut and wounds 24 Antimicrobial, antifungal, antibacterial, antifilarial, insecticidal, antiulcer, anticancer, antioxidant and anti-asthmatic [27]  9 Asparagus filicinusBuch.-Ham. ex. D.Don Asparagaceae HAPPRC ASR 4126 Jhirna Herb Root Powder 1/2 -1 teaspoon with cowmilk Remove weakness 13 Hypolipidemic [28]  10 Berberis aristata DC. Berberidaceae HAPPRC ASR 4163 Kingod Shrub Root Decoction 1-2 drop Eye ailments 87 Antimicrobial, antidepressant, diabetes mellitus, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory [29]  11 Berberis lyciumRoyle Berberidaceae HAPPRC ASR 4164 Chotru Herb Bark Decoction 1 teaspoon thrice a day Diabetes, eye ailments 92 Antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antihyperlipidemic, Antimicrobial, antimutagenic, pesticidal, wound healing [30]  12 Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Saxifragaceae HAPPRC ASR 4112 Syalphadi Herb Root Decoction 1 teaspoon once a day with lukewarm water Stone 45 Anti-tussive, antiulcer, anti-neoplastic, antioxidant, antibacterial, hypoglycaemic [31, 32]  13 Bergenia stracheyi (Hook.f.& Thomson) Engl Figure 5(c). Saxifragaceae HAPPRC ASR 4113 Pashanbhed Herb Root Decoction 1 teaspoon once a day with lukewarm water Stone 61 Anti-arthritic, antimicrobial, [32]  14 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae HAPPRC ASR 4174 Brahmi Herb Leaves Juice, Powder 1/2 -1 teaspoon with water Coolant 26 Stimulatory-nervine tonic, rejuvenant, sedative, tranquilizer and intelligence promoting property, antiepileptic, leprosy, antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory [33–35]  15 Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees & Eberm. Lauraceae HAPPRC ASR 4169 Tejpat Tree Leaves, bark Powder 1/2 -1 teaspoon with water Control blood pressure 49 Antidiabetic, antibacterial, anti-ulcer, antimicrobial [36]  16 Cirsium wallichii DC. Asteraceae HAPPRC ASR 4138 Kanjelu Herb Root Powder, Juice 1/2-1 teaspoon thrice a day with water Fever 2 Antimicrobial and Antioxidant [37]  17 Cucumis sativus L. Cucurbitaceae HAPPRC ASR 4153 Kakdi Climber Seeds Powder 1/2 teaspoon with water Diuretic 40 Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Hypo cholesterolemic [38]  18 Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae HAPPRC ASR 4165 Haldu Herb Rhizome Paste 1/2 teaspoon twice a day Cut and wounds 86 Anti-HIV, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor [39]  19 Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soo Orchidaceae HAPPRC ASR 4162 Figure 5(d) Hathajadi Herb Root Paste, Powder 1/2 teaspoon Cut and wounds, fever, stomach ache 39 Antibacterial, aphrodisiac, antipyretic [14]  20 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscoreaceae HAPPRC ASR 4139 Tairu Climber Tuber Powder 1/2 teaspoon with water Coolant 3 Antihyperlipidemic, antitumor, antioxidant, anorexiant, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, plasmid curing, anti-diabetic and antihyperglycemic[40]  21 Eupatorium adenophorum Sprengel Asteraceae HAPPRC ASR 4157 Basya Herb Leaves Juice 1/2 - 1 teaspoon Cut and wound 29 Analgesic, antifungal [41, 42]  22 Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis Urticaceae HAPPRC ASR 4118 Kandali Herb Root Powder 1/2-1 teaspoon twice a day with water Fever 1 Antibacterial, antifungal [43]  23 Hippophae salicifolia D.Don Elaeagnaceae HAPPRC ASR 4140 Figure 5(e) Amesh Tree Fruits Juice 5-10 teaspoon in 1 glass water Coolant 6 Antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, radio-protective, adaptogenic, anti-atherosclerosis, and anti-sterility [44]  24 Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae HAPPRC ASR 4150 Akhrot Tree Fruit peel Paste 1/2 teaspoon Skin diseases 56 Antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-atherogenic, anti-inflammatory and antimutagenic properties [45–47].  25 Jurinea macrocephala DC. Asteraceae HAPPRC ASR 4116 Bishkandara Herb Root Powder 1/2 teaspoon thrice a day water Fever 2 Antioxidant and Antibacterial [48]  26 Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc. Fabaceae HAPPRC ASR 4114 Gahat Herb Seeds Boiled soup 1 bowl thrice a day Stone 96 Hepatoprotective, anti-obesity, anticalcifying, antidiabetic, antimicrobial [49–53]  27 Megacarpaea polyandra Benth ex Madden Brassicaceae HAPPRC ASR 4111 Figure 5(f) Barmolu Herb Root Powder 1/2 -1 teaspoon twice a day with lukewarm water Gastric 4 Not reported  28 Mentha piperita L. Lamiaceae HAPPRC ASR 4148 Pudina Herb Leaves Paste 1/2 -1 teaspoon water Coolant 9 Antimicrobial [54]  29 Mirabilis jalapa L. Nyctaginaceae HAPPRC ASR 4117  Herb Leaves Paste - Cut and wounds 12 Antimicrobial [55]  30 Nardostachys jatamansi (D.Don) DC Caprifoliaceae HAPPRC ASR 4156 Maasi Herb Rhizome Powder 1/2 teaspoon thrice a day with lukewarm water Jaundice 1 Tonic, laxative, diuretic, spasmodichepatoprotective, cardio protective [56–58]  31 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Lamiaceae HAPPRC ASR 4115 Tulsi Herb Leaves Powder or raw 3-5 leaves with water Fever, cough and cold 75 Antimicrobial, radio-protective, ant diabetic, anti-carcinogenic [59, 60]  32 Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae HAPPRC ASR 4133 Almodu Herb Aerial part Paste 1/2 teaspoon Boils 26 Anti-inflammatory, refrigerant and antiscorbutic, hypoglycemic, antihypertensive, antipsychotic, stimulant, chronotropic & inotropic effect [61–63]  33 Paeonia emodi Royle Paeoniaceae HAPPRC ASR 4172 Figure 5(g) Chandra Herb Leaves Juice 1 teaspoon thrice a day with water Fever 87 Backache, dropsy, epilepsy,tonic, emetic, cathartic, blood purifier and colic, purgative [64]  34 Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth. Plantaginaceae HAPPRC ASR 4105 Figure 5(h) Kadwi Herb Root Powder 1/2 teaspoon thrice a day with water Fever 96 Immunomodulatory, cardiotonic, antipyretic, anthelmintic, laxative and anti-asthmatic, hepatoprotective, anticholestatic, anti-ulcerogenic, anti-asthmatic and immune-regulatory functions [65, 66]  35 Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All Asparagaceae HAPPRC ASR 4127 Figure 5(i) Mahamaida/Salampanja Herb Rhizome Powder 1/2-1 teaspoon thrice a day with water Fever 3 Anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antipyretic, insecticidal, antibacterial, antifungal, antidiarrheal [67–70]  36 Potentilla lineata Trevir. Syn. Potentilla fulgens L. Rosaceae HAPPRC ASR 4173 Bajrdanti Herb Root Powder 1/2 teaspoon Cleansing teeth 26 Anthelmintic [71]  37 Prunus persica (L.) Batsch Rosaceae HAPPRC ASR 4177 Aaru Tree Seeds pericarp Paste 1/2 teaspoon Infection after breakage of hair (Baaltod) 2 Anthelmintic, insecticidal, sedative, diuretic, demulcent, expectorant, vermicidal and are used in leucoderma and in piles [72]  38 Punica granatum L. Lythraceae HAPPRC ASR 4142 Anar Tree Fruits Raw 1 fruit Anemia 8 Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti cancer [73, 74]  39 Rheum moorcroftianum Royle Polygonaceae HAPPRC ASR 4160 Figure 5(j) Dolu Herb Root Powder, paste 1/2 teaspoon Internal injury, cut and wounds 24 Purgative,antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory [14, 75]  40 Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don Ericaceae HAPPRC ASR 4178 Syamru Tree Leaves Paste with oil 1/2 -1 teaspoon Skin disease 6 Analgesic, anti-inflammatory [76]  41 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Polygonaceae HAPPRC ASR 4167 Khuldya Herb Root Powder, paste 1/2 -1 teaspoon thrice a day with lukewarm water Pneumonia, Cut and wounds 1 Antioxidant, antitumour, anti-inflammatory, purgative,[77–79]  42 Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. Asteraceae HAPPRC ASR 4109 Kuth Herb Root and leaves Paste - Cut and wounds 27 Anti-inflammatory, anticancer, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial [80, 81]  43 Saussurea obvallata (DC) Edgew Asteraceae HAPPRC ASR 4110Figure 5(k) Kaunl Herb Aerial part Raw - To keep at home for increasing immunity 29 Antioxidant, antimicrobial [82]  44 Selinum vaginatum (Edgew.) C.B. Clarke Apiaceae HAPPRC ASR 4144 Bhutkesh Herb Root Powder 1/2 teaspoon with water Coolant 2 Antibacterial [83]  45 Swertia chirayita(Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex C.B.Clarke Gentianaceae HAPPRC ASR 4154 Figure 5(l) Chiraitu Herb Whole plant Powder 1/2-1 teaspoon thrice a day with water Fever, stomach ache 78 Antibacterial, antifungal, antileishmania, antimalaria, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antiviral [84–88]  46 Swertia ciliata(D.Don ex G.Don) B.L.Burtt Gentianaceae HAPPRC ASR 4166 Chirata Herb Aerial part Powder 1/2 teaspoon with water Fever, stomach ache 12 Antifungal [89]  47 Tagetes erecta L. Asteraceae HAPPRC ASR 4147 Gainda Herb Leaves Juice 1-2 drops Ear ache 1 Antipyretic, analgesic and anti-inflammatory [90]  48 Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Taxaceae HAPPRC ASR 4151 Thuner Tree Bark Tea 1 cup once a day High blood pressure 25 Immunomodulatory, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, analgesic, anti-pyretic and anti-convulsance activities, anti-cancer [91, 92]  49 Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Syn. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers Menispermaceae HAPPRC ASR 4132 Giloe Climber Aerial part Juice 1 teaspoon with water Fever, Stomach ache 87 Anti-cancer, immunomodulatory, anti-diabetic, anti-toxicity [93–95]  50 Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae HAPPRC ASR 4130 Kandali Herb Aerial part Raw/vegetable - Anaemia, remove weakness 81 Antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antiviral, antimicrobial, anticancer, immunomodulatory [96–101]  51 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Rutaceae HAPPRC ASR 4107 Timru Shrub Seeds, Stem or aerial part Powder 1/2 teaspoon Cleansing teeth and tooth ache 95 Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal [102–104] S.N.: serial number, Syn.: synonym, UR: use reports.Figure 2
Number of medicinal plants in different families.


### 3.3. Plant Part Use and Drug Preparation

Plant parts used were mostly roots (18 species, 32%) and leaves (13 species, 23%). Also recorded were aerial parts (7 species, 13%), seeds (4 species, 7%), fruits, rhizome, bark, and whole plants each two species (5%) (Figure3).Figure 3
Plant parts used to cure different ailments by inhabitants of Urgam Valley.The different type of formulations prepared by local inhabitants of Urgam recorded during the study was primarily plant powder (42% of formulations). Other preparations are paste (23%), extract/juice (17%), decoction and raw (7%), and herbal tea (2%) (Figure4). All formulations are prepared by local practitioner (Vaidyas), elders, or those with more experience in herbal medicines.Figure 4
Traditional drug preparations by inhabitants of Urgam Valley.Figure 5
(a)Aconitum balfourii; (b)Aconitum heterophyllum; (c)Bergenia stracheyi; (d)Dactylorhiza hatagirea; (e)Hippophae salicifolia; (f)Megacarpaea polyandra; (g)Paeonia emodi; (h)Picrorhiza kurrooa; (i)Polygonatum verticillatum; (j)Rheum moorcroftianum; (k)Saussurea obvallata; (l)Swertia chirayita.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)


### 3.4. Informant Consensus Factor

The highest consensus among informants (ICF) is found forAconitum balfouriiStapf for poisonous bite (PB) followed byBerberis aristata DC. andBerberis lyciumRoyle for ophtalmologic complaints (OP), andPotentilla lineataTrevor for dental problems (DP) (0.99) (Table 3).Table 3
Informants consensus factor for different ailment categories.
Ailment category Number of use reports (Nur) % of use reports Number of taxa (Nt) % of taxa Informants consensus factor (ICF) Gastrointestinal disorders 271 14.46 11 21.56 0.96  Fever and aches 580 30.94 13 25.49 0.97  Diseases of the skin 318 16.96 10 19.60 0.97  Remove weakness, immunomodulator, anaemia 131 6.99 4 7.84 0.97  Ophthalmologic complaints 179 9.55 2 3.92 0.99  Poisonous bite 11 0.58 1 1.96 1  Dental problems 121 6.45 2 3.92 0.99  Ear ache 49 2.61 2 3.92 0.97  Hearing problems 74 3.94 2 3.92 0.98  Others 140 7.47 4 7.84 0.97  Total 1874


### 3.5. Comparing Plants and Uses across Informants

Inhabitants of Urgam Valley have a generally strong knowledge of medicinal plants, with informants reporting on average 18 plant species and 13 uses. This knowledge increases with age: linear regressions on age significantly increase for uses (y=0.18∗age+5.3, p<0.01, r-squared = 0.39) and for plant species (y=0.24∗age+5.5, p<0.01, r-squared = 0.37). The natural spline regressions show that this effect is less steep at higher ages (significantly nonlinear): that is, there is less increase in knowledge after about age 50 (Figure 6(a)). Healers, who were excluded from this analysis, report more plants and more uses than the average predicted value for their age (Figure 6(b)). Elders also tend more to report learning from their parents as a source of knowledge and tend to easily identify plants and their localities and characters, while some younger informants struggled to give information.Figure 6
Species and uses reported by the general populace (red) increase with age (a) and are greatest for specialist healers (blue, b). The line indicates a natural spline regression in which the increase in knowledge with age flattens above age 50.
(a) (b)Ordinations show similarity between informants by plotting those who reported more similar lists of plants or more similar lists of species are closer together (Figure7). Although there is a great deal of overlap, specialist healers do report a significantly different set of plants (p=0.01, r-squared=0.06) and uses (p<0.01, r-squared=0.07) than nonspecialists. For instance,Dioscorea bulbifera, Polygonatum verticillatum, Jurinea macrocephala, andPrunus persicawere only reported by healers;Bergenia ciliata, Allium cepa,andCinnamomum tamalawere more widely reported, but most frequently by healers (all healers reported these plants, compared to only <50% of nonhealers). Likewise, infection after breakage of hair in body “Baaltod” was only reported by healers, and Control blood pressure' and “Ear ache” were reported more widely, but much more frequently by healers (all healers reported these uses, compared to <50% of nonhealers).Figure 7
A nonmetric multidimensional scaling of points (informants) which are plotted closer together when species (a) or uses (b) reported are more similar and sized by the count for each informant of species or uses. Although there is overlap, healers (blue) occupy a significantly different section of the ordination spaces, showing that they report particular plants and uses.
(a) (b)


## 3.1. Demographic Features of Informants

A total of 96 people were interviewed consisting of seven local healers from both female (Daai) and male (Vaidyas healers). Most (48 participants or 50%) were 41-60 years old with 27 informants or 28.1% were 40 years old and younger. Seventeen were illiterate, while 4 young practitioners held a tertiary education (degree/diploma) (Table1).Table 1
Demographic characteristic of informants.
Variables Categories Number Age 20-30 9  31-40 17  41-50 22  51-60 26  61-70 19  71-80 3  Gender / specialist Male (general) 72  Female (general) 17  Male specialist healer 4  Female specialist healer 3  Education level Illiterate 17  1-5 27  6-10 22  10-12 26  >12 4  Source of knowledge By parents 71  By other 20  Self-experiments 5  Total  96


## 3.2. Traditional Medicinal Plants Diversity

Fifty-one species representing 31 families are used by local inhabitants of Urgam Valley in Chamoli Garhwal for local health care (see Table2). Out of 31 families, most (21 families) were dicotyledons, 9 were monocotyledons, and 1 was gymnosperm. The most represented families were asteraceae (7 species), followed by lamiaceae, amaryllidaceae, and apiaceae (3 species each) (Figure 2). Most species (39 species, 77%) were herbaceous plants, though trees (7 species, 14%), climbers (3 species, 6%), and shrubs (2 species, 4%) were also included.Table 2
Herbal medicine and mode of administration by inhabitants of Urgam Valley in Chamoli Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India.
S.N. Scientific name, Family and collection number Local name Life forms Parts used Mode of preparation Doses and administration Diseases treated UR Pharmacological activity 1 Aconitum balfourii Stapf. Syn. Aconitum lethale Griff Ranunculaceae HAPPRC ASR 4103 Figure 5(a) Meetha/Bhngwa Herb Root Decoction (in cow urine), Paste 1/2 drop once a day Snake bite 11 Diaphoretic, diuretic, analgesic,febrifuge, anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, anti-pyretic, vermifuge, powerful sedative, narcotic and poison [14, 15]  2 Aconitum heterophyllum Wall.ex Royle Ranunculaceae HAPPRC ASR 4104 Figure 5(b) Atees Herb Root Juice, Powder 1/2 teaspoonwith lukewarm water Stomach ache, fever 69 Anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, Antibacterial, Immunomodulatory, Anthelminthic, Antihyperlipidemic, analgesic [14, 16–19]  3 Ajuga parviflora Benth. Lamiaceae HAPPRC ASR 4168 Neelkanthi Herb Whole plant Powder or decoction 1/2-1 teaspoon 3 times a day with water Stomach ache, fever 29 Hypertension, malaria, pneumonia, edema, as anthelmintic, antifungal, hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, expectorant, antitumor and antimicrobial agents [20, 21]  4 Allium cepa L. Amaryllidaceae HAPPRC ASR 4120 Pyaj Herb Bulb Juice 1-3 drops Ear ache 48 Antitumor, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-allergic and molluscicidalactivity [22, 23]  5 Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae HAPPRC ASR 4121 Lehsun Herb Whole plants Paste 1/2 teaspoon Burnt, Cut 23 Antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, anti-parasitic, cardiovascular [24]  6 Allium wallichii Kunth. Amaryllidaceae HAPPRC ASR 4125 Lainka Herb Leaves Powder 1/2 -1 teaspoon with water Gastric 12 Anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, and anti-cancer [25]  7 Angelica glauca Edgew Apiaceae HAPPRC ASR 4146 Choru Herb Root Powder 1/2 teaspoon with water Gastric 9 Antioxidant, antimicrobial, and phytotoxic [26]  8 Artemisia nilagirica (C.B Clarke) Pamp. Asteraceae HAPPRC ASR 4136 Kunja Herb Leaves Juice 1 teaspoon Cut and wounds 24 Antimicrobial, antifungal, antibacterial, antifilarial, insecticidal, antiulcer, anticancer, antioxidant and anti-asthmatic [27]  9 Asparagus filicinusBuch.-Ham. ex. D.Don Asparagaceae HAPPRC ASR 4126 Jhirna Herb Root Powder 1/2 -1 teaspoon with cowmilk Remove weakness 13 Hypolipidemic [28]  10 Berberis aristata DC. Berberidaceae HAPPRC ASR 4163 Kingod Shrub Root Decoction 1-2 drop Eye ailments 87 Antimicrobial, antidepressant, diabetes mellitus, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory [29]  11 Berberis lyciumRoyle Berberidaceae HAPPRC ASR 4164 Chotru Herb Bark Decoction 1 teaspoon thrice a day Diabetes, eye ailments 92 Antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antihyperlipidemic, Antimicrobial, antimutagenic, pesticidal, wound healing [30]  12 Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Saxifragaceae HAPPRC ASR 4112 Syalphadi Herb Root Decoction 1 teaspoon once a day with lukewarm water Stone 45 Anti-tussive, antiulcer, anti-neoplastic, antioxidant, antibacterial, hypoglycaemic [31, 32]  13 Bergenia stracheyi (Hook.f.& Thomson) Engl Figure 5(c). Saxifragaceae HAPPRC ASR 4113 Pashanbhed Herb Root Decoction 1 teaspoon once a day with lukewarm water Stone 61 Anti-arthritic, antimicrobial, [32]  14 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae HAPPRC ASR 4174 Brahmi Herb Leaves Juice, Powder 1/2 -1 teaspoon with water Coolant 26 Stimulatory-nervine tonic, rejuvenant, sedative, tranquilizer and intelligence promoting property, antiepileptic, leprosy, antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory [33–35]  15 Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees & Eberm. Lauraceae HAPPRC ASR 4169 Tejpat Tree Leaves, bark Powder 1/2 -1 teaspoon with water Control blood pressure 49 Antidiabetic, antibacterial, anti-ulcer, antimicrobial [36]  16 Cirsium wallichii DC. Asteraceae HAPPRC ASR 4138 Kanjelu Herb Root Powder, Juice 1/2-1 teaspoon thrice a day with water Fever 2 Antimicrobial and Antioxidant [37]  17 Cucumis sativus L. Cucurbitaceae HAPPRC ASR 4153 Kakdi Climber Seeds Powder 1/2 teaspoon with water Diuretic 40 Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Hypo cholesterolemic [38]  18 Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae HAPPRC ASR 4165 Haldu Herb Rhizome Paste 1/2 teaspoon twice a day Cut and wounds 86 Anti-HIV, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor [39]  19 Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soo Orchidaceae HAPPRC ASR 4162 Figure 5(d) Hathajadi Herb Root Paste, Powder 1/2 teaspoon Cut and wounds, fever, stomach ache 39 Antibacterial, aphrodisiac, antipyretic [14]  20 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscoreaceae HAPPRC ASR 4139 Tairu Climber Tuber Powder 1/2 teaspoon with water Coolant 3 Antihyperlipidemic, antitumor, antioxidant, anorexiant, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, plasmid curing, anti-diabetic and antihyperglycemic[40]  21 Eupatorium adenophorum Sprengel Asteraceae HAPPRC ASR 4157 Basya Herb Leaves Juice 1/2 - 1 teaspoon Cut and wound 29 Analgesic, antifungal [41, 42]  22 Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis Urticaceae HAPPRC ASR 4118 Kandali Herb Root Powder 1/2-1 teaspoon twice a day with water Fever 1 Antibacterial, antifungal [43]  23 Hippophae salicifolia D.Don Elaeagnaceae HAPPRC ASR 4140 Figure 5(e) Amesh Tree Fruits Juice 5-10 teaspoon in 1 glass water Coolant 6 Antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, radio-protective, adaptogenic, anti-atherosclerosis, and anti-sterility [44]  24 Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae HAPPRC ASR 4150 Akhrot Tree Fruit peel Paste 1/2 teaspoon Skin diseases 56 Antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-atherogenic, anti-inflammatory and antimutagenic properties [45–47].  25 Jurinea macrocephala DC. Asteraceae HAPPRC ASR 4116 Bishkandara Herb Root Powder 1/2 teaspoon thrice a day water Fever 2 Antioxidant and Antibacterial [48]  26 Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc. Fabaceae HAPPRC ASR 4114 Gahat Herb Seeds Boiled soup 1 bowl thrice a day Stone 96 Hepatoprotective, anti-obesity, anticalcifying, antidiabetic, antimicrobial [49–53]  27 Megacarpaea polyandra Benth ex Madden Brassicaceae HAPPRC ASR 4111 Figure 5(f) Barmolu Herb Root Powder 1/2 -1 teaspoon twice a day with lukewarm water Gastric 4 Not reported  28 Mentha piperita L. Lamiaceae HAPPRC ASR 4148 Pudina Herb Leaves Paste 1/2 -1 teaspoon water Coolant 9 Antimicrobial [54]  29 Mirabilis jalapa L. Nyctaginaceae HAPPRC ASR 4117  Herb Leaves Paste - Cut and wounds 12 Antimicrobial [55]  30 Nardostachys jatamansi (D.Don) DC Caprifoliaceae HAPPRC ASR 4156 Maasi Herb Rhizome Powder 1/2 teaspoon thrice a day with lukewarm water Jaundice 1 Tonic, laxative, diuretic, spasmodichepatoprotective, cardio protective [56–58]  31 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Lamiaceae HAPPRC ASR 4115 Tulsi Herb Leaves Powder or raw 3-5 leaves with water Fever, cough and cold 75 Antimicrobial, radio-protective, ant diabetic, anti-carcinogenic [59, 60]  32 Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae HAPPRC ASR 4133 Almodu Herb Aerial part Paste 1/2 teaspoon Boils 26 Anti-inflammatory, refrigerant and antiscorbutic, hypoglycemic, antihypertensive, antipsychotic, stimulant, chronotropic & inotropic effect [61–63]  33 Paeonia emodi Royle Paeoniaceae HAPPRC ASR 4172 Figure 5(g) Chandra Herb Leaves Juice 1 teaspoon thrice a day with water Fever 87 Backache, dropsy, epilepsy,tonic, emetic, cathartic, blood purifier and colic, purgative [64]  34 Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth. Plantaginaceae HAPPRC ASR 4105 Figure 5(h) Kadwi Herb Root Powder 1/2 teaspoon thrice a day with water Fever 96 Immunomodulatory, cardiotonic, antipyretic, anthelmintic, laxative and anti-asthmatic, hepatoprotective, anticholestatic, anti-ulcerogenic, anti-asthmatic and immune-regulatory functions [65, 66]  35 Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All Asparagaceae HAPPRC ASR 4127 Figure 5(i) Mahamaida/Salampanja Herb Rhizome Powder 1/2-1 teaspoon thrice a day with water Fever 3 Anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antipyretic, insecticidal, antibacterial, antifungal, antidiarrheal [67–70]  36 Potentilla lineata Trevir. Syn. Potentilla fulgens L. Rosaceae HAPPRC ASR 4173 Bajrdanti Herb Root Powder 1/2 teaspoon Cleansing teeth 26 Anthelmintic [71]  37 Prunus persica (L.) Batsch Rosaceae HAPPRC ASR 4177 Aaru Tree Seeds pericarp Paste 1/2 teaspoon Infection after breakage of hair (Baaltod) 2 Anthelmintic, insecticidal, sedative, diuretic, demulcent, expectorant, vermicidal and are used in leucoderma and in piles [72]  38 Punica granatum L. Lythraceae HAPPRC ASR 4142 Anar Tree Fruits Raw 1 fruit Anemia 8 Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti cancer [73, 74]  39 Rheum moorcroftianum Royle Polygonaceae HAPPRC ASR 4160 Figure 5(j) Dolu Herb Root Powder, paste 1/2 teaspoon Internal injury, cut and wounds 24 Purgative,antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory [14, 75]  40 Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don Ericaceae HAPPRC ASR 4178 Syamru Tree Leaves Paste with oil 1/2 -1 teaspoon Skin disease 6 Analgesic, anti-inflammatory [76]  41 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Polygonaceae HAPPRC ASR 4167 Khuldya Herb Root Powder, paste 1/2 -1 teaspoon thrice a day with lukewarm water Pneumonia, Cut and wounds 1 Antioxidant, antitumour, anti-inflammatory, purgative,[77–79]  42 Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. Asteraceae HAPPRC ASR 4109 Kuth Herb Root and leaves Paste - Cut and wounds 27 Anti-inflammatory, anticancer, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial [80, 81]  43 Saussurea obvallata (DC) Edgew Asteraceae HAPPRC ASR 4110Figure 5(k) Kaunl Herb Aerial part Raw - To keep at home for increasing immunity 29 Antioxidant, antimicrobial [82]  44 Selinum vaginatum (Edgew.) C.B. Clarke Apiaceae HAPPRC ASR 4144 Bhutkesh Herb Root Powder 1/2 teaspoon with water Coolant 2 Antibacterial [83]  45 Swertia chirayita(Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex C.B.Clarke Gentianaceae HAPPRC ASR 4154 Figure 5(l) Chiraitu Herb Whole plant Powder 1/2-1 teaspoon thrice a day with water Fever, stomach ache 78 Antibacterial, antifungal, antileishmania, antimalaria, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antiviral [84–88]  46 Swertia ciliata(D.Don ex G.Don) B.L.Burtt Gentianaceae HAPPRC ASR 4166 Chirata Herb Aerial part Powder 1/2 teaspoon with water Fever, stomach ache 12 Antifungal [89]  47 Tagetes erecta L. Asteraceae HAPPRC ASR 4147 Gainda Herb Leaves Juice 1-2 drops Ear ache 1 Antipyretic, analgesic and anti-inflammatory [90]  48 Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Taxaceae HAPPRC ASR 4151 Thuner Tree Bark Tea 1 cup once a day High blood pressure 25 Immunomodulatory, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, analgesic, anti-pyretic and anti-convulsance activities, anti-cancer [91, 92]  49 Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Syn. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers Menispermaceae HAPPRC ASR 4132 Giloe Climber Aerial part Juice 1 teaspoon with water Fever, Stomach ache 87 Anti-cancer, immunomodulatory, anti-diabetic, anti-toxicity [93–95]  50 Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae HAPPRC ASR 4130 Kandali Herb Aerial part Raw/vegetable - Anaemia, remove weakness 81 Antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antiviral, antimicrobial, anticancer, immunomodulatory [96–101]  51 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Rutaceae HAPPRC ASR 4107 Timru Shrub Seeds, Stem or aerial part Powder 1/2 teaspoon Cleansing teeth and tooth ache 95 Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal [102–104] S.N.: serial number, Syn.: synonym, UR: use reports.Figure 2
Number of medicinal plants in different families.


## 3.3. Plant Part Use and Drug Preparation

Plant parts used were mostly roots (18 species, 32%) and leaves (13 species, 23%). Also recorded were aerial parts (7 species, 13%), seeds (4 species, 7%), fruits, rhizome, bark, and whole plants each two species (5%) (Figure3).Figure 3
Plant parts used to cure different ailments by inhabitants of Urgam Valley.The different type of formulations prepared by local inhabitants of Urgam recorded during the study was primarily plant powder (42% of formulations). Other preparations are paste (23%), extract/juice (17%), decoction and raw (7%), and herbal tea (2%) (Figure4). All formulations are prepared by local practitioner (Vaidyas), elders, or those with more experience in herbal medicines.Figure 4
Traditional drug preparations by inhabitants of Urgam Valley.Figure 5
(a)Aconitum balfourii; (b)Aconitum heterophyllum; (c)Bergenia stracheyi; (d)Dactylorhiza hatagirea; (e)Hippophae salicifolia; (f)Megacarpaea polyandra; (g)Paeonia emodi; (h)Picrorhiza kurrooa; (i)Polygonatum verticillatum; (j)Rheum moorcroftianum; (k)Saussurea obvallata; (l)Swertia chirayita.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)


## 3.4. Informant Consensus Factor

The highest consensus among informants (ICF) is found forAconitum balfouriiStapf for poisonous bite (PB) followed byBerberis aristata DC. andBerberis lyciumRoyle for ophtalmologic complaints (OP), andPotentilla lineataTrevor for dental problems (DP) (0.99) (Table 3).Table 3
Informants consensus factor for different ailment categories.
Ailment category Number of use reports (Nur) % of use reports Number of taxa (Nt) % of taxa Informants consensus factor (ICF) Gastrointestinal disorders 271 14.46 11 21.56 0.96  Fever and aches 580 30.94 13 25.49 0.97  Diseases of the skin 318 16.96 10 19.60 0.97  Remove weakness, immunomodulator, anaemia 131 6.99 4 7.84 0.97  Ophthalmologic complaints 179 9.55 2 3.92 0.99  Poisonous bite 11 0.58 1 1.96 1  Dental problems 121 6.45 2 3.92 0.99  Ear ache 49 2.61 2 3.92 0.97  Hearing problems 74 3.94 2 3.92 0.98  Others 140 7.47 4 7.84 0.97  Total 1874


## 3.5. Comparing Plants and Uses across Informants

Inhabitants of Urgam Valley have a generally strong knowledge of medicinal plants, with informants reporting on average 18 plant species and 13 uses. This knowledge increases with age: linear regressions on age significantly increase for uses (y=0.18∗age+5.3, p<0.01, r-squared = 0.39) and for plant species (y=0.24∗age+5.5, p<0.01, r-squared = 0.37). The natural spline regressions show that this effect is less steep at higher ages (significantly nonlinear): that is, there is less increase in knowledge after about age 50 (Figure 6(a)). Healers, who were excluded from this analysis, report more plants and more uses than the average predicted value for their age (Figure 6(b)). Elders also tend more to report learning from their parents as a source of knowledge and tend to easily identify plants and their localities and characters, while some younger informants struggled to give information.Figure 6
Species and uses reported by the general populace (red) increase with age (a) and are greatest for specialist healers (blue, b). The line indicates a natural spline regression in which the increase in knowledge with age flattens above age 50.
(a) (b)Ordinations show similarity between informants by plotting those who reported more similar lists of plants or more similar lists of species are closer together (Figure7). Although there is a great deal of overlap, specialist healers do report a significantly different set of plants (p=0.01, r-squared=0.06) and uses (p<0.01, r-squared=0.07) than nonspecialists. For instance,Dioscorea bulbifera, Polygonatum verticillatum, Jurinea macrocephala, andPrunus persicawere only reported by healers;Bergenia ciliata, Allium cepa,andCinnamomum tamalawere more widely reported, but most frequently by healers (all healers reported these plants, compared to only <50% of nonhealers). Likewise, infection after breakage of hair in body “Baaltod” was only reported by healers, and Control blood pressure' and “Ear ache” were reported more widely, but much more frequently by healers (all healers reported these uses, compared to <50% of nonhealers).Figure 7
A nonmetric multidimensional scaling of points (informants) which are plotted closer together when species (a) or uses (b) reported are more similar and sized by the count for each informant of species or uses. Although there is overlap, healers (blue) occupy a significantly different section of the ordination spaces, showing that they report particular plants and uses.
(a) (b)


## 4. Discussion

Medicinal plants are globally used in local health care by ethnic communities of the world and the knowledge of folk medicine is being documented throughout the world.Our results show strong consensus on plant uses in Urgam Valley, with high informant consensus values across all categories. Further, we show that knowledge of traditional uses and of medicinal plants is higher in elders (bujurg), who learnt this knowledge from their parents or forefathers and associated plant medicine with positive attitudes, but also with regular practice of identifying and using plants to treat different ailments. We also showed that specialists tend to report different and unique species and were associated with some species that were widely reported, but most consistently reported by specialist. For instance,Bergenia ciliata(Haworth) Sternberg was reported here used for stones by every healer. This is a widely used plant, with similar use citations reported locally [8, 105] but also across the greater Himalayan region for a variety of uses [106]Most commonly mentioned plants across the general population have also been reported previously for similar uses from the region. For instance,Picrorhiza kurrooaBenth., which was reported by nearly every informant, is used for fever similar to Bhat et al. [107], where it was reported for fever and stomach ache.Zanthoxylum armatumDC., reported by 95 informants for cleaning teeth and toothache, was reported for similar uses locally [108] and more distantly by Abbasi et al. [109].Berberis lyciumRoyle DC., reported by 92 informants for conjunctivitis, was also reported by Gaur [8] for ophthalmia and Bhat et al. [107] for eye irritation.Aconitum heterophyllumWall.ex Royle root powder, reported by 69 informants for stomach ache and fever, was also reported elsewhere [107, 108] for the same uses. More distantly, the species is also reported for dysentery [106] in Northern Pakistan.Juglans regiaL., reported by 56 for cleaning teeth and treatment of skin diseases, was also reported for similar uses from Northern Pakistan [106, 110] while, in Uttarakhand, Gaur [8] reported its use as fishery, dye, fungicide, and insecticide.Dactylorhiza hatagirea(Don.) Soo., reported by 39 for cut and wounds and stomach ache, was also reported for similar uses locally [107].Aconitum balfouriiStapt., which was uncommonly reported for snake bites in this study, was reported previously for similar uses: use in poisonous skin diseases [107], as antidote of snake and scorpion sting, and for rheumatism, arthritis and paralysis from Nanda Devi Biosphere reserve [111], and leprosy [108].


## 5. Conclusion

The study suggests that while there remains a rich knowledge of medicinal plants in Urgam Valley, most knowledge is held by elders (bujurg) and specialist healers (vaidyasanddaai). Knowledge of medicinal plants is important and frequently used by local inhabitants to support their health care. Pharmacological activity on most of the plants is yet unknown so medicinal plants use in Urgam might be helpful in new drug discovery and pharmacological properties. Most of the highly useful plants of Himalaya are threatened with overexploitation and irregular harvesting and now limited to few pockets.Ex situ andin situ conservation should be implemented to conserve biodiversity and these valuable medicinal plants. Cultivation, rather than wild-harvest, of threatened valuable medicinal plants may support the traditional uses documented here, while also protecting wild populations.



---

*Source: 5656925-2019-06-03.xml*