# Divergent Analyses of Genetic Relatedness and Evidence-Based Assessment of Therapeutics ofStaphylococcus aureus from Semi-intensive Dairy Systems

Authors: Sidra Aziz; Nahla Muhammad Saeed; Hiewa Othman Dyary; Muhammad Muddassir Ali; Rao Zahid Abbas; Aziz ur Rehman; Sammina Mahmood; Laiba Shafique; Zaeem Sarwar; Fakhara Khanum; Tean Zaheer; Khurram Ashfaq; Mughees Aizaz Alvi; Muhammad Shafeeq; Arslan Saleem; Amjad Islam Aqib
Journal: BioMed Research International
 (2022)

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## Abstract

Use of antibiotics without following standard guidelines is routine practice in developing countries which is giving rise to genetic divergence and increased drug resistance. The current study analyzed genetic divergence and drug resistance byS. aureus and therapeutic efficacy of novel antibiotic combinations. The study revealed that 42.30% (minimum 20%-maximum 70%) of milk samples are positive for S. aureus. Study also revealed seven SNPs in the S. aureus nuc gene (c.53A>G, c.61A>G, c.73T>C, c.93C>A, c.217C>T, c.280T>C, and c.331T>A). Local isolates Staph-2 and Staph-3 were closely related to Bos taurus nuc gene (bovine S. aureus), while Staph-1 was closely related to Homo sapiens (human S. aureus) indicating shifting of host. Change of two amino acids and staphylococcal nuclease conserved domain was observed in all local isolates of S. aureus. The isoelectric points predicted by protParam of Staph-1, Staph-2, and Staph-3 proteins were 9.30, 9.20, and 9.20, respectively. The antibiotic susceptibility profile of S. aureus presented highest resistance against penicillin (46.67%) and glycopeptide (43.33%). When a single antibiotic regimen was adopted in a field trial, the highest efficacy was reported in the case of oxytetracycline (80%) while lowest was presented by azithromycin. Among antibiotics’ combined regimen, the highest efficacy (80%) was presented by gentamicin with oxytetracycline: cefotaxime with vancomycin; and ciprofloxacin with vancomycin. The current study concluded rising percentages of S. aureus from dairy milk, proofs of genetic host shifts, and altered responses of in on field therapeutics.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

Semi-intensive dairy systems represent 21% of milk production in Mexican dairy milk collection systems [1], while in other parts of the world, predominantly Asian countries, it is increasing day by day. Losses are attributed to the spread of different bacteria salient of which is Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). This bacterium is commensal and opportunistic that can colonize various animal species and humans [2]. The bacteria cause severe infections in humans and animals. The former infection involves skin and soft tissue infection (SSTI), which is clinically manifested as puffy infectious blood vessels, abscesses, papules, tuberculosis, and Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS). Isolated infections include toxic shock syndrome (TSS), pneumonia, or neonatal TSS-like human excitation [3]. Skin, mucous membrane, upper and lower respiratory tract, and urogenital tract are significant attacking sites in humans and animals [4, 5]. Pathogens may appear as fatal due to septic shock following intramammary infections in animals [6].S. aureus is a widespread and infectious pathogen that exists in 30-40% of all cases of mastitis and 80% of subclinical bovine mastitis which may cost 35 USD yearly as losses worldwide [7, 8]. The capability of producing mastitis is governed by numerous virulence factors that are structural or secretory [9, 10]. The structural virulence factors belong to adhesions, protein A, and capsular polysaccharide, whereas in secretory proteases, hemolysins, coagulase, lipase, and hyaluronidase are included [11, 12]. Infection increases due to increased resistance to multiple antibiotics such as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Spread of this pathogen is restricted not only to bovine but also to other animals like goats [13]. Newer strains of S. aureus, i.e., vancomycin-resistant S. aureus (VRSA), are also rising in bovine milk [14] in addition to already reported MRSAs. These strains are the most common cause of food poisoning and hospital infections [15–17] because of exoenzymes, exoproteins, and toxins [15, 18]. Ancestry analysis provided specificity within animals that is now changed to host shifts from one animal to another. Moreover, the pathogen is required to be considered for studying phenomena of protein folding and other molecular structures [16, 19].S. aureus has the ability to yield extracellular thermostable nuclease, which is encoded by nuc gene. Among several other genes, this gene is found successful in distinguishing S. aureus in staphylococcal spp. This gene is thus considered a specific marker of S. aureus identification through PCR [16]. There are several researchers reporting nuc gene as a fast and reliable identification marker for S. aureus. Specificity and sensitivity of nuc gene to identify S. aureus have been reported as 89.6% and 93.3%, respectively [20]. Keeping in view the influencing semi-intensive dairy systems, this study aimed at (a) probing divergence of genetic relatedness of S. aureus within host and across host, (b) estimating the modified pattern of drug resistance profile against all classes of antibiotics, and (c) finding response of single and double antibiotic regimens against S. aureus-based clinical mastitis.


## 2. Results

### 2.1. Genetic Relatedness for Host Shift Analysis

Molecular identification of biochemically characterizedS. aureus was targeted at 500 bp of nuc gene. The positive samples which were made part of this genetic relatedness are also pointed out along with other positive samples in Figure 1. Alignment of nucleic acid and protein sequences is given in Figures 2 and 3, respectively. Seven SNPs were identified in the S. aureus nuc gene at position c.53A>G (transition), c.61A>G (transition), c.73T>C (transition), c.93C>A (transversion), c.217C>T (transition), c.280T>C (transition), and c.331T>A (transversion) (Table 1). Nucleic acid alignment revealed that Staph-1, Staph-2, and Staph-3 were 97.37%, 98.02%, and 99.13% identical with a reference sequence, respectively. A phylogenetic tree of the S. aureus nuc gene was constructed. Five clades were observed in the phylogenetic tree when local S. aureus samples were compared with the S. aureus nuc gene of different species (different sources) from the NCBI database. Local S. aureus nuc (Staph-2 and Staph-3) gene sequences were closely related to the S. aureus nuc isolated from Bos taurus. These two local isolates (Staph-2 and Staph-3) clustered together only. Staph-1 (local isolate) gene sequence was closely related to S. aureus nuc isolated from Homo sapiens (vaginal and blood). This indicated that 33.33% of host shifts as one among three isolates were related to humans. Staph-1 clustered with Homo sapiens (blood, stool, sputum, contaminated platelets, wound, and swab), international space station surface, pork, food, and Bos taurus (Figure 2). The nucleic acid motif p value of the reference sequence was 4.66e−191. The p value of sample Staph-1 was 2.01e−190. Staph-2 and Staph-3 have the same p value (1.64e−191). Sequences of motifs were discriminated by different colors represented in Figure 4. The protein motif p value of the reference sequence was found 4.31e−160 (Figure 5). The p value of sample Staph-1 was 1.77e−159. Staph-2 and Staph-3 have the same p value (2.88e−160). Sequences of motifs were discriminated by different colors represented in Figure 3. Nucleotide motif construction involved an 1832 bp sequence, while amino acid motif construction involved a 608 bp sequence. Frequency of adenine and thiamine nucleotide in motifs was 0.328 while cytosine and guanine frequencies were 0.172. The only coding region was involved in the nucleotide structure (Figure 6). Asparagine was replaced by aspartic acid (p.N18D), and serine was replaced by tyrosine (p.S31Y) (Table 2). The conserved domain of staphylococcal nuclease was observed in reference, Staph-1, Staph-2, and Staph-3 protein sequences. The gene structure (exonic region) of S. aureus nuc gene was found similar to the reference sequence (Figure 7). The protein structure of reference, Staph-1, Staph-2, and Staph-3 proteins resembles the staphylococcal nuclease protein (Figure 8). Protein-protein interaction was found in Staph-1, Staph-2, and Staph-3 proteins (Figure 9). Predicted functional partners of S. aureus nuc protein are given in Figure 10. STRING software predicted the association between genes based on observed patterns of simultaneous expression of genes (Figure 11).Figure 1
PCR amplicons of nuc gene (S. aureus). M=1 kb DNA ladder (gene on 1 kb DNA ladder); Lane 1: Staph-1; Lane 2: Staph-2; Lane 3: Staph-3.Figure 2
Alignment ofS. aureus nuc gene (Staph-1, Staph-2, Staph-3, and reference).Figure 3
Alignment ofS. aureus nuc protein (Staph-1, Staph-2, Staph-3, and reference sequence).Table 1
S. aureus nuc protein conserved domain structure (reference sequence, Staph-1, Staph-2, and Staph-3).
Sample IDIdentified domainSimilarity scoreTotal nr sequencesTotal architectureConserved domain structureReference protein, Staph-1, Staph-2, and Staph-3Chain A,staphylococcal nuclease15902144Staph-1 proteinChain A,staphylococcal nuclease15902144Staph-2 proteinChain A,staphylococcal nuclease15902144Staph-3 proteinChain A,staphylococcal nuclease15902144Figure 4
Nucleotide motifs ofS. aureus nuc gene.Figure 5
nuc protein motifs ofS. aureus.Figure 6
Phylogenetic tree ofS. aureus nuc gene.Table 2
S. aureus nuc protein physical and chemical properties (Staph-1, Staph-2, Staph-3, and reference sequence).
Sample IDReference proteinStaph-1 proteinStaph-2 proteinStaph-3 proteinNumber of amino acids152152152152MW16561.0216637.1216562.0116562.01pI9.329.309.29.2Number of negatively charged residues17171818Number of positively charged residues23232323FormulaC732H1194N198O227S5C738H1198N198O227S5C732H1193N197O228S5C732H1193N197O228S5Total number of atoms2356236623552355II30.7828.4630.2230.22Aliphatic index80.7980.7980.7980.79GRAVY-0.388-0.391-0.388-0.388Figure 7
Gene structure (exonic region) ofS. aureus nuc gene.Figure 8
Protein structure (exonic region) ofS. aureus nuc protein.
(a)(b)(c)(d)Figure 9
Protein-protein interaction ofS. aureus nuc protein (Staph-1 protein, Staph-2 protein, and Staph-3 protein).Figure 10
Predicted functional partners ofS. aureus nuc protein (Staph-1 protein, Staph-2 protein, and Staph-3 protein).Figure 11
Coexpression ofS. aureus nuc protein (Staph-1 protein, Staph-2 protein, and Staph-3 protein).


### 2.2. Pattern of Prevalence and Drug Susceptibility Profile ofS. aureus

The study found 42.33% (127/300) of milk samples from commercial dairy farms positive forS. aureus. The range of S. aureus prevalence at the farm level varied from 20% (three farms in the study area) to 70% (only one farm observed). Four farms presented 30-37.04%, while one farm showed a 42.8% prevalence of S. aureus (Figure 12). Antibiogram of S. aureus against 24 antibiotics from eight antibiotic groups showed varied responses. As an average effect of a class of antibiotics, penicillin and glycopeptides were found least effective in that 46.67 and 43.33% of S. aureus were resistant to these antibiotics (Table 3). On the other hand, fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides, sulfonamides, macrolides, and tetracyclines were the most effective against S. aureus in the current study. Against cephalosporins, S. aureus were 36.67, 30%, and 33.33% resistant, intermediate, and sensitive, respectively. The pattern of susceptibility of isolate against individual antibiotics is shown in Figures 13(a)–13(h). There were 40-50% isolates resistant to cefoxitin, cefotaxime, sulfathiazole, oxacillin, clarithromycin, and dalbavancin. The study also showed that 60% of isolates are resistant to ampicillin and vancomycin. The highest sensitivity was found against enoxacin (80%), followed by sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, amikacin (70%), gentamicin (60%), azithromycin (60%), and oxytetracycline (60%). About 40% of isolates expressed intermediate susceptibility against streptomycin, cefixime, sulfaphenazole, sulfadiazine, and clarithromycin.Figure 12
Distribution ofS. aureus at different dairy farms; red color indicates positive cases. Percentage is also given in pie chart indicating the percentage of S. aureus at different farms which are indicated in different colors.Table 3
Average percentages of antibiogram by different classes of antibiogram againstS. aureus.
Class of antibioticResistant (%)Intermediate (%)Sensitive (%)Penicillins46.6726.6726.66Cephalosporins36.673033.33Aminoglycosides2026.6753.33Sulfonamides2033.3346.67Macrolides33.3316.6750Tetracyclines23.333046.67Fluoroquinolones101080Glycopeptides43.3326.6730Figure 13
Comparison of percentage susceptibility (resistant, intermediate, and sensitive) isolates ofS. aureus against individual antibiotics of different classes: (a) penicillin; (b) cephalosporins; (c) aminoglycosides; (d) sulfonamides; (e) macrolides; (f) tetracyclines.
(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)(f)(g)(h)


### 2.3. Field Trials

The study noted that oxytetracycline showed the highest efficacy (80%) among single antibiotic regimens while azithromycin showed the least efficacy (20%). Cefotaxime, vancomycin, and ciprofloxacin showed 60% efficacy while 40% of cases supported gentamicin, sulfadimidine, and azithromycin (Table4). Combination regimens showed an 80% success rate in favor of gentamicin with oxytetracycline, cefotaxime with vancomycin, and ciprofloxacin with vancomycin. Azithromycin in combination with sulfadimidine and azithromycin with gentamicin were the least effective drug regimens found in this trial.Table 4
Percentage efficacy of different treatment groups againstS. aureus-based clinical mastitis.
(a)Class of antibioticBacteriostatic with bacteriostatic (n=5)Antibiotic with dose rateAloneSulfadimidineAzithromycinOxytetracyclineAminoglycosideGentamicin (G) (2.2-6 mg/kg BW)2/5 (40%)3/5 (60%)2/5 (40%)4/5 (80%)SulfonamideSulfadimidine (45 mg/kg BW) IM2/5 (40%)—2/5 (40%)3/5 (60%)MacrolideAzithromycin (A) (6-10 mg/kg BW)1/5 (20%)——3/5 (60%)TetracyclineOxytetracycline (O) (17 mg/kg BW)4/5 (80%)———(b)Class of antibioticBactericidal with bactericidal (n=5)Antibiotic with dose rateAloneCiprofloxacinVancomycinCephalosporinCefotaxime (Ce) (10 mg/kg BW)3/5 (60%)3/5 (60%)4/5 (80%)FluoroquinolonesCiprofloxacin (Ci) (5-10 mg/kg body weight) (IV)3/5 (60%)—4/5 (80%)GlycopeptidesVancomycin (V) (8-12 mg/kg BW) (IV)3/5 (60%)——


## 2.1. Genetic Relatedness for Host Shift Analysis

Molecular identification of biochemically characterizedS. aureus was targeted at 500 bp of nuc gene. The positive samples which were made part of this genetic relatedness are also pointed out along with other positive samples in Figure 1. Alignment of nucleic acid and protein sequences is given in Figures 2 and 3, respectively. Seven SNPs were identified in the S. aureus nuc gene at position c.53A>G (transition), c.61A>G (transition), c.73T>C (transition), c.93C>A (transversion), c.217C>T (transition), c.280T>C (transition), and c.331T>A (transversion) (Table 1). Nucleic acid alignment revealed that Staph-1, Staph-2, and Staph-3 were 97.37%, 98.02%, and 99.13% identical with a reference sequence, respectively. A phylogenetic tree of the S. aureus nuc gene was constructed. Five clades were observed in the phylogenetic tree when local S. aureus samples were compared with the S. aureus nuc gene of different species (different sources) from the NCBI database. Local S. aureus nuc (Staph-2 and Staph-3) gene sequences were closely related to the S. aureus nuc isolated from Bos taurus. These two local isolates (Staph-2 and Staph-3) clustered together only. Staph-1 (local isolate) gene sequence was closely related to S. aureus nuc isolated from Homo sapiens (vaginal and blood). This indicated that 33.33% of host shifts as one among three isolates were related to humans. Staph-1 clustered with Homo sapiens (blood, stool, sputum, contaminated platelets, wound, and swab), international space station surface, pork, food, and Bos taurus (Figure 2). The nucleic acid motif p value of the reference sequence was 4.66e−191. The p value of sample Staph-1 was 2.01e−190. Staph-2 and Staph-3 have the same p value (1.64e−191). Sequences of motifs were discriminated by different colors represented in Figure 4. The protein motif p value of the reference sequence was found 4.31e−160 (Figure 5). The p value of sample Staph-1 was 1.77e−159. Staph-2 and Staph-3 have the same p value (2.88e−160). Sequences of motifs were discriminated by different colors represented in Figure 3. Nucleotide motif construction involved an 1832 bp sequence, while amino acid motif construction involved a 608 bp sequence. Frequency of adenine and thiamine nucleotide in motifs was 0.328 while cytosine and guanine frequencies were 0.172. The only coding region was involved in the nucleotide structure (Figure 6). Asparagine was replaced by aspartic acid (p.N18D), and serine was replaced by tyrosine (p.S31Y) (Table 2). The conserved domain of staphylococcal nuclease was observed in reference, Staph-1, Staph-2, and Staph-3 protein sequences. The gene structure (exonic region) of S. aureus nuc gene was found similar to the reference sequence (Figure 7). The protein structure of reference, Staph-1, Staph-2, and Staph-3 proteins resembles the staphylococcal nuclease protein (Figure 8). Protein-protein interaction was found in Staph-1, Staph-2, and Staph-3 proteins (Figure 9). Predicted functional partners of S. aureus nuc protein are given in Figure 10. STRING software predicted the association between genes based on observed patterns of simultaneous expression of genes (Figure 11).Figure 1
PCR amplicons of nuc gene (S. aureus). M=1 kb DNA ladder (gene on 1 kb DNA ladder); Lane 1: Staph-1; Lane 2: Staph-2; Lane 3: Staph-3.Figure 2
Alignment ofS. aureus nuc gene (Staph-1, Staph-2, Staph-3, and reference).Figure 3
Alignment ofS. aureus nuc protein (Staph-1, Staph-2, Staph-3, and reference sequence).Table 1
S. aureus nuc protein conserved domain structure (reference sequence, Staph-1, Staph-2, and Staph-3).
Sample IDIdentified domainSimilarity scoreTotal nr sequencesTotal architectureConserved domain structureReference protein, Staph-1, Staph-2, and Staph-3Chain A,staphylococcal nuclease15902144Staph-1 proteinChain A,staphylococcal nuclease15902144Staph-2 proteinChain A,staphylococcal nuclease15902144Staph-3 proteinChain A,staphylococcal nuclease15902144Figure 4
Nucleotide motifs ofS. aureus nuc gene.Figure 5
nuc protein motifs ofS. aureus.Figure 6
Phylogenetic tree ofS. aureus nuc gene.Table 2
S. aureus nuc protein physical and chemical properties (Staph-1, Staph-2, Staph-3, and reference sequence).
Sample IDReference proteinStaph-1 proteinStaph-2 proteinStaph-3 proteinNumber of amino acids152152152152MW16561.0216637.1216562.0116562.01pI9.329.309.29.2Number of negatively charged residues17171818Number of positively charged residues23232323FormulaC732H1194N198O227S5C738H1198N198O227S5C732H1193N197O228S5C732H1193N197O228S5Total number of atoms2356236623552355II30.7828.4630.2230.22Aliphatic index80.7980.7980.7980.79GRAVY-0.388-0.391-0.388-0.388Figure 7
Gene structure (exonic region) ofS. aureus nuc gene.Figure 8
Protein structure (exonic region) ofS. aureus nuc protein.
(a)(b)(c)(d)Figure 9
Protein-protein interaction ofS. aureus nuc protein (Staph-1 protein, Staph-2 protein, and Staph-3 protein).Figure 10
Predicted functional partners ofS. aureus nuc protein (Staph-1 protein, Staph-2 protein, and Staph-3 protein).Figure 11
Coexpression ofS. aureus nuc protein (Staph-1 protein, Staph-2 protein, and Staph-3 protein).


## 2.2. Pattern of Prevalence and Drug Susceptibility Profile ofS. aureus

The study found 42.33% (127/300) of milk samples from commercial dairy farms positive forS. aureus. The range of S. aureus prevalence at the farm level varied from 20% (three farms in the study area) to 70% (only one farm observed). Four farms presented 30-37.04%, while one farm showed a 42.8% prevalence of S. aureus (Figure 12). Antibiogram of S. aureus against 24 antibiotics from eight antibiotic groups showed varied responses. As an average effect of a class of antibiotics, penicillin and glycopeptides were found least effective in that 46.67 and 43.33% of S. aureus were resistant to these antibiotics (Table 3). On the other hand, fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides, sulfonamides, macrolides, and tetracyclines were the most effective against S. aureus in the current study. Against cephalosporins, S. aureus were 36.67, 30%, and 33.33% resistant, intermediate, and sensitive, respectively. The pattern of susceptibility of isolate against individual antibiotics is shown in Figures 13(a)–13(h). There were 40-50% isolates resistant to cefoxitin, cefotaxime, sulfathiazole, oxacillin, clarithromycin, and dalbavancin. The study also showed that 60% of isolates are resistant to ampicillin and vancomycin. The highest sensitivity was found against enoxacin (80%), followed by sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, amikacin (70%), gentamicin (60%), azithromycin (60%), and oxytetracycline (60%). About 40% of isolates expressed intermediate susceptibility against streptomycin, cefixime, sulfaphenazole, sulfadiazine, and clarithromycin.Figure 12
Distribution ofS. aureus at different dairy farms; red color indicates positive cases. Percentage is also given in pie chart indicating the percentage of S. aureus at different farms which are indicated in different colors.Table 3
Average percentages of antibiogram by different classes of antibiogram againstS. aureus.
Class of antibioticResistant (%)Intermediate (%)Sensitive (%)Penicillins46.6726.6726.66Cephalosporins36.673033.33Aminoglycosides2026.6753.33Sulfonamides2033.3346.67Macrolides33.3316.6750Tetracyclines23.333046.67Fluoroquinolones101080Glycopeptides43.3326.6730Figure 13
Comparison of percentage susceptibility (resistant, intermediate, and sensitive) isolates ofS. aureus against individual antibiotics of different classes: (a) penicillin; (b) cephalosporins; (c) aminoglycosides; (d) sulfonamides; (e) macrolides; (f) tetracyclines.
(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)(f)(g)(h)


## 2.3. Field Trials

The study noted that oxytetracycline showed the highest efficacy (80%) among single antibiotic regimens while azithromycin showed the least efficacy (20%). Cefotaxime, vancomycin, and ciprofloxacin showed 60% efficacy while 40% of cases supported gentamicin, sulfadimidine, and azithromycin (Table4). Combination regimens showed an 80% success rate in favor of gentamicin with oxytetracycline, cefotaxime with vancomycin, and ciprofloxacin with vancomycin. Azithromycin in combination with sulfadimidine and azithromycin with gentamicin were the least effective drug regimens found in this trial.Table 4
Percentage efficacy of different treatment groups againstS. aureus-based clinical mastitis.
(a)Class of antibioticBacteriostatic with bacteriostatic (n=5)Antibiotic with dose rateAloneSulfadimidineAzithromycinOxytetracyclineAminoglycosideGentamicin (G) (2.2-6 mg/kg BW)2/5 (40%)3/5 (60%)2/5 (40%)4/5 (80%)SulfonamideSulfadimidine (45 mg/kg BW) IM2/5 (40%)—2/5 (40%)3/5 (60%)MacrolideAzithromycin (A) (6-10 mg/kg BW)1/5 (20%)——3/5 (60%)TetracyclineOxytetracycline (O) (17 mg/kg BW)4/5 (80%)———(b)Class of antibioticBactericidal with bactericidal (n=5)Antibiotic with dose rateAloneCiprofloxacinVancomycinCephalosporinCefotaxime (Ce) (10 mg/kg BW)3/5 (60%)3/5 (60%)4/5 (80%)FluoroquinolonesCiprofloxacin (Ci) (5-10 mg/kg body weight) (IV)3/5 (60%)—4/5 (80%)GlycopeptidesVancomycin (V) (8-12 mg/kg BW) (IV)3/5 (60%)——


## 3. Discussion

The clue of host shift ofS. aureus in the current study (one of three S. aureus to be closely related to humans while distantly related to cows) was in line with findings of [21]. They reported clonal complexes (CCs), i.e., CC97 S. aureus isolate of cattle transmitted to humans while CC22 of humans found in cattle in Algeria. Human-associated strains of S. aureus, e.g., CC22 MRSA which was strictly responsible for hospital-acquired MRSA and community-acquired MRSA infections [22], were reported predominantly in Germany from dogs and cats [23]. S. aureus genes identified in humans’ milk were found in S. aureus isolated from bovine milk [24]. SNP identification in this study was more than those identified by [25, 26]. They found 3 SNP clades, two belonging to bovine mastitis while one clade belonging to international human isolates. SNP-based analysis indicated the combination of clades existing in humans and animals. In close agreement with the findings of the current study, 5 SNP clusters were identified in bovine mastitis [26]. In another study, 15 SNPs were identified with resembling phenotype [27]. In another study, 12 genome SNPs were identified from bovine in UK. The livestock-associated S. aureus strain (LA-MRSA), CC398, presented close phylogenetic relation to humans and turkeys. SNPs in the nuc gene lead to amino acid change revealed by in silico analysis. This change of amino acids might be associated with changes in the activity of the enzyme.There is debate about the use of different genes to indicate differences and similarities with reported sequences. In our study,nuc gene was preferred for S. aureus. Sequence analysis and genotyping of the S. aureus nuc gene proved to be a suitable tool for detecting mastitis in dairy farm animals [27]. The results of [28] revealed that nuc genes are derived from thermophilic bacteria and picked up by common ancestor staphylococci. In a study, homology analysis revealed no significant similarities between two nuc genes (nuc1 and nuc2) [28]. nuc1 is specific to S. aureus. 79% identity of nuc2 gene was observed with Staphylococcus epidermidis gene. This identity suggested a close relationship of this gene with other species in the Staphylococcus genus. Phylogenetic trees of nuc2 and nuc1 genes were found in different clusters in another study [29]. Staphylococci were differentiated using the nuc gene similarly to 16S rRNA sequences used for taxonomy classification [20]. Homology comparison of the nuc gene revealed that this gene is present everywhere in the genus Staphylococcus except Staphylococcus sciuri [30]. More than 70% similarity with nuc2 thermonuclease protein sequence from different species of Staphylococcus was observed in a study. Less than 60% similarity was observed with S. aureus nuc1. A higher-level homology of Staphylococcus was observed in the case of S. epidermidis (89.3%), Staphylococcus hominis (84.0%), and Staphylococcus lugdunensis (85.6%) [28]. Other scientists also used nuc gene to identify S. aureus [31]. Hamidi and his colleagues assessed the ability of GENECUBE assays to detect nuc gene (identification of S. aureus) using a blood culture medium. They have found 100% specificity and sensitivity of GENECUBE assays in detecting S. aureus [32]. S. aureus presence in milk samples for confirmation of subclinical mastitis was examined by Hida et al. [33].The higher prevalence ofS. aureus contradicted with findings of another study conducted in the same country [34]. The reason for the discrepancy might be because they focused only on subclinical S. aureus and did not include clinical and normal milk samples. In another study, 39.03% of S. aureus were noted from subclinical mastitis. Another study reported a very high prevalence of S. aureus (61.60%) from subclinical mastitis cases [35]. Subclinical mastitis in the province of the study area revolves around 40-55%. In that context, the current study alarms to find new plans to combat this pathogen. The high rise in this pathogen is attributed to no or lack of preventive measures. The pathogen is contagious, while its transfer is reported between animal-animal, animal-human, and human-human. In a recent study, 72.91% of nasal samples produced S. aureus, while among these were 34.29% (24/70) pathogenic as identified by the mecA gene [36]. From animal sources (cat, dog, buffalo, calf, and buck), 28.7% of multiple drug-resistant S. aureus were noted [37]. These facts indicate the significant spread of this pathogen among dairy animals, pets, and humans.There was 100% resistance ofS. aureus (camel mastitis origin) against cefoxitin and oxacillin in a previous study [38]. S. aureus from bovine milk were found 100% sensitive to ciprofloxacin and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, 90% against gentamicin and levofloxacin, 60% against tylosin, 50% against fusidic acid, and 40% against oxytetracycline [38, 39]. Another study on MRSA showed 80% sensitivity against ciprofloxacin. Resistance against antibiotics in this pathogen is attributed to extended beta-lactamase production encoded to be blaCTX-M55, ST-23 complex, ST-410, ST-167 genes, blaCTX-M15, blaCTX-M14, and ST-10. Such kind of response of antibiotics is not only confined to S. aureus of mastitis but also extended to E. coli from endometritis [40].


## 4. Materials and Methods

### 4.1. Milk Sample Collection

The study area consisted of developing commercial dairy systems with semi-intensive dairy systems in District Khanewal, Punjab, Pakistan. On a random basis,n=10 dairy farms having not less than n=50 animals in milking situation but with a commercial dairy system were approached with prior consent of the farmers. A total of n=300 milk samples (n=30 milk samples from each farm) were collected on a convenient sampling basis. The samples were aseptically collected in sterile tubes labeled with tags and shifted to the laboratory of central diagnostic, Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan.


### 4.2. Isolation and Identification ofS. aureus

Milk samples were centrifuged at 6000 rpm/15 minutes, and the supernatant was discarded. Sterile nutrient broth was added for further incubation at 37°C for 24 hours as prescribed in previous studies [36, 37]. The incubated samples were swabbed on mannitol salt agar, and growth obtained after 24 hours at 37°C was proceeded for biochemical analysis as per guidelines of Bergey’s manual of determinative bacteriology. The pooled information was used to declare confirmation of bacteria.


### 4.3. Molecular Analysis

Isolates identified from biochemical tests were put to molecular analysis. For this purpose, randomly, 50% ofS. aureus (n=64) were selected. Primers of the nuc gene were designed using Primer 3 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/tools/primer-blast/) software (Nuc_forward 5′AAGGGCAATACGCAAAGAG3′ and Nuc_reverse 5′AAACATAAGCAACTTTAGCCAAG3′). The reaction mixture contains PCR 2x master mix=10 μL (ThermoScientific Catalog # K0171), forward primer=1 μL (10 pmoL), reverse primer=1 μL (10 pmoL), DNA=2 μL (50 ng/L), deionized water=6 μL, and reaction volume was 20 μL. Touchdown PCR (35 cycles) was used to amplify the nuc gene of S. aureus. Thermocycler profile includes initial denaturation 94°C (5 min), denaturation 94°C (45 sec), annealing 63°C-53°C (45 sec), extension 72°C (45 sec), and final extension 72°C (5 min). The dilutions of DNA (50 ng/μL) were made, and nuc gene was amplified. After amplification, these amplicons were purified using a purification kit (Gene JET PCR Purification Kit Catalog number: K0701) and sent for sequencing. S. aureus positive for nuc gene and presenting multidrug resistance were sent for sequence analysis. Isolates showing similar sequences were excluded while those (n=3) presenting genetic variations and showing the highest drug resistance were discussed in this paper.Single-nucleotide polymorphisms were observed in sequencing chromatograms using chromas software. BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) was used to check the similarity of theS. aureus nuc gene with the reference sequence. Clustal omega was used for the alignment of nucleic acid and protein sequences. A phylogenetic tree was constructed using Mega X. Nucleic acid and protein motifs were constructed using MEME Suit (Multiple Expectation maximizations for Motif Elicitation) [41]. The gene structure of S. aureus nuc gene was determined by using a gene structure display server. Swiss model software predicted the 3D structure of thermonuclease. Protein-protein interactions were determined using STRING software (Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins). The physical and chemical properties of proteins were predicted by protParam S. aureus using guidelines given in the Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute.


### 4.4. Susceptibility Profile

The genetically identifiedS. aureus was processed to respond to eight classes of antibiotics, each with three representative antibiotics (Table 5). The Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute’s [42] instructions were used to find the susceptibility (resistant, intermediate, and sensitive) profile of bacteria by both the disc diffusion method and the broth microdilution method. Where felt necessary, European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing was also consulted for analysis [43]. The need for the antibiotic profile of bacteria was deemed necessary because dairy systems lack proper veterinary sanitary control and technology for milk collection. These directly affect the spread of pathogens along with their surge in resistance [44, 45].Table 5
Names of antibiotics along with their classes used in the study.
Antibiotic groupName of antibioticAntibiotic groupName of antibiotic(1) PenicillinAmpicillin(2) MacrolidesErythromycinOxacillinAzithromycinAmoxicillinClarithromycin(3) CephalosporinCefoxitin(4) TetracyclinesTetracyclineCefiximeOxytetracyclineCefotaximeDoxycycline(5) AminoglycosideStreptomycin(6) FluoroquinolonesCiprofloxacinAmikacinLevofloxacinGentamicinEnoxacin(7) SulfonamideSulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim(8) GlycopeptidesVancomycinSulfaphenazoleDalbavancinSulfadiazineTelavancin


### 4.5. Field Trial of Different Antibiotics againstS. aureus

This trial consisted of the evaluation of different antibiotics againstS. aureus-based clinical mastitis. The following criteria were used for this trial (Table 4, Figure 14).Figure 14
Clinical mastitis cases as an indication of inclusion criteria of animals for field trial of antibiotics: (a) udder inflammation, arrow is pointing out; (b) flakes in milk; (c)S. aureus growth on mannitol salt agar, arrow pointing out typical pinpoint colonies.
(a)(b)(c)


#### 4.5.1. Inclusion Criteria for Antibiotics

(i)
Field trial consisted of antibiotic groups based on their activity inin vitro trial(ii)
Class of antibiotics representing more than 30% response against bacteria was included in field trial keeping in view their resistance. Penicillin was thus excluded with this criterion(iii)
From each class, one antibiotic was selected based on its availability in the study area and its use as parenteral route to cover infection at ease(iv)
All the antibiotics were used in a single regimen and next as a combination regimen(v)
Combination was made on their apparent mode of action, i.e., bacteriostatic was used in combination with bacteriostatic while bactericidal in combination with bactericidal. The regimen consisted of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and antibiotics. Flunixin meglumine (Loxin, Selmore Pharmaceutical, Pakistan) was used at a dose rate of 2.2 mg/kg (single in a day)


#### 4.5.2. Inclusion Criteria for Animals for Field Trials

(i)
Cattle suffering from clinical mastitis(ii)
Cattle positive forS. aureusIndicators of Success of Treatment. The success of treatment was measured based on the absence of clinical signs and clearance of S. aureus infection from milk. The latter was done based on bacteriological examination of milk samples as per standard protocols described in Bergey’s manual of determinative bacteriology for the identification of bacteria. The presence of any or both indicators were considered a unsuccessful treatment.


### 4.6. Statistical Analysis

A nonparametric test was applied to calculate prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility using SPSS 22 version of statistical computer software. A phylogenetic tree was constructed using Mega X. Nucleic acid and protein motifs were created using MEME Suit (Multiple Expectation maximizations for Motif Elicitation).Formulae:(1)PrevalenceofS.aureus=numberofS.aureusisolatedfrommilknumberofmilksamplestested100,%susceptibilityofS.aureusagainstantibiotics=numberofS.aureussusceptibleagainstantibioticnumberofS.aureustested100.NB: susceptible isolates were either resistant, intermediate, or sensitive which were decided based on their response to antibiotics against set standards.


## 4.1. Milk Sample Collection

The study area consisted of developing commercial dairy systems with semi-intensive dairy systems in District Khanewal, Punjab, Pakistan. On a random basis,n=10 dairy farms having not less than n=50 animals in milking situation but with a commercial dairy system were approached with prior consent of the farmers. A total of n=300 milk samples (n=30 milk samples from each farm) were collected on a convenient sampling basis. The samples were aseptically collected in sterile tubes labeled with tags and shifted to the laboratory of central diagnostic, Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan.


## 4.2. Isolation and Identification ofS. aureus

Milk samples were centrifuged at 6000 rpm/15 minutes, and the supernatant was discarded. Sterile nutrient broth was added for further incubation at 37°C for 24 hours as prescribed in previous studies [36, 37]. The incubated samples were swabbed on mannitol salt agar, and growth obtained after 24 hours at 37°C was proceeded for biochemical analysis as per guidelines of Bergey’s manual of determinative bacteriology. The pooled information was used to declare confirmation of bacteria.


## 4.3. Molecular Analysis

Isolates identified from biochemical tests were put to molecular analysis. For this purpose, randomly, 50% ofS. aureus (n=64) were selected. Primers of the nuc gene were designed using Primer 3 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/tools/primer-blast/) software (Nuc_forward 5′AAGGGCAATACGCAAAGAG3′ and Nuc_reverse 5′AAACATAAGCAACTTTAGCCAAG3′). The reaction mixture contains PCR 2x master mix=10 μL (ThermoScientific Catalog # K0171), forward primer=1 μL (10 pmoL), reverse primer=1 μL (10 pmoL), DNA=2 μL (50 ng/L), deionized water=6 μL, and reaction volume was 20 μL. Touchdown PCR (35 cycles) was used to amplify the nuc gene of S. aureus. Thermocycler profile includes initial denaturation 94°C (5 min), denaturation 94°C (45 sec), annealing 63°C-53°C (45 sec), extension 72°C (45 sec), and final extension 72°C (5 min). The dilutions of DNA (50 ng/μL) were made, and nuc gene was amplified. After amplification, these amplicons were purified using a purification kit (Gene JET PCR Purification Kit Catalog number: K0701) and sent for sequencing. S. aureus positive for nuc gene and presenting multidrug resistance were sent for sequence analysis. Isolates showing similar sequences were excluded while those (n=3) presenting genetic variations and showing the highest drug resistance were discussed in this paper.Single-nucleotide polymorphisms were observed in sequencing chromatograms using chromas software. BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) was used to check the similarity of theS. aureus nuc gene with the reference sequence. Clustal omega was used for the alignment of nucleic acid and protein sequences. A phylogenetic tree was constructed using Mega X. Nucleic acid and protein motifs were constructed using MEME Suit (Multiple Expectation maximizations for Motif Elicitation) [41]. The gene structure of S. aureus nuc gene was determined by using a gene structure display server. Swiss model software predicted the 3D structure of thermonuclease. Protein-protein interactions were determined using STRING software (Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins). The physical and chemical properties of proteins were predicted by protParam S. aureus using guidelines given in the Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute.


## 4.4. Susceptibility Profile

The genetically identifiedS. aureus was processed to respond to eight classes of antibiotics, each with three representative antibiotics (Table 5). The Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute’s [42] instructions were used to find the susceptibility (resistant, intermediate, and sensitive) profile of bacteria by both the disc diffusion method and the broth microdilution method. Where felt necessary, European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing was also consulted for analysis [43]. The need for the antibiotic profile of bacteria was deemed necessary because dairy systems lack proper veterinary sanitary control and technology for milk collection. These directly affect the spread of pathogens along with their surge in resistance [44, 45].Table 5
Names of antibiotics along with their classes used in the study.
Antibiotic groupName of antibioticAntibiotic groupName of antibiotic(1) PenicillinAmpicillin(2) MacrolidesErythromycinOxacillinAzithromycinAmoxicillinClarithromycin(3) CephalosporinCefoxitin(4) TetracyclinesTetracyclineCefiximeOxytetracyclineCefotaximeDoxycycline(5) AminoglycosideStreptomycin(6) FluoroquinolonesCiprofloxacinAmikacinLevofloxacinGentamicinEnoxacin(7) SulfonamideSulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim(8) GlycopeptidesVancomycinSulfaphenazoleDalbavancinSulfadiazineTelavancin


## 4.5. Field Trial of Different Antibiotics againstS. aureus

This trial consisted of the evaluation of different antibiotics againstS. aureus-based clinical mastitis. The following criteria were used for this trial (Table 4, Figure 14).Figure 14
Clinical mastitis cases as an indication of inclusion criteria of animals for field trial of antibiotics: (a) udder inflammation, arrow is pointing out; (b) flakes in milk; (c)S. aureus growth on mannitol salt agar, arrow pointing out typical pinpoint colonies.
(a)(b)(c)


### 4.5.1. Inclusion Criteria for Antibiotics

(i)
Field trial consisted of antibiotic groups based on their activity inin vitro trial(ii)
Class of antibiotics representing more than 30% response against bacteria was included in field trial keeping in view their resistance. Penicillin was thus excluded with this criterion(iii)
From each class, one antibiotic was selected based on its availability in the study area and its use as parenteral route to cover infection at ease(iv)
All the antibiotics were used in a single regimen and next as a combination regimen(v)
Combination was made on their apparent mode of action, i.e., bacteriostatic was used in combination with bacteriostatic while bactericidal in combination with bactericidal. The regimen consisted of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and antibiotics. Flunixin meglumine (Loxin, Selmore Pharmaceutical, Pakistan) was used at a dose rate of 2.2 mg/kg (single in a day)


### 4.5.2. Inclusion Criteria for Animals for Field Trials

(i)
Cattle suffering from clinical mastitis(ii)
Cattle positive forS. aureusIndicators of Success of Treatment. The success of treatment was measured based on the absence of clinical signs and clearance of S. aureus infection from milk. The latter was done based on bacteriological examination of milk samples as per standard protocols described in Bergey’s manual of determinative bacteriology for the identification of bacteria. The presence of any or both indicators were considered a unsuccessful treatment.


## 4.5.1. Inclusion Criteria for Antibiotics

(i)
Field trial consisted of antibiotic groups based on their activity inin vitro trial(ii)
Class of antibiotics representing more than 30% response against bacteria was included in field trial keeping in view their resistance. Penicillin was thus excluded with this criterion(iii)
From each class, one antibiotic was selected based on its availability in the study area and its use as parenteral route to cover infection at ease(iv)
All the antibiotics were used in a single regimen and next as a combination regimen(v)
Combination was made on their apparent mode of action, i.e., bacteriostatic was used in combination with bacteriostatic while bactericidal in combination with bactericidal. The regimen consisted of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and antibiotics. Flunixin meglumine (Loxin, Selmore Pharmaceutical, Pakistan) was used at a dose rate of 2.2 mg/kg (single in a day)


## 4.5.2. Inclusion Criteria for Animals for Field Trials

(i)
Cattle suffering from clinical mastitis(ii)
Cattle positive forS. aureusIndicators of Success of Treatment. The success of treatment was measured based on the absence of clinical signs and clearance of S. aureus infection from milk. The latter was done based on bacteriological examination of milk samples as per standard protocols described in Bergey’s manual of determinative bacteriology for the identification of bacteria. The presence of any or both indicators were considered a unsuccessful treatment.


## 4.6. Statistical Analysis

A nonparametric test was applied to calculate prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility using SPSS 22 version of statistical computer software. A phylogenetic tree was constructed using Mega X. Nucleic acid and protein motifs were created using MEME Suit (Multiple Expectation maximizations for Motif Elicitation).Formulae:(1)PrevalenceofS.aureus=numberofS.aureusisolatedfrommilknumberofmilksamplestested100,%susceptibilityofS.aureusagainstantibiotics=numberofS.aureussusceptibleagainstantibioticnumberofS.aureustested100.NB: susceptible isolates were either resistant, intermediate, or sensitive which were decided based on their response to antibiotics against set standards.


## 5. Conclusions

Semi-intensive dairy systems were prevalent with antibiotic resistantS. aureus. SNPs and change of amino acids in thermonuclease protein in S. aureus reflected evidence of host shift. On the basis of group of antibiotics, penicillin and glycopeptides were the least effective while macrolides were found the highest efficacious group in an in-vitro trial. On an individual antibiotic basis, ampicillin and vancomycin were least effective while enoxacin and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim were most effective in an in-vitro trial. Response of a single antibiotic regimen, in field trial, supported oxytetracycline while a double antibiotic regimen supported gentamicin with oxytetracycline, cefotaxime with vancomycin, and ciprofloxacin with vancomycin. The study thus proposed adoption of evidence based therapeutics against bacterial pathogens keeping molecular study as an integral part of any treatment protocol.



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*Source: 5313654-2022-06-20.xml*