# Floristic Diversity and Natural Regeneration Status of Entoto Mountain and the Surrounding Area in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Authors: Ergua Atinafe; Ephrem Assefa; Birhanu Belay; Yemenzwork Endale; Talemos Seta
Journal: International Journal of Forestry Research
 (2020)

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## Abstract

The study was carried out at Entoto Mountain and its surrounding area, about 10 km north of the center of Addis Ababa. The purpose of this study was to assess the floristic composition and regeneration status of woody species and recommend further conservation methods. Ten transect lines were laid from south-north at 1 km interval. Along these transect lines, 62 sample plots of 400 m2 (20 m × 20 m) were laid at 1 km interval. A total of 179 plant species belonging to 107 genera and 60 families were recorded. Asteraceae (30 species) was the most dominant family. Of 179 plant species, 73 were naturally regenerated woody species representing 48 genera and 34 families. Herbs account for the largest growth form (91, 50.84%), indicating the fact that disturbance favors herb species. For the analysis of vegetation diversity, woody species composition, and density, the study area was classified into five land-use types. Of the five land-use types, degraded land-use type had low species diversity and evenness (1.48 and 0.295), and it had a low density of economically and ecologically important larger trees. However, the density of seedlings and saplings showed the normal regeneration status for the herbs and shrubs. Therefore, responsible stakeholders should give high priority for the conservation of ecologically and economically important large trees using appropriate conservation methods in the study area.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

Ethiopia is an important regional center of biological diversity, and the flora and fauna have a rich endemic element [1, 2]. The country has the fifth largest flora in tropical Africa. Vegetation types in Ethiopia are highly diverse, varying from Afroalpine to desert vegetation. However, the vegetation resources of the country have been reduced due to various factors. The most prominent ones are deforestation, expansion of agricultural land, overgrazing, unsustainable utilization, invasion of exotic species, and overexploitation for various purposes such as firewood, charcoal, construction material, and timber, all spurred by rapid human population growth [3, 4].Plantations in general andEucalyptus plantation in particular can have a catalytic effect on the regeneration of native species and can be used as a management tool for restoration of degraded forest lands [5, 6]. Because of the considerable damage of the mountain forests, concern has arisen about the natural regeneration of indigenous species. Regeneration is thus defined as the reassembly of floristic and structural diversity back to self-perpetuating climax states [7]. In Ethiopia, the uncontrolled removal of trees and land disturbance, such as collection of firewood, cultivation of lands, and grazing, severely reduce the density of the species and affect regeneration [8].In the Ethiopian highlands, which suffer from severe deforestation and biomass fuel crises,Eucalyptus is the prominent tree in government and community estate plantations because of its ready propagation through coppicing, resistance to browsing by livestock, and rapid growth rate. Currently, about 55 Eucalyptus species are available in Ethiopia [9]. However, the most common and widespread Eucalyptus species include Eucalyptus globulus Labill.The natural regeneration of plants is an important subject in both conservation biology and management [10]. Cost-effective plant regeneration, especially natural regeneration (i.e., regeneration of native plant species), is the keystone of sustainable forestry [11, 12]. Natural regeneration depends on the seed bank [13]. In this study, our objective was to identify the vegetation resources and the current regeneration status of woody species of the Entoto mountain range that lies on the Northwestern Entoto, Central Yeka, Ankorcha mount, and Northeastern Yeka Abado through Gurara within the limit of the city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, where the integrated tourist destination development programs would take place.


## 2. Materials and Methods

### 2.1. Description of the Study Area

The study area belongs to dry evergreen Afromontane forest and grassland complex (DAF) in the central highlands of Ethiopia [14]. Mount Entoto is considered to be the highest peak overlooking the city of Addis Ababa. Its altitude reaches 3,200 meters above sea level and is part of the Entoto mountain chain. This study area is located in two subcities of Addis Ababa, namely, Gullele and Yeka subcities. The study was conducted in Entoto mountain and its surrounding area that surrounds the city Addis Ababa between latitudes 9°08′N–10°06′N and longitudes 37°47′E–37°48′E. The altitude range of the study area is between 2551 m and 3031 m a.s.l. This study was undertaken in the Entoto mountain range that lies on the southeastern slopes of Mt Entoto, between the northern limit of the city of Addis Ababa, and the track along the mountain ridge. As can be seen from the underneath map, the elevation of the area ranges from 2,440 m to 3,196 m a.s.l. (Figure 1).Figure 1
Map of the study area (samples were taken from Gullele and Yeka, EMA, 2018).


### 2.2. Climate of the Study Area

From the 10-year (2007 to 2016) temperature and rainfall data collected from [15], the mean annual rainfall of the area is about 1226 ml. As far as the monthly rainfall record of the area is concerned, the area mostly receives its maximum rainfall between June and September. This is normally considered as the rainy season (kiremt) in the area. Low amount of rainfall is recorded between October and April. The average annual temperature of the area is 14°C. The maximum and minimum average annual temperatures of the area for the last ten years are 17.89 and 8.85°C, respectively. Throughout this period, the relatively maximum temperature was recorded during the months of January (18.4°C), February (19.7°C), March (20.12°C), April (19°C), and May (19.15°C), which is above the mean annual temperature (17.81°C) of the stated period. The lowest temperature was recorded during the month of August (14.49°C).


### 2.3. Methods of Data Collection

#### 2.3.1. Sampling Design

In this study, a systematic sampling design was used to collect data on vegetation and topographic variables. Ten transect lines consisting of 62 plots of size 20 m × 20 m (400 m2) were systematically laid in south-north directions using compass. Five plots each was laid in eight transect lines and six plots each in the last two transect lines. The distance between consecutive plots along the transect lines was from 500 m to 1 km. Five transects were laid at 2 km distance and three transect lines at 1.5 km and the last two at 3 km distance from each other. Trees and shrubs were collected from the larger size plots whereas the nested small subplots (five 1 m ∗ 1 m plots; four in the corner and one in the center of the larger plot) were used for seedling and sapling and herbaceous data collection.For the sake of data collection and analysis, all the plots were categorized into five land uses through visual observation. These includeEucalyptus globulus plantation forest (EPF), plantation forest (PAF), natural forest (NAF), degraded land (DEL), and riverine vegetation (RV).


#### 2.3.2. Data Collection

In each quadrat, all trees, shrubs, climber, and herbs were recorded. Plant species occurring outside the quadrat but inside the study area were also documented. In addition, all of the naturally regenerated woody species were identified and counted from each plot. Individuals were categorized into three size groups as follows [16]: seedling (height ≤1.0 m), sapling (height between 1 and 3 m), and tree/shrub (height >3 m). During the study, physiographic variables such as altitude, longitude, and latitude were measured for each plot using GPS. Taxonomic identification was made following the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea, Honey bee Flora of Ethiopia, and consultation with experienced taxonomic experts.


#### 2.3.3. Data Analysis

Plant species recorded in all plots were used in the analysis of the vegetation data. For analysis of vegetation data, Shannon and Wiener index of species diversity [17], species evenness, and Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity were used. Shannon’s index takes into account the evenness of abundance of species. The ratio of observed Shannon index to maximum diversity (Hmax = ln S) can be taken as a measure of evenness (E) [18–20]. Similarities of vegetation of the five land-use types were also compared using Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity (JCS) [19]. Density of the selected plant species was compared among the five land-use types. The frequency and relative frequency of the selected dominant plant species were presented for the study area. Similarly, the growth form of all the identified species in five land-use types was presented in the diagram. All the analyzed outputs of the vegetation data were presented in the form of table and diagram to indicate the areas in terms of ecological and economic significance.


## 2.1. Description of the Study Area

The study area belongs to dry evergreen Afromontane forest and grassland complex (DAF) in the central highlands of Ethiopia [14]. Mount Entoto is considered to be the highest peak overlooking the city of Addis Ababa. Its altitude reaches 3,200 meters above sea level and is part of the Entoto mountain chain. This study area is located in two subcities of Addis Ababa, namely, Gullele and Yeka subcities. The study was conducted in Entoto mountain and its surrounding area that surrounds the city Addis Ababa between latitudes 9°08′N–10°06′N and longitudes 37°47′E–37°48′E. The altitude range of the study area is between 2551 m and 3031 m a.s.l. This study was undertaken in the Entoto mountain range that lies on the southeastern slopes of Mt Entoto, between the northern limit of the city of Addis Ababa, and the track along the mountain ridge. As can be seen from the underneath map, the elevation of the area ranges from 2,440 m to 3,196 m a.s.l. (Figure 1).Figure 1
Map of the study area (samples were taken from Gullele and Yeka, EMA, 2018).


## 2.2. Climate of the Study Area

From the 10-year (2007 to 2016) temperature and rainfall data collected from [15], the mean annual rainfall of the area is about 1226 ml. As far as the monthly rainfall record of the area is concerned, the area mostly receives its maximum rainfall between June and September. This is normally considered as the rainy season (kiremt) in the area. Low amount of rainfall is recorded between October and April. The average annual temperature of the area is 14°C. The maximum and minimum average annual temperatures of the area for the last ten years are 17.89 and 8.85°C, respectively. Throughout this period, the relatively maximum temperature was recorded during the months of January (18.4°C), February (19.7°C), March (20.12°C), April (19°C), and May (19.15°C), which is above the mean annual temperature (17.81°C) of the stated period. The lowest temperature was recorded during the month of August (14.49°C).


## 2.3. Methods of Data Collection

### 2.3.1. Sampling Design

In this study, a systematic sampling design was used to collect data on vegetation and topographic variables. Ten transect lines consisting of 62 plots of size 20 m × 20 m (400 m2) were systematically laid in south-north directions using compass. Five plots each was laid in eight transect lines and six plots each in the last two transect lines. The distance between consecutive plots along the transect lines was from 500 m to 1 km. Five transects were laid at 2 km distance and three transect lines at 1.5 km and the last two at 3 km distance from each other. Trees and shrubs were collected from the larger size plots whereas the nested small subplots (five 1 m ∗ 1 m plots; four in the corner and one in the center of the larger plot) were used for seedling and sapling and herbaceous data collection.For the sake of data collection and analysis, all the plots were categorized into five land uses through visual observation. These includeEucalyptus globulus plantation forest (EPF), plantation forest (PAF), natural forest (NAF), degraded land (DEL), and riverine vegetation (RV).


### 2.3.2. Data Collection

In each quadrat, all trees, shrubs, climber, and herbs were recorded. Plant species occurring outside the quadrat but inside the study area were also documented. In addition, all of the naturally regenerated woody species were identified and counted from each plot. Individuals were categorized into three size groups as follows [16]: seedling (height ≤1.0 m), sapling (height between 1 and 3 m), and tree/shrub (height >3 m). During the study, physiographic variables such as altitude, longitude, and latitude were measured for each plot using GPS. Taxonomic identification was made following the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea, Honey bee Flora of Ethiopia, and consultation with experienced taxonomic experts.


### 2.3.3. Data Analysis

Plant species recorded in all plots were used in the analysis of the vegetation data. For analysis of vegetation data, Shannon and Wiener index of species diversity [17], species evenness, and Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity were used. Shannon’s index takes into account the evenness of abundance of species. The ratio of observed Shannon index to maximum diversity (Hmax = ln S) can be taken as a measure of evenness (E) [18–20]. Similarities of vegetation of the five land-use types were also compared using Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity (JCS) [19]. Density of the selected plant species was compared among the five land-use types. The frequency and relative frequency of the selected dominant plant species were presented for the study area. Similarly, the growth form of all the identified species in five land-use types was presented in the diagram. All the analyzed outputs of the vegetation data were presented in the form of table and diagram to indicate the areas in terms of ecological and economic significance.


## 2.3.1. Sampling Design

In this study, a systematic sampling design was used to collect data on vegetation and topographic variables. Ten transect lines consisting of 62 plots of size 20 m × 20 m (400 m2) were systematically laid in south-north directions using compass. Five plots each was laid in eight transect lines and six plots each in the last two transect lines. The distance between consecutive plots along the transect lines was from 500 m to 1 km. Five transects were laid at 2 km distance and three transect lines at 1.5 km and the last two at 3 km distance from each other. Trees and shrubs were collected from the larger size plots whereas the nested small subplots (five 1 m ∗ 1 m plots; four in the corner and one in the center of the larger plot) were used for seedling and sapling and herbaceous data collection.For the sake of data collection and analysis, all the plots were categorized into five land uses through visual observation. These includeEucalyptus globulus plantation forest (EPF), plantation forest (PAF), natural forest (NAF), degraded land (DEL), and riverine vegetation (RV).


## 2.3.2. Data Collection

In each quadrat, all trees, shrubs, climber, and herbs were recorded. Plant species occurring outside the quadrat but inside the study area were also documented. In addition, all of the naturally regenerated woody species were identified and counted from each plot. Individuals were categorized into three size groups as follows [16]: seedling (height ≤1.0 m), sapling (height between 1 and 3 m), and tree/shrub (height >3 m). During the study, physiographic variables such as altitude, longitude, and latitude were measured for each plot using GPS. Taxonomic identification was made following the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea, Honey bee Flora of Ethiopia, and consultation with experienced taxonomic experts.


## 2.3.3. Data Analysis

Plant species recorded in all plots were used in the analysis of the vegetation data. For analysis of vegetation data, Shannon and Wiener index of species diversity [17], species evenness, and Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity were used. Shannon’s index takes into account the evenness of abundance of species. The ratio of observed Shannon index to maximum diversity (Hmax = ln S) can be taken as a measure of evenness (E) [18–20]. Similarities of vegetation of the five land-use types were also compared using Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity (JCS) [19]. Density of the selected plant species was compared among the five land-use types. The frequency and relative frequency of the selected dominant plant species were presented for the study area. Similarly, the growth form of all the identified species in five land-use types was presented in the diagram. All the analyzed outputs of the vegetation data were presented in the form of table and diagram to indicate the areas in terms of ecological and economic significance.


## 3. Results and Discussion

### 3.1. Floristic Composition and Diversity of the Study Area

A total of 179 plant species belonging to 107 genera and 60 families were identified from the study area (see Table1). The total numbers of individual species in their respective growth form against different land-use types are indicated in Figure 2. Herbs were dominant and represented by (91) 50.84% species, shrub by (46) 25.67%, tree by (26)14.53%, and tree/shrub by (9) 5.03% species while climber by (7) 3.9% species. From the total woody species, Eucalyptus globulus (952/ha), Juniperus procera (369/ha), and Carissa spinarum (304/ha) were the most abundant species in the study area, whereas species such as Millettia ferruginea, Ficus sur, Croton macrostachyus, and Prunus africana were the least abundant species having only one individual per ha (see Table 1).Table 1
List of all plant species, family, and growth habit recorded from the study area.
No.
Botanical name
Family
Habit
Origin
1
Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth.
Fabaceae
Tree
N
2
Acacia decurrens Willd.
Fabaceae
Tree
EX/P
3
Acacia melanoxylon R.Br.
Fabaceae
Tree
EX/P
4
Acacia saligna (Labill.) Wendl.
Fabaceae
Shrub
EX/P
5
Achyranthes aspera L.
Amaranthaceae
Herb
N
6
Acmella caulirhiza Del.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
7
Adiantum capillus-veneris L.
Adiantaceae
Herb
N
8
Adiantum thalictroides Willd. ex Sch.
Adiantaceae
Herb
N
9
Albizia gummifera (J. F. Gmel.) C. A. Sm.
Fabaceae
Tree
N
10
Albizia schimperiana Oliv.
Fabaceae
Tree
N
11
Alchemilla abyssinica Fresen.
Rosaceae
Herb
N
12
Alchemilla padata A. Rich.
Rosaceae
Herb
N
13
Aloe debrana Christian
Aloaceae
Herb
EN
14
Amaranthus caudatus L.
Amaranthaceae
Herb
N
15
Anagallis arvensis L.
Primulaceae
Herb
N
16
Anthospermum herbaceum L.f.
Rubiaceae
Herb
N
17
Argemone mexicana L.
Papaveraceae
Herb
EX
18
Argyrolobium rupestre (E.Mey.) Walp.
Fabaceae
Herb
N
19
Arthraxon micans (Nees) Hochst.
Poaceae
Herb
N
20
Asparagus africanus Lam.
Asparagaceae
Shrub
N
21
Asparagus setaceus (Kunth) Jessop
Asparagaceae
Shrub
N
22
Asplenium aethipicum (Burm.f.) Beckerer
Aspleniaceae
Herb
N
23
Asplenium monanthes L.
Aspleniaceae
Herb
N
24
Asplenium protensum Schrad.
Aspleniaceae
Herb
N
25
Bersama abyssinica Fresen.
Melianthaceae
T/S
N
26
Bidens macroptera (Sch.-Bip.ex Chiov.)
Asteraceae
Herb
N
27
Buddleja polystachya Fresen.
Loganiaceae
Shrub
N
28
Cardamine hirsuta L.
Brassicaceae
Herb
N
29
Carduus leptacanthus Fresen.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
30
Carduus schimperi Sch.Bip.ex A.Rich
Asteraceae
Herb
N
31
Carduus sp
Asteraceae
Herb
N
32
Carissa spinarum L.
Apocynaceae
Shrub
N
33
Casuarina equisetifolia
Casuarinaceae
Tree
EX/P
34
Cheilanthes farinosa (Forssk.) Kaulf.
Sinopteridaceae
Herb
N
35
Cirsium vulgare (Savi.) Ten.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
36
Clematis simensis Fresen.
Ranunculaceae
Climber
N
36
Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke
Lamiaceae
Shrub
N
37
Clutia lanceolata Forssk
Euphorbiaceae
Shrub
N
39
Coffea Arabica L.
Rubiaceae
T/S
N/P
40
Commelina benghalensis L.
Commelinaceae
Herb
N
41
Conyza pedunculata (Oliv.) Wild.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
42
Conyza pyrrhopappa Sch. Bip.ex A.Rich
Asteraceae
Herb
N
43
Conyza stricta Willd.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
44
Crepis rueppellii Sch.Bip.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
45
Crotalaria exaltata Polhill
Fabaceae
Shrub
EN
46
Crotalaria rosenii (Pax) Milne-Redh. ex Polhill
Fabaceae
Shrub
EN
47
Croton macrostachyus Del.
Euphorbiaceae
Tree
N
48
Cupressus lusitanica Mill.
Cupressaceae
Tree
EX/P
49
Cyathula uncinulata (Schrad.) Schinz.
Amaranthaceae
Herb
N
50
Cynodon sp.
Poaceae
Herb
N
51
Cynoglossum geometricum Bakl. and Wright
Boraginaceae
Herb
N
52
Cyperus rotundus L.
Cyperaceae
Herb
N
53
Cyperus sp
Cyperaceae
Herb
N
54
Datura stramonium L.
Solanaceae
Herb
N
55
Dichondra repens J.R. and G. Forst.
Convolvulaceae
Herb
N
56
Digitaria velutina (Forssk.) P. Beauv.
Poaceae
Herb
N
57
Discopodium penninervium Hochst.
Solanaceae
Shrub
N
58
Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb
Flacourtiaceae
Shrub
N
59
Dovyalis verrucosa (Hochst.) Warb.
Flacourtiaceae
Shrub
N
60
Dyschoriste radicans Nees
Acanthaceae
Herb
N
61
Echinops macrostachyus Fresen.
Asteraceae
Shrub
N
62
Echinops kebericho Mesfin
Asteraceae
Shrub
EN
63
Ekebergia capensis Sparrm.
Meliaceae
Tree
N
64
Embelia schimperi Vatke
Myrsinaceae
Shrub
N
65
Eragrostis sp
Poaceae
Herb
N
66
Eragrostis schweinfurthii Chiov.
Poaceae
Herb
N
67
Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter
Poaceae
Herb
EN
68
Erica arborea L.
Ericaceae
Shrub
N
69
Erythrina brucei Schweinf.
Fabaceae
Tree
EN
70
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.
Myrtaceae
Tree
EX/P
71
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
Myrtaceae
Tree
EX/P
72
Exotheca sp.
Poaceae
Herb
N
73
Ficus sur Forssk.
Moraceae
Tree
N
74
Ficus vasta Forssk.
Moraceae
Tree
N
75
Galium simensis Fresen.
Rubiaceae
Herb
N
76
Geranium aculeolatum Oliv.
Geraniaceae
Herb
N
77
Geranium arabicum Forssk.
Geraniaceae
Herb
N
77
Grevillea robusta R.Br.
Proteaceae
Tree
EX/P
79
Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F. Gmel.
Rosaceae
Tree
N
80
Helichrysum foetidum (L.) Moench
Asteraceae
Herb
N
81
Helichrysum formosissima Sch. Bip.ex A. Rich.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
82
Helichrysum nudifolium (L.) Less.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
83
Helichrysum schimperi (Sch. Bip. ex A. Rich.) Sch. Bip. Ex Moser
Asteraceae
Shrub
N
84
Helichrysum traversii Chiov
Asteraceae
Herb
N
85
Helichrysum glumaceum Dc.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
86
Hypericum revolutum Vahl.
Hypericaceae
Shrub
N
87
Hypericum sp.
Hypericaceae
Shrub
N
88
Hypoestes forskaolii (Vahl) Soland. ex Roem. and Schult
Acanthaceae
Herb
N
89
Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. and Schult
Acanthaceae
Herb
N
90
Inula confertiflora A.Rich.
Asteraceae
Herb
EN
91
Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex.Dc.
Oleaceae
Climber
N
92
Jasminum grandiflorum L. subsp. floribundum (R. Br. ex Fresen.) P. S. Green
Oleaceae
Climber
N
93
Jasminum stans pax
Oleaceae
Shrub
EN
94
Juniperus procera Endl.
Cupressaceae
Tree
N
95
Justicia schimperiana (Hochst ex Nees) T. Anders
Acanthaceae
Herb
N
96
Kalanchoe petitiana A.Rich.
Crassulaceae
Herb
EN
97
Lactuca inermis Forssk.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
98
Laggera tomentosa (Sch.Bip.ex A.Rich.) Oliv.and Hiern
Asteraceae
Shrub
EN
99
Laggera crispata (Vahl) Hepper and Wood
Asteraceae
Herb
N
100
Lantana trifolia L.
Verbenaceae
Shrub
N
101
Leonotis ocymifolia (Burm.f.) Warsson
Lamiaceae
Herb
N
102
Leucas stachydiformis (Hochst. ex Benth.) Briq
Lamiaceae
Herb
EN
103
Linum trigynum L.
Linaceae
Herb
N
104
Lippia adoensis Hochst. ex Walp.
Verbenaceae
Shrub
EN
105
Lotus corniculatus L.
Fabaceae
Herb
N
106
Maesa lanceolata Forssk.
Myrsinaceae
T/S
N
107
Marsdenia abyssinica (Hochst.) Schltr.
Asclepiadaceae
Shrub
N
108
Maytenus addat (Loes.) Sebsebe
Celastraceae
Shrub
EN
109
Maytenus arbutifolia (A.Rich.) Wilczek
Celastraceae
T/S
N
110
Maytenus gracilipes (Welw.ex Oliv.) Exell
Celastraceae
Shrub
N
111
Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Bak.
Fabaceae
Tree
EN
112
Myrsine africana L.
Myrsinaceae
Shrub
N
113
Myrsine melanophloeos (L) R.Br.
Myrsinaceae
T/S
N
114
Nuxia congesta R. Br. ex Fresen
Loganiaceae
Tree
N
115
Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata (Wall. Ex
Oleaceae
Tree
N
116
Olinia rochetiana A. Juss.
Oliniaceae
T/S
N
117
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller.
Cactaceae
Herb
N
118
Osyris quadripartita Decn.
Santalaceae
T/S
N
119
Oxalis corniculata L.
Oxalidaceae
Herb
N
120
Oxalis radicosa A.Rich.
Oxalidaceae
Herb
N
121
Panicum subalbidum Kunth.
Poaceae
Herb
N
122
Pavetta abyssinica Fresen
Rubiaceae
Tree
N
123
Pennisetum riparium Hochst. ex A.Rich.
Poaceae
Herb
N
124
Pennisetum squamulatum Fresen
Poaceae
Herb
N
125
Pennisetum pentastachyum A.Rich.
Poaceae
Herb
N
126
Pentas lanceolata (Forssk) Defl.
Rubiaceae
Shrub
N
127
Pentas schimperiana (A.Rich) Vatke
Rubiaceae
T/S
N
128
Phytolacca dodecandra L’ Herit
Phytolaccaceae
Shrub
N
129
Plantago lanceolata L.
Plantaginaceae
Herb
N
130
Plantago major L.
Plantaginaceae
Herb
N
131
Plantago palmata Hook.f.
Plantaginaceae
Herb
N
132
Plectranthus punctatus (Vatke)
Lamiaceae
Herb
N
133
Podocarpus falcatus (Thunb) Mirb.
Podocarpaceae
Tree
N
134
Polystichum transvaalense N.C. Anthony
Aspleniaceae
Herb
N
135
Premna schimperi Engl.
Lamiaceae
Shrub
N
136
Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalkm.
Rosaceae
Tree
N
137
Rhamnus prinoides L’Herit.
Rhamnaceae
Shrub
N
138
Rhamnus staddo A.Rich.
Rhamnaceae
Shrub
N
139
Rhus glutinosa A.Rich. Subsp. neoglutinosa (Gilbert)
Anacardiaceae
Shrub
EN
140
Rosa abyssinica Lindley
Rosaceae
Shrub
N
141
Rubia cordifolia L.
Rubiaceae
Climber
N
142
Rubus apetalus Poir.
Rosaceae
Shrub
N
143
Rubus niveus Thunb.
Rosaceae
Shrub
N
144
Rubus steudneri Schweinf.
Rosaceae
Shrub
N
145
Rumex abyssinicus Jacq.
Polygonaceae
Herb
N
146
Rumex nepalensis Spreng.
Polygonaceae
Herb
N
147
Salvia nilotica Jacq.
Lamiaceae
Herb
N
148
Satureja abyssinica (Benth.) Briq.
Lamiaceae
Herb
N
149
Satureja paradoxa (Vatke) Engl.ex A.Seybold
Lamiaceae
Herb
EN
150
Satureja imbricata (Forssk.) Briq.
Lamiaceae
Shrub
N
151
Satureja punctata (Benth.) Briq.
Lamiaceae
Shrub
N
152
Scabiosa columbaria L.
Dipsacaceae
Herb
N
153
Scolopia theiofolia Gilg
Flacourtiaceae
Tree
N
154
Sida schimperiana Hochst. ex A.Rich.
Malvaceae
Shrub
N
155
Sida tenuicarpa Vollesen
Malvaceae
Shrub
N
156
Smilax aspera L.
Smilacaceae
Climber
N
157
Solanecio gigas (Vatke) C. Jeffrey
Asteraceae
Shrub
EN
158
Solanum indicum L.
Solanaceae
Shrub
N
159
Solanum marginatum L.f.
Solanaceae
Shrub
N
160
Solanum nigrum L.
Solanaceae
Herb
N
161
Sonchus asper (L.)Hill
Asteraceae
Herb
N
162
Sonchus bipontini Asch.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
163
Spergularia rubra (L.) J. and C. Presl.
Caryophyllaceae
Herb
N
164
Stephania abyssinica (Dillon et A.Rich.)Walp
Menispermaceae
Herb
N
165
Syzygium guineense
Myrtaceae
Tree
N
166
Tagetes minuta L.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
167
Thymus schimperi Ronniger
Lamiaceae
Herb
EN
168
Trifolium acaule Steud. ex A. Rich.
Fabaceae
Herb
N
169
Trifolium rueppellianum Fresen.
Fabaceae
Herb
N
170
Trifolium semipilosum Fresen.
Fabaceae
Herb
N
171
Uebelinia abyssinica Hochst.
Caryophyllaceae
Herb
N
172
Urtica simensis Steudel
Urticaceae
Herb
EN
173
Verbascum sinaiticum Benth.
Scrophulariaceae
Shrub
N
174
Vernonia adoensis Sch. Bip ex Wolp
Asteraceae
Shrub
N
175
Vernonia amygdalina Del.
Asteraceae
T/S
N
176
Vernonia filigera Oliv. and Hiern
Asteraceae
Shrub
N
177
Vernonia leopoldi (Sch. Bip.) Vatke
Asteraceae
Shrub
EN
178
Veronica persica Chiov.
Scrophulariaceae
Herb
N
179
Vicia sativa L.
Fabaceae
Climber
N
Notes: EN = endemic; N = native; EX = exotic; NR = naturally regenerated; P = planted.Figure 2
Number of species and growth form in different land-use types. Note: the same species were counted repeatedly in five land-use types.The species composition and density in each habitat generally depend on the current status of the sites. The seven species-rich families contributed (Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, and Oleaceae) 49.46% of the total plant species, and the remaining 53 families contributed 50.54% of the total plant species. Twenty endemic plant species were recorded in the study area. Of the 20, 7 herbs, 8 shrubs, 4 tree plant species, and one species were succulent (Table1). This showed that Entoto Mountain and its surrounding area are considered as a place with diverse flora including endemic species, and priority should be given to conserve this floristic diversity in the area.Shannon–Wiener diversity index and species evenness, in the study area, show considerable variation among the land-use types (Table2).Table 2
Shannon, evenness, Simpson's indices and species richness for the land-use categories.
Land-use category
No. of plots
Total area (ha)
No. of individuals/ha
Species richness
Shannon diversity index
Evenness index
Simpson (1 −D)
Riverine vegetation
4
0.16
5256
39
2.92
0.47
0.91
Natural forest
9
0.36
3761
42
2.92
0.44
0.91
Plantation forest
13
0.52
3073
45
2.85
0.38
0.91
Eucalyptus plantation forest
25
1.0
3642
63
2.60
0.21
0.83
Degraded land
11
0.44
2118
15
1.48
0.29
0.58
Total
62
2.48
3373
78
2.96
0.25
0.89Shannon diversity index and species evenness were highest in Riverine vegetation (2.92 and 0.475) followed by natural forest (2.92 and 0.44) and plantation forest (2.85 and 0.385). In contrast,Eucalyptus plantation forest had a Shannon diversity index and evenness of 2.60 and 0.214 followed by degraded land (1.48 and 0.295) which relatively showed lowest species richness. This may be attributed to the impact of Eucalyptus on the growth of other plant species and high disturbance by collection of firewood, animal grazing, and farming. Moreover, some of the areas have been cleared for walking paths. About 63 species (mostly herbs and shrubs) were recorded in Eucalyptus plantation forest and the lowest species richness (15 species) was recorded in degraded land (Table 3).Table 3
Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity in species composition of the five land-use types.
Land-use category
EPF
NAF
PAF
DEL
NAF
0.54
—
—
—
PAF
0.61
0.52
—
—
DEL
0.60
0.74
0.60
—
RV
0.678
0.35
0.61
0.69The similarity in species composition of land-use types was above 0.50 except between natural forest and riverine forest (0.35) having low similarity. Comparatively, there was high similarity (0.74) between natural forest and degraded land (Table3). The total density of woody species in Entoto Mountain and its surrounding area was 3374 stems/ha. In the study area, the highest density of species was recorded for Eucalyptus globulus, which was 952 individuals/ha. The first highest density of naturally regenerated woody species was contributed by Juniperus procera (369 individuals/ha) followed by Carissa spinarum which makes up 304 individuals/ha. The least dense species in the study area were Ficus sur, Millettia ferruginea, Croton macrostachyus, and Prunus africana each contributing 1–6 individuals/ha (Table 4). This may be attributed to the ecological suitability and anthropogenic impacts as the study area is the margin of the capital city of Ethiopia.Table 4
Density of selected woody species in the study area.
Species name
Species density in different land-use types
EPF
NAF
PAF
DEL
RV
Total
RD
Acacia abyssinica
22
44
75
82
13
46
1.4
Asparagus africanus
83
11
25
68
31
54
1.6
Bersama abyssinica
31
39
27
0
25
25
0.8
Carissa spinarum
268
625
154
0
1125
304
9.0
Clematis simensis
3
14
0
0
0
3
0.1
Clutia lanceolata
2
0.06
0
0
12.5
2.42
0.07
Croton macrostachyus
0
14
0
0
0
2
0.1
Dovyalis abyssinica
20
167
23
20
213
54
1.6
Dovyalis verrucosa
15
0
0
0
50
9
0.3
Ekebergia capensis
6
31
17
0
81
16
0.5
Erica arborea
42
0
23
0
0
22
0.6
Erythrina brucei
2
3
10
0
0
3
0.1
Eucalyptus globulus
1362
261
412
1339
644
952
28.2
Ficus sur
1
0.02
0
0
0
0.81
0.02
Ficus vasta
1
0
0
0
0
0.40
0.01
Hagenia abyssinica
0
0
25
0
0
5
0.2
Jasminum stans
34
83
23
0
138
40
1.2
Juniperus procera
321
706
281
180
719
369
10.9
Lippia adoensis
11
25
15
0
69
16
0.5
Maesa lanceolata
33
56
0
0
75
26
0.8
Maytenus arbutifolia
20
222
15
0
125
52
1.5
Myrsine Africana
29
142
15
0
138
44
1.3
Myrsine melanophloeos
21
0
0
23
19
14
0.4
Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata
2
0.06
0
0
12.5
2.42
0.07
Olinia rochetiana
24
39
40
0
119
31
0.9
Pentas lanceolata
8
14
10
0
50
10
0.3
Podocarpus falcatus
0
0
0
0
94
6
0.2
Prunus africana
0
0
4
0
38
3
0.1
Rhamnus staddo
0
0
4
0
56
4
0.1
Rosa abyssinica
143
94
102
132
313
136
4.0
Rubus apetalus
20
28
0
0
38
15
0.4
Satureja punctata
11
0
25
0
0
10
0.3
Sida schimperiana
70
0
110
68
0
63
1.9
Smilax aspera
26
83
0
0
0
23
0.7
Vernonia amygdalina
12
50
29
0
0
18
0.5
Vernonia leopoldi
106
122
96
111
75
105
3.1The frequency gives an approximate indication of the homogeneity and heterogeneity of a stand. The most frequent woody species in the study site wasJuniperus procera (90.3%) followed by Eucalyptus globulus and Rosa abyssinica (Table 5). This may be attributed to the deliberate plantation and natural regeneration of Juniperus procera for the greening of the city of Addis Ababa. Naturally, the area is classified under dry Afromontane forest ecosystem where the Juniper is most dominant. Moreover, Eucalyptus globulus was originally introduced in the 19th century to solve the problem of fuelwood and construction material for the surrounding people around the Entoto mountain chain.Table 5
Frequency and relative frequency of selected species.
Species name
Frequency
Relative frequency
Acacia abyssinica
40.32
2.75
Asparagus africanus
51.61
3.52
Bersama abyssinica
22.58
1.54
Carissa spinarum
8.06
0.55
Clematis simensis
6.45
0.44
Clutia lanceolata
12.9
0.88
Croton macrostachyus
1.61
0.11
Dovyalis abyssinica
40.32
2.75
Dovyalis verrucosa
8.00
0.55
Ekebergia capensis
22.58
1.54
Erica arborea
16.13
1.10
Erythrina brucei
8.00
0.55
Eucalyptus globulus
72.58
4.96
Ficus sur
3.22
0.22
Ficus vasta
1.61
0.11
Hagenia abyssinica
11.29
0.77
Jasminum stans
25.81
1.76
Juniperus procera
90.32
6.17
Lippia adoensis
24.19
1.65
Maesa lanceolata
32.26
2.20
Maytenus arbutifolia
32.26
2.20
Myrsine africana
25.81
1.76
Myrsine melanophloeos
16.00
1.09
Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata
12.9
0.88
Olinia rochetiana
40.32
2.75
Pentas lanceolata
32.26
2.20
Podocarpus falcatus
1.61
0.11
Prunus africana
9.68
0.66
Rhamnus staddo
8.06
0.55
Rosa abyssinica
80.65
5.51
Rubus apetalus
16.13
1.10
Satureja punctata
12.90
0.88
Sida schimperiana
8.06
0.55
Smilax aspera
24.19
1.65
Vernonia amygdalina
6.45
0.44
Vernonia leopoldi
40.32
2.75


### 3.2. Regeneration Status in the Study Area

Composition and density of seedlings and saplings would indicate the status of regeneration in the study area. Information on the regeneration status 72 species was naturally regenerated in the study area. A total of 55 species were represented in the seedling class, and the total seedling density of naturally regenerated woody species was 2876 individuals’ ha−1. The sapling class was composed of 42 species; the total sapling density of naturally regenerated woody species was 3363 individuals’ ha−1. A total of 68 woody species were represented in the mature tree/shrub class and the total mature tree and shrub density was 4645 individuals ha −1. The result showed that the floristic composition and density of the species were varying; there were seedlings or saplings of Olinia rochetiana, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, and Prunus africana while lacked mature woody species. This might suggest that there were exploitations of mature individuals in the study area. The composition, distribution, and density of seedlings and saplings of selected species indicate the future status of the forest. Composition of seedling population perishes before reaching sapling stage due to browsing, grazing, and trampling by wild and domestic animals. Moreover, seedlings are more vulnerable to environmental hazards and biotic factors especially at the early stages of seedling establishment [21].The ratio of woody species seedlings to mature tree/shrub (0.62 : 1), seedlings to saplings (0.76 : 1), and saplings to mature tree/shrub (0.81 : 1) showed the distribution of more mature tree/shrub population than that of seedling and saplings. Potential causes of seedling mortality include abiotic stresses such as shade, drought, and trampling, and biotic influences such as herbivory, root competition lack of safe site for seed recruitment, nature of seeds of certain trees which seek dormancy period, litter accumulation, pathogens, species specificity, and moisture stress or probably they might have other alternative adaptations for propagation and reproduction rather than seed germination [21]. Therefore, additional work and consecutive monitoring of the natural regeneration in the study area are needed; particularly, the status of soil seed banks has to be investigated to recognize whether or not regeneration potential, other than seedlings and saplings, survives.The plantations have been subjected to natural and human-induced disturbances, which resulted in their degradation or complete destruction. The loss of forest results in soil erosion, land degradation, loss of biodiversity, and impoverishment of ecosystems. In most of the woody plants in dry Afromontane forests, the lack of persistent soil seed banks affects the formation of populations of seedlings on the forest floor [22]. Natural disturbances and human exploitation, such as careful selective cutting, may promote regeneration of the Eucalyptus globulus. However, excessive exploitation of species or clearing and conversion of the forest areas into permanent cultivation will eliminate or reduce the species composition and density especially (degraded land). The absence of soil seed banks and seedlings and removal of mature trees as well as their stumps and roots coupled with poor long-distance dispersal will have severe consequences on the regeneration of the woody vegetation. This implies that the future existence of tropical dry evergreen Afromontane forests depends on the protection and conservation of the remaining patches of forests [8]. Entoto Mountain and its surrounding area are characterized by high density of naturally regenerated woody species. Thus, the naturally regenerated woody species are in a good state of regeneration. Juniperus procera, Carissa spinarum, Rosa abyssinica, and Myrsine africana are species with the highest density of naturally regenerating woody plants than the remaining woody species in the study area. Similar findings were reported in the study conducted by Debushe [23]. The probable reason for high density of Rosa abyssinica and Myrsine africana may be due to their resistance to browsing by wild or domestic animals and its low household and economic uses.Earlier works have shown that the presence or absence of understory vegetation in a plantation is a factor of the density of the stand, the rainfall regime, and management than their origin (reference).Eucalyptus plantations have been existed for centuries without affecting the regeneration potential of some selected species like Rosa abyssinica, Rubus apetalus, Carissa spinarum, Juniperus procera, Maytenus arbutifolia, Maesa lanceolata, Myrsine africana, Laggera tomentosa, Satureja punctata, Dovyalis abyssinica, and Vernonia leopoldi in the study area. This would contribute to the rehabilitation of degraded lands partly by increasing plant biodiversity particularly, shrubs, climbers, and lianas. On top of this, less dense stands of Eucalyptus globulus harbors more regenerated plant species than the high dense stands of Eucalyptus globulus. In fact, human disturbance, such as collection of firewood, animal grazing, farming, and other activities, reduces considerably the regeneration process in Eucalyptus plantation forest.Many authors [6, 7, 23] described that Eucalyptus can act as succession catalysts, facilitating the recolonization of native flora through their influence on understory microclimate and soil fertility which is in agreement with the present finding.A study made by Debushe [23] clearly demonstrated that there is a seed source in the vicinity; establishment of forest plantations can help not only to provide wood for various purposes, rehabilitate degraded lands, and conserve soil and water but also to catalyze natural regeneration of shrubs, climbers and lianas, and some tree species, thereby enhancing plant biodiversity. A study conducted in similar areas is in agreement with the findings of the present study [24].


## 3.1. Floristic Composition and Diversity of the Study Area

A total of 179 plant species belonging to 107 genera and 60 families were identified from the study area (see Table1). The total numbers of individual species in their respective growth form against different land-use types are indicated in Figure 2. Herbs were dominant and represented by (91) 50.84% species, shrub by (46) 25.67%, tree by (26)14.53%, and tree/shrub by (9) 5.03% species while climber by (7) 3.9% species. From the total woody species, Eucalyptus globulus (952/ha), Juniperus procera (369/ha), and Carissa spinarum (304/ha) were the most abundant species in the study area, whereas species such as Millettia ferruginea, Ficus sur, Croton macrostachyus, and Prunus africana were the least abundant species having only one individual per ha (see Table 1).Table 1
List of all plant species, family, and growth habit recorded from the study area.
No.
Botanical name
Family
Habit
Origin
1
Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth.
Fabaceae
Tree
N
2
Acacia decurrens Willd.
Fabaceae
Tree
EX/P
3
Acacia melanoxylon R.Br.
Fabaceae
Tree
EX/P
4
Acacia saligna (Labill.) Wendl.
Fabaceae
Shrub
EX/P
5
Achyranthes aspera L.
Amaranthaceae
Herb
N
6
Acmella caulirhiza Del.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
7
Adiantum capillus-veneris L.
Adiantaceae
Herb
N
8
Adiantum thalictroides Willd. ex Sch.
Adiantaceae
Herb
N
9
Albizia gummifera (J. F. Gmel.) C. A. Sm.
Fabaceae
Tree
N
10
Albizia schimperiana Oliv.
Fabaceae
Tree
N
11
Alchemilla abyssinica Fresen.
Rosaceae
Herb
N
12
Alchemilla padata A. Rich.
Rosaceae
Herb
N
13
Aloe debrana Christian
Aloaceae
Herb
EN
14
Amaranthus caudatus L.
Amaranthaceae
Herb
N
15
Anagallis arvensis L.
Primulaceae
Herb
N
16
Anthospermum herbaceum L.f.
Rubiaceae
Herb
N
17
Argemone mexicana L.
Papaveraceae
Herb
EX
18
Argyrolobium rupestre (E.Mey.) Walp.
Fabaceae
Herb
N
19
Arthraxon micans (Nees) Hochst.
Poaceae
Herb
N
20
Asparagus africanus Lam.
Asparagaceae
Shrub
N
21
Asparagus setaceus (Kunth) Jessop
Asparagaceae
Shrub
N
22
Asplenium aethipicum (Burm.f.) Beckerer
Aspleniaceae
Herb
N
23
Asplenium monanthes L.
Aspleniaceae
Herb
N
24
Asplenium protensum Schrad.
Aspleniaceae
Herb
N
25
Bersama abyssinica Fresen.
Melianthaceae
T/S
N
26
Bidens macroptera (Sch.-Bip.ex Chiov.)
Asteraceae
Herb
N
27
Buddleja polystachya Fresen.
Loganiaceae
Shrub
N
28
Cardamine hirsuta L.
Brassicaceae
Herb
N
29
Carduus leptacanthus Fresen.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
30
Carduus schimperi Sch.Bip.ex A.Rich
Asteraceae
Herb
N
31
Carduus sp
Asteraceae
Herb
N
32
Carissa spinarum L.
Apocynaceae
Shrub
N
33
Casuarina equisetifolia
Casuarinaceae
Tree
EX/P
34
Cheilanthes farinosa (Forssk.) Kaulf.
Sinopteridaceae
Herb
N
35
Cirsium vulgare (Savi.) Ten.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
36
Clematis simensis Fresen.
Ranunculaceae
Climber
N
36
Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke
Lamiaceae
Shrub
N
37
Clutia lanceolata Forssk
Euphorbiaceae
Shrub
N
39
Coffea Arabica L.
Rubiaceae
T/S
N/P
40
Commelina benghalensis L.
Commelinaceae
Herb
N
41
Conyza pedunculata (Oliv.) Wild.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
42
Conyza pyrrhopappa Sch. Bip.ex A.Rich
Asteraceae
Herb
N
43
Conyza stricta Willd.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
44
Crepis rueppellii Sch.Bip.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
45
Crotalaria exaltata Polhill
Fabaceae
Shrub
EN
46
Crotalaria rosenii (Pax) Milne-Redh. ex Polhill
Fabaceae
Shrub
EN
47
Croton macrostachyus Del.
Euphorbiaceae
Tree
N
48
Cupressus lusitanica Mill.
Cupressaceae
Tree
EX/P
49
Cyathula uncinulata (Schrad.) Schinz.
Amaranthaceae
Herb
N
50
Cynodon sp.
Poaceae
Herb
N
51
Cynoglossum geometricum Bakl. and Wright
Boraginaceae
Herb
N
52
Cyperus rotundus L.
Cyperaceae
Herb
N
53
Cyperus sp
Cyperaceae
Herb
N
54
Datura stramonium L.
Solanaceae
Herb
N
55
Dichondra repens J.R. and G. Forst.
Convolvulaceae
Herb
N
56
Digitaria velutina (Forssk.) P. Beauv.
Poaceae
Herb
N
57
Discopodium penninervium Hochst.
Solanaceae
Shrub
N
58
Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb
Flacourtiaceae
Shrub
N
59
Dovyalis verrucosa (Hochst.) Warb.
Flacourtiaceae
Shrub
N
60
Dyschoriste radicans Nees
Acanthaceae
Herb
N
61
Echinops macrostachyus Fresen.
Asteraceae
Shrub
N
62
Echinops kebericho Mesfin
Asteraceae
Shrub
EN
63
Ekebergia capensis Sparrm.
Meliaceae
Tree
N
64
Embelia schimperi Vatke
Myrsinaceae
Shrub
N
65
Eragrostis sp
Poaceae
Herb
N
66
Eragrostis schweinfurthii Chiov.
Poaceae
Herb
N
67
Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter
Poaceae
Herb
EN
68
Erica arborea L.
Ericaceae
Shrub
N
69
Erythrina brucei Schweinf.
Fabaceae
Tree
EN
70
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.
Myrtaceae
Tree
EX/P
71
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
Myrtaceae
Tree
EX/P
72
Exotheca sp.
Poaceae
Herb
N
73
Ficus sur Forssk.
Moraceae
Tree
N
74
Ficus vasta Forssk.
Moraceae
Tree
N
75
Galium simensis Fresen.
Rubiaceae
Herb
N
76
Geranium aculeolatum Oliv.
Geraniaceae
Herb
N
77
Geranium arabicum Forssk.
Geraniaceae
Herb
N
77
Grevillea robusta R.Br.
Proteaceae
Tree
EX/P
79
Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F. Gmel.
Rosaceae
Tree
N
80
Helichrysum foetidum (L.) Moench
Asteraceae
Herb
N
81
Helichrysum formosissima Sch. Bip.ex A. Rich.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
82
Helichrysum nudifolium (L.) Less.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
83
Helichrysum schimperi (Sch. Bip. ex A. Rich.) Sch. Bip. Ex Moser
Asteraceae
Shrub
N
84
Helichrysum traversii Chiov
Asteraceae
Herb
N
85
Helichrysum glumaceum Dc.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
86
Hypericum revolutum Vahl.
Hypericaceae
Shrub
N
87
Hypericum sp.
Hypericaceae
Shrub
N
88
Hypoestes forskaolii (Vahl) Soland. ex Roem. and Schult
Acanthaceae
Herb
N
89
Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. and Schult
Acanthaceae
Herb
N
90
Inula confertiflora A.Rich.
Asteraceae
Herb
EN
91
Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex.Dc.
Oleaceae
Climber
N
92
Jasminum grandiflorum L. subsp. floribundum (R. Br. ex Fresen.) P. S. Green
Oleaceae
Climber
N
93
Jasminum stans pax
Oleaceae
Shrub
EN
94
Juniperus procera Endl.
Cupressaceae
Tree
N
95
Justicia schimperiana (Hochst ex Nees) T. Anders
Acanthaceae
Herb
N
96
Kalanchoe petitiana A.Rich.
Crassulaceae
Herb
EN
97
Lactuca inermis Forssk.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
98
Laggera tomentosa (Sch.Bip.ex A.Rich.) Oliv.and Hiern
Asteraceae
Shrub
EN
99
Laggera crispata (Vahl) Hepper and Wood
Asteraceae
Herb
N
100
Lantana trifolia L.
Verbenaceae
Shrub
N
101
Leonotis ocymifolia (Burm.f.) Warsson
Lamiaceae
Herb
N
102
Leucas stachydiformis (Hochst. ex Benth.) Briq
Lamiaceae
Herb
EN
103
Linum trigynum L.
Linaceae
Herb
N
104
Lippia adoensis Hochst. ex Walp.
Verbenaceae
Shrub
EN
105
Lotus corniculatus L.
Fabaceae
Herb
N
106
Maesa lanceolata Forssk.
Myrsinaceae
T/S
N
107
Marsdenia abyssinica (Hochst.) Schltr.
Asclepiadaceae
Shrub
N
108
Maytenus addat (Loes.) Sebsebe
Celastraceae
Shrub
EN
109
Maytenus arbutifolia (A.Rich.) Wilczek
Celastraceae
T/S
N
110
Maytenus gracilipes (Welw.ex Oliv.) Exell
Celastraceae
Shrub
N
111
Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Bak.
Fabaceae
Tree
EN
112
Myrsine africana L.
Myrsinaceae
Shrub
N
113
Myrsine melanophloeos (L) R.Br.
Myrsinaceae
T/S
N
114
Nuxia congesta R. Br. ex Fresen
Loganiaceae
Tree
N
115
Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata (Wall. Ex
Oleaceae
Tree
N
116
Olinia rochetiana A. Juss.
Oliniaceae
T/S
N
117
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller.
Cactaceae
Herb
N
118
Osyris quadripartita Decn.
Santalaceae
T/S
N
119
Oxalis corniculata L.
Oxalidaceae
Herb
N
120
Oxalis radicosa A.Rich.
Oxalidaceae
Herb
N
121
Panicum subalbidum Kunth.
Poaceae
Herb
N
122
Pavetta abyssinica Fresen
Rubiaceae
Tree
N
123
Pennisetum riparium Hochst. ex A.Rich.
Poaceae
Herb
N
124
Pennisetum squamulatum Fresen
Poaceae
Herb
N
125
Pennisetum pentastachyum A.Rich.
Poaceae
Herb
N
126
Pentas lanceolata (Forssk) Defl.
Rubiaceae
Shrub
N
127
Pentas schimperiana (A.Rich) Vatke
Rubiaceae
T/S
N
128
Phytolacca dodecandra L’ Herit
Phytolaccaceae
Shrub
N
129
Plantago lanceolata L.
Plantaginaceae
Herb
N
130
Plantago major L.
Plantaginaceae
Herb
N
131
Plantago palmata Hook.f.
Plantaginaceae
Herb
N
132
Plectranthus punctatus (Vatke)
Lamiaceae
Herb
N
133
Podocarpus falcatus (Thunb) Mirb.
Podocarpaceae
Tree
N
134
Polystichum transvaalense N.C. Anthony
Aspleniaceae
Herb
N
135
Premna schimperi Engl.
Lamiaceae
Shrub
N
136
Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalkm.
Rosaceae
Tree
N
137
Rhamnus prinoides L’Herit.
Rhamnaceae
Shrub
N
138
Rhamnus staddo A.Rich.
Rhamnaceae
Shrub
N
139
Rhus glutinosa A.Rich. Subsp. neoglutinosa (Gilbert)
Anacardiaceae
Shrub
EN
140
Rosa abyssinica Lindley
Rosaceae
Shrub
N
141
Rubia cordifolia L.
Rubiaceae
Climber
N
142
Rubus apetalus Poir.
Rosaceae
Shrub
N
143
Rubus niveus Thunb.
Rosaceae
Shrub
N
144
Rubus steudneri Schweinf.
Rosaceae
Shrub
N
145
Rumex abyssinicus Jacq.
Polygonaceae
Herb
N
146
Rumex nepalensis Spreng.
Polygonaceae
Herb
N
147
Salvia nilotica Jacq.
Lamiaceae
Herb
N
148
Satureja abyssinica (Benth.) Briq.
Lamiaceae
Herb
N
149
Satureja paradoxa (Vatke) Engl.ex A.Seybold
Lamiaceae
Herb
EN
150
Satureja imbricata (Forssk.) Briq.
Lamiaceae
Shrub
N
151
Satureja punctata (Benth.) Briq.
Lamiaceae
Shrub
N
152
Scabiosa columbaria L.
Dipsacaceae
Herb
N
153
Scolopia theiofolia Gilg
Flacourtiaceae
Tree
N
154
Sida schimperiana Hochst. ex A.Rich.
Malvaceae
Shrub
N
155
Sida tenuicarpa Vollesen
Malvaceae
Shrub
N
156
Smilax aspera L.
Smilacaceae
Climber
N
157
Solanecio gigas (Vatke) C. Jeffrey
Asteraceae
Shrub
EN
158
Solanum indicum L.
Solanaceae
Shrub
N
159
Solanum marginatum L.f.
Solanaceae
Shrub
N
160
Solanum nigrum L.
Solanaceae
Herb
N
161
Sonchus asper (L.)Hill
Asteraceae
Herb
N
162
Sonchus bipontini Asch.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
163
Spergularia rubra (L.) J. and C. Presl.
Caryophyllaceae
Herb
N
164
Stephania abyssinica (Dillon et A.Rich.)Walp
Menispermaceae
Herb
N
165
Syzygium guineense
Myrtaceae
Tree
N
166
Tagetes minuta L.
Asteraceae
Herb
N
167
Thymus schimperi Ronniger
Lamiaceae
Herb
EN
168
Trifolium acaule Steud. ex A. Rich.
Fabaceae
Herb
N
169
Trifolium rueppellianum Fresen.
Fabaceae
Herb
N
170
Trifolium semipilosum Fresen.
Fabaceae
Herb
N
171
Uebelinia abyssinica Hochst.
Caryophyllaceae
Herb
N
172
Urtica simensis Steudel
Urticaceae
Herb
EN
173
Verbascum sinaiticum Benth.
Scrophulariaceae
Shrub
N
174
Vernonia adoensis Sch. Bip ex Wolp
Asteraceae
Shrub
N
175
Vernonia amygdalina Del.
Asteraceae
T/S
N
176
Vernonia filigera Oliv. and Hiern
Asteraceae
Shrub
N
177
Vernonia leopoldi (Sch. Bip.) Vatke
Asteraceae
Shrub
EN
178
Veronica persica Chiov.
Scrophulariaceae
Herb
N
179
Vicia sativa L.
Fabaceae
Climber
N
Notes: EN = endemic; N = native; EX = exotic; NR = naturally regenerated; P = planted.Figure 2
Number of species and growth form in different land-use types. Note: the same species were counted repeatedly in five land-use types.The species composition and density in each habitat generally depend on the current status of the sites. The seven species-rich families contributed (Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, and Oleaceae) 49.46% of the total plant species, and the remaining 53 families contributed 50.54% of the total plant species. Twenty endemic plant species were recorded in the study area. Of the 20, 7 herbs, 8 shrubs, 4 tree plant species, and one species were succulent (Table1). This showed that Entoto Mountain and its surrounding area are considered as a place with diverse flora including endemic species, and priority should be given to conserve this floristic diversity in the area.Shannon–Wiener diversity index and species evenness, in the study area, show considerable variation among the land-use types (Table2).Table 2
Shannon, evenness, Simpson's indices and species richness for the land-use categories.
Land-use category
No. of plots
Total area (ha)
No. of individuals/ha
Species richness
Shannon diversity index
Evenness index
Simpson (1 −D)
Riverine vegetation
4
0.16
5256
39
2.92
0.47
0.91
Natural forest
9
0.36
3761
42
2.92
0.44
0.91
Plantation forest
13
0.52
3073
45
2.85
0.38
0.91
Eucalyptus plantation forest
25
1.0
3642
63
2.60
0.21
0.83
Degraded land
11
0.44
2118
15
1.48
0.29
0.58
Total
62
2.48
3373
78
2.96
0.25
0.89Shannon diversity index and species evenness were highest in Riverine vegetation (2.92 and 0.475) followed by natural forest (2.92 and 0.44) and plantation forest (2.85 and 0.385). In contrast,Eucalyptus plantation forest had a Shannon diversity index and evenness of 2.60 and 0.214 followed by degraded land (1.48 and 0.295) which relatively showed lowest species richness. This may be attributed to the impact of Eucalyptus on the growth of other plant species and high disturbance by collection of firewood, animal grazing, and farming. Moreover, some of the areas have been cleared for walking paths. About 63 species (mostly herbs and shrubs) were recorded in Eucalyptus plantation forest and the lowest species richness (15 species) was recorded in degraded land (Table 3).Table 3
Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity in species composition of the five land-use types.
Land-use category
EPF
NAF
PAF
DEL
NAF
0.54
—
—
—
PAF
0.61
0.52
—
—
DEL
0.60
0.74
0.60
—
RV
0.678
0.35
0.61
0.69The similarity in species composition of land-use types was above 0.50 except between natural forest and riverine forest (0.35) having low similarity. Comparatively, there was high similarity (0.74) between natural forest and degraded land (Table3). The total density of woody species in Entoto Mountain and its surrounding area was 3374 stems/ha. In the study area, the highest density of species was recorded for Eucalyptus globulus, which was 952 individuals/ha. The first highest density of naturally regenerated woody species was contributed by Juniperus procera (369 individuals/ha) followed by Carissa spinarum which makes up 304 individuals/ha. The least dense species in the study area were Ficus sur, Millettia ferruginea, Croton macrostachyus, and Prunus africana each contributing 1–6 individuals/ha (Table 4). This may be attributed to the ecological suitability and anthropogenic impacts as the study area is the margin of the capital city of Ethiopia.Table 4
Density of selected woody species in the study area.
Species name
Species density in different land-use types
EPF
NAF
PAF
DEL
RV
Total
RD
Acacia abyssinica
22
44
75
82
13
46
1.4
Asparagus africanus
83
11
25
68
31
54
1.6
Bersama abyssinica
31
39
27
0
25
25
0.8
Carissa spinarum
268
625
154
0
1125
304
9.0
Clematis simensis
3
14
0
0
0
3
0.1
Clutia lanceolata
2
0.06
0
0
12.5
2.42
0.07
Croton macrostachyus
0
14
0
0
0
2
0.1
Dovyalis abyssinica
20
167
23
20
213
54
1.6
Dovyalis verrucosa
15
0
0
0
50
9
0.3
Ekebergia capensis
6
31
17
0
81
16
0.5
Erica arborea
42
0
23
0
0
22
0.6
Erythrina brucei
2
3
10
0
0
3
0.1
Eucalyptus globulus
1362
261
412
1339
644
952
28.2
Ficus sur
1
0.02
0
0
0
0.81
0.02
Ficus vasta
1
0
0
0
0
0.40
0.01
Hagenia abyssinica
0
0
25
0
0
5
0.2
Jasminum stans
34
83
23
0
138
40
1.2
Juniperus procera
321
706
281
180
719
369
10.9
Lippia adoensis
11
25
15
0
69
16
0.5
Maesa lanceolata
33
56
0
0
75
26
0.8
Maytenus arbutifolia
20
222
15
0
125
52
1.5
Myrsine Africana
29
142
15
0
138
44
1.3
Myrsine melanophloeos
21
0
0
23
19
14
0.4
Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata
2
0.06
0
0
12.5
2.42
0.07
Olinia rochetiana
24
39
40
0
119
31
0.9
Pentas lanceolata
8
14
10
0
50
10
0.3
Podocarpus falcatus
0
0
0
0
94
6
0.2
Prunus africana
0
0
4
0
38
3
0.1
Rhamnus staddo
0
0
4
0
56
4
0.1
Rosa abyssinica
143
94
102
132
313
136
4.0
Rubus apetalus
20
28
0
0
38
15
0.4
Satureja punctata
11
0
25
0
0
10
0.3
Sida schimperiana
70
0
110
68
0
63
1.9
Smilax aspera
26
83
0
0
0
23
0.7
Vernonia amygdalina
12
50
29
0
0
18
0.5
Vernonia leopoldi
106
122
96
111
75
105
3.1The frequency gives an approximate indication of the homogeneity and heterogeneity of a stand. The most frequent woody species in the study site wasJuniperus procera (90.3%) followed by Eucalyptus globulus and Rosa abyssinica (Table 5). This may be attributed to the deliberate plantation and natural regeneration of Juniperus procera for the greening of the city of Addis Ababa. Naturally, the area is classified under dry Afromontane forest ecosystem where the Juniper is most dominant. Moreover, Eucalyptus globulus was originally introduced in the 19th century to solve the problem of fuelwood and construction material for the surrounding people around the Entoto mountain chain.Table 5
Frequency and relative frequency of selected species.
Species name
Frequency
Relative frequency
Acacia abyssinica
40.32
2.75
Asparagus africanus
51.61
3.52
Bersama abyssinica
22.58
1.54
Carissa spinarum
8.06
0.55
Clematis simensis
6.45
0.44
Clutia lanceolata
12.9
0.88
Croton macrostachyus
1.61
0.11
Dovyalis abyssinica
40.32
2.75
Dovyalis verrucosa
8.00
0.55
Ekebergia capensis
22.58
1.54
Erica arborea
16.13
1.10
Erythrina brucei
8.00
0.55
Eucalyptus globulus
72.58
4.96
Ficus sur
3.22
0.22
Ficus vasta
1.61
0.11
Hagenia abyssinica
11.29
0.77
Jasminum stans
25.81
1.76
Juniperus procera
90.32
6.17
Lippia adoensis
24.19
1.65
Maesa lanceolata
32.26
2.20
Maytenus arbutifolia
32.26
2.20
Myrsine africana
25.81
1.76
Myrsine melanophloeos
16.00
1.09
Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata
12.9
0.88
Olinia rochetiana
40.32
2.75
Pentas lanceolata
32.26
2.20
Podocarpus falcatus
1.61
0.11
Prunus africana
9.68
0.66
Rhamnus staddo
8.06
0.55
Rosa abyssinica
80.65
5.51
Rubus apetalus
16.13
1.10
Satureja punctata
12.90
0.88
Sida schimperiana
8.06
0.55
Smilax aspera
24.19
1.65
Vernonia amygdalina
6.45
0.44
Vernonia leopoldi
40.32
2.75


## 3.2. Regeneration Status in the Study Area

Composition and density of seedlings and saplings would indicate the status of regeneration in the study area. Information on the regeneration status 72 species was naturally regenerated in the study area. A total of 55 species were represented in the seedling class, and the total seedling density of naturally regenerated woody species was 2876 individuals’ ha−1. The sapling class was composed of 42 species; the total sapling density of naturally regenerated woody species was 3363 individuals’ ha−1. A total of 68 woody species were represented in the mature tree/shrub class and the total mature tree and shrub density was 4645 individuals ha −1. The result showed that the floristic composition and density of the species were varying; there were seedlings or saplings of Olinia rochetiana, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, and Prunus africana while lacked mature woody species. This might suggest that there were exploitations of mature individuals in the study area. The composition, distribution, and density of seedlings and saplings of selected species indicate the future status of the forest. Composition of seedling population perishes before reaching sapling stage due to browsing, grazing, and trampling by wild and domestic animals. Moreover, seedlings are more vulnerable to environmental hazards and biotic factors especially at the early stages of seedling establishment [21].The ratio of woody species seedlings to mature tree/shrub (0.62 : 1), seedlings to saplings (0.76 : 1), and saplings to mature tree/shrub (0.81 : 1) showed the distribution of more mature tree/shrub population than that of seedling and saplings. Potential causes of seedling mortality include abiotic stresses such as shade, drought, and trampling, and biotic influences such as herbivory, root competition lack of safe site for seed recruitment, nature of seeds of certain trees which seek dormancy period, litter accumulation, pathogens, species specificity, and moisture stress or probably they might have other alternative adaptations for propagation and reproduction rather than seed germination [21]. Therefore, additional work and consecutive monitoring of the natural regeneration in the study area are needed; particularly, the status of soil seed banks has to be investigated to recognize whether or not regeneration potential, other than seedlings and saplings, survives.The plantations have been subjected to natural and human-induced disturbances, which resulted in their degradation or complete destruction. The loss of forest results in soil erosion, land degradation, loss of biodiversity, and impoverishment of ecosystems. In most of the woody plants in dry Afromontane forests, the lack of persistent soil seed banks affects the formation of populations of seedlings on the forest floor [22]. Natural disturbances and human exploitation, such as careful selective cutting, may promote regeneration of the Eucalyptus globulus. However, excessive exploitation of species or clearing and conversion of the forest areas into permanent cultivation will eliminate or reduce the species composition and density especially (degraded land). The absence of soil seed banks and seedlings and removal of mature trees as well as their stumps and roots coupled with poor long-distance dispersal will have severe consequences on the regeneration of the woody vegetation. This implies that the future existence of tropical dry evergreen Afromontane forests depends on the protection and conservation of the remaining patches of forests [8]. Entoto Mountain and its surrounding area are characterized by high density of naturally regenerated woody species. Thus, the naturally regenerated woody species are in a good state of regeneration. Juniperus procera, Carissa spinarum, Rosa abyssinica, and Myrsine africana are species with the highest density of naturally regenerating woody plants than the remaining woody species in the study area. Similar findings were reported in the study conducted by Debushe [23]. The probable reason for high density of Rosa abyssinica and Myrsine africana may be due to their resistance to browsing by wild or domestic animals and its low household and economic uses.Earlier works have shown that the presence or absence of understory vegetation in a plantation is a factor of the density of the stand, the rainfall regime, and management than their origin (reference).Eucalyptus plantations have been existed for centuries without affecting the regeneration potential of some selected species like Rosa abyssinica, Rubus apetalus, Carissa spinarum, Juniperus procera, Maytenus arbutifolia, Maesa lanceolata, Myrsine africana, Laggera tomentosa, Satureja punctata, Dovyalis abyssinica, and Vernonia leopoldi in the study area. This would contribute to the rehabilitation of degraded lands partly by increasing plant biodiversity particularly, shrubs, climbers, and lianas. On top of this, less dense stands of Eucalyptus globulus harbors more regenerated plant species than the high dense stands of Eucalyptus globulus. In fact, human disturbance, such as collection of firewood, animal grazing, farming, and other activities, reduces considerably the regeneration process in Eucalyptus plantation forest.Many authors [6, 7, 23] described that Eucalyptus can act as succession catalysts, facilitating the recolonization of native flora through their influence on understory microclimate and soil fertility which is in agreement with the present finding.A study made by Debushe [23] clearly demonstrated that there is a seed source in the vicinity; establishment of forest plantations can help not only to provide wood for various purposes, rehabilitate degraded lands, and conserve soil and water but also to catalyze natural regeneration of shrubs, climbers and lianas, and some tree species, thereby enhancing plant biodiversity. A study conducted in similar areas is in agreement with the findings of the present study [24].


## 4. Conclusion and Recommendations

Entoto Mountain and its surrounding area are characterized by high density of naturally regenerated woody species and relatively in good state of regeneration. From the present study, a total of 179 plant species were recorded and identified. Of which, Asteraceae (30 species) was the most dominant family followed by Fabaceae. Of the total, 77 species were woody plant species. Some of these woody plants which dominantly occur in the study area includeEucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Casuarina equisetifolia, Juniperus procera, and Cupressus lusitanica. In general, the study area provides important economic and social value to the rural communities living around the area, by its attraction to domestic and international tourists. To minimize the present human influence on the area and for the future management of the area in a sustainable manner, conservation and management activities should be immediately implemented by the responsible stakeholders such as Environmental Protection Authority, Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute, Forest Research Center, Forest, Environment and Climate Change Commission, and other institutions working on the related issues.Participatory management programmes should be introduced and implemented to protect locally threatened and the most economically important species from local extinction. Some of the species of conservation concern in the area includeCroton macrostachyus, Ficus sur, Ficus vasta, Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata, Hagenia abyssinica, Podocarpus falcatus, and Prunus africana.Raising public awareness on the use, conservation, and management of plant resources and vegetation is very important through extension programmes. Moreover, it is highly required by the responsible bodies to explore indigenous knowledge and other ethnobotanical matters on the diverse uses of plant resources to promote the sustainable use of the plant resources around Mount Entoto and the surroundings of Addis Ababa City.



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*Source: 4936193-2020-04-28.xml*