# Status, Distribution, and Diversity of Birds in Mining Environment of Kachchh, Gujarat

Authors: Nikunj B. Gajera; Arun Kumar Roy Mahato; V. Vijay Kumar
Journal: International Journal of Biodiversity
 (2013)

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## Abstract

Opencast mining is one of the major reasons for the destruction of natural habitats for many wildlife including birds. The Kachchh region belongs to the arid part of India and is one of the rich areas of mineral resources in the country. In the recent time and after the 2001 earthquake, mining and other developmental activities are increased, and as a result, the natural habitats of birds are disturbed and fragmented. So, this study was conducted to assess the impact of mining and associated activities on the diversity and distribution of birds. Birds were studied by surveying 180 transects along 9 zones around three selected major mines, and each zone is made in every 2 km radius from the mine. Based on the record, it was found that the density and diversity of birds are highest in zone 5 and lowest in zone 1 and zone 2, respectively. The result indicates that the diversity and abundance of birds were less in zones which are located close to the mines in comparison to the zones far from the mines. In conclusion, mining and its associated activities have some impacts on the diversity and distribution of birds in Kachchh region in India.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

Mining and its related activities are one of the major causes for the destruction of natural habitats for wildlife. As these activities increased in context of rapid use of natural resources to meet the demand of the market and the development of region and country, the pressure of threat to the wildlife is increasing day by day. In addition to mining, large parts of forests and wildlife habitats are being cleared for agriculture, industry, roads and railways network, and human habitation leading to degradation, fragmentation, and loss of habitat contributing to the overall loss of biological diversity.  The loss of habitat and biological diversity by means of mining and its associated activities creates imbalance in ecological equilibrium.Kachchh is one of the rich avifaunal diversity areas of India and also falls under one of the migratory route of the avifauna of this country. The list of birds of Kachchh district was made by some workers from time to time; notably among them were Lester [1], Ali [2], Ripley [3], Himmatsinhji [4], and Maharao [5].  The Kachchh district supports around 303 species of birds as recorded by Tiwari [6] and 370 bird species as reported by Sen [7] with some species including raptors, waterfowl, waders, and larks which are commonly found in this district. Similar to that, Kachchh is also a rich area of minerals including limestone, bentonite, and lignite. After the 2001 earthquake in Kachchh, many steps like industrialization and mining activities were increased for the development of this region. The consequence of the above activities results in the loss and fragmentation of habitat for wildlife. The major impacts on avifaunal diversity by means of the above development in postearthquake period are not being studied and assessed. In addition to that, so far no studies were made on the status, distribution, and diversity of birds in relation to the impact of mining and other developmental activities.The bird species are widely distributed among various habitats in western Kachchh region. Various factors associated with different habitat types had a distinct impact on bird species. Likewise, various land use activities especially opencast mining that is being done at a mass scale in the region also affect the bird populations considerably, so we tested the following research hypotheses.Ho:
There is an impact of mining on the distribution and diversity of bird species.


## 2. Materials and Methods

### 2.1. Study Area

The study was conducted in three major mining areas, namely, Pandhro, Mata-nu-madh, and Jadva. The mining activities are carried out for extraction of minerals including limestone, bentonite, and lignite. All the three mines are opencast mines results into that major loss of habitats by extraction of minerals and dumping of waste materials in open ground. These mines are situated in the westernmost part of Kachchh district, Gujarat, and are very close to the Narayan Sarovar Wildlife Sanctuary, which is the only habitat in Kachchh for Indian gazelle (Gazella benetti) and some other wildlife. This area falls in the arid zone of the country and is characterized by presence of an admixture of distinguishable habitats such as Acacia forest (AF), Euphorbia salvadora forest (ES), mixed thorn forest (MTF), Prosopis forest (PF), dense grassland (DG), and sparse grassland (SG). Some seasonal and perennial wetlands and agricultural fields were also interspersed in and around the mining areas. The habitats found in the study area were broadly divided into seven habitat types which are described below.Acacia Forest (AF). In this habitat, Acacia senegal and Acacia nilotica were dominant species with negligible distribution of P. juliflora.Mixed Thorn Forest. This habitat is a complex distribution of species like Acacia nilotica, A. senegal, Euphorbia caducifolia, Grewiaspp. Commiphora wightii,andSalvadoraspp. with some individuals of P. juliflora.Euphorbia salvadora Forest. This habitat, dominated by Euphorbia caducifolia, Salvadora persica, and Salvadora oleoides.Prosopis Forest. This habitat dominated by theP. Juliflora(an Invasive alien species) with few other species likeGrewia tenax, G. villosa, andCapparis deciduas which were also found.Grassland Forest. Some areas were flat to gentle undulate terrain covered by annual or perennial grasses, and absence of shrub or tree species which were categorized under grassland. Grassland has a main component of the member of Gramineae family. Cymbopogon spp. and Dichanthium spp. are the major grass species.Agriculture Field. This habitat included agriculture field (fallow or current agriculture) in which annually single cropping system was existed. The agricultural fields were also invaded by P. juliflora, Capparis deciduas, or Salvadora spp.Wetland. Wetland habitat included man-made and natural water bodies with the presence of water in the whole year or some parts of the year. Most of the wetlands of the study area were man-made due to low precipitation rate.


### 2.2. Sampling Method

Prior to field surveys, the study area was stratified into various distinguishable habitats such asAcacia forest (AF), Euphorbia salvadora forest (ES), mixed thorn forest (MTF), Prosopis forest (PF), dense grassland (DG), and sparse grassland (SG). The above habitats were evenly distributed in the whole study area. After stratification, the entire area was divided into 5 × 5 km grids using survey of India’s georeferenced coordinate system. Those grid cells were further subdivided into 1 × 1 km smaller grids, and a total of 180 transects were laid down randomly within the grids (Figure 1). The length of each transect was 1.1 km and was laid down randomly to cover each kind of habitats. To understand the impact of mining on birds, the diversity and distribution pattern of bird was recorded by dividing the area into nine circular zones (zone 1 to zone 9) with an interval of 2 km from the centre of mine (Figure 1).  Care was taken to have adequate sampling in each of the topographical features across lateral and vertical gradients like altitudinal range and terrain, and spatially within each habitat type.Figure 1
Location of the study area and transects (spots) and various zones (in circles) made around the three selected mines (Pandhro, Mata-na-madh, and Jadva) of western Kachchh for bird study.Bird survey was done using direct count methods which include (1) point count method and (2) area search method. In point count method [8], birds were recorded in four circular plots with 25 m radius in every 300 m distance along transects. In area search method [9], survey was made in 3 m wide belt along transect in between the circular plot. The time taken for survey varied depending on the terrain and topography. Surveys were conducted in the morning hours (6.30 a.m. to 9.30 a.m.) and evening hours (3.30 p.m. to 6.30 p.m.) by a single observer. Samplings were made in seasonal basis for the period of three years (2008 to 2010) using same transect and time. Observations were carried out with the aid of 8 × 40 binoculars, and field characteristics were noted down on special ornithological data sheet which included species, number of individuals, activity, microhabitat, threats with other minor details. The birds were identified with the help of Ali and Ripley [10], Ali [11], and Grimmett et al. [12]. Birds sighted during our survey were categorized based on their migratory nature including resident breeder (RB), resident (R), and migrant (M) according to Ali [11] and also categorized into their trophic guilds like insectivore, nectarivore, omnivore, scavenger, frugivore, carnivore, piscivore, and granivore  according to Willis [13], Robinson et al. [14], and Anjos [15].


### 2.3. Data Analysis

The data collected during the whole study period were analyzed in PAST statistical software [16] to calculate species diversity, density, richness, and species composition by using the following formulae.(A)
Shannon Wiener diversity index(H′)  H′=∑Pi×ln(Pi), where
H = index of species diversity,Pi = proportion of total sample belonging to the ith species,ln = natural log1.(B)
Density = no. of individuals/total area surveyed (in hectare).(C)
Menhinick richness index = the ratio of the number of taxa to the square root of sample size.(D)
Buzas and Gibson’s evenness:eH/S.The rarefaction analysis was carried by using Biodiversity Pro software, 1997, to cope up the problem in comparing diversity among various land cover or habitat categories evaluated during the present study.


### 2.4. Hypothesis Testing

The null hypotheses tested for significance of differences was the following.Ha:
There is no impact of mining on the distribution and diversity of bird species.Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the hypotheses, and Tukey’s HSD post hoc analysis was carried to identify specific variables that differ significantly. The variables used for testing the hypotheses included the number of species, density, Shannon diversity index, and Menhinick species richness index. These variables representing bird species diversity were evaluated from each mine zone from Z1 to Z9.Further, cluster analysis was made to quantify the resemblance among bird communities inhabiting various mine zones. Cluster analysis was performed on bird species. Abundance data were obtained from transect survey using minimum variances technique, known as Ward’s method, which has been recognized as the best way to classify the ecological communities and to identify community structure. The cluster analysis generated a dendrogram providing hierarchically nested groups or clusters representing distinct bird communities, which were represented by subclusters.


## 2.1. Study Area

The study was conducted in three major mining areas, namely, Pandhro, Mata-nu-madh, and Jadva. The mining activities are carried out for extraction of minerals including limestone, bentonite, and lignite. All the three mines are opencast mines results into that major loss of habitats by extraction of minerals and dumping of waste materials in open ground. These mines are situated in the westernmost part of Kachchh district, Gujarat, and are very close to the Narayan Sarovar Wildlife Sanctuary, which is the only habitat in Kachchh for Indian gazelle (Gazella benetti) and some other wildlife. This area falls in the arid zone of the country and is characterized by presence of an admixture of distinguishable habitats such as Acacia forest (AF), Euphorbia salvadora forest (ES), mixed thorn forest (MTF), Prosopis forest (PF), dense grassland (DG), and sparse grassland (SG). Some seasonal and perennial wetlands and agricultural fields were also interspersed in and around the mining areas. The habitats found in the study area were broadly divided into seven habitat types which are described below.Acacia Forest (AF). In this habitat, Acacia senegal and Acacia nilotica were dominant species with negligible distribution of P. juliflora.Mixed Thorn Forest. This habitat is a complex distribution of species like Acacia nilotica, A. senegal, Euphorbia caducifolia, Grewiaspp. Commiphora wightii,andSalvadoraspp. with some individuals of P. juliflora.Euphorbia salvadora Forest. This habitat, dominated by Euphorbia caducifolia, Salvadora persica, and Salvadora oleoides.Prosopis Forest. This habitat dominated by theP. Juliflora(an Invasive alien species) with few other species likeGrewia tenax, G. villosa, andCapparis deciduas which were also found.Grassland Forest. Some areas were flat to gentle undulate terrain covered by annual or perennial grasses, and absence of shrub or tree species which were categorized under grassland. Grassland has a main component of the member of Gramineae family. Cymbopogon spp. and Dichanthium spp. are the major grass species.Agriculture Field. This habitat included agriculture field (fallow or current agriculture) in which annually single cropping system was existed. The agricultural fields were also invaded by P. juliflora, Capparis deciduas, or Salvadora spp.Wetland. Wetland habitat included man-made and natural water bodies with the presence of water in the whole year or some parts of the year. Most of the wetlands of the study area were man-made due to low precipitation rate.


## 2.2. Sampling Method

Prior to field surveys, the study area was stratified into various distinguishable habitats such asAcacia forest (AF), Euphorbia salvadora forest (ES), mixed thorn forest (MTF), Prosopis forest (PF), dense grassland (DG), and sparse grassland (SG). The above habitats were evenly distributed in the whole study area. After stratification, the entire area was divided into 5 × 5 km grids using survey of India’s georeferenced coordinate system. Those grid cells were further subdivided into 1 × 1 km smaller grids, and a total of 180 transects were laid down randomly within the grids (Figure 1). The length of each transect was 1.1 km and was laid down randomly to cover each kind of habitats. To understand the impact of mining on birds, the diversity and distribution pattern of bird was recorded by dividing the area into nine circular zones (zone 1 to zone 9) with an interval of 2 km from the centre of mine (Figure 1).  Care was taken to have adequate sampling in each of the topographical features across lateral and vertical gradients like altitudinal range and terrain, and spatially within each habitat type.Figure 1
Location of the study area and transects (spots) and various zones (in circles) made around the three selected mines (Pandhro, Mata-na-madh, and Jadva) of western Kachchh for bird study.Bird survey was done using direct count methods which include (1) point count method and (2) area search method. In point count method [8], birds were recorded in four circular plots with 25 m radius in every 300 m distance along transects. In area search method [9], survey was made in 3 m wide belt along transect in between the circular plot. The time taken for survey varied depending on the terrain and topography. Surveys were conducted in the morning hours (6.30 a.m. to 9.30 a.m.) and evening hours (3.30 p.m. to 6.30 p.m.) by a single observer. Samplings were made in seasonal basis for the period of three years (2008 to 2010) using same transect and time. Observations were carried out with the aid of 8 × 40 binoculars, and field characteristics were noted down on special ornithological data sheet which included species, number of individuals, activity, microhabitat, threats with other minor details. The birds were identified with the help of Ali and Ripley [10], Ali [11], and Grimmett et al. [12]. Birds sighted during our survey were categorized based on their migratory nature including resident breeder (RB), resident (R), and migrant (M) according to Ali [11] and also categorized into their trophic guilds like insectivore, nectarivore, omnivore, scavenger, frugivore, carnivore, piscivore, and granivore  according to Willis [13], Robinson et al. [14], and Anjos [15].


## 2.3. Data Analysis

The data collected during the whole study period were analyzed in PAST statistical software [16] to calculate species diversity, density, richness, and species composition by using the following formulae.(A)
Shannon Wiener diversity index(H′)  H′=∑Pi×ln(Pi), where
H = index of species diversity,Pi = proportion of total sample belonging to the ith species,ln = natural log1.(B)
Density = no. of individuals/total area surveyed (in hectare).(C)
Menhinick richness index = the ratio of the number of taxa to the square root of sample size.(D)
Buzas and Gibson’s evenness:eH/S.The rarefaction analysis was carried by using Biodiversity Pro software, 1997, to cope up the problem in comparing diversity among various land cover or habitat categories evaluated during the present study.


## 2.4. Hypothesis Testing

The null hypotheses tested for significance of differences was the following.Ha:
There is no impact of mining on the distribution and diversity of bird species.Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the hypotheses, and Tukey’s HSD post hoc analysis was carried to identify specific variables that differ significantly. The variables used for testing the hypotheses included the number of species, density, Shannon diversity index, and Menhinick species richness index. These variables representing bird species diversity were evaluated from each mine zone from Z1 to Z9.Further, cluster analysis was made to quantify the resemblance among bird communities inhabiting various mine zones. Cluster analysis was performed on bird species. Abundance data were obtained from transect survey using minimum variances technique, known as Ward’s method, which has been recognized as the best way to classify the ecological communities and to identify community structure. The cluster analysis generated a dendrogram providing hierarchically nested groups or clusters representing distinct bird communities, which were represented by subclusters.


## 3. Results

On surveying the mining and surrounding peripheral areas of the study area including all kinds of habitat, 252 species of birds (see Table2) were recorded in western Kachchh. Various zones from zone 1 to zone 9 made for this study were located in and around the mines as shown in Figure 1. Zone 1 and zone 2 are overlapping with mines and are very close to the mines while zone 9 is the farthest from the mines. These zones were described as Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4, Z5, Z6, Z7, Z8, and Z9. The total number of bird species, mean number of species/transects, and their density recorded in various zones are shown in Table 1. Among these zones, Z1 recorded the least number of species and Z5 recorded the highest number of species of birds, while mean number of species/transects recorded its minimum value in Z2 and its maximum in Z7. Among the zones, Larks were the most abundant group of birds in Z1, Z3, and Z9, common coot was the most abundant in Z2, Z5, and Z8, while lesser short-toed lark, common crane, and white pelican were the most abundant in Z4, Z6, and Z7, respectively.  The density or mean number of individual/ha recorded its highest value in Z5 (322) and its lowest in Z1 (204) in comparison to the other zones.Table 1
Bird species diversity and density in various zones of mining areas.
Zone
Total number of species
No. of species/transects
Mean density/Ha
Z
1
114
31.66
204
Z
2
153
31.06
250
Z
3
126
34.33
271
Z
4
139
32.73
222
Z
5
195
37.89
322
Z
6
149
39.54
254
Z
7
175
40.42
303
Z
8
154
35
270
Z
9
157
42.04
248Table 2
Checklist of birds recorded during the study.
Sl. no.
Order/family
Species scientific name
Common name
MS
IUCN 2010
Feeding habit
Anseriformes
1
Anatidae
Anas acuta
Northern pintail
M
—
A
2
Anas clypeata
Northern shoveller
M
—
A
3
Anas penelope
Eurasian wigeon
M
—
A
4
Anas platyrhynchos
Mallard
RM
—
A
5
Anas poecilorhyncha
Spot-billed duck
RM
—
A
6
Anas querquedula
Garganey
M
—
A
7
Anas strepera
Gadwall
M
—
A
8
Aythya ferina
Common pochard
M
—
A
9
Aythya fuligula
Tufted pochard
M
—
A
10
Sarkidiornis melanotos
Comb duck
R
—
A
11
Dendrocygnidae
Dendrocygna javanica
Lesser whistling duck
R
—
A
Apodiiformes
12
Apodidae
Apus affinis
House(little) swift
R
—
I
Ciconiiformes
13
Accipitridae
Accipiter badius
Shikra
R
—
C
14
Accipiter nisus
Eurasian sparrow-hawk
R
—
C
15
Aquila heliaca
Imperial eagle
R
VU
C
16
Aquila nipalensis
Steppe eagle
M
—
C
17
Aquila pomarina
Lesser spotted eagle
M
—
C
18
Aquila rapax
Tawny eagle
R
—
C
19
Butastur teesa
White-eyed buzzard
R
—
C
20
Buteo buteo
Long-legged buzzard
R
—
C
21
Circaetus gallicus
Short-toad snake eagle
R
—
C
22
Circus aeruginosus
Eurasian marsh harrier
M
—
C
23
Circus macrourus
Pallid harrier
M
NT
C
24
Circus melanoleucos
Pied harrier
RM
—
C
25
Circus pygargus
Montagu’s harrier
M
—
C
26
Elanus caeruleus
Black-shouldered kite
R
—
C
27
Gyps bengalensis
Indian white-backed vulture
R
CR
C
28
Gyps indicus
Long-billed vulture
R
CR
C
29
Haliaeetus leucogaster
White-bellied sea-eagle
R
—
C
30
Haliaeetus leucoryphus
Pallas's fish-eagle
RM
VU
C
31
Haliastur Indus
Brahminy kite
R
—
C
32
Hieraaetus fasciatus
Bonelli's eagle
M
—
C
33
Hieraaetus pennatus
Booted eagle
R
—
C
34
Milvus migrans
Black kite
R
—
C
35
Pernis ptilorhynchus
Oriental honey-buzzard
R
—
C
36
Spilornis cheela
Crested serpent eagle
R
—
C
37
Ardeidae
Ardea alba
Great egret
RM
—
A
38
Ardea cinerea
Grey heron
RM
—
A
39
Ardea purpurea
Purple heron
RM
—
A
40
Ardeola grayii
Indian pond heron
R
—
A
41
Bubulcus ibis
Cattle egret
R
—
I
42
Butorides striatus
Little green heron
RM
—
A
43
Egretta garzetta
Little egret
R
—
A
44
Egretta gularis
Western reef-egret
R
—
A
45
Mesophoyx intermedia
Intermediate egret
R
—
A
46
Burhinidae
Burhinus oedicnemus
Eurasian thick-knee
R
—
A
47
Charadriidae
Calidris alpine
Dunlin
M
—
A
48
Charadrius alexandrinus
Kentish plover
RM
—
A
49
Charadrius mongolus
Lesser sand plover
RM
—
A
50
Charadrius dubius
Common ring plover
RM
—
A
51
Esacus magnirostris
Greater sand-plover
R
—
A
52
Himantopus himantopus
Black-winged stilt
R
—
A
53
Pluvialis squatarola
Grey plover
M
—
A
54
Rostratula benghalensis
Painted snipe
R
—
A
55
Tringa erythropus
Spotted redshank
M
—
A
56
Vanellus indicus
Red-wattled lapwing
R
—
I
57
Vanellus malabaricus
Yellow-wattled lapwing
R
—
I
58
Calidris minuta
Little stint
M
—
A
59
Ciconiidae
Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus
Black necked stork
R
NT
P
60
Mycteria leucocephala
Painted stork
RM
NT
A
61
Falconidae
Falco chicquera
Red-necked falcon
R
—
C
62
Falco jugger
Lagger falcon
R
NT
C
63
Falco naumanni
Lesser kestrel
R
VU
C
64
Falco subbuteo centralasiae
Eurasian hobby
M
—
C
65
Falco tinnunculus
Common kestrel
RM
—
C
66
Glareolidae
Cursorius coromandelicus
Indian courser
R
—
I
67
Laridae
Calidris alba
Sanderling
RM
—
P
68
Chlidonias leucopterus
White winged black tern
RM
—
P
69
Larus brunnicephalus
Brown-headed gull
RM
—
P
70
Larus cachinnans
Yellow-legged gull
M
—
P
71
Larus fuscus
Lesser black backed gull
M
—
P
72
Sterna acuticauda
Black-bellied tern
M
NT
P
73
Sterna aurantia
River tern
R
—
A
74
Sterna caspia
Caspian tern
RM
—
P
75
Pelecanidae
Pelecanus onocrotalus
Great white-pelican
RM
—
P
76
Phalacrocoracidae
Phalacrocorax carbo
Great cormorant
R
—
A
77
Phalacrocorax fuscicollis
Indian cormorant
R
—
A
78
Phalacrocorax niger
Little cormorant
R
—
A
79
Phoenicopteridae
Phoenicopterus minor
Lesser flamingo
RM
NT
A
80
Phoenicopterus ruber
Greater flamingo
RM
—
A
81
Podicipedidae
Podiceps cristatus
Great crested grebe
RM
—
A
82
Podiceps nigricollis
Black-necked grebe
M
—
A
83
Tachybaptus ruficollis
Little grebe
R
—
A
84
Pteroclididae
Pterocles alchata
White-bellied sandgrouse
M
—
G
85
Pterocles exustus
Chestnut-bellied sandgrouse
R
—
G
86
Pterocles indicus
Painted sandgrouse
R
—
G
87
Scolopacidae
Actitis hypoleucos
Common sandpiper
R
—
A
88
Limosa limosa
Black-tailed godwit
M
NT
A
89
Numenius phaeopus
Whimbrel
M
—
A
90
Tringa glareola
Wood sandpiper
M
—
A
91
Tringa nebularia
Common greenshank
M
—
A
92
Tringa ochropus
Green sandpiper
M
—
A
93
Tringa stagnatilis
Marsh sandpiper
M
—
A
94
Threskiornithidae
Platalea leucorodia
Eurasian spoonbill
RM
—
A
95
Plegadis falcinellus
Glossy ibis
RM
—
I
96
Pseudibis papillosa
Black ibis
R
—
I
97
Threskiornis melanocephalus
Black-headed ibis
RM
NT
A
Columbiformes
98
Columbidae
Columba livia
Rock pigeon
R
—
G
99
Streptopelia chinensis
Spotted dove
R
—
G
100
Streptopelia decaocto
Eurasian collared dove
R
—
G
101
Streptopelia orientalis
Oriental turtle-dove
RM
—
G
102
Streptopelia senegalensis
Laughing dove
R
—
G
103
Streptopelia tranquebarica
Red-collared dove
R
—
G
Coraciiformes
104
Alcedinidae
Alcedo Hercules
Common kingfisher
R
—
P
105
Cerylidae
Ceryle rudis
Lesser pied kingfisher
R
—
P
106
Coraciidae
Coracias benghalensis
Indian roller
R
—
I
107
Coracias garrulus
European roller
RM
NT
I
108
Dacelonidae
Halcyon smyrnensis
White-throated
R
—
P
109
Meropidae
Merops leschenaulti
Chestnut-headed bee-eater
R
—
I
110
Merops orientalis
Green bee-eater
R
—
I
111
Merops persicus
Blue-cheeked bee-eater
RM
—
I
112
Merops philippinus
Blue-tailed bee-eater
RM
—
I
Cuculiformes
113
Centropodidae
Centropus sinensis
Greater coucal
R
—
O
114
Cuculidae
Cuculus canorus
Pied-crested cuckoo
R
—
I
115
Eudynamys scolopacea
Asian koel
R
—
F
116
Phaenicophaeus leschenaultii
Sirkeer cuckoo
R
—
O
Galliformes
117
Phasianidae
Coturnix coromandelica
Rain quail
R
—
G
118
Coturnix coturnix
Common quail
R
—
G
119
Francolinus francolinus
Black francolin
R
—
G
120
Francolinus pictus
Painted francolin
R
—
G
121
Francolinus pondicerianus
Grey francolin
R
—
G
122
Pavo cristatus
Indian peafowl
R
—
G
123
Perdicula asiatica
Jungle bush quail
R
—
G
Gruiformes
124
Gruidae
Grus grus
Common crane
M
—
O
125
Grus virgo
Demoiselle crane
M
—
O
126
Otididae
Ardeotis nigriceps
Great indian bustard
R
EN
G
127
Rallidae
Fulica atra
Common coot
R
—
A
128
Gallinula chloropus
Common moorhen
R
—
A
Passeriformes
129
Alaudidae
Alauda arvensis
Eurasian skylark
R
—
G
130
Alauda gulgula
Oriental skylark
R
—
G
131
Ammomanes phoenicurus
Rufous-tailed lark
R
—
G
132
Calandrella brachydactyla
Greater short-toed lark
M
—
G
133
Calandrella rufescens
Lesser short-toed lark
RM
—
G
134
Eremopterix grisea
Ashy-crowned sparrow-lark
R
—
G
135
Galerida cristata
Crested lark
R
—
G
136
Galerida deva
Sykes's crested lark
R
—
G
137
Galerida malabarica
Malabar lark
RM
—
G
138
Mirafra affinis
Jerdon's bushlark
RM
—
G
139
Mirafra cantillans
Singing bushlark
R
—
G
140
Mirafra erythroptera
Indian bushlark
R
—
G
141
Mirafra erythroptera
Red-winged bush-lark
R
—
G
142
Certhiidae
Salpornis spilonotus
Spotted creeper
R
—
I
143
Cisticolidae
Orthotomus sutorius
Tailor bird
R
—
I
144
Prinia buchanani
Rufous-fronted prinia
R
—
I
145
Prinia hodgsonii
Grey-breasted prinia
R
—
I
146
Prinia inornata
Plain prinia
R
—
I
147
Prinia socialis
Ashy prinia
R
—
I
148
Prinia sylvatica
Jungle prinia
R
—
I
149
Corvidae
Aegithina nigrolutea
Marshall's iora
R
—
I
150
Coracina macei
Large cuckoo shrike
R
—
I
151
Corvus splendens
House crow
R
—
O
152
Dendrocitta vagabunda
Rufous treepie
R
—
I
153
Dicrurus caerulescens
White-bellied drongo
R
—
I
154
Dicrurus macrocercus
Black drongo
R
—
I
155
Pericrocotus cinnamomeus
Small minivet
R
—
I
156
Rhipidura aureola
White-browed fantail
R
—
I
157
Tephrodornis gularis
Large wood shrike
R
—
I
158
Tephrodornis pondicerianus
Common woodshrike
R
—
I
159
Fringillidae
Emberiza buchanani
Grey-necked bunting
M
—
G
160
Emberiza cia
Rock bunting
M
—
G
161
Emberiza melanocephala
Ortolan bunting
M
—
G
162
Emberiza striolata
House bunting
R
—
G
163
Melophus lathami
Crested bunting
R
—
G
164
Hirundinidae
Hirundo concolor
Dusky crag-martin
R
—
I
165
Hirundo daurica
Red-rump swallow
R
—
I
166
Hirundo fluvicola
Streak-throated swallow
R
—
I
167
Hirundo rupestris
Eurasian crag-martin
R
—
I
168
Hirundo rustica
Barn swallow
RM
—
I
169
Hirundo smithii
Wire-tailed swallow
R
—
I
170
Laniidae
Lanius collurio
Red-backed shrike
R
—
C
171
Lanius cristatus
Brown shrike
M
—
C
172
Lanius isabellinus
Rufous-tailed shrike
RM
—
C
173
Lanius meridionalis
Southern grey shrike
R
—
C
174
Lanius schach
Long-tailed shrike
R
—
C
175
Lanius schach canipes
Rufous-backed shrike
R
—
C
176
Lanius vittatus
Bay-backed shrike
R
—
C
177
Muscicapidae
Cercomela fusca
Brown rock chat
R
—
I
178
Cercotrichas galactotes
Rufous chat
M
—
I
179
Copsychus saularis
Oriental magpie robin
R
—
I
180
Culicicapa ceylonensis
Grey-headed flycatcher
R
—
I
181
Ficedula parva
Red-throated flycatcher
R
—
I
182
Ficedula superciliaris
Ultramarine flycatcher
R
—
I
183
Muscicapa striata
Spotted flycatcher
RM
—
I
184
Oenanthe deserti
Desert wheatear
RM
—
I
185
Oenanthe isabellina
Isabelline wheatear
RM
—
I
186
Oenanthe picata
Variable wheatear
M
—
I
187
Phoenicurus erythronotus
Rufous-backed redstart
RM
—
I
188
Phoenicurus ochruros
Black redstart
RM
—
I
189
Saxicola caprata
Pied bush chat
R
—
I
190
Saxicola jerdoni
Pied chat
R
—
I
191
Saxicola macrorhyncha
Stoliczka's bushchat
RM
VU
I
192
Saxicola torquata
Common stonechat
RM
—
I
193
Saxicoloides fulicata
Indian robin
R
—
I
194
Turdus naumanni
Dusky thrush
RM
—
I
195
Turdus obscurus
Eyebrowed thrush
RM
—
I
196
Zoothera citrina
Orange-headed thrush
R
—
I
197
Nectariniidae
Aethopyga siparaja
Crimson sunbird
R
—
N
198
Dicaeum agile
Thick-billed flowerpecker
R
—
N
199
Nectarinia asiatica
Purple sunbird
R
—
N
200
Nectarinia zeylonica
Purple-rumped sunbird
R
—
N
201
Paridae
Parus major
Great tit
R
—
I
202
Parus nuchalis
Pied tit
R
VU
I
203
Passeridae
Anthus campestris
Tawny pipit
RM
—
G
204
Anthus godlewski
Blyth's pipit
RM
—
G
205
Anthus rufulus
Paddyfield pipit
R
—
G
206
Anthus similis jerdoni
Brown rock pipit
M
—
G
207
Anthus trivialis
Tree pipit
RM
—
G
208
Dendronanthus indicus
Forest wagtail
RM
—
I
209
Lonchura malabarica
Indian silverbill
R
—
G
210
Lonchura striata
White-rumped munia
R
—
G
211
Motacilla alba
White wagtail
RM
—
I
212
Motacilla cinerea
Grey wagtail
RM
I
213
Motacilla citreola
Citrine wagtail
RM
—
I
214
Motacilla flava
Yellow wagtail
RM
—
I
215
Passer domesticus
House sparrow
R
—
G
216
Petronia xanthocollis
Chestnut-shouldered petronia
R
—
G
217
Ploceus philippinus
Baya weaver
R
—
G
218
Pycnonotidae
Pycnonotus cafer
Red-vented bulbul
R
—
I
219
Pycnonotus leucotis
White-eared bulbul
R
—
I
220
Sturnidae
Acridotheres ginginianus
Bank myna
R
—
O
221
Acridotheres tristis
Common myna
R
—
I
222
Sturnus pagodarum
Brahminy starling
R
—
O
223
Sturnus roseus
Rosy starling
M
—
G
224
Sylviidae
Acrocephalus aedon
Thick-billed warbler
M
—
I
225
Acrocephalus dumetorum
Blyth's reed-warbler
RM
—
I
226
Acrocephalus stentoreus
Indian great reed-warbler
RM
—
I
227
Chaetornis striatus
Bristled grass-warbler
M
VU
I
228
Chrysomma sinense
Yellow-eyed babbler
R
—
I
229
Cisticola juncidis
Streak fantail warbler
R
—
I
230
Hippolais caligata
Booted warbler
RM
—
I
231
Locustella naevia
Grasshopper warbler
R
—
I
232
Phylloscopus inornatus
Desert warbler
R
—
F
233
Phylloscopus magnirostris
Large-billed leaf-warbler
M
—
I
234
Phylloscopus neglectus
Plain-leaf warbler
R
—
F
235
Phylloscopus trochiloides
Greenish leaf-warbler
M
—
I
236
Sylvia communis
Greater whitethroat
R
—
I
237
Sylvia curruca
Lesser whitethroat
M
—
I
238
Sylvia hortensis
Orphean warbler
M
—
I
239
Turdoides caudatus
Common babbler
R
—
G
240
Turdoides malcolmi
Large grey babbler
R
—
G
241
Turdoides striatus
Jungle babbler
R
—
G
242
Zosteropidae
Zosterops palpebrosus
Oriental white-eye
RM
—
F
Piciformes
243
Picidae
Dendrocopos mahrattensis
Yellow-fronted pied woodpecker
R
—
I
244
Jynx torquilla
Eurasian wryneck
R
—
I
Psittaciformes
245
Psittacidae
Psittacula cyanocephala
Plum-headed parakeet
R
—
F
246
Psittacula krameri
Rose-ringed parakeet
R
—
F
Strigiformes
247
Strigidae
Bubo bubo
Eurasian eagle owl
R
—
C
248
Otus bakkamoena
Collared scops-owl
R
—
I
249
Caprimulgidae
Caprimulgus asiaticus
Indian nightjar
R
—
I
250
Caprimulgus europaeus
Eurasian nightjar
M
—
I
251
Strigidae
Athene brama
Spotted owlet
R
—
C
Upupiformes
252
Upupidae
Upupa epops
Common hoopoe
RM
—
IThe overall diversity of the birds was rich within each zone of mining areas (Figure2) with the highest value in Z8 (H′=4.47) and the lowest in Z1 (H′=4.10) and Z4 (H′=4.10), while diversity of bird species/transects recorded the highest value in Z9 (H′=3.40) and the lowest in Z2 (H′=2.71). The species richness in various zones and per transect within each zone was calculated (Figure 3), and found that the Menhinick species richness index/zone was recorded the highest value in Z1 (2.92) and the lowest in Z4 (1.18), whereas Menhinick species richness index/transect recorded the highest value in Z9 (2.65) and the lowest in Z2 (1.96).  Similarly, the species evenness values of each zone and transect within were also calculated (Figure 3), and we found that the highest species evenness index was recorded in Z8 (0.57) and the lowest in Z5 (0.34), while species evenness index per transect was recorded more or less similar with the highest value in Z8 (0.78) and the lowest in Z2 (0.66).Figure 2
Species diversity of birds in various zones made around the mines in the study area.Figure 3
Species richness and equitability of birds in various zones made around the mines in the study area.On analysis of the data on various aspects of birds diversity in and around the mining areas based on various zones, it was found that diversity (Shannon diversity:F=2.984, df=8, and P<0.05) and richness (Menhinik species richness: F=2.403, df=8, and P<0.05) of birds in between zones differ significantly. Further, a Tukey HSD post hoc analysis results suggest that Z2 differs significantly from Z5 (P=0.018), Z6 (P=0.003), Z7 (P=0.015), Z8 (P=0.046), and Z9 (P=0.001) in terms of mean diversity, and Z2 differs significantly from Z9 (P=0.012) in terms of species richness. Rarefaction analysis was done for the expected number of species in each zone of the mining areas to standardize unequal sampling sizes (Figure 4). The expected number of species recorded its highest value in Z5 and its lowest in Z1. On cluster analysis of the data, abundance of birds revealed great similarities among sampling points belonging to the same kind of habitat. Six distinct groups, namely, Z1, Z3; Z4, Z6; Z9; Z8; Z2; Z7, Z5 were identified (Figure 5), and we found that Z4 and Z6 have maximum similarity in abundance and next to that were Z1 and Z3, while they have very less similarity of clusters with Z5.Figure 4
Rarefaction curve for expected number of bird species in different zones of mining environment of Kachchh, Gujarat.Figure 5
Clusters of zones based on abundance of bird species in mining areas of Kachchh, Gujarat.


## 4. Discussion

Ecosystem disturbance is one of the major phenomena in recent times which alters the relationship of organisms and their habitat in time and space. The extraction of mineral resources through mining activities in wildlife areas is one of the major factors for ecosystem disturbances and habitat fragmentation results impact on the survival of precious wildlife. Large-scale denudation of forest cover, scarcity of water, pollution of air, water, and soil, and degradation of agricultural lands are some of the conspicuous environmental implications of mining in western Kachchh. The result of the study reveals that the whole mining areas and its surrounding areas are rich in terms of avifaunal diversity and abundance. It’s also found that the species diversity, richness, and abundance were less in the zones which are close to the mines within 4 km radius to mines. Interestingly, the species diversity was found lowest in zone 2 in comparison to zone 1 which is probably due to the frequency of mining activities which were more in zone 2 in comparison to zone 1. The mining activity is completed in zone 1 and as a result some aquatic water bodies were developed in this zone which attracts aquatic birds to it. Salovarov and Kuznetsova [17] also found similar type of results in coal mining areas of Angara region, Russia.  At the present time, mining activities are more frequent in zone 2 as a result of bird species diversity, and abundance recorded less in comparison to the other zones. The species diversity, abundance, and richness were found highest in zones beyond zone 5 to zone 9 which were located in between 8 km to 18 km from the mines. The expected number of species in zone 5 was found to be the highest and zone 2 was the lowest. Some of the species of birds may adapt to the human habitation and mining environment as it provides easy food and habitat. Smith et al. [18] found that mining has no impact on birds, but it helps in supporting some breeding birds. The species of birds which naturally survive in certain kind of habitat in this area will get more threat from the mining activities as the mining in this areas is opencast type.


## 5. Conclusion

These results indicate that mining and its associated activities have some impacts on the diversity and distribution of birds in Kachchh region of Gujarat.  The enhancement of mining and other developmental activities after the earthquake and in recent times has worsened the situation which will further increase the rate of habitat destruction and their avifaunal diversity. Apart from the above, western Kachchh is the gateway of large number of migratory birds to India which will also be affected if the rate of mining activities and industrial development will go on like today.



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*Source: 471618-2013-04-17.xml*