# Review of Short-Term Load Forecasting for Smart Grids Using Deep Neural Networks and Metaheuristic Methods

Authors: Badar ul Islam; Maria Rasheed; Shams Forruque Ahmed
Journal: Mathematical Problems in Engineering
 (2022)

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## Abstract

Forecasting electricity load demand is critical for power system planning and energy management. In particular, accurate short-term load forecasting (STLF), which focuses on the lead time horizon of few minutes to one week ahead, can help in better load scheduling, unit commitment, and cost-effective operation of smart power grids. In the last decade, different artificial intelligence (AI)-based techniques and metaheuristic algorithms have been utilized for STLF by the researchers and scientists with varying degrees of accuracy and efficacy. Despite the benefits of implemented methods for STLF, many drawbacks and associated problems have also been observed and reported by the researchers. This paper provides a comprehensive review of hybrid deep learning models based on nature-inspired metaheuristic techniques for STLF with respect to the analysis of the results and accuracy. Moreover, it also provides the research findings and gaps that will assist the researchers to have an early awareness of all important benefits and drawbacks of these integrated STLF methods scientifically and systematically. Especially, the hybrid forecast models using artificial intelligence-based methods for smart grids are focused. Several performance indices are used to compare and report the accuracy of these techniques including mean absolute percentage error (MAPE). Multiple other parametric and exogenous variable details have also been focused to figure out the potential of the intelligent load forecasting techniques from the perspective of smart power grids.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

The importance of electrical load demand forecasting has significantly increased in state-of-the-art smart power grids. Electrical energy is different from other products and commodities because it cannot be processed and accumulated directly. It is produced on the basis of demand, and excess energy is wasteful [1]. Therefore, the excess electrical energy contributes to losses when its supply is more than the requirement. Therefore, accurate prediction of the future load demand is very crucial for proper scheduling of power generation [2–4]. In addition, accurate load forecasts save on maintenance and operation costs [5]. It also improves the reliability of the system and helps in making correct future decisions. Inaccurate forecasts could cause huge financial losses for power companies [6]. The results of a research conducted in the UK show a saving of 10 million pounds in the per annum operating cost of a powerhouse after reducing the forecast error by 1 percent [1].The study objectives of this review article include, but are not limited to, providing researchers and scientists with a comprehensive overview of contemporary state-of-the-art computational intelligence-based hybrid electrical load demand forecasting models. Accurate and effective load demand forecasting adds greatly to system stability by lowering the risk factors of power system companies' operations. It not only reduces labor and maintenance cost but also helps to save the environment by reducing the emission of harmful gases produced during the combustion of fossil fuels.With the increased design and deployment of smart grids, several researchers have examined hybrid STLF models based on various intelligent methodologies in smaller regions. The majority of the studies show that these models have a reasonable prediction accuracy for broad and modest domains. For relatively tiny regions, such as a building, the results can be improved by adjusting the input parameters and making slight structural modifications to the models.


### 1.1. Categories of Load Forecasting

On the basis of lead time frames, load forecasting in energy management systems (EMS) can be classified into many groups [7]. STLF for predictions of one day to one week ahead is useful for power companies’ day-to-day planning. It is critical for optimal unit commitment, spinning reserve control, evaluating sales/purchase contracts between various companies, and scheduling preventive maintenance [8]. Medium-term load forecasting (MTLF) is used to predict load demand from one month to one year ahead, and it is beneficial for fuel purchase and maintenance schedule, whereas long-term load forecasting (LTLF) focuses on the one year to ten years ahead of prediction and is important for the expansion plans and the development of new power plants in accordance with future needs. Knowledge of the potential long-term load demand allows the corporation to prepare for the community of people yet to come and to take monetarily sound decisions. MTLF supports the decisions on the appropriate assets; for instance, the powers needed to run the plants as well as different properties, expected to ensure continuous yet realistic age and customer capability.


### 1.2. Significance of STLF

The concept of load demand has always been an important part of the planning and efficiency of the energy system. Many energy companies use standardized methods of forecasting future load demand [9]. The STLF is important for the optimized operation of the power system in daily energy efficiency, exchange checks, security checks, reliability considerations, and numerical calculations [10, 11]. By having reliable short-term load demand predictions, the power companies get the benefits in terms of potential costs, strategic preparation, production projections, and control in pricing. Due to the significant importance of STLF, many researches have investigated and published on different load forecasting methods and schemes. Such investigations lead to decrease in running costs, improved productivity, and stable power supply [12]. Many models have been proposed to tackle this important problem over the past decades of STLF study.


### 1.3. Attributes of the Load

To design a good prediction model, it is necessary to intently analyze the load data and have a clear understanding of its dynamics. The in-depth study of basic features, such as the behavior of load data and their variability, is necessary to achieve exact forecast results. Data preprocessing and data normalization approaches are generally applied in the treatment of data based on load profile analysis. Based on their similar characteristics, input data can be divided into different groups or sections, which can improve predictive accuracy of the model. Preprocessing or normalization of data is a standardized data processing method. It facilitates the system in a way that without much of a stretch, it becomes familiar with the designs and creates superior output results [11].


### 1.4. Influence of Climate Factors on Load Data

Research shows a strong relationship between metrological variables related to multiple weather factors and load demand. Mostly, the load demand rises in summer owing to the hot weather and decreases in winter in hot climate regions and vice versa in the cold climate countries [9]. Therefore, the weather variables have to be taken into consideration to have accurate load forecasts. The study shows that load demand increases with the increase of dew point and vice versa. In the human perception study, the dew point should be between 40 and 60 degrees Fahrenheit; hence, the demand for the load is less in this range. Consequently, climate factors must be included as the inputs in the forecast models for accurate load demand forecasting.


### 1.5. Choosing a Model Input for Forecasting

The precise load forecast depends on better selection of inputs in neural network (NN) models. In addition, generally valid and relevant input data could provide better results for forecasting. Nonetheless, the norm for input model selection is not specified. In light of technical expertise or advanced understanding, a correct decision on selection of input variables is generally carried out.The input data are divided into two different types: one of which is training and the other testing data. However, training data are used for model training, while test data are used to monitor model performance. In this paper, two different sets of data are used to check and validate the performances of various NN-based models. However, for four years, from 2015 to 2018, load and meteorological data from the New-ISO England grid are utilized for the training and evaluation of NN-based models [13]. Moreover, the data of an industrial grid of Faisalabad Electricity Supply Corporation (FESCO), Pakistan, are also used in the experimentation. The number and types of input are important to improve the model's efficiency. Input selection is made on the basis of field experience and expertise as no standard rule is set for selection of model inputs [14].


### 1.6. Techniques and Algorithms for Forecasting

Many models have been proposed to tackle this important problem over the past decades of STLF study. These can be broadly segregated into two categories: parametric and nonparametric techniques [15]. Parametric models are based on statistical and mathematical techniques, whereas nonparametric models are based on artificial intelligence and other machine learning methods. Another common trend is to combine two or more techniques to develop hybrid scheme to get the integrated benefits of the adopted methods. It has been observed that hybrid models show better results in terms of accuracy and convergence.


#### 1.6.1. Parametric Techniques

Parametric or statistical techniques are developed on the basis of mathematical and statistical equations. Frequently reported parametric techniques for STLF include time series [16], linear regression [17], autoregression moving average ARMA [18], exponential methods [19], and time series [20]. If the input behavior is normal, parametric techniques demonstrate good predictability. If environmental or sociological variables change abruptly, such as weather or day in a particular week, forecast accuracy can be abruptly affected. Due to the dynamic nature of most of the input variables, these strategies have been controversial and less popular for STLF [15].


#### 1.6.2. Nonparametric Techniques

These techniques are based on artificial intelligence and other computational machine learning methods, such as ANN [5, 21], fuzzy logic [22], and expert systems [23]. In recent decades, ANN received enormous attention from the researchers because this is a powerful prediction method. It is considered superior to all previous methods because of its strong mapping capabilities between nonlinear input variables and outputs.In comparison with the parametric techniques, ANN has more benefits as it can map input-output pairs and recall them when required. This technique trains the model and extracts the input-output pattern relationship, learns the patterns, and forecasts the future load demand by using the pattern recognition function [24].


### 1.7. Biological Neuron

In recent decades, advances in the understanding of the structure and operation of the human brain and nervous system have been made [25]. The neuron is the fundamental element of the nervous control center of human beings. It entails a cell body, dendrites, synapses, and axons. The cell body contains the nucleus and cytoplasm. Dendrites are neuron cell body extensions that receive signals from other neurons. Synapses are the points of contact between neurons that allow one neuron to communicate with another. The dendrites are secured by synapses generated by the closing of axons from separate neurons. Electrical impulses are carried along neurons' axons as they receive or send messages, which can be as brief as a fraction of an inch (or centimeter) or as long as a meter. Dendrites receive information that is passed to the axon via the cell body, and the axon then passes the information to the dendrites of the next neuron, and so on until the information reaches its destination, which can be a gland, muscle, or tissue. A human brain has estimated about 10 to 500 billion neurons to process all information [26]. Based on biological neurons, the concept of an artificial neuron is derived.


### 1.8. Multilayer Perceptron Neural Network (MLPNN)

The neural networks with a single-layer cannot learn the multifaceted connections between the input and the output. Instead, the multilayer perceptron’s neuron network (MLPNN) has this capacity to tackle this problem. The topology of a multilayer perceptron neuron network has one or more hidden layers encapsulated in the input-output layer structures. The hidden layer could be of one layer or more. As a result, MLPNN outperforms the single-layer perceptron neuron network in terms of learning the input-output pattern and producing superior results. Moreover, for the short-term load forecasting, the MLPNN is usually reported [27].


### 1.9. Types of Neural Network

In a larger sense, neural networks are classified into two types depending on network topology: feed-forward neural networks and feedback neural networks.


#### 1.9.1. Feed-Forward Neural Network

A feed-forward NN has one or more hidden layers between the input-output layers, and it is considered as the simplest neural network. Information is transported from the input layer to the hidden layers and ultimately to the output layer. Because of the absence of the feedback loop, the layers of the network do not affect each other as the flow of information is unidirectional. Every neuron in all layers of a feed-forward neural network is linked with a forward connection. The sigmoid function is employed as an activation function to simulate the neurons with in hidden layer. The feed-forward neural networks are widely used by the researchers for forecasting and pattern reorganization problems [28].


#### 1.9.2. Feedback Neural Network

In a feedback neural network, information can flow in both directions. The feedback NN is both incredibly strong and extremely complex. Neural networks with dynamic feedback such as network’s state changes until it finds an equilibrium point. They will stay at the equilibrium point until the input changes, at which point they will need to find a new equilibrium. Feedback NN is well suited to dynamic and complex processes, as well as time-varying or time-lag patterns [29].


### 1.10. Activation Function

The activation function is a deciding parameter or transfer function used to transfer weighted inputs to produce network outputs [30]. However, activation can vary depending on the neuron network's design, the amount of inputs, and the nature of the issue being addressed. However, there is no standard rule for selecting an activation function for producing superior network results. The activation function is a two-stage procedure that linearly integrates the output and transfer functions. A change in the activation function, according to current study, may impact the network's output. Furthermore, the transfer function sends the sum of all inputs to the target unit. There are numerous transfer functions to choose from, depending on the nature of the situation [28].


### 1.11. NN Learning Types

The neural network learning is classified into two categories such as supervised and unsupervised learning.The training, the dataset, and the value you want to predict are all included in this type of machine learning. The ANN will learn a link between the input and the output using the training data [31]. The idea is that the training data may be generalized and that the NN can be utilized with the same accuracy on new data [32, 33].In supervised learning, the model is trained with the input that already has the output, and after training, the model will be able to predict the future output. In this technique, the network tries to reduce the MSE for a known set of values. MSE is the estimated error between the network output and the target values in the input and output relationship [34]. This MSE is delivered to updated network weight values and attempts to lower the MSE to a particular threshold level. This learning method is broadly used in dynamic systems.Unlike supervised learning, unsupervised learning does not need the use of any example dataset, which is already aware of the answers [35]. Unsupervised learning aims to adapt to diverse input patterns through network output. Several research projects on unsupervised learning have been undertaken in the subject of data visualization, using pattern categorization as an application of unsupervised learning [36].


### 1.12. Error Function

The NN learns from the mistakes that occur during training. As a result, the network error is defined as the mean square of the difference between the goal and network outputs. This is known as the mean square error (MSE). MSE represents the network's learning error, and the values are modified to produce the desired result [37]. Normally, the learning error of the network is set to 1x10−3 as a threshold value. The learning error function can be expressed as given in the following equations:(1)Et=1N∑i=1NoiTt−oit2,(2)Et=1N∑i=1NoiTt−oit2,where oiTtandoit represent required value of ith element and outcome of ith element, respectively. N stands for the number of training samples being employed in the process.


### 1.13. Backpropagation Algorithm

The backpropagation (BP) algorithm was proposed in 1986 by G.E. Hinton and R.Q. William. It has input layers, hidden layers, and output layers that are linked by synaptic weights. With feed-forward propagation, the information is transferred from input to output layers through the hidden layers along with the synaptic weights. An error is generated due to the difference between the target and obtained output, which is backpropagated to the hidden layer and from hidden to the input layer. Based on this error, weights and bias values are updated and new output will be obtained and again error will be checked and propagated back. The error will be backpropagated until the desired out is obtained [32].The gradient descent method is used in the backpropagation method to update the weights and biases. The partial derivative of the performance is calculated with respect to the weights and biases, to get the network parameters. In backpropagation, the derivative of each node with respect to the backpropagated error has to be calculated, which is the major drawback of this algorithm [38].


### 1.14. The Learning Problems of Backpropagation

The backpropagation algorithm has the multiple problems, which can affect the training of the network. These problems include local minima, network paralysis, temporal instability, and overfitting.


#### 1.14.1. Local Minima

To trace the global minima, the slop of error is generally from high side to low side. To get trap in a shallow valley, the network's weight values are adjusted based on a small interval known as the local minima. Even with the weights constantly updated, it is hard to come out of the shallow valley at the local minima point. The local minima problem is also one of the most important factors to consider when choosing a neural network training algorithm [39, 40]. The goal of the training is to obtain global minima in order to achieve the network's excellent training performance. But sometimes the system traps in the local minima, which decays the training enactment of the network that correspondingly affects the output of the model. Research reveals that this problem can be resolved by implementing state-of-the-art computational NN training techniques [41].


#### 1.14.2. Network Paralysis

Weight values of the system can be adjusted in the training process for large values of output, where the squeezing function is too small [42]. So, according to the derivative, the network error is sent back during the training process. The network training procedure is frequently brought to a halt, a condition known as network paralysis. This also has an impact on the network's overall training because poor learning results in poor network performance [43, 44].


#### 1.14.3. Temporal Instability

A learning neural network process is required to replicate what it has already learned across the entire training set. Let suppose, in the learning process to recognize alphabets, the network forgets letter A while learning letter B, this is called temporal instability. To mimic a complex biological network, the backpropagation algorithm fails there. As a result, the backpropagation technique is not appropriate for a broader target set of values.


#### 1.14.4. Overfitting Problem of Neural Network

Overfitting is the unintended memorization of the weight values. Due to overfitting, the output of the neural network is affected even though a suitable algorithm and training are applied. Overfitting may be avoided by managing the length and quality of training data. So, the irrelevant data should be excluded from the training data to avoid the overfitting problem.


### 1.15. Deep Neural Network (DNN)

Deep learning is a subset of machine learning approaches based on deep neural architecture. The idea of deep learning was first proposed by McClulloch and Pitts in 1943 with the name of “cybernetics” [21]. It has been considered a fantasy in that era because of inadequacy of data, requirement of bulk computing resource, and unavailability of efficient training algorithms. However, these constraints have recently been overcome by digital modern society and high-performance computing [35].DNNs are hybrid models that combine traditional multilayer perceptron’s with newly developed pretraining technologies. Although neural networks are used in many papers on load forecasting, neural network research became much less popular in the 1990s [36]. In 2006, Hinton et al. introduced deep belief network (DBN) and greedy layer-wise pretraining approaches based on the restricted Boltzmann machine (RBM) [37]. DNN has received a lot of attention since then and has had a lot of success. The basic skeleton of DNN is shown in Figure 1 containing one input layer, multiple hidden layers, and one output layer.Figure 1
Layout of a deep neural network.A DNN is essentially an ANN with many hidden layers. The distinction is in the training procedure. Instead of only using the backpropagation algorithm to train the network, the contrastive divergence algorithm is used during the initialization phase [36]. A restricted Boltzmann machine is used to run the contrastive divergence algorithm (RBM). An RBM with four visible and three hidden nodes is depicted in Figure 2. It should be noted that, unlike the ANN, the arrows point in both directions. By propagating the error in both directions, the contrastive divergence method changes the weights.Figure 2
Bidirectional information transfer in DNN.There are two bias components,b and c, because the error spreads in both directions. In respect to one another, the visible and hidden nodes are calculated [37]. Let vi represents the ith visible node, wi its weight, c the bias term, n the number of visible nodes, and h its hidden node, the bidirectional shift is represented in the following equation:(3)h=σ∑i=1nwi∗vi+c.The equation (3) can be represented in vector form as given in the following equation:(4)h=σWv+c.Like this, visible nodes can be also expressed in terms of hidden layers as given in equation (5), whose vector form is represented in equation (6)as follows:(5)v=σ∑j=1nwj∗hj+b,(6)v=σwTh+b,where Wt is the transpose of w. In the above equations, sigmoid functions are used as an activation function as given in the following equation:(7)σ=11+e−z.The restricted Boltzmann machine is a sort of energy-based model with a bilinear energy function [36]. An RBM’s energy function is defined as of equation (8), whereas the probability conditions of this energy function are mentioned in equation (9)as follows:(8)Ev,h=−bTv−cTh−hTWx,(9)pv|h=∏jpvi|h.If the values ofv and h are limited to the vector set given in equations (5) and (6), they can be represented as the following equations.(10)phi=1|v=σCi+Wiv,(11)pvj=1|h=σbj+WjTh,where Wi and Wj denote the ith and jth rows of W, respectively. According to equation (5), an RBM may be efficiently trained using 1-step contrastive divergence [35].


### 1.16. Significance of DNN

DNN is the new innovative technique and is considered superior to all previous types of neural networks used for load demand forecasting. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning approaches based on deep neural architecture. The basic idea behind ANN and DNN is same, which was first proposed by McClulloch and Pitts in 1943 with the name of “cybernetics” [35]. It has been considered a fantasy for several reasons, including insufficient data, inadequate computing resources, and lack of effective training algorithms at that time. The digital modern society and high-performance computing have recently solved these constraints. In 2006, Geoffrey Hinton developed a strategy called greedy-layer pretraining for an effective deep neural network training, which practically provided a way for DNN implementation for the first time [35]. A DNN is a hybrid model that blends classic multilayer perceptron with recently developed pretraining methods.Because of their capability to acquire and memorize complex nonlinear relationships and input patterns and targets, ANN has been widely used in STLF. Although numerous researches on load demand forecasting deploy NN structures, however, the research of ANN-based STLF models was slower down in 1990s because of the associated problems [36]. In 2006, with the effective experimentation, DNN received an extensive attention and achieved remarkable success.Deep neural networks show high accuracy and effectiveness in load forecasting as it can map and memorize input and output relationships without making any mathematical formulation [37]. A DNN learns the pattern of input/output relation by training, and then, it makes a future prediction based on the pattern recognition function. It also has a fast network convergence speed, low computational complexity, a shorter training period, and better generalization [38].


### 1.17. Introduction to Metaheuristic Techniques

Numerous nature-inspired computational methods referred to as metaheuristics have been developed and deployed for optimization applications in many research problems successfully in the past few decades. Metaheuristics are higher-level heuristics that regulate the whole search operation, allowing for the purposeful and productive acquisition of globally optimal solutions [39]. Nature-inspired metaheuristic optimization approaches utilized in hybrid forecast models are widely criticized for being excessively slow. Furthermore, the downsides of employing these approaches include the high cost of implementation, the difficulty of understanding and debugging, the tendency to fall into local optimums in high-dimensional space, and the poor convergence rate in the iterative process. Although metaheuristics cannot always guarantee a true global optimal solution, yet they can provide great results for a variety of functional difficulties [40, 41]. Some of these methods, which gained significant success in the STLF research domain, are summarized in the following sections.


#### 1.17.1. Genetic Algorithms (GA)

The development of GA is based on the motivation taken from the human genetic structure. GA models incorporate wonder of characteristic choice as there are the determination and the creation of variety by methods for recombination and change and seldom reversal in the chromosome structure. It results in the random selection of two parent chromosomes from a population and the manipulation of their features to develop a new chromosome to form a new population with superior features than their parents. The major driving mechanisms of a GA are selection (natural selection) and recombination via hybrid (propagation); change is also used to avoid local minima [42].The genetic algorithm begins by producing an arbitrary population of individuals, each chromosome signaling whether or not an element is utilized in the subset addressed by the person [43]. The fitness evaluation function is represented as shown in equation (12), whereas error evaluation function is given in equation (13). Figure 3 depicts the flow diagram of GA operation.(12)F=MSE+1−a∗wwn∗10−5+a∗nnn∗10−5,where α, w, wn, n, and nn represent weight constant, number of weighted connections, maximum number of interconnections, total number of neurons, and maximum number of neurons, respectively.(13)err=∑i−1pif−ia2p.Figure 3
Flow diagram of GA operation.Genetic computations are gaining popularity in various logical applications because to their adaptability and ability to cope with nondirect, poorly defined, and probabilistic difficulties. The best individuals are picked using a roulette wheel with space assessed by well-being in order to increase the possibility of determining the best strings. The distinguishing feature of a GA in comparison with other capacity advancement procedures is that the pursuit of an ideal arrangement proceeds not only by consistent changes to a solitary structure but also by maintaining a populace of arrangements from which new structures are made utilizing hereditary administrators [31].


#### 1.17.2. Particle Swarm Optimization

Molecule swarm streamlining is associated with a collection of transformational registering approaches known as multiplicity knowledge. These approaches are motivated by flocks of birds, schools of fish, and other similar biosocial processes observed in nature [44]. The idea stems from the fact that when winged animals randomly explore for food, fowls that are closest to locating food send messages for flying creatures hurrying behind to fly toward the discovered food [45]. PSO deciphers flying animals as particles, signals as locations and speeds, and nourishments as arrangements. Iteratively, the locations and speeds are structured pointers to arrangements and how fast particles should travel toward such arrangements [46].PSO introduces various particles arbitrarily at first; established limitations comprise placements, speeds, unique best wellness esteems (pbest), and global best wellbeing esteems (gbest). The global best wellness esteem demonstrates the best wellness esteem attained by any of the particles up to now; individual greatest healthiness esteem history for any molecule is saved [47]. Figure 4 shows the operational flow of the PSO operation.Figure 4
Flow of PSO operation.In particle swarm optimization, each particle updates its coordinates based on its own best search experience pbest and gbest as given in the following equations:(14)vik+1=wvik+c1rand1pbestik−xik+c2rand2gbestk−xik,(15)xik+1=xik+vik+1,where c1 and c1 are two positive acceleration constants that, when set equal, balance the particle's individual and social behavior. rand1 and rand2 are two randomly generated values with a range of [0, 1] that are included to the model to incorporate stochastic character in particle movement; and w is the inertia weight that balances exploration and exploitation. For long-term forecasting, it is a linearly decreasing function of the iteration index given in the following equation:(16)wk=wmax−wmax−wminMAX.Iter..k,where k is the iteration index.PSO computations can explore over the whole arrangement space stochastically [47]. This implies that PSO is capable of providing global betterment of proven concerns, as opposed to the back spread calculation, which uses nearby angle blunders for learning and is therefore typically caught in neighborhood minima. One significant advantage of PSO over slope plummet-based advancement computations is that PSO does not use adjacent inclinations; hence, difficulties with nondifferentiable exchange capabilities can be advanced.


#### 1.17.3. Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm

Ant colony optimization is a computation method for determining optimal strategies based on the behavior of ants searching for food. The ants meander haphazardly from the start. When a subterranean insect discovers a food source, it returns to the community, leaving “markers” (pheromones) that suggest the road contains food.The ant colony optimization calculator provides a component selection tool inspired by ant behavior in identifying routes from the region to nutrition. Ants have a strong ability to find the shortest path from region to food by using a mechanism of storing pheromone as they walk. ACO mimics this underground beetle searching for nourishment in order to produce the most information in the shortest amount of time. The ants' food seeking behavior in nature inspires the insect settlement streamlining (ACO) calculation in the investigation of computerized reasoning and broad scope critical thinking [48]. The performance of position updating for ACO algorithm can be calculated as given in the following equation:(17)omnpr=Kmnrα.µmnβ∑j∈Lmp.Kmnrα.ηmjβ,where p is the number of ants, Lmk is the set of ant p’s new features, µmn is the heuristic appeal of selecting feature n when at a feature I, and Kmnr is the amount of virtual phenomenon on edge (m, n). The choice of parameters α and β is determined experimentally.The pheromone on each edge is updated according to the equation (18), and a total number of steps are calculated in accordance with equation (19)as follows.(18)Kmnr+1=1−ρ.Kmnr+ΔKmn,(19)ΔKmnr=∑pie′DvDv.This is the case if the edge (m, n) has been traversed. In the above two equations,ΔKmnr is zero otherwise. Kmnr+1 is the amount of virtual pheromone on edge (m, n) at time r+1. The value ρ is the decay constant used to simulate the evaporation of the pheromone. Dv is the feature subset found by ant v.The ACO is originally introduced to deal with the mobile sales rep issue and is afterward widely used in many other research scenarios [49, 50]. The next investigation addresses the difficulty caused by the expanding data base and enhances the heap deciding execution of fluffy models using nature-propelled strategies. Subterranean insect province streamlining and hereditary calculation procedures were used to improve the presented models [22]. In Figure 5, the operational flow of ACO is elaborated.Figure 5
Flow diagram of ACO operation.ACO computation has high strength, fast combination speed, and is simple to obtain the global optimal layout. The dark forecast may mirror the growing and bolster vector machine that can reveal the nonlinear relationship due to irregular increase and nonlinear wave remaining arrangement. The developing ACO technique may cause the development weight to achieve the aim of exactness, consistency to the anticipated esteems, and at long last, the arrangement's accuracy can be plainly enhanced. The experiment results suggest that this approach may significantly enhance load forecasting accuracy by calculating intense load in an area.


#### 1.17.4. Simulated Annealing Algorithm

The simulated annealing algorithm is a stochastic search algorithm based on the Monte Carto iterative tackling system. It refers to the physical metal tempering standard, which means that the thermodynamics theory is precisely applied to the analyzing process. Its first stage is determined by the similarity of the toughening time of the strong issue in material science and the typical combined streamlining issue [51].In a simulated annealing algorithm, a current task of qualities to factors is kept up. At each stage, it selects a variable at random and then selects an incentive at irregular. If relegating that incentive to the variable improves or does not increase the number of contentions, the calculation acknowledges the task and there is another current task. Otherwise, it acknowledges the task with some probability, depending on the temperature and how much worse it is than the current task. The current task remains unchanged if the change is not acknowledged.The SA calculation is separated into two stages. At Phase I, a higher starting temperature is received, strengthening plan in existing VFSA calculation is used, and internationally stochastic unsettling influence is directed for the model, targeting looking, and bolting the ideal arrangement area.At Phase II, the lower beginning temperature is received and universally stochastic aggravation is directed for the model, which implies the unsettling influence is around the model, targeting diminishing it is looking through space after locking the ideal arrangement space to improve the model acknowledgment effectiveness.The annealing plan of SA algorithm at Phase I can be narrated as given in the following equation:(20)T1k=T0exp−ck1/N,where T0 is the starting temperature, k is the number of iterations, c is the constant, and N is the number of inversion parameters.When the temperature falls below the predetermined valueTe, the SA algorithm begins tempering and warming at Phase II according to the following equation:(21)T2k=T0exp−aj−koB1/2,where k0 is the number of iterations in process I, and T is inversely proportional to each other; that is, when is small, T grows bigger or smaller.A memory gadget is added to the calculation in this, set as factorm∗ and arrangement S∗, where m∗ is utilized to memory the ideal arrangement discovered presently and S∗ is its objective capacity esteem; when another arrangement is acknowledged, the current objective capacity esteem S is contrasted and S, and if S is better than S∗, m and S will be independently put away into m∗ and S∗. Toward the finish of Phase I, generally ideal variable m′ through the examination of current arrangement S and S∗ is taken as the beginning stage of Phase II. Simultaneously, the moderately ideal one from the last current m and m∗ is chosen as the last arrangement toward the finish of the last calculation.The mathematical notation of disturbance at Phase II is given in the following equation:(22)mi′=mi+u−0.5Bi−Aij−ko^0.5.The accompanying work proposes a technique, which joined mimicked toughening (SA) calculation and bolster vector machine (SVM), and SA calculation is utilized to streamline the boundaries of SVM and get reproduced tempering help vector machine model, indicated as SA-SVM model [52].In the accompanying investigation, an improved BP neural system preparing calculation is recommended that hybridizes recreated toughening and hereditary calculation (SA-GA). This half breed approach prompts the mix of amazing neighborhood search ability of mimicked toughening and close to precise worldwide inquiry execution of hereditary calculation [21].The accompanying work utilizes the blend of reenacted tempering calculation and molecule swarm enhancement calculation to contrast and the customary molecule swarm streamlining calculation to acquire a more appropriate technique for miniaturized scale framework activity [53]. Figure 6 depicts the operational flow of SA algorithm.Figure 6
Flow diagram of SA algorithm.Simulated annealing (SA) has been effectively utilized to address issues in parametric inversion, control correction of air conditioning systems, and load forecasting because to its great global optimization capacity, high resilience, and cheap calculation consumption [51].


### 1.18. DNN Learning Techniques

The process of learning the complex relationship between input and output is known as DNN training. The error function is generated by the difference between the actual and desired output. A DNN learns the pattern of input/output relation by training, and then, it makes a future prediction based on the pattern recognition function. The backpropagation method is used to train ANN, but it has some drawbacks, which are already discussed in this paper. Instead of only using the backpropagation algorithm to train the network, the contrastive divergence algorithm is used during the initialization phase [36, 37]. A restricted Boltzmann machine is used to run the contrastive divergence algorithm (RBM).


### 1.19. Hybrid DNN Learning Techniques for STLF

Hybrid techniques combine the best features of one or two algorithms. According to the research, combining two or more techniques produces better results than traditional techniques [54]. The accuracy of the forecast model is determined by a number of factors, including network structure, learning algorithm, network parameters, and the quality of the applied historical load data [31]. The hybrid models for STLF based on DNN and metaheuristic methods such as DNN with GA, DNN with feature selection and GA, DNN with batch normalization, DNN with feature selection, and ACO are developed, and their results are analyzed in the next section.


## 1.1. Categories of Load Forecasting

On the basis of lead time frames, load forecasting in energy management systems (EMS) can be classified into many groups [7]. STLF for predictions of one day to one week ahead is useful for power companies’ day-to-day planning. It is critical for optimal unit commitment, spinning reserve control, evaluating sales/purchase contracts between various companies, and scheduling preventive maintenance [8]. Medium-term load forecasting (MTLF) is used to predict load demand from one month to one year ahead, and it is beneficial for fuel purchase and maintenance schedule, whereas long-term load forecasting (LTLF) focuses on the one year to ten years ahead of prediction and is important for the expansion plans and the development of new power plants in accordance with future needs. Knowledge of the potential long-term load demand allows the corporation to prepare for the community of people yet to come and to take monetarily sound decisions. MTLF supports the decisions on the appropriate assets; for instance, the powers needed to run the plants as well as different properties, expected to ensure continuous yet realistic age and customer capability.


## 1.2. Significance of STLF

The concept of load demand has always been an important part of the planning and efficiency of the energy system. Many energy companies use standardized methods of forecasting future load demand [9]. The STLF is important for the optimized operation of the power system in daily energy efficiency, exchange checks, security checks, reliability considerations, and numerical calculations [10, 11]. By having reliable short-term load demand predictions, the power companies get the benefits in terms of potential costs, strategic preparation, production projections, and control in pricing. Due to the significant importance of STLF, many researches have investigated and published on different load forecasting methods and schemes. Such investigations lead to decrease in running costs, improved productivity, and stable power supply [12]. Many models have been proposed to tackle this important problem over the past decades of STLF study.


## 1.3. Attributes of the Load

To design a good prediction model, it is necessary to intently analyze the load data and have a clear understanding of its dynamics. The in-depth study of basic features, such as the behavior of load data and their variability, is necessary to achieve exact forecast results. Data preprocessing and data normalization approaches are generally applied in the treatment of data based on load profile analysis. Based on their similar characteristics, input data can be divided into different groups or sections, which can improve predictive accuracy of the model. Preprocessing or normalization of data is a standardized data processing method. It facilitates the system in a way that without much of a stretch, it becomes familiar with the designs and creates superior output results [11].


## 1.4. Influence of Climate Factors on Load Data

Research shows a strong relationship between metrological variables related to multiple weather factors and load demand. Mostly, the load demand rises in summer owing to the hot weather and decreases in winter in hot climate regions and vice versa in the cold climate countries [9]. Therefore, the weather variables have to be taken into consideration to have accurate load forecasts. The study shows that load demand increases with the increase of dew point and vice versa. In the human perception study, the dew point should be between 40 and 60 degrees Fahrenheit; hence, the demand for the load is less in this range. Consequently, climate factors must be included as the inputs in the forecast models for accurate load demand forecasting.


## 1.5. Choosing a Model Input for Forecasting

The precise load forecast depends on better selection of inputs in neural network (NN) models. In addition, generally valid and relevant input data could provide better results for forecasting. Nonetheless, the norm for input model selection is not specified. In light of technical expertise or advanced understanding, a correct decision on selection of input variables is generally carried out.The input data are divided into two different types: one of which is training and the other testing data. However, training data are used for model training, while test data are used to monitor model performance. In this paper, two different sets of data are used to check and validate the performances of various NN-based models. However, for four years, from 2015 to 2018, load and meteorological data from the New-ISO England grid are utilized for the training and evaluation of NN-based models [13]. Moreover, the data of an industrial grid of Faisalabad Electricity Supply Corporation (FESCO), Pakistan, are also used in the experimentation. The number and types of input are important to improve the model's efficiency. Input selection is made on the basis of field experience and expertise as no standard rule is set for selection of model inputs [14].


## 1.6. Techniques and Algorithms for Forecasting

Many models have been proposed to tackle this important problem over the past decades of STLF study. These can be broadly segregated into two categories: parametric and nonparametric techniques [15]. Parametric models are based on statistical and mathematical techniques, whereas nonparametric models are based on artificial intelligence and other machine learning methods. Another common trend is to combine two or more techniques to develop hybrid scheme to get the integrated benefits of the adopted methods. It has been observed that hybrid models show better results in terms of accuracy and convergence.


### 1.6.1. Parametric Techniques

Parametric or statistical techniques are developed on the basis of mathematical and statistical equations. Frequently reported parametric techniques for STLF include time series [16], linear regression [17], autoregression moving average ARMA [18], exponential methods [19], and time series [20]. If the input behavior is normal, parametric techniques demonstrate good predictability. If environmental or sociological variables change abruptly, such as weather or day in a particular week, forecast accuracy can be abruptly affected. Due to the dynamic nature of most of the input variables, these strategies have been controversial and less popular for STLF [15].


### 1.6.2. Nonparametric Techniques

These techniques are based on artificial intelligence and other computational machine learning methods, such as ANN [5, 21], fuzzy logic [22], and expert systems [23]. In recent decades, ANN received enormous attention from the researchers because this is a powerful prediction method. It is considered superior to all previous methods because of its strong mapping capabilities between nonlinear input variables and outputs.In comparison with the parametric techniques, ANN has more benefits as it can map input-output pairs and recall them when required. This technique trains the model and extracts the input-output pattern relationship, learns the patterns, and forecasts the future load demand by using the pattern recognition function [24].


## 1.6.1. Parametric Techniques

Parametric or statistical techniques are developed on the basis of mathematical and statistical equations. Frequently reported parametric techniques for STLF include time series [16], linear regression [17], autoregression moving average ARMA [18], exponential methods [19], and time series [20]. If the input behavior is normal, parametric techniques demonstrate good predictability. If environmental or sociological variables change abruptly, such as weather or day in a particular week, forecast accuracy can be abruptly affected. Due to the dynamic nature of most of the input variables, these strategies have been controversial and less popular for STLF [15].


## 1.6.2. Nonparametric Techniques

These techniques are based on artificial intelligence and other computational machine learning methods, such as ANN [5, 21], fuzzy logic [22], and expert systems [23]. In recent decades, ANN received enormous attention from the researchers because this is a powerful prediction method. It is considered superior to all previous methods because of its strong mapping capabilities between nonlinear input variables and outputs.In comparison with the parametric techniques, ANN has more benefits as it can map input-output pairs and recall them when required. This technique trains the model and extracts the input-output pattern relationship, learns the patterns, and forecasts the future load demand by using the pattern recognition function [24].


## 1.7. Biological Neuron

In recent decades, advances in the understanding of the structure and operation of the human brain and nervous system have been made [25]. The neuron is the fundamental element of the nervous control center of human beings. It entails a cell body, dendrites, synapses, and axons. The cell body contains the nucleus and cytoplasm. Dendrites are neuron cell body extensions that receive signals from other neurons. Synapses are the points of contact between neurons that allow one neuron to communicate with another. The dendrites are secured by synapses generated by the closing of axons from separate neurons. Electrical impulses are carried along neurons' axons as they receive or send messages, which can be as brief as a fraction of an inch (or centimeter) or as long as a meter. Dendrites receive information that is passed to the axon via the cell body, and the axon then passes the information to the dendrites of the next neuron, and so on until the information reaches its destination, which can be a gland, muscle, or tissue. A human brain has estimated about 10 to 500 billion neurons to process all information [26]. Based on biological neurons, the concept of an artificial neuron is derived.


## 1.8. Multilayer Perceptron Neural Network (MLPNN)

The neural networks with a single-layer cannot learn the multifaceted connections between the input and the output. Instead, the multilayer perceptron’s neuron network (MLPNN) has this capacity to tackle this problem. The topology of a multilayer perceptron neuron network has one or more hidden layers encapsulated in the input-output layer structures. The hidden layer could be of one layer or more. As a result, MLPNN outperforms the single-layer perceptron neuron network in terms of learning the input-output pattern and producing superior results. Moreover, for the short-term load forecasting, the MLPNN is usually reported [27].


## 1.9. Types of Neural Network

In a larger sense, neural networks are classified into two types depending on network topology: feed-forward neural networks and feedback neural networks.


### 1.9.1. Feed-Forward Neural Network

A feed-forward NN has one or more hidden layers between the input-output layers, and it is considered as the simplest neural network. Information is transported from the input layer to the hidden layers and ultimately to the output layer. Because of the absence of the feedback loop, the layers of the network do not affect each other as the flow of information is unidirectional. Every neuron in all layers of a feed-forward neural network is linked with a forward connection. The sigmoid function is employed as an activation function to simulate the neurons with in hidden layer. The feed-forward neural networks are widely used by the researchers for forecasting and pattern reorganization problems [28].


### 1.9.2. Feedback Neural Network

In a feedback neural network, information can flow in both directions. The feedback NN is both incredibly strong and extremely complex. Neural networks with dynamic feedback such as network’s state changes until it finds an equilibrium point. They will stay at the equilibrium point until the input changes, at which point they will need to find a new equilibrium. Feedback NN is well suited to dynamic and complex processes, as well as time-varying or time-lag patterns [29].


## 1.9.1. Feed-Forward Neural Network

A feed-forward NN has one or more hidden layers between the input-output layers, and it is considered as the simplest neural network. Information is transported from the input layer to the hidden layers and ultimately to the output layer. Because of the absence of the feedback loop, the layers of the network do not affect each other as the flow of information is unidirectional. Every neuron in all layers of a feed-forward neural network is linked with a forward connection. The sigmoid function is employed as an activation function to simulate the neurons with in hidden layer. The feed-forward neural networks are widely used by the researchers for forecasting and pattern reorganization problems [28].


## 1.9.2. Feedback Neural Network

In a feedback neural network, information can flow in both directions. The feedback NN is both incredibly strong and extremely complex. Neural networks with dynamic feedback such as network’s state changes until it finds an equilibrium point. They will stay at the equilibrium point until the input changes, at which point they will need to find a new equilibrium. Feedback NN is well suited to dynamic and complex processes, as well as time-varying or time-lag patterns [29].


## 1.10. Activation Function

The activation function is a deciding parameter or transfer function used to transfer weighted inputs to produce network outputs [30]. However, activation can vary depending on the neuron network's design, the amount of inputs, and the nature of the issue being addressed. However, there is no standard rule for selecting an activation function for producing superior network results. The activation function is a two-stage procedure that linearly integrates the output and transfer functions. A change in the activation function, according to current study, may impact the network's output. Furthermore, the transfer function sends the sum of all inputs to the target unit. There are numerous transfer functions to choose from, depending on the nature of the situation [28].


## 1.11. NN Learning Types

The neural network learning is classified into two categories such as supervised and unsupervised learning.The training, the dataset, and the value you want to predict are all included in this type of machine learning. The ANN will learn a link between the input and the output using the training data [31]. The idea is that the training data may be generalized and that the NN can be utilized with the same accuracy on new data [32, 33].In supervised learning, the model is trained with the input that already has the output, and after training, the model will be able to predict the future output. In this technique, the network tries to reduce the MSE for a known set of values. MSE is the estimated error between the network output and the target values in the input and output relationship [34]. This MSE is delivered to updated network weight values and attempts to lower the MSE to a particular threshold level. This learning method is broadly used in dynamic systems.Unlike supervised learning, unsupervised learning does not need the use of any example dataset, which is already aware of the answers [35]. Unsupervised learning aims to adapt to diverse input patterns through network output. Several research projects on unsupervised learning have been undertaken in the subject of data visualization, using pattern categorization as an application of unsupervised learning [36].


## 1.12. Error Function

The NN learns from the mistakes that occur during training. As a result, the network error is defined as the mean square of the difference between the goal and network outputs. This is known as the mean square error (MSE). MSE represents the network's learning error, and the values are modified to produce the desired result [37]. Normally, the learning error of the network is set to 1x10−3 as a threshold value. The learning error function can be expressed as given in the following equations:(1)Et=1N∑i=1NoiTt−oit2,(2)Et=1N∑i=1NoiTt−oit2,where oiTtandoit represent required value of ith element and outcome of ith element, respectively. N stands for the number of training samples being employed in the process.


## 1.13. Backpropagation Algorithm

The backpropagation (BP) algorithm was proposed in 1986 by G.E. Hinton and R.Q. William. It has input layers, hidden layers, and output layers that are linked by synaptic weights. With feed-forward propagation, the information is transferred from input to output layers through the hidden layers along with the synaptic weights. An error is generated due to the difference between the target and obtained output, which is backpropagated to the hidden layer and from hidden to the input layer. Based on this error, weights and bias values are updated and new output will be obtained and again error will be checked and propagated back. The error will be backpropagated until the desired out is obtained [32].The gradient descent method is used in the backpropagation method to update the weights and biases. The partial derivative of the performance is calculated with respect to the weights and biases, to get the network parameters. In backpropagation, the derivative of each node with respect to the backpropagated error has to be calculated, which is the major drawback of this algorithm [38].


## 1.14. The Learning Problems of Backpropagation

The backpropagation algorithm has the multiple problems, which can affect the training of the network. These problems include local minima, network paralysis, temporal instability, and overfitting.


### 1.14.1. Local Minima

To trace the global minima, the slop of error is generally from high side to low side. To get trap in a shallow valley, the network's weight values are adjusted based on a small interval known as the local minima. Even with the weights constantly updated, it is hard to come out of the shallow valley at the local minima point. The local minima problem is also one of the most important factors to consider when choosing a neural network training algorithm [39, 40]. The goal of the training is to obtain global minima in order to achieve the network's excellent training performance. But sometimes the system traps in the local minima, which decays the training enactment of the network that correspondingly affects the output of the model. Research reveals that this problem can be resolved by implementing state-of-the-art computational NN training techniques [41].


### 1.14.2. Network Paralysis

Weight values of the system can be adjusted in the training process for large values of output, where the squeezing function is too small [42]. So, according to the derivative, the network error is sent back during the training process. The network training procedure is frequently brought to a halt, a condition known as network paralysis. This also has an impact on the network's overall training because poor learning results in poor network performance [43, 44].


### 1.14.3. Temporal Instability

A learning neural network process is required to replicate what it has already learned across the entire training set. Let suppose, in the learning process to recognize alphabets, the network forgets letter A while learning letter B, this is called temporal instability. To mimic a complex biological network, the backpropagation algorithm fails there. As a result, the backpropagation technique is not appropriate for a broader target set of values.


### 1.14.4. Overfitting Problem of Neural Network

Overfitting is the unintended memorization of the weight values. Due to overfitting, the output of the neural network is affected even though a suitable algorithm and training are applied. Overfitting may be avoided by managing the length and quality of training data. So, the irrelevant data should be excluded from the training data to avoid the overfitting problem.


## 1.14.1. Local Minima

To trace the global minima, the slop of error is generally from high side to low side. To get trap in a shallow valley, the network's weight values are adjusted based on a small interval known as the local minima. Even with the weights constantly updated, it is hard to come out of the shallow valley at the local minima point. The local minima problem is also one of the most important factors to consider when choosing a neural network training algorithm [39, 40]. The goal of the training is to obtain global minima in order to achieve the network's excellent training performance. But sometimes the system traps in the local minima, which decays the training enactment of the network that correspondingly affects the output of the model. Research reveals that this problem can be resolved by implementing state-of-the-art computational NN training techniques [41].


## 1.14.2. Network Paralysis

Weight values of the system can be adjusted in the training process for large values of output, where the squeezing function is too small [42]. So, according to the derivative, the network error is sent back during the training process. The network training procedure is frequently brought to a halt, a condition known as network paralysis. This also has an impact on the network's overall training because poor learning results in poor network performance [43, 44].


## 1.14.3. Temporal Instability

A learning neural network process is required to replicate what it has already learned across the entire training set. Let suppose, in the learning process to recognize alphabets, the network forgets letter A while learning letter B, this is called temporal instability. To mimic a complex biological network, the backpropagation algorithm fails there. As a result, the backpropagation technique is not appropriate for a broader target set of values.


## 1.14.4. Overfitting Problem of Neural Network

Overfitting is the unintended memorization of the weight values. Due to overfitting, the output of the neural network is affected even though a suitable algorithm and training are applied. Overfitting may be avoided by managing the length and quality of training data. So, the irrelevant data should be excluded from the training data to avoid the overfitting problem.


## 1.15. Deep Neural Network (DNN)

Deep learning is a subset of machine learning approaches based on deep neural architecture. The idea of deep learning was first proposed by McClulloch and Pitts in 1943 with the name of “cybernetics” [21]. It has been considered a fantasy in that era because of inadequacy of data, requirement of bulk computing resource, and unavailability of efficient training algorithms. However, these constraints have recently been overcome by digital modern society and high-performance computing [35].DNNs are hybrid models that combine traditional multilayer perceptron’s with newly developed pretraining technologies. Although neural networks are used in many papers on load forecasting, neural network research became much less popular in the 1990s [36]. In 2006, Hinton et al. introduced deep belief network (DBN) and greedy layer-wise pretraining approaches based on the restricted Boltzmann machine (RBM) [37]. DNN has received a lot of attention since then and has had a lot of success. The basic skeleton of DNN is shown in Figure 1 containing one input layer, multiple hidden layers, and one output layer.Figure 1
Layout of a deep neural network.A DNN is essentially an ANN with many hidden layers. The distinction is in the training procedure. Instead of only using the backpropagation algorithm to train the network, the contrastive divergence algorithm is used during the initialization phase [36]. A restricted Boltzmann machine is used to run the contrastive divergence algorithm (RBM). An RBM with four visible and three hidden nodes is depicted in Figure 2. It should be noted that, unlike the ANN, the arrows point in both directions. By propagating the error in both directions, the contrastive divergence method changes the weights.Figure 2
Bidirectional information transfer in DNN.There are two bias components,b and c, because the error spreads in both directions. In respect to one another, the visible and hidden nodes are calculated [37]. Let vi represents the ith visible node, wi its weight, c the bias term, n the number of visible nodes, and h its hidden node, the bidirectional shift is represented in the following equation:(3)h=σ∑i=1nwi∗vi+c.The equation (3) can be represented in vector form as given in the following equation:(4)h=σWv+c.Like this, visible nodes can be also expressed in terms of hidden layers as given in equation (5), whose vector form is represented in equation (6)as follows:(5)v=σ∑j=1nwj∗hj+b,(6)v=σwTh+b,where Wt is the transpose of w. In the above equations, sigmoid functions are used as an activation function as given in the following equation:(7)σ=11+e−z.The restricted Boltzmann machine is a sort of energy-based model with a bilinear energy function [36]. An RBM’s energy function is defined as of equation (8), whereas the probability conditions of this energy function are mentioned in equation (9)as follows:(8)Ev,h=−bTv−cTh−hTWx,(9)pv|h=∏jpvi|h.If the values ofv and h are limited to the vector set given in equations (5) and (6), they can be represented as the following equations.(10)phi=1|v=σCi+Wiv,(11)pvj=1|h=σbj+WjTh,where Wi and Wj denote the ith and jth rows of W, respectively. According to equation (5), an RBM may be efficiently trained using 1-step contrastive divergence [35].


## 1.16. Significance of DNN

DNN is the new innovative technique and is considered superior to all previous types of neural networks used for load demand forecasting. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning approaches based on deep neural architecture. The basic idea behind ANN and DNN is same, which was first proposed by McClulloch and Pitts in 1943 with the name of “cybernetics” [35]. It has been considered a fantasy for several reasons, including insufficient data, inadequate computing resources, and lack of effective training algorithms at that time. The digital modern society and high-performance computing have recently solved these constraints. In 2006, Geoffrey Hinton developed a strategy called greedy-layer pretraining for an effective deep neural network training, which practically provided a way for DNN implementation for the first time [35]. A DNN is a hybrid model that blends classic multilayer perceptron with recently developed pretraining methods.Because of their capability to acquire and memorize complex nonlinear relationships and input patterns and targets, ANN has been widely used in STLF. Although numerous researches on load demand forecasting deploy NN structures, however, the research of ANN-based STLF models was slower down in 1990s because of the associated problems [36]. In 2006, with the effective experimentation, DNN received an extensive attention and achieved remarkable success.Deep neural networks show high accuracy and effectiveness in load forecasting as it can map and memorize input and output relationships without making any mathematical formulation [37]. A DNN learns the pattern of input/output relation by training, and then, it makes a future prediction based on the pattern recognition function. It also has a fast network convergence speed, low computational complexity, a shorter training period, and better generalization [38].


## 1.17. Introduction to Metaheuristic Techniques

Numerous nature-inspired computational methods referred to as metaheuristics have been developed and deployed for optimization applications in many research problems successfully in the past few decades. Metaheuristics are higher-level heuristics that regulate the whole search operation, allowing for the purposeful and productive acquisition of globally optimal solutions [39]. Nature-inspired metaheuristic optimization approaches utilized in hybrid forecast models are widely criticized for being excessively slow. Furthermore, the downsides of employing these approaches include the high cost of implementation, the difficulty of understanding and debugging, the tendency to fall into local optimums in high-dimensional space, and the poor convergence rate in the iterative process. Although metaheuristics cannot always guarantee a true global optimal solution, yet they can provide great results for a variety of functional difficulties [40, 41]. Some of these methods, which gained significant success in the STLF research domain, are summarized in the following sections.


### 1.17.1. Genetic Algorithms (GA)

The development of GA is based on the motivation taken from the human genetic structure. GA models incorporate wonder of characteristic choice as there are the determination and the creation of variety by methods for recombination and change and seldom reversal in the chromosome structure. It results in the random selection of two parent chromosomes from a population and the manipulation of their features to develop a new chromosome to form a new population with superior features than their parents. The major driving mechanisms of a GA are selection (natural selection) and recombination via hybrid (propagation); change is also used to avoid local minima [42].The genetic algorithm begins by producing an arbitrary population of individuals, each chromosome signaling whether or not an element is utilized in the subset addressed by the person [43]. The fitness evaluation function is represented as shown in equation (12), whereas error evaluation function is given in equation (13). Figure 3 depicts the flow diagram of GA operation.(12)F=MSE+1−a∗wwn∗10−5+a∗nnn∗10−5,where α, w, wn, n, and nn represent weight constant, number of weighted connections, maximum number of interconnections, total number of neurons, and maximum number of neurons, respectively.(13)err=∑i−1pif−ia2p.Figure 3
Flow diagram of GA operation.Genetic computations are gaining popularity in various logical applications because to their adaptability and ability to cope with nondirect, poorly defined, and probabilistic difficulties. The best individuals are picked using a roulette wheel with space assessed by well-being in order to increase the possibility of determining the best strings. The distinguishing feature of a GA in comparison with other capacity advancement procedures is that the pursuit of an ideal arrangement proceeds not only by consistent changes to a solitary structure but also by maintaining a populace of arrangements from which new structures are made utilizing hereditary administrators [31].


### 1.17.2. Particle Swarm Optimization

Molecule swarm streamlining is associated with a collection of transformational registering approaches known as multiplicity knowledge. These approaches are motivated by flocks of birds, schools of fish, and other similar biosocial processes observed in nature [44]. The idea stems from the fact that when winged animals randomly explore for food, fowls that are closest to locating food send messages for flying creatures hurrying behind to fly toward the discovered food [45]. PSO deciphers flying animals as particles, signals as locations and speeds, and nourishments as arrangements. Iteratively, the locations and speeds are structured pointers to arrangements and how fast particles should travel toward such arrangements [46].PSO introduces various particles arbitrarily at first; established limitations comprise placements, speeds, unique best wellness esteems (pbest), and global best wellbeing esteems (gbest). The global best wellness esteem demonstrates the best wellness esteem attained by any of the particles up to now; individual greatest healthiness esteem history for any molecule is saved [47]. Figure 4 shows the operational flow of the PSO operation.Figure 4
Flow of PSO operation.In particle swarm optimization, each particle updates its coordinates based on its own best search experience pbest and gbest as given in the following equations:(14)vik+1=wvik+c1rand1pbestik−xik+c2rand2gbestk−xik,(15)xik+1=xik+vik+1,where c1 and c1 are two positive acceleration constants that, when set equal, balance the particle's individual and social behavior. rand1 and rand2 are two randomly generated values with a range of [0, 1] that are included to the model to incorporate stochastic character in particle movement; and w is the inertia weight that balances exploration and exploitation. For long-term forecasting, it is a linearly decreasing function of the iteration index given in the following equation:(16)wk=wmax−wmax−wminMAX.Iter..k,where k is the iteration index.PSO computations can explore over the whole arrangement space stochastically [47]. This implies that PSO is capable of providing global betterment of proven concerns, as opposed to the back spread calculation, which uses nearby angle blunders for learning and is therefore typically caught in neighborhood minima. One significant advantage of PSO over slope plummet-based advancement computations is that PSO does not use adjacent inclinations; hence, difficulties with nondifferentiable exchange capabilities can be advanced.


### 1.17.3. Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm

Ant colony optimization is a computation method for determining optimal strategies based on the behavior of ants searching for food. The ants meander haphazardly from the start. When a subterranean insect discovers a food source, it returns to the community, leaving “markers” (pheromones) that suggest the road contains food.The ant colony optimization calculator provides a component selection tool inspired by ant behavior in identifying routes from the region to nutrition. Ants have a strong ability to find the shortest path from region to food by using a mechanism of storing pheromone as they walk. ACO mimics this underground beetle searching for nourishment in order to produce the most information in the shortest amount of time. The ants' food seeking behavior in nature inspires the insect settlement streamlining (ACO) calculation in the investigation of computerized reasoning and broad scope critical thinking [48]. The performance of position updating for ACO algorithm can be calculated as given in the following equation:(17)omnpr=Kmnrα.µmnβ∑j∈Lmp.Kmnrα.ηmjβ,where p is the number of ants, Lmk is the set of ant p’s new features, µmn is the heuristic appeal of selecting feature n when at a feature I, and Kmnr is the amount of virtual phenomenon on edge (m, n). The choice of parameters α and β is determined experimentally.The pheromone on each edge is updated according to the equation (18), and a total number of steps are calculated in accordance with equation (19)as follows.(18)Kmnr+1=1−ρ.Kmnr+ΔKmn,(19)ΔKmnr=∑pie′DvDv.This is the case if the edge (m, n) has been traversed. In the above two equations,ΔKmnr is zero otherwise. Kmnr+1 is the amount of virtual pheromone on edge (m, n) at time r+1. The value ρ is the decay constant used to simulate the evaporation of the pheromone. Dv is the feature subset found by ant v.The ACO is originally introduced to deal with the mobile sales rep issue and is afterward widely used in many other research scenarios [49, 50]. The next investigation addresses the difficulty caused by the expanding data base and enhances the heap deciding execution of fluffy models using nature-propelled strategies. Subterranean insect province streamlining and hereditary calculation procedures were used to improve the presented models [22]. In Figure 5, the operational flow of ACO is elaborated.Figure 5
Flow diagram of ACO operation.ACO computation has high strength, fast combination speed, and is simple to obtain the global optimal layout. The dark forecast may mirror the growing and bolster vector machine that can reveal the nonlinear relationship due to irregular increase and nonlinear wave remaining arrangement. The developing ACO technique may cause the development weight to achieve the aim of exactness, consistency to the anticipated esteems, and at long last, the arrangement's accuracy can be plainly enhanced. The experiment results suggest that this approach may significantly enhance load forecasting accuracy by calculating intense load in an area.


### 1.17.4. Simulated Annealing Algorithm

The simulated annealing algorithm is a stochastic search algorithm based on the Monte Carto iterative tackling system. It refers to the physical metal tempering standard, which means that the thermodynamics theory is precisely applied to the analyzing process. Its first stage is determined by the similarity of the toughening time of the strong issue in material science and the typical combined streamlining issue [51].In a simulated annealing algorithm, a current task of qualities to factors is kept up. At each stage, it selects a variable at random and then selects an incentive at irregular. If relegating that incentive to the variable improves or does not increase the number of contentions, the calculation acknowledges the task and there is another current task. Otherwise, it acknowledges the task with some probability, depending on the temperature and how much worse it is than the current task. The current task remains unchanged if the change is not acknowledged.The SA calculation is separated into two stages. At Phase I, a higher starting temperature is received, strengthening plan in existing VFSA calculation is used, and internationally stochastic unsettling influence is directed for the model, targeting looking, and bolting the ideal arrangement area.At Phase II, the lower beginning temperature is received and universally stochastic aggravation is directed for the model, which implies the unsettling influence is around the model, targeting diminishing it is looking through space after locking the ideal arrangement space to improve the model acknowledgment effectiveness.The annealing plan of SA algorithm at Phase I can be narrated as given in the following equation:(20)T1k=T0exp−ck1/N,where T0 is the starting temperature, k is the number of iterations, c is the constant, and N is the number of inversion parameters.When the temperature falls below the predetermined valueTe, the SA algorithm begins tempering and warming at Phase II according to the following equation:(21)T2k=T0exp−aj−koB1/2,where k0 is the number of iterations in process I, and T is inversely proportional to each other; that is, when is small, T grows bigger or smaller.A memory gadget is added to the calculation in this, set as factorm∗ and arrangement S∗, where m∗ is utilized to memory the ideal arrangement discovered presently and S∗ is its objective capacity esteem; when another arrangement is acknowledged, the current objective capacity esteem S is contrasted and S, and if S is better than S∗, m and S will be independently put away into m∗ and S∗. Toward the finish of Phase I, generally ideal variable m′ through the examination of current arrangement S and S∗ is taken as the beginning stage of Phase II. Simultaneously, the moderately ideal one from the last current m and m∗ is chosen as the last arrangement toward the finish of the last calculation.The mathematical notation of disturbance at Phase II is given in the following equation:(22)mi′=mi+u−0.5Bi−Aij−ko^0.5.The accompanying work proposes a technique, which joined mimicked toughening (SA) calculation and bolster vector machine (SVM), and SA calculation is utilized to streamline the boundaries of SVM and get reproduced tempering help vector machine model, indicated as SA-SVM model [52].In the accompanying investigation, an improved BP neural system preparing calculation is recommended that hybridizes recreated toughening and hereditary calculation (SA-GA). This half breed approach prompts the mix of amazing neighborhood search ability of mimicked toughening and close to precise worldwide inquiry execution of hereditary calculation [21].The accompanying work utilizes the blend of reenacted tempering calculation and molecule swarm enhancement calculation to contrast and the customary molecule swarm streamlining calculation to acquire a more appropriate technique for miniaturized scale framework activity [53]. Figure 6 depicts the operational flow of SA algorithm.Figure 6
Flow diagram of SA algorithm.Simulated annealing (SA) has been effectively utilized to address issues in parametric inversion, control correction of air conditioning systems, and load forecasting because to its great global optimization capacity, high resilience, and cheap calculation consumption [51].


## 1.17.1. Genetic Algorithms (GA)

The development of GA is based on the motivation taken from the human genetic structure. GA models incorporate wonder of characteristic choice as there are the determination and the creation of variety by methods for recombination and change and seldom reversal in the chromosome structure. It results in the random selection of two parent chromosomes from a population and the manipulation of their features to develop a new chromosome to form a new population with superior features than their parents. The major driving mechanisms of a GA are selection (natural selection) and recombination via hybrid (propagation); change is also used to avoid local minima [42].The genetic algorithm begins by producing an arbitrary population of individuals, each chromosome signaling whether or not an element is utilized in the subset addressed by the person [43]. The fitness evaluation function is represented as shown in equation (12), whereas error evaluation function is given in equation (13). Figure 3 depicts the flow diagram of GA operation.(12)F=MSE+1−a∗wwn∗10−5+a∗nnn∗10−5,where α, w, wn, n, and nn represent weight constant, number of weighted connections, maximum number of interconnections, total number of neurons, and maximum number of neurons, respectively.(13)err=∑i−1pif−ia2p.Figure 3
Flow diagram of GA operation.Genetic computations are gaining popularity in various logical applications because to their adaptability and ability to cope with nondirect, poorly defined, and probabilistic difficulties. The best individuals are picked using a roulette wheel with space assessed by well-being in order to increase the possibility of determining the best strings. The distinguishing feature of a GA in comparison with other capacity advancement procedures is that the pursuit of an ideal arrangement proceeds not only by consistent changes to a solitary structure but also by maintaining a populace of arrangements from which new structures are made utilizing hereditary administrators [31].


## 1.17.2. Particle Swarm Optimization

Molecule swarm streamlining is associated with a collection of transformational registering approaches known as multiplicity knowledge. These approaches are motivated by flocks of birds, schools of fish, and other similar biosocial processes observed in nature [44]. The idea stems from the fact that when winged animals randomly explore for food, fowls that are closest to locating food send messages for flying creatures hurrying behind to fly toward the discovered food [45]. PSO deciphers flying animals as particles, signals as locations and speeds, and nourishments as arrangements. Iteratively, the locations and speeds are structured pointers to arrangements and how fast particles should travel toward such arrangements [46].PSO introduces various particles arbitrarily at first; established limitations comprise placements, speeds, unique best wellness esteems (pbest), and global best wellbeing esteems (gbest). The global best wellness esteem demonstrates the best wellness esteem attained by any of the particles up to now; individual greatest healthiness esteem history for any molecule is saved [47]. Figure 4 shows the operational flow of the PSO operation.Figure 4
Flow of PSO operation.In particle swarm optimization, each particle updates its coordinates based on its own best search experience pbest and gbest as given in the following equations:(14)vik+1=wvik+c1rand1pbestik−xik+c2rand2gbestk−xik,(15)xik+1=xik+vik+1,where c1 and c1 are two positive acceleration constants that, when set equal, balance the particle's individual and social behavior. rand1 and rand2 are two randomly generated values with a range of [0, 1] that are included to the model to incorporate stochastic character in particle movement; and w is the inertia weight that balances exploration and exploitation. For long-term forecasting, it is a linearly decreasing function of the iteration index given in the following equation:(16)wk=wmax−wmax−wminMAX.Iter..k,where k is the iteration index.PSO computations can explore over the whole arrangement space stochastically [47]. This implies that PSO is capable of providing global betterment of proven concerns, as opposed to the back spread calculation, which uses nearby angle blunders for learning and is therefore typically caught in neighborhood minima. One significant advantage of PSO over slope plummet-based advancement computations is that PSO does not use adjacent inclinations; hence, difficulties with nondifferentiable exchange capabilities can be advanced.


## 1.17.3. Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm

Ant colony optimization is a computation method for determining optimal strategies based on the behavior of ants searching for food. The ants meander haphazardly from the start. When a subterranean insect discovers a food source, it returns to the community, leaving “markers” (pheromones) that suggest the road contains food.The ant colony optimization calculator provides a component selection tool inspired by ant behavior in identifying routes from the region to nutrition. Ants have a strong ability to find the shortest path from region to food by using a mechanism of storing pheromone as they walk. ACO mimics this underground beetle searching for nourishment in order to produce the most information in the shortest amount of time. The ants' food seeking behavior in nature inspires the insect settlement streamlining (ACO) calculation in the investigation of computerized reasoning and broad scope critical thinking [48]. The performance of position updating for ACO algorithm can be calculated as given in the following equation:(17)omnpr=Kmnrα.µmnβ∑j∈Lmp.Kmnrα.ηmjβ,where p is the number of ants, Lmk is the set of ant p’s new features, µmn is the heuristic appeal of selecting feature n when at a feature I, and Kmnr is the amount of virtual phenomenon on edge (m, n). The choice of parameters α and β is determined experimentally.The pheromone on each edge is updated according to the equation (18), and a total number of steps are calculated in accordance with equation (19)as follows.(18)Kmnr+1=1−ρ.Kmnr+ΔKmn,(19)ΔKmnr=∑pie′DvDv.This is the case if the edge (m, n) has been traversed. In the above two equations,ΔKmnr is zero otherwise. Kmnr+1 is the amount of virtual pheromone on edge (m, n) at time r+1. The value ρ is the decay constant used to simulate the evaporation of the pheromone. Dv is the feature subset found by ant v.The ACO is originally introduced to deal with the mobile sales rep issue and is afterward widely used in many other research scenarios [49, 50]. The next investigation addresses the difficulty caused by the expanding data base and enhances the heap deciding execution of fluffy models using nature-propelled strategies. Subterranean insect province streamlining and hereditary calculation procedures were used to improve the presented models [22]. In Figure 5, the operational flow of ACO is elaborated.Figure 5
Flow diagram of ACO operation.ACO computation has high strength, fast combination speed, and is simple to obtain the global optimal layout. The dark forecast may mirror the growing and bolster vector machine that can reveal the nonlinear relationship due to irregular increase and nonlinear wave remaining arrangement. The developing ACO technique may cause the development weight to achieve the aim of exactness, consistency to the anticipated esteems, and at long last, the arrangement's accuracy can be plainly enhanced. The experiment results suggest that this approach may significantly enhance load forecasting accuracy by calculating intense load in an area.


## 1.17.4. Simulated Annealing Algorithm

The simulated annealing algorithm is a stochastic search algorithm based on the Monte Carto iterative tackling system. It refers to the physical metal tempering standard, which means that the thermodynamics theory is precisely applied to the analyzing process. Its first stage is determined by the similarity of the toughening time of the strong issue in material science and the typical combined streamlining issue [51].In a simulated annealing algorithm, a current task of qualities to factors is kept up. At each stage, it selects a variable at random and then selects an incentive at irregular. If relegating that incentive to the variable improves or does not increase the number of contentions, the calculation acknowledges the task and there is another current task. Otherwise, it acknowledges the task with some probability, depending on the temperature and how much worse it is than the current task. The current task remains unchanged if the change is not acknowledged.The SA calculation is separated into two stages. At Phase I, a higher starting temperature is received, strengthening plan in existing VFSA calculation is used, and internationally stochastic unsettling influence is directed for the model, targeting looking, and bolting the ideal arrangement area.At Phase II, the lower beginning temperature is received and universally stochastic aggravation is directed for the model, which implies the unsettling influence is around the model, targeting diminishing it is looking through space after locking the ideal arrangement space to improve the model acknowledgment effectiveness.The annealing plan of SA algorithm at Phase I can be narrated as given in the following equation:(20)T1k=T0exp−ck1/N,where T0 is the starting temperature, k is the number of iterations, c is the constant, and N is the number of inversion parameters.When the temperature falls below the predetermined valueTe, the SA algorithm begins tempering and warming at Phase II according to the following equation:(21)T2k=T0exp−aj−koB1/2,where k0 is the number of iterations in process I, and T is inversely proportional to each other; that is, when is small, T grows bigger or smaller.A memory gadget is added to the calculation in this, set as factorm∗ and arrangement S∗, where m∗ is utilized to memory the ideal arrangement discovered presently and S∗ is its objective capacity esteem; when another arrangement is acknowledged, the current objective capacity esteem S is contrasted and S, and if S is better than S∗, m and S will be independently put away into m∗ and S∗. Toward the finish of Phase I, generally ideal variable m′ through the examination of current arrangement S and S∗ is taken as the beginning stage of Phase II. Simultaneously, the moderately ideal one from the last current m and m∗ is chosen as the last arrangement toward the finish of the last calculation.The mathematical notation of disturbance at Phase II is given in the following equation:(22)mi′=mi+u−0.5Bi−Aij−ko^0.5.The accompanying work proposes a technique, which joined mimicked toughening (SA) calculation and bolster vector machine (SVM), and SA calculation is utilized to streamline the boundaries of SVM and get reproduced tempering help vector machine model, indicated as SA-SVM model [52].In the accompanying investigation, an improved BP neural system preparing calculation is recommended that hybridizes recreated toughening and hereditary calculation (SA-GA). This half breed approach prompts the mix of amazing neighborhood search ability of mimicked toughening and close to precise worldwide inquiry execution of hereditary calculation [21].The accompanying work utilizes the blend of reenacted tempering calculation and molecule swarm enhancement calculation to contrast and the customary molecule swarm streamlining calculation to acquire a more appropriate technique for miniaturized scale framework activity [53]. Figure 6 depicts the operational flow of SA algorithm.Figure 6
Flow diagram of SA algorithm.Simulated annealing (SA) has been effectively utilized to address issues in parametric inversion, control correction of air conditioning systems, and load forecasting because to its great global optimization capacity, high resilience, and cheap calculation consumption [51].


## 1.18. DNN Learning Techniques

The process of learning the complex relationship between input and output is known as DNN training. The error function is generated by the difference between the actual and desired output. A DNN learns the pattern of input/output relation by training, and then, it makes a future prediction based on the pattern recognition function. The backpropagation method is used to train ANN, but it has some drawbacks, which are already discussed in this paper. Instead of only using the backpropagation algorithm to train the network, the contrastive divergence algorithm is used during the initialization phase [36, 37]. A restricted Boltzmann machine is used to run the contrastive divergence algorithm (RBM).


## 1.19. Hybrid DNN Learning Techniques for STLF

Hybrid techniques combine the best features of one or two algorithms. According to the research, combining two or more techniques produces better results than traditional techniques [54]. The accuracy of the forecast model is determined by a number of factors, including network structure, learning algorithm, network parameters, and the quality of the applied historical load data [31]. The hybrid models for STLF based on DNN and metaheuristic methods such as DNN with GA, DNN with feature selection and GA, DNN with batch normalization, DNN with feature selection, and ACO are developed, and their results are analyzed in the next section.


## 2. Results and Discussion

This section explains the assessment of the results of few isolated as well as DNN and metaheuristic techniques based on hybrid models for STLF. The hourly load demand and weather-related data are used for the training and testing phases of the models, which is collected from FESCO, Pakistan. Same set of inputs based on load demand data and metrological variables are used for the training and testing of all isolated and hybrid models. The significance of all the input variables is determined on the basis of correlation method [55, 56]. All the input variables are normalized prior to applying them for better results [57]. In graphs, hours of the day are presented on x-axis, whereas load demand in megawatts (MW) is shown on y-axis. The benchmark performance index is mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), which reflects the difference between the actual and the predicted load. One day-ahead forecast results are focused with respect to lead time horizon.The one day-ahead testing results of a feed-forward BP-based ANN with a single hidden layer are shown in Figure7. It can be seen that a considerably high forecast error of 8.95% is observed in this experiment. This high error rate is because of the local minima and other weaknesses of the BP ANN as described earlier.Figure 7
One day-ahead forecast of ANN-BP.The next experimental model is based on DNN with rectified linear unit (ReLU) objective function. The input and output layers remained same, whereas three hidden layers are incorporated in this model. Same set of data is used to train and test the network. The MAPE of the order of 6.71%, that is, more than 2% lesser, shows the strength of multilayer DNN as compared to simple ANN. The reason of the improved results lies behind the proper mapping of the relationships between the inputs and outputs provided to the network during the training phase. Moreover, linearization and control of momentum of the training algorithm ReLU is another cause of improved forecast accuracy as shown in Figure8.Figure 8
One day-ahead forecast of DNN-ReLU.In the next phase of experimentation, DNN is integrated with multiple metaheuristic techniques to design and develop hybrid forecast models. Figure9 shows the one day-ahead actual and predicted load demand curve of DNN and GA-based model. It can be seen that the forecast error (MAPE) drastically decreased to 1.65%, which shows the strength of combining DNN with powerful nature inspiring optimization methods such as GA. DNN and PSO are hybridized and the one day-ahead forecast results of load demand are depicted in Figure 10, whereas the forecast results of same lead time horizon are shown in Figure 11 for DNN and SA-based hybrid model. In these experiments, MAPE for DNN-PSO and DNN-SA remained 1.51% and 1.43%, respectively.Figure 9
One day-ahead forecast of DNN-GA.Figure 10
One day-ahead forecast of DNN-PSO.Figure 11
One day-ahead forecast of DNN-SA.The results of all the developed isolated and hybrid models are summarized in Table1 in terms of MAPE. It can be seen that isolated models have significantly high forecast error; however, hybrid models based on DNN and other computational optimization methods produce highly accurate forecast results. There is a slight difference in forecast error among all the hybrid methods. Somehow, DNN-SA proved to be the best hybrid forecast model with MAPE of 1.43%. In addition to the forecast accuracy, the convergence time of the hybrid models remains reasonably good. A slight rise of 1-2% in convergence time is observed in the nature-inspired method-based hybrid models as compared to the ANN and DNN standalone models.Table 1
MAPE results of isolated and hybrid techniques.
Forecasting techniquesMAPE %ANN-BP8.95DNN-ReLU6.71DNN-GA1.65DNN-PSO1.51DNN-SA1.43To improve performance accuracy of STLF models, metrological factors should also be considered as input parameters as they have a large influence on load consumption patterns. The combination of heuristic and evolutionary optimization techniques and appropriate transfer functions have the potential to improve forecast model output. Electricity prices can be combined with other input parameters that influence load demand for better forecasting. Electrical load forecasting can be investigated in order to integrate smart grids and smart buildings into future generation power systems.


## 3. Conclusion

Several AI approaches for STLF applications were investigated in this work. Furthermore, AI approaches have been effectively employed in a variety of electrical load forecasting study domains. A new research trend may be discovered in which the DNN heuristic search and genetic algorithms yield much better results than the gradient descent technique for the STLF problem. A DNN-based forecast model's performance may be enhanced by overcoming issues such as weight value dependency, local minima, poor network generalization, and sluggish convergence. It is found that, in addition to prediction accuracy, various difficulties, such as network complexity, better training methods, convergence rate, and selection of highly correlated forecast model inputs, must be addressed. These issues should be properly addressed in the electrical load forecasting process, to attain a high degree of success. A new research trend may be detected in which the heuristic search and genetic algorithms of DNN surpass gradient descent for the STLF issue. A DNN-based forecast model's performance may be enhanced by overcoming issues such as weight value dependency, local minima, poor network generalization, and sluggish convergence. However, the significant improvement in forecast accuracy and reasonable convergence time of these models demonstrates their suitability in smart grid-based STLF.



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*Source: 4049685-2022-09-22.xml*