# Knowledge Level and Determinants of Neonatal Jaundice: A Cross-Sectional Study in the Effutu Municipality of Ghana

Authors: Prince Adoba; Richard K. D. Ephraim; Kate Adomakowaah Kontor; Joseph-Josiah Bentsil; Patrick Adu; Maxwell Anderson; Samuel Asamoah Sakyi; Paul Nsiah
Journal: International Journal of Pediatrics
 (2018)

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## Abstract

Background. Neonatal jaundice (NNJ) is a major cause of hospital admission during the neonatal period and is associated with significant mortality. This case-control study with cross-sectional design sought to identify the possible factors associated with neonatal jaundice and assess maternal knowledge level of this condition.Methods. One hundred and fifty (150) neonates comprising 100 with clinically evident jaundice and 50 without jaundice were conveniently recruited from the Trauma and Specialist Hospital in the Effutu Municipality. Blood samples were collected for the determination of serum bilirubin, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), status and blood group (ABO and Rhesus). Well-structured questionnaire was used to collect maternal and neonate sociodemographic and clinical history.Results. Majority (54%) of neonates developed jaundice within 1–3 days after birth with 10% having it at birth. Duration of labour and neonatal birth weight were associated with neonatal jaundice (P<0.05). G6PD abnormality was found in 11 (12%) of the neonates with jaundice and ABO incompatibility was present in 18%. Neonates delivered by mothers with formal occupation and those who had prolonged duration of labour were significantly more likely to have neonatal jaundice (OR = 4.174, P=0.003; OR = 2.389, P=0.025, resp.). Neonates with low birth weight were also more likely to develop neonatal jaundice (OR = 2.347, P=0.044). Only 17.3% of mothers had heard of neonatal jaundice. School was the major source of information on neonatal jaundice (34.6%). Majority of participants (mothers) did not know that NNJ can cause damage to other organs in the body (90%).Conclusion. Low neonatal birth weight and prolonged duration of labour are associated with neonatal jaundice. Mothers had inadequate knowledge of neonatal jaundice and its causes.


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## Body

## 1. Background

Neonatal jaundice (NNJ) is a common condition worldwide occurring in up to 60% of term and 80% of preterm newborns in the first week of life [1, 2]. Newborns show clinical signs which tend to start on the head and face and then spread down the trunk and limbs as a result of high serum levels of bilirubin. Jaundice in newborns is a result of increased release of haemoglobin from breakdown of red cells due to high haemoglobin at birth, as well as due to reduced lifespan of newborn red blood cells (70–80 days) compared to that of adults (90–120 days), and reduced hepatic metabolism of bilirubin due to immature hepatocytes. Most of this newborn hyperbilirubinemia is a natural transition which resolves by the first week of life with maturing of the liver. However, hyperbilirubinemia is also the main reason for hospital admissions and readmission during the neonatal period [3–5]. Hyperbilirubinemia often results in kernicterus with its attendant medical, economic, and social burden on the patients, families, and societies [6, 7].Several maternal and neonatal risk factors such as preeclampsia, G6PD deficiency, ABO incompatibility, prematurity, birth weight, intrauterine growth retardation, metabolic abnormalities, neonate’s gender, birth weight, and nutrition have been identified as risk factors for neonatal jaundice [8, 9].From the Child Health Outpatient Department of the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital, Ghana, no day passes without a baby coming in with neonatal jaundice [10]. In a retrospective study conducted by Onyearugha et al. [11] in Nigeria, 35% of neonates managed at a neonatal intensive care unit during a 24-month period were result of jaundice. However, there is scarcity of data on the knowledge and risk factors of neonatal jaundice in Ghana. This study therefore sought to identify the possible factors associated with neonatal jaundice and assess maternal knowledge level of this condition at Winneba in the Effutu Municipality of Ghana.


## 2. Methods

### 2.1. Study Design/Study Site

This hospital-based case-control study with cross-sectional design was conducted from November 2016 to April 2017 at Winneba in the Effutu Municipality of Ghana. The area is known for cohabitation of multiple ethnic groups. The socioeconomic classes range from peasant fisherman and street hawkers to top class civil servants and business executives. The Trauma and Specialist Hospital (TSH) was used for the study. The hospital serves as the central regional hospital providing trauma, orthopedic, and general healthcare to people in and around the region.


### 2.2. Study Population

A total of 150 neonates, comprising 100 with NNJ and 50 without NNJ, were conveniently recruited into the study. All neonates, either outborn or inborn, who presented to the pediatric ward of the hospital were included in the study. Babies who were above 28 days and babies whose parents did not consent to be enrolled were excluded.


### 2.3. Ethical Consideration

Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Cape Coast Institutional Review Board (UCCIRB) and the authorities of the hospital before starting the study. Informed written consent was also sought from the mothers and approval obtained before enrollment into the study.


### 2.4. Collection of Sociodemographic and Clinical Data

Sociodemographic data such as age, marital status, educational level, occupation, and residence and clinical data of neonates and mothers such as gravidity, mode of delivery, duration of labour, ANC visit, bleeding prior to labour, and parity were collected through interview and also from folders using well-structured questionnaire.


### 2.5. Blood Sample Collection

About 4 ml of venous blood samples were drawn from each participant and 2 ml dispensed into a dipotassium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (K2-EDTA) tube. The remainder was dispensed into a serum separator tube, allowed to clot, and centrifuged at 1500 rpm for 5–10 mins and the serum used for biochemical analysis.


### 2.6. Biochemical Tests

Serum total and direct bilirubin concentrations were estimated using Pentra C200 chemistry analyzer (34184 Montpellier Cedex 4, France). Indirect serum bilirubin level was calculated by subtracting direct bilirubin from total bilirubin.


### 2.7. Hematological Tests

Neonates’ blood group (ABO and Rhesus) and G6PD status were determined using standard protocols [12].


### 2.8. Statistical Analysis

Data were stored in Microsoft Excel and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16.0 software. Descriptive analysis was performed and the results were expressed as numbers and percentages. Categorical variables were compared using chi-square and quantitative variables by independentt-test. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine the risk factors of neonatal jaundice. P<0.05 was considered statistically significant.


## 2.1. Study Design/Study Site

This hospital-based case-control study with cross-sectional design was conducted from November 2016 to April 2017 at Winneba in the Effutu Municipality of Ghana. The area is known for cohabitation of multiple ethnic groups. The socioeconomic classes range from peasant fisherman and street hawkers to top class civil servants and business executives. The Trauma and Specialist Hospital (TSH) was used for the study. The hospital serves as the central regional hospital providing trauma, orthopedic, and general healthcare to people in and around the region.


## 2.2. Study Population

A total of 150 neonates, comprising 100 with NNJ and 50 without NNJ, were conveniently recruited into the study. All neonates, either outborn or inborn, who presented to the pediatric ward of the hospital were included in the study. Babies who were above 28 days and babies whose parents did not consent to be enrolled were excluded.


## 2.3. Ethical Consideration

Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Cape Coast Institutional Review Board (UCCIRB) and the authorities of the hospital before starting the study. Informed written consent was also sought from the mothers and approval obtained before enrollment into the study.


## 2.4. Collection of Sociodemographic and Clinical Data

Sociodemographic data such as age, marital status, educational level, occupation, and residence and clinical data of neonates and mothers such as gravidity, mode of delivery, duration of labour, ANC visit, bleeding prior to labour, and parity were collected through interview and also from folders using well-structured questionnaire.


## 2.5. Blood Sample Collection

About 4 ml of venous blood samples were drawn from each participant and 2 ml dispensed into a dipotassium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (K2-EDTA) tube. The remainder was dispensed into a serum separator tube, allowed to clot, and centrifuged at 1500 rpm for 5–10 mins and the serum used for biochemical analysis.


## 2.6. Biochemical Tests

Serum total and direct bilirubin concentrations were estimated using Pentra C200 chemistry analyzer (34184 Montpellier Cedex 4, France). Indirect serum bilirubin level was calculated by subtracting direct bilirubin from total bilirubin.


## 2.7. Hematological Tests

Neonates’ blood group (ABO and Rhesus) and G6PD status were determined using standard protocols [12].


## 2.8. Statistical Analysis

Data were stored in Microsoft Excel and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16.0 software. Descriptive analysis was performed and the results were expressed as numbers and percentages. Categorical variables were compared using chi-square and quantitative variables by independentt-test. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine the risk factors of neonatal jaundice. P<0.05 was considered statistically significant.


## 3. Results

Table1 shows sociodemographic characteristics of study participants. The mean age of mothers was 28.3±5.8 years and there was no difference in the ages of those with and those without NNJ. Most of the neonates with NNJ were males (52.7). Most (44%) of the mothers had SHS education with 42% having formal occupation.Table 1
Sociodemographic characteristics of participants.
Parameter Total NNJ No NNJ P value ( N = 150 ) ( N = 100 ) ( N = 50 ) Mother’s age (years) 28.32 ± 5.81 28.45 ± 5.50 28.06 ± 6.43 0.700 Mother’s age group (years)    0.092 ≤20 14 (9.3) 6 (6.0) 8 (16.0) 21–30 84 (56.0) 61 (61.0) 23 (46.0) 31–40 49 (32.7) 32 (32.0) 17 (34.0) >40 3 (2.0) 1 (1.0) 2 (4.0) Sex of neonate    0.817 Male 79 (52.7) 52 (52.0) 27 (54.0) Female 71 (47.3) 48 (48.0) 23 (46.0) Mother’s occupation    <0.001 None 39 (26.0) 23 (23.0) 16 (32.0) Informal 48 (32.0) 23 (23.0) 25 (50.0) Formal 63 (42.0) 54 (54.0) 9 (18.0) Residence    0.318 Town 119 (79.3) 77 (77.0) 42 (84.0) Village 31 (20.7) 23 (23.0) 8 (16.0) Marital status    0.211 Single 55 (36.7) 34 (34.0) 21 (42.0) Married 94 (62.7) 66 (66.0) 28 (56.0) Divorced 1 (0.7) 0 (0.0) 1 (2.0) Educational level (mother)    0.176 None 3 (2.0) 2 (2.0) 1 (2.0) Primary 2 (1.3) 0 (0.0) 2 (4.0) JHS 46 (30.7) 31 (31.0) 15 (30.0) SHS 66 (44.0) 48 (48.0) 18 (36.0) Tertiary 33 (22.0) 19 (19.0) 14 (28.0) Educational level (father)    0.658 None 1 (0.7) 1 (1.0) 0 (0.0) Primary 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) JHS 15 (10.0) 10 (10.0) 5 (10.0) SHS 74 (49.3) 52 (52.0) 22 (44.0) Tertiary 60 (40.0) 37 (37.0) 23 (46.0) NNJ: neonatal jaundice.The clinical, hematological, and obstetric history of study participants stratified by jaundice status is presented on Table2. Most of mothers of both NNJ and no NNJ were nulliparous (55% v 56%) and primigravida (45% v 50%). A significant difference was found in proportion of neonates with jaundice and those without jaundice with respect to duration of labour (P<0.05). 15% of mothers with jaundiced neonates experienced vaginal bleeding prior to labour, with 20% being sickling positive. Majority 43% of mothers having neonates with jaundice had prolonged duration of labour compared to the controls (43% v 24%, P=0.023). Most of neonates with jaundice also had low birth weight compared to those without jaundice (34% v 18%, P=0.041).Table 2
Clinical, haematological, and obstetric history of study participants stratified by jaundice status.
Parameter Total NNJ No NNJ P value ( N = 150 ) ( N = 100 ) ( N = 50 ) Gravidity    0.816 Primigravida 70 (46.7) 45 (45.0) 25 (50.0) Secundigravida 43 (28.7) 29 (29.0) 14 (28.0) Multigravida 37 (24.7) 26 (26.0) 11 (22.0) Parity    0.737 Nulliparous 83 (55.3) 55 (55.0) 28 (56.0) Primiparous 29 (19.3) 18 (18.0) 11 (22.0) Multipara 38 (25.3) 27 (27.0) 11 (22.0) Vaginal bleeding    0.637 No 126 (84.0) 83 (83.0) 43 (43.0) Yes 24 (16.0) 17 (17.0) 7 (14.0) Mode of delivery    0.110 NVD 94 (62.7) 57 (57.0) 37 (74.0) NVDA 30 (20.0) 24 (24.0) 6 (12.0) CS 26 (17.3) 19 (19.0) 7 (14.0) Duration of labour    0.023 Normal 95 (63.3) 57 (57.0) 38 (76.0) Prolonged 55 (36.7) 43 (43.0) 12 (24.0) ANC No 5 (3.3) 4 (4.0) 1 (2.0) Yes 145 (96.7) 96 (96.0) 49 (98.0) Place of ANC    0.318 Clinic 24 (16.1) 17 (17.0) 7 (14.3) Hospital 121 (81.2) 79 (79.0) 42 (85.7) Suckling    0.305 No 13 (8.7) 7 (7.0) 6 (12.0) Yes 137 (91.3) 93 (93.0) 44 (88.0) Traditional medicine    0.134 No 129 (86.0) 89 (89.0) 40 (80.0) Yes 21 (14.0) 11 (11.0) 10 (20.0) Mother’s sickling status    0.553 Negative 122 (81.3) 80 (80.0) 42 (84.0) Positive 28 (18.7) 20 (20.0) 8 (16.0) Mother’s G6PD status    0.115 Normal 126 (84.0) 80 (80.0) 46 (92.0) PD 12 (8.0) 11 (11.0) 1 (2.0) FD 12 (8.0) 9 (9.0) 3 (6.0) Birth weight    0.041 Low 43 (28.7) 34 (34.0) 9 (18.0) Normal 107 (71.3) 66 (66.0) 41 (82.0) Birth weight 2.81 ± 1.72 2.68 ± 0.51 3.06 ± 2.88 0.210 Gestation 37.25 ± 1.14 37.50 ± 1.20 37.74 ± 1.01 0.226 NVD: normal vaginal delivery; NVDA: normal vaginal delivery with aid; CS: caesarian section; ANC: antenatal care; PD: partial enzyme defect; FD: full enzyme defect.Majority (54%) of neonates developed jaundice within 1–3 days after birth with 10% having it at birth (Table3). Mean DB was significantly higher among males than females (13.29±10.42 versus 9.58±3.07, P=0.019). G6PD abnormality was found in 11 (12%) of the neonates with jaundice and ABO blood group incompatibility was present in 18%. No significant difference was found between birth weight, TB, and IDB of male and female neonates with jaundice (P>0.05) (Table 3).Table 3
Demographic and clinical characteristics of study participants in relation to sex of neonate.
Parameter Total Males Females P value ( N = 100 ) ( N = 52 ) ( N = 48 ) Mother’s age (years) 28.45 ± 5.50 27.87 ± 5.73 29.08 ± 5.23 0.271 Mode of delivery    0.749 NVD 57 (57.0) 28 (53.8) 29 (60.4) NVDA 24 (24.0) 14 (26.9) 10 (20.8) CS 19 (19.0) 10 (19.2) 9 (18.8) Duration of labour    0.507 Normal 57 (57.0) 28 (53.8) 29 (60.4) Prolonged 43 (43.0) 24 (46.2) 19 (39.6) Mother’s sickling status    0.484 Negative 80 (80.0) 43 (82.7) 37 (77.1) Positive 20 (20.0) 9 (17.3) 11 (22.9) Mother’s G6PD status    0.456 Normal 80 (80.0) 44 (84.6) 36 (75.0) PD 11 (11.0) 4 (7.7) 7 (14.6) FD 9 (9.0) 4 (7.7) 5 (10.4) Begin of condition    0.048 At birth 10 (10.0) 7 (13.5) 3 (6.2) 1–3 days 54 (54.0) 22 (42.3) 32 (66.7) ≥4 days 36 (36.0) 23 (44.2) 13 (27.1) Neonate’s G6PD status    0.511 Normal 88 (88.0) 47 (90.4) 41 (85.4) PD 1 (1.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (2.1) FD 11 (11.0) 5 (9.6) 6 (12.5) Blood group incompatibility    0.169 No 82 (82.0) 40 (76.9) 42 (87.5) Yes 18 (18.0) 12 (23.1) 6 (12.5) TB (µmol/L)    0.058 Normal 18 (18.0) 13 (25.0) 5 (10.4) High 82 (82.0) 39 (75.0) 43 (89.6) DB (µmol/L)    0.057 Normal 59 (59.0) 26 (50.0) 33 (68.8) High 41 (41.0) 26 (50.0) 15 (31.2) IDB (µmol/L)    - High 100 (100.0) 52 (100.0) 48 (100.0) Birth weight    0.774 Low 34 (34.0) 17 (32.7) 17 (35.4) Normal 66 (66.0) 35 (67.3) 31 (64.6) Mean birth weight 2.68 ± 0.51 2.67 ± 0.53 2.70 ± 0.49 0.705 Gestation 37.5 ± 1.20 37.42 ± 1.18 37.58 ± 1.23 0.508 TB (µmol/L) 252.44 ± 93.71 260.22 ± 104.5 244.02 ± 80.64 0.390 DB (µmol/L) 11.51 ± 7.99 13.29 ± 10.42 9.58 ± 3.07 0.019 IDB (µmol/L) 240.01 ± 90.54 245.21 ± 100.42 234.37 ± 79.14 0.552 TB: total bilirubin; DB: direct bilirubin; IDB: indirect bilirubin.Table4 presents a correlation of demographic and clinical characteristics of study participants. Maternal age had a positive correlation with gravidity and parity. Gestational age negatively correlated with total bilirubin (r=-0.302, P=0.002), direct bilirubin (r=-0.239, P=0.017), indirect bilirubin (r=-0.296, P=0.003), and birth weight (r=-0.393, P<0.001). Total bilirubin had a positive correlation with direct and indirect bilirubin, but a negative correlation with birth weight (r=-0.307, P=0.002). Indirect bilirubin also negatively correlated with birth weight (r=-0.310, P=0.020).Table 4
Correlation of demographic and clinical characteristics of study participants.
Age Gestation Gravidity Parity TB DB IDB BWt Age r  1 0.128 0.715 0.726 0.119 0.099 0.117 0.096 P   0.206 <0.001 <0.001 0.237 0.326 0.247 0.342 Gestation r   1 0.065 0.013 - 0.302 - 0.239 - 0.296 - 0.393 P    0.522 0.902 0.002 0.017 0.003 <0.001 Gravidity r    1 0.800 0.036 - 0.035 0.049 0.070 P     <0.001 0.723 0.731 0.627 0.490 Parity r     1 0.069 - 0.059 0.084 - 0.024 P      0.496 0.562 0.404 0.810 TB r      1 0.392 0.990 - 0.307 P       <0.001 <0.001 0.002 DB r       1 0.289 - 0.112 P        0.004 0.268 IDB r        1 - 0.310 P         0.020 BWt r         1 P BWt: birth weight.Neonates delivered by mothers with formal occupation and those who had prolonged duration of labour were significantly more likely to have neonatal jaundice (OR = 4.174,P=0.003; OR = 2.389, P=0.025). Neonates with low birth weight also were significantly more likely to develop neonatal jaundice (OR = 2.347, P=0.044) (Table 5).Table 5
Logistic regression of factors associated with neonatal jaundice (NNJ).
Parameter OR (95% CI) P value Age group (years) ≤20 1.500 (0.109–20.675) 0.762 21–30 5.304 (0.459–61.339) 0.182 31–40 3.765 (0.318–44.574) 0.293 >40 Reference Sex Male 0.923 (0.467–1.827) 0.817 Female Reference Occupation None Reference Informal 0.640 (0.273–1.502) 0.305 Formal 4.174 (1.612–10.807) 0.003 Gravidity Primigravida Reference Secundigravida 1.151 (0.515–2.571) 0.732 Multigravida 1.313 (0.557–3.097) 0.534 Parity Nulliparous Reference Primiparous 0.833 (0.346–2.003) 0.683 Multipara 1.250 (0.542–2.882) 0.601 Vaginal bleeding No Reference Yes 1.258 (0.485–3.267) 0.637 Mode of delivery NVD Reference NVDA 2.596 (0.969–6.957) 0.058 CS 1.762 (0.674–4.603) 0.248 Duration of labour Normal Reference Prolonged 2.389 (1.117–5.109) 0.025 ANC No 2.042 (0.222–18.764) 0.528 Yes Reference Suckling No Reference Yes 1.812 (0.575–5.710) 0.310 Traditional medicine No Reference Yes 0.494 (0.194–1.258) 0.139 Mother’s sickling status Negative Reference Positive 1.313 (0.533–3.231) 0.554 Mother’s G6PD status Normal Reference PD 6.325 (0.791–50.577) 0.082 FD 1.725 (0.444–6.694) 0.431 Birth weight Low 2.347 (1.022–5.391) 0.044 Normal ReferenceOnly 17.3% of mothers had heard of neonatal jaundice: 20% of those with babies with NNJ and 12% of those without NNJ. School was the major source of information on neonatal jaundice (34.6%) followed by friends (15.4%), with TV being the least source (7.7%). Majority did not know that NNJ can cause damage to other organs in the body (90%), can be prevented (92.7%), or can be treated (85.3%) (Table6).Table 6
Mothers’ knowledge of neonatal jaundice.
Parameter Total NNJ No NNJ ( N = 150 ) ( N = 100 ) ( N = 50 ) Heard of NNJ No 124 (82.7) 80 (80.0) 44 (88.0) Yes 26 (17.3) 20 (20.0) 6 (12.0) Source Friends 11 (42.3) 10 (50.0) 1 (16.7) Health facility 4 (15.4) 4 (20.0) 0 (0.0) School 9 (34.6) 4 (20.0) 5 (83.3) TV 2 (7.7) 2 (10.0) 0 (0.0) Can NNJ cause damage? Do not know 135 (90.0) 89 (89.0) 46 (92.0) No 5 (3.3) 5 (5.0) 0 (0.0) Yes 10 (6.7) 6 (6.0) 4 (8.0) Can NNJ be prevented? Do not know 139 (92.7) 93 (93.0) 46 (92.0) No 5 (3.3) 4 (4.0) 1 (2.0) Yes 6 (4.0) 3 (3.0) 3 (6.0) Can NNJ be treated? Do not know 128 (85.3) 83 (83.0) 45 (90.0) No 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Yes 22 (14.7) 17 (17.0) 5 (10.0)


## 4. Discussion

This study sought to identify the possible factors associated with neonatal jaundice and assess maternal knowledge level of this condition at Winneba in the Effutu Municipality of Ghana.Majority (54%) of neonates developed jaundice within 1–3 days after birth with 10% having it at birth. Birth weight and prolonged duration of labour were associated with neonatal jaundice; mothers had inadequate knowledge of neonatal jaundice.Most of neonates with jaundice had low birth weight compared to those without jaundice. This is comparable to the findings of a study conducted in Southern Nigeria [13]. Our study also confirmed an earlier observation by Menon and Amanullah [14] and Devi and Vijaykumar [15] which associated neonatal jaundice with low neonatal birth weight in India. This is further buttressed by the finding of neonates with low birth weight being more likely to develop neonatal jaundice in the logistic regression.Duration of labour was associated with neonatal jaundice, with majority of mothers with jaundiced neonates having prolonged duration of labour compared to the controls. This is similar to the finding of prolonged labour being strongly associated with jaundice in a community-based trial conducted by Scrafford et al. in Nepal [16]. This is most likely due to the clinical relationship between longer duration of labour and cephalohematoma, a known risk factor for severe hyperbilirubinemia [17, 18]. This finding is also supported by the observation of mothers with prolonged duration of labour being more likely to have neonates developing jaundice in our study.A study conducted in Asia documented ABO incompatibility and G6PD deficiency as the leading causes of neonatal jaundice [19]. G6PD abnormality was found in 11 (12%) of the neonates with jaundice lower than the 25.5% found by Najib et al. [9] in South Iran, but higher than the 4.2% observed by Huang et al. [8] in a case-control study carried out in Taiwan.ABO incompatibility has been significantly associated with neonatal hyperbilirubinemia [20]. The 18% ABO blood group incompatibility present among neonates with jaundice in our study is higher than the 5.9% reported by Najib et al. [9] in a prospective longitudinal study conducted in Iran, but lower than the 35.5% recorded by Menon and Amanullah [14] in a case-control study conducted in India.Preterm neonates who have concurrent illnesses and physiologic derangements are more vulnerable to bilirubin neurotoxicity and have been recognized and studied in clinical trials. Bilirubin-related neurotoxicity can result in neonatal death or multisystem acute manifestations and long-term impairments, including irreversible athetoid cerebral palsy (CP) and speech, visuomotor, auditory, and other sensory-processing disabilities [21–23]. Gestational age negatively correlated with total bilirubin, direct bilirubin, indirect bilirubin, and birth weight. This is in line with the finding of significant hyperbilirubinemia among preterm neonates compared to termed neonates in a longitudinal study conducted by Sarici et al. [6] in Turkey. Preterm newborns are prone to developing jaundice due to immaturity of their bilirubin conjugating system, higher rate of haemolysis, increased enterohepatic circulation, and decreased caloric intake [24].Neonates delivered by mothers with formal occupation were significantly more likely to have neonatal jaundice in this study. This is consistent with the findings of a community-based study conducted in Nigeria by Olusanya et al. [25] in which neonates born to mothers with full time employment were more likely to have jaundice.Only 17.3% of mothers in this study had heard of neonatal jaundice. This is far lower than the finding of 96% of mothers being aware of neonatal jaundice in a cross-sectional study carried out among expectant mothers in Abia State, southeast Nigeria [11]. In their study, most of the participants got their information from health workers (50%) and friends (26%). However, in our study, school was the major source of information on neonatal jaundice (34.6%) followed by friends, with TV being the least source.Goodman et al. [26] also found a high level of awareness among mothers (75%) with 74.1% having knowledge of the causes of neonatal jaundice. This is contrary to the finding of majority of our participants (90%) not knowing the cause of neonatal jaundice. Mothers' low knowledge of neonatal jaundice and its causes places them at a very grave risk of ignoring possibly avoidable predisposing factors and even signs that demand immediate management of jaundice in newborns making them develop jaundice and often being presented to healthcare facilities when irreversible neurotoxicity and brain damage might have occurred [26].Our inability to assess the serum bilirubin, blood group, and G6PD status of neonates with jaundice and other genetic causes of neonatal jaundice (e.g., polymorphisms of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 gene) served as a limitation to this study. Also, the study is limited by the small number of neonates without jaundice used.


## 5. Conclusion

Low neonatal birth weight and prolonged duration of labour are associated with neonatal jaundice. Mothers had inadequate knowledge of neonatal jaundice and its causes. Education on the condition and its causes should be intensified especially by healthcare workers during regular antenatal visits. Other causes of neonatal jaundice need to be examined in the routine management of neonates.



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