# Floristic Diversity and Distribution Pattern of Plant Communities along Altitudinal Gradient in Sangla Valley, Northwest Himalaya

Authors: Pankaj Sharma; J. C. Rana; Usha Devi; S. S. Randhawa; Rajesh Kumar
Journal: The Scientific World Journal
 (2014)

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## Abstract

Himalayas are globally important biodiversity hotspots and are facing rapid loss in floristic diversity and changing pattern of vegetation due to various biotic and abiotic factors. This has necessitated the qualitative and quantitative assessment of vegetation here. The present study was conducted in Sangla Valley of northwest Himalaya aiming to assess the structure of vegetation and its trend in the valley along the altitudinal gradient. In the forest and alpine zones of the valley, 15 communities were recorded. Study revealed 320 species belonging to 199 genera and 75 families. Asteraceae, Rosaceae, Apiaceae, and Ranunculaceae were dominant. Among genera,Artemisia followed by Polygonum, Saussurea, Berberis, and Thalictrum were dominant. Tree and shrub’s density ranged from 205 to 600 and from 105 to 1030 individual per hectare, respectively, whereas herbs ranged from 22.08 to 78.95 individual/m2. Nearly 182 species were native to the Himalaya. Maximum altitudinal distribution of few selected climate sensitive species was found to be highest in northeast and north aspects. This study gives an insight into the floristic diversity and community structure of the fragile Sangla Valley which was hitherto not available.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

Himalayas comprised of earth’s most multifaceted and diverse montane ecosystems, characterized by a harsh climate, a strong degree of seasonality, and a high diversity of both plant communities and species [1, 2]. These are geodynamic young mountains and have been recognized as one of the globally important biodiversity hotspots [3, 4]. In these mountains presence of often sharp environmental gradients due to rapid geoclimatic variations generate diverse vegetation and community types having high plant species diversity [5]. Here a wide range of altitude, rainfall, climate, geological conditions, river systems, and topography have given rise to an immense diversity of ecosystems and ultimately to immense biological diversity.The structure, composition, and vegetative functions are most significant ecological attributes of a particular ecosystem, which show variations in response to environmental as well as anthropogenic variables [6–8]. Major threats to ecosystems and biodiversity are habitat loss and fragmentation, overexploitation, pollution, invasions of alien species, and global climate change [9] with disruption of community structure.The vegetation distribution pattern, communities, and population dynamics in high altitude arid areas of the fragile Himalaya have seldom given the due attention by researchers and are hence poorly understood. Furthermore, altitude and aspect are the major topographic factors that control the distribution patterns of vegetation in mountain areas. These factors determine the microclimate and thus the distribution of vegetation in the mountain areas [10]. The anthropogenic pressures, heavy grazing, and the natural calamities have led to degradation of natural habitats of many species. Such practices are discouraging the moisture loving native species and promoting the hardy nonnative exotic species having little value for the local ecosystem [11].The rapid loss in floristic diversity and changing pattern of vegetation due to various biotic and abiotic factors have necessitated the qualitative and quantitative assessment of vegetation. However numbers of studies on community dynamics and phytogeographic affinities have been conducted qualitatively [12–17] as well as quantitatively [5, 18–24] and in northwest Himalaya [4, 6, 25–27] in particular as well.Nevertheless, a very few studies incorporating composition, structural and functional diversity, and nativity of the biodiversity have been carried out in northwest Himalaya [28–31]. But not many studies that give detailed account of floristic diversity of Kinnaur [5], which forms a typical geographical entity of Himachal Pradesh and Sangla Valley in particular, are available till now. Therefore, this work is emphasized to study floristic composition; to assess the community structure of the vegetation by different phytosociological methods and phytogeographic affinities of the species; and to study the vegetation pattern in the different aspects of the SV along an altitudinal gradient.


## 2. Materials and Methods

### 2.1. Physiographic Features of the Study Area

The study area is commonly known as Sangla Valley (hereafter, SV) and situated at 31°31′– 36′N and 77°20′−27′E along the Baspa River that flows through the middle of valley (Figure1). The valley is oriented from southeast to northwest directions. This is one of the most ecologically fragile biogeographical zones [32] and inhabited by indigenous tribal communities having Mongolian features and Buddhist religion and culture. It is surrounded by high mountains with elevation ranging from 1800 to 5480 m above mean sea level. The upper ranges of the valley are highly glaciered and receive most of its water through dry precipitation (snow) in winters from November to April. The vegetation of the valley is temperate; subalpine and alpine types and forests are dominated byPinus wallichiana,Betula utilis,Abies pindrow, andCedrus deodara communities. The livelihood of communities is based on agrihorticultural activities, which are generally performed after snow melt in April to October. The communities have close affinity with plant resources not only to meet their basic requirements like food, fodder, fuel, health, and shelter but also to perform several religious and cultural rituals. Though the environment of the valley is very close to nature, several anthropogenic activities have successfully altered the natural and traditional agroecosystem of the valley. Several new climatic events such as increasing frequency of rains in July-August (150–200 mm in 1980s to 465 mm in 2012), rising temperature, frost, and fog are being witnessed more frequently than two decades ago.Figure 1
Map of the study area.


### 2.2. Sampling Plot and Estimation Design

Representative plots of 50 × 50 m were selected in different aspects and habitats. 10 quadrats of 10 × 10 m for trees, 20 quadrats of 5 × 5 m for shrubs, and 20 quadrats of 1 × 1 m for herbs were randomly laid within the plot. Plots were selected based on different topographical features such as habitat types, altitude, aspects, slope, and different vegetation types (Table1). The habitats were identified based on the physical characters and dominance of the vegetation. The plots facing high anthropogenic pressure were considered as degraded habitats and sites having closed canopy with high percent of humus and moisture were considered as moist habitat whereas those of low percent of the same were considered as dry habitat. The site having >50% boulders of the ground cover were considered as bouldery habitat. Geographical coordinates of the sites were taken with the help of Global Positioning System (GPS). Slope was measured with the help of Abney’s level.Table 1
Physical Characteristics of the plots assessed in Sangla Valley.
S. No.
Altitude (m)
Habitat
Slope
Aspect
Latitude
Longitude
1
1950
Degraded
35°
S
31° 28.040 N
78° 11.209 E
2
2000
Dry
60°
NW
31° 28.853 N
78° 10.892 E
3
2100
Dry
60°
SW
31° 28.823 N
78° 10.962 E
4
2250
Dry
50°
S
31° 28.045 N
78° 11.111 E
5
2550
Shady Moist
20°
N
31° 25.025 N
78° 16.103 E
6
2625
Riverine
50°
NE
31° 24.854 N
78° 16.828 E
7
2675
Bouldery
40°
N
31° 25.061 N
78° 16.368 E
8
2690
Dry
15°
NE
31° 24.913 N
78° 16.085 E
9
2750
Shady Moist
10°
SW
31° 25.758 N
78° 16.746 E
10
2770
Shady Moist
45°
NE
31° 24.342 N
78° 18.038 E
11
3120
Bouldery
20°
NE
31° 23.039 N
78° 21.614 E
12
3185
Dry
30°
SW
31° 23.631 N
78° 21.370 E
13
3250
Dry
45°
S
31° 24.342 N
78° 18.038 E
14
3320
Dry
35°
SW
31° 21.286 N
78° 24.438 E
15
3340
Shady Moist
55°
SW
31° 23.840 N
78° 21.340 E
16
3350
Rocky
60°
S
31° 21.756 N
78° 24.029 E
17
3385
Dry
45°
N
31° 20.992 N
78° 26.287 E
18
3399
Dry
40°
N
31° 23.640 N
78° 21.558 E
19
3400
Shady Moist
40°
N
31° 20.955 N
78° 26.135 E
20
3420
Shady Moist
40°
NW
31° 23.209 N
78° 25.577 E
21
3450
Bouldery
50°
W
31° 23.881 N
78° 21.441 E
22
3480
Shady Moist
50°
NW
31° 20.886 N
78° 26.179 E
23
3500
Shady Moist
40°
NW
31° 23.959 N
78° 21.554 E
24
3501
Moraine
45°
SE
31° 20.967 N
78° 27.303 E
25
3516
Rocky
40°
SE
31° 21.002 N
78° 27.381 E
26
3527
Moraine
45°
SE
31° 21.002 N
78° 27.374 E
27
3650
Shady Moist
40°
N
31° 20.636 N
78° 26.224 E
28
3700
Shady Moist
40°
N
31° 20.515 N
78° 26.267 E
29
3770
Shady Moist
35°
NW
31° 20.389 N
78° 26.334 E
30
3850
Shady Moist
30°
NE
31° 20.167 N
78° 26.411 E
31
4129
Alpine meadow
45°
NE
31° 19.310 N
78° 26.151 E
32
4205
Alpine meadow
25°
N
31° 19.242 N
78° 26.049 E
33
4330
Moraine
30°
NE
31° 18.831 N
78° 25.888 E
34
4500
Alpine meadow
20°
NE
31° 18.347 N
78° 25.648 ESites were selected in each and every aspect between 1950 and 4500 m for the field study and analysis of floristic diversity. In various representative ecoclimatic zones of SV, 34 plots were sampled.


### 2.3. Data Analysis

The SV, which falls under cold arid zone of Himachal Pradesh, is diverse and rich in species. Communities were identified based on the importance value index and calculated as the sum of relative frequency, relative density, and relative basal area/relative abundance. For diversity index, Shannon-Wiener information index [33] was used. Species richness was considered as the total number of species in a growth form. For the collection and analysis of data standard ecological methods [20, 24, 34–39] were followed. Vegetation was analytically computed following [39, 40]. The taxa of Himalayan origin were considered as native and all others as nonnative. During qualitative assessment, rapid surveys and samplings were done in each season and taxa identified on spot and with the help of floras and research papers [12–14, 40–43].


## 2.1. Physiographic Features of the Study Area

The study area is commonly known as Sangla Valley (hereafter, SV) and situated at 31°31′– 36′N and 77°20′−27′E along the Baspa River that flows through the middle of valley (Figure1). The valley is oriented from southeast to northwest directions. This is one of the most ecologically fragile biogeographical zones [32] and inhabited by indigenous tribal communities having Mongolian features and Buddhist religion and culture. It is surrounded by high mountains with elevation ranging from 1800 to 5480 m above mean sea level. The upper ranges of the valley are highly glaciered and receive most of its water through dry precipitation (snow) in winters from November to April. The vegetation of the valley is temperate; subalpine and alpine types and forests are dominated byPinus wallichiana,Betula utilis,Abies pindrow, andCedrus deodara communities. The livelihood of communities is based on agrihorticultural activities, which are generally performed after snow melt in April to October. The communities have close affinity with plant resources not only to meet their basic requirements like food, fodder, fuel, health, and shelter but also to perform several religious and cultural rituals. Though the environment of the valley is very close to nature, several anthropogenic activities have successfully altered the natural and traditional agroecosystem of the valley. Several new climatic events such as increasing frequency of rains in July-August (150–200 mm in 1980s to 465 mm in 2012), rising temperature, frost, and fog are being witnessed more frequently than two decades ago.Figure 1
Map of the study area.


## 2.2. Sampling Plot and Estimation Design

Representative plots of 50 × 50 m were selected in different aspects and habitats. 10 quadrats of 10 × 10 m for trees, 20 quadrats of 5 × 5 m for shrubs, and 20 quadrats of 1 × 1 m for herbs were randomly laid within the plot. Plots were selected based on different topographical features such as habitat types, altitude, aspects, slope, and different vegetation types (Table1). The habitats were identified based on the physical characters and dominance of the vegetation. The plots facing high anthropogenic pressure were considered as degraded habitats and sites having closed canopy with high percent of humus and moisture were considered as moist habitat whereas those of low percent of the same were considered as dry habitat. The site having >50% boulders of the ground cover were considered as bouldery habitat. Geographical coordinates of the sites were taken with the help of Global Positioning System (GPS). Slope was measured with the help of Abney’s level.Table 1
Physical Characteristics of the plots assessed in Sangla Valley.
S. No.
Altitude (m)
Habitat
Slope
Aspect
Latitude
Longitude
1
1950
Degraded
35°
S
31° 28.040 N
78° 11.209 E
2
2000
Dry
60°
NW
31° 28.853 N
78° 10.892 E
3
2100
Dry
60°
SW
31° 28.823 N
78° 10.962 E
4
2250
Dry
50°
S
31° 28.045 N
78° 11.111 E
5
2550
Shady Moist
20°
N
31° 25.025 N
78° 16.103 E
6
2625
Riverine
50°
NE
31° 24.854 N
78° 16.828 E
7
2675
Bouldery
40°
N
31° 25.061 N
78° 16.368 E
8
2690
Dry
15°
NE
31° 24.913 N
78° 16.085 E
9
2750
Shady Moist
10°
SW
31° 25.758 N
78° 16.746 E
10
2770
Shady Moist
45°
NE
31° 24.342 N
78° 18.038 E
11
3120
Bouldery
20°
NE
31° 23.039 N
78° 21.614 E
12
3185
Dry
30°
SW
31° 23.631 N
78° 21.370 E
13
3250
Dry
45°
S
31° 24.342 N
78° 18.038 E
14
3320
Dry
35°
SW
31° 21.286 N
78° 24.438 E
15
3340
Shady Moist
55°
SW
31° 23.840 N
78° 21.340 E
16
3350
Rocky
60°
S
31° 21.756 N
78° 24.029 E
17
3385
Dry
45°
N
31° 20.992 N
78° 26.287 E
18
3399
Dry
40°
N
31° 23.640 N
78° 21.558 E
19
3400
Shady Moist
40°
N
31° 20.955 N
78° 26.135 E
20
3420
Shady Moist
40°
NW
31° 23.209 N
78° 25.577 E
21
3450
Bouldery
50°
W
31° 23.881 N
78° 21.441 E
22
3480
Shady Moist
50°
NW
31° 20.886 N
78° 26.179 E
23
3500
Shady Moist
40°
NW
31° 23.959 N
78° 21.554 E
24
3501
Moraine
45°
SE
31° 20.967 N
78° 27.303 E
25
3516
Rocky
40°
SE
31° 21.002 N
78° 27.381 E
26
3527
Moraine
45°
SE
31° 21.002 N
78° 27.374 E
27
3650
Shady Moist
40°
N
31° 20.636 N
78° 26.224 E
28
3700
Shady Moist
40°
N
31° 20.515 N
78° 26.267 E
29
3770
Shady Moist
35°
NW
31° 20.389 N
78° 26.334 E
30
3850
Shady Moist
30°
NE
31° 20.167 N
78° 26.411 E
31
4129
Alpine meadow
45°
NE
31° 19.310 N
78° 26.151 E
32
4205
Alpine meadow
25°
N
31° 19.242 N
78° 26.049 E
33
4330
Moraine
30°
NE
31° 18.831 N
78° 25.888 E
34
4500
Alpine meadow
20°
NE
31° 18.347 N
78° 25.648 ESites were selected in each and every aspect between 1950 and 4500 m for the field study and analysis of floristic diversity. In various representative ecoclimatic zones of SV, 34 plots were sampled.


## 2.3. Data Analysis

The SV, which falls under cold arid zone of Himachal Pradesh, is diverse and rich in species. Communities were identified based on the importance value index and calculated as the sum of relative frequency, relative density, and relative basal area/relative abundance. For diversity index, Shannon-Wiener information index [33] was used. Species richness was considered as the total number of species in a growth form. For the collection and analysis of data standard ecological methods [20, 24, 34–39] were followed. Vegetation was analytically computed following [39, 40]. The taxa of Himalayan origin were considered as native and all others as nonnative. During qualitative assessment, rapid surveys and samplings were done in each season and taxa identified on spot and with the help of floras and research papers [12–14, 40–43].


## 3. Results and Discussion

Plots accessed were 34 in number and a total 15 communities (9 tree, 5 shrub, and 1 herb communities) were delineated based on importance value index for the tree communities and relative density for the shrub and herb communities.


### 3.1. Vegetational Analysis

The different habitats covered during the study were shady moist, rocky, bouldery, dry, alpine meadow, riverine, moraines, and so forth. Among these, shady moist (12) followed by dry habitats (9) represented maximum sites. Because of unique topography and different altitudinal zones of western Himalaya, vegetation varies from aspect to aspect. The sites were selected in every accessible habitat and aspect along an altitudinal gradient. North and northeastern aspects represented maximum sites (8 each) followed by southwest and northwest (5 each) (Table1).Within the communities so delineated, we recorded 320 species of plants belonging to 199 genera and 75 families. Dominant group reported was angiosperms, (68 families, 190 genera, and 302 species); gymnosperms represented by 4 families, 7 genera, and 13 species and pteridophytes by 4 families, 3 genera, and 5 species. They were distributed in different life forms, that is, trees (29 spp.), shrubs (43 spp.), and herbs (248 spp.) (Table2).Table 2
Taxonomic account of floristic diversity.
Taxonomic group
Families
Genera
Species
Herbs
Shrubs
Trees
Angiosperms
68
190
302
243
39
20
Gymnosperms
4
7
13
—
4
9
Pteridophytes
3
3
5
5
—
—
Total
75
200
320
248
43
29Among the angiosperm families, Asteraceae (49 spp.); Rosaceae (21 spp.); Apiaceae (20 spp.); and Ranunculaceae (18 spp.) were dominant. Among genera,ArtemisiaandPolygonum(7 spp.);Saussurea(6 spp.);BerberisandThalictrum(5 spp.), andGeranium,Juniperus,Nepeta,Potentilla,Poa,Rosa, andSalix(4 spp. each) were dominant genera. Twenty-eight (28) families were monotypic and represented only by one species. The occurrence of 320 species in the quantified area indicates that its environmental conditions, particularly shady moist and forest habitats, are suitable for the growth and development of species. Amongst the communities,P. wallichiana community represented maximum sites (6 sites), followed byB. utilis (5 sites);B. utilis-P. wallichiana mixed (4 sites);C. deodaraandP. gerardiana(3 sites, each);R. anthopogon,H. salicifolia, andR. anthopogon-S. caliculata mixed (2 sites, each), and the rest of the communities were represented by one site only. Dominance of the Asteraceae in SV is also validated by floras of Lahaul-Spiti, Himachal Pradesh, in high altitude regions of western Himalaya [13, 42]. The affinity of vegetation towards the flora of the Lahaul-Spiti Valley and Bhaba Valley [5, 42] is apparent by the presence of similar dominant families. Moreover, the major part of the valley is covered with snow throughout the year. Presence of number of herbaceous families (namely, Apiaceae, Brassicaceae, Ranunculaceae, Rosaceae, Polygonaceae, and Scrophulariaceae) is attributed to the temperate and alpine nature of the area. Lesser Pteridophytes in the area may be attributed to the more exposed arid nature of the valley with low broad leaf forest cover and moisture. Nonetheless, as a whole, the high diversity and richness of the species in the SV indicate the high conservation value of the area. Occurrences of 320 species in the 15 identified communities of 34 quantified plots validate this.


### 3.2. Communities: Composition and Structure

Total tree density ranged from 205 to 600 no./ha (number per hectare) and total basal area from 8.70 to 42.41 m2/ha. Shrubs and herbs densities ranged from 105.0 to 1030.00 no./ha and from 22.08 to 48.73 no./m2, respectively. Shrub density is maximum inC. deodara-P. smithiana mixed community and herbs density is maximum inPoa alpina-Agrostis stolonifera-Bistorta affinis-Aconitum violaceumcommunity. Among five major shrub communities,Spiraea canescens-Lonicera hypoleuca mixed community has highest shrub and herb density, that is, 540.00 no./ha and 48.73 no./m2, respectively (Table 3). Tree density range is comparable to the other Himalayan studies [40, 44] and European temperate forests [45]. Similarly, shrub and herb’s density ranges (105–1030 no./ha and 22.08–78.95 no./m2, resp.) are in compliance with the earlier studies of the Himalayan regions [46]. However the lower range of shrub densities inR. anthopogon communities (105 no./ha and 230 no./ha) in the valley is due to the presence of its scanty patches near the subalpine areas and often the rugged and arid and moraine topography.Table 3
Identified communities showing TBA, species richness, densities, and diversity in Sangla Valley.
Communities
SR
TBA (m2/ha)
Species richness
Density
Species diversity index (H′)
Trees (no./ha)
Shrubs (no./ha)
Herbs (no./m2)
Trees
Shrubs
Herbs
Trees
BU
5
11.17
47
480
330
35.16
0.73
2.12
3.17
CD
3
42.41
38
403.33
673.33
33.44
0.57
1.68
3.62
QF
1
14.17
19
340
290
22.08
0
0.4
2.49
PG
3
12.09
47
490
606.29
35.20
0.82
1.16
3.11
PW
6
8.702
96
205
625.83
36.34
0
2.38
4.01
BU-AP
1
14.16
35
440
770
25.03
1.02
1.52
3.16
BU-PW
4
12.28
80
420
327.5
40.36
0.93
2.22
3.69
CD-PS
1
17.98
41
600
1030
42.40
1.28
2.07
2.98
CD-PW
1
21.99
29
400
420
38.20
0.69
0.95
3.07
Shrubs
HS
2
—
41
—
370
45.39
—
1.63
3.21
RA
2
—
40
—
105
32.56
—
0.96
3.45
RA-SC
2
—
52
—
230
34.80
—
1.15
3.55
SCa-CB-BJ
1
—
34
—
540
48.73
—
1.53
2.87
SCa-LH
1
—
33
—
630
27.70
—
1.43
3.1
Herbs
PA-AS-BA-AV
1
—
34
—
—
78.95
—
—
2.91
SR = site represented, TBA: total basal area, Ind = individual, BU =Betula utilis, CD = Cedrus deodara, QF = Quercus floribunda, PG =  Pinus gerardiana, PW = Pinus wallichiana, BU-AP = Betula utilis-Abies pindrow mixed, BU-PW = Betula utilis-Pinus wallichiana mixed, CD-PS = Cedrus deodara-Picea smithiana, CD-PW = Cedrus deodara-Pinus wallichiana mixed, HS = Hippophae salicifolia, RA = Rhododendron anthopogon, RA-SC = Rhododendron anthopogon-Salix caliculata mixed, SCa-CB-BL = Spiraea canescens-Cotoneaster bacillaris-Berberis jaeschkeanamixed, SCa-LH =  Spiraea canescens-Lonicera hypoleuca mixed, and PA-AS-BA-AV = Poa alpina-Agrostis stolonifera-Bistorta affinis-Aconitum violaceum.


### 3.3. Species Richness and Diversity Index (H′)

Species richness in identified communities ranged from 19 to 96. Among the communities, it was highest inP. wallichiana(96 spp.), followed byB. utilis-P. wallichiana mixed (80 spp.),R. anthopogon-S. caliculatamixed (52 spp.), andP. gerardiana(47 spp.) communities. Species diversity index for trees is maximum (1.28) forC. deodara-P. smithiana mixed community and minimum (0.0) forQ. floribundaandP. wallichianacommunities; among shrubs it is maximum (2.38) forP. wallichianacommunity and minimum (0.40) forQ. floribunda community and for herbs it is maximum (4.01) forP. wallichiana community and minimum (2.49) forQ. floribunda community (Table 3).The species richness (19–96) in the communities was higher than the earlier reported values [47, 48] but comparable to the [24, 49] from high altitude areas of Himalaya. The high richness of trees and shrubs may be due to diverse habitats and suitable edaphic and climatic factors supporting growth and survival of the species. The diversity index for trees (0.0–1.28) is within the reported value from the other Himalayan areas [40, 47, 49, 50]. InP. gerardianacommunity, it is the only tree species which is present, so its diversity index value is zero. The diversity of shrubs (0.40–2.38) is comparable to the previous records from the higher Himalaya and also from the lower parts (0.51–1.33) [46, 48, 50] and (0.74–3.14) reported by [40, 51] for subtropical and temperate forests. However for herbs diversity (2.49–4.01) it was higher than earlier records. The value of the total basal area was found to be maximum inC. deodara andC. deodara-P. wallichiana mixed communities (42.41 and 21.99 m2/ha, resp.) and average basal area is 17.23 m2/ha which is very low as compared to the other parts of the Himalaya where it is above 70 m2/ha [52–54]. This may be due to unscrupulous tree felling and logging pressure on the forest resources in addition to the other natural causes like heavy erratic rainfalls which leads to the massive landslides in the region.


### 3.4. Species Dominance in the Identified Communities

Among the various communities identified in SV, we figured out the maximum values of dominant species as 74.5% (B. utilis) and 19.9% (P. wallichiana) inB. utilis community; 80.2% (C. deodara) and 17.4% (P. wallichiana) inC. deodaracommunity; 100% (Q. floribunda) inQ. floribundacommunity as it was the only tree species present in the community; 57.14% (Pinus gerardiana) and 38.8%(Quercus floribunda) inPinus gerardianacommunity; 90.9% (P. wallichiana) and 8.1% (C. deodara) inP. wallichianacommunity; 43.1% (B. utilis) and 40.9% (A. pindrow) inB. utilis-A. pindrowmixed community; 62.5% (B. utilis) and 29.8% (P. wallichiana)inB. utilis-P. wallichianamixed community; 38.3% (C. deodara) and 31.6% (Picea smithiana) inC. deodara-P. smithianamixed community; and 52.5% (C. deodara) and 42.5% (P. wallichiana) inC. deodara-P. wallichiana mixed community (Table 4).Table 4
Relative densities of dominant species in various communities.
Communities
Dominant elements
Trees
Shrubs
Herbs
Trees
Betula utilis  D. Don
B.  utilisD. Don  (74.5%), P.  wallichianaA. B. Jacks.  (19.9%), and A.  pindrow (Royle ex D. Don) Royle  (5.0%)
Cassiope fastigiata  (Wall.) D. Don  (28.5%), Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don  (17.6%), and Rosa webbianaWall. ex Royle (9.7%)
Polygonatum verticillatum  (L.) All.   (11.4%), Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet  (5.7%),Fragaria nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita  (5.6%), andAconogonum molle  (D. Don) H. Hara   (5.4%)
Cedrus  deodara (Roxb. ex Lamb.) G. Don
C. deodara (Roxb. ex Lamb.) G. Don (80.2%),P. wallichianaA. B. Jacks.  (17.4%), andA. pindrow (Royle ex D. Don) Royle (2.5%)
Rabdosia  rugosa (Wall. ex Benth.) H. Hara  (31.3%),Berberis aristata (29.8%), andCotoneaster bacillarisWall. ex Lindl.   (7.5%)
Thalictrum cultratumWall.  (11.1%), F. nubicola (7.4%), and Nepeta  erecta (Royle ex Benth.) Benth.  (7.4%)
Quercus  floribunda Lindl. ex A. Camus
Q. floribunda Lindl. ex A. Camus  (100%)
R.     rugosa (Wall. ex Benth.) H. Hara  (80.1%), Sorbaria  tomentosa (Lindl.) Rehder  (9.1%)
Cannabis sativaL.  (14.3%), Dysphania botrys (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants  (10.9%), andTagetes minutaL.  (9.5%)
Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex D. Don
Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex D. Don  (57.14%),Q. floribunda Lindl. ex A. Camus   (38.8%), and Olea  europaea L.  (4.1%)
R.     rugosa (Wall. ex Benth.) H. Hara (55.9%),Desmodium elegans DC.   (18.9%), andArtemisia maritimaL.   (13.2%)
Conyza  sumatrensis (S. F. Blake) Pruski & G. Sancho (9.4%),C. sativaL.  (6.8%), andChenopodium albumL.  (5.4%)
Pinus  wallichiana A. B. Jacks.
P. wallichianaA. B. Jacks.  (90.9%),C. deodara (Roxb. ex Lamb.) G. Don (8.1%)
Rosa  macrophylla Lindl.  (17.4%),Berberis jaeschkeanaC. K. Schneid.   (14.4%), andCotoneaster microphyllusWall. ex Lindl.   (12.8%)
Origanum  vulgareL.   (6.1%),Morina  longifoliaWall.   (3.6%), andMedicago  lupulinaL.  (3.3%)
B.  utilis D. Don-A.  pindrowRoyle ex D. Don) Royle mixed
B. utilis D. Don  (43.1%),A. pindrow (Royle ex D. Don) Royle (40.9%),andP. wallichianaA. B. Jacks.  (15.9%)
C. microphyllusWall. ex Lindl.   (32.5%),R. macrophylla Lindl.  (22.0%), andB. jaeschkeanaC. K. Schneid.   (11.7%)
Cynoglossum  wallichii  G. Don  (23.4%), F. nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita   (18.2%), Trigonella  emodi Benth., and Lotus corniculatusL.  (4.6% each)
B.  utilis D. Don-P.  wallichiana A. B. Jacks. mixed
B. utilis D. Don (62.5%),P. wallichianaA. B. Jacks.  (29.8%), andA. pindrow (Royle ex D. Don) Royle (4.3%)
C. fastigiata  (Wall.) D. Don  (33.3%), Spiraea canescensD. Don  (10.0%), and Rhododendron anthopogonD. Don  (7.6%)
Persicaria vivipara  (L.)Ronse Decr.  (6.8%), Delphinium cashmerianum Royle  (4.5%), andLomatogonium carinthiacum (Wulfen) Rchb.   (3.5%)
C. deodara (Roxb. ex Lamb.) G. Don-Piceasmithiana (Wall.) Boiss. mixed
C. deodara (Roxb. ex Lamb.) G. Don  (38.3%), Picea  smithiana (Wall.) Boiss.   (31.6%),P. wallichianaA. B. Jacks.   (20.0%), and Juglans  regiaL.   (10.3)
Rubusellipticus Sm.   (15.5%),B. aristataDC.   (14.6%), andD. elegansDC.   (13.6%)
F. nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita   (16.1%),Trifolium pratenseL.   (5.2%),T. cultratumWall., andChaerophyllum villosumWall. & DC.   (3.8% each)
C.  deodara (Roxb. ex Lamb.) G. Don-P.  wallichiana A. B. Jacks.  mixed
C. deodara (Roxb. ex Lamb.) G. Don (52.5%),P. wallichianaA. B. Jacks.  (42.5%), and P. smithiana  (Wall.) Boiss.   (5.0%)
B. jaeschkeanaC. K. Schneid.   (59.52%),S. canescensD. Don   (21.4%),R. webbianaWall. ex Royle   (19.0)
F. nubicola (Hook. f.)  Lindl. ex Lacaita   (8.2%),T. linearisBenth.   (6.3%), andT. alpinusL.   (5.5%)
Shrubs
Hippophae  salicifoliaD. Don
—
Hippophae  salicifoliaD. Don  (58%),Sorbaria  tomentosa (Lindl.) Rehder  (13.2%), andRabdosia  rugosa (Wall. ex Benth.) H. Hara  (9.4%)
Fragaria  nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita   (15.6%), Cannabis  sativaL.   (8.3%),  Polygonum  aviculareL.   (6.0%),andNepeta  erecta (Royle ex Benth.) Benth.   (4.5%)
Rhododendron  anthopogonD. Don
—
Rhododendron  anthopogonD. Don  (57.2%),Salix  capreaL.   (28.6%), and Cotoneaster  microphyllusWall. ex Lindl.   (14.3%)
Delphinium  cashmerianumRoyle  (7.2%),Rhodiola  himalensis (D. Don) S. H. Fu  (5.7%),Bistorta  affinis (D. Don) Greene  (5.3%),  Lactuca  macrorhiza (Royle) Hook. f.   (4.8%), andImpatiens  thomsonii Hook. f.   (4.2%)
Rhododendron  anthopogonD. Don-Salix  calyculataHook. f. ex Andersson mixed
—
Rhododendron  anthopogonD. Don  (45.65%),Salix  calyculataHook. f. ex Andersson  (36.9%), andViburnum  cotinifoliumD. Don  (8.7%)
F. nubicola  (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita   (19.5%),Bistorta affinis  (D. Don) Greene   (10.7%),Anaphalis triplinervis  (Sims) Sims ex C. B. Clarke   (6.7%),Poa  annuaL.   (6.2%),Thalictrum  cultratumWall.    (5.7%), andOxyria  digyna (L.) Hill  (5.3%)
Spiraea  canescensD. Don-Cotoneaster  bacillarisWall. ex Lindl.-Berberis  jaeschkeanaC. K. Schneid. mixed
—
Spiraea  canescensD. Don  (27.0%),Cotoneaster  bacillarisWall. ex Lindl.   (11.5%), andBerberis  jaeschkeanaC. K. Schneid.   (8.2%)
Elsholtzia  eriostachya (Benth.) Benth.   (17.2%),Fragaria  nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita   (15.4%),Euphrasia  officinalis L.   (7.7%),Origanum  vulgareL.   (7.4%),and Impatiens  thomsonii Hook. f.   (3.5%)
Spiraea  canescensD. Don-Lonicera  hypoleucaDecne. Mixed
—
Spiraea  canescensD. Don.  (44.4%),Lonicera  hypoleucaDecne  (19.0%), andBerberis  jaeschkeanaC. K. Schneid.   (11.1%)
Bromus  japonicusThunb.   (10.5%),Cuscuta  capitataRoxb.   (9.6%),Aconogonum  molle (D. Don) H. Hara  (7.2%), andFragaria  nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita   (6.3%)
Herbs
Poa  alpinaL.-Agrostis  stoloniferaL.-Bistorta  affinis  (D. Don) Greene-Aconitum  violaceumJacquem. ex Stapf mixed
—
—
Poa  alpinaL.   (25.33%),Agrostis  stoloniferaL.   (13.2%),Bistorta  affinis (D. Don) Greene  (4.6%),Aconitum  violaceumJacquem. ex Stapf  (4.6%), and Heracleum  thomsoniiC. B. Clarke  (4.3%)Among shrubs maximum density percentages were of the speciesBerberis aristata,Berberis jaeschkeana,Cassiope fastigiata,Cotoneaster bacillaris, Cotoneastermicrophyllus,Desmodium elegans,Hippophae salicifolia,Lonicera hypoleuca,Rhododendron campanulatum,Rabdosia rugosa,Rhododendron anthopogon,Rubus ellipticus,Salix calyculata,Sorbaria tomentosa,Spiraea canescens, and so forth.Rabdosia rugosa (80.1%) andCotoneaster bacillaris (7.5%) were having maximum and minimum density percentages inQuercus floribunda andCedrus deodara communities, respectively. Among herbs assessedAconogonum molle,Agrostis stolonifera,Bistorta affinis,Bromus japonicas,Cannabis sativa,Conyza sumatrensis,Cynoglossum wallichii,Delphinium cashmerianum,Euphrasia officinalis,Fragaria nubicola,Impatiens thomsonii,Morina longifolia,Nepeta erecta,Origanum vulgare,Persicaria vivipara,Poa alpina,Polygonatum verticillatum,Thalictrum cultratum,Trifolium pratense, and so forth were in abundance, hence showing comparatively more densities. Herbs having maximum density recorded werePoa alpina (25.3%) followed byCynoglossum wallichii  (23.4%) andFragaria nubicola (19.5%) inPoa alpina-Agrostis stolonifera-Bistorta affinis-Aconitum violaceum mixed,B. utilis-A. pindrow mixed, andRhododendron anthopogon-Salix calyculata mixed communities, respectively (Table 4).Tree, shrub, and herb percentage covers within the communities showed a typical composition of the Himalayan region wherein shrubsRabdosia rugosaandCotoneaster bacillariswere having maximum and minimum density percentages, respectively, and herbsPoa alpina, Cynoglossum wallichii,andFragaria nubicola were abundant. Dominance of these species might be due to their high adaptability in addition to their good capability to proliferate in the extreme climatic conditions of this part of western Himalaya.


### 3.5. Phytogeographic Affinities

As a whole in all the communities, 182 species were native to the Himalayan region and the remaining were nonnatives as they are from different biogeographic domains of the world. The trend of nativity of plants occurring in SV was as follows: European/Oriental region (28) > Asia (25) > European region (16) > Temperate region (13) > Indian region (10) > India/Oriental region (8) > America (7) > European/Oriental/African and Temperate, Arctic (6 each) > Cosmopolitan (5) > Australian (4) > Amphigean (3) > Arctic, European/Oriental/American and Oriental (2 each) and European/African (1) (Figure2).Figure 2
Species showing their biogeographic realms. Afr = Africa; Amer = America; Amphig = Amphigean; Arct = Arctic; As = Asia; Aust = Australia; Cosmo = Cosmopolitan; Euro = Europe; Himal = Himalaya; Ind = India; Orient = Oriental; and Temp = Temperate.Natives are the species which evolved naturally in a particular region before their human introduction. To prioritize a species or habitat of the region for conservation, status of a species as to whether it is native or introduced in a given area is required. Species invasions beyond their native range constitute a global driver of change as nonnative species threaten biodiversity and change ecosystem functioning [55]. Like in other parts of the Himachal Himalaya [29, 30] in SV also the percentage of native species increased with the altitude. There is a strong evidence from a scatter diagram that a positive linear relationship exists between the native species richness and altitude (r=0.83, P<0.01, n=34) (Figure 3). The high percentage of the native species at higher elevations may be due to low anthropogenic pressure and severe climatic conditions compared to the lower elevations where high anthropogenic pressure and mild climatic conditions support the speciation of the nonnative species [30]. Regular monitoring of the habitats and populations of the native species facing high anthropogenic pressure even in higher altitude is essentially required, so that the adequate planning for their conservation and management could be done in time.Figure 3
Native species along the altitude gradient.


### 3.6. Altitudinal and Aspectwise Distribution of Species

Altitude and aspect are the most important determinants of vegetation distribution due to their direct impact on microclimate of the habitat [56, 57]. The Himalayan region has typical topography and environment where biodiversity varies from aspect to aspect and habitats of the communities [58].Maximum altitudinal distribution of few selected climate sensitive species, namely,Bistorta affinis,Fragaria nubicola,Geranium pratense,Pleurospermum candollei,Podophyllum hexandrum,Rhodiola heterodonta,Saussurea obvallata,Saxifraga sibrica, andSedum ewersii, was studied in the valley. It was found to be highest in northeast followed by north, south, and southeast aspects (Figure 4). Species likeBistorta affinis reaching up to 4510 m and 3890 m in northeast and north aspects, respectively, are restricted to 3580 m and 3429 m in south and southeast aspects, resepectively. Similar trend was seen with all other climate sesitive species in the region.Figure 4
Distribution range of species along altitudinal gradient in different aspects.P. wallichiana showed the broadest range from 2100 to 3500 m and almost reaching the tree line along withB. utilis.In this valley, northern and northeastern slopes have lower temperatures and higher soil and air moisture contents as compared to southern and other slopes at the same altitude due to less solar exposure and higher moisture content and evapotranspiration which is akin to the other Himalayan areas [59, 60]. In northern and northeastern slopesB. utilis, A. pindrow, andP. wallichiana were recorded at the altitude as low as 2200 m, whereas on the south and southeastern aspects their altitudinal range started from 2300 m.


### 3.7. Final Considerations

In northwestern Himalaya the high mountain plant communities support a rich biodiversity in terms of ecological indicator species and natives. They need a proper management against harsh climate and anthropogenic pressure for continued future sustainability. Regular monitoring using random sampling by quadrat method is suggested to understand the dynamics of the habitats and communities and accordingly plan for their management. The climate sensitive species are required to be regularly monitored for their phenological attributes so that the baseline data can be generated for future changes in the area. The information generated on these lines will provide a better insight about the present status of floristic diversity and help in developing adequate strategies and action plan for the management of such biodiversity-rich areas. The state and central government agencies are suggested to encourage the native species so that the ambient regional ecosystems are protected for the posterity. Further, forin situ conservation of the economically and ecologically important species, regular monitoring of the sites and complete protection of the habitats is suggested. In addition, seed germination protocols developed may be used for mass multiplication of the species and seedlings should be transplanted in comparable habitats so that viable population of the species can be maintained. Finally a pragmatic and ameliorative conservational approach which was hitherto absent in this part of the Himalaya needs to be implemented.


## 3.1. Vegetational Analysis

The different habitats covered during the study were shady moist, rocky, bouldery, dry, alpine meadow, riverine, moraines, and so forth. Among these, shady moist (12) followed by dry habitats (9) represented maximum sites. Because of unique topography and different altitudinal zones of western Himalaya, vegetation varies from aspect to aspect. The sites were selected in every accessible habitat and aspect along an altitudinal gradient. North and northeastern aspects represented maximum sites (8 each) followed by southwest and northwest (5 each) (Table1).Within the communities so delineated, we recorded 320 species of plants belonging to 199 genera and 75 families. Dominant group reported was angiosperms, (68 families, 190 genera, and 302 species); gymnosperms represented by 4 families, 7 genera, and 13 species and pteridophytes by 4 families, 3 genera, and 5 species. They were distributed in different life forms, that is, trees (29 spp.), shrubs (43 spp.), and herbs (248 spp.) (Table2).Table 2
Taxonomic account of floristic diversity.
Taxonomic group
Families
Genera
Species
Herbs
Shrubs
Trees
Angiosperms
68
190
302
243
39
20
Gymnosperms
4
7
13
—
4
9
Pteridophytes
3
3
5
5
—
—
Total
75
200
320
248
43
29Among the angiosperm families, Asteraceae (49 spp.); Rosaceae (21 spp.); Apiaceae (20 spp.); and Ranunculaceae (18 spp.) were dominant. Among genera,ArtemisiaandPolygonum(7 spp.);Saussurea(6 spp.);BerberisandThalictrum(5 spp.), andGeranium,Juniperus,Nepeta,Potentilla,Poa,Rosa, andSalix(4 spp. each) were dominant genera. Twenty-eight (28) families were monotypic and represented only by one species. The occurrence of 320 species in the quantified area indicates that its environmental conditions, particularly shady moist and forest habitats, are suitable for the growth and development of species. Amongst the communities,P. wallichiana community represented maximum sites (6 sites), followed byB. utilis (5 sites);B. utilis-P. wallichiana mixed (4 sites);C. deodaraandP. gerardiana(3 sites, each);R. anthopogon,H. salicifolia, andR. anthopogon-S. caliculata mixed (2 sites, each), and the rest of the communities were represented by one site only. Dominance of the Asteraceae in SV is also validated by floras of Lahaul-Spiti, Himachal Pradesh, in high altitude regions of western Himalaya [13, 42]. The affinity of vegetation towards the flora of the Lahaul-Spiti Valley and Bhaba Valley [5, 42] is apparent by the presence of similar dominant families. Moreover, the major part of the valley is covered with snow throughout the year. Presence of number of herbaceous families (namely, Apiaceae, Brassicaceae, Ranunculaceae, Rosaceae, Polygonaceae, and Scrophulariaceae) is attributed to the temperate and alpine nature of the area. Lesser Pteridophytes in the area may be attributed to the more exposed arid nature of the valley with low broad leaf forest cover and moisture. Nonetheless, as a whole, the high diversity and richness of the species in the SV indicate the high conservation value of the area. Occurrences of 320 species in the 15 identified communities of 34 quantified plots validate this.


## 3.2. Communities: Composition and Structure

Total tree density ranged from 205 to 600 no./ha (number per hectare) and total basal area from 8.70 to 42.41 m2/ha. Shrubs and herbs densities ranged from 105.0 to 1030.00 no./ha and from 22.08 to 48.73 no./m2, respectively. Shrub density is maximum inC. deodara-P. smithiana mixed community and herbs density is maximum inPoa alpina-Agrostis stolonifera-Bistorta affinis-Aconitum violaceumcommunity. Among five major shrub communities,Spiraea canescens-Lonicera hypoleuca mixed community has highest shrub and herb density, that is, 540.00 no./ha and 48.73 no./m2, respectively (Table 3). Tree density range is comparable to the other Himalayan studies [40, 44] and European temperate forests [45]. Similarly, shrub and herb’s density ranges (105–1030 no./ha and 22.08–78.95 no./m2, resp.) are in compliance with the earlier studies of the Himalayan regions [46]. However the lower range of shrub densities inR. anthopogon communities (105 no./ha and 230 no./ha) in the valley is due to the presence of its scanty patches near the subalpine areas and often the rugged and arid and moraine topography.Table 3
Identified communities showing TBA, species richness, densities, and diversity in Sangla Valley.
Communities
SR
TBA (m2/ha)
Species richness
Density
Species diversity index (H′)
Trees (no./ha)
Shrubs (no./ha)
Herbs (no./m2)
Trees
Shrubs
Herbs
Trees
BU
5
11.17
47
480
330
35.16
0.73
2.12
3.17
CD
3
42.41
38
403.33
673.33
33.44
0.57
1.68
3.62
QF
1
14.17
19
340
290
22.08
0
0.4
2.49
PG
3
12.09
47
490
606.29
35.20
0.82
1.16
3.11
PW
6
8.702
96
205
625.83
36.34
0
2.38
4.01
BU-AP
1
14.16
35
440
770
25.03
1.02
1.52
3.16
BU-PW
4
12.28
80
420
327.5
40.36
0.93
2.22
3.69
CD-PS
1
17.98
41
600
1030
42.40
1.28
2.07
2.98
CD-PW
1
21.99
29
400
420
38.20
0.69
0.95
3.07
Shrubs
HS
2
—
41
—
370
45.39
—
1.63
3.21
RA
2
—
40
—
105
32.56
—
0.96
3.45
RA-SC
2
—
52
—
230
34.80
—
1.15
3.55
SCa-CB-BJ
1
—
34
—
540
48.73
—
1.53
2.87
SCa-LH
1
—
33
—
630
27.70
—
1.43
3.1
Herbs
PA-AS-BA-AV
1
—
34
—
—
78.95
—
—
2.91
SR = site represented, TBA: total basal area, Ind = individual, BU =Betula utilis, CD = Cedrus deodara, QF = Quercus floribunda, PG =  Pinus gerardiana, PW = Pinus wallichiana, BU-AP = Betula utilis-Abies pindrow mixed, BU-PW = Betula utilis-Pinus wallichiana mixed, CD-PS = Cedrus deodara-Picea smithiana, CD-PW = Cedrus deodara-Pinus wallichiana mixed, HS = Hippophae salicifolia, RA = Rhododendron anthopogon, RA-SC = Rhododendron anthopogon-Salix caliculata mixed, SCa-CB-BL = Spiraea canescens-Cotoneaster bacillaris-Berberis jaeschkeanamixed, SCa-LH =  Spiraea canescens-Lonicera hypoleuca mixed, and PA-AS-BA-AV = Poa alpina-Agrostis stolonifera-Bistorta affinis-Aconitum violaceum.


## 3.3. Species Richness and Diversity Index (H′)

Species richness in identified communities ranged from 19 to 96. Among the communities, it was highest inP. wallichiana(96 spp.), followed byB. utilis-P. wallichiana mixed (80 spp.),R. anthopogon-S. caliculatamixed (52 spp.), andP. gerardiana(47 spp.) communities. Species diversity index for trees is maximum (1.28) forC. deodara-P. smithiana mixed community and minimum (0.0) forQ. floribundaandP. wallichianacommunities; among shrubs it is maximum (2.38) forP. wallichianacommunity and minimum (0.40) forQ. floribunda community and for herbs it is maximum (4.01) forP. wallichiana community and minimum (2.49) forQ. floribunda community (Table 3).The species richness (19–96) in the communities was higher than the earlier reported values [47, 48] but comparable to the [24, 49] from high altitude areas of Himalaya. The high richness of trees and shrubs may be due to diverse habitats and suitable edaphic and climatic factors supporting growth and survival of the species. The diversity index for trees (0.0–1.28) is within the reported value from the other Himalayan areas [40, 47, 49, 50]. InP. gerardianacommunity, it is the only tree species which is present, so its diversity index value is zero. The diversity of shrubs (0.40–2.38) is comparable to the previous records from the higher Himalaya and also from the lower parts (0.51–1.33) [46, 48, 50] and (0.74–3.14) reported by [40, 51] for subtropical and temperate forests. However for herbs diversity (2.49–4.01) it was higher than earlier records. The value of the total basal area was found to be maximum inC. deodara andC. deodara-P. wallichiana mixed communities (42.41 and 21.99 m2/ha, resp.) and average basal area is 17.23 m2/ha which is very low as compared to the other parts of the Himalaya where it is above 70 m2/ha [52–54]. This may be due to unscrupulous tree felling and logging pressure on the forest resources in addition to the other natural causes like heavy erratic rainfalls which leads to the massive landslides in the region.


## 3.4. Species Dominance in the Identified Communities

Among the various communities identified in SV, we figured out the maximum values of dominant species as 74.5% (B. utilis) and 19.9% (P. wallichiana) inB. utilis community; 80.2% (C. deodara) and 17.4% (P. wallichiana) inC. deodaracommunity; 100% (Q. floribunda) inQ. floribundacommunity as it was the only tree species present in the community; 57.14% (Pinus gerardiana) and 38.8%(Quercus floribunda) inPinus gerardianacommunity; 90.9% (P. wallichiana) and 8.1% (C. deodara) inP. wallichianacommunity; 43.1% (B. utilis) and 40.9% (A. pindrow) inB. utilis-A. pindrowmixed community; 62.5% (B. utilis) and 29.8% (P. wallichiana)inB. utilis-P. wallichianamixed community; 38.3% (C. deodara) and 31.6% (Picea smithiana) inC. deodara-P. smithianamixed community; and 52.5% (C. deodara) and 42.5% (P. wallichiana) inC. deodara-P. wallichiana mixed community (Table 4).Table 4
Relative densities of dominant species in various communities.
Communities
Dominant elements
Trees
Shrubs
Herbs
Trees
Betula utilis  D. Don
B.  utilisD. Don  (74.5%), P.  wallichianaA. B. Jacks.  (19.9%), and A.  pindrow (Royle ex D. Don) Royle  (5.0%)
Cassiope fastigiata  (Wall.) D. Don  (28.5%), Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don  (17.6%), and Rosa webbianaWall. ex Royle (9.7%)
Polygonatum verticillatum  (L.) All.   (11.4%), Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet  (5.7%),Fragaria nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita  (5.6%), andAconogonum molle  (D. Don) H. Hara   (5.4%)
Cedrus  deodara (Roxb. ex Lamb.) G. Don
C. deodara (Roxb. ex Lamb.) G. Don (80.2%),P. wallichianaA. B. Jacks.  (17.4%), andA. pindrow (Royle ex D. Don) Royle (2.5%)
Rabdosia  rugosa (Wall. ex Benth.) H. Hara  (31.3%),Berberis aristata (29.8%), andCotoneaster bacillarisWall. ex Lindl.   (7.5%)
Thalictrum cultratumWall.  (11.1%), F. nubicola (7.4%), and Nepeta  erecta (Royle ex Benth.) Benth.  (7.4%)
Quercus  floribunda Lindl. ex A. Camus
Q. floribunda Lindl. ex A. Camus  (100%)
R.     rugosa (Wall. ex Benth.) H. Hara  (80.1%), Sorbaria  tomentosa (Lindl.) Rehder  (9.1%)
Cannabis sativaL.  (14.3%), Dysphania botrys (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants  (10.9%), andTagetes minutaL.  (9.5%)
Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex D. Don
Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex D. Don  (57.14%),Q. floribunda Lindl. ex A. Camus   (38.8%), and Olea  europaea L.  (4.1%)
R.     rugosa (Wall. ex Benth.) H. Hara (55.9%),Desmodium elegans DC.   (18.9%), andArtemisia maritimaL.   (13.2%)
Conyza  sumatrensis (S. F. Blake) Pruski & G. Sancho (9.4%),C. sativaL.  (6.8%), andChenopodium albumL.  (5.4%)
Pinus  wallichiana A. B. Jacks.
P. wallichianaA. B. Jacks.  (90.9%),C. deodara (Roxb. ex Lamb.) G. Don (8.1%)
Rosa  macrophylla Lindl.  (17.4%),Berberis jaeschkeanaC. K. Schneid.   (14.4%), andCotoneaster microphyllusWall. ex Lindl.   (12.8%)
Origanum  vulgareL.   (6.1%),Morina  longifoliaWall.   (3.6%), andMedicago  lupulinaL.  (3.3%)
B.  utilis D. Don-A.  pindrowRoyle ex D. Don) Royle mixed
B. utilis D. Don  (43.1%),A. pindrow (Royle ex D. Don) Royle (40.9%),andP. wallichianaA. B. Jacks.  (15.9%)
C. microphyllusWall. ex Lindl.   (32.5%),R. macrophylla Lindl.  (22.0%), andB. jaeschkeanaC. K. Schneid.   (11.7%)
Cynoglossum  wallichii  G. Don  (23.4%), F. nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita   (18.2%), Trigonella  emodi Benth., and Lotus corniculatusL.  (4.6% each)
B.  utilis D. Don-P.  wallichiana A. B. Jacks. mixed
B. utilis D. Don (62.5%),P. wallichianaA. B. Jacks.  (29.8%), andA. pindrow (Royle ex D. Don) Royle (4.3%)
C. fastigiata  (Wall.) D. Don  (33.3%), Spiraea canescensD. Don  (10.0%), and Rhododendron anthopogonD. Don  (7.6%)
Persicaria vivipara  (L.)Ronse Decr.  (6.8%), Delphinium cashmerianum Royle  (4.5%), andLomatogonium carinthiacum (Wulfen) Rchb.   (3.5%)
C. deodara (Roxb. ex Lamb.) G. Don-Piceasmithiana (Wall.) Boiss. mixed
C. deodara (Roxb. ex Lamb.) G. Don  (38.3%), Picea  smithiana (Wall.) Boiss.   (31.6%),P. wallichianaA. B. Jacks.   (20.0%), and Juglans  regiaL.   (10.3)
Rubusellipticus Sm.   (15.5%),B. aristataDC.   (14.6%), andD. elegansDC.   (13.6%)
F. nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita   (16.1%),Trifolium pratenseL.   (5.2%),T. cultratumWall., andChaerophyllum villosumWall. & DC.   (3.8% each)
C.  deodara (Roxb. ex Lamb.) G. Don-P.  wallichiana A. B. Jacks.  mixed
C. deodara (Roxb. ex Lamb.) G. Don (52.5%),P. wallichianaA. B. Jacks.  (42.5%), and P. smithiana  (Wall.) Boiss.   (5.0%)
B. jaeschkeanaC. K. Schneid.   (59.52%),S. canescensD. Don   (21.4%),R. webbianaWall. ex Royle   (19.0)
F. nubicola (Hook. f.)  Lindl. ex Lacaita   (8.2%),T. linearisBenth.   (6.3%), andT. alpinusL.   (5.5%)
Shrubs
Hippophae  salicifoliaD. Don
—
Hippophae  salicifoliaD. Don  (58%),Sorbaria  tomentosa (Lindl.) Rehder  (13.2%), andRabdosia  rugosa (Wall. ex Benth.) H. Hara  (9.4%)
Fragaria  nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita   (15.6%), Cannabis  sativaL.   (8.3%),  Polygonum  aviculareL.   (6.0%),andNepeta  erecta (Royle ex Benth.) Benth.   (4.5%)
Rhododendron  anthopogonD. Don
—
Rhododendron  anthopogonD. Don  (57.2%),Salix  capreaL.   (28.6%), and Cotoneaster  microphyllusWall. ex Lindl.   (14.3%)
Delphinium  cashmerianumRoyle  (7.2%),Rhodiola  himalensis (D. Don) S. H. Fu  (5.7%),Bistorta  affinis (D. Don) Greene  (5.3%),  Lactuca  macrorhiza (Royle) Hook. f.   (4.8%), andImpatiens  thomsonii Hook. f.   (4.2%)
Rhododendron  anthopogonD. Don-Salix  calyculataHook. f. ex Andersson mixed
—
Rhododendron  anthopogonD. Don  (45.65%),Salix  calyculataHook. f. ex Andersson  (36.9%), andViburnum  cotinifoliumD. Don  (8.7%)
F. nubicola  (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita   (19.5%),Bistorta affinis  (D. Don) Greene   (10.7%),Anaphalis triplinervis  (Sims) Sims ex C. B. Clarke   (6.7%),Poa  annuaL.   (6.2%),Thalictrum  cultratumWall.    (5.7%), andOxyria  digyna (L.) Hill  (5.3%)
Spiraea  canescensD. Don-Cotoneaster  bacillarisWall. ex Lindl.-Berberis  jaeschkeanaC. K. Schneid. mixed
—
Spiraea  canescensD. Don  (27.0%),Cotoneaster  bacillarisWall. ex Lindl.   (11.5%), andBerberis  jaeschkeanaC. K. Schneid.   (8.2%)
Elsholtzia  eriostachya (Benth.) Benth.   (17.2%),Fragaria  nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita   (15.4%),Euphrasia  officinalis L.   (7.7%),Origanum  vulgareL.   (7.4%),and Impatiens  thomsonii Hook. f.   (3.5%)
Spiraea  canescensD. Don-Lonicera  hypoleucaDecne. Mixed
—
Spiraea  canescensD. Don.  (44.4%),Lonicera  hypoleucaDecne  (19.0%), andBerberis  jaeschkeanaC. K. Schneid.   (11.1%)
Bromus  japonicusThunb.   (10.5%),Cuscuta  capitataRoxb.   (9.6%),Aconogonum  molle (D. Don) H. Hara  (7.2%), andFragaria  nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita   (6.3%)
Herbs
Poa  alpinaL.-Agrostis  stoloniferaL.-Bistorta  affinis  (D. Don) Greene-Aconitum  violaceumJacquem. ex Stapf mixed
—
—
Poa  alpinaL.   (25.33%),Agrostis  stoloniferaL.   (13.2%),Bistorta  affinis (D. Don) Greene  (4.6%),Aconitum  violaceumJacquem. ex Stapf  (4.6%), and Heracleum  thomsoniiC. B. Clarke  (4.3%)Among shrubs maximum density percentages were of the speciesBerberis aristata,Berberis jaeschkeana,Cassiope fastigiata,Cotoneaster bacillaris, Cotoneastermicrophyllus,Desmodium elegans,Hippophae salicifolia,Lonicera hypoleuca,Rhododendron campanulatum,Rabdosia rugosa,Rhododendron anthopogon,Rubus ellipticus,Salix calyculata,Sorbaria tomentosa,Spiraea canescens, and so forth.Rabdosia rugosa (80.1%) andCotoneaster bacillaris (7.5%) were having maximum and minimum density percentages inQuercus floribunda andCedrus deodara communities, respectively. Among herbs assessedAconogonum molle,Agrostis stolonifera,Bistorta affinis,Bromus japonicas,Cannabis sativa,Conyza sumatrensis,Cynoglossum wallichii,Delphinium cashmerianum,Euphrasia officinalis,Fragaria nubicola,Impatiens thomsonii,Morina longifolia,Nepeta erecta,Origanum vulgare,Persicaria vivipara,Poa alpina,Polygonatum verticillatum,Thalictrum cultratum,Trifolium pratense, and so forth were in abundance, hence showing comparatively more densities. Herbs having maximum density recorded werePoa alpina (25.3%) followed byCynoglossum wallichii  (23.4%) andFragaria nubicola (19.5%) inPoa alpina-Agrostis stolonifera-Bistorta affinis-Aconitum violaceum mixed,B. utilis-A. pindrow mixed, andRhododendron anthopogon-Salix calyculata mixed communities, respectively (Table 4).Tree, shrub, and herb percentage covers within the communities showed a typical composition of the Himalayan region wherein shrubsRabdosia rugosaandCotoneaster bacillariswere having maximum and minimum density percentages, respectively, and herbsPoa alpina, Cynoglossum wallichii,andFragaria nubicola were abundant. Dominance of these species might be due to their high adaptability in addition to their good capability to proliferate in the extreme climatic conditions of this part of western Himalaya.


## 3.5. Phytogeographic Affinities

As a whole in all the communities, 182 species were native to the Himalayan region and the remaining were nonnatives as they are from different biogeographic domains of the world. The trend of nativity of plants occurring in SV was as follows: European/Oriental region (28) > Asia (25) > European region (16) > Temperate region (13) > Indian region (10) > India/Oriental region (8) > America (7) > European/Oriental/African and Temperate, Arctic (6 each) > Cosmopolitan (5) > Australian (4) > Amphigean (3) > Arctic, European/Oriental/American and Oriental (2 each) and European/African (1) (Figure2).Figure 2
Species showing their biogeographic realms. Afr = Africa; Amer = America; Amphig = Amphigean; Arct = Arctic; As = Asia; Aust = Australia; Cosmo = Cosmopolitan; Euro = Europe; Himal = Himalaya; Ind = India; Orient = Oriental; and Temp = Temperate.Natives are the species which evolved naturally in a particular region before their human introduction. To prioritize a species or habitat of the region for conservation, status of a species as to whether it is native or introduced in a given area is required. Species invasions beyond their native range constitute a global driver of change as nonnative species threaten biodiversity and change ecosystem functioning [55]. Like in other parts of the Himachal Himalaya [29, 30] in SV also the percentage of native species increased with the altitude. There is a strong evidence from a scatter diagram that a positive linear relationship exists between the native species richness and altitude (r=0.83, P<0.01, n=34) (Figure 3). The high percentage of the native species at higher elevations may be due to low anthropogenic pressure and severe climatic conditions compared to the lower elevations where high anthropogenic pressure and mild climatic conditions support the speciation of the nonnative species [30]. Regular monitoring of the habitats and populations of the native species facing high anthropogenic pressure even in higher altitude is essentially required, so that the adequate planning for their conservation and management could be done in time.Figure 3
Native species along the altitude gradient.


## 3.6. Altitudinal and Aspectwise Distribution of Species

Altitude and aspect are the most important determinants of vegetation distribution due to their direct impact on microclimate of the habitat [56, 57]. The Himalayan region has typical topography and environment where biodiversity varies from aspect to aspect and habitats of the communities [58].Maximum altitudinal distribution of few selected climate sensitive species, namely,Bistorta affinis,Fragaria nubicola,Geranium pratense,Pleurospermum candollei,Podophyllum hexandrum,Rhodiola heterodonta,Saussurea obvallata,Saxifraga sibrica, andSedum ewersii, was studied in the valley. It was found to be highest in northeast followed by north, south, and southeast aspects (Figure 4). Species likeBistorta affinis reaching up to 4510 m and 3890 m in northeast and north aspects, respectively, are restricted to 3580 m and 3429 m in south and southeast aspects, resepectively. Similar trend was seen with all other climate sesitive species in the region.Figure 4
Distribution range of species along altitudinal gradient in different aspects.P. wallichiana showed the broadest range from 2100 to 3500 m and almost reaching the tree line along withB. utilis.In this valley, northern and northeastern slopes have lower temperatures and higher soil and air moisture contents as compared to southern and other slopes at the same altitude due to less solar exposure and higher moisture content and evapotranspiration which is akin to the other Himalayan areas [59, 60]. In northern and northeastern slopesB. utilis, A. pindrow, andP. wallichiana were recorded at the altitude as low as 2200 m, whereas on the south and southeastern aspects their altitudinal range started from 2300 m.


## 3.7. Final Considerations

In northwestern Himalaya the high mountain plant communities support a rich biodiversity in terms of ecological indicator species and natives. They need a proper management against harsh climate and anthropogenic pressure for continued future sustainability. Regular monitoring using random sampling by quadrat method is suggested to understand the dynamics of the habitats and communities and accordingly plan for their management. The climate sensitive species are required to be regularly monitored for their phenological attributes so that the baseline data can be generated for future changes in the area. The information generated on these lines will provide a better insight about the present status of floristic diversity and help in developing adequate strategies and action plan for the management of such biodiversity-rich areas. The state and central government agencies are suggested to encourage the native species so that the ambient regional ecosystems are protected for the posterity. Further, forin situ conservation of the economically and ecologically important species, regular monitoring of the sites and complete protection of the habitats is suggested. In addition, seed germination protocols developed may be used for mass multiplication of the species and seedlings should be transplanted in comparable habitats so that viable population of the species can be maintained. Finally a pragmatic and ameliorative conservational approach which was hitherto absent in this part of the Himalaya needs to be implemented.



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*Source: 264878-2014-10-14.xml*