# Necrotizing Fasciitis: Diagnostic Challenges and Current Practices

Authors: Abhishek Vijayakumar; Rajeev Pullagura; Durganna Thimmappa
Journal: ISRN Infectious Diseases
 (2014)

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## Abstract

Necrotizing fasciitis or necrotizing soft-tissue infections (NSTIs) are infrequent but highly lethal infections. They can be defined as infections of any of the layers within the soft tissue compartment (dermis, subcutaneous tissue, superficial fascia, deep fascia, or muscle) that are associated with necrotizing changes. At onset, necrotizing fasciitis can be difficult to differentiate from cellulitis and other superficial infections of the skin. In fact, only 15% to 34% of patients with necrotizing fasciitis have an accurate admitting diagnosis. Early diagnosis and management with surgical debridement, antimicrobials, and supportive measures reduce mortality. Even with modern ICU care mortality ranges between 16 and 36%; this is related to delays in diagnosis and comorbidities. Various scoring systems have been developed which help in diagnosis and stratifying patients into risk groups. The present review deals with varied presentation, early diagnosis, and management of necrotizing fasciitis.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

Necrotizing fasciitis (NF) or necrotizing soft-tissue infections (NSTIs) are infrequent but highly lethal infections. They can be defined as infections of any of the layers within the soft tissue compartment (dermis, subcutaneous tissue, superficial fascia, deep fascia, or muscle) that are associated with necrotizing changes. NSTIs are typically not associated with abscesses, although they can originate from an untreated or inadequately drained abscess. These infections were first described by Jones [1] in 1871 and at the time were termed “hospital gangrene” that had a mortality of 46%. Shortly afterwards, Jean-Alfred Fournier [2] described a type of soft tissue infection affecting the male perineal region, now known as Fournier’s gangrene. This definition has been expanded recently to include necrotizing infections of the perineum of men and women. Surgical debridement was first performed by Meleney [3] in the early 1920s and has remained an integral part of current treatment. In 1951, Wilson [4] coined the term “necrotizing fasciitis” to encompass some of these infections.At onset, necrotizing fasciitis can be difficult to differentiate from cellulitis and other superficial infections of the skin. In fact, studies have shown that only 15% to 34% of patients with NF have an accurate admitting diagnosis [5, 6]. Only early diagnosis and aggressive surgical treatment can reduce mortality and morbidity. Family physicians are often the first point of contact for these patients, and a high index of suspicion is needed, as there is a paucity of initial signs. The current review deals with presentation, early diagnosis, and management of necrotizing fasciitis.


## 2. Classification

There is a great deal of confusion surrounding the identification and definition of necrotizing fasciitis. Historically, necrotizing infections were classified according to anatomical sites. Fournier’s gangrene (involving the perineum) and Ludwig angina (involving submandibular and sublingual spaces) and Meleney synergistic gangrene (involving abdominal wall) are examples. These infections were named after the physicians who first described them.In 1972 Baxter [7] divided soft tissue infections into three categories based on surgical management (Table 1).Table 1
Classification of soft tissue infections based on treatment modality according to Baxter.
Surgical lesions requiring radical incision and drainage
Acute streptococcal hemolytic gangrene
Necrotizing fasciitis
Streptococcal myositis
Clostridial cellulitis
Gram-negative anaerobic cutaneous gangrene
Surgical infections requiring excision of tissue
Progressive bacterial synergistic gangrene
Nonclostridial gas-producing infections
Nonclostridial myositis
Human bite infections
Nonoperative infections
Erysipelas
Lymphangitis and lymphadenitis
Purpura fulminansLewis [8] proposed an alternate classification system that grouped NSTIs into three anatomic categories (Table 2).Table 2
Classification of soft tissue infections by Lewis.
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue
Progressive synergistic bacterial gangrene
Chronic undermining burrowing ulcer (Meleney’s ulcer)
Idiopathic scrotal gangrene (Fournier’s gangrene)
Infections involving subcutaneous tissue and fascia
Hemolytic streptococcal gangrene
Necrotizing fasciitis
Gram-negative synergistic necrotizing cellulitis
Clostridial cellulitis
Infections involving muscle
Clostridial myonecrosis
Streptococcal myositisAnother classification of necrotizing fasciitis into type 1 and type 2 based on microbial cause is used (Table3).Table 3
Classification of necrotizing fasciitis based on microbiology.
Type 1
Polymicrobial infections including anaerobes
Type 2
Streptococcus pyogenes  (Group A Streptococcus)
Staphylococcus aureus, including methicillin-sensitive and resistant
Other microbiological etiologies
Vibrio vulnificus
Aeromonas hydrophila
Enterobacteriaceae (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas  spp., and Klebsiella  spp.)


## 3. Risk Factors

The precise origin of necrotizing fasciitis is often unclear. Introduction of the pathogenic agent or agents can occur as a result of minor trauma, insect bite, or surgical incision. Hematogenous spread from distal sites of infection has also been reported [9]. Other potential sources include odontogenic infections [10], varicella lesions [11], intramuscular injections [12], and contusions [13]. Some cases of NF occur in the absence of any apparent prior trauma [14].  Various risk factors have been identified in development of NF (Table 4).Table 4
Risk factors for necrotizing fasciitis.
Age greater than 50 years
Atherosclerosis
Burns
Cancer or other
Immunocompromised state
Chronic alcoholism
Corticosteroid use
Diabetes mellitus
Hypoalbuminemia
Intravenous drug abuse
Malnutrition
Obesity
Occult diverticulitis
Peripheral vascular disease
Postoperative infection
TraumaNonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use has been implicated in severe necrotizing streptococcal infections. It is postulated that nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs impair lymphocyte function [15]. However, it could also be that suppression of symptoms and signs of inflammation leads to later diagnosis, especially in patients presenting early with nonspecific symptoms [16].


## 4. Etiology

Although necrotizing soft tissue infections can be monomicrobial, they usually are synergistic polymicrobial infections. In an analysis of wound and blood cultures, blood cultures with a single organism, multiple organisms, and no organism were found in 27%, 2%, and 71% of cases, respectively. For the wound cultures, a single organism, multiple organisms, and no organism were found in 53%, 23%, and 23% of cases, respectively [17].In a study by Elliott et al. [18] it was found that only 28 of 182 patients developed necrotizing skin infections from single pathogens; the other 154 patients had polymicrobial infections (average of 4.4 organisms in the original wound cultures). In this series, the majority of monomicrobial infections were caused by streptococcal isolates such as beta-hemolytic streptococci (namely, Group A streptococci or Streptococcus pyogenes). Other common monomicrobial necrotizing soft tissue infections include Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium perfringens.The organisms most common in polymicrobial necrotizing soft tissue infections are combinations of staphylococci (especiallyStaphylococcus epidermidis with beta-hemolytic streptococci), enterococci, Enterobacteriaceae species (commonly Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa), streptococci, Bacteroides/Prevotella species, anaerobic gram-positive cocci, and Clostridium species [19].


## 5. Clinical Presentation

Necrotizing infections can occur anywhere in the body, although some anatomic locations are affected more commonly. Most necrotizing soft tissue infections occur in the extremities, abdomen, groin, and perineum. In a case series, these infections were discovered in the extremities (53 percent of cases), perineum or buttocks (20 percent), trunk (18 percent), and head and neck (8.9 percent) [20].As NF first starts in the deep tissue planes, at initial presentation there might be minimal epidermal involvement. This can make it difficult to differentiate from nonnecrotizing skin infections and cellulitis. Also minor trauma which presents as cellulitis may have deeper plane extension and may initially be missed. Patients with NF are usually systemically toxic, presenting with fever (temperature greater than 38°C), tachycardia, diaphoresis, and even an altered mental state or diabetic ketoacidosis. The physical examination should include all parts of the body to search for skin inflammation. This is important in patients presenting with sepsis with no obvious skin lesions. The perineum and oral cavity are areas that can be easily missed [21]. Also a search for other source of infection which can underlay necrotizing fascitis needs to be made like appendicitis, perforated diverticulitis, and cholecystitis intraabdominal abscess.Erysipelas, being an infection of the superficial dermis, has well-defined borders and often blister. In cellulitis, there is predominance of erythema lymphangitis with minimal blistering. Necrotizing fasciitis typically presents with patchy discolouration of the skin with pain and swelling, but without a defined margin or lymphangitis [22]. Progression of NF is marked with the development of tense edema, a grayish-brown discharge, vesicles, bullae, necrosis, and crepitus [23] (Table 5). Hemorrhagic bullae and crepitus are serious signs, with the likelihood of underlying fascia and muscle being compromised [24]. Crepitus is a late sign and is found in only about 18% of cases of NF [25]. Although crepitus and blistering are the most specific signs of necrotizing soft tissue infection, they are not sensitive. Two retrospective case series, by Wang et al. [26] and Elliott et al. [27], reported an absence of crepitus in 62% to 73% of cases and an absence of blistering in 76% to 95% of cases upon initial presentation. There is usually absence of collection of pus which delays surgical consult or delays intervention by surgeon.Table 5
Clinical features of necrotizing fasciitis.
Skin
Pain
General
Erythema with ill-defined  margins
Pain that extends past margin of apparent infection
Fever with toxic appearance
Tense edema with grayish or  brown discharge
Severe pain that appears disproportionate to physical findings
Altered mental state
Lack of lymphangitis or  lymphadenopathy
Decreased pain or anesthesia at apparent site of infection
Tachycardia
Vesicles or bullae, hemorrhagic bullae
Tachypnea due to acidosis
Necrosis
Dehydration
Crepitus
Decreased urine output
Presentation with diabetic keto acidosisSevere localized pain is another feature of NF. As the disease is a deep-seated infection, the epidermis is minimally involved at initial presentation. The patient might complain of pain out of proportion to the degree of dermal involvement or pain that extends past the apparent margin of infection. Patients with diabetic neuropathy may have minimal pain resulting in a missed diagnosis. This is especially likely in concealed sites of infection, such as the perineum or oral cavity. A patch of anesthesia over the site of erythema is also sometimes described in NF. This is thought to be due to infarction of cutaneous nerves in necrotic subcutaneous fascia and soft tissue [28].There are some specific types of necrotizing fasciitis with characteristic features.


### 5.1. Necrotizing Cellulitis

Necrotizing cellulitis, or hemolytic streptococcal gangrene, generally presents shortly after minor trauma. Patients have findings consistent with cellulitis, including erythema, warmth, and swelling. Unlike other cellulitis severe pain is common. There may be rapid development of gas distal to the wound and blebs which contain dark serous fluid.


### 5.2. Streptococcal Myositis

The hallmarks of streptococcal myositis are severe local pain and toxemia. Wounds have a foul odor, discoloration, and edema. Patients might develop blebs and gangrene of the overlying skin, although disease progression is characteristically slow. Underlying muscle is not viable and will require excision.


### 5.3. Clostridial Cellulitis

One of the most important historical findings associated with clostridial cellulitis is severe pain occurring days after local tissue injury. Patients subsequently develop skin blebs that contain a reddish-brown, foul-smelling fluid. There is rapid progression of cellulitis over hours and patient is toxic. Crepitus might be noted, but it is not a universal finding.


### 5.4. Progressive Bacterial Synergistic Gangrene or Meleney’s Gangrene

According to Baxter, progressive bacterial synergistic gangrene (PBSG) and Meleney’s ulcer represent variants of the same disease process, but Lewis describes them as two separate entities. Despite differences, similar clinical profiles are noted. PBSG is a rapidly progressive infection caused by nonhemolytic streptococci in association with hemolytic staphylococci or gram-negative bacilli. It is most commonly found following abdominal surgeries with infected wound. Clinical presentation is notable for a wound with a central necrotic area that is surrounded by purple, erythematous zones of skin. In addition, necrotic tracts can extend through the underlying tissue, resulting in additional ulcerations at sites distant from the primary lesion.


### 5.5. Fournier’s Gangrene

Fournier’s gangrene is an acute, rapidly progressive, and potentially fatal, infective necrotizing fasciitis affecting the external genitalia, perineal, or perianal regions, which commonly affects men but can also occur in women and children. The clinical features of Fournier’s gangrene include sudden pain in the scrotum, prostration, pallor, and pyrexia. At first only the scrotum is involved, but if unchecked, the cellulitis spreads until the entire scrotal coverings slough, leaving the testes exposed but healthy. One overwhelming feature of the presentation is the strong “repulsive, fetid odour” that is associated with the condition. Patients can present with varying signs and symptoms including fever greater than 38°C, scrotal swelling and erythema, purulence or wound discharge, crepitation, or fluctulance [29].


## 5.1. Necrotizing Cellulitis

Necrotizing cellulitis, or hemolytic streptococcal gangrene, generally presents shortly after minor trauma. Patients have findings consistent with cellulitis, including erythema, warmth, and swelling. Unlike other cellulitis severe pain is common. There may be rapid development of gas distal to the wound and blebs which contain dark serous fluid.


## 5.2. Streptococcal Myositis

The hallmarks of streptococcal myositis are severe local pain and toxemia. Wounds have a foul odor, discoloration, and edema. Patients might develop blebs and gangrene of the overlying skin, although disease progression is characteristically slow. Underlying muscle is not viable and will require excision.


## 5.3. Clostridial Cellulitis

One of the most important historical findings associated with clostridial cellulitis is severe pain occurring days after local tissue injury. Patients subsequently develop skin blebs that contain a reddish-brown, foul-smelling fluid. There is rapid progression of cellulitis over hours and patient is toxic. Crepitus might be noted, but it is not a universal finding.


## 5.4. Progressive Bacterial Synergistic Gangrene or Meleney’s Gangrene

According to Baxter, progressive bacterial synergistic gangrene (PBSG) and Meleney’s ulcer represent variants of the same disease process, but Lewis describes them as two separate entities. Despite differences, similar clinical profiles are noted. PBSG is a rapidly progressive infection caused by nonhemolytic streptococci in association with hemolytic staphylococci or gram-negative bacilli. It is most commonly found following abdominal surgeries with infected wound. Clinical presentation is notable for a wound with a central necrotic area that is surrounded by purple, erythematous zones of skin. In addition, necrotic tracts can extend through the underlying tissue, resulting in additional ulcerations at sites distant from the primary lesion.


## 5.5. Fournier’s Gangrene

Fournier’s gangrene is an acute, rapidly progressive, and potentially fatal, infective necrotizing fasciitis affecting the external genitalia, perineal, or perianal regions, which commonly affects men but can also occur in women and children. The clinical features of Fournier’s gangrene include sudden pain in the scrotum, prostration, pallor, and pyrexia. At first only the scrotum is involved, but if unchecked, the cellulitis spreads until the entire scrotal coverings slough, leaving the testes exposed but healthy. One overwhelming feature of the presentation is the strong “repulsive, fetid odour” that is associated with the condition. Patients can present with varying signs and symptoms including fever greater than 38°C, scrotal swelling and erythema, purulence or wound discharge, crepitation, or fluctulance [29].


## 6. Diagnostic Tools

There are a wide variety of diagnostic tools that have been described and tested to diagnose NF more accurately and expeditiously. Even in the most experienced hands, clinical findings are not accurate enough for diagnosis, and both clinical clues and diagnostic tools should be used in combination to help make an early diagnosis.


### 6.1. Laboratory Testing

Abnormal laboratory findings include an elevated white blood cell (WBC) count, azotemia, abnormal coagulation profiles, and decreased platelet and fibrinogen levels. Other laboratory findings such as elevated lactate and blood glucose levels, hypocalcemia, hypoalbuminemia, and anemia are also commonly found. The sensitivity of these studies varies, although leukocytosis and hyponatremia have been found to be predictive of necrotizing infection.Wall et al. [30], in a retrospective study, compared a set of admission variables of patients with NSTI and patients with nonnecrotizing soft-tissue infection. After univariate and multivariate analysis, they found that having a WBC count >15,400 cells/mm3 or a serum sodium level <135 mmol/L was associated with NSTI and that a combination of both increased the likelihood of NSTI. It had a negative predictive value (NPV) of 99%, but not very specific, with a positive predictive value (PPV) of only 26%.Wong et al. [31] devised a scoring system (laboratory risk indicator for necrotizing fasciitis score) to discriminate between NSTI and nonnecrotizing soft-tissue infection (Table 6). They compared a set of laboratory variables between patients with and without NSTI and identified 6 independent variables associated with NSTI. The total score had a range of 0–13, and patients were categorized according to the risk of NSTI among 3 groups. Wong and colleagues showed that, for intermediate and high-risk patients (score >6), the score had a PPV of 92% and a NPV of 96%. This constitutes a great tool for both confirming and discarding NSTI and has the advantage that it is based on laboratory variables that are widely available across different institutions.Table 6
Laboratory risk indicator for necrotizing fasciitis (LRINEC) score to help discriminate between necrotizing and nonnecrotizing soft-tissue infections.
Value
Score
C-reactive protein, mg/dL
<150
0
>150
4
WBC count, cells/mm3
<15 k
0
15–25 k
1
>25 k
2
Hemoglobin level, g/dL
>13.5
0
11–13.5
1
<11
2
Sodium level, mmol/L
>135
0
<135
2
Creatinine level, mg/dL
<1.6
0
>11.6
2
Glucose level, mg/dL
<180
0
>180
1
Risk category: low <5  (<50% chance of NF), intermediate 6-7 (50–75% chance of NF), and high 8 (>75% chance of NF).Plain X-ray films can demonstrate subcutaneous gas, but this is a specific, not a sensitive, finding (positive in fewer than 25% of cases) and absence of gas does not exclude NF [32]. Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) might be useful in cases where signs are equivocal or diagnosis is in doubt. Asymmetrical fascial thickening, fat stranding, and gas tracking along fascial planes are important imaging findings. Computed tomography scans are estimated to have a sensitivity of 80% for detecting necrotizing soft tissue infections [33]. In cases of cellulitis, MRI will demonstrate subcutaneous thickening with fluid collection. However, when there is deep fascia involvement with fluid collection, thickening, and enhancement after contrast administration, necrotizing infections must be considered. According to Schmid et al. [34] the sensitivity of MRI is 100% with a specificity of 86%. It is particularly helpful in the investigation of areas that have disproportionately severe tenderness and when nonspecific signs of sepsis are present. This has been disputed, and other authors have argued that in early cases of NF, MRI might not show fascial involvement [35]. If clinical suspicion is high, surgeons can opt to explore and perform tissue biopsies rather than delay treatment for imaging studies.


### 6.2. Biopsy

In clinically suspicious cases where there is no obvious finding tissue diagnosis may be sought. Fine needle aspiration (FNA) has been used in the past but is no longer recommended. Incisional biopsy has largely replaced FNA as a more sensitive technique. It can be performed at the bedside under local anesthetic and is advocated in early or equivocal cases. Standard practice is to take biopsies from a representative area of the infectious process and from the leading edge of any erythematous, edematous, necrotic, or indurated area [36].Frozen-section evaluation of an incisional biopsy specimen characteristically reveals necrosis, polymorphonuclear infiltration, microorganisms, vasculitis, and vascular thrombosis located in the superficial fascia, deep dermis, and surrounding adipose tissue. Sparing of epidermis, superficial dermis, and underlying muscle tissue is usually noted. Gram stain of the tissue sample is also a valuable adjunct to clinical examination and can be performed [37, 38].


## 6.1. Laboratory Testing

Abnormal laboratory findings include an elevated white blood cell (WBC) count, azotemia, abnormal coagulation profiles, and decreased platelet and fibrinogen levels. Other laboratory findings such as elevated lactate and blood glucose levels, hypocalcemia, hypoalbuminemia, and anemia are also commonly found. The sensitivity of these studies varies, although leukocytosis and hyponatremia have been found to be predictive of necrotizing infection.Wall et al. [30], in a retrospective study, compared a set of admission variables of patients with NSTI and patients with nonnecrotizing soft-tissue infection. After univariate and multivariate analysis, they found that having a WBC count >15,400 cells/mm3 or a serum sodium level <135 mmol/L was associated with NSTI and that a combination of both increased the likelihood of NSTI. It had a negative predictive value (NPV) of 99%, but not very specific, with a positive predictive value (PPV) of only 26%.Wong et al. [31] devised a scoring system (laboratory risk indicator for necrotizing fasciitis score) to discriminate between NSTI and nonnecrotizing soft-tissue infection (Table 6). They compared a set of laboratory variables between patients with and without NSTI and identified 6 independent variables associated with NSTI. The total score had a range of 0–13, and patients were categorized according to the risk of NSTI among 3 groups. Wong and colleagues showed that, for intermediate and high-risk patients (score >6), the score had a PPV of 92% and a NPV of 96%. This constitutes a great tool for both confirming and discarding NSTI and has the advantage that it is based on laboratory variables that are widely available across different institutions.Table 6
Laboratory risk indicator for necrotizing fasciitis (LRINEC) score to help discriminate between necrotizing and nonnecrotizing soft-tissue infections.
Value
Score
C-reactive protein, mg/dL
<150
0
>150
4
WBC count, cells/mm3
<15 k
0
15–25 k
1
>25 k
2
Hemoglobin level, g/dL
>13.5
0
11–13.5
1
<11
2
Sodium level, mmol/L
>135
0
<135
2
Creatinine level, mg/dL
<1.6
0
>11.6
2
Glucose level, mg/dL
<180
0
>180
1
Risk category: low <5  (<50% chance of NF), intermediate 6-7 (50–75% chance of NF), and high 8 (>75% chance of NF).Plain X-ray films can demonstrate subcutaneous gas, but this is a specific, not a sensitive, finding (positive in fewer than 25% of cases) and absence of gas does not exclude NF [32]. Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) might be useful in cases where signs are equivocal or diagnosis is in doubt. Asymmetrical fascial thickening, fat stranding, and gas tracking along fascial planes are important imaging findings. Computed tomography scans are estimated to have a sensitivity of 80% for detecting necrotizing soft tissue infections [33]. In cases of cellulitis, MRI will demonstrate subcutaneous thickening with fluid collection. However, when there is deep fascia involvement with fluid collection, thickening, and enhancement after contrast administration, necrotizing infections must be considered. According to Schmid et al. [34] the sensitivity of MRI is 100% with a specificity of 86%. It is particularly helpful in the investigation of areas that have disproportionately severe tenderness and when nonspecific signs of sepsis are present. This has been disputed, and other authors have argued that in early cases of NF, MRI might not show fascial involvement [35]. If clinical suspicion is high, surgeons can opt to explore and perform tissue biopsies rather than delay treatment for imaging studies.


## 6.2. Biopsy

In clinically suspicious cases where there is no obvious finding tissue diagnosis may be sought. Fine needle aspiration (FNA) has been used in the past but is no longer recommended. Incisional biopsy has largely replaced FNA as a more sensitive technique. It can be performed at the bedside under local anesthetic and is advocated in early or equivocal cases. Standard practice is to take biopsies from a representative area of the infectious process and from the leading edge of any erythematous, edematous, necrotic, or indurated area [36].Frozen-section evaluation of an incisional biopsy specimen characteristically reveals necrosis, polymorphonuclear infiltration, microorganisms, vasculitis, and vascular thrombosis located in the superficial fascia, deep dermis, and surrounding adipose tissue. Sparing of epidermis, superficial dermis, and underlying muscle tissue is usually noted. Gram stain of the tissue sample is also a valuable adjunct to clinical examination and can be performed [37, 38].


## 7. Treatment

### 7.1. Hospitalization

Primary care physicians have to use clinical judgment to decide which patients who present with evidence of skin inflammation should be hospitalized or receive further evaluation. It is interesting that only 15% to 34% of patients with a discharge diagnosis of necrotizing skin and subcutaneous infection had an admitting diagnosis of NF.Studies of patients with soft tissue infection showed that a history of diabetes mellitus, pyrexia, hand infections, and an area of inflammation greater than 70 cm2 are independent predictors of hospitalization [39]. Hospitalization is indicated for patients with soft tissue infections accompanied by signs and symptoms of systemic toxicity (fever, hypothermia, tachycardia (heart rate more than 100 beats/min)), hypotension (systolic blood pressure less than 90 mm Hg or more than 20 mm Hg below baseline), an altered mental state, severe infection (including those requiring formal operative intervention), intractable nausea and vomiting, immunocompromise, failure of outpatient therapy, and poor social support. The latest Infectious Diseases Society of America skin and soft tissue infection guidelines indicate that hospitalization should be considered in patients with hypotension and/or an elevated creatinine level, low serum bicarbonate level, elevated creatine phosphokinase level (2-3 times the upper limit of normal), marked left shift, or a C-reactive protein level more than 13 mg/L [40].The treatment for NSTI involves the principles of treatment for any kind of surgical infection: source control, antimicrobial therapy, support, and monitoring.


### 7.2. General Management

Patients who have progressive necrotizing infections often deteriorate rapidly. As soon as the diagnosis of NSTI is suspected, aggressive resuscitation and empiric broad-spectrum antibiotic coverage should be instituted. Septic shock with intravascular volume depletion and shunting in the periphery is an ongoing process at the time of diagnosis. Significant fluid and protein losses occur even before surgical debridement, resulting in inadequate tissue oxygenation. Early resuscitation with blood products and vasopressins over crystalloids reduce mortality. Main vasopressins used are noradrenaline and dopamine.Patients presenting with multiorgan failure are admitted to surgical intensive care unit (SICU). Invasive hemodynamic monitoring is routinely implemented when the patient has been admitted to the SICU with the goal being to achieve an oxygen delivery greater than 600 mL/min/m2. Patients presenting with respiratory failure may require prolonged ventilation and tracheostomy is often required. Renal failure is another frequent complication that might require continuous hemodialysis [41].Aggressive nutritional support is mandatory in all patients after debridement. Patients should receive twice their basal caloric requirements orally or parenterally. Nutritional support is associated with fewer complications and lower morbidity and mortality rates [42]. Pre- and postoperative pain control is also an important part of management and should be individualized for each patient.


### 7.3. Antimicrobial Therapy

Antimicrobial therapy is an adjunct to source control for the treatment of NF. Broad-spectrum antimicrobial therapy should be started early to include coverage for gram-positive, gram-negative, and anaerobic organisms. Special consideration for Group AStreptococcus and Clostridium species should be taken. Acceptable regimens include monotherapy agents, such as imipenem, meropenem, ertapenem, piperacillin/tazobactam, and tigecycline. Multidrug regimens have also been described, including triple-drug therapy regimens, such as high-dose penicillin, high-dose clindamycin, and a fluoroquinolone or an aminoglycoside for coverage of gram-negative organisms. Vancomycin, daptomycin, or linezolid should be included in the regimen until methicillin-resistant staphylococcal infection has been excluded. The use of protein synthesis inhibitors, such as clindamycin, may help by inhibiting toxin production, which can be crucial for controlling the inflammatory response in patients with NSTI, particularly in those with clostridial and streptococcal infections. Antimicrobial administration should be continued until no further debridements are needed and the patient’s physiology has improved. Prolonged courses of an arbitrary duration are not necessary and may predispose the patient to wound colonization with drug-resistant organisms.In type 2 NF caused by streptococci resulting in streptococcal toxic shock syndrome, intravenous immunoglobulins might play a therapeutic role. A multicentre, randomized controlled trial evaluated the safety and efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulins in streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. The trial was prematurely stopped because of poor recruitment, but it showed 3.6-fold higher mortality in the placebo group compared with the treatment group [43]. These studies are also controversial and difficult to compare, given the small number of patients and the different methodologies used. It seems reasonable to use intravenous immune globulin in patients with group A streptococcal infection who have developed streptococcal toxic shock syndrome and in those with a high mortality risk (advanced age, hypotension, and bacteremia) [44].


### 7.4. Surgical Management

Whenever NF has been confirmed surgical debridement is indicated. Some researchers also advocate surgery as a means for diagnosis in patients for whom clinical and laboratory findings are still not conclusive and for whom the diagnosis of NF is still possible. Debridement of the necrotic tissue should be undertaken as soon as possible. Other researchers have clearly shown the impact of early and complete debridement on final outcome in patients with NF [45, 46].When comparing earlier and complete with delayed or incomplete debridements, mortality always has been significantly lower with the most aggressive strategy. Important goals of debridement include removal of heavily contaminated tissue and removal of all devitalized tissues that might otherwise impair host defenses within the wound. Persistent necrotic tissue serves as a culture medium and creates an anaerobic environment in which the bactericidal activity of polymorphonuclear cells is impaired. During the operation, a generous incision is performed and macroscopic findings of the disease are used to help guide the extent of the debridement. An indication of muscle viability is by its response to stimulation using hand-held cautery. When contractility is absent, the muscle is usually not viable and should be debrided.Intraoperative administration of intravenous fluorescein can be used to determine viability of adjacent soft tissues when viewed under a Wood’s or ultraviolet (UV) lamp. Ten minutes after injection of one ampule of fluorescein, exposure of the operative field to UV light will expose nonperfused areas that require further debridement. Occasionally, amputation of a limb is necessary to achieve this goal and is encouraged if that is the case. Healthy, viable, bleeding tissue should be present at the edges of the excision site, and aggressive resuscitation should accompany the perioperative period. Once the initial debridement has been done, management in an intensive care unit is recommended, and scheduled debridements at intervals of 6–48 h should be performed until no further necrosis or infected tissue is seen.


### 7.5. Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy

Hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) is generally considered to be an important adjunct in the treatment of clostridial myonecrosis or gas gangrene. All necrotizing infections are associated with reduced tissue oxygen tension, ischemia, and subsequent decrease in host cellular immunity. Increased oxygen partial pressure has been associated with the reversal of basic pathophysiologic mechanisms of necrosis. Increased oxygen tension also reverses ischemia and thereby improves host defense mechanisms [47, 48]. HBO also enhances the action of various antibiotic agents by facilitating their transport across the bacterial cell wall. Various studies have failed to show statistically significant outcome differences with respect to mortality and length of hospitalization [49]. As a result, HBO is not a mandatory component of therapy. It might be appropriate in some patients, but its use should never delay definitive surgical care. An HBO treatment regimen usually consists of wound exposure at 2.5 to 3.0 atmospheres and breathing 100% oxygen for 90 minutes every 8 hours for the first 24 hours and then twice daily. HBO treatment is continued for a minimum of 5 days and is discontinued when the patient is stable and has no evidence of ongoing necrosis [50].


## 7.1. Hospitalization

Primary care physicians have to use clinical judgment to decide which patients who present with evidence of skin inflammation should be hospitalized or receive further evaluation. It is interesting that only 15% to 34% of patients with a discharge diagnosis of necrotizing skin and subcutaneous infection had an admitting diagnosis of NF.Studies of patients with soft tissue infection showed that a history of diabetes mellitus, pyrexia, hand infections, and an area of inflammation greater than 70 cm2 are independent predictors of hospitalization [39]. Hospitalization is indicated for patients with soft tissue infections accompanied by signs and symptoms of systemic toxicity (fever, hypothermia, tachycardia (heart rate more than 100 beats/min)), hypotension (systolic blood pressure less than 90 mm Hg or more than 20 mm Hg below baseline), an altered mental state, severe infection (including those requiring formal operative intervention), intractable nausea and vomiting, immunocompromise, failure of outpatient therapy, and poor social support. The latest Infectious Diseases Society of America skin and soft tissue infection guidelines indicate that hospitalization should be considered in patients with hypotension and/or an elevated creatinine level, low serum bicarbonate level, elevated creatine phosphokinase level (2-3 times the upper limit of normal), marked left shift, or a C-reactive protein level more than 13 mg/L [40].The treatment for NSTI involves the principles of treatment for any kind of surgical infection: source control, antimicrobial therapy, support, and monitoring.


## 7.2. General Management

Patients who have progressive necrotizing infections often deteriorate rapidly. As soon as the diagnosis of NSTI is suspected, aggressive resuscitation and empiric broad-spectrum antibiotic coverage should be instituted. Septic shock with intravascular volume depletion and shunting in the periphery is an ongoing process at the time of diagnosis. Significant fluid and protein losses occur even before surgical debridement, resulting in inadequate tissue oxygenation. Early resuscitation with blood products and vasopressins over crystalloids reduce mortality. Main vasopressins used are noradrenaline and dopamine.Patients presenting with multiorgan failure are admitted to surgical intensive care unit (SICU). Invasive hemodynamic monitoring is routinely implemented when the patient has been admitted to the SICU with the goal being to achieve an oxygen delivery greater than 600 mL/min/m2. Patients presenting with respiratory failure may require prolonged ventilation and tracheostomy is often required. Renal failure is another frequent complication that might require continuous hemodialysis [41].Aggressive nutritional support is mandatory in all patients after debridement. Patients should receive twice their basal caloric requirements orally or parenterally. Nutritional support is associated with fewer complications and lower morbidity and mortality rates [42]. Pre- and postoperative pain control is also an important part of management and should be individualized for each patient.


## 7.3. Antimicrobial Therapy

Antimicrobial therapy is an adjunct to source control for the treatment of NF. Broad-spectrum antimicrobial therapy should be started early to include coverage for gram-positive, gram-negative, and anaerobic organisms. Special consideration for Group AStreptococcus and Clostridium species should be taken. Acceptable regimens include monotherapy agents, such as imipenem, meropenem, ertapenem, piperacillin/tazobactam, and tigecycline. Multidrug regimens have also been described, including triple-drug therapy regimens, such as high-dose penicillin, high-dose clindamycin, and a fluoroquinolone or an aminoglycoside for coverage of gram-negative organisms. Vancomycin, daptomycin, or linezolid should be included in the regimen until methicillin-resistant staphylococcal infection has been excluded. The use of protein synthesis inhibitors, such as clindamycin, may help by inhibiting toxin production, which can be crucial for controlling the inflammatory response in patients with NSTI, particularly in those with clostridial and streptococcal infections. Antimicrobial administration should be continued until no further debridements are needed and the patient’s physiology has improved. Prolonged courses of an arbitrary duration are not necessary and may predispose the patient to wound colonization with drug-resistant organisms.In type 2 NF caused by streptococci resulting in streptococcal toxic shock syndrome, intravenous immunoglobulins might play a therapeutic role. A multicentre, randomized controlled trial evaluated the safety and efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulins in streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. The trial was prematurely stopped because of poor recruitment, but it showed 3.6-fold higher mortality in the placebo group compared with the treatment group [43]. These studies are also controversial and difficult to compare, given the small number of patients and the different methodologies used. It seems reasonable to use intravenous immune globulin in patients with group A streptococcal infection who have developed streptococcal toxic shock syndrome and in those with a high mortality risk (advanced age, hypotension, and bacteremia) [44].


## 7.4. Surgical Management

Whenever NF has been confirmed surgical debridement is indicated. Some researchers also advocate surgery as a means for diagnosis in patients for whom clinical and laboratory findings are still not conclusive and for whom the diagnosis of NF is still possible. Debridement of the necrotic tissue should be undertaken as soon as possible. Other researchers have clearly shown the impact of early and complete debridement on final outcome in patients with NF [45, 46].When comparing earlier and complete with delayed or incomplete debridements, mortality always has been significantly lower with the most aggressive strategy. Important goals of debridement include removal of heavily contaminated tissue and removal of all devitalized tissues that might otherwise impair host defenses within the wound. Persistent necrotic tissue serves as a culture medium and creates an anaerobic environment in which the bactericidal activity of polymorphonuclear cells is impaired. During the operation, a generous incision is performed and macroscopic findings of the disease are used to help guide the extent of the debridement. An indication of muscle viability is by its response to stimulation using hand-held cautery. When contractility is absent, the muscle is usually not viable and should be debrided.Intraoperative administration of intravenous fluorescein can be used to determine viability of adjacent soft tissues when viewed under a Wood’s or ultraviolet (UV) lamp. Ten minutes after injection of one ampule of fluorescein, exposure of the operative field to UV light will expose nonperfused areas that require further debridement. Occasionally, amputation of a limb is necessary to achieve this goal and is encouraged if that is the case. Healthy, viable, bleeding tissue should be present at the edges of the excision site, and aggressive resuscitation should accompany the perioperative period. Once the initial debridement has been done, management in an intensive care unit is recommended, and scheduled debridements at intervals of 6–48 h should be performed until no further necrosis or infected tissue is seen.


## 7.5. Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy

Hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) is generally considered to be an important adjunct in the treatment of clostridial myonecrosis or gas gangrene. All necrotizing infections are associated with reduced tissue oxygen tension, ischemia, and subsequent decrease in host cellular immunity. Increased oxygen partial pressure has been associated with the reversal of basic pathophysiologic mechanisms of necrosis. Increased oxygen tension also reverses ischemia and thereby improves host defense mechanisms [47, 48]. HBO also enhances the action of various antibiotic agents by facilitating their transport across the bacterial cell wall. Various studies have failed to show statistically significant outcome differences with respect to mortality and length of hospitalization [49]. As a result, HBO is not a mandatory component of therapy. It might be appropriate in some patients, but its use should never delay definitive surgical care. An HBO treatment regimen usually consists of wound exposure at 2.5 to 3.0 atmospheres and breathing 100% oxygen for 90 minutes every 8 hours for the first 24 hours and then twice daily. HBO treatment is continued for a minimum of 5 days and is discontinued when the patient is stable and has no evidence of ongoing necrosis [50].


## 8. Prognosis

Since the first description by Jones, mortality in patients with NSTI remains high. He reported a mortality rate of 46%, and a recent pooled analysis determined it to be~34% [51].More recent data indicate a mortality of 16.4% [52] for community-acquired necrotizing soft tissue infections and 36.3% for postprocedural necrotizing infections [53]. All of these patients were managed in hospital with intravenous antibiotics and surgical interventions; considering medical progress in the last 135 years, mortality is still substantial. Mortality is higher in patients with streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Diabetic patients, especially those presenting with diabetic ketoacidosis or hyperosmolar hyperglycemic nonketotic acidosis, have higher rates of death and longer lengths of hospital stay [54]. A delay in surgery of more than 24 hours was an independent risk factor for mortality.In a recent study that included 350 patients with NF, Anaya et al. [55] created a score to categorize patients according to the risk of mortality. Variables included in the score were age >50 years, WBC count >40,000 cells/mm3, hematocrit >50%, heart rate >110 beats/min, temperature >36 degrees Celsius, and creatinine level >1.5 mg/dL. Tools like this should help to identify high-risk patients who may benefit from novel therapeutic strategies or for selection of patients for future trials.There is also considerable postoperative morbidity, sometimes from extensive debridement resulting in muscle loss. Patients might have to undergo a period of rehabilitation to regain function of the affected areas. Scarring and disfigurement can also be substantial.


## 9. Summary

NSTIs are relatively infrequent but highly lethal infections. They encompass a wide variety of soft-tissue infections associated with necrosis that share the same diagnostic and treatment principles. Establishing the diagnosis of NSTI is one of the biggest challenges in treating patients with NSTI. Accuracy increases with familiarity of clinical findings and knowledge of laboratory, imaging, and macroscopic and microscopic findings, all combined with a high index of suspicion. Treatment includes definitive surgical debridement in conjunction with antimicrobials and hemodynamic stabilization. Surgical debridement should be performed frequently (even daily) until the acute tissue destruction has been controlled. Outcomes are also influenced by prompt diagnosis, the timing and extent of surgical treatment, and management of postoperative complications. Scores that identify high-risk patients serve to guide novel therapeutic strategies and to identify patients for future trials.



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