# Mycoplasma genitalium Lipoproteins Induce Human  Monocytic Cell Expression of Proinflammatory Cytokines   and Apoptosis by Activating Nuclear Factor κB

Authors: Yimou Wu; Hong Qiu; Yanhua Zeng; Xiaoxing You; Zhongliang Deng; Minjun Yu; Cuiming Zhu
Journal: Mediators of Inflammation
 (2008)

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## Abstract

This study was designed to investigate the molecular mechanisms responsible for the induction of proinflammatory cytokines gene expression and apoptosis in human monocytic cell line THP-1 stimulated by lipoproteins (LPs) prepared fromMycoplasma genitalium. Cultured cells were stimulated with M. genitalium LP to analyze the production of proinflammatory cytokines and expression of their mRNA by ELISA and RT-PCR, respectively. Cell apoptosis was also detected by Annexin V-FITC-propidium iodide (PI) staining and acridine orange (AO)-ethidium bromide (EB) staining. The DNA-binding activity of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) was assessed by electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). Results showed that LP stimulated THP-1 cells to produce tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β),  and IL-6 in a dose-dependent manner. The mRNA levels were also upregulated in response to LP stimulation. LPs were also found to increase the DNA-binding activity of NF-κB, a possible mechanism for the induction of cytokine mRNA expression and the cell apoptosis. These effects were abrogated by PDTC, an inhibitor of NF-κB. Our results indicate that M. genitalium-derived LP may be an important etiological factor of certain diseases due to the ability of LP to produce proinflammatory cytokines and induction of apoptosis, which is probably mediated through the activation of NF-κB.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

Mycoplasma
genitalium is a cell wall-less bacterial
pathogen with the distinction of possessing the smallest known genome of any
self-replicating cells, it was discovered in 1981 when isolated from the
urethra of two men with nongonococcal urethritis [1]. The exact mode of infection and pattern of diseases caused
by M. genitalium still remains to be
solved, but the pathogen is presumed to be sexually transmitted, and the
infections often appear to be chronic and asymptomatic [2, 3]. Most investigations
have concerned male urethritis patients but M.
genitalium has also been implicated in pelvic inflammatory disease,
pneumonia, arthritides, and AIDS [4–6].It is known thatM. genitalium adheres to host cells by the terminal tip organelles, which is the first step
for the pathogenicity. However, the exact molecular pathogenesis of M. genitalium is vague [7]. It has been suggested that during mycoplasmal infection, the damage to host cells is not caused by direct
lesion but by immunopathogenesis [8–10]. Lipoproteins (LPs) are important
proteins exposed on the surface of M. genitalium.
With the intimate interaction with the host cells, LP could influence the functions of monocytes, macrophages, and brain astrocytes, then
lead to proinflammatory
cytokine production or, in particular cases, to necrosis or apoptosis [11]. For example, M. fermentans lipid extract of protein kinase K-digested LP
can induce macrophages to release proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and IL-6 by activating nuclear
factor-κB (NF-κB) and activator protein 1 [12].Recently, it has been found that mycoplasmal lipoproteins and lipopeptides
are capable for leading to apoptoic cell death in macrophage through toll-like
receptor 2 (TLR2) and TLR6 [13, 14]. Signaling by
TLR2 leads to an activation of nuclear transcription factor NF-κB and an induction of NF-κB-controlled
genes such as Bcl-Xs, Bax, and Bad after its activation [15]. NF-κB activation may have a two-fold influence
on cell apoptosis, either inhibiting apoptosis or accelerating cell death, which
depends on different cell lines and different stimuli.No research has been reported on the pathogenicity ofM. genitalium to human monocytes,
however; and we have studied whether M. genitalium LP could induce human monocytes cell line THP-1 to express proinflammatory cytokines
and apoptosis. Therefore, the present study is aimed to investigate whether M. genitalium LP-induced apoptosis in monocytes
is associated with the activation of NF-κB, and evaluate the effect of the specific
inhibitor pyrrolidine ditheiocarbamate (PDTC) on the production of proinflammatory
cytokines and apoptosis.


## 2. Materials and Methods

### 2.1. Cell Culture and Stimulation

The human monocytic cell
line THP-1 (China Center for Type Culture Collection, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China) was
cultured in RPMI 1640 medium (Hyclone, Utah, USA) supplemented with 2 mmol/L L-glutamine
and 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum (FBS, Hyclone, USA) at 37°C with 5% CO2. Cells were cultivated in 1% FBS overnight in
24-microwell plates (Costor, NY, USA)
at a concentration of 105 cells/mL before stimulation. 0.5 to 5 μg/mL
of LP or 0.1 μg/mL of lipopolysaccharide (LPS, Sigma-Aldrich, Mo, USA) was added into the medium for
24 hours. To evaluate the effect of PDTC, cells were preincubated with 25 μM
PDTC (Sigma-Aldrich) for 30 minutes before stimulation.


### 2.2. Mycoplasma Culture and LP Preparation

M. genitalium (G-37 strain, ATCC) was
cultivated in modified SP-4 medium until the beginning of the stationary phase
and then pelleted by centrifugation. The preparation of LP and the aqueous
phase (used as a control) followed the methods described previously [16]. Lipoproteins in the Triton X-114
phase were precipitated by methanol and used for stimulation after being
suspended in sterile PBS. The protein concentration was determined by using a bicinchoninic acid kit (Pierce, Oud Beijerlands, the Netherlands).
The preparations were preincubated with 100 μg/mL polymyxin B for 2 hours prior
to stimulation in order to eliminate the possibility of endotoxin contamination
during the process of its preparation.


### 2.3. Assay for Cytokine Detection

THP-1 cells
were cultivated and stimulated in 24-well tissue culture plates as described
above. Being stimulated after 24 hours, the cells were lysed by two consecutive
cycles of freezing/thawing, thus the samples represented the total amount of
cytokines produced (both intracellular and those that have released into the supernatant).
The cytokines concentration was measured by using
human TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 ELISA kits (Jingmei Biotech, Shenzhen, China). Supernatants
were used for cytokine determination by the quantitative “sandwich" ELISA
technique, using monoclonal antibodies specific for the tested cytokines. The detection limit of the ELISA kits for TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 were 7 pg/mL, 2 pg/mL, and 2 pg/mL,
respectively. The assays were performed in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions.


### 2.4. Detection of Cytokine Expression by RT-PCR

Total RNA was extracted from
the treated THP-1 cells with Trizol reagent (Invitrogen Life Technologies, Calif,
USA). First-strand cDNA synthesis from the total RNA was performed by using AMV reverse
transcriptase XL (TaKaRa, Dalian, China). Primer
sequences and sizes of the PCR products were as follows:β-actin (564 bp):5′-CTG GGA CGA CAT GGA GAA AA-3′ (forward
primer) and 5′-AAG GAA GGC TGG
AAG AGT GC-3 (reverse
primer); IL-1β (252 bp): 5′-TAT TAC AGT
GGC AAT GAG G-3′ (forward
primer) and 5′-ATG AAG
GGA AAG AAG GTG-3′ (reverse
primer); TNF-α (324 bp): 5′-CAG AGG GAA GAG TTC CCC
AG-3′ (forward
primer) and5′-CCT TGG TCT GGT
AGG AGA CG-3′ (reverse
primer); and IL-6 (430 bp):
5′-TGA CCC AAC CAC AAA TGC-3′ (forward
primer) and 5′-CGA GCT CTG AAA
CAA AGG AT-3′ (reverse
primer). PCR was performed on mixtures with a final volume of 100 μL containing
20 μL of cytokines or β-actin cDNA using a DNA thermocycler (Eppendorf, Hamburg,
Germany) under the following conditions: 35 cycles of 30-second denaturation at
94°C, 45-second annealing at 66°C for TNF-α, 63°C for IL-6,
or 58°C for
IL-1β and β-actin, and 1-minute extension at 72°C. The PCR products were visualized on a 1.2%
agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide.


### 2.5. Nuclear Protein Preparation
and Electrophoretic Mobility Gel Shift Assay (EMSA)

THP-1 cells were cultured in a dish in 1% FBS for 24 hours and then stimulated with LP
(3μg/mL) at indicated time intervals. The cells were collected on ice before
isolation of nuclear extracts by the protocol reported by Muller and Homaidan [17, 18]. Briefly, the cells (106/mL) were washed with ice-cold PBS, suspended in 200 μL of lysis buffer (10 mM HEPES [pH7.9], 10 mM KCl, 0.1 mM EDTA, 0.1 mM EGTA, 1 mM DTT) and allowed to swell on ice for 15 minutes, and then 12.5 μL of 10% Nonidet P-40 was added. The tube was then mixed thoroughly with a Vortex
mixer for 10 seconds prior to centrifugation (20,000 g) at 4°C for 8 minutes. The nuclear pellets thus obtained
were resuspended in 25 μL of ice-cold nuclear extraction buffer (20 mM HEPES [pH7.9], 400 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM EGTA, 1 mM DTT) and
kept on ice for 15 minutes with intermittent agitation. The samples were
subjected to centrifugation for 5 minutes at 4°C, and the supernatant was stored at −70°C after measurement of its protein
content with the Bio-Rad protein assay kit (Bio-Rad, Munich, Germany).The detection of the activated NF-κB in the nuclei of unstimulated and stimulated
cells was completed by using a biotin-labeled EMSA kit (Viagene, Ningbo , China), according to the manufacture’s instruction. The consensus NF-κB
oligonucleotides included in the kit was 5′-AGT
TGA GGG GAC TTT CCC AGG C-3′.


### 2.6. Measurement of Cell Apoptosis

Two different techniques were used as follows. (1) AO-EB staining, an exclusion dye method which enables to differentiate between
live, early-apoptotic, late-apoptotic, and necrotic cells [19]. At 12 hours after  induction of apoptosis, cells were collected, centrifuged at 500 g for 10 minutes, and resuspended in
100 μL PBS. Samples of 25 μL from each culture were stained with AO-EB (final concentration 1 μg/mL for
each AO and EB), and observed under a fluorescence microscope. At least 200
cells were randomly counted in each sample (in duplicates), and the percentage
of apoptotic cells was calculated; (2) Annexin-V-FITC-PI staining, which
detects the exposure of phosphatidylserine (PS) to the external leaflet of the
plasma membrane in early apoptosis, and enables to differentiate between live,
early apoptotic, and dead cells (it does not differentiate between late
apoptotic and necrotic cells) [20]. At 12 hours after induction of apoptosis, cells
were washed with PBS, centrifuged and resuspended in 400 μL of a binding bufter (10 mM HEPES/NaOH, 140 mM NaCl, 2.5 mM CaCl2, PH7.4). Annexin-V-FITC (5 μL; 10 μg/mL)
was added to a sample of 195 μL of cell suspension, mixed, incubated for 10 minutes
at room temperature in the dark, washed with PBS, and resuspended in 190 μL of
binding buffer containing 10 μL of PI (1 μg/mL). The double-stained cells were
analyzed by the FACS within 10 minutes (104 cells/sample).In all measurements of apoptosis, the percentage of cells that underwent apoptosis was
determined by subtracting the percentage of spontaneous apoptosis (unstimulated
cells) from the total apoptosis (stimulated cells).


### 2.7. Statistical Analysis

Data obtained from the three independent
experiments were expressed as mean±SE. The data were analyzed by a one-way
ANOVA test followed by an independent-samplest test using SPSS software. A P-value
of less than 0.05 was considered significant.


## 2.1. Cell Culture and Stimulation

The human monocytic cell
line THP-1 (China Center for Type Culture Collection, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China) was
cultured in RPMI 1640 medium (Hyclone, Utah, USA) supplemented with 2 mmol/L L-glutamine
and 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum (FBS, Hyclone, USA) at 37°C with 5% CO2. Cells were cultivated in 1% FBS overnight in
24-microwell plates (Costor, NY, USA)
at a concentration of 105 cells/mL before stimulation. 0.5 to 5 μg/mL
of LP or 0.1 μg/mL of lipopolysaccharide (LPS, Sigma-Aldrich, Mo, USA) was added into the medium for
24 hours. To evaluate the effect of PDTC, cells were preincubated with 25 μM
PDTC (Sigma-Aldrich) for 30 minutes before stimulation.


## 2.2. Mycoplasma Culture and LP Preparation

M. genitalium (G-37 strain, ATCC) was
cultivated in modified SP-4 medium until the beginning of the stationary phase
and then pelleted by centrifugation. The preparation of LP and the aqueous
phase (used as a control) followed the methods described previously [16]. Lipoproteins in the Triton X-114
phase were precipitated by methanol and used for stimulation after being
suspended in sterile PBS. The protein concentration was determined by using a bicinchoninic acid kit (Pierce, Oud Beijerlands, the Netherlands).
The preparations were preincubated with 100 μg/mL polymyxin B for 2 hours prior
to stimulation in order to eliminate the possibility of endotoxin contamination
during the process of its preparation.


## 2.3. Assay for Cytokine Detection

THP-1 cells
were cultivated and stimulated in 24-well tissue culture plates as described
above. Being stimulated after 24 hours, the cells were lysed by two consecutive
cycles of freezing/thawing, thus the samples represented the total amount of
cytokines produced (both intracellular and those that have released into the supernatant).
The cytokines concentration was measured by using
human TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 ELISA kits (Jingmei Biotech, Shenzhen, China). Supernatants
were used for cytokine determination by the quantitative “sandwich" ELISA
technique, using monoclonal antibodies specific for the tested cytokines. The detection limit of the ELISA kits for TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 were 7 pg/mL, 2 pg/mL, and 2 pg/mL,
respectively. The assays were performed in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions.


## 2.4. Detection of Cytokine Expression by RT-PCR

Total RNA was extracted from
the treated THP-1 cells with Trizol reagent (Invitrogen Life Technologies, Calif,
USA). First-strand cDNA synthesis from the total RNA was performed by using AMV reverse
transcriptase XL (TaKaRa, Dalian, China). Primer
sequences and sizes of the PCR products were as follows:β-actin (564 bp):5′-CTG GGA CGA CAT GGA GAA AA-3′ (forward
primer) and 5′-AAG GAA GGC TGG
AAG AGT GC-3 (reverse
primer); IL-1β (252 bp): 5′-TAT TAC AGT
GGC AAT GAG G-3′ (forward
primer) and 5′-ATG AAG
GGA AAG AAG GTG-3′ (reverse
primer); TNF-α (324 bp): 5′-CAG AGG GAA GAG TTC CCC
AG-3′ (forward
primer) and5′-CCT TGG TCT GGT
AGG AGA CG-3′ (reverse
primer); and IL-6 (430 bp):
5′-TGA CCC AAC CAC AAA TGC-3′ (forward
primer) and 5′-CGA GCT CTG AAA
CAA AGG AT-3′ (reverse
primer). PCR was performed on mixtures with a final volume of 100 μL containing
20 μL of cytokines or β-actin cDNA using a DNA thermocycler (Eppendorf, Hamburg,
Germany) under the following conditions: 35 cycles of 30-second denaturation at
94°C, 45-second annealing at 66°C for TNF-α, 63°C for IL-6,
or 58°C for
IL-1β and β-actin, and 1-minute extension at 72°C. The PCR products were visualized on a 1.2%
agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide.


## 2.5. Nuclear Protein Preparation
and Electrophoretic Mobility Gel Shift Assay (EMSA)

THP-1 cells were cultured in a dish in 1% FBS for 24 hours and then stimulated with LP
(3μg/mL) at indicated time intervals. The cells were collected on ice before
isolation of nuclear extracts by the protocol reported by Muller and Homaidan [17, 18]. Briefly, the cells (106/mL) were washed with ice-cold PBS, suspended in 200 μL of lysis buffer (10 mM HEPES [pH7.9], 10 mM KCl, 0.1 mM EDTA, 0.1 mM EGTA, 1 mM DTT) and allowed to swell on ice for 15 minutes, and then 12.5 μL of 10% Nonidet P-40 was added. The tube was then mixed thoroughly with a Vortex
mixer for 10 seconds prior to centrifugation (20,000 g) at 4°C for 8 minutes. The nuclear pellets thus obtained
were resuspended in 25 μL of ice-cold nuclear extraction buffer (20 mM HEPES [pH7.9], 400 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM EGTA, 1 mM DTT) and
kept on ice for 15 minutes with intermittent agitation. The samples were
subjected to centrifugation for 5 minutes at 4°C, and the supernatant was stored at −70°C after measurement of its protein
content with the Bio-Rad protein assay kit (Bio-Rad, Munich, Germany).The detection of the activated NF-κB in the nuclei of unstimulated and stimulated
cells was completed by using a biotin-labeled EMSA kit (Viagene, Ningbo , China), according to the manufacture’s instruction. The consensus NF-κB
oligonucleotides included in the kit was 5′-AGT
TGA GGG GAC TTT CCC AGG C-3′.


## 2.6. Measurement of Cell Apoptosis

Two different techniques were used as follows. (1) AO-EB staining, an exclusion dye method which enables to differentiate between
live, early-apoptotic, late-apoptotic, and necrotic cells [19]. At 12 hours after  induction of apoptosis, cells were collected, centrifuged at 500 g for 10 minutes, and resuspended in
100 μL PBS. Samples of 25 μL from each culture were stained with AO-EB (final concentration 1 μg/mL for
each AO and EB), and observed under a fluorescence microscope. At least 200
cells were randomly counted in each sample (in duplicates), and the percentage
of apoptotic cells was calculated; (2) Annexin-V-FITC-PI staining, which
detects the exposure of phosphatidylserine (PS) to the external leaflet of the
plasma membrane in early apoptosis, and enables to differentiate between live,
early apoptotic, and dead cells (it does not differentiate between late
apoptotic and necrotic cells) [20]. At 12 hours after induction of apoptosis, cells
were washed with PBS, centrifuged and resuspended in 400 μL of a binding bufter (10 mM HEPES/NaOH, 140 mM NaCl, 2.5 mM CaCl2, PH7.4). Annexin-V-FITC (5 μL; 10 μg/mL)
was added to a sample of 195 μL of cell suspension, mixed, incubated for 10 minutes
at room temperature in the dark, washed with PBS, and resuspended in 190 μL of
binding buffer containing 10 μL of PI (1 μg/mL). The double-stained cells were
analyzed by the FACS within 10 minutes (104 cells/sample).In all measurements of apoptosis, the percentage of cells that underwent apoptosis was
determined by subtracting the percentage of spontaneous apoptosis (unstimulated
cells) from the total apoptosis (stimulated cells).


## 2.7. Statistical Analysis

Data obtained from the three independent
experiments were expressed as mean±SE. The data were analyzed by a one-way
ANOVA test followed by an independent-samplest test using SPSS software. A P-value
of less than 0.05 was considered significant.


## 3. Results

### 3.1. Marked Production of Cytokines in THP-1 by M. Genitalium LP

LP prepared fromM. genitalium stimulated THP-1 cells to
produce TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in dose-dependent manner (Figure 1). The dose-response
bar revealed a 3 μg/mL optimal concentration of LP for the induction of TNF-α [(1885.29±58.62) pg/mL], IL-1β [(256.20±16.030) pg/mL], and IL-6 [(35.29±1.26) pg/mL], leading to cytokine concentration
similar to those obtained with 0.1 μg/mL LPS [TNF-α(1288.96±34.34) pg/mL, IL-1β(469.36±21.11) pg/mL, IL-6 (33.01±1.81) pg/mL, P>.05].
Interestingly, when the concentration of LP was increased from 3 μg/mL to 5 μg/mL,
the level of cytokines decreased. The contamination
of LP by LPS was not responsible for this since polymyxin B pretreated LP had
no effect on TNF-α production (Figure 2).The effect of
different concentrations of LP on the production of TNF-α (a), IL-6 (b), and
IL-1β (c) in THP-1 cells. Dose-dependent induction of TNF-α (a), IL-6 (b), and IL-1β (c) was seen in THP-1 cells after 24 hours of stimulation with 0.5 to 5 μg/mL of LP, 3 μg/mL of LP in combination with 25 μM PDTC, or 0.1 μg/mL LPS. In this experiment THP-1 cells stimulated with aqueous phase were used as the negative control. Proinflammatory cytokine levels were determined by ELISA as indicated in Section 2. The results were representative of three independent experiments.
(a)(b)(c)Figure 2
Effects of
polymyxin B on LP or LPS-induced TNF-α production in THP-1 cells. LP or LPS was pretreated by 100 μg/mL polymyxin B (PB)
for 2 hours before challenging THP-1 cells. LP (3 μg/mL) or LPS (100 ng/mL) was
added to the medium. After being incubated for 24 hours, cells were harvested,
and the concentration of TNF-α in the medium was determined by ELISA as
described in Section 2.


### 3.2. Induction of TNF-α,
IL-1β,
and IL-6 mRNA Expression after Treatment with LP

Because the cytokine mRNA are regulated mainly at the transcriptional
level, we examined the expression levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 mRNA using
RT-PCR. As shown in Figure 3, the addition of 3 μg/mL LP after 18-hour stimulation
increased these three genes’ mRNA expression and
β-actin as an internal control was
similar in all samples.The effect of
different groups on the expression of TNF-α (a), IL-6 (b), and
IL-1β (c) mRNA. THP-1 cells were stimulated for 18 hours and the mRNA levels were
determined by RT-PCR. The levels of mRNA expression were inhibited upon the
introduction of 25 μM PDTC. The bottom photograph depicts the result of RT-PCR
for mRNA, and the top photograph depicts the β-actin positive control. Lane M:
100 bp DNA marker; lane 1: 0.1 μg/mL LPS; lane 2: 3 μg/mL of LP; lane 3: 3 μg/mL
of LP in combination with 25 μM PDTC; lane 4: 100 μL aqueous phase (negative control).
(a)(b)(c)


### 3.3. PDTC-Induced Downregulation of TNF-α,
IL-1β, and IL-6 Production
and Its mRNA Expression

We
found that the NF-κB inhibitor PDTC significantly inhibited the production of
TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in THP-1 cells stimulated by M. genitalium LP. As shown in Figure 1, the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in the
conditioned media from cells treated with 3 μg/mL of LP in combination with 25 μM
PDTC were significantly lower than in media from cells treated 3 μg/mL of LP
alone (P<.05). The effects of PDTC on the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β,
and IL-6 mRNA showed similar patterns in LP-stimulated cells, as determined by
RT-PCR (Figure 3).


### 3.4. M. Genitalium LP Induced NF-κB  Activation by EMSA

In this study, we
investigated whetherM. genitalium LP
was capable of triggering NF-κB activation.
For this purpose, the THP-1 cells were stimulated with LP at different time intervals, NF-κB DNA binding activities in nuclear extracts were assessed by nonradioactive EMSA as
described in Section 2. As depicted in Figure 4, M. genitalium LP could activate NF-κB in THP-1 cells: the DNA binding
activities were maximal by 2 hours of stimulation and then declined. The
specificity of NF-κB DNA binding was verified by competition analysis with an
excess of unlabeled specific or unspecific oligonucleotides.Figure 4
The activity of NF-κB in different groups was
examined by EMSA. NF-κB activation was measured
by EMSA using a biotin-labeled oligonucleotide encompassing the NF-κB consensus
motif. THP-1 cells were stimulated with M.
genitalium LP (3 μg/mL) at different time
intervals (0, 1, 2, and 4 hour(s)). THP-1 cells treated with 100 μL aqueous phase and 0.1 μg/mL LPS
were used as control. The specificity of DNA binding was assessed by
preincubating extracts with unlabeled specific (NF-κB) or unspecific (AP-1)
competitor oligonucleotide. The arrow indicates specific NF-κB band.


### 3.5. M. Genitalium LP Induced Cell Apoptosis by Annexin-V-FITC-PI and AO-EB Staining

The percentage of apoptotic cells was examined
by two techniques as follows. (1) a typical experiment of Annexin-V-FITC-PI
staining was shown in Figure5. By this technique, necrotic and late apoptosis
cells could not be distinguished from each other, so we concluded that the double-positive
cells (for Annexin-V-FITC and PI) represented the late apoptotic cells and not
necrotic ones. The results obtained in the three independent
experiments showed approximately 14.23±1.56% reduction in the percentage of the
apoptotic cells induced by M. genitalium LP, in comparison with LPS control (16.53±1.68%) and LP in combination with 25 μM
PDTC-induced cells (2.79±0.46%). (2) AO-EB staining,
which distinguishes between apoptotic cells by the morphological changes in the
nucleus (lack of DNA condensation in necrotic cells as supposed to apoptotic cells), was used to determine whether M. genitalium LP induced apoptosis or
necrosis. The apoptosis was reduced by about 61%
in THP-1 cells infected with M.
genitalium LP in combination with 25 μM PDTC (15.34±3.94%), in comparison with M. genitalium LP-infected cells (38.50±4.46%)
and LPS-treated cells (39.60±4.45%) (Table 1).Table 1
Cell apoptosis induced by different groups, as determined by fluorescence microscopy. Values, quantified by random counting of acridine orange-ethidium
bromide-stained cells, were mean±standard deviation of data from the three
independent experiments. Percentages represent the different stages of
cell death. (P<.05, as determined by ANOVA single factor).
Treatment% of live cells% of necrotic% of apoptotic cellsEarlyLateTotalaqueous88.13±4.712.53±1.127.01±3.152.33±1.429.34±4.32LP52.68±5.248.82±2.4914.42±3.8124.08±6.2538.50±4.46aLP+PDTC80.56±2.734.10±1.569.85±4.535.49±2.7815.34±3.94bLPS49.05±3.1411.35±3.9613.37±4.8726.23±5.7239.60±4.45cLP versus aqueous treatment:P<.05a;
LP+PDTC versus LP treatment:P<.05b;
LPS versus aqueous treatment:P<.05c.Cell apoptosis of different groups was
detected by Annexin-V-propidium iodide staining. THP-1 cells were stimulated with 3μg/mL of LP, 3 μg/mL of LP in
combination with 25 μM PDTC, or 0.1 μg/mL LPS for 12 hours, stained with
Annexin-V-FITC-PI and analyzed by FACS. Double negative staining represents living
cells (c), positive staining for Annexin-V-FITC, and negative staining
for PI represent the early apoptotic stage (e), and double-positive
staining represents the late apoptotic stage (b).
(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)


## 3.1. Marked Production of Cytokines in THP-1 by M. Genitalium LP

LP prepared fromM. genitalium stimulated THP-1 cells to
produce TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in dose-dependent manner (Figure 1). The dose-response
bar revealed a 3 μg/mL optimal concentration of LP for the induction of TNF-α [(1885.29±58.62) pg/mL], IL-1β [(256.20±16.030) pg/mL], and IL-6 [(35.29±1.26) pg/mL], leading to cytokine concentration
similar to those obtained with 0.1 μg/mL LPS [TNF-α(1288.96±34.34) pg/mL, IL-1β(469.36±21.11) pg/mL, IL-6 (33.01±1.81) pg/mL, P>.05].
Interestingly, when the concentration of LP was increased from 3 μg/mL to 5 μg/mL,
the level of cytokines decreased. The contamination
of LP by LPS was not responsible for this since polymyxin B pretreated LP had
no effect on TNF-α production (Figure 2).The effect of
different concentrations of LP on the production of TNF-α (a), IL-6 (b), and
IL-1β (c) in THP-1 cells. Dose-dependent induction of TNF-α (a), IL-6 (b), and IL-1β (c) was seen in THP-1 cells after 24 hours of stimulation with 0.5 to 5 μg/mL of LP, 3 μg/mL of LP in combination with 25 μM PDTC, or 0.1 μg/mL LPS. In this experiment THP-1 cells stimulated with aqueous phase were used as the negative control. Proinflammatory cytokine levels were determined by ELISA as indicated in Section 2. The results were representative of three independent experiments.
(a)(b)(c)Figure 2
Effects of
polymyxin B on LP or LPS-induced TNF-α production in THP-1 cells. LP or LPS was pretreated by 100 μg/mL polymyxin B (PB)
for 2 hours before challenging THP-1 cells. LP (3 μg/mL) or LPS (100 ng/mL) was
added to the medium. After being incubated for 24 hours, cells were harvested,
and the concentration of TNF-α in the medium was determined by ELISA as
described in Section 2.


## 3.2. Induction of TNF-α,
IL-1β,
and IL-6 mRNA Expression after Treatment with LP

Because the cytokine mRNA are regulated mainly at the transcriptional
level, we examined the expression levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 mRNA using
RT-PCR. As shown in Figure 3, the addition of 3 μg/mL LP after 18-hour stimulation
increased these three genes’ mRNA expression and
β-actin as an internal control was
similar in all samples.The effect of
different groups on the expression of TNF-α (a), IL-6 (b), and
IL-1β (c) mRNA. THP-1 cells were stimulated for 18 hours and the mRNA levels were
determined by RT-PCR. The levels of mRNA expression were inhibited upon the
introduction of 25 μM PDTC. The bottom photograph depicts the result of RT-PCR
for mRNA, and the top photograph depicts the β-actin positive control. Lane M:
100 bp DNA marker; lane 1: 0.1 μg/mL LPS; lane 2: 3 μg/mL of LP; lane 3: 3 μg/mL
of LP in combination with 25 μM PDTC; lane 4: 100 μL aqueous phase (negative control).
(a)(b)(c)


## 3.3. PDTC-Induced Downregulation of TNF-α,
IL-1β, and IL-6 Production
and Its mRNA Expression

We
found that the NF-κB inhibitor PDTC significantly inhibited the production of
TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in THP-1 cells stimulated by M. genitalium LP. As shown in Figure 1, the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in the
conditioned media from cells treated with 3 μg/mL of LP in combination with 25 μM
PDTC were significantly lower than in media from cells treated 3 μg/mL of LP
alone (P<.05). The effects of PDTC on the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β,
and IL-6 mRNA showed similar patterns in LP-stimulated cells, as determined by
RT-PCR (Figure 3).


## 3.4. M. Genitalium LP Induced NF-κB  Activation by EMSA

In this study, we
investigated whetherM. genitalium LP
was capable of triggering NF-κB activation.
For this purpose, the THP-1 cells were stimulated with LP at different time intervals, NF-κB DNA binding activities in nuclear extracts were assessed by nonradioactive EMSA as
described in Section 2. As depicted in Figure 4, M. genitalium LP could activate NF-κB in THP-1 cells: the DNA binding
activities were maximal by 2 hours of stimulation and then declined. The
specificity of NF-κB DNA binding was verified by competition analysis with an
excess of unlabeled specific or unspecific oligonucleotides.Figure 4
The activity of NF-κB in different groups was
examined by EMSA. NF-κB activation was measured
by EMSA using a biotin-labeled oligonucleotide encompassing the NF-κB consensus
motif. THP-1 cells were stimulated with M.
genitalium LP (3 μg/mL) at different time
intervals (0, 1, 2, and 4 hour(s)). THP-1 cells treated with 100 μL aqueous phase and 0.1 μg/mL LPS
were used as control. The specificity of DNA binding was assessed by
preincubating extracts with unlabeled specific (NF-κB) or unspecific (AP-1)
competitor oligonucleotide. The arrow indicates specific NF-κB band.


## 3.5. M. Genitalium LP Induced Cell Apoptosis by Annexin-V-FITC-PI and AO-EB Staining

The percentage of apoptotic cells was examined
by two techniques as follows. (1) a typical experiment of Annexin-V-FITC-PI
staining was shown in Figure5. By this technique, necrotic and late apoptosis
cells could not be distinguished from each other, so we concluded that the double-positive
cells (for Annexin-V-FITC and PI) represented the late apoptotic cells and not
necrotic ones. The results obtained in the three independent
experiments showed approximately 14.23±1.56% reduction in the percentage of the
apoptotic cells induced by M. genitalium LP, in comparison with LPS control (16.53±1.68%) and LP in combination with 25 μM
PDTC-induced cells (2.79±0.46%). (2) AO-EB staining,
which distinguishes between apoptotic cells by the morphological changes in the
nucleus (lack of DNA condensation in necrotic cells as supposed to apoptotic cells), was used to determine whether M. genitalium LP induced apoptosis or
necrosis. The apoptosis was reduced by about 61%
in THP-1 cells infected with M.
genitalium LP in combination with 25 μM PDTC (15.34±3.94%), in comparison with M. genitalium LP-infected cells (38.50±4.46%)
and LPS-treated cells (39.60±4.45%) (Table 1).Table 1
Cell apoptosis induced by different groups, as determined by fluorescence microscopy. Values, quantified by random counting of acridine orange-ethidium
bromide-stained cells, were mean±standard deviation of data from the three
independent experiments. Percentages represent the different stages of
cell death. (P<.05, as determined by ANOVA single factor).
Treatment% of live cells% of necrotic% of apoptotic cellsEarlyLateTotalaqueous88.13±4.712.53±1.127.01±3.152.33±1.429.34±4.32LP52.68±5.248.82±2.4914.42±3.8124.08±6.2538.50±4.46aLP+PDTC80.56±2.734.10±1.569.85±4.535.49±2.7815.34±3.94bLPS49.05±3.1411.35±3.9613.37±4.8726.23±5.7239.60±4.45cLP versus aqueous treatment:P<.05a;
LP+PDTC versus LP treatment:P<.05b;
LPS versus aqueous treatment:P<.05c.Cell apoptosis of different groups was
detected by Annexin-V-propidium iodide staining. THP-1 cells were stimulated with 3μg/mL of LP, 3 μg/mL of LP in
combination with 25 μM PDTC, or 0.1 μg/mL LPS for 12 hours, stained with
Annexin-V-FITC-PI and analyzed by FACS. Double negative staining represents living
cells (c), positive staining for Annexin-V-FITC, and negative staining
for PI represent the early apoptotic stage (e), and double-positive
staining represents the late apoptotic stage (b).
(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)


## 4. Discussion

Although the
molecular basis of mycoplasma pathogenicity remains unclear, modulatory effect
on the immune system induced by LP appears to play an important role in the
development of mycoplasma-associated diseases [21]. One of the best documented effects of
mycoplasma is the induction of numerous cytokines by monocytic cells [9]. For example, M. fermentans-derived LP has been
demonstrated to induce inflammatory mediators such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6
released from mouse macrophages [4, 22]. In the present
study, we have demonstrated that lipoproteins derived from the human M. genitalium are capable of inducing THP-1
cells to produce proinflammatory cytokines and to induce apoptosis by
activating NF-κB.In an attempt to clarify the
potential pathogenicity ofM. genitalium,
we have demonstrated in this study that LP from M. genitalium could trigger THP-1 cells
to produce TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in a dose-dependent manner. However, when the concentration of LP increased from 3
to 5 μg/mL, the level of inflammatory cytokines decreased. This may be
explained by assuming that excessively high concentrations of LP may be toxic
to THP-1 cells, and thus, decreased inflammatory cytokine production [8]. We have also found that
PDTC, an inhibitor of NF-κB [23], could significantly
inhibit THP-1 cells treated with LP from producing inflammatory cytokines, and
inhibit the expression of their mRNA. TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β are important
inflammatory mediators: they can stimulate rapid neutrophil influx, and these
cells are effective mediators of host defense until antigen-specific mechanisms
are induced to eliminate the pathogen. However, the stimulation of cytokine production could also influence the
development of inflammatory reactions inevitably,
which may directly or indirectly contribute to disease pathogenesis and tissue
damage [24].Recent studies have demonstrated that there
are NF-κB binding sites in the 5′ transcriptional regulation regions of the cytokine gene. NF-κB is known as a
widespread rapid-response transcription factor that is normally expressed in
the cytoplasm of a variety of cells [25, 26]. Since the
induction of gene-specific recognition elements located in the upstream
promoter region, we investigated whether the production of TNF-α, IL-1β, and
IL-6 and the expression of their mRNA in THP-1 cells treated with M. genitalium LP were associated with
the activation of NF-κB. By using electrophoretic mobility shift and
transactivation assays, we have clearly demonstrated that LP can induce the
transcriptional activation of NF-κB; the activation peaked 2 hours after stimulation. The above results indicate that LP
from M. genitalium are potent
activators of NF-κB, and NF-κB activation may be of great importance for
inducing the production of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 and
the expression of their mRNA.Apoptosis is a
major form of cell death, characterized initially by a series of stereotypical
morphological changes. These changes reflect complex biochemical events carried
out by a family of cysteine proteases called caspases [27–29]; but a question
remains to be answered whether the M.
genitalium LP could induce apoptosis by macrophages in addition to inducing
inflammatory cytokine production. In this study, cell apoptosis was detected in
THP-1 cells treated with the M.
genitalium LP by Annexin V-FITC-PI and AO-EB staining, and the
apoptosis-inducing activity was inhibited by PDTC, which demonstrated that M. genitalium LP-induced THP-1 cell death was
partially associated with the activation of NF-κB [4]. In terms of
infectious diseases, apoptosis appears to be one of the defense mechanisms
against microbes hiding in cells which do not necessarily possess any mechanism
against them. However, excessive immune cells apoptosis may affect the immune
response in the primary infection site, and thus make it easy for mycoplasma to
diffuse [30, 31]. It is very
likely that apoptosis-related cytokines, such as TNF-α produced by macrophages
and lymphocytes in response to mycoplasmal lipoproteins, play an important role
in the expression of the cytotoxicity. This speculation is supported by
findings that M. fermentans enhances
concanavalin A-induced apoptosis of mouse splenic T-cells and that TNF-α plays
a key role in the activity [32]. However, whether these cytokines exert
some effects on the cytotoxicity of M.
genitalium LP to THP-1 cells is still unknown. Further studies are in
progress to clarify the molecular mechanism.The above results indicate that LP fromM. genitalium are potent activators of NF-κB, and that NF-κB
activation may be of great importance for inducing the production of
proinflammatory cytokines and its mRNA and apoptosis following stimulation with
LP from M. genitalium. Since
proinflammatory cytokines play important roles in the pathogenesis of infectious
disease sequelae, the success of anticytokine therapy in the inflammatory
reaction may relieve the abnormal immune response brought about by mycoplasma
infection. It is now clear that NF-κB were
involved in this modulation, and these findings contribute to unraveling the
complex mechanisms of immune reactivity to mycoplasma infection and may
ultimately prove useful in the development of new therapeutic strategies to
prevent tissue damage in mycoplasma-associated diseases [33].



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*Source: 195427-2008-04-23.xml*