milerssliu/battery-device-data-qa huggingface dataset:
Herein, a Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary battery was proposed and studied for the first time. The unique NASICON structure of monoclinic LiV2(PO4)3 facilitated Li+ diffusion, ensuring superior rate capability and low-temperature performance of the battery. However, the short shelf life of the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary batteries hinders their practical applications. The shelf life of the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary batteries was improved by optimizing the electrolyte composition. It was found that the corrosion of the Al foil triggered by the organic radical cations generated from the electrochemical oxidation of EC at high potentials leads to the self-discharge of the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary battery. When EC was replaced by PC, the corrosion of the Al foil was alleviated, and the shelf life of the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary battery was significantly improved. However, the loss of capacity still occurred after storage, which is ascribed to the oxidation decomposition of the electrolyte on the surface of the LiV2(PO4)3 cathode. A slow two-phase transition process from the LiV2(PO4)3 phase to the Li3V2(PO4)3 phase with the reduction of V4+ to low-valence V was characterized by the in situ XRD of the LiV2(PO4)3 cathode during its storage; this process was accompanied by the spontaneous insertion of Li back into LiV2(PO4)3. It was found that LiBOB as an additive effectively helps to improve the shelf life of the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary battery by alleviating the side reaction between LiV2(PO4)3 and electrolyte according to the XPS results, 100% of capacity could be maintained after one-month storage. Meanwhile, the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary battery exhibited superior rate capability and low-temperature performance: 86% energy could be maintained at 50C and 63% energy could be maintained at −40 °C and 0.1C, which was substantially better than the performance of the Li/MnO2 primary battery. Thus, our Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary battery is an ideal candidate for applications in extreme situations.

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: LiV2(PO4)3
The morphologies of NF, MoP/NF, NiCo-LDH/NF, and MoP@NiCo-LDH/NF-20 were also characterized by SEM (Fig. 3a, b and S2†). It can be seen that the folded lamellar structure is uniformly grown on and aggregated into a tremella shape on the smooth surface of NF, which can promote the increase in both specific surface area and active sites. In addition, the electrodeposition time was optimized to obtain MoP@NiCo-LDH/NF-x (Fig. S3†). When the electrodeposition time is 10 minutes, the MoP surface is coated with sparse NiCo-LDH nanosheets. With the increase of electrodeposition time, the MoP surface is coated with relatively dense NiCo-LDH nanosheets. However, as the electrodeposition time increases to 30 minutes, the NiCo-LDH nanosheets become more crowded. Too loose or too tight a structure is not conducive to the movement of ions in the electrolyte and charge transfer, thus affecting the performance of electrocatalysis, so MoP@NiCo-LDH/NF-20 should have relatively more active sites.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
According to the SEM images in Fig. 4c and S16,† the basic skeleton of FeCO3@IF after OER remains almost the same compared with the electrode before OER. However, the FeCO3 cubes are covered with lots of nanosheets, which grow vertically on the cubes and are connected to each other. According to Fig. S17,† it is easy to observe the formation of a nanosheet array on the surface of the area of FeCO3@IF without FeCO3 cubes, which is the same as the surface morphology of the FeCO3 cubes after the OER process (Fig. 4c). The TEM image in Fig. 4d further confirms the formation of nanosheets. The blurry lattice fringes in the HRTEM image (the inset in Fig. 4d) suggest that the newly generated iron oxo/hydroxides have a high degree of amorphization. Therefore, the generated iron-based oxo/hydroxides are not observed in the XRD pattern (Fig. 4a). Notably, the high degree of amorphization is beneficial for the exposure of more catalytic sites and accelerating mass transfer. Furthermore, the phases with a high degree of amorphization also possess abundant unsaturated electronic configurations, which may improve the adsorption of reactants. The amorphous iron oxo/hydroxides are efficient catalytic sites for OER. More importantly, the vertical nanosheet arrays can promote the penetration of the electrolyte and bubble diffusion compared with cumulate nanoparticles and interlaced nanowires (Fig. S18†). The in situ generated interconnected nanosheets also have a strong interaction with the IF substrate, which is beneficial for maintaining good structural stability and high electron transfer efficiency. According to the SEM and XRD results, FeCO3 does not completely transform into oxo/hydroxide nanosheets, because of diffusional and electrochemical limitations. The partial surface in situ self-reconstruction causes FeCO3@IF to obtain novel and stable hierarchical structures during the OER process (Fig. 4e), with improved mechanical strength and rich diffusion pathways. Therefore, FeCO3@IF shows high OER catalytic activity and stability.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
The use of Mg-alloyable metallic anodes is another promising approach to enhancing the viability of MIBs. This is mainly because the Mg alloying/dealloying process occurs slightly above the Mg plating/stripping potentials, and the surface passivation problems of Mg in conventional electrolytes is expected to be alleviated to a great extent. Indeed, reversible Mg alloying/dealloying behavior on bismuth has been confirmed in conventional electrolytes by several researchers (e.g., Bi nanoparticles in Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/acetonitrile; Bi nanotubes in Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/diglyme; and Bi nanocrystals in Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/diglyme). Bi anodes have shown reasonable cyclability and rate performance in a nanometric form. Mg-alloyable Sn was also studied for use as MIB anodes. Sn can deliver a higher specific capacity than Bi (903 mA h g−1 for Sn + 2Mg2+ + 4e− → Mg2Sn and 385 mA h g−1 for 2Bi + 3Mg2+ + 6e− → Mg3Bi2) and can alloy/dealloy Mg at a lower potential than Bi (0.15 and 0.25 V vs. Mg/Mg2+ for Sn and Bi, respectively). Despite the theoretical prediction that nanometric Sn can act as a high-capacity MIB anode, pure Sn has shown limited electrochemical performance. For example, though pure Sn delivered a capacity of ca. 900 mA h g−1 during the 1st magnesiation (complete conversion of Sn to Mg2Sn), the capacity abruptly dropped to ca. 200–300 mA h g−1 after the 1st magnesiation, and continuously declined with repeated charge/discharge (C/D). Furthermore, pure Sn often requires the application of potentials close to, or even lower than, the thermodynamic Mg plating potential for the activation of an alloying process.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Bi
The use of Mg-alloyable metallic anodes is another promising approach to enhancing the viability of MIBs. This is mainly because the Mg alloying/dealloying process occurs slightly above the Mg plating/stripping potentials, and the surface passivation problems of Mg in conventional electrolytes is expected to be alleviated to a great extent. Indeed, reversible Mg alloying/dealloying behavior on bismuth has been confirmed in conventional electrolytes by several researchers (e.g., Bi nanoparticles in Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/acetonitrile; Bi nanotubes in Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/diglyme; and Bi nanocrystals in Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/diglyme). Bi anodes have shown reasonable cyclability and rate performance in a nanometric form. Mg-alloyable Sn was also studied for use as MIB anodes. Sn can deliver a higher specific capacity than Bi (903 mA h g−1 for Sn + 2Mg2+ + 4e− → Mg2Sn and 385 mA h g−1 for 2Bi + 3Mg2+ + 6e− → Mg3Bi2) and can alloy/dealloy Mg at a lower potential than Bi (0.15 and 0.25 V vs. Mg/Mg2+ for Sn and Bi, respectively). Despite the theoretical prediction that nanometric Sn can act as a high-capacity MIB anode, pure Sn has shown limited electrochemical performance. For example, though pure Sn delivered a capacity of ca. 900 mA h g−1 during the 1st magnesiation (complete conversion of Sn to Mg2Sn), the capacity abruptly dropped to ca. 200–300 mA h g−1 after the 1st magnesiation, and continuously declined with repeated charge/discharge (C/D). Furthermore, pure Sn often requires the application of potentials close to, or even lower than, the thermodynamic Mg plating potential for the activation of an alloying process.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/acetonitrile
The use of Mg-alloyable metallic anodes is another promising approach to enhancing the viability of MIBs. This is mainly because the Mg alloying/dealloying process occurs slightly above the Mg plating/stripping potentials, and the surface passivation problems of Mg in conventional electrolytes is expected to be alleviated to a great extent. Indeed, reversible Mg alloying/dealloying behavior on bismuth has been confirmed in conventional electrolytes by several researchers (e.g., Bi nanoparticles in Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/acetonitrile; Bi nanotubes in Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/diglyme; and Bi nanocrystals in Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/diglyme). Bi anodes have shown reasonable cyclability and rate performance in a nanometric form. Mg-alloyable Sn was also studied for use as MIB anodes. Sn can deliver a higher specific capacity than Bi (903 mA h g−1 for Sn + 2Mg2+ + 4e− → Mg2Sn and 385 mA h g−1 for 2Bi + 3Mg2+ + 6e− → Mg3Bi2) and can alloy/dealloy Mg at a lower potential than Bi (0.15 and 0.25 V vs. Mg/Mg2+ for Sn and Bi, respectively). Despite the theoretical prediction that nanometric Sn can act as a high-capacity MIB anode, pure Sn has shown limited electrochemical performance. For example, though pure Sn delivered a capacity of ca. 900 mA h g−1 during the 1st magnesiation (complete conversion of Sn to Mg2Sn), the capacity abruptly dropped to ca. 200–300 mA h g−1 after the 1st magnesiation, and continuously declined with repeated charge/discharge (C/D). Furthermore, pure Sn often requires the application of potentials close to, or even lower than, the thermodynamic Mg plating potential for the activation of an alloying process.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Mg-alloyable Sn
The use of Mg-alloyable metallic anodes is another promising approach to enhancing the viability of MIBs. This is mainly because the Mg alloying/dealloying process occurs slightly above the Mg plating/stripping potentials, and the surface passivation problems of Mg in conventional electrolytes is expected to be alleviated to a great extent. Indeed, reversible Mg alloying/dealloying behavior on bismuth has been confirmed in conventional electrolytes by several researchers (e.g., Bi nanoparticles in Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/acetonitrile; Bi nanotubes in Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/diglyme; and Bi nanocrystals in Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/diglyme). Bi anodes have shown reasonable cyclability and rate performance in a nanometric form. Mg-alloyable Sn was also studied for use as MIB anodes. Sn can deliver a higher specific capacity than Bi (903 mA h g−1 for Sn + 2Mg2+ + 4e− → Mg2Sn and 385 mA h g−1 for 2Bi + 3Mg2+ + 6e− → Mg3Bi2) and can alloy/dealloy Mg at a lower potential than Bi (0.15 and 0.25 V vs. Mg/Mg2+ for Sn and Bi, respectively). Despite the theoretical prediction that nanometric Sn can act as a high-capacity MIB anode, pure Sn has shown limited electrochemical performance. For example, though pure Sn delivered a capacity of ca. 900 mA h g−1 during the 1st magnesiation (complete conversion of Sn to Mg2Sn), the capacity abruptly dropped to ca. 200–300 mA h g−1 after the 1st magnesiation, and continuously declined with repeated charge/discharge (C/D). Furthermore, pure Sn often requires the application of potentials close to, or even lower than, the thermodynamic Mg plating potential for the activation of an alloying process.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/diglyme
The plating and stripping behaviors of the LiF@Po–Li electrodes are observed by SEM after the Li deposition of 1 mA h cm−2 at a current density of 0.5 mA cm−2 with an EC/DEC:3/7, 1.3 M LiPF6, and 5 wt% FEC electrolyte (Fig. 3). All the electrochemical experiments are performed with carbonate-based electrolytes. It has been well known that the ether-based electrolytes, especially the DME/DOL system, exhibit better electrochemical properties compared to carbonate-based electrolytes in LMBs thanks to their stable SEI layer formation and more freedom to choose additives. However, the ether-based electrolyte is not suitable for various commercial cathode material due to its instability above 4.0 V vs. Li/Li+. In this regard, carbonated-based electrolytes should be explored for their electrochemical properties in upcoming high energy density LMBs. The electrodes are washed with dimethyl carbonate (DMC) to remove residual salts before SEM observation. The Li metal plated on the bare Li electrode shows a mossy, porous and dendritic morphology with an 11.8 μm thickness and 59% porosity (Fig. 3a, b and ESI Note 1†). In contrast, the Li metal plated on the LiF@Po–Li electrode exhibits a smooth and film-like morphology with significantly reduced porosity (Fig. 3c, d and S7†). The cross-sectional view of the LiF@Po–Li electrode after plating clearly shows that a 6.8 μm-thick dense Li film is deposited on the LiF@Po–Li electrode with 28% porosity (Fig. 3d). The stripping behavior is also monitored. As shown in Fig. 3e and f, the bare Li electrode has high-density craters with sizes ranging from 10 μm to 50 μm after the Li stripping. This non-uniform surface morphology is attributed to the localized current density caused by the inhomogeneous SEI layer. In contrast, the LiF@Po–Li electrode has a smooth and conformal surface without noticeable holes over a large area after Li stripping (Fig. 3g and h). This improvement in plating and stripping behaviors of Li is attributed to the LiF@Po protective layer, which enables a uniform Li ion concentration and current density over the Li electrode by suppressing the electrolyte decomposition.

Question: What's the cathode?
The plating and stripping behaviors of the LiF@Po–Li electrodes are observed by SEM after the Li deposition of 1 mA h cm−2 at a current density of 0.5 mA cm−2 with an EC/DEC:3/7, 1.3 M LiPF6, and 5 wt% FEC electrolyte (Fig. 3). All the electrochemical experiments are performed with carbonate-based electrolytes. It has been well known that the ether-based electrolytes, especially the DME/DOL system, exhibit better electrochemical properties compared to carbonate-based electrolytes in LMBs thanks to their stable SEI layer formation and more freedom to choose additives. However, the ether-based electrolyte is not suitable for various commercial cathode material due to its instability above 4.0 V vs. Li/Li+. In this regard, carbonated-based electrolytes should be explored for their electrochemical properties in upcoming high energy density LMBs. The electrodes are washed with dimethyl carbonate (DMC) to remove residual salts before SEM observation. The Li metal plated on the bare Li electrode shows a mossy, porous and dendritic morphology with an 11.8 μm thickness and 59% porosity (Fig. 3a, b and ESI Note 1†). In contrast, the Li metal plated on the LiF@Po–Li electrode exhibits a smooth and film-like morphology with significantly reduced porosity (Fig. 3c, d and S7†). The cross-sectional view of the LiF@Po–Li electrode after plating clearly shows that a 6.8 μm-thick dense Li film is deposited on the LiF@Po–Li electrode with 28% porosity (Fig. 3d). The stripping behavior is also monitored. As shown in Fig. 3e and f, the bare Li electrode has high-density craters with sizes ranging from 10 μm to 50 μm after the Li stripping. This non-uniform surface morphology is attributed to the localized current density caused by the inhomogeneous SEI layer. In contrast, the LiF@Po–Li electrode has a smooth and conformal surface without noticeable holes over a large area after Li stripping (Fig. 3g and h). This improvement in plating and stripping behaviors of Li is attributed to the LiF@Po protective layer, which enables a uniform Li ion concentration and current density over the Li electrode by suppressing the electrolyte decomposition.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer:  5 wt% FEC
The plating and stripping behaviors of the LiF@Po–Li electrodes are observed by SEM after the Li deposition of 1 mA h cm−2 at a current density of 0.5 mA cm−2 with an EC/DEC:3/7, 1.3 M LiPF6, and 5 wt% FEC electrolyte (Fig. 3). All the electrochemical experiments are performed with carbonate-based electrolytes. It has been well known that the ether-based electrolytes, especially the DME/DOL system, exhibit better electrochemical properties compared to carbonate-based electrolytes in LMBs thanks to their stable SEI layer formation and more freedom to choose additives. However, the ether-based electrolyte is not suitable for various commercial cathode material due to its instability above 4.0 V vs. Li/Li+. In this regard, carbonated-based electrolytes should be explored for their electrochemical properties in upcoming high energy density LMBs. The electrodes are washed with dimethyl carbonate (DMC) to remove residual salts before SEM observation. The Li metal plated on the bare Li electrode shows a mossy, porous and dendritic morphology with an 11.8 μm thickness and 59% porosity (Fig. 3a, b and ESI Note 1†). In contrast, the Li metal plated on the LiF@Po–Li electrode exhibits a smooth and film-like morphology with significantly reduced porosity (Fig. 3c, d and S7†). The cross-sectional view of the LiF@Po–Li electrode after plating clearly shows that a 6.8 μm-thick dense Li film is deposited on the LiF@Po–Li electrode with 28% porosity (Fig. 3d). The stripping behavior is also monitored. As shown in Fig. 3e and f, the bare Li electrode has high-density craters with sizes ranging from 10 μm to 50 μm after the Li stripping. This non-uniform surface morphology is attributed to the localized current density caused by the inhomogeneous SEI layer. In contrast, the LiF@Po–Li electrode has a smooth and conformal surface without noticeable holes over a large area after Li stripping (Fig. 3g and h). This improvement in plating and stripping behaviors of Li is attributed to the LiF@Po protective layer, which enables a uniform Li ion concentration and current density over the Li electrode by suppressing the electrolyte decomposition.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: carbonate-based
Supercapacitors are a class of energy storage devices found commonly in hybrid electric vehicles, camera components and used as backup power systems. One class of supercapacitors, called electric double layer capacitors (EDLCs), are a popular option for commercial applications. In EDLCs, electrolyte ions are adsorbed onto the electrode/electrolyte interface of high-surface area carbon and charge is stored solely via this electrostatic double layer. Due to this charge storage process, the structural integrity of the electrode is maintained resulting in high power densities and cycle lifetimes of over one million cycles. One major drawback of these devices is their low energy density, which limits their use in many applications. To improve the energy density of supercapacitors, many transition metal oxides such as V2O5, Ni(OH)2, Co3O4, RuO2, MnO2 and WO3 have been investigated. Unlike carbon-based materials, transition metal oxides undergo faradaic reactions that facilitate charge storage. Due to accessible redox states, transition metal oxides have much higher energy densities, but most suffer from low conductivity and poor cycling stability. In particular, tungsten oxide has been suggested as a potential alternative for supercapacitor electrode materials due to its redox active properties. Recent efforts have focused on improving tungsten oxide containing supercapacitors including their electrochemical performance, rate, and cycling stability in order to improve this material for energy storage applications.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
For electrochemical activation of the CRLE two electrodes were placed in a beaker in a distance of approximately 10 cm. A reference electrode (Ag/AgCl 3 M KCl) was placed in close proximity to the electrode to be activated. The second CRLE served as inert counter electrode. In screening experiments different activation potentials and polarisation time were tested at room temperature using 0.1 M NaOH as electrolyte (the results are shown in ESI-7†). Polarisation at 1800 mV for 90 s yielded the best electrode performance at short activation time (Table 1).

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: 0.1 M NaOH
The listed physical parameters are essential for designing a new generation of electronic devices with significantly improved sensitivity and time response. For instance, the high piezoelectric activity of near room temperature ferroelectrics Sn2P2S6, whose Tc ≈ 337 K, can compete with well-known BiFeO3, currently one of the top choices for switchable ferroelectric diodes. Near room temperature spontaneous polarization of Sn2P2S6 can serve as a base for non-volatile ferroelectric random-access memory (FERAM) elements, at the same time significantly miniaturizing the designed systems. The first steps of such practical exploits have been recently observed for layered room-temperature ferroelectric CuInP2S6, demonstrating that reversible polarization switchability with an on/off ratio of about ∼100 can be achieved for ferroelectric flakes with the thickness reaching an impressive limit of ∼4 nm. Due to locally controlled ion conductivity and giant negative electrostrictive coefficients, CuInP2S6 is also considered as a solid electrolyte for boosting sodium and lithium battery performance. Similarly, 2D superparaelectric Sn2P2S6 with a large dielectric constant was also proposed for the same purpose. The high photoelectric conversion efficiency of Sn2P2S6 allowed exploration of the ultrafast shift-current behaviour, comparable only to the performance of SbSI, CdSe, and CdS. These properties can be utilised for the novel design of the band edge shift current based photovoltaic devices, pushing the solar cell energy harvesting towards their theoretical limit. Additionally, Sn2P2S6 ferroelectrics have prominent photorefractive properties in the near-infrared spectral region, which makes them suitable for highly efficient acousto-optic and holographic devices.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: CuInP2S6
7Li magic-angle spinning (MAS) ssNMR spectroscopy was performed to trace the local environment of Li. Fig. 2d and S4a† shows the 7Li projection magic-angle turning and phase-adjusted sideband separation (pjMATPASS) spectra for the pristine, two-cycled and treated LMO. The pristine LMO showed two isotropic peaks resulting from Li in the octahedral site (LiO6). The main peak with a shoulder at around 748 ppm comes from Li in the Li layer and the one at around 1500 ppm can be attributed to Li in the TM layer. For pristine LMO, the small peak at around 0 ppm was due to the residual Li2CO3. The main peaks at around 748 ppm and 1500 ppm remained in the two-cycled LMO samples (Fig. S4a†). The sharp signal with enhanced intensity at around 0 ppm was mainly due to the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) components, such as Li2CO3 and LiF. The treated T-LMO sample exhibited that some Li-ions remained in the TM layer, as for LMO and two-cycled LMO. The remaining sidebands at around ±250 ppm in T-LMO came from a peak at around 0 ppm. Besides the similar peaks in LMO, a new peak appeared at around 529 ppm in T-LMO, which can be ascribed to Li in the tetrahedral site, like that in LiMn2O4. A broad peak at around 660 ppm corresponds well with that of the Li2Mn4O9 reference with Li in the tetrahedral site (Fig. S4b†). Although a small amount of disordered shells may exist in the T-LMO sample, their intensities are too low to be detected here, which might be overlapped by the strong NMR signal associated with Li contained in the crystalline core of the particles. The T-LMO curve was deconvoluted by the standard reference spectrum (black curve), which showed that T-LMO consists of 35.5% LMO, 16.9% LiMn2O4 and 47.6% Li2Mn4O9. The NMR spectra result provides direct evidence that new spinel phases appear in the T-LMO, which may be due to cation rearrangement.

Question: What's the electrolyte?