milerssliu/battery-device-data-qa huggingface dataset:
To assemble the ssZIBs, the polymer electrolyte was synthesized via polymerization of PAM combined with CNFs. Specifically, 1.33 g of CNFs (1.5 wt% water suspension, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA) were first dispersed in 20 mL of 1 M Zn(CF3SO3)2 solution with extensive high-speed stirring. After that, 50 mg of ammonium persulfate, 3 g of acrylamide (AM) monomers and 50 mg of N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide (BIS) were added to the suspension. After being stirred at 25 °C for 2 h, the mixture was cast onto a glass Petri dish. Then, the formed membrane was put in an oven and heated at 60 °C for half an hour. During this heating treatment, acrylamide was grafted onto the CNF surface through free radical polymerization. Finally, after being cooled to room temperature, a crosslinked CNF–PAM film was obtained. The prepared polymeric film shows high flexibility, and can be applied as a solid-state separator directly.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Solid-state Zn–air battery with a sandwich structure was assembled by replacing the zinc sheet and liquid electrolyte with a zinc foil (purity 99.9 wt%) and the as-fabricated PAM sheet, respectively.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Among ceramic electrolytes, the garnet-structured oxide Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO) has attracted attention as a core material of next-generation batteries (post-LIBs) because it exhibits excellent chemical/electrochemical stability against Li metals and has large electrochemical stability window. In particular, LLZO offers significant advantages in inhibiting Li dendrite formation because it is a single-ion conductor (transference number ∼1), has a high shear modulus (∼60 GPa) and stable interface with Li metals. Despite these intrinsic advantages, LLZO still has the problem of short circuit formation caused by Li propagation through LLZO particularly under high current densities. The penetration of Li through the polycrystalline LLZO electrolyte has been recently interpreted in terms of wettability of Li metals on LLZO, mechanical failure induced by stresses during Li plating that caused flaws on the LLZO surface, high electronic conductivity and a high interfacial resistance as well as non-uniform current distribution by lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) formed on the LLZO surface by the reaction between water vapor, carbon dioxide and LLZO in ambient air. Li propagation is known to occur via preferential plating at the grain boundaries (GBs), and the interface property of Li metal and LLZO plays a critical role in Li penetration when a high current density is applied to the interfaces. Because of the impurities or defects that predominantly exist on the GBs, different energy states for reduction at GBs might lead to non-uniform distribution of Li plating and preferential propagation of Li ions through the GBs. However, the mechanism of Li dendrite formation is unclear and remains controversial. Here, we investigated the mechanism of Li dendrite formation for the crystalline Ta-doped LLZO (Li6.5La3Zr1.5Ta0.5O12, LLZTO) by examining their energy band structures and defect states using various analytical techniques including reflection electron energy loss spectroscopy (REELS), scanning photoelectron microscopy (SPEM), and nanoscale charge-based deep level transient spectroscopy (Nano Q-DLTS). The measurement results revealed that the metallic Li plating along the GBs originates from the plentiful defect states in the GBs, implying that the formation of Li dendrites can be avoided if a thin layer with a wide bandgap is coated on LLZTO grains. Based on these analytical measurements, we adopted the laser annealing of LLZTO as a bandgap engineering method to suppress the Li dendrite formation by forming a surface structure of amorphous LLZTO and Li2O2 with wide bandgaps, which can block the electron injection into the grain boundaries. In addition, our electrochemical measurement results for the laser-treated LLZTO demonstrated that the stability and cycling performance were significantly improved. This study sheds light on the importance of electronic structure, in particular, defect states in developing ceramic solid electrolytes for Li metal batteries and the practicality of surface modification by laser treatment.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer:  Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO)
Among ceramic electrolytes, the garnet-structured oxide Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO) has attracted attention as a core material of next-generation batteries (post-LIBs) because it exhibits excellent chemical/electrochemical stability against Li metals and has large electrochemical stability window. In particular, LLZO offers significant advantages in inhibiting Li dendrite formation because it is a single-ion conductor (transference number ∼1), has a high shear modulus (∼60 GPa) and stable interface with Li metals. Despite these intrinsic advantages, LLZO still has the problem of short circuit formation caused by Li propagation through LLZO particularly under high current densities. The penetration of Li through the polycrystalline LLZO electrolyte has been recently interpreted in terms of wettability of Li metals on LLZO, mechanical failure induced by stresses during Li plating that caused flaws on the LLZO surface, high electronic conductivity and a high interfacial resistance as well as non-uniform current distribution by lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) formed on the LLZO surface by the reaction between water vapor, carbon dioxide and LLZO in ambient air. Li propagation is known to occur via preferential plating at the grain boundaries (GBs), and the interface property of Li metal and LLZO plays a critical role in Li penetration when a high current density is applied to the interfaces. Because of the impurities or defects that predominantly exist on the GBs, different energy states for reduction at GBs might lead to non-uniform distribution of Li plating and preferential propagation of Li ions through the GBs. However, the mechanism of Li dendrite formation is unclear and remains controversial. Here, we investigated the mechanism of Li dendrite formation for the crystalline Ta-doped LLZO (Li6.5La3Zr1.5Ta0.5O12, LLZTO) by examining their energy band structures and defect states using various analytical techniques including reflection electron energy loss spectroscopy (REELS), scanning photoelectron microscopy (SPEM), and nanoscale charge-based deep level transient spectroscopy (Nano Q-DLTS). The measurement results revealed that the metallic Li plating along the GBs originates from the plentiful defect states in the GBs, implying that the formation of Li dendrites can be avoided if a thin layer with a wide bandgap is coated on LLZTO grains. Based on these analytical measurements, we adopted the laser annealing of LLZTO as a bandgap engineering method to suppress the Li dendrite formation by forming a surface structure of amorphous LLZTO and Li2O2 with wide bandgaps, which can block the electron injection into the grain boundaries. In addition, our electrochemical measurement results for the laser-treated LLZTO demonstrated that the stability and cycling performance were significantly improved. This study sheds light on the importance of electronic structure, in particular, defect states in developing ceramic solid electrolytes for Li metal batteries and the practicality of surface modification by laser treatment.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: LLZO
The as-prepared polymer SP, Super P carbon and poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) binder with a mass ratio of 6/3/1 were added to a flask, and then dispersed in 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP) after being vigorously stirred for 10 h. The obtained slurry was coated on Cu foil, followed by drying at 100 °C in vacuo. The Cu foil was punched with a diameter of 14 mm as the anode electrode and the mass of SP was about 1.8 mg. A CR2032 coin-type cell was assembled in a glove box with SP as the working electrode, Celgard2400 polypropylene as the separator, lithium foil as the counter and reference electrode, and the prepared electrolyte consisted of a mixture of dimethyl carbonate (DMC), ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), and ethylene carbonate (EC) (DMC/EMC/EC = 5/2/3 v/v/v). The galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) and rate properties were determined by using a LAND battery test system at room temperature. After being pre-cycled at 0.2 C (20 mA h g−1) for three cycles, the battery was then tested at 1 C (100 mA h g−1) for 200 cycles. The cyclic voltammograms (CV) ranging from 0.01 V to 3 V were recorded with a CHI600E electrochemical working station with a scan rate of 0.1 mV s−1.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Cu foil
The as-prepared polymer SP, Super P carbon and poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) binder with a mass ratio of 6/3/1 were added to a flask, and then dispersed in 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP) after being vigorously stirred for 10 h. The obtained slurry was coated on Cu foil, followed by drying at 100 °C in vacuo. The Cu foil was punched with a diameter of 14 mm as the anode electrode and the mass of SP was about 1.8 mg. A CR2032 coin-type cell was assembled in a glove box with SP as the working electrode, Celgard2400 polypropylene as the separator, lithium foil as the counter and reference electrode, and the prepared electrolyte consisted of a mixture of dimethyl carbonate (DMC), ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), and ethylene carbonate (EC) (DMC/EMC/EC = 5/2/3 v/v/v). The galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) and rate properties were determined by using a LAND battery test system at room temperature. After being pre-cycled at 0.2 C (20 mA h g−1) for three cycles, the battery was then tested at 1 C (100 mA h g−1) for 200 cycles. The cyclic voltammograms (CV) ranging from 0.01 V to 3 V were recorded with a CHI600E electrochemical working station with a scan rate of 0.1 mV s−1.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: a mixture of dimethyl carbonate (DMC), ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), and ethylene carbonate (EC) (DMC/EMC/EC = 5/2/3 v/v/v)
The specific capacitances of the as-prepared ASSPs at different scan rates are presented in Fig. 3(d). The maximum specific capacitance of Bi/CNTs is 68.7 F cm−3 calculated from CV curves, which is larger than the values of the ASSPs based on 2D Bi (specific capacitance of 36.8 F cm−3) and CNTs (specific capacitance of 29.4 F cm−3). More importantly, the specific capacitance of the as-assembled Bi/CNT ASSP still maintains 33.0 F cm−3 with 48% capacitance retention when the scan rate is increased 20-fold from 5 to 100 mV s−1, superior to 43% capacitance retention of 2D Bi, demonstrating its good rate capability. The high specific capacitance and good rate capability of the as-prepared Bi/CNT SCs are mainly attributed to the excellent electronic conductivity of the exfoliated Bi NSs and CNTs, which can provide an effective charge transport pathway during the charge/discharge process. Meanwhile, the buckled layer structure of the Bi NSs offers abundant active sites with the full surface exposed and enable fast access of electrolyte ions.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Electrospun nanomaterials are very promising electrode materials for SCs in terms of outstanding electronic conductivity and electrolyte accessibility, rich and uniform porosity, and excellent structural stability. In this review, we extensively discussed the recent advances in electrospun nanomaterial electrodes for SCs. Firstly, pore engineering (i.e. activation, blend polymer electrospinning, addition of metal salts, and template method) and heteroatom doping as two major approaches to improve the electrochemical performance of electrospun CNFs were reviewed. Furthermore, due to their superb mechanical strength, high electronic conductivity, good compatibility and lightweight characteristics, CNFs acting as the attractive host/substrate for diverse electroactive materials such as metal oxides, metal phosphides, and metal–organic frameworks were summarized with critical insights. Finally, electrospun carbon-free materials represented by metal oxides in different compositions (spinel-type oxides, perovskites, metal oxide–metal oxide composites, etc.) and architectures (porous, hollow, core–shell, etc.) were also discussed. Despite increasingly successful examples demonstrating the great potential of electrospun nanomaterial electrodes, there are still challenges and opportunities in this field which have not been fully explored:

Question: What's the electrolyte?
The photovoltaic performances of the crosslinked cells are higher than the non-crosslinked ones for both TiO2 and NiO based DSSCs, whatever the redox mediator used in the electrolyte. For TiO2 based DSSCs, this mostly results from a larger short circuit photocurrent density (Jsc) with the crosslinked dyes. On the other hand, the crosslinked NiO based p-DSSCs display much higher Voc with both redox mediators. However, on NiO based p-DSSCs the iodine based electrolyte gives lower Jsc after crosslinking. Jsc is controlled by the light harvesting efficiency (LHE), the charge injection quantum yield, the charge recombination reactions and by the charge collection efficiency. LHE is certainly not the cause of the lower Jsc, because the absorbance has not changed after crosslinking. Likewise, the hole injection efficiency is most certainly not affected by the crosslinking, because the current density is not diminished after crosslinking with the cobalt electrolyte. If an enhancement of the charge recombination reactions was the cause of the lower Jsc, first the Voc would be decreased as well, which is the reverse and second it would occur with the cobalt electrolyte, which is not the case either. Logically, we can therefore interpret the lower Jsc as a consequence of the lower efficiency of the dye regeneration step, which directly reduces the charge collection efficiency. It was previously reported by Xu and co-workers, that electron deficient triazoles similar to those involved in this study can make anion–π interaction with iodide. This hypothesis is supported by observing that the 1H NMR chemical shift of triazole of the reference compound benzyl-1,2,3-triazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester 15 was down-field shifted upon addition of Bu4NI in the NMR tube (Fig. S24†). As a result, after crosslinking the concentration of iodide is certainly raised in the vicinity of the DPP 2 and might therefore hinder the approach of triiodide and consequently limit the charge regeneration efficiency of the reduced DPP after hole injection. In both devices, the increase of the Voc after crosslinking is most probably due to lower interfacial charge recombination coming from lower access of the redox mediator to the surface semiconductor. Indeed, inspection of the current/voltage characteristics of the solar cell recorded in the dark demonstrate that current of the crosslinked solar cells is significantly lower than the non-crosslinked ones (Fig. S20–S23†). Interfacial charge recombination between the redox mediator and the hole in NiO is known to be a major source of energy loss in p-DSSCs, therefore it is not unexpected that the reduction of this process impacts more importantly NiO based solar cells than TiO2 DSSCs.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: iodine
The study of the voltage traces follows the methodology introduced in previous studies, to observe the characteristic peaking behaviour that originates from pitting of the stripping electrode. Previous reports have assigned the typical voltage profile to specific deposition and pitting processes: when plating Li, there is initially a large overpotential associated with the nucleation of Li deposits, which then decreases rapidly towards a local minimum due to an increased surface area for deposition. When switching polarity after the first deposition, the microstructures formed previously in the first half cycle are oxidised and removed from the stripping electrode. When all of the microstructures have been dissolved completely (or been detached from the electrode surface forming ‘dead Li’) the overpotential increases rapidly. A peak is seen as the overpotential drops again, labelled “pitting” in Fig. 4a, as this behaviour has been assigned to the onset of bulk metal dissolution or pitting of the Li metal surface and an increase in surface area. When comparing different electrolytes, a more pronounced peaking behaviour has been associated with substantial impedance differences and spatial variations in the SEI layers that lead to non-uniform stripping and the formation of dead Li.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
In addition to such capabilities, integration of CMOS fabrication with silicon micromachining allowed for the incorporation of on-chip circuitry, such as signal amplifiers, multiplexers to reduce output channel count, or application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC). Furthermore, the monolithic integration of on-chip circuitry and electrodes reduced the parasitic capacitance between the circuits. Silicon dioxide films were often used to cover electrodes to reduce artifacts induced at the electrode–electrolyte interface.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
In order to enhance the capacity and rate performance of the electrodes, Fan et al. used 2,6-AQDS 1b in combination with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and a DME-based electrolyte. Reversible Qm was up to 174 mA h g−1, higher than the theoretical value. It was partially attributed to the contribution from CNTs (23 mA h g−1). The authors assembled a full cell, which had pre-potassiated graphite as an anode. The cell had a Qm of up to 87 mA h g−1 (per mass of AQDS) with an average discharge voltage of 1.1 V. At 500 mA g−1, the capacity retention of the full cell was 33% after 2500 cycles.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: graphite
In order to enhance the capacity and rate performance of the electrodes, Fan et al. used 2,6-AQDS 1b in combination with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and a DME-based electrolyte. Reversible Qm was up to 174 mA h g−1, higher than the theoretical value. It was partially attributed to the contribution from CNTs (23 mA h g−1). The authors assembled a full cell, which had pre-potassiated graphite as an anode. The cell had a Qm of up to 87 mA h g−1 (per mass of AQDS) with an average discharge voltage of 1.1 V. At 500 mA g−1, the capacity retention of the full cell was 33% after 2500 cycles.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer:  DME-based
The preparation of N-doped carbon nanofibers decorated with Mo2C quantum dots (Mo2C@NCF) is illustrated in Scheme 1. Mo2C@NCF was first fabricated via an electrospinning technology followed by a high-temperature annealing process. Afterwards, facile glow discharge plasma (GPD) was employed on the surface of Mo2C@NCF. Fig. 1a shows the XRD patterns of as-prepared Mo2C@NCF and GDP-Mo2C@NCF. The diffraction peaks of both Mo2C@NC and GDP-Mo2C@NC are in good agreement with that of hexagonal Mo2C (JCPDS 35-0787) without any impurity peaks, suggesting the high purity of Mo2C. After high energy glow plasma treatment, all the characteristic peaks become stronger. As shown in the SEM and TEM images (Fig. 1b and c), Mo2C@NCF displays a fibrillar structure with a smooth surface and an average diameter of ∼100 nm, and the one-dimensional orientation benefits fast transport of electrons/ions. The HRTEM images show the distribution of Mo2C quantum dots with an average diameter of 3–4 nm encapsulated in the carbon fiber though there are no lattice fringes (Fig. 1d and e). Different from that of Mo2C@NCF, the surface of GDP-Mo2C@NCF is etched using the high energy particles during the plasma process, leading to a rough appearance and exposure of Mo2C quantum dots (Fig. 1f and g). This morphological change offers a large electrode–electrolyte contact area to ensure high availability of catalytically active sites. The HRTEM images clearly demonstrate the presence of Mo2C quantum dots, and an observed lattice fringe spacing of 0.24 nm corresponding to the (101) plane of Mo2C (Fig. 1h and i). The EDX mapping images confirm the uniform distribution of C, N and Mo elements on the carbon fiber (Fig. 1j).

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Herein, a Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary battery (Fig. 1a) with a long shelf life is proposed, which exhibits impressive electrochemical performances under high power densities and low-temperature conditions. It has been found that the corrosion of the Al current collector triggered by the organic radical cations generated from the electrochemical oxidation of EC at high potentials; and the detrimental reaction between LiV2(PO4)3 and electrolyte lead to the self-discharge of Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary batteries. When EC was replaced by PC, the corrosion of the Al foil was alleviated. LiBOB was found to be conducive to increase the shelf life of the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary batteries as it formed a protective film on the surface of the cathode, which effectively alleviated the side reaction between LiV2(PO4)3 and the electrolyte. Most importantly, the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary batteries exhibited excellent performances at high charge/discharge rates (up to 50C) and even at temperatures as low as −40 °C.

Question: What's the cathode?
Herein, a Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary battery (Fig. 1a) with a long shelf life is proposed, which exhibits impressive electrochemical performances under high power densities and low-temperature conditions. It has been found that the corrosion of the Al current collector triggered by the organic radical cations generated from the electrochemical oxidation of EC at high potentials; and the detrimental reaction between LiV2(PO4)3 and electrolyte lead to the self-discharge of Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary batteries. When EC was replaced by PC, the corrosion of the Al foil was alleviated. LiBOB was found to be conducive to increase the shelf life of the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary batteries as it formed a protective film on the surface of the cathode, which effectively alleviated the side reaction between LiV2(PO4)3 and the electrolyte. Most importantly, the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary batteries exhibited excellent performances at high charge/discharge rates (up to 50C) and even at temperatures as low as −40 °C.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
To compare different time scales, both relatively long and short pulse lengths were initially chosen, with TON = TOFF of either 1 s or 5 ms. The electrochemistry for pulse plating at 1 mA cm−2 and TON, TOFF = 1 s in LP30 electrolyte is shown in Fig. 5 (see Fig. S26 and S27† for additional pulse plating data for other electrolyte formulations); this corresponds to a duty cycle of θduty = TON/(TON + TOFF) = 0.5 and an average current density of 0.5 mA cm−2. Thus, the data can be readily compared to the constant current experiments at 0.5 mA cm−2.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: LP30
Fig. 2a shows the 7Li in situ NMR spectra continuously acquired during a 0.5 mA cm−2 constant current experiment. The resonance from Li metal depends on the orientation of the Li metal anode strip with respect to the static magnetic field, B0, due to Li metal's temperature independent paramagnetism (TIP). Aligning the cell perpendicular to the B0 field results in a 7Li resonance at around 245 ppm for the pristine Li metal (Fig. 2a) and all in situ cells presented in this work were aligned in this fashion. When depositing Li in both LP30 and LP30 + FEC, a new peak around 260 ppm emerges that continues to grow as a current of 0.5 mA cm−2 is passed (Fig. 2a). This new resonance is indicative of mossy structures growing near to the Li metal surface. Whisker-like morphologies are observed in the SEM micrographs as the major morphology after plating for 3.5 mA h cm−2 in LP30 electrolyte, whereas dense, thick buds (diameter of surface features ∼5–10 μm) are observed for LP30 + FEC (Fig. 2b).

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: LP30