milerssliu/battery-device-data-qa huggingface dataset:
To study the electrolyte reduction processes resulting in SEI formation, cyclic voltammetry (CV) was performed systematically as a function of added HF concentration (as-received, +10, +100, and +500 ppm) and voltage sweep rate. Fig. 5 shows a series of CV scans measured at 5 mV s−1 in electrolytes with varying concentrations of HF. The peak at ∼2 V, indicated by the dashed line, results from the electrocatalytic reduction of HF to form LiF (reaction (2)). The additional peak at higher potential in the as-received electrolyte may be attributed to either PF6− or POF3 reduction. The slight shift in peak position to higher potentials (from 1.9 to 2 V) with increasing HF concentration is consistent with the report by Strmcnik et al. Solutions with more HF exhibit higher peak currents and increased capacity going into SEI formation. If a uniform film of LiF alone were fully passivating the copper surface, this would be achieved at a specific capacity as further HF reduction would be prevented by the passivation, and increased HF in the electrolyte would not lead to increased SEI capacity. However, this data suggests that LiF alone does not passivate the copper surface at these HF concentrations and scan rates because increased HF concentration in the electrolyte results in a corresponding increase in the capacity of the HF reduction peak. Passivating LiF films can be formed under different conditions, however, namely at slower scan rates and on smoother single-crystalline substrates. We rationalize that HF reduction is limited by the availability of HF at this interface, which in turn determines the amount of LiF that is formed in the initial SEI.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
We report, for the first time, that DPPT-TT is a lower performance channel material compared to P3HT and PBTTT. For DPPT-TT, the ON current (∼−1.0 μA), VON value (∼0.63 V), and transconductance (0.012 mS), are far below the performance of P3HT and PBTTT. Still, the addition of DBSA to the electrolyte is effective in enhancing its performance and results in a significant increase in the ON current and decrease in the operation voltage. The positive effect of adding DBSA to the electrolyte extends not only to DPPT-TT but also PBTTT, where it appears to have an even stronger effect.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Inspired by the remarkably active Mn4CaO5 clusters for water oxidation, Mn3O4 with high-concentration and stable Mn3+ has, therefore, been extensively researched as an efficient electrocatalyst for OER. In the spinel structure Mn2+Mn23+O4, Mn existed as Mn2+ and Mn3+; here, Mn3+ occupied the octahedral site and Mn2+ ion occupied the tetrahedral site. The coexistence of Mn2+ and Mn3+ offers excellent OER activity. Therefore, numerous studies have focused on exploring high-quality Mn3O4 catalysts for efficient electrocatalytic OER. Further, earlier studies have also demonstrated that Mn3O4 electrocatalysts are highly active toward OER in neutral and alkaline media. For example, Nam's group reported the fabrication of 4 and 8 nm Mn3O4 nanoparticles (Fig. 13a and b). Owing to the enlarged surface area and improved electrical conductivity, the as-obtained Mn3O4 nanoparticles showed apparently higher OER activity in comparison with other Mn oxides (Fig. 13c). Remarkably, the optimized 8 nm Mn3O4 nanoparticles that were loaded on the surface of NFs exhibited outstanding OER activity with overpotential of only 395 mV at 10 mA cm−2 under neutral conditions, which was much superior to those of Fe-, Co-, and Ni-based oxides. As demonstrated by Maruthapandian et al., Mn3O4 catalysts also showed excellent electrocatalytic performance for OER in basic solutions (Fig. 13d and e). In particular, they demonstrated the synthesis of Ni-doped Mn3O4 catalysts, which showed significantly enhanced OER electrocatalytic activity in 1 M KOH solution with overpotential of 283 mV at 10 mA cm−2 (Fig. 13f). Further, a mechanistic study revealed that the largely improved OER performance could be ascribed to the enhanced adsorption/desorption of hydroxide and oxygen atoms, boosting the formation of metal oxyhydroxide/hydroperoxo. Moreover, the efficient electron charge between the electrolyte and Mn3O4 and enlarged electrochemical surface active sites facilitated the promotion of electrocatalytic OER performance.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Typically, the working electrodes were fabricated by mixing 10 wt% of the binder polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), 10 wt% conductive agent (Super-P-Li) and 80 wt% of active materials (MnO2, K0.296Mn0.926O2 and active carbon). Ethanol was used to make the above materials into a slurry and Ni foam was employed as the current collector to coat the slurry with a mass loading of around 3 mg cm−2. Each electrode was dried for 6 hours in the oven and finally subjected to a pressure of 10 MPa. Electrochemical tests were performed on a three-electrode system with 1 M potassium sulfate as the electrolyte with the HgO/Hg as the reference electrode and Pt foil as the counter electrode. The CHI 660E Electrochemical Workstation was used to test the galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) and cyclic voltammetry (CV). The Zahner IM6 Electrochemical Workstation was employed to measure the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The LAND battery system was used to test the cycling life.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: 1 M potassium sulfate
In summary, the mechanism of Li dendrite formation in LLZTO was discussed in terms of energy band structure as well as defect states, and was investigated by REELS, SPEM, and Nano Q-DLTS. The experimental results corroborate that the higher defect densities at the GBs lower the SBH by 0.5 eV and makes metallic Li atoms propagate along the GBs in LLZTO. As a way of preventing Li dendrite formation in LLZTO, bandgap engineering by the laser annealing treatment was proposed. Amorphous LLZTO and Li2O2 layers formed after laser annealing hinder the Li dendrite formation by blocking the electron injection. The hybrid electrolyte cell comprising the laser-treated LLZTO sample exhibits significant improvement in cycling performance and stability. Consequently, the laser annealing treatment on the LLZTO electrolytes can direct the development of materials engineering toward high-performance solid-state batteries. Furthermore, the analytical approach in this study highlights the importance of the electronic band structure of LLZTO for its stability and provides the direction to study various solid electrolyte materials.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: LLZTO
Anthraquinone-1,5-disulfonic acid disodium salt (1,5-AQDS, 1a) was first proposed for potassium batteries by Xu et al. In a carbonate-based electrolyte, the authors achieved the reversible capacity per material mass (Qm) of 95 mA h g−1 at 0.1C (13 mA g−1), and after a hundred cycles the capacity was 78 mA h g−1.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: carbonate-based
The high-rate performance of 3Mg/Mg2Sn was mainly attributed to a low RCT. EIS spectra revealed that the RCT in 3Mg/Mg2Sn is significantly smaller than that in Mg2Sn (Fig. S5†). While the RCT values in 3Mg/Mg2Sn varied between 77 and 140 Ω, those in Mg2Sn varied in the range of 500–2500 Ω. This was not surprising because the apparent RCT is dependent on the surface area that is accessible by electrolytes. The larger BET surface area and micro-to-macroporosity of 3Mg/Mg2Sn, therefore, resulted in a significantly low RCT, which eventually contributed to the high-rate performance.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
For electrochromic applications, the device shows rapid, self-powered color switching and multicolor display (color switching from light yellow to transparent, light red, dark green, dark blue and black, corresponding to the combination of the different states of the two films). As an energy storage device, the as-assembled device provides three different open-circuit potentials with an overall areal capacity of up to 933 mA h m−2. Meanwhile, the utilization of the mixed Al/Li-ion electrolyte and the addition of PEDOT:PSS into the inorganic materials greatly promote the cycle stability of the cathode films. Such a new design of the EES device with multicolor display, large charge capacity and high cycle stability can be promising for future color switching/energy storage applications, which may also provide new insights into the design of multifunctional devices.

Question: What's the cathode?
For electrochromic applications, the device shows rapid, self-powered color switching and multicolor display (color switching from light yellow to transparent, light red, dark green, dark blue and black, corresponding to the combination of the different states of the two films). As an energy storage device, the as-assembled device provides three different open-circuit potentials with an overall areal capacity of up to 933 mA h m−2. Meanwhile, the utilization of the mixed Al/Li-ion electrolyte and the addition of PEDOT:PSS into the inorganic materials greatly promote the cycle stability of the cathode films. Such a new design of the EES device with multicolor display, large charge capacity and high cycle stability can be promising for future color switching/energy storage applications, which may also provide new insights into the design of multifunctional devices.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: mixed Al/Li-ion
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a type of bio-based, renewable, and biodegradable material made by starch raw materials from renewable plant resources. The physical properties of small molecules of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)–PLA were analyzed with FAMD simulations with the COMPASS forcefield, and the mechanical properties of large-chain PLC were studied using CGMD with the MARTINI force field. Recent research focused on designing PLA composites through MD simulations to improve the inherently weak mechanical properties of PLA. For example, MD simulations of the microstructures of PLA–o-carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC) composites showed that introducing CMC enhanced the stiffness of PLA, and the analysis of the interfacial properties of PLA–graphene composites yielded a scheme to design nanocomposites with high strength and toughness. Other than characterizing the molecular phenomena of polymers, the swelling behavior of cross-linked hydrogels in poor solvents were also studied using a CG model, where counterions were considered explicitly. Similar swelling conformations were found for charged cross-linked hydrogels as single polyelectrolyte chains. Furthermore, the effects of various experimentally-controlled parameters were systematically investigated to provide insight into the rational design of hydrogels with desired conformations and properties.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Currently, metal or metal compounds have been widely investigated as electrode materials for SCs owing to their high theoretical specific capacity. Nevertheless, the inferior electronic conductivity, poor ion-diffusion and instability (metal) of such materials still hinder their practical applications. Massive research studies have indicated that coupling with a high electronic conductivity carbon matrix is a fascinating method to address the above problems. Electrospun 1D CNFs possess high mechanical strength, excellent electronic conductivity, and a high surface area, making them a promising substrate/host for metal or metal compounds. Furthermore, CNFs within CNF-based composites offer a number of advantages: (i) the ability to effectively inhibit the agglomeration of active materials, (ii) substantial enhancement of the electrochemically active surface area, (iii) the ability to maintain the integrity of the composite electrode, (iv) more effective electrolyte permeation and ion/electron transport and (v) an enlarged voltage window. As show in Table 2, the metal compounds showed enhanced cycling performance and rate capability when hybridized with highly compatible CNFs as electrode materials in SCs. Herein, based on diverse extensively studied active materials (i.e. metals, metal oxides, metal sulfides, metal nitrides, metal phosphides, metal carbides, other nanocarbons, metal hydroxides, MOFs, and conducting polymers), different types of CNF-based composites are divided and discussed.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
A pre-lithiated MCMB anode (Fig. S9†) is utilized to match the LLOs cathode for assembling full cells. Since the matched capacity ratio of the anode/cathode is about 1.1 in the full cells, the specific capacity is evaluated based on the weight of the LLO cathode, while the energy density is calculated based on all the components of the full cell. The electrochemical performance of MCMB|LLO full cells is shown in Fig. 5. The full cells show specific capacities of 270 and 256 mA h g−1 at the cut-offs of 4.7 V and 4.5 V with initial coulombic efficiencies of 81.2% and 84.5%, respectively. As exhibited in Fig. 5(b–f), the full cells exhibit a rapid decay of discharge capacity with a capacity retention of only 61.2% after 100 cycles at 0.5C at the cut-off of 4.7 V. By contrast, the full cells show a much enhanced cycling stability with a capacity retention of 84.5% at the cut-off of 4.4 V after the same cycling period. Also, the full cells cycled at 4.4 V show low electrochemical polarization (Fig. S10†), corresponding to the stable discharge voltage as shown in Fig. 5(f). All the components of a typical pouch full cell are shown in Fig. S11,† and the mass fraction of the cathode in a LIB full cell reaches ∼35%. High energy densities of ∼320 and 305 W h kg−1 are achieved for the MCMB|LLO full cells at the cut-offs of 4.7 and 4.4 V, respectively. If a high-capacity Si/C anode is utilized, the energy density of the full cells can be further enhanced. Improved cycling stability of energy density is also confirmed for the full cells cycled at the cut-off of 4.4 V (Fig. 5(f)). The rate capabilities of the MCMB|LLO full cells at the cut-offs of 4.7 V and 4.4 V are illustrated in Fig. 5(d and e) and S12.† The full cells cycled at the cut-off of 4.4 V deliver reversible capacities of 204.6, 186.1, 152.0, and 125.2 mA h g−1 at the high rates of 1C, 2C, 5C and 10C, respectively, which are much higher than those of cells cycled at the cut-off of 4.7 V. Similar to half cells, the full cells exhibit improved electrochemical performance at the low cut-off of 4.4 V. The performance of MCMB|LLO full cells can be further improved by optimizing the electrolyte, capacity ratio of the anode/cathode, prelithiation and full cell design in future studies.

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: LLOs
A pre-lithiated MCMB anode (Fig. S9†) is utilized to match the LLOs cathode for assembling full cells. Since the matched capacity ratio of the anode/cathode is about 1.1 in the full cells, the specific capacity is evaluated based on the weight of the LLO cathode, while the energy density is calculated based on all the components of the full cell. The electrochemical performance of MCMB|LLO full cells is shown in Fig. 5. The full cells show specific capacities of 270 and 256 mA h g−1 at the cut-offs of 4.7 V and 4.5 V with initial coulombic efficiencies of 81.2% and 84.5%, respectively. As exhibited in Fig. 5(b–f), the full cells exhibit a rapid decay of discharge capacity with a capacity retention of only 61.2% after 100 cycles at 0.5C at the cut-off of 4.7 V. By contrast, the full cells show a much enhanced cycling stability with a capacity retention of 84.5% at the cut-off of 4.4 V after the same cycling period. Also, the full cells cycled at 4.4 V show low electrochemical polarization (Fig. S10†), corresponding to the stable discharge voltage as shown in Fig. 5(f). All the components of a typical pouch full cell are shown in Fig. S11,† and the mass fraction of the cathode in a LIB full cell reaches ∼35%. High energy densities of ∼320 and 305 W h kg−1 are achieved for the MCMB|LLO full cells at the cut-offs of 4.7 and 4.4 V, respectively. If a high-capacity Si/C anode is utilized, the energy density of the full cells can be further enhanced. Improved cycling stability of energy density is also confirmed for the full cells cycled at the cut-off of 4.4 V (Fig. 5(f)). The rate capabilities of the MCMB|LLO full cells at the cut-offs of 4.7 V and 4.4 V are illustrated in Fig. 5(d and e) and S12.† The full cells cycled at the cut-off of 4.4 V deliver reversible capacities of 204.6, 186.1, 152.0, and 125.2 mA h g−1 at the high rates of 1C, 2C, 5C and 10C, respectively, which are much higher than those of cells cycled at the cut-off of 4.7 V. Similar to half cells, the full cells exhibit improved electrochemical performance at the low cut-off of 4.4 V. The performance of MCMB|LLO full cells can be further improved by optimizing the electrolyte, capacity ratio of the anode/cathode, prelithiation and full cell design in future studies.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: MCMB
A pre-lithiated MCMB anode (Fig. S9†) is utilized to match the LLOs cathode for assembling full cells. Since the matched capacity ratio of the anode/cathode is about 1.1 in the full cells, the specific capacity is evaluated based on the weight of the LLO cathode, while the energy density is calculated based on all the components of the full cell. The electrochemical performance of MCMB|LLO full cells is shown in Fig. 5. The full cells show specific capacities of 270 and 256 mA h g−1 at the cut-offs of 4.7 V and 4.5 V with initial coulombic efficiencies of 81.2% and 84.5%, respectively. As exhibited in Fig. 5(b–f), the full cells exhibit a rapid decay of discharge capacity with a capacity retention of only 61.2% after 100 cycles at 0.5C at the cut-off of 4.7 V. By contrast, the full cells show a much enhanced cycling stability with a capacity retention of 84.5% at the cut-off of 4.4 V after the same cycling period. Also, the full cells cycled at 4.4 V show low electrochemical polarization (Fig. S10†), corresponding to the stable discharge voltage as shown in Fig. 5(f). All the components of a typical pouch full cell are shown in Fig. S11,† and the mass fraction of the cathode in a LIB full cell reaches ∼35%. High energy densities of ∼320 and 305 W h kg−1 are achieved for the MCMB|LLO full cells at the cut-offs of 4.7 and 4.4 V, respectively. If a high-capacity Si/C anode is utilized, the energy density of the full cells can be further enhanced. Improved cycling stability of energy density is also confirmed for the full cells cycled at the cut-off of 4.4 V (Fig. 5(f)). The rate capabilities of the MCMB|LLO full cells at the cut-offs of 4.7 V and 4.4 V are illustrated in Fig. 5(d and e) and S12.† The full cells cycled at the cut-off of 4.4 V deliver reversible capacities of 204.6, 186.1, 152.0, and 125.2 mA h g−1 at the high rates of 1C, 2C, 5C and 10C, respectively, which are much higher than those of cells cycled at the cut-off of 4.7 V. Similar to half cells, the full cells exhibit improved electrochemical performance at the low cut-off of 4.4 V. The performance of MCMB|LLO full cells can be further improved by optimizing the electrolyte, capacity ratio of the anode/cathode, prelithiation and full cell design in future studies.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Si/C
The anchoring and catalytic effect of the MoS2 NDs could be more clearly evaluated by cycling batteries at high current densities, which requires a stronger regulation of LPS diffusion and higher redox reaction kinetics at the electrode/electrolyte interfaces. Here, the MoS2 ND/porous carbon/Li2S6 electrodes exhibited discharge capacities of 1156, 1071, 993, 955, 919, and 883 mA h g−1 at 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, and 4C, respectively (Fig. 6c). Accordingly, the capacity retention from 0.1 to 2C was determined to be 79.5% for MoS2 ND/porous carbon/Li2S6. Under the same measurement conditions, the capacity retentions for porous carbon/Li2S6 and MoS2 sheet/porous carbon/Li2S6 were only 1.2% and 22.7%, respectively (Fig. S12, ESI†). Statistical analyses of the discharge/charge voltage profiles (Fig. S12, ESI†) revealed that MoS2 ND/porous carbon/Li2S6 retained the largest amount of polysulfides and the highest conversion efficiency with increasing current densities among the three electrodes. It is worth noting that the highly conductive porous carbon film also contributed to the excellent performance of MoS2 ND/porous carbon/Li2S6 by offering a physical barrier and electron conductive pathway to the polysulfides.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
As illustrated in Fig. 2a, the TDAC possesses a 2π electron aromatic system that can readily undergo a single electron redox reaction to generate the corresponding TDAC radical dication. Fig. 2b presents the redox potential and solubility of TDAC salt in comparison with those of the state-of-the-art high-potential shuttle molecules. Ideally, the redox potential (protection potential) should be ∼0.2–0.3 V above the upper cut-off voltage of LIBs (normally at 4.3 V). A lower or higher potential outside the range would have the risk of escalated self-discharge during normal operation or an irreversible decomposition of battery components during overcharging. Additionally, a high solubility is desirable since it determines the maximum shuttling current. In these regards, TDAC outperforms all other shuttle candidates with the adequate redox potential of 4.55 V (vs. Li+/Li) and the highest solubility of 0.5 M (Fig. S2†). The electrolyte viscosity before and after the TDAC addition was also investigated. The concentration of 0.2 M was found to be the optimal amount. The viscosity of 0.2 M TDAC electrolyte is 2.72 mPa compared with 2.43 mPa of baseline electrolyte. The electro-kinetics of the TDAC was next investigated by cyclic voltammetry (CV) analysis as shown in Fig. 2c. Even with a high scan rate of 200 mV s−1, TDAC still exhibited a pair of well-defined redox peaks, implying a fast mass transport process within the bulk electrolyte. As shown in Fig. 2d, the diffusion coefficient of TDAC is determined to be 6 × 10−6 cm−2 s−1, which is very comparable with that of other reported shuttles. As displayed in Fig. 2e, after 1000 CV scans, the potential gap between the anodic and cathodic peaks becomes only 60 mV wider, and there is no obvious deterioration of the peak current intensity. Such excellent electrochemical stability has rarely been reported among other 4V-class shuttles. The inset photograph in Fig. 2e presents a shiny Li surface with no bubble generation after storing in TDAC-containing electrolyte solution for six months, indicating a high chemical inertness of the TDAC toward Li metal.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: 0.2 M TDAC