milerssliu/battery-device-data-qa huggingface dataset:
qas: question: What's the cathode?
answers: answer_id: 78623
question_id: 66158
text: NV NSs@ACC
question: What's the anode?
answers: answer_id: 78624
question_id: 66159
text: Zn NSs@CC
context: In order to demonstrate their remarkable performance for electrochemical energy storage in portable and wearable electronics, we assembled the flexible quasi-solid-state ARZIBs using the NV NSs@ACC as the cathode together with the Zn NSs@CC anode (deposited Zn nanosheets on CC). Fig. S7a† depicts the crystal structure of Zn NSs@CC, in which all the peaks were in good accordance with those of hexagonal Zn (JCPDS no. 87-0713). Furthermore, the SEM images of Zn NSs@CC are illustrated in Fig. S7b.† It is clearly observed that the Zn nanosheets are uniformly grown on CC. The cycling performance of the as-assembled flexible ZIB at 0.2 A g−1 is depicted in Fig. 6a. The device achieves an initial discharge capacity of 121 mA h g−1 and a reversible capacity of 91 mA h g−1 can be maintained after 50 cycles. Furthermore, it can deliver a specific capacity of 60 mA h g−1 and maintain a stable capacity of 52 mA h g−1 after 1000 cycles with excellent coulombic efficiency (∼100%) at a high current density of 1.0 A g−1 (Fig. 6b), which can be ascribed to the stable 2D ultrathin nanosheets structure and the free-standing feature. The flexible quasi-solid-state ARZIB device was bent into three mechanical states to further evaluate its flexibility (Fig. 6c). As presented in Fig. 6d and e, there are no evident changes in the EIS spectra and capacity decline (>92% retention) under different bending states, demonstrating the extraordinary structural durability of our flexible quasi-solid-state ARZIB devices. As a demonstration of the practical application, two series-connected devices were shown to successfully illuminate a red light-emitting diode (LED, 1.8 V) (inset of Fig. 6e). These significant results indicate that this flexible quasi-solid-state ARZIB device holds potential promise for powering future portable and wearable electronics.
qas: question: What's the cathode?
answers: answer_id: 78635
question_id: 66158
text: MoS2 NDs
context: In this contribution, we propose the use of a small amount of metallic 1T MoS2 nanodots (NDs, 3 wt% of the electrode) as a robust catalyst for advanced LSBs. Electrochemical tests and synchrotron in situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) characterizations demonstrated the strong anchoring and catalytic capability of MoS2 NDs. When MoS2 NDs were integrated with a porous carbon/catholyte, the new cathodes exhibited remarkable battery performance, including a high rate capacity of 8.5 mA h cm−2 at 1C and an impressive capacity retention of 9.3 mA h cm−2 after 300 cycles under a high sulfur loading of 12.9 mg cm−2, an extremely low E/S ratio of 4.6 μL mg−1, and a remarkable sulfur content of 81 wt%. Such high-energy densities delivered under high sulfur loading and lean electrolyte conditions are among the best reported so far for LSBs. Based on DFT calculations, we found that the phase and edge sites were the key to governing the catalytic capability for MoS2. Li2S anchored preferentially at Mo-terminated edges of MoS2 and the electrochemical dissociation occurred toward the surface of the monolayer where Li ions could diffuse faster. Indeed, the metallic 1T MoS2 showed a stronger affinity to polysulfides and a lower activation energy for Li2S than 2H MoS2 at most of the adsorption sites. These findings suggest that the catalytic activity in MoS2 can be maximized by downsizing 2H MoS2 flakes to 1T MoS2 NDs.
qas: question: What's the cathode?
question: What's the anode?
answers: answer_id: 78649
question_id: 66159
text: photocatalysts
context: (4) Photoelectrocatalysis (PEC): PEC is a special electricity-driven photocatalytic process which could be regarded as a combination of electrocatalysis and photocatalysis. In a typical PEC cell, the photocatalysts are usually immobilized on a conductive substrate as the anode and a bias potential as well as continuous illumination are then applied to the prepared anode to generate functional radicals to remove the contaminants. In particular, it should be mentioned that the separation of photo-induced charge carriers could be significantly enhanced by the utilized bias potential since the electrons generated by photocatalysis follow the electric field to the cathode, which contributes to the reduction of the recombination rate. As a result, the photoelectrocatalytic method would significantly promote the degradation efficiency of the titanate materials. For example, Chang et al. synthesized a Cu2O/titanate composite for photocatalytic and photoelectrocatalytic degradation of ibuprofen. The results indicated that the pseudo-first rate constant could be increased from 0.804 h−1 for photocatalysis to 2.28 h−1 for PEC. Finally, the morphology modulation, trap doping and compositing strategies were also extensively applied in PEC to further enhance the separation of charge carriers, for example, layer stacking (morphology modulation), Fe-modification (trap doping) and ZnO compositing (compositing) could significantly improve the PEC performance compared to that of pristine titanate characterized by the increased photocurrent under illumination.
qas: question: What's the cathode?
context: Here, RGO serves as a 2D template and the carbon source to form the SiC/RGO nanocomposite by an in situ gas–solid reaction. The introduction of RGO not only reduces the recombination of photogenerated electron–hole pairs, but also promotes the transfer of photoexcited electrons between SiC and Li anode taking advantage of the high conductivity of RGO, which plays a crucial role in improving the performance of Li–CO2 batteries. The synthesis strategy of the SiC/RGO nanocomposite is displayed in Fig. 2a. By the sublimation of the solid Si at a high temperature, a new nucleus is generated on the surface of RGO by a gas–solid reaction (C(s) + Si(g) → SiC(s)), and then spreads around RGO to form a tightly connected SiC nanosheet on RGO. The morphology and the structure of RGO and SiC/RGO nanocomposite were studied by SEM and TEM. As shown in Fig. S1 (ESI†), the bare RGO exhibits a 2D nanosheet morphology. After the carbothermal process, SiC is uniformly distributed on the RGO substrate, presenting a distinct island-in-sea-like morphology (Fig. 2b and c). Furthermore, the elemental distribution of the material was studied by EDS. As shown in Fig. S2,† Si is present only in the island-like region and C exists throughout the test area, which directly proves that the island-like nanosheets observed in SEM and TEM images are SiC. The partial conversion of 2D RGO to the SiC/RGO nanocomposite facilitates the transfer of high energy electrons. The high resolution TEM (HRTEM) images (Fig. 2d) also demonstrate the tight junction between SiC and RGO. Clear lattice fringes with a d-spacing of 0.25 nm on the overlay correspond well to the (111) plane of SiC. It is also possible to distinguish between carbon layers due to the pleated RGO layer in the substrate with an interplanar distance of 0.34 nm. Apart from the enhanced electronic conductivity for the SiC/RGO composites, RGO also plays an important role in enhancing the CO2 adsorption capacity (Fig. S3†), which is beneficial for a higher actual discharge capacity of the cathode.
qas: question: What's the cathode?
context: In an another set of experiments, the DPP dyes 1 and 2 were cross-linked with 3 with the classical copper-catalyzed protocol by heating the photoelectrode for 10 minutes at 30 °C in a DMF solution with Cu(SO4)·5H2O, sodium ascorbate in presence of the tris(benzyltriazolylmethyl)amine (TBTA) ligand. The completion of the reaction was confirmed by the ATR-IR spectroscopy (Fig. S25 and S26†). The results of the photovoltaic performances of the solar cells made with the I3−/I− redox couple are gathered in Table S3.† Clearly, the conditions of copper catalyzed Huisgen cycloaddition, although conducted in mild conditions, negatively impact the performances of the solar cells since the PCEs are notably lower than those measured with the thermal crosslinking activation. For TiO2 based solar cells, both Jsc and Voc were diminished upon cross-linking. Interestingly, the performances of photocathodes with NiO are less degraded than those with the photoanodes based on TiO2, because only the Jsc was decreased after copper-catalyzed cross-linking. This result is consistent with the upward shift of the valence band of NiO upon insertion of copper cation into the lattice as it was previously reported. Another possibility, is the presence of remaining Cu(II) salt, which is a paramagnetic metal that could quench the excited state of the dye and consequently diminishes the charge injection quantum yield as shown by Hanson and co-workers.
qas: question: What's the cathode?
answers: answer_id: 78668
question_id: 66158
text: S
question: What's the anode?
answers: answer_id: 78670
question_id: 66159
text: Li 
question: What's the cathode?
answers: answer_id: 78669
question_id: 66161
text: S 
context: Utilization of ceramic SE based separators is also an interesting strategy that can potentially solve problems associated with the S cathode and Li anode. Thanks to their high shear modulus, both the polysulfide shuttle and the Li dendrite growth can be mechanically suppressed. Among various inorganic ceramic SEs, Li–garnet (LLZO) is of particular interest since it offers a relatively high (electro)-chemical stability with Li metal, a much wider potential window compared to other SEs, and a high shear modulus (61 GPa for LLZO; 4.2 GPa for Li). However, the surface impurities/roughness and brittle nature of LLZO SE restrict its intimate contact with Li and other solid-state cathode materials. With S as the cathode material, the electrode/electrolyte integration will be even more challenging considering the enormous volumetric expansion during the conversion reaction with Li. In this regard, surface modification strategies including the use of thin nanometric layer coatings, and 3D interfacial architectures, or the implementation of polymer, gel and liquid interlayers have been used to keep the electrode|SE contacts intact and stabilize the interfacial ionic transport. Using Li ion conducting gel/liquid interlayers instead of using solid interlayers may prove to be an even better strategy due to their inherent tendency to penetrate through the porous structures and hence to access a greater surface area of the composite cathode.
qas: question: What's the cathode?
answers: answer_id: 78680
question_id: 66158
text: carbon
question: What's the anode?
answers: answer_id: 78681
question_id: 66159
text: TiO2/C@NPSC
context: For the emerging potassium-ion energy storage technology, the major challenge is seeking suitable electrode materials with a robust structure and fast kinetics for the reversible insertion/desertion of potassium ions. Here, a pseudocapacitive core–shell heterostructure of titanium oxide/carbon confined into N, P, and S co-doped carbon (TiO2/C@NPSC) is obtained by pyrolyzing a metal–organic framework (MOF) precursor of MIL-125 (Ti) modified by poly(cyclotriphosphazene-co-4,4′-sulfonyldiphenol) polymer. The distinctive structure of TiO2/C@NPSC can effectively buffer the volume variation of TiO2 nano-grains during the charge/discharge process, increase the electron/charge transfer, provide abundant active sites, and boost the pseudocapacitive-dominated K+-storage. Consequently, the TiO2/C@NPSC anode displays superior cyclability and fast kinetics behavior. Upon integrating it with a high capacitance activated carbon cathode derived from another MOF precursor, the as-built potassium-ion hybrid capacitor achieves a high-energy density of 114 W h kg−1 and a power output of 21 kW kg−1. Moreover, in a wide working potential window of 0–4.2 V, the device also maintains over 91.6% of its initial capacity after 10000 cycles, showing a superior cycle stability. Our results are conducive to understanding the importance of anode-engineering for designing advanced PIHCs.
qas: question: What's the cathode?
answers: answer_id: 81097
question_id: 66158
text: NiO 
context: The ATR-IR spectra (Fig. 2 for TiO2 based photoanode and Fig. S3† for NiO based photocathode) show that the intensity of the azido stretching bands has completely disappeared after heating, while that of the alkyne is visible meaning that there are some unreacted alkyne groups in the film. On the other hand, the stretching bands of the ester groups of the crosslinking agent 3 and that of the lactam of the DPP 1 or 2 (both around 1700 cm−1) are still clearly visible, proving that these moieties are present on the surface of the film. This result is consistent with the presence of four alkyne groups in 3 relative to only two azides on the dyes 1 or 2. The ATR-IR spectrum of the DPP 2 grafted on the electrode was not modified after heating in the crosslinking conditions (15 min at 140 °C in orthodichlorobenzene) in absence of the cross-linker 3 (Fig. S4†). This indicates that the azido groups are stable in these conditions and do not degrade upon heating at 140 °C for 15 min.
qas: question: What's the cathode?
answers: answer_id: 81095
question_id: 66158
text: CNT/graphene–S–Al3Ni2
question: What's the cathode?
answers: answer_id: 81096
question_id: 66161
text: sulfur
context: For the former, metal Ni and Cu are the common conductivity improvers and can be introduced into the sulfur cathode through a straightforward addition and/or interfusion. For example, Manthiram's group presented a pie-like electrode that consists of nickel foam as a “filling” and an outer carbon shell as a “crust” for facilitating the utilization of sulfur cathodes. Copper powder was introduced into the sulfur cathode by Jia et al. through partially replacing the sulfur contained active material with Cu during the manufacture procedure of the working electrode. Very similarly, Guo and coworkers recently reported the preparation of a CNT/graphene–S–Al3Ni2 cathode with a 3D network structure using 10 wt% Al3Ni2 powder to displace the CNT/graphene–S active material, where the Al in the Al3Ni2 provides an efficient channel for fast electron and ion transfer in the three dimensions, especially along the vertical direction of the cathode. Furthermore, Zheng et al. demonstrated a copper-stabilized sulfur–microporous carbon composite synthesized by uniformly dispersing 10% highly electronically conductive Cu nanoparticles into microporous carbon (MC), followed by wet-impregnation of S. To obtain highly dispersed Cu, commercial MC with a high surface area is first selected as the matrix and carrier. An ultrasonic-assisted multiple wetness impregnation and synchro-dry method is then applied to load 50% Cu(NO3)2 ethanol alcohol solution in MC and evaporate the solvent. This process is repeated until a certain amount of Cu(NO3)2 is added to MC. Finally, Cu nanoparticles anchored in the MC are gained by the reduction of the dry precursor at 200 °C for 1 h under an argon mixed with 5% hydrogen environment. Interestingly, the Cu content in MC can be easily adjusted by controlling the amount of Cu(NO3)2 addition via impregnation times.
qas: question: What's the cathode?
answers: answer_id: 81125
question_id: 66158
text: LixMnO2/nanomesh
context: At a volumetric current density of 268 mA cm−3, the volumetric capacity of ∼215 mA h cm−3 of LixMnO2/nanomesh is much larger than the capacity of many 3D core–shell cathodes at similar vol. current densities, such as MnO2-coated carbon nanotubes (∼53 mA h cm−3), LiCoO2-coated carbon fiber mats (∼70 mA h cm−3), LiCoO2-coated aluminium nanowires (∼140 mA h cm−3) or V2O5-coated CNT/PAN sheets (∼155 mA h cm−3). At a vol. current density of ∼270 mA cm−3, the volumetric capacity of the nanomesh cathodes is only significantly inferior to that of LiCoO2-coated carbon foam (∼370 mA h cm−3) and Li2MnSiO4 doubly-loaded on graphene inverse opals (∼520 mA h cm−3) – both electrodes having a very high volume fraction of the active materials of 57% and 90%, respectively. Furthermore, also at high current densities above 1000 mA cm−3, the nanomesh cathode retains superior volumetric capacity to most of the electrodes, being only inferior to the two aforementioned electrodes and the V2O5-coated graphene inverse opals with a highly regular structure and larger pores. At high currents densities, however, the comparison may be additionally affected by the varying thicknesses of the electrodes (Table S3†), since thinner electrodes (such as ours) typically show better high-rate performance.
qas: question: What's the cathode?
question: What's the anode?
context: Up to now, owing to the tremendous work done by different research groups, there have been several new types of electrolysers proposed for decoupled H2/O2 generation through the utilization of redox mediators, and a list of these new electrolysers has been provided in Table S1 in the ESI.† For example, a new PEM electrolyser is proposed with polyoxometalates (POMs) used as the redox relay, and the H2/O2 generation can be decoupled both in time and in space (Scheme 1b). Such a design requires three electrodes (OER electrode, carbon electrode for reduction of the soluble POM redox mediator, and Pt catalyst for spontaneous hydrogen evolution), one soluble redox mediator (POMs), one membrane (Nafion membrane) and two cells, which potentially increases the cost for the electrolysers. A solid redox mediator, such as Ni(OH)2, has also been successfully used as the relay for decoupled water splitting (Scheme 1c). This kind of design needs no separator between the cathode and the anode; however, an auxiliary relay electrode has been used and the whole cell is still a three-component system, and the overall cost for the electrolyser may not be effectively reduced. Also, among all these designs, since the HER and OER are decoupled in time, there is always an electrode (either the HER or the OER electrode) in an idle state when the cell is in operation. For decoupled water splitting in time, the integration of the HER and OER in one electrode can effectively reduce the cost and space for the electrolyser, which is more practical for scale-up applications; however, a rational design toward this direction has not been proposed.
qas: question: What's the cathode?
answers: answer_id: 81140
question_id: 66158
text: sulfur
context: Commercial sublimated sulfur (S) was mixed with AB (C) in a mass ratio of 8:2, and the mixture (C/S) was fully ground and heat-treated at 155 °C for 6 h in an argon atmosphere. Then, the as-obtained composite was mixed with AB and PVDF (8:1:1 by weight), followed by dispersing in NMP solvent and stirred for 12 h. Next, the slurry was uniformly cast onto an Al foil substrate and dried in a vacuum for 12 h at 60 °C. Afterwards, the coated-Al foil was cut into 12 mm wafers with a sulfur loading of ∼2.0 mg cm−2. Moreover, a cathode wafer with a high sulfur loading of ∼5.6 mg cm−2 was also prepared in the same procedure by controlling the thickness of the coating. The as-prepared C/S disc, above separators (BFO/GO/AB@PP, GO/AB@PP, and PP) and lithium plate (diameter of 15.6 mm, thickness of 250 µm) were applied to assemble a 2025-type button battery, in which the electrolyte was 1 M LiTFSI in DOL/DME (v/v = 1:1) with 1 wt% LiNO3. The electrolyte/sulfur (E/S) ratio was fixed as 12:1 (µL mg−1). The battery was charged and discharged on a Neware battery test station (5V20 mA). The cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves were operated in a voltage window between 1.7 and 2.8 V with a scanning rate of 0.1 mV s−1. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) plots were obtained in the frequency range from 0.1 to 100 kHz with an amplitude of 5 mV. Both CV and EIS were carried out on an electrochemical workstation (Shanghai, Chenhua, CHI660D).
qas: question: What's the cathode?
answers: answer_id: 81141
question_id: 66158
text: a carbon foam coated with dense LiCoO2
question: What's the cathode?
answers: answer_id: 81142
question_id: 66161
text: inverted opals doubly-filled with V2O5 and Li2MnSiO4
context: Numerous studies reported core–shell 3D-nanostructured Li-ion electrodes with active components such as Si, Sn, TiO2, Nb2O5, Co3O4 or iron oxides, mostly applicable as negative electrodes (anodes). On the other hand, nanostructured 3D positive electrodes (cathodes) based on active materials with a desirable high redox potential vs. Li+/Li (e.g. lithiated manganese oxides, V2O5 or LiCoO2 have been reported in comparatively fewer publications. For such cathodes, a big difficulty lies in inherent oxidation of the 3D current collector during the synthesis of high voltage cathode materials – the latter typically requiring temperatures above 700 °C. By lowering the synthesis temperature to 300 °C, Zhang et al. and Pikul et al. successfully demonstrated both core–shell cathodes and full 3D Li-ion microbatteries which employed lithiated manganese oxides coated on inverse nickel opal current collectors. Impressively, the devices were operational at C-rates above 1000 (where the rate of 1C corresponds to the current required for 1 hour of a complete charge or discharge). The same group also demonstrated other high-performance 3D cathodes, such as a carbon foam coated with dense LiCoO2 or inverted opals doubly-filled with V2O5 and Li2MnSiO4. Currently, however, the electrode design based on regular inverse opal current collectors is difficult to envision for large scale battery manufacturing, as the fabrication of these current collectors is time consuming (e.g. >24 h for a 20 μm-thick structure), involves difficult to handle colloidal templates and is limited to small surfaces (∼1 cm2). Importantly, the application of a current collector with yet a higher volumetric surface area may allow further reducing the thickness of the active material and gaining access to its full theoretical capacity.
qas: question: What's the cathode?
answers: answer_id: 81167
question_id: 66158
text: LiFePO4 
context: In summary, we report a highly effective approach to prevent Li dendrite formation by an in situ formed self-repairing alloy layer (LixGa). During lithiation, evenly distributed Ga nanoparticles serve as lithiophilic sites to induce a homogeneous Li nucleation. Stress generated during Li plating can also be eliminated by the soft Ga nanoparticles. During the delithiation, metallic liquid Ga partially recovered from the dealloying process by timely filling the small gaps, which effectively avoided the generation of microcracks. A long-term cycling life of over 1800 h and 1400 h was obtained for the alloy-protected Li anodes at the high current densities of 2 mA cm−2 and 5 mA cm−2, respectively. Even increasing the current density and deposition capacity to 15 mA cm−2 and 15 mA h cm−2, respectively, the alloy-protected Li anodes still showed a stable cycling performance. Functionalized full cells coupled with LiFePO4 cathodes are finally cycled up to 600 cycles at 3C rate with the discharge capacity maintained at 128 mA h g−1. This simple and facile modification method is expected to realize the high-rate and long-life cycling of the Li metal anode and paves the way for the industrialization of Li metal batteries.