Newsgroup: it.fan.startrek
Titolo: Welsh Culture & Traditions

Welsh Culture & Traditions
There are many great traditions of Wales, but three stand out that 
make it culturally distinct from its neighbors: the Eisteddfod, the 
Noson Lawen and the Cymanfa Ganu. Of these, the Eisteddfod is 
probably the most ancient and certainly the most popular. Most towns 
and villages conduct an annual Eisteddfod in one way or another. It 
is simply a competition, but the word translates as a "Chairing," 
with the winner being awarded a chair upon which he is ceremoniously 
crowned to great acclaim. Winners of local eisteddfodau (pl) go on to 
compete on a county or regional level, eventually reaching the Royal 
National Eisteddfod of Wales (Eisteddfod Genedlaethol Cymru ) in 
which they compete with others from all parts of the country. The 
"National" is the largest folk festival in Europe: held in a 
different town the first week in August each year. Alternating 
between a venue in South Wales one year and North Wales the next, it 
draws vast crowds to enjoy its week-long activities.
Eisteddfod: A Cultural Competition
The idea of the Eisteddfod is very ancient. It began, as did many 
Welsh institutions, as a challenge from outside. This was the Norman 
invasion of Britain and the consequent subjugation of much of the 
population of Wales to Norman rule. In Wales proper, the coming of 
the Normans had the paradoxical effect of bringing about a brilliant 
new literary culture that was both Welsh and European in its outlook. 
There was an explosion of literary activity mainly made possible 
through the proliferation, throughout Wales, of monasteries and 
friaries, with their reverence for historical and literary traditions 
and their expertise in strengthening and preserving those traditions. 
Of great significance for Welsh culture was the revival of the bardic 
orders, indeed, the expansion of those orders led to the first 
eisteddfod, for the bards were anxious to come together in the spirit 
of competition. It is this era, too, that saw the blossoming of the 
Arthurian tradition, in which the Welsh people thought of themselves 
as the true British people, the heirs to Arthur and the glorious 
heroic age attributed to his time. 
A "sitting" of bards, or poets, took place as early as 1176, when the 
Lord Rhys convened the people of Wales to Cardigan (Aberteifi). Rhys 
(Rhys ap Grufffudd) had been appointed justice of South Wales by 
Henry II, and his rights to the territories he controlled were 
recognized by the king. The purpose of this meeting, apart from 
demonstrating the position of preeminence held by Lord Rhys among the 
Welsh princes, was to regulate the business of the bardic orders. 
Metrical rules were set up, and licenses were given to those who had 
completed their apprenticeship. The event is described by an 
anonymous writer in the historical document, "Brut y Tywysogion": 
At Christmas in that year the Lord Rhys ap Gruffudd 
held court in splendour at Cardigan, in the castle.
And he set two kinds of contests there; one between 
bards and poets, another between harpists and crowders 
and pipers and various classes of music-craft. 
And he had two chairs set for the victors.
Other noteworthy eisteddfodau were held at Carmarthen in 1451, and at 
Caerwys in 1523 and 1567, when further rules were drawn up and 
licenses granted. After Caerwys, with the gradual break-up or 
anglicization of some of the great families of Wales and the loss of 
their patronage, the tradition of the early Eisteddfod, for all 
practical purposes, became extinct, and it was only thanks to the 
vivid imagination of an 18th century London Welshman that it survived 
and flourished anew. 
There is a Welsh expression that translates as "The best Welshmen 
live outside of Wales," and it is noticeable that most advocates of 
Welsh nationhood in the late 18th century lived in London. It was 
there that the visionary Edward Williams, better known to posterity 
by his bardic title Iolo Morganwg, in a stirring speech to the London 
Welsh Society, gave his spellbound listeners a sense of what it meant 
to belong to the ancient Celtic race and what they could do to ensure 
that the ancient Welsh traditions became better known and handed down 
to posterity. In 1792, a dramatic address by another London Welshman, 
Sir William Jones had announced the discovery of North America three 
hundred years before Columbus by Prince Madoc. Jones spoke of the so-
called Welsh Indians, descendants of Madoc's explorers, whom he 
praised as "a free and distinct people, who have preserved their 
liberty, language, and some trace of their religion to this very 
day." Though Jones' discoveries were later discounted, the myth of 
the founding of America by Madoc and a group of fellow Welsh 
explorers has persisted; it plays a great part in much Welsh 
literature written subsequent to the late 18th century. It was Jones, 
too, working in India, who discovered the link between the Celtic 
languages and Sanskrit, in which the sacred writings of India were 
written, and this connection gave to the Welsh language a long and 
proud ancestry of which the nation could be rightly proud.
In the winning of their independence by the Americans, the writings 
of Welshman Richard Price had been most influential. When the French 
Revolution helped spread ideas of liberty throughout Europe, the 
London Welsh, in a state we can only now describe as euphoria, saw 
hopes of a revival of Welsh nationhood, if not that of independence 
from the British Crown. Their first gesture was reestablish the 
moribund Eisteddfod. The centuries old festival of poetry was to be 
given a national affirmation, but first it needed a sense of dignity 
and a clothing of pageantry. Both were provided by the vivid 
imagination of Iolo Morgannwg. As there was a sad lack of a coherent 
body of Welsh cultural traditions, Iolo invented them, along with an 
elaborate and fancy ceremony. Most of these were entirely unknown to 
the Welsh people, but have since been expanded and elaborated to 
become a much-loved part of the Eisteddfod ever since. It was Iolo, a 
stonemason from the Vale of Glamorgan, who invented the Gorsedd 
(circle), the guild of bards that today plays such a prominent role 
in Welsh cultural affairs today and which, in their colorful "druids" 
robes, provides much of the pageantry and excitement attending the 
events of the Eisteddfod once a year. 
In the 1860's the National Eisteddfod Society was founded, and the 
modern era of the competitions began. The chief contest is still that 
of poetry, being separated into two categories: for the Chair, and 
for the Crown. It is still a marvel that thousands of people gather 
together to hear the adjudications of the entries in the poetry 
competition and give their applause and admiration to the winning 
bard. The Eisteddfod, with its modern competitions expanded to 
include the arts and crafts, country dancing, folk singing, choral 
competitions of all kinds and drama and prose contests has, over the 
years, provided a tremendous impetus to the fostering of Welsh as a 
living, breathing language. No English is allowed on the stage of the 
huge pavilion. The Eisteddfod even caters to the younger crowd with 
concerts by modern Welsh Rock groups, and on the Eisteddfod 
grounds,the Maes (meadow) one can meet old friends, listen to music, 
browse through hundreds of pavilions that sell Welsh books and 
records, arts and crafts, goods made of Welsh coal or slate or wool, 
music and musical instruments, food and drink of all kinds (though 
alcohol is still forbidden); or catch up with the latest happenings 
at the various society tents. We must not forget, too, the yearly 
gathering of the Welsh Youth League (Urdd Gobaith Cymru), second in 
importance only to the National Eisteddfod of Wales, which also helps 
keeps the language and cultural traditions of the Welsh people alive 
by fostering competitions in singing, dancing, poetry, prose and 
drama, all conducted through the medium of the Welsh language among 
the nation's youth.
In addition to the National, there is another important Eisteddfod in 
Wales with, for many, a much broader appeal. After World War II, with 
its shocking waste of life and disruption of much that had been held 
dear for so long, a brilliant idea came to the mind of an official of 
the British Council, Welshman Harold Tudor of Coedpoeth, a little 
town near Wrexham, Clwyd. Harold conceived the idea of an 
international folk festival, conducted very much along the lines of 
the Welsh National Eisteddfod, but open to competitors from all parts 
of the world. The music organizer of the National, W.S. Gwynn 
Williams, was very receptive to the idea, especially as it entailed 
the desire of the Welsh people to contribute in their own unique 
manner to the healing of the terrible scars left by the War. The site 
chosen for the new festival was along the banks of the River Dee, in 
a meadow under the ancient castle of Dinas Bran, and the first 
Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod duly took place in the 
summer of 1947, with fourteen different nationalities represented. It 
has been held each year since, attracting many thousands of 
spectators and hundreds of competitors, whose colorful native 
costumes and delightful singing and dancing fill the streets of 
Llangollen for one whole week every July. (One of the early 
competitors was the great tenor Luciano Pavarotti, who came with his 
father to sing in a choir from Italy in the early years of the 
festival and who returned to give a goodwill concert in 1995).
Cymanfa Ganu: Hymn Singing
The next Welsh cultural tradition of importance is that of the 
Cymanfa Ganu. We would expect this to be an ancient custom for a 
writer as early as Geraldus Cambrensis (Gerald of Wales) noted in 
1193 that the Welsh people:
". . .in their musical concerts do not sing in
unison like the inhabitants of other 
countries, but in many different parts... 
You will hear as many different parts as 
there are performers who all at length 
unite with organic melody." 
Yet the Cymanfa Ganu with its emphasis on hymn singing in parts is 
not an ancient event at all, for it grew out of the Temperance 
Movement in the mid-nineteenth century. In South Wales, Choral 
societies were founded as one solution to the grave problem of drink. 
Because of the unsanitary conditions in the rapidly-growing and 
hurriedly-thrown together housing developments, water was unsafe to 
drink and beer was drunk in prodigious quantities. This was one of 
the worst consequences of the industrialization that was rapidly 
changing the face of the valleys. To help the workers occupy their 
time and keep them away from the taverns, the choral movement 
reflected the social aspirations of the proponents of temperance. On 
Christmas Day, 1837, a temperance procession marched through the 
streets of Dowlais, joined by choirs from neighboring towns. Inspired 
by the success of the day's events, the Gwent and Glamorgan 
Temperance Movement decided to hold an annual festival of choirs and 
at the Eisteddfod at Aberdare of 1846, choral competition was added 
to the list of events. It has remained ever since as one of the most 
popular and best attended events. Many hymns have been written 
expressly for the Cymanfa. In the chapels of Wales, choral singing of 
the beautiful, stirring hymns went hand-in-hand with the temperance 
movement. In areas of increasing anglicization, the chapels offered a 
refuge for the besieged language, and in the great religious revivals 
of the late 19th century, it was inevitable that certain days a year 
be set aside purely for the singing of hymns. These occasions became 
the Cymanfaoedd Ganu,(pl) or Hymn Meetings. Conducted entirely in 
Welsh, they were led by conductors specially trained in bringing 
forth from their congregations the Welsh hwyl or emotion. Following 
months of rehearsals in four-part singing, the meetings often lasted 
all day long. With the decline of attendance in chapel going, 
especially over the last quarter of a century, many towns in Wales no 
longer hold the annual Cymanfa, but the tradition has experienced a 
great revival in North America, where, in a different city each year, 
thousands of Welsh Americans and Canadians get together to sing their 
beloved hymns in what has now become a four-day festival.
Noson Lawen (Merry Night) 
Of unknown age is the third great Welsh tradition, the Noson Lawen. 
In Jack Jones's book "Off to Philadelphia in the Morning," a 
biography of the great Welsh composer Joseph Parry there is a 
description of a Noson Lawen held on the estate of Lord Crawshay the 
ironmaster at Cyfartha Castle, Merthyr Tydfil. The event was held to 
celebrate the successful bringing in of the hay harvest, always a big 
event because of the uncertainty of the Welsh weather. Because corn 
does not grow in Wales, a good hay crop is essential for winter feed 
for the cattle and horses. The festivities included penillion (the 
reciting of verses) to the sound of the harp, dancing, and 
recitation. No doubt prodigious quantities of ale and cider were also 
consumed, but these are not necessary ingredients for a Noson Lawen. 
The tradition is similar and often formed part of, the Pilnos, when 
neighbors gathered to peel rushes around the fire for candle making. 
During the long, dark winter nights, it was inevitable that music 
would play a large part in the proceedings, and it seems that the 
playing of the harp and reciting impromptu verses were key elements 
in the activities. The Noson Lawen gave everyone a chance to show his 
or her talents; in modern days, an MC takes charge of the evening and 
introduces the performers, sometimes professional entertainers. 
However, in village halls throughout Wales, the old-fashioned Noson 
Lawen keeps pace with the local Eisteddfod as a living reminder of an 
old and much-valued cultural tradition.
Nos Galan Gaeaf (All Hallow's Eve) 
In addition to preserving the Eisteddfod, the Noson Lawen and the 
Cymanfa Ganu, Wales has also managed to keep alive other old 
traditions, though some of these are now confined to particular 
areas. Many are connected with the old New Year's Eve of Celtic 
tradition, transformed into the rites connected with the Christian 
celebration of All Hallow's Eve, or Halloween. In Wales, this night 
is called Nos Galan Gaeaf (the beginning of the new year), the night 
when spirits walk abroad. On stiles, or entrances to footpaths, 
ghosts of dead persons are said to appear at midnight. In some parts 
of Wales, the ghost was often the Ladi wen (white lady), but in the 
north, it was usually the more frightening Hwch ddu gwta (tail-less 
black sow) that appeared. Before dawn, huge bonfires were lit on the 
hillsides, often two or three within sight of each other. It was a 
great honor to have your bonfire burn longest and great pains were 
taken to keep them alight. While apples and potatoes were thrown into 
the fires for roasting, the watchers would dance around or leap 
through the flames for good luck. Stones were thrown into the fire; 
then, when the flames died down, everyone would run for home to 
escape the clutches of the Hwch ddu gwta. The next morning, at 
daybreak, searchers would try to find their stones. Those who 
succeeded would be guaranteed good luck for the coming year. If you 
could not find your stone, then bad luck or even death would follow. 
On Nos Galan Gaeaf in Montgomeryshire, in many farmhouses, a mash was 
made of nine ingredients: potatoes, carrots, turnips, peas, parsnips, 
leeks, pepper, salt and new milk. In the mash was hidden a wedding 
ring. The young maidens of the local village would dig into the mash 
with their wooden spoons, anxious to learn their fate, for the one 
who found the ring would be first married. In Carmarthenshire, the 
mash of nine ingredients, stwmp naw rhyw, was not used to foretell 
the future, but nine girls used to meet to make a pancake containing 
nine ingredients. This was then divided among the girls and eaten. 
Before morning, each girl would have a vision of her future husband. 
In many parts of North Wales, where the custom of bundling was a very 
common practice (much frowned upon by the English judiciary) the 
young dreamers would often find their future husband in bed with 
them!! Along with the mash, or the pancakes, came the wassail bowl. 
The wassail was often put inside a puzzle jug, with many spouts, and 
the unsuspecting drinker would find himself doused with beer, wine, 
or cider by drinking from the wrong spout. Some of these puzzle jugs 
can now be seen at the National Folk Museum of Wales at St. Ffagan, 
near Cardiff. The custom is very similar to one observed by the 
author in southwest Germany, where participants in a contest drank 
out of a large glass boot that had to be handled a certain way to 
prevent spillage.
Apples always played a large part in Halloween festivities (they are 
the one fruit that grows prolifically in the temperamental Welsh 
climate and can be preserved throughout much of the early winter). 
The most popular game was apple bobbing, with six or eight perfectly 
round fruit placed in a large bowl of water set on the floor. Then, 
with both hands tied behind their backs, the young lads and lasses 
would try to pick up an apple with only their teeth. Usually they 
received a nose and mouth full of water for their pains, but no 
apple!! In some houses, the apples were tied on one end of a stick 
suspended from the ceiling with a candle tied to the other end. The 
stick was then rotated and the participants, again with their hands 
tied behind them, tried to catch the apple with their teeth as it 
spun around. They usually ended up with a mouth full of candle! 
Apples played a large part in many other customs, too. If you peeled 
an apple in one single piece and then threw the peel over your 
shoulder, the letter of the alphabet it most closely resembled when 
it hit the ground would be the initial letter of your future partner 
in marriage. 
Other Halloween customs did not involve apples, but the unseen. In 
the Vale of Glamorgan, at night, when the spirits were roaming the 
churchyards, one of the braver villagers would put on his coat and 
vest inside out and recite the Lord's Prayer backwards as he walked 
around the church a number of times. Then the courageous lad would 
enter the porch and put his finger through the keyhole of the church 
door to prevent any spirits from escaping. It was believed that the 
apparitions of those who would soon die could be spied through the 
keyhole. In other areas of Wales, groups of youths would dress up in 
women's clothes with the girls in men's clothing. They would wander 
from house to house after dark, chanting verses and soliciting gifts 
of fruit or nuts, used to divine one's future. In other, more rural 
areas, young men used to dress up in sheepskins and old ragged 
clothes and disguise or blacken their faces. After chanting their 
weird rhymes, they would then be given gifts of apples or nuts, and 
sometimes beer. The groups would be known as the gwrachod (hags or 
witches). The visiting of these groups were always in fun, but were 
taken seriously as harbingers of good tidings for the forthcoming 
year and the expulsion of the bad spirits from the household.

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