Newsgroup: it.politica.internazionale
Titolo: Scontro di civiltà?

Con riferimento all'attuale situazione Irakena ben nota, taluni media 
nazionali ci stanno propinando con forza  il concetto di eventuale
"scontro di civiltà" in atto.
Mi domando se questa definizione sia veramente appropriata per definire
quanto accade, o magari sia solo una trovata giornalistica per spiegare,
in modo comprensibile anche alle "lavascale" (con rispetto parlando) il
perchè si possa arrivare a produrre orrori come quelli che sappiamo,
evidenti manifestazioni di odio generalizzato verso l'occidente e gli
occidentali per ciò che sono.
Se le cose stanno in questi termini mi piacerebbe che qualche ben
informato mi spieghi allora il concetto di civiltà, che sia
possibilmente  valido sia per quella Occidentale che per quella, (come
la vogliamo chiamare?) Araba.
Quello che so, però, è che, qualsiasi cosa possa pensare, sono
Occidentale, e di conseguenza, la mia eventuale analisi  è palesemente
di parte. 
Della civiltà Occidentale, mi hanno parlato di Leonardo Da Vinci,
Michelangelo, Ludwig van Beethoven, Pablo Picasso. (ne cito solo alcuni,
ma ce ne sono altri).
Gli ebrei, possono vantare nientemeno che Albert Einstein.
Gli indiani hanno avuto il Mahatma Gandhi, ed i Tibetani hanno il Dalai Lama.
Persino i negri ci hanno dato Martin Luther King, oltre a Miles Davis,
Bob Marley era solo mezzo sangue.
Questi Arabi che contributo hannno dato per lo sviluppo della loro
cosiddetta Civiltà (e possibilmente anche di quelle degli altri?)
Sarò grato a chi mi potrà dare una risposta.

 cosiddetta Civiltà (e possibilmente anche di quelle degli altri?)
"persino i negri"
"questi arabi"
"cosiddetta civiltà"
espressioni nemmeno tanto mascherate di razzismo
-- 
Luca Logi - Firenze - Italy        e-mail: 
ll...@dada.it

 Persino i negri
Questa non e' alt.kkk o alt.white.power.
Prego, in fondo a destra c'e' posto.
-- 
Per non dimenticare:
http://snipurl.com/SdC_ed_il_vino

Questa non e' alt.kkk o alt.white.power.
Sicuro : questo e' un piccolo paradiso di " POLITICAL CARRECTNESS"
( ma almeno lo sai chi lěha inventata la " correttezza politica " ?)
CS

 ( ma almeno lo sai chi lěha inventata la " correttezza politica " ?)
I maledetti yankees?
Palmiro Pangloss
-- 
Happy ever after in the marketplace...
(Lennon & McCartney)

I maledetti yankees?
Esatto : per quello mi diverte tanto notare che i piu' furibondi
nemici dell'america sono poi anche i piu' ligi cultori di questa
nefastissima invenzione....
Cesare Simonetti

 nefastissima invenzione....
Whip un "furibondo nemico dell'america"?? A menon pare, non pare proprio.


 Sicu
Rosica in silenzio e fallo altrove, ominicchio.


 nefastissima invenzione....
Lo vedi che sei un cretino integrale, oltre ad essere uno scarafaggio?
Il politically correct te lo puoi ingoiare, per quanto mi riguarda.
E' solo una questione di libero arbitrio, nel caso in cui ti fosse
sfuggito: avevi il dovere morale di avvertire che i contenuti erano 
forti, sadico dei miei stivali.


 Whip un "furibondo nemico dell'america"?? A menon pare, non pare proprio.
Ma lascialo perdere: il vecchio bavoso e' completamente obnubilato.


 Ma lascialo perdere: il vecchio bavoso e' completamente obnubilato.
forse non legge i tuoi post e ti confonde con qualcun altro.
a una certa età capita.
si fa confusione.
e più si fa confusione più si strepita.
si chiama demenza senile.
A.

 Ma lascialo perdere: il vecchio bavoso e' completamente obnubilato.
Allora e' vero che sei "fuoribondo"! :-DDDD



Ammesso anche che sia razzista, chi mi risponde di grazia a questa
domanda: "dove sono gli Umanisti, i Filosofi, gli Scienziati, gli
Artisti,  gli Atleti, i Grandi Pensatori della cosiddetta civiltà
Araba."? Mi dite dovo sono, chi sono, se ce ne sono? Cos'hnno fatto
cos'hanno detto quale contributo hanno dato ?
Dovrò pensare allora che Muhammad Alì,malgrado l'essere musulmano e
negro, sia stato uno sportivo ed un uomo di enorme grandezza, esempio
per per tutta l'unmanità, negra e non, musulmana e non.
Ripeto, per chi non avesse ancora capito neppure una domanda così banale
ed ovvia: " Dove sono gli Illuministi Arabi? Esistono? C'è qualcuno?"
O c'è soltanto gente che manda i loro figli a saltare in aria, perchè i
"Figli di Allah" non hanno nemmeno il coraggio di andarci in prima persona?
Prima rispondete, poi ne parliamo.

 cos'hanno detto quale contributo hanno dato ?
gli assegni li compili in numeri romani? o in cifre arabe?


 Prima rispondete, poi ne parliamo.
Potremmo partire da Avicenna (che in realta' era persiano) ed
Averroe', ma poi mi chiedo: capiresti?


Prima rispondete, poi ne parliamo.
Come provocatore non vali un cazzo, fattelo dire da peppiniello tuo.
Peppi Niello ALIAS Giuseppe Calvo.

Cosa vuoi che capisca da una risposta come questa, spiegami invece
perchè non ci sono quarantenni tra i kamikaze.


E nei successivi duemila anni, si è visto qualcos'altro?


 E nei successivi duemila anni, si è visto qualcos'altro?
studia


 ha scritto nel messaggio
news:41577A4E...@libero.it...

Science & Muslim Scientists - 
http://www.afi.org.uk/miscon/s14.html
The Arabs who had wielded the arms with such remarkable success, that they
had become the masters of a third of the knows world in a short span of
thirty years, met with even greater success in the realm of knowledge. But
the west has persistently endeavored to under-rate the achievements of
Islam. Writing in his outspoken book The intellectual Development of Europe,
John William Draper says, "I have to deplore the systematic manner in which
the literature of Europe has contrived to put out of sight our scientific
obligations to the Mohammadans. Surely they can not be much longer hidden.
Injustice founded on religious rancour and national conceit cannot be
perpetuated for ever. What should the modern astronomer say, when,
remembering the contemporary barbarism of Europe, he finds the Arab Abul
Hassan speaking of turbes, to the extremities of which ocular and object
diopters, perhaps sights, were attached, as used at Meragha? What when he
reads of the attempts of Abdur Rahman Sufi at improving the photometry of
stars? Are the astronomical tables of Ibn Junis (A.D. 1008) called the
Hakemite tables, or the Ilkanic tables of Nasir-ud-din Toosi, constructed at
the great observatory just mentioned, Meragha near Tauris (1259 A.D.), or
the measurement of time by pendulum oscillations, and the method of
correcting astronomical tables by systematic observations are such things
worthless indications of the mental State? The Arab has left his
intellectual impress on Europe, as, before long, Christendom will have to
confess; he has indelibly Written it on the heavens, as any one may see who
reads the names of the stars on a common celestial globe."
What is Science?
Science, has been defined as, "the ordered knowledge of natural phenomena
and the relations between them. Its end is the rational interpretation of
the facts of existence as disclosed to us by our faculties and senses." The
celebrated scientist Sir J. Arthur Thomson considers science to be "the well
criticized body of empirical knowledge declaring in the simplest and tersest
terms available at the time what can be observed and experimented with, and
summing up uniformities of change in formulae which are called laws
verifiable by all who can use the methods." According to another well known
scientist Karl Pearson the hypotheses of science are based on "observed
facts, which, when confirmed by criticism and experiment, are turned into
laws of Nature."
Experimental Method
Observation and experiment are the two sources of scientific knowledge.
Aristotle was the father of the Greek sciences, and has made a lasting
contribution to physics, astronomy, biology, meteorology and other sciences.
The Greek method of acquiring scientific knowledge was mainly speculative,
hence science as such could make little headway during the time of the
Greeks.
The Arabs who were more realistic and practical in their approach adopted
the experimental method to harness scientific knowledge. Observation and
experiment formed the vehicle of their scientific pursuits, hence they gave
a new outlook to science of which the world had been totally unaware. Their
achievements in the field of experimental science added a golden chapter to
the annals of scientific knowledge and opened a new vista for the growth of
modern sciences. Al-Ghazali was the follower of Aristotle in logic, but
among Muslims, Ishraqi and Ibn-iTaimiyya were first to undertake the
systematic refutation of Greek logic. Abu Bakr Razi criticised Aristotle's
first figure and followed the inductive spirit which was reformulated by
John Stuart Mill. Ibn-i-Hazm in his well known work Scope of Logic lays
stress on sense perception as a source of knowledge and Ibn-i-Taimiyya in
his Refutation of Logic proves beyond doubt that induction is the only sure
form of argument, which ultimately gave birth to the method of observation
and experiment. It is absolutely wrong to assume that experimental method
was formulated in Europe. Roger Bacon, who, in the west is known as the
originator of experimental method in Europe, had himself received his
training from the pupils of Spanish Moors, and had learnt everything from
Muslim sources. The influence of Ibn Haitham on Roger Bacon is clearly
visible in his works. Europe was very slow to recognize the Islamic origin
of her much advertised scientific (experimental) method. Writing in the
Making of Humanity Briffault admits, "It was under their successors at the
Oxford School that Roger Bacon learned Arabic and Arabic science. Neither
Roger Bacon nor his later namesake has any title to be credited with having
introduced the experimental method. Roger Bacon was no more than one of the
apostles of Muslim science and method to Christian Europe; and he never
wearied of declaring that the knowledge of Arabic and Arabic science was for
his contemporaries the only way to true knowledge. Discussions as to who was
the originator of the experimental method......are part of the colossal
misrepresentation of the origins of European civilization. The experimental
method of Arabs was by Bacon's time widespread and eagerly cultivated
throughout Europe....Science is the most momentous contribution of Arab
civilization to the modern world, but its fruits were slow in ripening. Not
until long after Moorish culture had sunk back into darkness did the giant
to which it had given birth, rise in his might. It was not science only
which brought Europe back to life. Other and manifold influences from the
civilization of Islam communicated its first glow to European life. For
although there is not a single aspect of European growth in which the
decisive influence of Islamic culture is not traceable, nowhere is it so
clear and momentous as in the genesis of that power which constitutes the
permanent distinctive force of the modern world, and the supreme source of
its victory-natural science and the scientific spirit.., The debt of our
science to that of the Arabs does not consist in startling discoveries or
revolutionary theories; science owes a great deal more to Arab culture, it
owes its existence....The ancient world was, as we saw, pre-scientific. The
astronomy and mathematics of Greeks were a foreign importation never
thoroughly acclimatized in Greek culture. The Greeks systematized,
generalized and theorized, but the patient ways of investigations, the
accumulation of positive knowledge, the minute methods of science, detailed
and prolonged observation and experimental inquiry were altogether alien to
the Greek temperament. Only in Hellenistic Alexandria was any approach to
scientific work conducted in the ancient classical world. That spirit and
those methods were introduced into the European world by the Arabs."' In his
outstanding work The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, Dr. M.
Iqbal, the poet of Islam writes, "The first important point to note about
the spirit of Muslim culture then is that for purposes of knowledge, it
fixes its gaze on the concrete, the finite. It is further clear that the
birth of the method of observation and experiment in Islam was due not to a
compromise with Greek thought but to prolonged intellectual warfare with it.
In fact the influence of Greeks who, as Briffault says, were interested
chiefly in theory, not in fact, tended rather to obscure the Muslim's vision
of the Qur'an, and for at least two centuries kept the practical Arab
temperament from asserting itself and coming to its own." Thus the
experimental method introduced by the Arabs was responsible for the rapid
advancement of science during the mediaeval times.
Chemistry
Chemistry as a science is unquestionably the invention of the Muslims. It is
one of the sciences in which Muslims have made the greatest contribution and
developed it to such a high degree of perfection that they were considered
authorities in this science until the end of the 17th century A. D. Jabir
and Zakariya Razi have the distinction of being the greatest chemists the
mediaeval times produced. Writing in his illuminating History of the -Arabs,
Philip K. Hitti acknowledges the greatness of Arabs in this branch of
science when he says, "After materia medica, astronomy and mathematics, the
Arabs made their greatest scientific contribution in chemistry. In the study
of chemistry and other physical sciences, the Arabs introduced the objective
experiment, a decided improvement over the hazy speculation of Greeks.
Accurate in the observation of phenomena and diligent in the accumulation of
facts, the Arabs nevertheless found it difficult to project proper
hypotheses."
Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geber) who flourished in Kufa about 776 A.D. is known as
the father of modern chemistry and along with Zakariya Razi, stands as the
greatest name in the annals of chemical science during mediaeval times. He
got his education from Omayyad Prince Khalid Ibn Yazid Ibn Muawiyah and the
celebrated Imam Jafar al-Sadiq. He worked on the assumption that metals like
lead, tin and iron could be transformed into gold by mixing certain chemical
substances. It is said that he manufactured a large quantity of gold with
the help of that mysterious substance and two centuries later, when a street
was rebuilt in Kufa a large piece of gold was unearthed from his laboratory.
He laid great emphasis on the importance of experimentation in his research
and hence he made great headway in chemical science, Western writers credit
him with the discovery of several chemical compounds, which are not
mentioned in his twenty-two extant Arabic works. According to Max Meyerhof
"His influence may be traced throughout the whole historic course of
European alchemy and chemistry." He is credited, with the writing of 100
chemical works. "Nevertheless, the works to which his name was attached"
says Hitti, "were after the 14th century, the most influential chemical
treatises in both Europe and Asia."" He explained scientifically the two
principal operations of chemistry, calcination and reduction, and registered
a marked improvement in the methods of evaporation, sublimation filtration,
distillation and crystallization. Jabir modified and corrected the
Aristotelian theory of the constituents of metal, which remained unchanged
until the beginning of modern chemistry in the 18th century. He has
explained in his works the preparation of many chemical substances including
"Cinnabar" (sulfide of mercury) and arsenic oxide. It has been established
through historical research that he knew how to obtain nearly pure vitrilos,
alums, alkalis and how to produce 'the so-called liver' and milk of sulfur
by heating sulfur with alkali. He prepared mercury oxide and was fully
conversant with the preparation of crude sulfuric and nitric acids. He knew
the method of the solution of gold and silver with this acid. His chemical
treatises on such subjects have been translated into several European
languages including Latin and several technical scientific terms invented by
Jabir have been adopted in modern chemistry. A real estimate of his
achievements is only possible when his enormous chemical work including the
Book of Seventy are published. Richard Russell (1678, A.D.) an English
translator ascribes a book entitled Sun of Perfection to Jabir. A number of
his chemical works have been published by Berthelot. His books translated
into English are the Book of Kingdom, Book of Balances and Book of Eastern
mercury. Jabir also advanced a theory on the geologic formation of metals
and dealt with many useful practical applications of chemistry such as
refinement of metals, preparation of steel and dyeing of cloth and leather,
varnishing of waterproof cloth and use of manganese dioxide to color glass.
Jabir was recognized as the master by the later chemists including
al-Tughrai and Abu al-Qasim al-Iraqi who flourished in the 12th and 13th
centuries respectively. These Muslim chemists made little improvement on the
methods of Jabir. They confined themselves to the quest of the legendary
elixir which they could never find.
Zakariya Razi known as Rhazas in Latin is the second great name in mediaeval
chemical science. Born in 850 A.D. at Rayy, he is known as one of the
greatest physicians of all times. He wrote Kitab al Asrar in chemistry
dealing with the preparation of chemical substances and their application.
His great work of the art of alchemy was recently found in the library of an
Indian prince. Razi has proved himself to be a greater expert than all his
predecessors, including Jabir, in the exact classification of substances.
His description of chemical experiments as well as their apparatus are
distinguished for their clarity which were not visible in the writings of
his predecessors. Jabir and other Arabian chemists divided mineral
substances into bodies (gold, silver etc.), souls (sulfur, arsenic, etc.)
and spirits (mercury and sal-ammoniac) while Razi classified his mineral
substances as vegetable, animal and mineral.
The mineral substances were also classified by Al-Jabiz. Abu Mansur Muwaffaq
has contributed to the method of the preparation and properties of mineral
substances. Abul Qasim who was a renowned chemist prepared drugs by
sublimation and distillation. High class sugar and glass were manufactured
in Islamic countries. The Arabs were also expert in the manufacture of ink,
lacquers, solders, cements and imitation pearls.
Physics
The Holy Qur'an had awakened a spirit of inquiry among the Arabs which was
instrumental in their splendid achievements in the field of science, and
according to a western critic led them to realize that "science could not be
advanced by mere speculation; its only sure progress lay in the practical
interrogation of nature. The essential characteristics of their method are
experiment and observation. In their writings on Mechanics, hydrostatics,
optics, etc., the solution of the problem is always obtained by performing
an experiment, or by an instrumental observation. It was this that made them
the originator of chemistry, that led them to the invention of all kinds of
apparatus for distillation, sublimation, fusion and filtration; that in
astronomy caused them to appeal to divided instrument, as quadrant and
astrolabe; in chemistry to employ the balance the theory of which they were
perfectly familiar with; to construct tables of specific gravities and
astronomical tables, that produced their great improvements in geometry and
trigonometry."
The Muslims developed physics to a high degree and produced such eminent
physicist as Kindi, Jahiz, Banu Musa, Beruni, Razi and Abdur Rahman Ibn
Nasr.
Abu Yusuf Ibn Ishaq, known as al-Kindi was born at Kufa in the middle of the
9th century and flourished in Baghdad. He is the most dominating and one of
the greatest Muslim scholars of physics. Over and above this, he was an
astrologer, philosopher, alchemist, optician and musical theorist. He wrote
more than 265 books, the majority of which have been lost. Most of his works
which survived are in Latin having been translated by Gerard of Cremona. Of
these fifteen are on meteorology, several on specific weight, on tides, on
optics and on reflection of light, and eight are on music. His optics
influenced Roger Bacon. He wrote several books on iron and steel to be used
for weapons. He applied mathematics not only to physics, but also to
medicine. He was therefore regarded by Cardon, a philosopher of the
Renaissance, "as one of the 12 subtlest minds." ·He thought that gold and
silver could only be obtained from mines and not through any other process.
He endeavored to ascertain the laws that govern the fall of bodies. Razi
investigated on the determination of specific gravity of means of
hydrostatic balance, called by him Mizan-al-Tabii. Most of his works on
physics, mathematics, astronomy and optics have perished. In physics his
writings deal with matter, space, time and motion. In his opinion matter in
the primitive state before the creation of the world was composed of
scattered atoms, which possessed extent. Mixed in various proportions with
the articles of void, these atoms produced these elements which are five ih
number namely earth, air, water, fire and celestial element. Fire is created
by striking iron on the stone.
Abu Rehan Beruni, was a versatile genius, who adorned the durbar of Mahmud
of Ghazni. His outstanding achievement in the realm of physics was the
accurate determination of the weight of 18 stones. He also discovered that
light travels faster than sound. He has also contributed immensely to
geological knowledge by providing the correct explanation of the formation
of natural spring and artesian wells, He suggested that the Indus valley was
formerly an ancient basin filled with alluvial soil. His Kitab al Jawahir
deals with different types of gems and their specific gravity. A voluminous
unedited lapidary by Betuni is kept in manuscript form in the Escorial
Library. It deals with a large number of stones and metals from the natural,
commercial and medical point of view. Barlu Musa has left behind him a work
on balance, while Al-Jahiz used hydrostatic balance to determine specific
gravity. An excellent treatise had been written by Al-Naziri regarding
atmosphere.
Khazini, was a well known scientist of Islam, who explained the greater
density of water when nearer to the center of the earth. Roger Bacon, who
proved the same hypotheses afterwards based his proof on the theories
advanced by Khazini. His brilliant work Mizanul Hikma deals with gravity and
contains tables of densities of many solids and liquids. It also contains
"observation on capillarity, uses of aerometer to measure densities and
appreciate the temperature of liquids, theory of the lever and the
application of balance to building." Chapters on weights and measures' were
written by Ibn Jami and Al-Attar. Abdur Rahman Ibn Nasr wrote an excellent
treatise on weights and measures for the use of Egyptian markets.
Biology
The Muslim scientists made considerable progress in biology especially in
botany, and developed horticulture to a high degree of perfection. They paid
greater attention to botany in comparison to zoology. Botany reached its
zenith in Spain. In zoology the study of the horse was developed almost to
the tank of a science. Abu Ubaidah (728--825 A. D.) who wrote more than 100
books, devoted more than fifty books to the study of the horse.
Al-Jahiz, who flourished in Basra is reputed to be one of the greatest
zoologists the Muslim world has produced. His influence in the subject may
be traced to 'the Persian'Al-Qazwini' and the Egyptian 'Al-Damiri'. His book
'Ritab al Haywan' (book ori animals) contains germs of later theories of
evolution, adaptation and animal psychology. He was the first to note
changes in bird life through migrations, Re described the method of
obtaining 'ammonia from animal offal by dry distilling.'
Al-Damiri, who died in 1405 in Cairo and who was influenced by Al-Jahiz is
the greatest Arab zoologist. His book Hayat Haywarz (Life of animal) is the
most important Muslim work in zoology. It is an encyclopaedia on animal life
containing a mine of information on the subject. It contains the history of
animals and preceded Buffon by 700 years.
Al-Masudi, has given the rudiments of the theory of evolution in his well
known work Meadows of gold. Another of his works Kitab al-Tanbih wal Ishraq
advances his views on evolution namely from mineral to plant, from plant to
animal and from animal to man.
In botany Spanish Muslims made the greatest contribution, and some of them
are known as the greatest botanists of mediaeval times. They were keen
observers and discovered sexual difference between such plants as palms and
hemps. They roamed about on sea shores, on mountains and in distant lands in
quest of rare botanical herbs. They classified plants into those that grow
from seeds, those that grow from cuttings and those that grow of their own
accord, i.e., wild growth. The Spanish Muslims advanced in botany far beyond
the state in which "it had been left by Dioscorides and augmented the
herbology of the Greeks by the addition of 2,000 plants" Regular botanical
gardens existed in Cordova, Baghdad, Cairo and Fez for teaching and
experimental purposes. Some of these were the finest in the world.
The Cordovan physician, Al-Ghafiqi (D. 1165) was a renowned botanist, who
collected plants in Spain and Africa, and described them most accurately.
According to G. Sarton he was "the greatest expert of his time on simples.
His description of plants was the most precise ever made in Islam; he gave
the names of each in Arabic, Latin and Berber".l His outstanding work Al
Adwiyah al Mufradah dealing with simples was later appropriated by Ibn
Baytar."
Abu Zakariya Yahya Ibn Muhammad Ibn Al-Awwan, who flourished at the end of
12 century in Seville (Spain) was the author of the most important Islamic
treatise on agriculture during the mediaeval times entitled Kitab al
Filahah. The book treats more than 585 plants and deals with the cultivation
of more than 50 fruit trees. It also discusses numerous diseases of plants
and suggests their remedies. The book presents new observations on
properties of soil and different types of manures.
Abdullah Ibn Ahmad Ibn al-Baytar, was the greatest botanist and pharmacist
of Spain--in fact the greatest of mediaeval times. He roamed about in search
of plants and collected herbs on the Mediterranean littoral, from Spain to
Syria, described more than 1,400 medical drugs and compared them with the
records of more than 150 ancient and Arabian authors. The collection of
simple drugs composed by him is the most outstanding botanical work in
Arabic. "This book, in fact is the most important for the whole period
extending from Dioscorides down to the 16th century." It is an encyclopedic
work on the subject. He later entered into the service of the Ayyubid king,
al-Malik al-l(amil, as his chief herbalist in Cairo. From there he traveled
through Syria and Asia Minor, and died in Damascus. One of his works
AI-Mughani-fi al Adwiyah al Mufradah deals with medicine. The other Al Jami
Ji al Adwiyah al Mufradah is a very valuable book containing simple remedies
regarding animal, vegetable and mineral matters which has been described
above. It deals also with 200 novel plants which were not known up to that
time. Abdul Abbas Al-Nabati also wandered along the African Coast from Spain
to Arabia in search of herbs and plants. He discovered some rare plants on
the shore of Red Sea.
Another botanist Ibn Sauri, was accompanied by an artist during his travels
in Syria, who made sketches of the plants which they found.
Ibn Wahshiya, wrote his celebrated work al-Filahah al-Nabatiyah containing
valuable information about :animals and plants.
Many Cosmographical encyclopedias have been written by Arabs and Persians,
which contain sections on animals, plants and stones, of which the best
known is that of Zakariya al-Kaiwini, who died in 1283 A. D. Al-Dinawari
wrote an excellent 'book of plants' and al-Bakri has written a book
describing in detail the 'Plants of Andalusia'
Ibn Maskwaih, a contemporary of Al-Beruni, advanced a definite theory about
evolution. According to him plant life at its lowest stage of evolution does
not need any seed for its birth and growth. Nor does it perpetuate its
species by means of the seed.
The great advancement of botanical science in Spain led to the development
of agriculture and horticulture on a grand scale. "Horticulture
improvements" says G. Sarton, "constituted the finest legacies of Islam, and
the gardens of Spain proclaim to this clay one of the noblest virtues of her
Muslim conquerors- The development of agriculture was one of the glories of
Muslim Spain."
Transmission to the West
The Muslims were the pioneers of sciences and arts during mediaeval times
and formed the necessary link between the ancients and the moderns. Their
light of learning dispelled the gloom that had enveloped Europe. Moorish
Spain was the main source from which the scientific knowledge of the Muslims
and their great achievements were transmitted to France, Germany and
England. The Spanish universities of Cordoba, Seville and Granada were
thronged with Christian and Jewish students who learnt science from the
Muslim scientists and who then popularized them in their native lands.
Another source for the transmission of Muslim scientific knowledge was
Sicily, where during the reign of Muslim kings and even afterwards a large
number of scientific works were translated from Arabic into Latin. The most
prominent translators who translated Muslims works from Arabic into European
languages were Gerard of Cremona, Adelard of Bath, Roger Bacon and Robert
Chester. Writing in his celebrated work Moors in Spain Stanley Lane Poole
says, "For nearly eight centuries under the Mohammadan rulers, Spain set out
to all Europe a shining example of a civilized and enlightened State--Arts,
literature and science prospered as they prospered nowhere in Europe.
Students flocked from France, Germany and England to drink from the fountain
of learning which flowed down in the cities of Moors. The surgeons and
doctors of Andalusia were in the van of science; women were encouraged to
serious study and the lady doctor was not always unknown among the people of
Cordova. Mathematics, astronomy and botany, history, philosophy and
jurisprudence, were to be mastered in Spain, and Spain alone. The practical
work of the field, the scientific methods of irrigation, the arts of
fortification and shipbuilding, of the highest and most elaborate products
of the loom, the gravel and the hammer, the potter's wheel and mason's
trowel, were brought to perfection by the Spanish Moors. Whatever makes a
kingdom great and prosperous, whatever tends to refinement and civilization
was found in Muslim Spain."
The students flocked to Spanish cities from all parts of Europe to be
infused with the light of learning which lit up Moorish Spain. Another
western historian writes, "The light of these universities shone far beyond
the Muslim world, and drew students to them from east and west. At Cordoba
in particular there were a number of Christian students, and the influence
of Arab philosophy coming by way of Spain upon universities of Paris, Oxford
and North Italy and upon western Europe thought generally, was very
considerable indeed. The book copying industry flourished at Alexandria,
Damascus, Cairo and Baghdad and about the year 970, there were 27 free
schools open in Cordoba for the education of the poor."
Such were the great achievements of Muslims in the field of science which
paved the way for the growth of modern sciences.

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