Stability

in

Bullying

and

Victimization

and

its

Association

with

Social

Adjustment

in

Childhood

and

Adolescence

This

study

examined

the

concurrent

and

longitudinal

associations

between

stability

in

bullying

and

victimization

and

social

adjustment

in

childhood

and

adolescence

Participants

were

girls

and

boys

who

were

studied

in

primary

school

and

in

secondary

school

The

mean

age

of

the

participants

was

years

in

primary

school

and

years

in

secondary

school

The

measures

consisted

of

peer

reported

social

and

personal

characteristics

Children

who

bullied

in

childhood

and

adolescence

were

less

liked

and

more

disliked

in

childhood

and

more

aggressive

and

disruptive

both

in

childhood

and

adolescence

than

children

who

bullied

only

in

childhood

or

adolescence

Children

who

bullied

or

who

were

victimized

only

in

childhood

did

not

differ

largely

in

adolescence

from

the

children

that

were

never

bullies

or

victims

Children

who

were

victimized

in

adolescence

closely

resembled

those

who

were

victimized

in

childhood

and

adolescence

in

terms

of

being

liked

or

disliked

being

nominated

as

a

friend

and

shyness

The

study

stresses

the

need

to

distinguish

between

stable

and

transient

bullies

and

victims

Bullying

in

school

classes

refers

to

negative

physical

or

social

actions

that

are

repeated

over

time

by

one

or

more

other

persons

towards

a

person

that

can

not

easily

defend

-LRB-

Olweus

-RRB-

Bulling

involvement

seems

relatively

stable

over

time

-LRB-

Boulton

Smith

Kumpulainen

Räsänen

Henttonen

-RRB-

and

has

been

related

to

various

psychosocial

adjustment

problems

in

childhood

and

adolescence

Much

research

on

bullying

involvement

especially

on

victims

has

focused

on

internalizing

indicators

of

adjustment

-LRB-

see

for

a

review

Hawker

Boulton

-RRB-

Little

is

known

about

the

overt

interpersonal

behavioral

characteristics

of

bullies

and

victims

and

even

less

is

known

about

the

association

between

stability

in

bullying

and

victimization

and

these

social

characteristics

The

aim

of

the

present

study

was

to

examine

the

link

between

stability

in

bullying

and

victimization

and

individual

differences

in

social

behaviors

that

are

salient

to

the

peer

environment

More

specifically

we

were

interested

in

differences

in

childhood

and

adolescent

social

adjustment

of

transient

and

stable

bullies

and

victims

Bullies

victims

and

adjustment

In

primary

schools

between

and

of

the

children

are

victims

of

bullying

while

between

and

of

the

children

are

bullies

-LRB-

Smith

et

al.

-RRB-

both

in

Western

and

non-Western

countries

-LRB-

Eslea

et

al.

-RRB-

Cross-sectional

research

on

the

adjustment

of

bullies

revealed

that

bullies

are

more

rejected

and

less

popular

-LRB-

Boulton

Smith

-RRB-

and

display

more

antisocial

aggressive

and

disruptive

behavior

than

non-involved

children

-LRB-

Pellegrini

Bartini

Brooks

Rigby

Cox

-RRB-

Furthermore

longitudinal

studies

suggest

that

childhood

bullying

is

associated

with

social

maladjustment

in

adolescence

-LRB-

Kumpulainen

Räsänen

-RRB-

Research

on

the

adjustment

of

victims

showed

that

these

children

are

socially

isolated

and

rejected

and

have

fewer

friends

-LRB-

Hodges

Malone

Perry

Hodges

Perry

-RRB-

In

addition

victims

tend

to

be

more

submissive

in

their

interactions

with

peers

-LRB-

Schwartz

Dodge

Coie

-RRB-

and

show

overt

signs

of

helplessness

and

distress

-LRB-

Perry

Williard

Perry

-RRB-

Longitudinal

research

on

bullies

victims

and

adjustment

usually

linked

being

a

bully

or

a

victim

in

childhood

to

adjustment

measures

in

adolescence

without

accounting

for

the

chronicity

in

bullying

or

victimization

For

example

Kumpulainen

and

Räsänen

-LRB-

-RRB-

reported

that

children

who

bullied

at

age

and

displayed

more

externalizing

behavior

hyperactivity

and

relationship

difficulties

when

they

were

years

old

while

children

who

were

victimized

at

age

were

more

likely

to

experience

relationship

problems

such

as

being

irritable

isolated

and

rejected

three

years

later

Camodeca

Goossens

Meerum

Terwogt

and

Schuengel

-LRB-

-RRB-

found

that

stable

victims

were

more

reactively

aggressive

than

transient

victims

Neither

of

these

studies

however

examined

whether

the

participants

were

still

bullies

or

victims

at

the

follow-up

assessment

Consequently

the

longitudinal

associations

that

have

been

reported

may

have

been

confounded

by

concurrent

associations

between

adolescent

bullying

involvement

and

adolescent

adjustment

Adequate

descriptions

of

longitudinal

associations

between

childhood

bullying

involvement

and

adolescent

social

adjustment

may

require

distinguishing

between

children

who

remain

involved

in

bullying

from

childhood

to

adolescence

-LRB-

i.e.

stable

bullies

and

victims

-RRB-

and

those

whose

involvement

is

restricted

to

childhood

-LRB-

i.e.

transient

or

unstable

bullies

and

victims

-RRB-

Various

studies

showed

that

a

substantial

number

of

children

display

a

stable

pattern

of

bullying

or

victimization

-LRB-

e.g.

Boulton

Smith

Camodeca

et

al.

Salmivalli

Lappalainen

Lagerspetz

-RRB-

Boulton

and

Smith

-LRB-

-RRB-

found

correlations

of

around

between

bullying

at

age

and

one

year

later

while

Kumpulainen

Räsänen

and

Henttonen

-LRB-

-RRB-

reported

that

of

old

bullies

had

turned

into

stable

bullies

by

the

time

they

were

and

of

the

victims

had

become

stable

victims

However

very

few

studies

have

examined

the

associations

between

stability

in

bullying

involvement

and

interpersonal

behavioral

characteristics

Stability

in

being

a

bully

or

a

victim

Stability

in

being

a

bully

or

a

victim

in

school

can

be

caused

by

two

mechanisms

continuity

in

social

environment

and

continuity

in

children

's

interactional

styles

According

to

Caspi

Elder

and

Bem

's

cumulative

continuity

model

-LRB-

Caspi

Bem

Elder

-RRB-

and

to

Scarr

's

genotype

environment

correlations

model

-LRB-

Scarr

McCartney

Scarr

Scarr

-RRB-

children

's

social

maladaptive

behaviors

may

direct

them

into

social

environments

that

perpetuate

these

behaviors

The

idea

is

that

children

with

specific

behaviors

select

and

create

environments

that

promote

and

maintain

their

behavior

This

may

hold

for

bullies

as

well

as

victims

It

is

well

known

that

antisocial

boys

affiliate

with

boys

who

are

similarly

aggressive

and

deviant

-LRB-

Cairns

Cairns

Neckerman

Gest

Gariepy

-RRB-

and

that

victims

are

more

likely

to

have

friends

who

are

less

accepted

by

peers

or

who

themselves

are

victimized

-LRB-

Hodges

et

al.

Salmivalli

Huttunen

Lagerspetz

-RRB-

thus

reinforcing

their

behavior

Additionally

peers

may

also

reinforce

bullying

and

victimization

by

conferring

reputations

that

may

lock

bullies

and

victims

into

their

specific

roles

-LRB-

DeRosier

Cillessen

Coie

Dodge

-RRB-

These

reputations

are

difficult

to

change

as

long

as

the

school

class

constellation

remains

unchanged

-LRB-

Hymel

Wagner

Butler

-RRB-

The

social

environment

may

reinforce

bullies

behaviors

yet

in

another

way

Observational

studies

-LRB-

Craig

Pepler

Pepler

Craig

Pepler

Craig

Roberts

-RRB-

showed

that

peers

often

do

not

intervene

in

bullying

Bullies

may

perceive

this

lack

of

intervention

as

a

signal

that

peers

condone

their

bullying

behavior

Furthermore

studies

on

participant

roles

reveal

that

some

peers

may

even

actively

reinforce

the

bullies

by

encouraging

gestures

or

by

laughing

during

bullying

episodes

-LRB-

Salmivalli

Lagerspetz

Björkqvist

Osterman

Kaukiainen

-RRB-

Stability

in

being

a

bully

or

a

victim

may

also

be

due

to

continuity

in

bullies

or

victims

interactional

styles

-LRB-

i.e.

interactional

continuity

Caspi

et

al.

-RRB-

that

place

them

at

risk

for

prolonged

bullying

or

victimization

even

after

changes

in

the

social

environment

Being

stably

involved

in

bullying

in

the

formative

years

of

primary

school

may

deprive

children

from

positive

social

experiences

inhibiting

the

acquisition

of

prosocial

skills

and

fostering

social

skills

deficits

Because

these

children

do

not

learn

how

to

adequately

react

in

social

interactions

they

may

develop

dysfunctional

interactional

styles

which

may

make

them

prone

to

social

adjustment

problems

later

in

life

In

this

way

a

vicious

cycle

between

bully

's

or

victims

interactional

styles

and

their

bullying

or

victimization

may

be

established

-LRB-

cf.

Kochenderfer-Ladd

Wardrop

-RRB-

For

example

Snyder

et

al.

-LRB-

-RRB-

showed

that

for

some

children

victimization

was

situational

while

for

other

children

victimization

became

a

trait

like

status

possibly

because

of

this

dysfunctional

interactional

style

Stability

in

being

a

bully

or

a

victim

and

adjustment

Although

the

processes

contributing

to

stability

in

bullying

or

victimization

are

well

described

very

few

studies

have

examined

the

behavioral

profiles

of

different

bully

or

victim

trajectory

types

over

time

Research

has

indicated

that

most

bullies

desist

after

some

time

but

a

small

group

persists

-LRB-

Broidy

et

al.

Loeber

Hay

Le

Blanc

Loeber

-RRB-

Because

of

their

aggressive

interactional

styles

and

their

lack

of

opportunities

to

develop

social

skills

these

children

are

at

risk

for

higher

levels

and

more

serious

forms

of

aggression

poor

peer

relations

and

social

maladjustment

later

in

life

-LRB-

Pope

Bierman

-RRB-

This

behavioral

style

reflects

Olweus

-LRB-

-RRB-

notion

that

bullying

is

not

an

isolated

phenomenon

but

rather

a

component

of

more

general

antisocial

and

rule-breaking

behavioral

patterns

Regarding

victims

only

two

studies

seem

to

have

longitudinally

examined

the

adjustment

of

stable

and

transient

victim

groups

Juvonen

Nishina

and

Graham

-LRB-

-RRB-

found

that

stable

victims

were

lonelier

and

reported

a

lower

self-worth

than

transient

victims

-LRB-

ie

those

who

were

victimized

one

year

earlier

but

were

no

longer

victims

-RRB-

Noteworthy

transient

victims

did

not

differ

from

stable

non-victims

on

loneliness

self-worth

or

depressive

symptoms

Covering

a

two-year

period

Smith

Talamelli

Cowie

Naylor

and

Chauhan

-LRB-

-RRB-

found

that

stable

victims

had

fewer

friends

at

school

and

scored

higher

on

self-reported

and

teacher-reported

emotional

problems

and

peer

problems

As

was

found

by

Juvonen

et

al.

-LRB-

-RRB-

in

general

the

transient

victims

did

not

differ

largely

from

the

stable

non-victims

The

latter

seems

to

indicate

that

psychosocial

problems

only

occur

at

the

time

when

the

victimization

takes

place

It

also

supports

the

cessation

hypothesis

-LRB-

Kochenderfer-Ladd

Wardrop

-RRB-

which

states

that

the

psychosocial

problems

are

likely

to

disappear

as

soon

as

the

victimization

ends

The

present

study

The

present

study

investigated

whether

stable

bullies

or

victims

showed

specific

behavioral

patterns

that

distinguished

them

from

children

who

were

involved

in

bullying

only

in

childhood

or

adolescence

Whereas

previous

studies

on

bullying

and

victimization

often

focused

on

psychological

adjustment

in

terms

internal

characteristics

such

as

self-esteem

loneliness

or

emotional

stability

our

aim

was

to

examine

the

interpersonal

social

adjustment

as

it

was

reported

by

the

peers

The

bully

groups

and

victim

groups

were

compared

on

social

characteristics

that

have

been

identified

in

previous

research

as

highly

relevant

correlates

for

describing

bullies

or

victims

in

childhood

or

adolescence

These

characteristics

included

being

liked

and

being

disliked

-LRB-

Hodges

Perry

Pellegrini

et

al.

-RRB-

friendships

-LRB-

Hodges

et

al.

Hodges

Perry

-RRB-

aggressive

and

disturbing

behaviors

-LRB-

Boulton

Smith

Snyder

et

al.

-RRB-

help

seeking

shyness

-LRB-

Boulton

Smith

-RRB-

and

offering

help

and

cooperation

-LRB-

Boulton

Smith

-RRB-

We

used

peer

reports

to

assess

these

constructs

for

children

may

have

distorted

views

of

their

own

social

competence

-LRB-

Lemerise

Arsenio

-RRB-

and

self-reports

may

thus

not

always

be

the

most

reliable

means

of

obtaining

information

about

children

's

social

functioning

in

peer

groups

The

longitudinal

group

design

allowed

us

to

test

a

number

of

hypotheses

The

hypotheses

concerning

bullies

were

in

part

guided

by

the

work

of

Olweus

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Loeber

-LRB-

Loeber

Hay

LeBlanc

Loeber

-RRB-

and

the

cumulative

continuity

hypothesis

-LRB-

Caspi

et

al.

-RRB-

and

genotype-environment

correlations

model

-LRB-

Scarr

Scarr

McCartney

-RRB-

We

hypothesized

that

due

to

the

accumulative

effects

of

their

negative

peer

interactions

stable

bullies

would

exhibit

a

pattern

of

more

severe

negative

and

hostile

behaviors

in

childhood

and

adolescence

and

would

have

poorer

adjustment

compared

to

bullies

who

bullied

for

a

restricted

period

of

time

-LRB-

i.e.

only

in

childhood

or

adolescence

-RRB-

Because

we

assumed

that

adolescents

who

first

started

to

bully

in

adolescence

may

have

done

so

in

order

to

obtain

dominance

-LRB-

Pellegrini

et

al.

-RRB-

and

not

because

of

a

specific

stable

behavioral

pattern

we

expected

that

they

would

show

specific

maladaptive

features

in

adolescence

but

not

in

childhood

Concerning

the

victims

we

hypothesized

that

stable

victims

would

show

higher

levels

of

peer

perceived

social

problems

in

adolescence

compared

to

childhood

or

adolescence-only

victims

This

was

based

on

the

idea

that

stable

victims

were

exposed

to

victimization

for

a

substantially

longer

period

and

thus

have

had

fewer

opportunities

to

acquire

positive

social

skills

and

experiences

In

line

with

the

cessation

hypothesis

-LRB-

Kochenderfer-Ladd

Wardrop

-RRB-

and

the

findings

provided

by

Juvonen

et

al.

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Smith

et

al.

-LRB-

-RRB-

we

expected

that

childhood-only

victims

would

not

differ

from

the

stable

non-involved

children

in

adolescence

Although

we

did

not

have

theoretically

based

hypotheses

we

tested

whether

it

would

be

possible

to

already

predict

in

childhood

which

children

would

become

new

victims

in

adolescence

-LRB-

i.e.

adolescence-only

victims

-RRB-

Finally

we

tested

whether

gender

moderated

the

associations

between

stability

and

adjustment

Because

we

did

not

have

theoretically

derived

hypotheses

about

the

interaction

the

interaction

effects

of

gender

testing

these

effects

was

entirely

exploratory

and

no

research

question

specifically

addressed

this

issue

Method

Participants

Participants

were

children

-LRB-

girls

boys

-RRB-

who

took

part

in

the

third

and

fourth

wave

of

a

longitudinal

study

that

started

in

In

the

first

two

waves

-LRB-

and

-RRB-

boys

were

examined

-LRB-

see

for

detailed

information

Cillessen

van

Yzendoorn

van

Lieshout

Hartup

-RRB-

In

waves

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

-LRB-

-RRB-

the

initial

boys

were

again

assessed

but

now

the

assessment

also

included

the

boys

classmates

resulting

in

total

samples

of

and

children

for

Wave

and

respectively

The

sample

of

the

present

study

consisted

of

children

who

were

present

both

in

Wave

-LRB-

childhood

data

-RRB-

as

well

as

in

Wave

-LRB-

early

adolescence

data

-RRB-

Because

the

initial

longitudinal

participants

were

boys

some

of

whom

attended

schools

with

a

predominantly

male

population

in

secondary

education

-LRB-

e.g.

technical

education

-RRB-

there

were

more

boys

than

girls

in

the

present

study

Attrition

bias

checks

using

t-tests

comparing

the

present

sample

with

the

larger

childhood

and

adolescence

samples

that

were

dropped

from

this

study

-LRB-

i.e.

the

Wave

and

Wave

samples

minus

the

participants

who

were

in

the

longitudinal

sample

-RRB-

revealed

that

the

present

study

's

participants

did

not

differ

on

bullying

or

victimization

nor

on

any

other

study

variable

from

the

larger

cross-sectional

childhood

or

adolescence

sample

They

did

also

not

differ

on

ethnicity

or

education

nor

on

socioeconomic

status

of

the

parents

In

-LRB-

Wave

-RRB-

participants

age

was

years

month

-LRB-

SD

months

-RRB-

and

ranged

from

to

The

children

came

from

elementary

school

classes

in

the

Nijmegen-Arnhem

area

in

The

Netherlands

In

-LRB-

Wave

-RRB-

all

participants

were

enrolled

in

secondary

education

and

were

distributed

across

school

classes

Their

mean

age

was

years

and

one

month

-LRB-

SD

months

-RRB-

and

ranged

from

to

Ninety-five

percent

of

the

participants

were

of

Dutch

origin

while

five

percent

of

the

adolescents

were

ethnic

minorities

came

from

Surinam

the

Netherlands

Antilles

and

the

Molucca

Islands

from

Mediterranean

countries

and

from

elsewhere

Socio-economic

status

was

based

on

the

classification

of

the

parents

occupations

The

lower

socio-economic

status

contained

occupations

such

as

factory

workers

while

middle

socio-economic

status

consisted

of

occupations

like

for

example

teachers

and

nurses

The

higher

socio-economic

status

included

occupations

such

as

lawyers

and

physicians

It

showed

that

of

all

children

had

a

lower

a

middle

and

a

higher

socio-economic

status

Overall

at

the

two

waves

the

participants

appeared

to

be

representative

of

the

Dutch

school

population

in

the

geographic

area

in

which

the

children

lived

and

at

the

time

the

assessments

were

made

Procedure

Both

the

childhood

data

and

adolescence

data

were

obtained

by

classroom

data

collections

arranged

separately

for

each

school

class

-LRB-

for

detailed

descriptions

see

Haselager

Hartup

van

Lieshout

Riksen-Walraven

and

Scholte

van

Lieshout

van

Aken

for

childhood

and

adolescent

data

assessment

respectively

-RRB-

In

order

to

ensue

that

school

staff

and

parents

obtained

as

much

information

as

they

needed

before

the

study

was

conducted

letters

were

sent

to

schools

and

children

took

home

these

letters

for

their

parents

to

read

In

these

letters

parents

were

informed

about

the

study

and

were

asked

for

passive

consent

As

in

other

large

scale

studies

that

we

conducted

in

the

Netherlands

there

were

no

parents

in

the

present

study

who

did

not

allow

their

children

to

participate

Consent

was

also

obtained

from

the

children

and

adolescents

themselves

and

from

school

authorities

Participants

were

guaranteed

confidentiality

in

the

collection

and

maintenance

of

the

data

In

both

assessment

waves

the

data

collection

session

started

with

a

brief

introduction

and

class

instruction

given

by

a

trained

examiner

During

the

one-hour

assessment

the

children

were

asked

to

fill

out

a

questionnaire

booklet

Before

answering

the

bullying

involvement

questions

the

children

were

provided

a

definition

of

bullying

other

children

-LRB-

Olweus

-RRB-

by

the

examiner

Measures

Childhood

measures

-LRB-

peer

nominations

-RRB-

We

developed

a

sociometric

questionnaire

containing

items

on

peer

reported

social

behavior

This

measure

was

similar

to

the

widely

used

instrument

developed

by

Coie

Dodge

and

Coppotelli

-LRB-

-RRB-

Children

were

asked

to

nominate

a

maximum

of

three

classmates

who

best

fitted

the

descriptions

in

a

rank

ordered

way

such

that

the

classmate

who

best

fitted

a

description

was

nominated

first

followed

by

the

second

and

third

best

fitting

classmate

Same

as

well

as

cross-sex

nominations

were

allowed

on

each

description

but

self-nominations

were

not

The

children

were

presented

a

roster

of

their

classmates

to

use

as

a

reference

in

making

their

nominations

on

the

sociometric

questions

Bullying

other

children

was

assessed

by

the

question

Which

children

in

class

often

bully

other

children

or

pick

on

them

Being

bullied

-LRB-

victimization

-RRB-

was

assessed

by

the

question

Which

classmates

are

often

bullied

and

picked

on

by

other

children

Being

liked

and

being

disliked

were

based

on

the

questions

Which

children

in

your

class

do

you

like

most

and

Which

children

in

your

class

do

you

like

least

respectively

Aggression

referred

to

starting

fights

in

class

while

Disruption

assessed

disturbing

and

disruptive

behavior

Cooperation

assessed

being

considerate

and

cooperative

while

Offering

help

indicated

offering

help

to

others

Seeking

help

assessed

which

children

sought

help

often

while

Shyness

referred

to

being

shy

Being

nominated

as

a

friend

finally

was

based

on

the

question

Which

three

children

in

you

class

are

your

friends

This

variable

was

used

as

an

indicator

of

a

child

's

social

integration

in

the

class

Being

nominated

as

a

friend

was

not

synonym

with

being

liked

because

it

was

possible

that

children

liked

classmates

without

being

friends

with

them.Table

among

social

adjustment

measures

in

Being

Being

disliked

Friend

nominations

Aggression

Disruption

Cooperation

Shyness

Offering

help

Help

seeking

p

p

Table

between

social

adjustment

measures

in

childhood

and

Being

liked

Being

disliked

Friend

nominations

Aggression

Disruption

Cooperation

Shyness

Offering

help

Help

seeking

p

p

p

Adolescence

measures

-LRB-

peer

nominations

-RRB-

Adolescents

were

also

presented

a

roster

with

the

names

of

their

classmates

In

grades

through

of

secondary

education

adolescents

were

in

the

same

group

all

year

and

this

group

served

as

the

nomination

reference

group

The

reference

group

of

the

adolescents

who

were

in

grade

of

secondary

education

consisted

of

their

root

class

which

consists

of

those

classmates

with

whom

they

spent

most

of

the

classes

and

with

whom

they

share

the

same

mentor

The

sociometric

questionnaire

administered

in

the

adolescent

sample

contained

questions

referring

to

liking

and

disliking

bullying

and

victimization

number

of

friends

and

peer

group

behavior

-LRB-

Scholte

et

al.

-RRB-

Nine

of

the

items

were

similar

to

those

asked

in

childhood

-LRB-

see

below

-RRB-

while

new

items

assessed

peer-perceived

self-confidence

emotional

stability

and

school

achievement

In

the

present

study

we

only

used

items

in

adolescence

that

were

similar

to

the

items

in

childhood

added

with

the

item

on

insecurity

which

in

a

way

reflected

the

childhood

question

on

seeking

help

Participants

could

nominate

up

to

five

classmates

on

each

of

the

questions

and

were

asked

to

nominate

first

the

classmate

who

fitted

an

item

best

followed

by

the

classmate

who

fitted

an

item

second

best

et

cetera

In

the

present

study

only

the

first

three

nominations

on

each

item

were

used

in

the

analyses

which

was

similar

to

the

number

of

nominations

on

each

item

in

the

childhood

data

Same

and

cross-sex

nominations

were

permitted

self-nominations

were

not

allowed

Assistance

was

provided

if

needed

Bullying

others

and

Being

bullied

were

assessed

by

the

questions

Which

classmates

bully

others

and

Which

classmates

are

being

bullied

respectively

Being

liked

and

being

disliked

being

nominated

as

a

friend

aggression

disruption

cooperation

and

shyness

were

assessed

by

similar

questions

as

used

in

the

childhood

assessment

Insecurity

was

assessed

by

the

item

Which

classmates

are

insecure

and

seem

to

lack

self-confidence

The

intercorrelations

among

these

indicators

of

social

adjustment

are

given

in

Table

Sociometric

nominations

were

processed

as

follows

For

each

participant

scores

on

each

item

were

determined

by

summing

all

received

nominations

from

classmates

on

that

item

These

two

raw

scores

were

transformed

into

within-class

probability

scores

-LRB-

p-scores

-RRB-

assuming

a

generalized

binomial

distribution

thus

correcting

for

unequal

numbers

of

nominations

made

among

children

and

differences

in

class

size

-LRB-

Newcomb

Bukowski

-RRB-

The

p-scores

were

then

z-standardized

across

all

participants

Each

peer

nomination

scale

in

childhood

and

adolescence

consisted

of

one

item

Because

peer

nominations

involve

aggregating

across

multiple

respondents

in

our

study

on

average

per

class

peer

nominations

based

on

one

item

tend

to

be

reliable

-LRB-

Coie

Dodge

Kupersmidt

-RRB-

because

in

contrast

to

self-reports

they

are

based

on

the

reports

of

many

informants

which

may

decrease

the

influence

of

individual

bias

-LRB-

Boulton

Smith

-RRB-

In

order

to

be

able

to

describe

the

differences

between

the

different

groups

of

victims

and

bullies

more

clearly

the

childhood

and

adolescence

social

adjustment

variables

were

standardized

within

the

total

sample

and

these

standardized

scores

were

subsequently

analyzed

Results

The

correlations

between

the

childhood

measures

and

adolescence

measures

are

presented

in

Table

As

can

be

seen

correlations

between

the

childhood

and

adolescence

data

were

low

to

moderate

with

the

highest

correlations

between

childhood

aggression

and

disruption

and

adolescence

aggression

and

disruption

-LRB-

r

's

between

and

-RRB-

Classification

of

bullies

victims

and

non-involved

children

To

determine

which

children

and

adolescents

were

bullies

or

victims

we

used

the

peer

nomination

scores

on

Bullying

others

and

Being

bullied

Children

and

adolescents

who

scored

standard

deviation

above

the

mean

on

Bullying

others

were

considered

bullies

and

children

and

adolescents

who

scored

one

standard

deviation

above

the

mean

on

Being

bullied

were

regarded

as

victims

This

procedure

has

been

used

in

other

studies

-LRB-

e.g.

Pellegrini

et

al.

Solberg

Olweus

-RRB-

Of

all

children

in

childhood

were

victims

-LRB-

n

girls

of

the

total

sample

of

girls

boys

of

the

total

sample

of

boys

-RRB-

were

bullies

-LRB-

n

girls

-RRB-

and

were

not

involved

in

bullying

-LRB-

n

girls

-RRB-

In

adolescence

these

percentages

were

-LRB-

n

girls

-RRB-

for

victims

-LRB-

n

girls

-RRB-

for

bullies

and

-LRB-

n

girls

-RRB-

for

non-involved

children

Chi-square

analyses

indicated

that

while

boys

and

girls

were

equally

likely

to

be

victims

boys

were

more

likely

to

be

bullies

in

childhood

-LRB-

χ2

-LRB-

-RRB-

p

-RRB-

and

in

adolescence

-LRB-

χ2

-LRB-

-RRB-

p

-RRB-

Because

the

focus

of

this

study

was

on

bullies

or

victims

children

who

scored

one

standard

deviation

above

the

mean

on

being

bullied

and

bullying

either

in

childhood

or

adolescence

-LRB-

i.e.

bully-victims

n

-RRB-

were

not

included

in

the

analyses

To

examine

the

longitudinal

involvement

in

bullying

a

chi-square

analysis

was

conducted

with

bully

status

in

childhood

and

adolescence

as

factors

The

chi-square

analysis

for

the

total

sample

-LRB-

χ2

-LRB-

N

-RRB-

p

-RRB-

and

the

subsequent

test

of

standardized

residuals

-LRB-

Haberman

-RRB-

showed

that

victimization

and

bullying

were

relatively

stable

across

this

three

year

period

Forty-six

percent

-LRB-

n

-RRB-

of

the

childhood

bullies

persisted

into

adolescence

-LRB-

i.e.

Stable

Bullies

-RRB-

whereas

the

others

had

either

stopped

being

involved

-LRB-

i.e.

Childhood

Bullies

n

-RRB-

or

had

turned

into

victims

-LRB-

n

-RRB-

Forty-three

percent

-LRB-

n

-RRB-

of

the

children

who

were

victims

in

childhood

were

still

victims

in

adolescence

-LRB-

i.e.

Stable

Victims

-RRB-

of

the

childhood

victims

-LRB-

n

-RRB-

were

not

involved

in

bullying

in

adolescence

-LRB-

i.e.

Childhood

Only

Victims

-RRB-

while

-LRB-

n

-RRB-

had

turned

into

bullies

Of

all

the

children

not

involved

in

bullying

in

childhood

-LRB-

n

-RRB-

started

bullying

in

adolescence

-LRB-

i.e.

Adolescence

Only

Bully

-RRB-

and

-LRB-

n

-RRB-

became

victims

-LRB-

i.e.

Adolescence

Only

Victim

-RRB-

The

children

who

were

not

involved

in

childhood

nor

adolescence

were

considered

Non-involved

and

served

as

a

reference

group

Gender

differences

in

bullying

and

victimization

continuity

indicated

that

male

and

female

childhood

victims

were

equally

likely

to

become

a

stable

victim

but

that

the

continuity

of

bullying

other

children

was

low

in

girls

and

high

in

boys

-LRB-

χ2

-LRB-

N

-RRB-

p

-RRB-

Except

for

one

girl

all

stable

bullies

were

boys

To

examine

the

association

between

the

stability

in

bullying

and

victimization

and

social

adjustment

the

three

groups

of

bullies

as

well

as

the

three

groups

of

victims

were

compared

For

reasons

of

conceptual

clarity

children

who

bullied

in

childhood

and

had

turned

into

victim

in

adolescence

and

those

who

were

victims

in

childhood

but

became

bullies

in

adolescence

were

dropped

from

further

analyses

Bullying

group

by

gender

interactions

were

examined

as

well

as

gender

main

effects

The

latter

were

significant

in

childhood

-LRB-

Wilks

Λ

F

-LRB-

-RRB-

p

-RRB-

and

adolescence

-LRB-

Wilks

Λ

-RRB-

F

-LRB-

-RRB-

p

-RRB-

and

indicated

that

both

in

childhood

and

adolescence

boys

were

more

disliked

more

aggressive

and

disruptive

less

cooperative

and

less

shy

than

girls

In

addition

boys

were

less

often

nominated

as

a

friend

in

childhood

than

girls

did

and

were

less

insecure

in

adolescence

Because

the

Stable

Bullies

included

only

one

girl

gender

by

bully

group

interactions

could

not

be

examined

in

analyses

that

included

the

Stable

Bullies

group.Table

and

adolescent

adjustment

of

childhood

only

adolescence

only

and

stable

bullies

and

non-involved

childrenBulliesChildhood

only

-LRB-

n

-RRB-

Adolescence

only

-LRB-

n

-RRB-

Stable

-LRB-

n

-RRB-

Non-involved

-LRB-

n

-RRB-

F-valuePartial

eta

squaredChildhoodBeing

liked

b.

a.

Being

disliked

c

b

Friend

nominations

b.

a.

b

c

c

d

Offering

help

Cooperation

a.

a.

Shyness

ab

ab

a.

Help

seeking

b

a.

Adolescence

Being

liked

Being

disliked

a.

b

Friend

nominations

Aggression

a.

c

Disruption

a.

c

Cooperation

b

a

a.

Shyness

a

a

a.

Insecurity

Note

All

scores

are

z-scores

Means

with

different

superscripts

are

significantly

different

from

each

other

p

p

p

Social

adjustment

of

bullies

in

childhood

To

examine

whether

the

Stable

Bullies

experienced

more

social

problems

in

childhood

than

the

other

bullies

and

non-involved

children

and

whether

Adolescence

Only

Bullies

showed

signs

of

maladjustment

already

in

childhood

a

MANOVA

was

conducted

with

bullying

groups

-LRB-

Childhood

Only

Bullies

Adolescence

Only

Bullies

Stable

Bullies

and

Non-involved

-RRB-

and

gender

as

independent

variables

and

the

childhood

adjustment

scores

as

dependent

variables

A

significant

multivariate

relation

was

found

Wilk

's

Λ

approx

F

-LRB-

-RRB-

p

Except

for

offering

help

all

univariate

tests

were

significant

-LRB-

see

Table

-RRB-

Childhood

Only

Bullies

scored

higher

on

help

seeking

behavior

than

the

Stable

Bullies

However

Stable

Bullies

were

less

liked

and

more

disliked

by

their

peers

were

less

often

nominated

as

a

friend

and

displayed

more

aggression

and

disruption

than

all

other

children

Adolescence

Only

Bullies

scored

lower

on

being

disliked

aggression

disruption

and

help

seeking

and

higher

on

cooperation

than

Childhood

Only

Bullies.Table

and

adolescent

adjustment

of

childhood

only

adolescence

only

and

stable

victims

and

non-involved

childrenVictimsChildhood

only

-LRB-

n

-RRB-

Adolescence

only

-LRB-

n

-RRB-

Stable

-LRB-

n

-RRB-

Non-involved

-LRB-

n

-RRB-

F-valuePartial

eta

squaredChildhood

Being

liked

a

ab

a.

Being

disliked

b

c

Friend

nominations

a

ab

a.

Aggression

b

a.

Disruption

Offering

help

a

ab

a.

Cooperation

a.

a.

Shyness

Help

seeking

b

a.

Adolescence

Being

liked

b

a

a.

Being

disliked

a.

b

Friend

nominations

b

a

a.

Aggression

Disruption

Cooperation

ab

a

a.

Shyness

b.

Insecurity

a.

b

Note

All

scores

are

z-scores

Means

with

different

superscripts

are

significantly

different

from

each

other

p

p

p

Social

adjustment

of

bullies

in

adolescence

Next

we

wanted

to

answer

the

question

whether

the

Stable

Bullies

differed

from

the

other

bullies

and

non-involved

children

in

adolescence

To

address

this

question

a

MANOVA

was

conducted

in

which

the

three

bullying

groups

and

gender

served

as

the

independent

variables

and

the

adolescent

measures

as

dependent

variables

A

significant

multivariate

effect

emerged

for

bully

group

-LRB-

Wilk

's

Λ

-RRB-

approx

F

-LRB-

-RRB-

p

The

results

of

the

univariate

and

post

hoc

analyses

-LRB-

Student

Newman-Keuls

p

-RRB-

are

presented

in

Table

and

indicated

no

differences

between

the

groups

on

being

liked

number

of

friends

and

insecurity

Childhood

Only

Bullies

scored

more

positive

on

the

other

measures

that

did

the

other

bullies

and

in

fact

did

not

differ

largely

from

the

Non-involved

children

except

for

their

lower

scores

on

shyness

indicating

that

they

turned

out

to

be

normally

functioning

adolescents

who

did

not

display

problematic

social

behavior

Stable

Bullies

turned

out

to

be

distinctive

from

the

Adolescence

Only

Bullies

in

that

they

displayed

higher

levels

of

aggression

and

disruption

As

the

Stable

Bullies

consisted

only

of

boys

while

the

other

groups

also

contained

girls

the

analyses

were

repeated

comparing

the

Stable

Bullies

with

only

their

male

counterparts

from

the

other

groups

These

analyses

resulted

in

similar

findings

Social

adjustment

of

victims

in

childhood

The

next

research

goal

was

to

examine

whether

the

Stable

Victims

displayed

lower

social

adjustment

in

childhood

than

the

other

victim

groups

and

non-involved

children

and

whether

Adolescence

Only

Victims

could

already

be

identified

in

childhood

To

address

this

goal

a

MANOVA

with

the

victim

groups

-LRB-

Stable

Victims

Childhood

Only

and

Adolescence

Only

Victims

and

non-involved

children

-RRB-

and

gender

as

independent

and

childhood

social

adjustment

as

dependent

variable

were

conducted

Results

indicated

a

significant

multivariate

effect

for

group

-LRB-

Wilk

's

Λ

-RRB-

approx

F

-LRB-

-RRB-

p

Follow-up

univariate

analysis

of

variance

were

significant

for

all

variables

except

for

disturbance

and

shyness

-LRB-

Table

-RRB-

Compared

to

the

Childhood

Only

Victims

Stable

Victims

scored

significantly

higher

on

being

disliked

and

help

seeking

behaviors

In

contrast

to

the

other

victims

Adolescent

Only

Victims

did

not

differ

from

the

Non-involved

children

on

any

of

the

behavioral

characteristics

There

was

no

significant

multivariate

gender

by

group

interaction

Social

adjustment

of

victims

in

adolescence

The

last

question

that

we

addressed

was

whether

Stable

Bullies

showed

more

signs

of

maladjustment

in

adolescence

than

the

other

victim

groups

and

whether

those

who

were

victimized

only

in

childhood

would

show

social

maladjustment

problems

in

adolescence

A

MANOVA

was

run

with

the

victim

and

noninvolved

groups

and

gender

as

independent

variables

and

the

adolescent

measures

as

dependent

variables

Findings

revealed

a

significant

multivariate

effect

for

victim

group

-LRB-

Wilk

's

Λ

-RRB-

approx

F

-LRB-

-RRB-

p

The

results

of

the

univariate

tests

and

post

hoc

comparisons

are

given

in

Table

As

can

be

seen

Childhood

Only

Victims

scored

more

positively

than

the

Stable

and

Adolescence

Only

Victims

on

being

liked

and

being

disliked

received

friendship

nominations

shyness

and

insecurity

In

fact

except

on

being

liked

they

did

not

differ

from

the

Non-involved

children

which

indicated

that

being

victimized

only

in

childhood

was

not

reflected

in

specific

social

behavior

three

years

later

As

Table

further

shows

Stable

Victims

did

not

significantly

differ

from

the

Adolescence

Only

Victims

on

any

of

the

peer

nominated

indicators

of

social

adjustment

A

multivariate

victim

group

by

gender

interaction

was

found

-LRB-

Wilk

's

Λ

-RRB-

approx

F

-LRB-

-RRB-

p

Univariate

analyses

showed

a

significant

group

by

gender

interaction

for

shyness

-LRB-

F

-LRB-

-RRB-

p

which

revealed

that

in

the

Stable

Victim

group

boys

scored

substantially

higher

on

peer

reported

shyness

than

girls

whereas

in

the

other

three

groups

boys

scored

lower

Discussion

The

findings

of

our

study

give

insight

into

the

peer

perceived

behavioral

profiles

of

children

who

were

bullies

or

victims

for

a

restricted

period

of

time

and

those

who

were

involved

over

a

period

of

three

years

They

show

that

stable

bullies

and

victims

displayed

a

behavioral

pattern

in

childhood

and

adolescence

that

clearly

distinguished

them

from

the

children

whose

bullying

or

victimization

was

restricted

to

childhood

The

latter

did

not

show

social

adjustment

problems

later

in

adolescence

while

the

former

did

Children

who

were

victimized

only

in

adolescence

showed

similar

signs

of

social

maladjustment

in

adolescence

as

children

who

were

consistently

victimized

Our

study

shows

that

half

of

the

childhood

bullies

turned

into

stable

bullies

and

half

of

the

childhood

victims

into

stable

victims

In

contrast

to

stability

in

victimization

continuity

in

bullying

was

very

gender

specific

Whereas

only

one

out

of

girls

continued

to

bully

in

adolescence

this

held

true

for

almost

half

of

the

boys

An

explanation

for

this

gender

specificity

in

stability

may

be

that

bullying

behavior

in

our

study

referred

more

to

overt

aggression

which

is

more

typical

for

boys

than

to

relational

aggression

-LRB-

cf.

Crick

Bigbee

-RRB-

which

is

more

typical

for

girls

It

is

also

possible

that

for

girls

in

contrast

to

boys

bullying

may

be

more

related

to

specific

social

situations

rather

than

to

an

individual

characteristic

reflecting

an

underlying

antisocial

and

aggressive

personality

pattern

-LRB-

Salmivally

et

al.

-RRB-

With

respect

to

the

behavioral

profile

of

bullies

this

investigation

revealed

that

compared

to

Childhood

Only

Bullies

the

Stable

Bullies

were

less

liked

and

more

disliked

were

less

often

nominated

as

a

friend

were

more

aggressive

and

disruptive

and

scored

lower

on

help

seeking

in

childhood

This

finding

supports

our

hypothesis

which

states

that

because

of

their

socially

deviant

behavioral

profile

children

who

will

continue

to

bully

over

time

could

already

be

distinguished

in

childhood

from

those

who

will

desist

after

some

time

-LRB-

Loeber

Hay

-RRB-

This

negative

behavioral

pattern

may

result

in

accumulation

of

negative

social

consequences

such

as

continued

peer

rejection

and

fewer

opportunities

to

acquire

adequate

coping

skills

Through

this

interactive

continuity

-LRB-

Caspi

et

al.

-RRB-

the

deviant

behavioral

pattern

is

likely

to

be

maintained

into

adolescence

This

was

reflected

in

finding

that

the

Stable

Bullies

showed

signs

of

peer

perceived

social

maladjustment

that

distinguished

them

from

Adolescence

Only

Bullies

which

was

in

line

with

our

hypothesis

Olweus

-LRB-

-RRB-

notion

that

bullying

reflects

a

stable

aggressive

and

antisocial

rule-breaking

personality

pattern

predisposing

children

to

social

maladjustment

and

delinquency

in

adolescence

only

matches

the

behavioral

profile

of

the

Stable

Bullies

Given

that

Childhood

Only

Bullies

did

not

differ

much

from

the

Non-involved

children

in

adolescence

in

their

peer

perceived

social

adjustment

an

important

conclusion

of

our

study

is

that

half

of

the

children

who

bully

in

childhood

may

not

constitute

a

group

at

risk

for

later

social

problems

The

possible

role

of

friends

in

relation

to

bullying

deserves

closer

attention

In

childhood

Stable

Bullies

were

less

often

nominated

as

a

friend

than

the

Childhood

Only

Bullies

and

Non-involved

children

Although

we

do

not

know

whether

these

nominations

were

reciprocated

they

might

suggest

that

Stable

Bullies

have

fewer

reciprocal

friends

or

at

least

fewer

peers

who

consider

them

to

be

friends

The

explanation

may

be

that

because

of

their

behavioral

profile

these

bullies

are

less

attractive

as

a

friend

which

is

in

line

with

studies

showing

a

negative

association

between

socially

deviant

behavior

and

positive

peer

relations

-LRB-

Rose

Asher

-RRB-

However

caution

must

be

taken

in

interpreting

these

findings

because

the

differences

between

the

childhood

only

and

stable

bullies

in

the

number

of

received

friendship

nominations

were

no

longer

present

after

the

male

only

classes

were

removed

This

finding

might

indicate

that

in

male

only

classes

stable

bullies

receive

fewer

friendship

nominations

than

childhood

only

bullies

while

this

may

not

be

true

for

classes

where

boys

and

girls

are

equally

present

Because

it

is

not

yet

clear

why

this

is

the

case

further

study

is

warranted

In

adolescence

although

Stable

Bullies

-LRB-

and

Adolescence

Only

Bullies

-RRB-

were

still

more

disliked

than

all

other

adolescents

they

had

similar

number

of

peers

who

thought

of

them

as

friends

given

that

no

differences

existed

between

them

and

other

adolescents

in

number

of

received

friendship

nominations

Recently

Cillessen

and

Mayeux

-LRB-

-RRB-

showed

that

in

adolescence

antisocial

behaviors

including

bullying

are

increasingly

linked

to

social

status

suggesting

that

bullying

may

become

more

accepted

Consequently

associating

with

and

becoming

friends

with

bullies

may

also

become

more

accepted

Since

friends

may

passively

or

actively

encourage

bullying

-LRB-

cf

Salmivalli

et

al.

-RRB-

bullies

may

feel

reinforced

and

continue

with

their

behavior

-LRB-

cumulative

continuity

Caspi

et

al.

-RRB-

The

fact

that

Stable

Bullies

are

as

often

nominated

as

a

friend

as

other

adolescents

may

reflect

bistrategic

orientations

as

described

by

Hawley

-LRB-

Hawley

Little

Pasupathi

-RRB-

That

is

they

display

antisocial

behavior

but

at

the

same

time

seem

to

be

able

to

somehow

convey

to

certain

peers

that

they

are

their

friends

even

if

the

bully

him

or

herself

does

not

necessarily

consider

that

person

a

friend

This

suggests

that

these

bullies

are

more

likely

to

be

skilled

manipulators

rather

than

to

be

socially

inadequate

-LRB-

Sutton

et

al.

-RRB-

The

environmental

influences

combined

with

the

Stable

Bullies

behavioral

pattern

may

make

them

relatively

resistant

to

behavior

change

Regarding

the

victims

Stable

Victims

showed

a

pattern

of

peer

perceived

social

maladjustment

in

childhood

that

clearly

distinguished

them

from

the

Childhood

Only

Victims

They

were

more

disliked

by

their

peers

and

were

more

likely

to

be

perceived

as

seeking

help

from

others

As

the

study

by

Boulton

and

Smith

-LRB-

-RRB-

suggests

a

pattern

of

consistently

seeking

help

may

signal

that

these

children

lack

social

self

confidence

This

rather

than

the

lack

of

prosocial

behaviors

such

as

cooperation

or

offering

help

may

predispose

children

to

remain

victimized

from

childhood

to

adolescence

-LRB-

Boulton

Smith

Egan

Perry

-RRB-

This

feature

may

prevent

them

from

successfully

interacting

with

peers

in

childhood

and

adolescence

-LRB-

interactive

continuity

Caspi

et

al.

-RRB-

depriving

them

of

positive

peer

experiences

It

may

also

affect

the

way

they

create

their

own

environment

-LRB-

Caspi

et

al.

Scarr

Scarr

McCartney

-RRB-

in

that

they

may

be

more

inclined

to

withdraw

from

social

interactions

and

make

them

prone

to

be

targeted

by

bullies

in

the

group

throughout

their

school

life

We

found

that

Stable

Victims

did

not

have

a

more

problematic

social

behavioral

profile

in

adolescence

than

Adolescence

Only

Victims

did

This

is

in

contrast

to

our

expectation

that

the

longer

the

victims

experienced

victimization

the

more

impaired

their

social

behaviors

would

be

-LRB-

Kochenderfer-Ladd

Wardrop

-RRB-

and

thus

that

Stable

Victims

would

show

the

most

problematic

social

adjustment

Because

adolescents

who

are

victimized

only

in

adolescence

show

the

same

social

adjustment

problems

as

the

adolescents

who

have

been

victimized

for

a

long

period

of

time

this

finding

might

indicate

that

the

duration

of

victimization

is

relatively

unrelated

to

the

severity

or

magnitude

of

peer

reported

social

adjustment

problems

in

adolescence

Our

findings

showed

that

in

general

victimized

or

noninvolved

boys

were

less

shy

than

girls

however

those

who

were

stably

victimized

scored

higher

on

shyness

in

adolescence

This

is

consistent

with

other

findings

of

negative

social

implications

of

shyness

for

boys

-LRB-

Kerr

-RRB-

and

suggests

that

being

shy

in

adolescence

may

place

boys

at

particular

risk

for

being

victimized

for

a

prolonged

period

One

of

the

positive

findings

of

the

present

study

seems

to

be

that

Childhood

Only

Victims

may

become

normally

adjusted

children

in

adolescence

at

least

in

terms

of

their

peer

reported

social

adjustment

This

suggests

that

victimization

experiences

that

are

restricted

to

childhood

do

not

necessarily

translate

into

impaired

social

functioning

observed

by

the

peer

context

This

finding

does

not

support

the

widely

held

assumption

that

being

a

victim

of

bullying

in

childhood

is

related

to

social

adjustment

problems

in

adolescence

-LRB-

e.g.

Kumpulainen

Räsänen

see

also

Parker

Asher

-RRB-

It

extends

more

recent

studies

because

it

shows

that

victimization

is

not

only

concurrently

associated

with

psychological

adjustment

-LRB-

Juvonen

et

al.

Smith

et

al.

-RRB-

but

also

with

social

adjustment

Like

the

findings

in

these

other

two

studies

our

findings

may

lend

support

for

the

cessation

hypothesis

-LRB-

Kochenderfer-Ladd

Wardrop

-RRB-

and

might

indicate

that

social

problems

can

disappear

once

the

victimization

is

over

Nevertheless

it

should

be

remembered

that

we

assessed

social

adjustment

as

perceived

by

the

peer

group

and

that

findings

might

have

been

differed

when

more

subjective

experiences

of

feelings

would

have

been

used

Finally

the

Adolescence

Only

Victims

did

not

differ

from

the

Non-involved

children

in

their

peer

reported

childhood

social

adjustment

This

implies

that

children

who

will

become

victims

later

in

their

school

career

do

not

necessarily

show

specific

social

behavioral

patterns

that

are

salient

to

their

peers

and

on

the

basis

of

which

they

could

already

be

identified

in

childhood

An

alternative

explanation

might

be

that

becoming

a

victim

in

adolescence

may

actually

have

little

to

do

with

social

behavior

per

se

Rather

than

because

of

their

specific

social

behavior

adolescents

may

become

victimized

because

of

how

they

dress

how

they

look

etc

which

becomes

more

salient

at

this

age

As

the

present

study

showed

these

victims

do

have

social

adjustment

problems

in

adolescence

but

these

problems

may

have

resulted

from

being

victimized

rather

than

caused

it

The

present

study

has

a

number

of

positive

features

It

is

among

the

first

to

longitudinally

examine

stability

in

bullying

and

victimization

in

relation

to

peer

perceived

social

adjustment

during

the

transition

from

primary

to

secondary

education

Bullying

and

victimization

have

been

studied

in

a

cultural

context

-LRB-

i.e.

the

Netherlands

-RRB-

that

has

not

been

reported

on

extensively

This

issue

may

bear

some

importance

given

that

dimensions

of

peer

relations

can

have

differing

connotations

by

culture

-LRB-

e.g.

Schneider

-RRB-

For

example

a

recent

study

revealed

that

large

variations

existed

between

western

counties

such

as

England

Spain

Italy

and

Ireland

not

only

in

the

prevalence

of

bullies

and

victims

but

also

in

how

bullying

and

victimization

were

related

to

social

relations

-LRB-

Eslea

et

al.

-RRB-

This

indicates

that

findings

from

one

western

country

may

not

be

generalized

to

another

Our

findings

revealed

that

in

general

the

behavioral

profiles

of

bullies

and

victims

in

the

Netherlands

were

similar

to

those

reported

in

studies

in

other

western

cultures

such

as

the

USA

-LRB-

Hodges

Perry

Pellegrini

Long

-RRB-

and

Great

Britain

-LRB-

Boulton

Smith

-RRB-

Nevertheless

several

caveats

should

be

kept

in

mind

First

we

only

examined

bullies

and

victims

but

not

bully-victims

This

latter

group

turned

out

to

be

very

small

in

our

sample

-LRB-

ie.

n

-RRB-

comparable

to

other

studies

-LRB-

Boulton

Smith

Olafsen

Viemerö

Solberg

Olweus

-RRB-

Additional

exploratory

analyses

that

we

conducted

on

the

bully-victims

showed

that

the

only

feature

that

distinguished

them

from

the

other

victims

was

their

aggressive

and

disturbing

behavior

in

class

on

which

they

scored

higher

than

all

other

victims

both

in

childhood

and

adolescence

In

fact

they

were

as

aggressive

as

the

Stable

Bullies

in

childhood

and

adolescence

Nevertheless

due

to

the

small

sample

size

these

results

are

only

exploratory

and

more

research

seems

warranted

to

further

describe

the

social

correlates

of

bully-victims

Second

because

the

Stable

Bullies

contained

only

one

girl

gender

interactions

could

not

be

examined

in

analyses

comparing

this

group

of

bullies

with

all

other

groups

of

bullies

and

the

findings

regarding

Stable

Bullies

may

thus

not

generalize

to

female

bullies

Third

although

this

study

was

longitudinal

in

nature

causality

in

terms

of

victims

social

behavior

triggering

bullies

bullying

behavior

or

vice

versa

was

not

implied

Fourth

this

study

used

peer

reports

to

classify

children

and

adolescents

and

to

assess

the

dependent

variables

Using

one

source

of

information

increases

the

risk

of

shared-method

variance

and

inflated

associations

between

independent

and

dependent

variables

In

addition

several

behaviors

assessed

in

our

study

were

based

on

single

items

which

may

raise

some

concerns

about

the

validity

of

these

behaviors

Finally

we

have

focused

on

the

social

adjustment

of

the

bullies

and

victims

as

it

is

perceived

and

reported

by

their

peer

environment

Even

though

the

use

of

peer

reported

social

adjustment

measures

was

informative

we

could

not

identify

which

of

the

children

who

were

not

victimized

in

childhood

became

victims

in

adolescence

We

did

not

examine

children

's

subjective

experiences

such

as

self-esteem

social

insecurity

and

loneliness

Exploring

these

individual

subjective

experiences

may

prove

more

valuable

in

predicting

who

is

at

risk

to

become

victimized

in

adolescence

and

may

add

to

our

understanding

of

the

consequences

of

being

a

bully

or

victim

Despite

these

caveats

the

present

investigation

shows

that

it

is

highly

relevant

for

future

scientific

research

on

bullying

victimization

and

adjustment

to

distinguish

between

children

who

are

only

involved

in

childhood

or

adolescence

and

those

who

are

chronically

involved

from

childhood

into

adolescence

The

positive

message

of

our

study

is

that

many

of

the

childhood

victims

and

bullies

did

not

seem

to

show

social

adjustment

problems

in

adolescence

as

perceived

by

their

peers

The

more

troublesome

message

is

that

between

and

of

the

childhood

bullies

and

victims

will

continue

to

be

involved

in

bullying

in

adolescence

These

children

are

the

ones

who

are

likely

to

display

peer

perceived

social

behavioral

problems

in

adolescence

However

while

this

study

is

among

the

first

to

examine

the

behavioral

profiles

of

stable

and

transient

bullies

and

victims

this

suggestion

may

be

premature

and

more

research

on

the

stability

of

bullying

and

victimization

is

needed

B O B O B O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O B O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O B I O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O B O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O 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O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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bullying
victimization
stability
social adjustment