Community

Capacity

for

Implementing

Clean

Development

Mechanism

Projects

Within

Community

Forests

in

Cameroon

There

is

a

growing

assumption

that

payments

for

environmental

services

including

carbon

sequestration

and

greenhouse

gas

emission

reduction

provide

an

opportunity

for

poverty

reduction

and

the

enhancement

of

sustainable

development

within

integrated

natural

resource

management

approaches

Yet

in

experiential

terms

community-based

natural

resource

management

implementation

falls

short

of

expectations

in

many

cases

In

this

paper

we

investigate

the

asymmetry

between

community

capacity

and

the

Land

Use

Land

Use

Change

Forestry

-LRB-

LULUCF

-RRB-

provisions

of

the

Clean

Development

Mechanism

within

community

forests

in

Cameroon

We

use

relevant

aspects

of

the

Clean

Development

Mechanism

criteria

and

notions

of

community

capacity

to

elucidate

determinants

of

community

capacity

needed

for

CDM

implementation

within

community

forests

The

main

requirements

are

for

community

capacity

to

handle

issues

of

additionality

acceptability

externalities

certification

and

community

organisation

These

community

capacity

requirements

are

further

used

to

interpret

empirically

derived

insights

on

two

community

forestry

cases

in

Cameroon

While

local

variations

were

observed

for

capacity

requirements

in

each

case

community

capacity

was

generally

found

to

be

insufficient

for

meaningful

uptake

and

implementation

of

Clean

Development

Mechanism

projects

Implications

for

understanding

factors

that

could

inhibit

or

enhance

community

capacity

for

project

development

are

discussed

We

also

include

recommendations

for

the

wider

Clean

Development

Mechanism/Kyoto

capacity

building

framework

Introduction

There

is

a

growing

assumption

that

payments

for

environmental

services

including

carbon

sequestration

and

greenhouse

gas

emission

reduction

could

provide

an

opportunity

for

poverty

reduction

and

the

enhancement

of

sustainable

development

within

integrated

natural

resource

management

approaches

-LRB-

Asquith

and

others

Pagiola

and

others

-RRB-

Studies

have

identified

community

forest

management

as

a

model

that

could

meet

the

triple

objectives

of

providing

mechanisms

and

incentives

for

community

management

of

carbon

forest

conservation

and

local

development

needs

-LRB-

Klooster

and

Masera

Poffenberger

and

others

Smith

and

Scherr

-RRB-

Yet

community-based

natural

resource

management

performance

remains

mixed

-LRB-

Agrawal

Armitage

Barrett

and

others

-RRB-

This

study

seeks

to

find

out

whether

or

not

and

in

what

ways

communities

currently

managing

forests

in

Cameroon

meet

the

capacity

requirements

to

handle

the

Clean

Development

Mechanism

-LRB-

CDM

-RRB-

projects

The

CDM

is

one

of

three

flexible

mechanisms

in

the

Kyoto

Protocol

designed

to

accomplish

the

objectives

of

the

UNFCCC

It

makes

provision

for

investment

by

industrialised

countries

and

industry

in

projects

related

to

carbon

emissions

reduction

and

carbon

sequestration

in

developing

countries

These

projects

should

contribute

to

sustainable

development

in

developing

countries

-LRB-

i.e.

Non-Annex

countries

-RRB-

while

enabling

developed

countries

-LRB-

i.e.

Annex

countries

with

quantified

emission

reduction

targets

-RRB-

to

meet

the

Kyoto

emission

reduction

and

quantified

emission

limitation

targets

-LRB-

Art.

of

the

Kyoto

Protocol

-RRB-

Land

Use

Land

Use

Change

and

Forestry

-LRB-

LULUCF

-RRB-

and

energy

projects

are

required

to

meet

certain

conditions

in

order

to

acquire

Certified

Emission

Reductions

from

the

Executive

Board

of

the

CDM

Main

conditions

include

additionality

-LRB-

mitigation

effects

with

project

must

be

additional

to

what

would

have

happened

without

project

-RRB-

leakage

-LRB-

project

mitigation

effects

must

not

be

offset

by

project

impacts

outside

the

accounting

boundary

-RRB-

and

contribution

to

sustainable

development

-LRB-

to

be

demonstrated

according

to

host

country

rules

-RRB-

Certified

Emission

Reductions

represent

the

emission

reduction

or

sequestration

output

of

a

project

and

constitute

the

basis

on

which

payments

are

made

Brown

and

others

-LRB-

-RRB-

state

that

current

modalities

and

information

requirements

for

CDM

are

beyond

the

scope

of

community

capabilities

and

skills

However

few

studies

have

attempted

to

test

the

dimensions

of

this

alleged

asymmetry

between

CDM

modalities

and

procedures

and

local

community

capabilities

and

skills

In

this

paper

we

seek

to

review

this

gap

by

examining

local

community

capacity

for

the

development

and

implementation

of

CDM

projects

within

Community

Forests

in

Cameroon

We

use

conceptual

notions

of

CDM

criteria

and

community

capacity

to

empirically

analyse

two

community

forestry

cases

in

Tinto

and

Bimbia

Bonadikombo

Cameroon

The

intention

is

to

identify

document

and

interpret

local

strategies

and

conditions

affecting

past

community

forestry

successes

and

failures

in

order

to

recognise

and

understand

those

factors

that

might

enhance

or

limit

community

capacity

for

CDM

implementation

The

paper

is

structured

as

follows

Section

highlights

the

criteria

and

conditions

for

CDM

projects

and

the

main

features

of

community

forestry

in

Cameroon

Appropriate

community

capacity

requirements

for

CDM

projects

are

derived

in

section

Section

presents

the

methods

used

and

the

study

context

In

section

we

evaluate

community

capacity

and

draw

implications

for

CDM

and

the

wider

CDM/Kyoto

policy

framework

By

community

is

meant

certain

characteristics

referred

to

in

community-based

natural

resource

management

including

having

reasonably

defined

decision-making

processes

being

a

homogenous

unit

-LRB-

sometimes

ethnic

-RRB-

with

shared

goals

and

values

having

traditional

resource

use

systems

and

livelihood

strategies

and

also

having

a

clear

spatial

or

conceptual

boundary

-LRB-

Armitage

Li

-RRB-

While

these

are

good

conceptual

characteristics

to

work

with

Li

-LRB-

-RRB-

sees

these

as

very

strategic

simplifications

In

many

instances

there

is

no

crisp

boundary

between

the

state

and

the

community

communities

are

not

homogenous

having

many

individuals

or

groups

that

do

not

share

community

resource

management

goals

Property

rights

and

decision-making

systems

may

not

also

be

as

defined

We

thus

attempt

to

reflect

these

in

our

discussions

We

therefore

see

community

capacity

as

the

collective

ability

of

individuals

and

groups

acting

in

concert

toward

sustainable

development

in

a

given

locality

In

operational

terms

community

forests

in

Cameroon

are

managed

by

legal

entities

or

community-based

organisations

constituted

by

a

given

community

for

the

purpose

But

first

we

present

the

requirements

for

CDM

forestry

projects

and

community

forestry

modalities

in

Cameroon

CDM

Requirements

and

Community

Forestry

CDM

Requirements

CDM

projects

are

expected

to

meet

a

set

of

requirements

prior

to

the

issuance

of

certified

emission

reductions

by

the

CDM

Executive

board

These

requirements

are

articulated

in

the

Kyoto

Protocol

and

in

subsequent

decisions

taken

during

the

Conference

and

Meetings

of

Parties

-LRB-

mainly

in

Decisions

and

and

the

Marrakech

Accords

-RRB-

These

requirements

can

be

summarised

under

the

following

categories

additionality

acceptability

externalities

and

certification

It

suffices

to

mention

that

these

rules

apply

to

afforestation

and

reforestation

These

two

are

the

only

land

use

land

use

change

and

forestry

activities

accepted

under

the

CDM

Additionality

Sequestration

or

emission

reductions

due

to

the

project

activities

must

be

additional

to

any

that

would

occur

in

the

absence

of

the

project

-LRB-

Paragraphs

of

Decision

-RRB-

In

other

words

additionality

implies

that

projects

must

result

in

a

net

storage

of

carbon

and

therefore

a

net

removal

of

carbon

from

the

atmosphere

Other

forms

of

additionality

include

programme

financial

and

investment

additionality

Programme

additionality

refers

to

project

demonstration

that

its

emission

reductions

are

additional

to

emissions

required

by

law

or

government

policy

Financial

additionality

refers

to

the

fact

that

funding

for

the

implementation

of

projects

must

not

come

from

overseas

development

or

environment

assistance

funds

Investment

additionality

refers

to

the

demonstration

that

the

creation

of

carbon

offsets

will

involve

costs

that

would

not

be

incurred

in

the

business

as

usual

scenario

Though

not

a

requirement

per

se

it

is

a

way

of

demonstrating

intent

and

effort

through

financial

analysis

Acceptability

The

Kyoto

Protocol

states

that

all

carbon

offset

projects

in

developing

countries

are

required

to

contribute

to

sustainable

development

-LRB-

Article

and

-RRB-

Host

countries

have

to

have

criteria

for

sustainable

development

by

which

projects

will

be

judged

In

addition

projects

must

be

consistent

with

other

international

agreements

and

guidelines

such

as

the

Convention

on

Biodiversity

Agenda

Ramsar

and

others

Externalities

-LRB-

Environmental

Impact

and

Leakage

-RRB-

Projects

must

demonstrate

a

clear

strategy

to

deal

with

all

impacts/effects

that

may

arise

from

project

implementation

These

impacts

could

include

positive

or

negative

social

cultural

economic

or

environmental

impacts

Projects

have

to

show

how

the

negative

impacts

would

be

mitigated

or

countered

A

prominent

aspect

in

externalities

is

the

question

of

leakage

Leakage

can

be

defined

as

unplanned

emissions

that

could

occur

outside

project

boundaries

as

a

result

of

project

activities

Leakage

should

not

disqualify

a

project

except

in

instances

where

projections

of

emissions

are

substantial

enough

to

negate

projected

carbon

offsets

However

project

analysis

must

show

how

leakage

has

been

estimated

and

what

measures

will

be

put

in

place

to

minimize

it

Certification

The

concreteness

measurability

and

long-term

characteristics

of

the

project

will

have

to

be

checked

independently

by

a

third-party

-LRB-

i.e.

a

Designated

Operational

Entity

-RRB-

accredited

by

the

CDM

executive

board

This

takes

place

in

three

stages

during

the

CDM

project

cycle

namely

validation

verification

and

certification

Validation

is

the

process

of

independent

evaluation

of

project

activity

based

on

the

Project

Design

Document

against

the

CDM

requirements

The

outcome

is

the

registration

of

the

project

Verification

is

the

independent

review

process

of

monitored

reductions

or

sequestration

that

occurred

as

a

result

of

a

registered

project

activity

for

a

given

period

This

is

an

ex-post

check

to

confirm

whether

or

not

and

to

what

extent

carbon

offsets

have

actually

been

attained

Certification

is

the

process

by

which

the

designated

operational

entity

gives

written

assurance

of

the

emission

reductions

or

sequestrations

achieved

by

the

project

during

a

specified

time

period

as

verified

The

result

is

the

issuance

of

Certified

Emissions

Reductions

-LRB-

CERs

-RRB-

Small-Scale

Afforestation

and

Reforestation

Projects

Following

discussions

on

the

complications

and

costs

involved

in

responding

to

the

rules

or

requirements

outlined

above

baseline

monitoring

and

certification

modalities

were

simplified

for

small-scale

projects

Decision

defines

small-scale

projects

as

those

that

will

result

in

net

anthropogenic

greenhouse

gas

removals

by

sinks

of

less

than

kilo

tonnes

of

carbon

dioxide

per

year

during

the

crediting

period

However

the

host

country

has

to

approve

that

the

project

developers

are

a

low-income

community

or

individuals

Community

Forests

Many

authors

have

argued

that

community

forest

management

has

the

potential

of

fulfilling

the

triple

objectives

of

biodiversity

conservation

supporting

local

development

and

providing

forest

services

such

as

carbon

sequestration

-LRB-

GEF

Klooster

and

Masera

Smith

and

Scherr

-RRB-

Hence

if

well

managed

it

could

contribute

substantially

to

the

achievement

of

CDM

objectives

Furthermore

the

area

of

forests

under

various

forms

of

community

management

has

been

increasing

in

the

world

White

and

Martin

-LRB-

-RRB-

note

that

of

forests

in

the

most

forested

countries

are

owned

by

communities

whilst

some

more

are

controlled

by

communities

More

forests

in

Cameroon

are

coming

under

community

management

following

new

forest

legislation

in

introducing

community

forestry

By

January

there

were

applications

by

communities

in

the

Ministry

of

Forests

and

Fauna

-LRB-

MINFOF

-RRB-

Of

the

applications

community

forests

were

under

full

community

management

indicating

that

the

figure

more

than

quadrupled

from

in

December

At

this

rate

total

area

under

community

forestry

could

attain

million

hectares

in

five

years

-LRB-

i.e.

community

forests

at

a

maximum

of

-RRB-

Community

forestry

in

Cameroon

was

chosen

for

this

study

because

the

policy

provisions

for

community

forestry

provides

a

good

institutional

and

regulatory

framework

-LRB-

though

not

sufficient

-RRB-

for

project

appraisal

approval

and

verification

by

the

Sub-Directorate

of

community

forestry

in

the

Ministry

of

Forests

and

Fauna

-LRB-

Minang

and

others

-RRB-

Rules

and

regulations

are

elaborated

in

the

Manual

of

Procedures

and

Norms

for

the

Management

of

Community

Forests

-LRB-

MINEF

-RRB-

No

other

forest

management

type

in

Cameroon

has

such

a

regulatory

framework

We

briefly

present

the

concept

of

community

forestry

in

Cameroon

in

the

following

paragraphs

Community

Forest

is

defined

as

that

part

of

non-permanent

forest

estate

-LRB-

not

more

than

-RRB-

that

is

the

object

of

an

agreement

between

government

and

a

community

in

which

communities

undertake

sustainable

forest

management

for

a

period

of

years

renewable

-LRB-

MINEF

-RRB-

Government

approves

a

community

forest

application

and

signs

a

management

agreement

upon

community

fulfilment

of

the

following

requirements

The

community

has

constituted

a

legal

entity

and

appointed

a

community

forest

manager

who

shall

represent

them

in

negotiations

with

government

in

matters

of

community

forestry

The

community

has

delineated

and

mapped

the

intended

community

forest

area

The

community

has

completed

an

inventory

of

the

timber

non-timber

forest

products

and

wildlife

of

the

forest

The

community

has

provided

a

description

of

previous

activities

carried

out

in

the

intended

forest

area

The

community

presents

a

simple

management

plan

for

the

intended

forest

andThe

community

shows

proof

of

stakeholder

agreement

on

the

intentions

of

forest

management

Once

the

management

agreement

is

signed

policy

requirements

are

as

follows

That

inventories

are

carried

out

in

the

compartments

prior

to

the

commencement

of

activities

The

management

of

community

forests

provide

annual

activity

plans

for

approval

The

management

of

community

forests

provide

annual

reports

to

government

andThe

community

forest

management

plans

are

reviewed

every

five

years

Many

community

forests

in

Cameroon

are

a

mix

of

natural

and

secondary

forests

Some

cocoa

agroforests

are

also

found

within

community

forests

as

well

Therefore

a

broad

spectrum

of

activities

including

regeneration

afforestation

logging

and

non-timber

forest

product

collection

is

implemented

within

community

forests

However

current

CDM

rules

only

accept

afforestation

and

reforestation

type

forestry

therefore

natural

forest

management

by

communities

is

not

eligible

But

the

possibility

exists

that

forest

management

could

be

taken

up

by

the

Kyoto

protocol

in

the

future

-LRB-

post

-RRB-

under

different

rules

-LRB-

Santili

and

others

-RRB-

Private

individuals

companies

or

government

own

most

current

CDM

projects

institutions

where

decision-making

and

management

are

likely

to

have

more

structure

and

simplicity

Community

ownership

and

management

is

complex

and

problematic

in

terms

of

resource

tenure

project

responsibilities

benefit

allocation

and

governance

aspects

CDM

rules

have

not

been

tested

in

those

complex

communities

that

harbour

tremendous

biosphere

carbon

management

potential

Community

Capacity

Assessment

Framework

Project

developers

are

required

to

put

forth

arguments

and

supporting

evidence

for

each

CDM

requirement

in

a

Project

Design

Document

Special

knowledge

skills

technology

and

infrastructure

are

also

needed

for

collecting

and

analysing

the

required

evidence

Furthermore

planning

coordination

and

management

skills

will

be

required

in

the

project

development

process

In

the

ensuing

paragraphs

we

review

specific

tasks

of

each

requirement

in

order

to

elucidate

dimensions

of

community

capacity

requirements

Table

presents

a

summary

of

the

resulting

assessment

framework

of

community

capacity

for

CDM

forestry

projects

Table

community

capacity

assessment

frameworkCDM

requirementCommunity

Capacity

requirementsAdditionalityDoes

the

community

have

access

to

adequate

financial

resources

for

baseline

and

other

analysis?Does

community

have

access

to

required

technology

for

data

collection

and

analysis?Does

community

have

access

to

necessary

human

resources

-LRB-

knowledge

and

skills

-RRB-

AcceptabilityAre

the

necessary

national

sustainable

development

policy

analysis

knowledge

and

skills

available

within

the

community?ExternalitiesAre

the

necessary

impact

assessment

and

leakage

analysis

knowledge

and

skills

available

within

the

community?CertificationHow

adequate

is

the

community

forest

monitoring

system?How

adequate

is

the

community

information

infrastructure?Is

the

relevant

CDM

information

-LRB-

forest

inventory

socio-economic

-RRB-

available?Does

community

have

required

financial

resources

to

engage

Designated

Operational

Entities?Management

CapabilityAre

actors

effectively

participating

in

decision-making

and

implementation?How

effectively

are

resource

rules

being

implemented?How

good

are

actor

relationships

in

forest

management?Are

communities

receiving

adequate

government

and

NGO

support

Additionality

The

draft

tool

for

the

demonstration

of

additionality

proposes

a

five-step

screening

and

analysis

procedure

for

CDM

projects

including

Preliminary

screening

based

on

the

starting

date

of

the

project

activity

and

the

specific

features

of

the

afforestation

and

reforestation

activity

-LRB-

mapping

and

map

analysis

land

use

analysis

-RRB-

Identification

of

alternatives

to

the

project

activity

consistent

with

current

laws

and

regulations

-LRB-

land

use

analysis

estimates/measurements

of

carbon

stocks

projections

baseline

development

-RRB-

Investment/financial

analysis

-LRB-

Internal

Rates

of

Return

Net

Present

Value

cost

benefit

ratio

sensitivity

analysis

etc.

-RRB-

Barrier

analysis

-LRB-

investment

institutional

technological

cultural

social

ecological

and

other

kinds

of

barriers

-RRB-

andImpact

of

CDM

registration

-LRB-

Expected

-RRB-

The

above-mentioned

steps

are

indicative

of

the

knowledge

and

skills

required

to

provide

valuable

arguments

and

evidence

on

additionality

The

draft

tool

for

additionality

also

specifies

that

evidence

regarding

land

use

can

be

provided

from

land

use

and

land

cover

maps

and

satellite

images

of

around

This

means

access

to

mapping

technology

as

well

as

other

technology

for

measurements

of

soil

carbon

or

biomass

estimation

will

be

required

Lee

-LRB-

-RRB-

concludes

that

most

of

the

information

is

technical

requiring

good

knowledge

and

skills

and

technology

to

collect

and

manage

It

can

be

argued

that

communities

may

hire

these

services

but

the

costs

can

be

very

high

Recent

studies

in

Tanzania

revealed

that

costs

for

carbon

inventories

done

by

communities

-LRB-

with

minimal

supervision

-RRB-

would

be

times

or

more

cheaper

than

when

experts

are

contracted

-LRB-

Zahabu

-RRB-

Community

inventory

costs

ranged

between

and

ha/yr

Transaction

costs

for

afforestation

and

reforestation

have

been

estimated

at

between

-LRB-

Poffenberger

and

others

-RRB-

and

tC

-LRB-

de

Jong

and

others

-RRB-

Eligibility

Demonstrating

compliance

with

national

sustainable

development

rules

involves

engagement

with

the

national

authorities

and

providing

evidence

For

community

forestry

in

Cameroon

sustainability

implies

creating

a

legal

entity

ensuring

participation

developing

a

simple

management

plan

and

developing

a

benefit

sharing

mechanism

Technical

expertise

and

resources

-LRB-

financial

and

material

-RRB-

are

thus

required

to

provide

the

evidence

Externalities

Environmental

impact

assessments

and

social

impact

assessments

are

required

of

each

project

The

project

is

also

required

to

show

how

they

will

mitigate

or

solve

any

negative

impacts

identified

by

studies

The

same

holds

for

leakage

Relevant

knowledge

and

skills

as

well

as

resources

are

thus

required

to

carry

out

these

studies

and

design

mitigation

measures

Certification

A

monitoring

plan

must

be

provided

for

all

the

variables

estimated

in

the

project

design

document

This

requires

a

demonstration

of

how

information

would

be

collected

and

archived

to

enable

validation

and

verification

by

the

designated

operational

entity

The

data

collection

processing

storage

retrieval

and

sharing

with

the

operational

entities

demand

a

certain

level

of

data

and

information

infrastructure

The

term

data

or

information

infrastructure

means

the

relevant

base

collection

of

technologies

policies

and

institutional

arrangements

that

facilitate

the

availability

of

and

access

to

data

relevant

for

the

implementation

of

carbon

forestry

Negotiations

contracting

services

and

communication

with

the

operational

entities

involve

costs

and

specific

skills

Ecosecurities

-LRB-

-RRB-

estimates

the

costs

of

validation

at

between

and

and

verification

costs

at

about

per

audit

Prototype

Carbon

Fund

cost

estimates

are

slightly

higher

-LRB-

Lee

-RRB-

Management

Capabilities

and

Conditions

Though

not

a

direct

CDM

requirement

management

remains

a

critical

success

factor

for

CDM

projects

hence

it

is

being

incorporated

by

operational

entities

in

validation

processes

Nelson

and

de

Jong

-LRB-

-RRB-

demonstrate

the

importance

of

institutional

arrangements

in

rule

setting

enforcement

and

monitoring

for

carbon

forestry

projects

in

Chiapas

Mexico

Poffenberger

and

others

-LRB-

-RRB-

cite

interalia

effective

institutions

democratic

leadership

transparency

in

decision-making

and

public

expenditures

and

minimizing

social

conflicts

as

important

success

factors

for

community

carbon

forestry

Subak

-LRB-

-RRB-

also

underscores

the

role

of

governments

and

NGOs

in

providing

technical

and

institutional

support

for

carbon

mitigation

projects

in

Costa

Rica

FERN

-LRB-

-RRB-

reported

conflicts

resulting

from

resource

tenure

perceptions

that

created

serious

problems

for

a

carbon

project

in

East

Africa

Based

on

the

preceding

paragraphs

we

raise

key

questions

for

community

capacity

assessment

under

the

four

CDM

requirements

We

also

include

a

category

on

Management

capabilities

and

conditions

see

Table

-LRB-

Ivey

and

others

-RRB-

The

various

issues

discussed

in

this

framework

are

interrelated

hence

we

try

to

show

these

interactions

as

much

as

possible

based

on

our

empirical

evidence

Methods

and

Context

Methods

This

study

aims

at

evaluating

community

capacity

to

meet

CDM

conditions

To

do

so

we

create

a

framework

-LRB-

Table

-RRB-

and

seek

empirical

evidence

by

way

of

case

studies

We

identified

two

communities

in

Cameroon

for

the

study

Tinto

and

Bimbia

Bonadikombo

-LRB-

hereinafter

called

Bimbia

-RRB-

The

choice

of

these

communities

was

based

on

the

willingness

to

provide

data

and

the

relative

homogeneity/heterogeneity

and

accessibility

of

the

communities

All

three

villages

in

Tinto

and

four

villages

in

Bimbia

are

typical

small

rural

livelihood-based

settings

while

two

settlements

in

Bimbia

are

relatively

larger

and

peri-urban

The

fact

that

these

cases

were

not

initially

conceived

for

CDM

purposes

constitutes

a

limitation

in

the

study

Data

collection

tools

included

semi-structured

interviews

-LRB-

-RRB-

structured-interviews/questionnaires

-LRB-

-RRB-

focus

group

discussions

-LRB-

-RRB-

secondary

data

review

and

forest

transect

walks

Given

the

substantive

nature

of

the

dimensions

of

community

capacity

more

discursive

data

collection

tools

were

selected

-LRB-

Frankfort-Nachmias

and

Nachmias

Yin

-RRB-

Questionnaires

were

used

for

selected

community

resource

persons

to

understand

the

relevant

community

knowledge

and

skills

pool

Data

sources

included

community

forest

legal

entities

Ministry

staff

traditional

authorities

NGO

staff

community/user

groups

and

municipal

authorities

Documents

analysed

included

various

planning

monitoring

seizure

and

study

reports

Interviews

were

used

to

obtain

insight

and

check

the

information

from

secondary

sources

and

other

tools

Thematic

and

issue

based

content

analysis

was

used

to

analyse

the

transcripts

and

secondary

information

for

answers

to

questions

in

the

community

capacity

assessment

framework

The

Empirical

Setting

The

Tinto

community

consists

of

three

neighbouring

villages

of

the

same

clan

namely

Bessinghe

Kerieh

and

Mbu

The

total

population

of

between

is

very

homogenous

with

less

than

outsiders

It

is

typically

rural

but

is

an

administrative

-LRB-

District

-RRB-

headquarters

with

a

forestry

office

Most

farmers

grow

cocoa

or

coffee

as

cash

crops

alongside

cassava

maize

and

other

subsistence

crops

Forest

activities

include

hunting

collecting

non-timber

forest

products

and

timber

Tinto

began

a

community

forest

planning

process

in

November

and

signed

a

management

agreement

with

government

for

an

evergreen

lowland

forest

area

of

ha

in

December

But

little

has

happened

by

way

of

management

to

date

The

Bimbia

Bonadikombo

community

is

a

complex

of

many

villages

namely

Mbonjo

Chopfarm

Banangombe

Bonabile

Dikolo

Mabeta

Ombe

Native

-LRB-

Bamukong

-RRB-

Bonadikombo

and

several

plantation

worker

camps

Two

of

these

settlements

-LRB-

Bonabile

and

Dikolo

-RRB-

are

larger

and

peri-urban

in

character

and

located

on

the

fringes

of

the

Limbe

-LRB-

Victoria

-RRB-

town

-LRB-

see

Fig.

-RRB-

Limbe

and

the

surrounding

areas

have

a

population

of

about

inhabitants

-LRB-

RCDC

-RRB-

It

is

highly

heterogeneous

with

few

local

people

-LRB-

of

the

Bakweri

tribe

-RRB-

Forest

extraction

activities

in

order

of

importance

include

collection

of

non-timber

forest

products

fuel

wood

and

timber

charcoal

burning

and

hunting

The

community

has

been

managing

a

ha

forest

since

mid

Vegetation

is

evergreen

with

different

types

littoral

vegetation

mangrove

freshwater

swamp

forest

stream

and

riverside

vegetation

and

lowland

rainforest

Fig.

of

study

areas

in

Cameroon

Community

Forest

Actors

A

nested

institutional

structure

can

be

observed

in

both

the

Tinto

and

Bimbia

communities

There

are

user

groups

community-based

organisations

created

for

community

forest

management

purposes

and

traditional

authorities

all

of

which

are

moulded

and

developed

within

the

locality

These

organisations

work

closely

with

the

forest

administration

and

NGOs

Table

presents

a

summary

of

actors

their

interests

and

responsibilities

within

community

forests

in

these

communities

Table

description

of

community

forestry

actorsActorInterests

and

Bimbia

Bonadikombo

Natural

Resource

Management

Council

-LRB-

BBNRMC

-RRB-

Manages

Bimbia

forest

Has

an

elected

Board

and

a

Forest

Management

Officer

overseeing

day-to-day

Tinto

Clan

Community

Forest

Common

Initiative

Group

-LRB-

TCCF

CIG

-RRB-

Manages

Tinto

forest

Has

an

elected

Management

Committee

and

a

Forest

Management

Officer

in

charge

of

day-to-day

operations

ChiefsVillage

heads

custodians

of

forests

authorise

access

to

all

resources

and

land

in

both

cases

are

members

of

the

BBNRMC

board

and

TCCF-CIG

committee

Forest

User

GroupsIncludes

all

user

groups

interested

in

access

rights

participate

in

general

assemblies

of

organisations

In

the

case

of

Bimbia

each

user

group

has

a

representative

on

the

Women

in

communitiesInterested

in

access

rights

for

non-timber

forest

products

and

Elites

Successful

sons

and

daughters

living

outside

the

community

-LRB-

as

defined

by

these

communities

-RRB-

interested

in

broad

village

development

Ministry

of

Forests

and

Fauna

-LRB-

MINFOF

-RRB-

Mandated

to

ensure

sustainable

forest

management

provide

technical

support

conflict

Municipal

AuthoritiesInterested

in

contributions

of

community

forest

to

development

of

Non-Governmental

Organisations

-LRB-

NGOs

-RRB-

Interested

in

sustainable

forest

management

provides

technical

institutional

and

financial

support

Mount

Cameroon

Project

supported

Bimbia

while

Living

Earth

Foundation

supported

Tinto

The

makeup

of

institutional

structures

differs

slightly

between

the

two

communities

and

some

actors

such

as

charcoal

burners

are

only

found

in

the

Bimbia

community

It

is

worth

noting

that

forest

use

and

livelihood

activities

often

involve

combinations

of

activities

But

we

present

the

actors

in

terms

of

forest

use

activities

in

order

to

capture

specific

issues

that

could

otherwise

be

diluted

in

the

analysis

of

various

activity

combinations

Assessing

Community

Capacity

for

CDM

project

development

In

this

section

we

evaluate

community

capacity

in

the

light

of

CDM

requirements

and

the

corresponding

community

capacity

requirements

-LRB-

Table

-RRB-

including

mainly

additionality

acceptability

externalities

certification

and

management

capabilities

and

conditions

-LRB-

Table

-RRB-

provides

a

summary

of

the

findings

Additionality

The

key

additionality

capacity

question

to

address

is

whether

or

not

communities

have

access

to

the

financial

technological

and

human

resources

required

to

fulfil

additionality

requirements

In

terms

of

financial

resources

total

annual

income

in

for

Bimbia

stood

at

-LRB-

see

Table

-RRB-

At

the

end

of

that

year

Bimbia

was

running

at

a

deficit

of

about

Total

income

in

Tinto

stood

at

One

hundred

percent

of

the

reported

income

for

Tinto

during

this

period

was

an

advance

payment

for

timber

exploitation

Prior

to

this

deposit

all

income

for

the

Tinto

community

forest

over

three

years

was

a

grant

from

Living

Earth

amounting

to

Table

income

and

expenditure

of

community

forests

-LRB-

January

December

-RRB-

DescriptionBimbia

BonadikomboTintoIncome

Total

-LRB-

XAF/USD

-RRB-

From

forest

operations

wood

-LRB-

-RRB-

From

grants/donations

-LRB-

-RRB-

From

service

delivery

-LRB-

ecotourism

and

tree

care

services

to

Urban

Council

-LRB-

-RRB-

Fines

and

auction

sales

-LRB-

-RRB-

Loans

-LRB-

-RRB-

Expenditure

Total

-LRB-

XAF/USD

-RRB-

Operational

costs

Office

-LRB-

-RRB-

Operational

costs

Field

-LRB-

-RRB-

Salaries

-LRB-

-RRB-

Investments

-LRB-

-RRB-

amount

represents

a

deposit

made

by

a

potential

timber

exploiter

in

November

as

proof

of

liquidity

Considering

mitigation

potential

and

transaction

costs

for

various

averted

deforestation

reduced

impact

logging

and

regeneration

carbon

scenarios

as

in

Table

and

the

financial

resources

of

both

communities

the

investment

requirements

will

be

extremely

difficult

if

not

impossible

for

these

communities

without

external

support

Table

was

calculated

by

using

a

chronosequence

of

mean

carbon

content

and

rates

of

carbon

saved

under

different

land

use

options

in

Cameroon

We

estimated

that

the

Bimbia

forest

could

mitigate

between

Kt

C

y

and

the

Tinto

forest

between

-LRB-

see

Table

-RRB-

With

production

potentials

of

less

than

Kt

y

-LRB-

tC

y

-RRB-

both

projects

could

qualify

for

small-scale

CDM

This

means

they

can

reduce

transaction

costs

by

up

to

Yet

with

the

current

financial

situation

they

are

unlikely

to

meet

the

investment

requirements

Table

carbon

mitigation

potential

for

community

ForestsWithout

ProjectWith

Project

Scenario

Project

Scenario

Community

Total

area

-LRB-

ha

-RRB-

Vegetation

typeNatural

forest

Scenario

descriptionConversionAverted

DEForestationReduced

Impact

Logging

-LRB-

ADEF

-RRB-

Conservation

-LRB-

RIL

-RRB-

Potential

area

-LRB-

ha

-RRB-

Carbon

gain

tC

ha

Total

carbon

saving

-LRB-

Kt

C

y

-RRB-

b

Bimbia

Community

Total

area

-LRB-

ha

-RRB-

Vegetation

typeNatural

forest

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

mixed

cocoa

farms

and

secondary

forests

-LRB-

-RRB-

Scenario

descriptionConversionADEF

Conservation

of

natural

forest/Conservation

regeneration

Conservation

regeneration

-LRB-

RIL

-RRB-

conservation

regeneration

Potential

area

-LRB-

ha

-RRB-

Yr

-LRB-

ADEF

-RRB-

-LRB-

Conservation

-RRB-

-LRB-

RIL

-RRB-

-LRB-

Conservation

-RRB-

Carbon

gain

tC

ha

-LRB-

tC

ha

-RRB-

tC

ha

tC

ha

y

carbon

saving

-LRB-

Kt

C

y

-RRB-

aMean

Annual

Carbon

gain

values

for

various

project

scenarios

are

assumed

from

reported

studies

in

Cameroon

as

follows

ADEF

-LRB-

Kotto-Same

and

others

-RRB-

RIL

-LRB-

Justice

and

others

-RRB-

and

Regeneration

-LRB-

Palm

and

others

-RRB-

bTotal

carbon

savings

are

given

as

-LRB-

Carbon

gain

potential

area

-RRB-

cGeneral

Scenario

assumptions

are

Secondary

forests

are

made

available

for

conservation

and

regeneration

There

will

be

no

fires

droughts

or

disasters

during

the

project

lifetime

Illegal

logging

will

be

minimal

and

not

sufficient

to

significantly

affect

project

Forest

areas

do

not

include

roads

water

bodies

and

minor

human

settlements

Exercise

of

usufruct

rights

for

subsistence

purposes

including

fuel

wood

and

non

timber

forest

product

harvesting

is

unlikely

to

significantly

affect

carbon

flows

Community

forestry

as

practiced

in

both

communities

is

multi-activity

and

can

entail

prohibitive

negotiation

costs

-LRB-

Smith

and

Scherr

-RRB-

De

Jong

and

others

-LRB-

-RRB-

reported

costs

of

participation

negotiation

and

conflict

prevention

in

the

Scolel

Te

project

in

southern

Mexico

ranging

from

Such

costs

and

those

to

be

incurred

on

impact

prediction

validation

and

verification

are

not

part

of

the

concessions

on

small-scale

CDM

projects

yet

these

costs

in

themselves

could

be

prohibitive

to

CDM

project

uptake

and

development

Secondly

an

analysis

of

financial

records

in

both

communities

revealed

they

received

overseas

development

assistance

for

community

forestry

implementation

-LRB-

of

income

for

Bimbia

and

for

Tinto

Table

-RRB-

Because

communities

received

overseas

development

assistance

for

completely

different

project

purposes

they

may

become

ineligible

under

the

financial

additionality

criterion

Technical

resources

such

as

satellite

images

GPSs

and

tree

height

measurement

instruments

would

be

helpful

in

providing

information

required

for

baseline

estimation

of

these

communities

have

direct

access

to

satellite

images

or

facilities

to

process

them

Bimbia

can

access

images

through

the

GIS

unit

of

nearby

Mount

Cameroon

Botanic

Gardens

and

Conservation

Centre

But

they

have

to

pay

for

it

Access

to

free

satellite

data

from

the

Internet

would

be

difficult

given

the

very

weak

connectivity

services

in

the

region

Bimbia

has

one

GPS

that

can

allow

them

to

map

current

land

use

Tinto

has

a

compass

that

can

be

useful

for

inventories

The

human

resources

required

for

related

additionality

analysis

is

currently

limited

in

both

communities

Fourteen

Bimbia

and

Tinto

community

members

received

training

on

timber

inventories

during

the

process

of

developing

the

simple

management

plans

The

main

skills

acquired

included

doing

physiological

measurements

-LRB-

tree

heights

dbh

-RRB-

using

the

compass

and

or

the

GPS

tree

identification

and

laying

out

sample

plots

and

transects

But

the

skills

required

for

carbon

estimation

are

more

complex

including

biomass

estimation

using

allometric

equations

root

biomass

estimation

measuring

trees

of

all

diameters

destructive

sampling

and

so

on

These

technical

carbon

estimation

skills

are

absent

in

both

communities

Skills

for

financial

and

investment

analysis

are

absent

in

these

communities

One

of

the

staff

in

Bimbia

has

basic

undergraduate

course

knowledge

in

cost-benefit

analysis

but

this

is

not

enough

The

community

would

thus

have

to

hire

such

services

at

high

costs

In

Tinto

no

one

had

such

skills

and

knowledge

Acceptability

The

main

capacity

question

in

the

acceptability

criterion

is

do

communities

have

the

knowledge

and

skills

to

provide

evidence

of

project

contribution

to

sustainable

development

According

to

the

current

community

forestry

regulations

sustainability

is

demonstrated

by

the

development

of

a

simple

management

plan

a

viable

legal

entity

a

benefit-sharing

mechanism

and

planned

community

projects

-LRB-

MINEF

-RRB-

Both

communities

fulfilled

these

conditions

thanks

to

previous

financial

and

technical

assistance

from

NGOs

and

projects

-LRB-

McCall

and

Minang

-RRB-

Mount

Cameroon

Project

helped

Bimbia

while

Living

Earth

Foundation

assisted

Tinto

Hence

we

can

say

that

both

communities

adhere

to

the

sustainable

development

criteria

that

exist

However

problems

may

emerge

if

national

sustainability

criteria

for

CDM

eventually

include

international

environmental

conventions

Externalities

The

key

capacity

question

addressed

below

is

do

communities

have

the

knowledge

and

skills

for

the

required

impact

assessment

and

leakage

analyses

Five

persons

-LRB-

three

employees

and

two

board

members

-RRB-

in

Bimbia

have

at

least

undergraduate

knowledge

and

some

experience

of

environmental

and

social

impact

assessments

This

means

they

have

a

good

chance

of

providing

the

evidence

required

by

this

criterion

of

the

CDM

On

the

other

hand

of

the

Tinto

members

had

any

knowledge

of

environmental

or

social

impact

assessments

No

respondent

in

both

communities

had

any

understanding

of

leakage

Certification

Communities

would

have

to

collect

analyse

archive

and

eventually

share

information

with

designated

operational

entities

responsible

for

validation

and

verification

Hence

the

key

capacity

questions

for

certification

include

how

functional

are

community

forestry

monitoring

systems

How

adequate

are

community

information

infrastructures

And

do

communities

have

enough

financial

resources

to

engage

Designated

Operational

Entities

for

validation

Monitoring

and

reporting

mechanisms

in

both

communities

suffer

serious

inadequacies

Monitoring

and

reporting

in

Bimbia

are

characterised

by

monthly

management

council

board

meetings

at

the

managerial

level

and

by

forest

patrols

at

an

operational

level

patrols

in

These

meetings

and

patrols

result

in

reports

However

the

patrols

are

for

the

most

part

erratic

triggered

by

tip-offs

on

illegal

activity

In

control

posts

or

check

points

that

could

be

manned

for

hours

were

made

at

strategic

outlets

from

the

forest

but

were

later

abandoned

by

the

operation

committee

members

It

is

alleged

that

the

control

posts

system

did

not

give

the

room

for

corrupt

practices

desired

by

some

operation

committee

members

hence

the

abandonment

Some

of

them

negotiate

and

collect

fines

from

defaulters

without

the

knowledge

of

the

management

officer

In

extreme

cases

they

cooperate

with

illegal

timber

exploiters

In

the

case

of

Tinto

no

monitoring

or

reporting

of

any

sort

has

been

done

since

December

when

the

management

agreement

was

signed

The

community

explains

that

with

zero

activities

in

the

community

forest

there

is

no

reason

to

report

Given

that

these

monitoring

systems

were

not

meant

for

CDM

projects

they

would

need

to

be

overhauled

if

these

projects

are

to

be

registered

within

the

CDM

However

the

corruption

and

institutional

planning

problems

currently

experienced

would

still

pose

serious

difficulties

for

CDM

monitoring

Neither

community

has

conducted

post-management

agreement

forest

surveys

or

inventories

of

designated

exploitation

compartments

as

required

by

law

They

have

equally

failed

to

convene

general

assemblies

of

stakeholders

to

discuss

and

review

progress

as

their

statutes

demand

since

the

commencement

of

community

forest

activities

Community

information

systems

were

found

in

both

cases

to

have

relevant

biophysical

socio-economic

and

market

data

that

could

be

used

for

further

analysis

on

impact

baselines

leakage

and

other

CDM

requirements

However

inventory

data

available

to

these

community

forests

are

inadequate

for

carbon

estimation

as

they

were

done

for

timber

exploitation

as

required

by

extant

community

forestry

rules

Most

of

these

studies

were

done

with

the

help

of

NGOs

prior

to

the

management

agreement

As

demonstrated

in

the

preceding

text

further

collection

of

complementary

data

for

CDM

without

such

assistance

may

be

less

reliable

because

communities

do

not

have

adequate

skills

Material

and

technological

resources

-LRB-

infrastructure

-RRB-

can

tremendously

influence

project

information

management

Bimbia

currently

has

limited

office

space

within

the

premises

of

the

Divisional

Office

for

Limbe

They

have

four

operational

computers

and

a

digital

filling

system

for

all

reports

Hard

copies

of

reports

are

stored

on

shelves

totalling

about

four

metres

in

length

With

a

motorbike

staff

and

little

funds

to

hire

cars

regularly

transportation

is

a

serious

hindrance

to

monitoring

efforts

In

Tinto

activities

are

run

from

the

forest

manager

's

house

All

information

for

the

Tinto

community

forest

is

found

in

two

cardboard

folders

Management

Capability

and

Conditions

In

this

section

we

examine

the

extent

to

which

community

decision-making

processes

rules

compliance

actor

relationships

and

relationships

with

government

and

NGOs

are

adequate

for

carbon

project

development

Participation

and

Decision-making

Involving

actors

in

building

consensus

and

decision-making

for

CDM

project

implementation

is

important

for

local

communities

-LRB-

de

Jong

and

others

Smith

and

Scherr

-RRB-

Participation

in

decision-making

is

largely

by

actor

representation

in

the

decision-making

bodies

within

the

legal

entities

managing

the

forests

on

behalf

of

the

communities

The

management

board

in

Bimbia

is

made

up

of

chiefs

elected

user

group

representatives

and

some

employees

such

as

the

forest

manager

It

meets

on

average

times

a

year

Attendance

sheets

show

charcoal

burners

as

the

only

consistent

user

group

participating

at

these

meetings

Timber

exploiters

and

the

fuel

wood

harvesters

have

been

persistently

absent

Latent

power

struggles

within

the

leadership

have

weakened

decision-making

processes

The

six

chiefs

in

Bimbia

sent

a

letter

to

the

acting

forest

manager

complaining

that

they

were

not

being

sufficiently

consulted

on

day-to-day

forest

management

issues

such

as

issuance

of

permits

-LRB-

Letter

of

January

-RRB-

In

Tinto

the

management

committee

is

made

of

all

three

chiefs

village

representatives

and

the

forest

manager

It

has

met

about

five

times

since

December

Interviewees

reported

about

four

ad

hoc

meetings

between

the

manager

two

chiefs

and

one

board

member

for

consultation

on

proposals

for

sale

of

standing

volume

within

the

community

forest

between

and

Power

struggles

over

money

have

also

weakened

decision-making

in

Tinto

All

three

chiefs

in

Tinto

complain

of

not

being

consulted

by

the

manager

especially

on

financial

issues

Given

observed

actor

reactions

and

comments

during

informal

discussions

it

is

our

reasoned

judgement

that

this

is

an

important

issue

which

contributed

to

the

inertia

in

the

take

off

of

community

forestry

activities

in

Tinto

These

systems

still

harbour

many

weaknesses

that

may

inhibit

consensus-building

processes

for

carbon

forestry

Annual

general

assemblies

in

which

popular

community

participation

is

expected

have

not

been

convened

in

either

case

since

implying

that

actors

have

not

had

the

opportunity

to

participate

in

more

strategic

decision-making

in

community

forestry

Implementation

of

Community

Forestry

Rules

An

assessment

of

community

forestry

rules

compliance

produced

mixed

results

In

Bimbia

annual

legal

timber

exploitation

has

been

between

to

About

trees

have

been

planted

in

two

of

three

compartments

envisaged

in

the

management

plan

There

has

also

been

good

cooperation

with

charcoal

burners

in

the

implementation

of

management

rules

However

in

Bimbia

the

rules

have

also

been

seriously

flouted

Deforestation

and

degradation

has

been

accelerated

by

farming

and

illegal

timber

exploitation

Illegal

fuel

wood

harvesting

is

rife

in

the

accessible

southeast

and

western

compartments

of

the

forest

For

example

in

forest

monitoring

patrols

were

conducted

During

these

patrols

the

following

were

confiscated

chain

saws

kg

of

charcoal

-LRB-

bags

of

about

kg

-RRB-

small

fuel

wood

chunks

and

sawn

timber

boards

of

various

sizes

-LRB-

cm

cm

etc.

-RRB-

Income

from

fines

and

sales

of

confiscated

products

amounted

to

about

-LRB-

XAF

-RRB-

representing

about

of

total

income

from

about

of

legal

logging

from

the

Bimbia

forest

These

numbers

are

explained

by

easy

accessibility

to

the

Bimbia

forest

which

is

located

a

few

kilometres

from

Limbe

town

The

Tinto

community

had

agreed

to

exploit

of

timber

annually

from

the

forest

But

in

three

years

nothing

has

happened

They

advance

the

absence

of

an

access

road

and

lack

of

start-up

resources

as

reasons

for

the

inertia

Negotiations

for

timber

exploitation

are

ongoing

The

above

evidence

suggests

many

potential

inadequacies

regarding

rules

compliance

for

carbon

forestry

Actor

Relations

Good

actor

relationships

are

necessary

for

success

in

carbon

forestry

Figure

presents

the

state

of

relationships

between

the

actors

in

the

Tinto

and

Bimbia

communities

The

figure

was

developed

mainly

from

interviews

and

secondary

data

and

discussed

and

validated

with

other

actors

especially

those

not

interviewed

Fig.

showing

community

forest

actor

relationships

in

both

communities

Varied

land

tenure

perceptions

have

affected

the

actor

relationships

in

community

forestry

implementation

in

Bimbia

In

Bimbia

it

was

agreed

with

the

representatives

of

all

actors

during

the

land

use

plan

and

the

simple

management

plan

phases

that

each

farmer

within

the

forest

would

pay

a

registration

fee

of

-LRB-

-RRB-

after

which

his

or

her

farm

would

be

assessed

and

annual

rents

determined

Less

than

of

the

estimated

farmers

have

registered

Farmers

think

registration

is

only

a

pretext

and

that

rents

might

eventually

be

prohibitive

thereby

kicking

them

out

They

emphasise

that

the

spirit

of

pre-community

forest

indigenous

organisations

such

as

the

Victoria

Lands

and

Forest

Conservation

and

the

Victoria

Area

Rainforest

Common

Initiative

Group

that

aimed

at

ejecting

non-native

usurpers

from

their

forest

still

prevails

Such

land

tenure

perceptions

and

issues

of

trust

explain

the

poor

relationships

between

the

management

council

and

farmers

or

fuel

wood

collectors

-LRB-

Fig.

-RRB-

especially

because

many

users

of

the

forest

are

non-native

Relations

between

communities

and

government

can

influence

community

project

development

and

risk

management

in

terms

of

enabling

training

and

improving

access

to

resources

and

technology

It

could

also

stifle

progress

when

conflicts

arise

in

their

relationship

Community

forestry

policy

stipulates

that

the

Ministry

of

Forests

and

Fauna

-LRB-

MINFOF

-RRB-

is

supposed

to

provide

technical

support

to

communities

in

forestry

activities

but

working

relationships

have

been

poor

in

both

cases

Poor

working

relationships

arise

partly

from

lack

of

clarity

in

roles

and

responsibilities

The

Bimbia

community

accuses

MINFOF

of

illegally

issuing

about

logging

permits

within

their

forest

and

lack

of

transparency

with

auction

sale

dues

from

joint

seizures

MINFOF

says

Bimbia

has

no

right

to

sanction

defaulters

while

Bimbia

insists

the

law

allows

them

to

deal

with

minor

offences

The

line

between

major

and

minor

is

not

clear

even

for

the

neutral

interpreter

of

policy

These

examples

of

disagreements

have

created

conflicts

between

the

community

and

forest

administration

staff

-LRB-

see

Fig.

-RRB-

It

is

clear

that

communities

will

need

external

assistance

with

complex

carbon

measurement

and

monitoring

tasks

such

as

the

use

of

allometric

equations

soil

laboratory

measurements

access

to

remote

sensing

technology

and

information

management

This

would

be

expected

from

MINFOF

but

the

question

is

whether

this

government

body

is

in

a

position

to

provide

such

assistance

To

start

with

technological

knowhow

and

resources

are

in

short

supply

in

this

government

department

Existing

allometric

equations

were

developed

for

known

marketable

timber

species

only

Available

and

useful

remote

sensing

and

GIS

data

are

limited

to

and

aerial

photographs

covering

some

forest

areas

in

the

country

These

could

be

used

as

evidence

for

land

use

and

land

cover

for

critical

date

requirements

for

CDM

i.e.

December

for

example

Staff

and

resources

in

the

ministry

are

inadequate

for

supporting

communities

-LRB-

Ekoko

-RRB-

The

ratio

of

staff

to

forest

area

in

the

southwest

province

in

which

both

Tinto

and

Bimbia

are

located

is

about

ha

A

senior

forestry

official

acknowledged

that

they

are

so

badly

equipped

that

they

sometimes

ask

for

transportation

or

material

support

from

communities

in

the

fulfilment

of

their

tasks

Staffs

in

most

cases

have

little

knowledge

of

carbon

issues

Relations

between

communities

and

NGOs

have

been

good

NGOs

or

bilateral

projects

have

provided

the

support

communities

need

for

forest

management

For

example

in

Bimbia

Mount

Cameroon

Project

-LRB-

GTZ-DFID

funded

-RRB-

facilitated

workshops

on

community

forestry

regulations

and

helped

with

the

establishment

of

the

legal

entity

It

also

financed

hired

expertise

for

the

training

of

community

members

and

subsequent

implementation

of

mapping

forest

inventories

and

the

development

of

simple

management

plans

Living

Earth

Foundation

used

a

similar

approach

in

the

case

of

Tinto

This

support

by

NGOs

continued

through

the

entire

community

forestry-planning

process

and

the

early

stages

of

implementation

-LRB-

late

to

early

-RRB-

But

very

often

these

NGOs

have

been

using

overseas

development

assistance

funds

Such

funds

may

not

be

acceptable

under

the

CDM

given

the

financial

additionality

criterion

This

makes

a

compelling

argument

for

the

creation

of

a

national

fund

to

support

CDM

project

development

A

summary

of

the

findings

is

presented

in

Table

While

the

synthesis

shows

that

communities

have

benefited

in

terms

of

income

knowledge

and

skills

acquisition

and

employment

it

also

reveals

serious

inadequacies

in

human

financial

and

technological

resources

required

for

successful

community

forestry

implementation

In

comparative

terms

Bimbia

fared

better

with

regards

to

resources

Perhaps

Tinto

's

remote

location

and

relatively

smaller

size

explains

the

difference

in

resource

availability

Table

of

findingsRequirementBimbia

BonadikomboTintoAdditionality

Access

to

financial

resourcesInsufficient

financial

resources

Deficit

of

in

accounts

Little

experience

with

high

interest

loans

Eligibility

unlikely

due

to

use

of

ODA

funds

in

forestry

implementationInsufficient

financial

resources

Functioning

for

past

three

years

with

in

total

No

experience

with

loans

Eligibility

unlikely

due

to

use

of

ODA

funds

in

forestry

development

Knowledge

and

skillsLimited

knowledge

and

skills

One

person

with

undergraduate

knowledge

of

cost

benefit

analysis

and

in

investment

or

financial

analysis

methods

Fourteen

employees

have

knowledge

and

skills

in

timber

inventories

only.Knowledge

and

skills

are

extremely

limited

No

knowledge

or

experience

of

financial

or

investment

analysis

in

community

Eleven

people

have

knowledge

and

skills

in

timber

inventories

only

Access

to

technologyLittle

or

no

access

to

satellite

data

and

other

technologies

required.Same

as

in

BimbiaAcceptability

Knowledge

and

SkillsCommunity

fulfilled

sustainability

criteria

in

the

development

of

management

plans

with

NGO

support

Hence

have

some

relevant

experience.Same

as

in

BimbiaExternalities

Environmental

impact

and

leakageThree

members

in

community

have

knowledge

skills

and

experience

in

environmental

and

social

impact

assessment

therefore

good

potentialNo

knowledge

or

skills

in

environmental

or

social

impact

assessment

observedNo

knowledge

or

understanding

of

leakage

observedSame

as

in

BimbiaCertification

Monitoring

systemsMonitoring

systems

are

functional

but

inadequate

for

CDM

because

they

do

not

involve

ongoing

inventories

Short

of

manpower

-LRB-

ratio

of

staff

to

forest

area

is

ha

-RRB-

No

documented

evidence

of

monitoring

The

lone

staff

can

not

ensure

any

proper

monitoring

for

an

area

of

Information

systemBoth

physical

and

digital

Information

systems

-LRB-

computers

-RRB-

are

operational

This

can

allow

for

sharability

hence

the

system

is

potentially

adaptable

to

CDM

archiving

requirements.Information

system

consists

of

two

cardboard

folders

Hence

inadequate

in

form

content

and

quality

for

CDM

purposes

CDM

Information

availabilitySome

relevant

geographical

socio-economic

ecological

and

general

information

is

available

for

CDM

use

within

current

systems

But

much

more

is

requiredSame

as

in

Bimbia

Financial

resourcesInadequate

financial

resources

to

pay

for

validation

servicesSame

as

in

BimbiaManagement

Capability

Actor

relationshipsConflicts

exist

-LRB-

i

-RRB-

between

chiefs

and

management

board

of

community

forest

-LRB-

ii

-RRB-

between

community

MINFOF

over

permits

and

proceeds

from

auctioning

of

seizures

and

-LRB-

iii

-RRB-

between

farmers

and

forest

management.Conflicts

between

chiefs

and

management

officer

Forestry

rules

enforcementIllegal

activity

income

accounts

for

about

of

income

from

legal

forest

activities

and

of

total

revenue

in

It

is

significant

and

poses

threats

to

the

success

of

potential

carbon

project.No

illegal

activity

observed

Rules

are

being

respected

Government

community

relationshipGovernment

short

of

forestry

personal

-LRB-

staff

to

forest

area

ratio

in

the

province

is

about

ha

-RRB-

Government

staff

do

not

understand

the

CDM

and

have

no

relevant

skills

to

support

communitiesSame

as

in

Bimbia

NGO

community

relationshipThe

Cameroon

Mountain

Conservation

Foundation

-LRB-

CAMCOF

-RRB-

is

interested

in

providing

support

for

carbon

forestry

in

the

area

but

lack

the

knowledge

skills

and

resources.Living

Earth

Foundation

is

interested

in

providing

support

for

carbon

forestry

in

the

community

but

lacks

the

knowledge

skills

and

resources

Regarding

management

capability

and

conditions

a

mix

of

similarities

and

differences

can

be

noted

In

similarities

both

communities

have

received

NGO

support

and

have

also

had

conflicts

with

forest

administration

on

various

issues

In

differences

Bimbia

has

experienced

substantial

internal

conflicts

high

levels

of

illegal

activity

forest

degradation

and

staff

corruption

In

Tinto

the

forest

has

remained

intact

due

to

the

absence

of

activities

owing

mainly

to

the

remoteness

of

the

area

and

lack

of

startup

resources

and

entrepreneurship

These

differences

illustrate

that

local

community

capacity

is

a

result

of

the

unique

manner

in

which

these

attributes

coalesce

in

particular

places

and

therefore

should

also

be

seen

to

a

very

large

extent

on

a

case-by-case

basis

-LRB-

Agrawal

Armitage

-RRB-

Conclusions

and

Practical

Implications

Several

studies

have

supported

payment

for

environmental

services

within

the

commons

as

an

emerging

model

of

sustainable

development

for

poor

communities

Yet

community

capacity

to

implement

such

models

often

falls

short

of

expectations

This

paper

set

out

to

assess

the

capacity

of

communities

to

implement

CDM

projects

in

Cameroon

From

experiences

of

success

and

failure

in

community

forest

implementation

we

draw

conclusions

on

the

implications

for

CDM

implementation

within

community

forestry

setups

i.e.

in

the

case

where

communities

currently

managing

forests

decide

to

add

on

carbon

sequestration

as

another

land

use

Analysing

the

dimensions

and

determinants

of

community

capacity

for

CDM

in

both

the

Bimbia

and

Tinto

cases

points

to

substantial

inadequacies

It

indicates

that

taking

up

CDM

carbon

management

procedures

complicates

the

challenges

of

local

communities

already

grappling

with

huge

community

forest

management

difficulties

within

host

country

modalities

and

procedures

The

inadequacies

revealed

serve

as

good

arguments

for

varying

dimensions

of

additionality

in

the

CDM

certification

process

But

more

importantly

however

evidence

from

the

Bimbia

and

Tinto

cases

though

limited

also

points

to

a

number

of

generalizable

observations

on

community

capacity

to

manage

terrestrial

CDM

projects

Firstly

proactive

capacity-building

measures

are

needed

to

increase

project

uptake

in

poor

countries

Our

case

studies

highlight

evidence

that

local

communities

lack

the

knowledge

skills

and

technical

and

financial

resources

to

accommodate

current

CDM

rules

Management

capabilities

and

conditions

are

also

deficient

in

many

ways

Tasks

for

baseline

estimation

investment

financial

environmental

and

social

impact

and

leakage

analysis

can

not

be

met

under

poor

community

conditions

in

Cameroon

and

many

parts

of

sub-Saharan

Africa

This

evidence

supports

previous

explanations

for

why

Africa

is

lagging

behind

in

CDM

project

development

i.e.

currently

accounting

only

for

of

all

projects

in

the

CDM

pipeline

-LRB-

Desanker

-RRB-

This

raises

serious

questions

about

the

potential

of

CDM

contributing

to

sustainable

development

in

its

current

form

Due

attention

should

therefore

be

given

to

multiple

partnership

arrangements

and

most

especially

to

NGO

capacity

for

supporting

CDM

implementation

processes

-LRB-

Nelson

and

de

Jong

-RRB-

The

Bimbia

and

Tinto

cases

point

to

the

potential

role

NGOs

can

play

in

enabling

project

uptake

and

development

However

any

community

capacity

approach

for

CDM

needs

to

carefully

consider

tasks

to

be

undertaken

by

communities

and

those

to

be

undertaken

by

external

agencies

or

consultants

This

is

because

NGOs

or

consultants

are

developing

many

energy

projects

within

the

CDM

and

in

some

cases

they

get

paid

a

proportion

of

the

anticipated

credits

Replicating

such

a

scenario

in

CDM

forestry

could

mean

ignoring

local

competencies

thereby

diverting

vital

community

benefits

in

the

form

of

credits

Sharing

such

roles

and

responsibilities

especially

vis-à-vis

project

developers

and

other

partners

could

help

reduce

conflicts

and

facilitate

institutional

relations

and

hence

resource

governance

This

could

be

beneficial

for

the

development

of

other

environmental

services

systems

for

water

catchments

or

biodiversity

Secondly

managing

actor

relationships

as

influenced

by

their

motivations

perceptions

and

resources

within

multiple

use

forestry

projects

is

a

great

challenge

regarding

risk

of

project

failure

leakage

and

costs

of

CDM

projects

Involving

actors

in

building

consensus

and

compliance

is

difficult

and

costly

for

local

communities

-LRB-

de

Jong

and

others

Smith

and

Scherr

-RRB-

The

knowledge

and

facilitation

skills

required

are

enormous

therefore

taking

on

carbon

as

another

community

forestland

use

will

compound

the

knowledge

and

skills

demands

Such

evidence

should

support

the

prioritization

of

institutional

capacity

building

for

developing

countries

called

for

in

Decision

L.

and

other

documents

within

the

Subsidiary

Body

for

Implementation

capacity

building

framework

of

the

Kyoto

Protocol

Thirdly

this

research

brings

a

number

of

cross-scale

CDM

issues

to

the

fore

It

shows

that

community

capacity

depends

on

and

is

part

of

a

forest/land

use

policy

framework

The

CDM

framework

assumes

that

the

necessary

macro-institutional

and

regulatory

support

for

micro-level

implementation

would

be

available

This

study

found

out

that

neither

sustainable

development

criteria

nor

supportive

institutions

and

personnel

exist

in

Cameroon

Developing

national

CDM

guidelines

for

both

forestry

and

energy

projects

might

be

a

necessary

-LRB-

but

not

sufficient

-RRB-

condition

for

CDM

project

development

at

a

local

level

It

can

be

beneficial

in

providing

institutional

structure

and

for

specifying

critical

standards

on

impact

assessment

monitoring

measures

preventing

risk

of

project

failure

and

information

management

for

CDM

forestry

projects

This

supports

earlier

contentions

that

some

regulation

may

be

required

to

reduce

livelihood

risks

and

increase

social

benefits

-LRB-

Smith

and

others

Minang

and

others

-RRB-

Supporting

Designated

National

Authorities

and

allied

ministerial

services

to

provide

proactive

capacity

building

to

poor

communities

is

imperative

for

Kyoto

Protocol

processes

if

CDM

is

to

succeed

This

could

help

provide

badly

needed

support

from

government

institutions

in

the

areas

of

resource/incentive

provision

training

information

management

monitoring

and

marketing

Costa

Rica

is

an

example

of

a

non-annex

country

that

has

instituted

proactive

measures

of

this

kind

-LRB-

FAO

Subak

-RRB-

An

opportunity

exists

for

the

creation

of

a

national

fund

to

support

CDM

projects

to

help

provide

startup

funds

for

communities

in

Cameroon

Such

a

fund

could

tap

from

the

coffers

of

the

Special

Forestry

Development

Fund

a

mechanism

that

enables

a

proportion

of

forestry

tax

revenues

to

be

reinvested

into

forestry

development

Putting

such

funds

into

capacity

building

and

not

project

implementation

could

be

justifiable

under

the

CDM

Finally

there

is

a

need

for

a

rethinking

of

current

CDM

forestry

modalities

Current

rules

are

complex

unfeasible

and

unfairly

beyond

the

capacity

of

poor

communities

such

as

those

assessed

in

this

study

thus

confirming

previous

conclusions

in

Brown

and

others

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Poffenberger

and

others

-LRB-

-RRB-

It

may

also

explain

-LRB-

at

least

in

part

-RRB-

why

India

China

Brazil

and

Mexico

combined

hosted

of

all

CDM

projects

while

Africa

hosted

only

by

June

Provisions

for

small-scale

CDM

forestry

projects

are

not

far-reaching

enough

They

do

not

currently

consider

basic

environmental

and

social

impact

and

community

negotiations

costs

but

our

research

demonstrates

that

they

pose

equally

strong

challenges

to

CDM

project

development

even

in

instances

where

less

than

the

small-scale

threshold

mitigation

value

of

kt

C

y

applies

If

the

sustainable

development

objectives

of

the

CDM

and

the

Kyoto

Protocol

must

be

attained

in

the

poorest

countries

further

consideration

should

be

given

to

CDM

modalities

in

the

ongoing

forestry

negotiations

This

study

and

others

provide

a

growing

body

of

evidence

on

community

capacity

for

carbon

forestry

that

could

help

in

the

development

of

more

realistic

and

equitable

CDM

rules

community capacity
clean development mechanism
community forests
cameroon


Melanoma of the Anus Disguised as Hemorrhoids : Surgical Management Illustrated by a Case Report Introduction Anal mucosal melanoma is a rare tumor that constitutes only 0.4 -- 1.6 % of all melanoma manifestations -LSB- 1 -RSB- . Prognosis is very poor , with a median survival of less than 2 years , despite curative surgery -LSB- 2 , 3 -RSB- . Females are more likely to be affected than males and most patients present in the sixth or seventh decade of their lives -LSB- 1 -RSB- . Diagnosis is not always straightforward , and is often accidental after surgical treatment for presumed benign disease such as hemorrhoidectomy or lateral internal sphincterotomy , provided that tissue is submitted to the department of pathology -LSB- 4 -RSB- . Unfortunately , the tumor is often widely metastasized at the time of initial diagnosis -LSB- 5 , 6 -RSB- . Here we present a patient who was referred to the surgeon for treatment of hemorrhoids but was diagnosed with anal melanoma . Case report A 62-year-old black man with a history of prostatism was referred to our hospital by his general practitioner with the diagnosis of bleeding hemorrhoids . For a 10-week period he noticed a swelling protruding from the anus with daily bleeding from the anus . Defecation was problematical because of pain , but the stool had a normal aspect . Inspection of the anus showed a painful swelling with a diameter of 1.5 cm with a dark necrotic aspect surrounding the anus below the dentate line . Rectal palpation was impossible because of pain . At the outpatient department the swelling was excised under local anesthesia of the entire anus -LRB- anal block -RRB- . Because of the atypical aspect of the swelling , the material was submitted for pathologic examination , which revealed a melanoma of the anus . Further staging of the tumor was not possible based on this material because of fragmentation of the tissue . A sigmoidoscopy was performed but showed no further lesions . In addition , an abdominal and thoracic computed tomographic -LRB- CT -RRB- scan with contrast showed no signs of tumor around the anorectal region and no signs of intraabdominal , lymphatic or thoracic metastases . After the patient was diagnosed with having melanoma of the anus , examination under general anesthesia was performed . Inspection of the anal mucosa showed two additional lesions at 2 and 3 o'clock with the sacrum at 6 o'clock -LRB- Fig. 1 -RRB- . A wide local excision -LRB- WLE -RRB- including these lesions was performed with a margin of 2 cm , en bloc with 25 % of the circumference of the rectal wall -LRB- Fig. 1 -RRB- . The total excised tissue was 6 × 7 cm . Pathologic examination revealed two small foci of the melanoma with a depth of maximal 3.5 mm . All margins were free of tumor . The patient recovered well from the operation . After 1-year follow-up by means of outpatient department visits and proctoscopy every 3 months , and thoracic and abdominal CT-scan twice a year , there were no signs of recurrent tumor.Fig . 1Melanoma of the anus : wide local excision . A = melanoma Discussion Patients with anorectal melanoma usually present with symptoms of rectal bleeding and an anorectal mass and are often misdiagnosed as having hemorrhoids , as was illustrated by the present case report -LSB- 4 -RSB- . Therefore , on any atypical anorectal lesion , biopsy should be performed in order to prevent delayed diagnosis . For the operative management of anorectal melanoma , two options are available : a wide local excision -LRB- WLE -RRB- or a more extensive abdominal perineal resection -LRB- APR -RRB- . The choice between these surgical procedures is controversial . The main arguments in favor of APR are its ability to control lymphatic spread and to create bigger excision margins , resulting in an assumed lower local recurrence rate . But , in contrast to WLE , APR is associated with mortality , considerable postoperative morbidity -LRB- 4 % hemorrhage , 11 -- 16 % wound infection and 14 -- 24 % wound dehiscence -RRB- and the need for a permanent colostomy -LSB- 7 -- 11 -RSB- . Despite attempted curative surgery , the median survival for anorectal melanoma is only 20 months and most patients die within 5 years regardless of the type of intervention used -LSB- 12 -RSB- . Therefore , quality-of-life issues must be given consideration when making treatment decisions . Droesch et al performed a systematic review of the literature , including 14 studies with a total of 301 patients -LSB- 12 -RSB- . Wide local excision was performed in 129 patients , and 172 patients underwent APR. . Local recurrence developed in 47 % of patients after WLE and in 23 % of patients after APR. . Although these data suggest a trend towards better locoregional control after APR , the difference was not statistically significant . In addition , there was no difference in overall survival between WLE and APR -LRB- median survival 21 months for WLE and 17 months for APR -RRB- . Bullard et al found an opposite trend with a rate of 50 % of local recurrence after APR , compared to 18 % after WLE in 15 patients -LSB- 5 -RSB- . Postoperative radiotherapy may improve locoregional control after wide local excision . In the retrospective study of Ballo et al , actuarial 5-year local control was 74 % and nodal control was 87 % in 23 patients who received postoperative radiotherapy after wide local excision -LSB- 13 -RSB- . Definitive assessment of the efficacy of adjuvant radiation therapy requires further prospective studies . In general , it is assumed that the stage of the disease , especially the tumor thickness , is the main prognostic factor -LSB- 13 -- 15 -RSB- . Therefore , Weylandt et al suggested that the decision between WLE and APR should be governed by the tumor thickness -LSB- 16 -RSB- . In patients with a tumor thickness below 1 mm , a local sphincter-saving excision with 1 cm safety margin would be appropriate ; and in cases of a tumor between 1 and 4 mm , a wide local excision with a margin of 2 cm seems to be adequate . Patients with a tumor thickness above 4 mm or invasion of the internal sphincter muscle should be treated with APR. . In the case report mentioned in this article , the tumor depth was 3.5 mm and excision margins were free of tumor , thus no additional APR was performed . In order to evaluate the deepness of the lesion preoperatively , endorectal ultrasonography can be performed -LSB- 6 -RSB- . Accuracy in evaluating tumor depth of rectal cancer ranges from 81 to 94 % , and accuracy in detecting lymph node metastasis ranges from 58 to 80 % -LSB- 17 -RSB- . However , its accuracy in evaluation of anorectal melanoma remains unproved and is still evaluated -LSB- 5 -RSB- . At the time of diagnosis , up to one-third -LRB- 16 -- 33 % -RRB- of the patients have disseminated disease -LSB- 3 -RSB- . For these patients , palliative treatment with chemotherapy might be a treatment option . Kim et al reported a series of 18 patients with metastatic anorectal melanoma treated with cisplatin , vinblastine , dadabazine , interferon alpha-2b and interleukin-2 -LSB- 18 -RSB- . Major response was seen in 44 % of the patients , and complete response occurred in 11 % , with a median overall survival of 12.9 months . Yeh et al used a different treatment regimen of temozolomide , cisplatin and liposomal doxorubicin in a patient with stage IV anal mucosal melanoma -LSB- 19 -RSB- . This patient showed a remarkable response to chemotherapy , with minimal residual disease and excellent quality of life at 12 months after the start of treatment . However , this therapy still has to be further evaluated and currently no standard systemic therapeutic regimen exists for metastatic anorectal melanoma . In conclusion , anorectal melanoma represents both a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge to physicians given its non-specific presentation and rarity . It is associated with poor prognosis , regardless of the type of intervention used . Therefore , the overall treatment goal should be to optimize the quality of life . Since wide local excision is a more limited intervention associated with at least comparable survival compared to APR and no need for permanent colostomy , wide local excision is recommended as primary therapy if negative surgical margins can be achieved . APR should be reserved for patients in whom the tumor is thicker than 4 mm and/or involves the anal sphincter .

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

melanoma anus
abdominoperineal resection