Using

Soil

and

Water

Conservation

Contests

for

Extension

Experiences

from

the

Bolivian

Mountain

Valleys

Soil

and

water

conservation

-LRB-

SWC

-RRB-

contests

among

farmer

groups

were

organized

in

five

rural

villages

in

the

Bolivian

mountain

valleys

The

contests

were

aimed

at

quickly

achieving

widespread

sustainable

results

This

article

analyzes

the

effectiveness

of

these

contests

as

an

extension

tool

Mixed

results

were

obtained

In

three

villages

participation

rates

in

the

SWC

activities

introduced

in

the

contests

were

still

high

even

years

after

project

withdrawal

These

were

all

villages

where

a

solid

foundation

for

sustainable

development

had

been

laid

before

the

contests

were

held

Two

years

later

most

families

were

still

involved

in

maintenance

of

the

SWC

practices

introduced

in

the

contests

and

many

farmers

had

started

to

experiment

with

different

soil

management

practices

However

replications

of

these

SWC

practices

were

not

widespread

Conservation

Leaders

did

not

continue

with

their

training

activities

and

the

quality

of

maintenance

of

the

practices

was

often

not

satisfactory

In

order

to

become

a

more

effective

extension

tool

and

achieve

widespread

impact

SWC

contests

must

receive

continued

support

by

a

catalyst

agency

Moreover

other

SWC

contests

should

also

be

organized

in

which

practices

are

not

predefined

Given

that

SWC

contests

are

a

low-budget

extension

tool

local

municipalities

could

become

more

actively

involved

Introduction

Agricultural

development

programs

and

extension

services

both

in

developed

and

developing

countries

struggle

with

frustratingly

low

adoption

rates

of

soil

and

water

conservation

-LRB-

SWC

-RRB-

practices

In

response

Savenije

and

Huijsman

-LRB-

-RRB-

called

for

a

making

haste

slowly

approach

that

focuses

more

emphasis

on

developing

and

implementing

solutions

together

with

rural

people

Numerous

experiences

principally

from

Non-Governmental

Organizations

-LRB-

NGOs

-RRB-

have

proven

that

these

more

participatory

-LRB-

slow

-RRB-

approaches

often

work

and

that

sustainable

livelihoods

can

be

established

Successes

to

date

however

consist

of

scattered

small-scale

projects

wide-scale

impact

-LRB-

haste

-RRB-

has

yet

to

be

achieved

The

major

dilemma

remains

combining

widespread

and

short

term

impact

-LRB-

Farrington

-RRB-

In

SWC

extension

in

particular

participatory

approaches

are

too

limited

in

scope

while

existing

governmental

extension

services

are

often

not

participatory

enough

and

not

sustainable

Hence

strategies

and

accompanying

methodologies

and

tools

are

needed

that

achieve

sustainable

results

in

a

short

time

and

on

a

widespread

scale

Despite

urgent

calls

to

modify

attitudes

and

develop

strategies

for

the

extension

of

SWC

-LRB-

Sombatpanit

and

others

-RRB-

the

agricultural

extension

service

in

Bolivia

has

completely

disappeared

and

a

governmental

strategy

for

tackling

soil

erosion

does

not

exist

NGOs

have

partially

filled

this

gap

and

several

small-scale

successes

were

obtained

with

the

participatory

introduction

of

SWC

practices

However

these

successes

have

not

been

reproduced

at

a

large

enough

scale

to

have

an

impact

at

national

-LRB-

or

even

departmental

-RRB-

level

Government

officials

are

often

not

even

aware

of

these

experiences

and

NGOs

themselves

generally

do

not

have

the

capacity

for

wide-scale

dissemination

of

technology

options

-LRB-

Farrington

-RRB-

As

a

consequence

land

degradation

during

the

past

decades

has

increased

-LRB-

Kessler

and

Stroosnijder

-RRB-

and

rural

poverty

remains

a

serious

threat

to

sustainable

development

in

Bolivia

In

response

a

project

executed

by

the

Japan

Green

Resources

Corporation

-LRB-

JGRC

-RRB-

developed

and

validated

a

strategy

to

motivate

poor

Bolivian

mountain

farmers

to

engage

in

adequate

natural

resources

management

the

logical

strategy

for

SWC

-LRB-

Kessler

-RRB-

Unlike

other

small-scale

participatory

experiences

the

logical

strategy

not

only

aims

at

slowness

but

also

at

making

haste

-LRB-

i.e.

in

finding

participatory

methodologies

and

tools

that

achieve

sustainable

widespread

success

in

SWC

-RRB-

Scaling-up

and

integrating

SWC

in

a

future

extension

system

at

a

national

level

is

the

ultimate

objective

One

of

the

logical

strategy

's

most

innovative

tools

is

conducting

SWC

contests

among

organized

groups

of

farmers

The

objective

of

this

article

is

to

analyze

the

effectiveness

of

these

SWC

contests

as

an

extension

tool

This

is

principally

done

by

monitoring

and

evaluating

farmers

participation

in

maintaining

and

replicating

SWC

practices

after

execution

of

the

contests

The

results

will

be

used

to

discuss

possibilities

of

using

SWC

contests

in

an

extension

strategy

at

a

national

level

Study

Area

The

study

was

conducted

in

the

five

research

villages

of

the

JGRC

project

They

are

situated

in

the

north-Chuquisaca

region

of

the

inter-Andean

valleys

of

Bolivia

-LRB-

Fig.

-RRB-

which

is

a

semi-arid

region

located

at

an

altitude

of

to

m

above

sea

level

The

majority

of

the

families

in

this

region

still

manage

a

mixed

farming

system

with

mainly

subsistence

agriculture

and

a

flock

of

goats

and

sheep

Potatoes

are

still

the

main

crop

and

are

the

only

crop

that

receives

small

amounts

of

manure

Other

important

crops

are

maize

wheat

and

barley

Animal

traction

is

mostly

used

for

land

preparation

Chuquisaca

is

one

of

the

least

developed

areas

in

Bolivia

with

the

second

lowest

Human

Development

Index

-LRB-

HDI

-RRB-

in

Bolivia

equaling

only

-LRB-

United

Nations

Development

Programme

-RRB-

Similarly

a

study

by

the

JGRC

project

revealed

that

the

Human

Poverty

Index

-LRB-

HPI

-RRB-

for

the

research

villages

is

among

the

highest

in

the

world

-LRB-

on

average

-RRB-

with

lack

of

access

to

drinking

water

and

health

facilities

being

the

principal

constraints

Hence

the

region

is

very

poor

and

faces

enormous

socioeconomic

and

physical

constraints

Fig.

of

the

study

area

in

the

inter-Andean

valleys

of

Bolivia

In

three

of

the

research

villages

the

experimental

villages

-LRB-

Tomoroco

Kaynakas

and

Sirichaca

-RRB-

the

logical

strategy

was

developed

and

tried

out

over

a

period

of

years

The

other

two

villages

were

validation

villages

-LRB-

Talahuanca

and

Patallajta

-RRB-

in

these

villages

the

strategy

was

validated

for

years

The

villages

were

carefully

selected

in

order

to

obtain

a

representative

sample

of

villages

for

the

north-Chuquisaca

region

Therefore

geographical

climatic

cultural

and

socioeconomic

characteristics

are

different

among

the

villages

Rainfall

varies

from

mm/year

-LRB-

in

Tomoroco

-RRB-

to

mm/year

-LRB-

in

Kaynakas

-RRB-

Sirichaca

has

more

flat

lands

for

potato

production

whereas

the

other

villages

have

steeper

and

more

erosion-prone

slopes

SWC

is

a

barely

developed

activity

in

this

region

Since

the

colonial

era

when

farmers

started

using

a

combination

of

Spanish

and

traditional

agricultural

practices

to

maintain

adequate

production

levels

practices

have

not

changed

much

As

a

consequence

once

cultivable

land

began

to

be

used

more

intensively

traditional

conservation

practices

were

no

longer

able

to

control

erosion

and

maintain

soil

fertility

Most

of

the

SWC

practices

currently

found

in

the

research

villages

are

still

based

on

traditional

knowledge

but

given

their

ineffectiveness

in

conserving

soil

and

water

farmers

have

become

increasingly

sceptical

about

prospects

for

sustainable

agriculture

in

their

villages

Therefore

migration

rates

are

high

in

most

of

the

villages

Attempts

of

development

agencies

to

promote

improved

SWC

practices

have

not

been

successful

mainly

because

of

failing

intervention

strategies

and

the

lack

of

adequate

extension

tools

Research

Methodology

The

SWC

contests

were

conducted

in

the

experimental

villages

in

and

in

the

validation

villages

in

In

each

experimental

village

only

one

SWC

contest

which

focused

on

all

physical

SWC

practices

was

conducted

in

the

validation

villages

two

SWC

contests

were

conducted

focusing

on

two

SWC

practices

each

During

the

SWC

contests

the

number

of

labor

days

invested

per

family

was

monitored

for

each

SWC

practice

Moreover

the

rate

of

participation

in

the

contests

-LRB-

i.e.

percentage

of

families

actively

involved

in

SWC

activities

-RRB-

was

evaluated

in

each

village

The

most

important

data

for

this

study

were

obtained

in

the

ex-post

evaluation

in

years

after

the

JGRC

project

's

withdrawal

from

the

villages

The

ex-post

evaluation

was

conducted

in

all

villages

except

Sirichaca

In

this

village

an

evaluation

was

not

considered

necessary

due

to

the

disappointing

results

and

low

participation

rates

during

the

contests

In

the

other

villages

a

random

sample

of

families

was

taken

for

the

ex-post

evaluation

Although

the

diversity

of

farmers

within

each

village

is

high

and

farmers

who

are

progress-driven

and

economically

better-off

tend

to

invest

more

in

SWC

practices

than

others

-LRB-

Kessler

-RRB-

this

was

not

considered

a

variable

Hence

large

families

as

well

as

for

example

widows

were

included

in

the

sample

Similarly

farmers

from

the

higher

economic

stratum

-LRB-

with

more

land

-RRB-

as

well

as

very

poor

small

farmers

were

considered

In

the

ex-post

evaluation

the

percentage

of

families

actively

involved

in

both

maintenance

and

replications

of

SWC

practices

was

assessed

by

means

of

a

field

survey

If

at

least

one

type

of

SWC

practice

was

properly

maintained

the

family

was

considered

to

be

actively

involved

in

maintenance

If

at

least

one

SWC

practice

was

replicated

on

other

fields

after

the

project

's

withdrawal

the

family

was

considered

to

be

actively

involved

in

replications

Similarly

the

active

usage

of

other

-LRB-

nonphysical

-RRB-

SWC

practices

was

evaluated

during

the

ex-post

evaluation

Finally

in

order

to

obtain

data

concerning

the

popularity

of

the

executed

SWC

practices

quality

of

maintenance

of

these

practices

was

evaluated

within

the

same

sample

of

families

For

each

family

an

average

score

was

given

for

the

quality

of

maintenance

of

each

type

of

SWC

practice

ranging

from

very

bad

-LRB-

or

abandoned

-RRB-

to

very

good

Based

on

these

scores

and

in

order

to

be

able

to

compare

the

villages

average

scores

for

each

village

were

calculated

The

Need

for

More

Effective

Extension

Tools

Although

Bolivia

has

tried

out

different

extension

service

models

-LRB-

Bojanic

-RRB-

these

were

always

technology-centered

and

top-down

with

weak

research-extension

linkages

Most

widely

used

was

the

Training

Visit

extension

system

in

which

knowledge

trickled

down

from

the

research

institutes

to

the

extension

worker

and

finally

to

the

farmers

Farmer

participation

in

this

model

was

mainly

functional

In

a

World

Bank

project

strengthened

the

country

's

research

capacity

but

extension

remained

extremely

weak

resulting

in

poor

adoption

rates

of

improved

practices

-LRB-

Bojanic

-RRB-

In

contrast

to

other

developing

countries

where

low

adoption

rates

forced

extension

agencies

to

apply

more

people-centered

extension

approaches

the

governmental

extension

service

in

Bolivia

simply

disappeared

The

research

and

extension

component

remained

an

independent

foundation

only

for

the

study

of

potatoes

Currently

a

demand-driven

research

and

extension

system

-LRB-

SIBTA

the

Bolivian

Agricultural

Technology

System

-RRB-

is

in

place

that

promotes

innovative

technologies

in

support

of

productive

chains

Given

the

system

's

focus

on

promoting

regional

cash-crops

-LRB-

poor

-RRB-

subsistence

farmers

are

largely

excluded

In

Bolivia

as

in

many

other

Latin

America

countries

NGOs

fulfilled

the

more

intensive

extension

tasks

In

contrast

to

the

functional

type

of

participation

of

public

sector

organizations

most

NGOs

aim

at

an

empowering

type

of

participation

-LRB-

Farrington

-RRB-

Several

NGO-initiated

experiments

with

Farmer

Participatory

Research

-LRB-

FPR

-RRB-

were

based

on

the

farmer-first

approach

-LRB-

Chambers

and

others

-RRB-

Their

pioneering

work

with

a

large

set

of

participatory

techniques

and

innovative

extension

approaches

has

led

to

the

realization

that

community

participation

and

integrated

-LRB-

multi-sector

-RRB-

approaches

are

essential

elements

for

success

In

Latin

America

farmer-to-farmer

extension

has

had

a

notable

impact

and

has

led

to

adequate

natural

resources

management

in

Mexico

-LRB-

Ramos

-RRB-

Honduras

-LRB-

Sherwood

and

Larrea

-RRB-

and

Nicaragua

-LRB-

Braun

and

Hocdé

-RRB-

among

other

countries

Given

that

NGOs

can

spend

considerable

resources

in

a

few

villages

and

often

invest

in

time-demanding

and

costly

face-to-face

participation

they

have

achieved

higher

participation

rates

than

governmental

extension

services

However

the

principal

constraint

of

these

extension

approaches

is

their

limited

scope

they

are

difficult

to

replicate

on

a

wide

scale

in

the

absence

of

local

support

organizations

-LRB-

Farrington

and

others

-RRB-

With

the

prime

objective

of

agricultural

extension

being

to

reach

all

farmers

this

is

a

crucial

constraint

The

JGRC

project

's

logical

strategy

for

SWC

is

not

the

first

attempt

to

develop

effective

strategies

that

combine

farmer

participation

at

the

grassroots

level

with

extension

and

scaling-up

Killough

-LRB-

-RRB-

for

example

proposes

participatory

extension

through

-LSB-

the

-RSB-

accompaniment

model

This

extension

approach

is

a

middle

road

between

the

traditional

extensionist-centered

approaches

and

the

more

recent

farmer-led

approaches

In

this

model

professional

extension

workers

help

farmer-promoters

conduct

on-farm

experiments

and

provide

farmer-to-farmer

training

Local

empowerment

-LRB-

through

the

development

of

farmer

leaders

-RRB-

and

strengthening

local

institutions

are

primary

goals

of

this

holistic

approach

It

is

therefore

important

that

such

extension

approaches

promote

integrated

human

development

Evidence

from

Honduras

shows

that

farmers

would

have

likely

abandoned

SWC

practices

long

ago

if

the

extension

approach

had

not

addressed

essential

aspects

of

the

interaction

between

human

development

and

agriculture

-LRB-

Sherwood

and

Larrea

-RRB-

Farmers

conceptualized

this

interaction

and

holistic

approach

as

the

human

farm

Implementing

such

an

integrated

and

farmer-based

extension

approach

is

urgently

needed

in

Bolivia

only

then

can

a

wide-scale

impact

be

achieved

Although

municipalities

have

considerable

budgets

for

rural

development

they

do

not

have

the

human

capacity

to

provide

this

service

and

they

regard

extension

as

a

state

responsibility

Hence

there

is

a

need

for

-LRB-

-RRB-

profound

changes

at

institutional

level

to

give

priority

to

extension

and

-LRB-

-RRB-

effective

extension

tools

that

can

be

used

in

a

farmer-based

extension

approach

SWC

contests

are

an

example

of

such

a

tool

Using

SWC

Contests

Within

a

Farmer-Based

Extension

Approach

Organizations

in

several

countries

have

experimented

with

farmer

contests

or

competitions

The

State

Farm

Bureaus

in

the

United

States

regularly

hold

such

contests

in

particular

for

young

farmers

Management

growth

and

progress

in

farming

operations

are

major

factors

in

judging

the

contests

The

outstanding

farmers

receive

financial

awards

which

are

usually

made

available

by

sponsors

Farmer

competitions

in

New

Zealand

and

Australia

are

more

focused

on

developing

technical

skills

and

knowledge

with

conservation

and

land

management

practices

being

one

of

the

several

competition

modules

In

developing

countries

all

kinds

of

farmer

contests

are

held

but

rarely

focused

on

SWC

Chuma

and

Murwira

-LRB-

-RRB-

report

of

farmer

competitions

in

Zimbabwe

organized

to

stimulate

the

process

of

experimentation

and

revival

of

farmer

knowledge

regarding

best

farming

practices

The

best

results

with

respect

to

SWC

have

been

achieved

in

two

rural

development

projects

in

Bolivia

and

Peru

where

SWC

contests

among

farmers

were

used

to

speed

up

execution

of

SWC

practices

Both

projects

make

use

of

the

learning

from

the

best

principle

-LRB-

i.e.

learning

from

the

best

families

and

villages

-RRB-

-LRB-

Van

Immerzeel

and

De

Zutter

-RRB-

Knowledge

management

-LRB-

i.e.

combining

knowledge

and

capacities

from

different

farmers

to

find

sustainable

and

fast

solutions

-RRB-

is

essential

in

this

approach

The

contests

are

used

as

a

catalyst

tool

to

disseminate

this

knowledge

and

motivate

farmers

to

learn

from

the

best

to

experiment

and

innovate

and

to

win

prizes

by

improving

on

what

they

have

learned

-LRB-

Van

Immerzeel

and

De

Zutter

-RRB-

In

Peru

the

rural

development

project

MARENASS

-LRB-

Management

of

Natural

Resources

in

the

Southern

Highlands

-RRB-

uses

farmer

contests

to

promote

new

technological

practices

for

improving

natural

resources

management

agricultural

production

and

living

conditions

An

important

characteristic

of

the

project

is

the

transfer

of

decision-making

and

responsibility

for

planning

and

financial

resources

to

the

villages

Each

participating

village

receives

financial

support

to

hire

direct

technical

assistance

-LRB-

Posthumus

-RRB-

These

external

service

providers

can

be

farmers

with

much

experience

-LRB-

the

best

farmers

-RRB-

consultants

or

technical

staff

members

When

a

contest

is

organized

the

villages

themselves

select

and

contract

these

privatized

services

to

provide

training

to

a

number

of

selected

farmers

By

means

of

farmer-to-farmer

training

the

trained

farmers

in

turn

teach

the

other

villagers

the

new

techniques

they

have

learned

Contests

are

held

both

at

village

level

with

farmers

competing

against

each

other

and

on

district

level

between

villages

-LRB-

Posthumus

-RRB-

Jury

members

are

selected

by

the

participants

the

families

or

villages

that

best

apply

the

recommendations

provided

by

technical

staff

earn

a

cash

prize

The

innovations

of

MARENASS

have

been

successful

and

the

project

is

still

in

progress

-LRB-

International

Fund

for

Agricultural

Development

-RRB-

in

villages

about

of

all

households

have

been

reached

-LRB-

De

Zutter

-RRB-

Nevertheless

since

internal

problems

in

some

villages

limit

their

participation

in

the

project

the

impact

of

activities

on

watershed

level

is

quite

low

-LRB-

Posthumus

-RRB-

In

Bolivia

the

SID

-LRB-

Strategies

for

International

Development

-RRB-

project

Pachamama

Urupa

approaches

the

dual

problems

of

soil

erosion

and

rural

poverty

with

the

understanding

that

neither

can

be

resolved

without

simultaneously

addressing

both

Competitions

among

villages

are

organized

to

encourage

participation

in

natural

resources

management

and

to

recognize

the

most

successful

farmers

-LRB-

Strategies

for

International

Development

-RRB-

SID

hires

farmers

who

are

skilled

in

one

or

more

of

the

land

conservation

and

reclamation

practices

as

part-time

staff

These

para-professional

extension

agents

train

selected

farmers

in

about

five

villages

who

in

turn

train

all

the

other

participants

of

the

contest

in

their

respective

villages

-LRB-

Borda

-RRB-

The

competitions

are

flexible

enough

to

permit

farmers

to

find

their

own

solutions

to

their

problems

-LRB-

i.e.

to

experiment

and

innovate

-RRB-

All

farmers

participate

in

the

judging

which

stimulates

the

sharing

of

knowledge

and

the

adoption

and

improvement

of

the

practices

The

winning

villages

and

families

receive

farm

tools

seeds

and

animals

as

prizes

Participation

rates

in

the

competitions

are

about

to

The

project

has

recently

won

the

World

Bank

's

Development

Marketplace

Competition

for

innovative

ideas

in

international

development

The

MARENASS

and

SID

projects

are

quite

similar

they

aim

at

wide-scale

adequate

natural

resources

management

through

a

farmer-based

extension

approach

that

builds

on

local

knowledge

and

capacities

Massive

participation

in

farmer

contests

and

farmer-to-farmer

training

are

crucial

aspects

of

this

approach

Moreover

progressive

learning

and

improvement

is

stimulated

through

constant

interchanges

the

participatory

judging

process

and

the

closing

ceremonies

Two

important

differences

between

the

projects

are

that

in

Bolivia

the

practices

being

judged

in

a

contest

are

specifically

defined

while

in

Peru

the

contests

have

a

more

general

character

-LRB-

e.g.

soil

conservation

-RRB-

and

practices

are

not

specified

in

Bolivia

money

is

not

involved

-LRB-

and

prizes

are

in

the

form

of

goods

-RRB-

while

in

Peru

farmers

are

responsible

for

contracting

the

trainers

and

cash

prizes

can

be

won.Based

on

these

experiences

SWC

contests

are

undeniably

a

very

promising

tool

for

farmer-based

extension

strategies

and

for

achieving

fast

and

widespread

sustainable

impact

in

natural

resources

management

In

the

following

section

we

will

focus

on

the

SWC

contests

of

the

JGRC

project

SWC

Contests

in

the

JGRC

Project

In

the

logical

strategy

of

the

JGRC

project

SWC

practices

are

executed

within

a

framework

of

integrated

rural

development

They

are

always

accompanied

by

and

often

integrated

in

other

activities

that

aim

at

improving

local

livelihoods

An

important

feature

of

this

strategy

is

the

laying

of

a

solid

foundation

for

sustainable

development

before

starting

a

SWC

contest

with

activities

focusing

for

example

on

better

village

organization

responsible

participation

and

effective

collaboration

-LRB-

Kessler

-RRB-

The

project

's

strategy

stresses

the

human

dimension

of

sustainable

development

genuine

participation

of

stakeholders

is

essential

-LRB-

Kessler

-RRB-

The

objective

of

the

SWC

contests

is

to

train

farmers

in

basic

SWC

practices

Moreover

the

contests

encourage

farmers

to

experiment

and

to

decide

which

practices

best

fit

their

specific

conditions

Reflection

and

dialog

two

key

features

of

Participatory

Research

Extension

-LRB-

Percy

-RRB-

are

constantly

used

Participatory

research

with

a

selected

group

of

farmers

as

well

as

farmer-to-farmer

training

and

knowledge

transfer

are

crucial

before

during

and

after

the

SWC

contests

Lessons

learned

through

the

farmer-to-farmer

movement

that

began

in

the

Guatemalan

highlands

-LRB-

Bunch

-RRB-

are

therefore

taken

into

account

-LRB-

e.g.

to

use

small-scale

experimentation

-RRB-

to

start

slowly

and

small

to

achieve

early

recognizable

success

and

to

limit

the

introduction

of

technology

The

essential

multiplier

effect

is

provided

by

the

SWC

contests

and

farmer-to-farmer

training

In

the

next

section

we

explain

the

SWC

contests

in

more

detail

In

all

the

activities

the

project

's

extension

worker

plays

a

crucial

role

At

the

end

of

the

section

we

also

present

the

differences

between

the

approach

of

the

aforementioned

two

projects

and

the

JGRC

project

Activities

Preceding

the

SWC

Contests

Preceding

the

SWC

contests

-LRB-

i.e.

during

the

laying

of

a

solid

foundation

for

sustainable

development

in

a

village

-RRB-

SWC

activities

start

with

a

group

of

about

Conservation

Leaders

-LRB-

CLs

-RRB-

CLs

are

chosen

by

the

assembly

taking

into

account

personal

characteristics

such

as

responsibility

honesty

and

willingness

to

innovate

They

receive

intensive

training

from

the

project

's

extension

worker

aiming

at

the

generation

of

a

progress-driven

attitude

and

at

conducting

experiments

on

their

fields

Experimentation

focuses

both

on

physical

SWC

practices

-LRB-

stone

lines

diversion

ditches

bench

terraces

etc.

-RRB-

and

agronomical

soil

management

practices

-LRB-

more

efficient

manure

use

composting

green

manure

etc.

-RRB-

CLs

are

also

stimulated

to

establish

some

test-sites

for

comparing

with

and

without

cases

with

the

objective

of

obtaining

more

visible

results

and

making

on-site

comparisons

This

might

convince

visiting

farmers

that

the

positive

effects

are

indeed

a

result

of

the

practices

and

not

of

different

physical

conditions

between

their

farm

and

the

CLs

farms

Apart

from

experimentation

and

providing

demonstrations

on

their

own

farms

CLs

also

have

many

less

tangible

tasks

such

as

mobilizing

the

villagers

to

become

involved

in

development

activities

They

are

thus

both

promoters

and

technicians

Finally

training

of

CLs

in

techniques

for

knowledge

transfer

is

given

before

and

during

the

farm

visits

Once

a

solid

foundation

is

laid

in

the

village

and

CLs

are

sufficiently

trained

the

group

decides

when

the

first

SWC

contest

will

be

held

and

which

practices

will

be

executed

In

the

dry

season

practices

like

stone

lines

and

gully

control

measures

are

considered

and

in

the

wet

season

practices

that

require

digging

such

as

diversion

ditches

and

bench

terraces

The

village

is

informed

in

the

assembly

and

by

distributing

information

leaflets

During

a

period

of

at

least

a

few

weeks

families

have

the

opportunity

to

decide

whether

to

participate

in

the

contest

CLs

have

an

active

role

in

motivating

their

neighbors

and

in

starting

to

organize

groups

based

on

vicinity

Eventually

each

CL

should

lead

a

group

of

five

to

eight

families

During

these

weeks

of

group

formation

possible

conflicts

must

be

resolved

especially

between

neighbors

Given

that

effective

group

collaboration

is

crucial

for

a

successful

SWC

contest

group

formation

should

be

given

the

required

time

Execution

and

Evaluation

of

the

SWC

Contests

A

contest

generally

deals

with

two

SWC

practices

In

a

later

stage

a

certain

contest

can

be

repeated

and/or

more

integrated

contests

can

be

considered

combining

different

practices

The

first

contest

is

the

most

important

one

because

it

serves

as

a

selection

tool

for

distinguishing

the

interested

families

-LRB-

those

with

a

progress-driven

attitude

-RRB-

from

the

others

In

this

first

contest

a

subsidy

is

given

as

an

incentive

to

all

participants

for

the

purchase

of

a

set

of

tools

that

are

essential

to

conduct

SWC

practices

Each

family

pays

of

the

original

cost

Families

that

start

participating

in

a

later

stage

have

no

access

to

the

subsidized

tools

and

should

themselves

catch

up

with

the

already

executed

practices

Each

SWC

contest

takes

about

one

or

two

months

Twice

a

year

a

contest

can

be

held

one

in

the

dry

season

and

the

other

one

in

the

wet

season

The

criteria

for

evaluating

the

contests

are

clearly

indicated

before

starting

-LRB-

-RRB-

executed

quantity

-LRB-

-RRB-

quality

of

the

work

-LRB-

-RRB-

knowledge

and

-LRB-

-RRB-

group

collaboration

Major

emphasis

is

given

to

training

and

learning

during

the

contests

An

essential

technique

for

conducting

most

of

the

SWC

practices

is

the

adequate

handling

of

the

A-frame

which

is

used

for

establishing

the

contour

lines

in

a

field

This

is

generally

taught

during

the

first

contest

Once

the

contest

starts

each

group

under

the

guidance

of

their

CL

decides

how

the

work

will

be

done

Reciprocal

group

work

-LRB-

or

ayni

in

Quechua

-RRB-

is

mostly

used

In

this

system

farmers

work

on

each

others

farms

on

a

rotation

basis

It

is

especially

useful

for

labor-intensive

work

and

hastens

the

pace

of

execution

The

host

family

provides

food

money

is

never

used

Reciprocity

in

the

Andes

region

is

based

on

mutual

trust

Torrico

and

others

-LRB-

-RRB-

argue

that

it

still

contains

many

religious

aspects

and

that

therefore

quality

of

the

work

is

never

discussed

Similar

to

the

alayon

a

traditional

form

of

village

cooperation

in

the

Philippines

-LRB-

Moneva

and

others

-RRB-

the

ayni

serves

as

a

venue

for

group

learning

problem

solving

and

the

promotion

of

equitability

among

farmers

SWC

practices

are

mainly

conducted

on

fields

situated

near

the

farmer

's

homestead

later

they

can

be

replicated

on

other

fields

The

project

's

extension

worker

regularly

monitors

group

work

and

assists

the

CLs

in

their

training

In

the

beginning

CLs

often

encounter

problems

and

feel

uncertain

regular

meetings

help

to

solve

this

Once

a

contest

has

finished

each

CL

measures

the

quantity

of

practices

executed

by

his

or

her

group

The

verification

of

this

quantity

as

well

as

the

evaluation

of

quality

and

knowledge

is

done

by

means

of

cross-visits

with

other

CLs

Quality

criteria

are

harmonized

between

CLs

before

starting

the

evaluation

Knowledge

is

evaluated

by

asking

some

practical

questions

For

these

three

criteria

-LRB-

quantity

quality

and

knowledge

-RRB-

scores

of

-LRB-

bad

-RRB-

to

-LRB-

good

-RRB-

can

be

obtained

This

is

written

down

on

evaluation

sheets

Based

on

observations

the

extension

worker

evaluates

the

fourth

criterion

group

collaboration

and

cohesion

All

criteria

are

given

the

same

weight-factor

in

the

final

calculation

During

the

final

closing

ceremony

the

groups

receive

a

reward

for

their

efforts

Recognition

of

efforts

is

important

because

it

engenders

a

sense

of

pride

and

it

increases

self-confidence

-LRB-

Cinnéide

and

Conghaile

-RRB-

The

most

recommendable

rewards

are

seeds

for

green

manure

and

vegetables

which

contribute

to

more

sustainable

agriculture

Additionally

the

winning

groups

also

receive

for

instance

potato

maize

or

barley

seeds

all

in

small

quantities

These

prizes

are

useful

products

and

their

value

is

small

enough

to

avoid

participating

in

the

SWC

contests

for

the

wrong

reason

In

this

respect

money

or

food

must

never

be

used

as

prizes

Activities

Succeeding

the

SWC

Contests

Maintenance

of

the

newly

constructed

practices

is

the

first

priority

and

complementary

vegetative

and

soil

management

practices

are

essential

in

order

to

achieve

impact

on

soil

productivity

Vegetative

conservation

practices

-LRB-

grasses

bushes

or

trees

-RRB-

also

strengthen

most

SWC

practices

and

make

them

more

sustainable

They

require

however

controlled

grazing

and

strict

rules

at

village

level

that

are

respected

by

all

villagers

Hence

only

when

such

regulations

are

collectively

agreed

upon

will

vegetative

practices

be

viable

and

will

SWC

practices

work

Given

the

importance

of

vegetation

establishing

tree

nurseries

in

each

village

preferably

at

family

level

is

part

of

the

holistic

approach

of

the

logical

strategy

By

means

of

an

Integrated

Project

-LRB-

Kessler

-RRB-

a

group

of

farmers

interested

in

agroforestry

is

trained

to

become

trainers

in

this

topic

Through

farmer-to-farmer

training

technical

knowledge

regarding

agroforestry

practices

can

be

spread

to

a

large

number

of

farmers

Similarly

other

groups

of

farmers

specialize

in

for

example

manure

management

-LRB-

improved

stables

manure

storage

and

collection

methods

-RRB-

composting

or

green

manure

practices

The

spreading

and

replication

of

SWC

practices

to

all

the

other

fields

that

need

to

be

conserved

is

the

responsibility

of

each

family

Although

ideally

groups

that

participated

in

the

SWC

contest

will

continue

to

work

in

ayni

most

families

will

have

to

do

it

on

their

own

The

role

of

the

CLs

is

to

provide

support

whenever

it

is

requested

Differences

with

the

MARENASS

and

SID

Projects

Although

similar

in

many

aspects

especially

in

considering

SWC

as

being

part

of

an

integrated

approach

to

sustainable

rural

development

the

JGRC

project

conducted

its

SWC

contests

in

a

slightly

different

way

than

the

MARENASS

and

SID

projects

This

concerned

four

crucial

aspects

The

emphasis

on

training

in

specific

SWC

practices

during

each

contest

instead

of

leaving

more

space

for

experimentation

The

reason

the

SWC

contests

are

foremost

an

extension

tool

i.e.

they

aim

at

providing

farmers

with

basic

practical

knowledge

of

some

simple

SWC

alternatives

After

the

contests

farmers

experiment

with

innovations

and

will

adapt

and

improve

the

practices.The

emphasis

on

laying

a

solid

foundation

for

sustainable

development

before

starting

the

SWC

contests

The

reason

only

farmers

with

a

progress-driven

attitude

will

continue

to

experiment

and

innovate

after

the

project

's

withdrawal.The

use

of

contests

between

groups

instead

of

families

or

villages

The

reason

to

stimulate

group

formation

and

collaboration

within

a

village

i.e.

to

maintain

or

re-establish

the

traditional

work

in

ayni

and

to

contribute

to

better

internal

relations

and

knowledge

exchange.The

subsidizing

of

tools

to

stimulate

participation

in

the

contests

but

no

-LRB-

or

insignificant

-RRB-

prizes

for

winning

groups

The

reason

not

having

the

tools

is

often

a

major

limitation

for

participating

but

once

farmers

participate

they

must

become

convinced

by

the

result

of

their

work

and

not

by

the

prizes

they

can

win

Results

and

Discussion

Table

shows

that

similar

numbers

of

family

labor

days

were

invested

during

the

SWC

contests

in

all

villages

Groups

generally

worked

two

aynis

-LRB-

or

two

complete

labor

days

-RRB-

on

each

group

member

's

fields

Stone

lines

were

the

most

popular

practice

executed

during

the

contests

with

labor

accounting

for

to

of

total

labor

days

invested

In

Tomoroco

and

Kaynakas

with

more

steeply

sloping

land

considerable

investments

were

made

in

bench

terraces

while

in

Sirichaca

and

Patallajta

gully

control

works

-LRB-

especially

the

smaller

ones

-RRB-

and

earth

bunds

-LRB-

due

to

the

absence

of

stones

-RRB-

were

given

more

attention

Table

number

of

labour

days

invested

per

family

for

each

SWC

practice

during

the

SWC

contestsSWC

practicesExperimental

villagesValidation

villagesTomorocoKaynakasSirichacaTalahuancaPatallajtaStone

lines

Diversion

ditches

Gully

Bench

terraces

Earth

bunds

Infiltration

ditches

Individual

terraces

Total

Source

M&E

data

in

-LRB-

experimental

villages

-RRB-

and

-LRB-

validation

villages

-RRB-

Table

shows

that

the

percentage

of

families

participating

in

the

construction

of

practices

during

the

SWC

contests

was

lowest

in

Sirichaca

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

Patallajta

-LRB-

-RRB-

these

are

both

villages

in

which

a

solid

foundation

for

sustainable

development

was

never

laid

In

Tomoroco

the

participation

rate

was

highest

with

These

data

show

that

in

the

villages

where

activities

concerning

organization

collaboration

and

environmental

awareness

raising

had

already

been

successfully

executed

the

SWC

contests

were

able

to

mobilize

more

people

Table

of

families

actively

involved

in

SWC

activitiesSWC

activityExperimental

villagesValidation

villagesTomorocoKaynakasSirichacaTalahuancaPatallajtaConstruction

of

SWC

practices

during

the

SWC

of

SWC

practices

two

years

after

project

of

SWC

practices

two

years

after

project

M&E

data

in

and

-LRB-

during

the

contests

-RRB-

and

ex-post

evaluation

data

in

However

initial

motivation

is

easy

continued

motivation

is

what

really

matters

-LRB-

Savenije

and

Huijsman

-RRB-

The

effectiveness

of

the

SWC

contests

can

only

be

properly

measured

by

evaluating

the

continued

use

of

SWC

practices

after

the

project

's

withdrawal

Table

shows

the

results

of

the

ex-post

evaluation

in

which

the

percentage

of

families

that

have

maintained

and

replicated

SWC

practices

was

assessed

Concerning

maintenance

in

Tomoroco

this

percentage

is

highest

and

has

even

increased

presently

of

all

families

perform

adequate

maintenance

of

one

or

more

SWC

practices

Quality

of

maintenance

was

moderate

to

good

in

Tomoroco

-LRB-

Table

-RRB-

stone

lines

and

bench

terraces

were

especially

well

maintained

In

Kaynakas

fewer

families

are

currently

involved

in

SWC

activities

some

families

have

not

maintained

their

practices

or

have

even

removed

stone

lines

and

gully

control

measures

In

some

cases

stones

from

stone

lines

were

used

for

fruit

tree

terraces

such

farmers

experimented

with

and

adapted

practices

Farmers

often

refine

their

practices

under

environmental

pressure

-LRB-

Veihe

-RRB-

They

may

for

example

consider

stones

more

effective

for

terrace

building

than

for

stone

bunds

This

is

supported

by

Table

in

Kaynakas

the

quality

of

maintenance

is

better

for

bench

terraces

than

for

stone

lines

Bench

terraces

are

popular

and

productive

for

vegetables

Table

of

maintenance

of

SWC

practices

two

years

after

project

withdrawalSWC

practicesExperimental

villagesValidation

villagesTomorocoKaynakasTalahuancaPatallajtaStone

lines

Diversion

ditches

Gully

control

Bench

terraces

n.a.n.a.Earth

bundsn.a.n.a

very

good

good

moderate

bad

very

bad

-LRB-

abandoned

-RRB-

n.a.

not

applicable

-LRB-

not

executed

-RRB-

Source

Ex-post

evaluation

data

in

Abandonment

of

SWC

practices

is

highest

in

Patallajta

where

two

consecutive

severe

drought

years

and

lack

of

impact

of

SWC

practices

caused

general

disillusion

among

the

villagers

Migration

increased

and

fields

were

left

unattended

Table

shows

that

quality

of

maintenance

is

bad

to

moderate

in

this

village

earth

bunds

which

were

heavily

damaged

during

a

high-intensity

rain

storm

were

all

abandoned

In

neighboring

Talahuanca

however

despite

severe

drought

and

similar

damage

to

earth

bunds

all

participating

families

in

the

SWC

contests

are

still

actively

involved

in

maintenance

except

for

earth

bunds

The

presence

in

Talahuanca

of

a

solid

foundation

for

sustainable

development

before

starting

the

SWC

contests

explains

the

differences

between

both

validation

villages

Maintenance

of

gully

control

measures

was

generally

given

little

attention

in

all

of

the

villages

although

most

people

are

of

the

opinion

that

these

practices

work

very

well

Concerning

replications

a

field

survey

in

revealed

that

in

Tomoroco

and

Kaynakas

wide-scale

replications

were

conducted

during

the

two

years

in

which

the

JGRC

project

was

in

effect

All

participating

families

in

the

SWC

contests

constructed

new

SWC

practices

This

was

mainly

attributed

to

the

inclusion

of

SWC

activities

in

other

activities

of

the

JGRC

project

-LRB-

namely

Integrated

Projects

see

Kessler

-RRB-

Stone

lines

and

diversion

ditches

were

mostly

replicated

and

covered

large

areas

of

the

agricultural

land

in

both

villages

The

average

investment

in

these

villages

in

maintenance

and

replications

of

SWC

practices

was

estimated

to

be

labor

days

per

family

during

these

two

years

-LRB-

to

-RRB-

However

more

important

from

a

sustainability

viewpoint

is

what

happened

after

the

project

's

withdrawal

-LRB-

starting

in

-RRB-

Table

shows

that

in

Tomoroco

of

all

families

constructed

replications

of

SWC

practices

in

the

subsequent

two

years

in

the

other

villages

this

was

much

lower

-LRB-

about

-RRB-

Stone

lines

especially

were

replicated

given

their

relatively

low

labor

requirements

The

differences

between

the

villages

are

explained

by

the

fact

that

Tomoroco

has

more

potential

land

for

constructing

stone

lines

while

in

Talahuanca

and

Kaynakas

the

most

important

fields

had

already

been

protected

Moreover

on

the

steeper

slopes

of

Kaynakas

stone

lines

sometimes

disturb

land

preparation

In

this

village

bench

terraces

were

found

more

useful

but

their

replication

requires

higher

investments

Replications

of

stone

lines

were

found

in

only

one

village

outside

the

project

area

near

Tomoroco

Hence

the

SWC

contests

have

achieved

mixed

results

in

the

five

villages

They

were

effective

in

three

villages

Tomoroco

Kaynakas

and

Talahuanca

The

most

positive

outcome

is

that

in

these

villages

-LRB-

on

average

-RRB-

more

than

of

the

families

are

currently

involved

in

one

way

or

another

in

SWC

activities

and

this

was

achieved

without

using

incentive

schemes

or

cash

prizes

Most

villagers

also

consider

the

executed

SWC

practices

useful

and

more

than

half

of

the

farmers

plan

to

replicate

more

measures

in

the

near

future

The

three

villages

have

in

common

that

they

all

have

solid

foundations

for

sustainable

development

which

were

laid

before

the

SWC

contests

were

conducted

-LRB-

in

the

first

Phase

of

the

logical

strategy

-RRB-

This

has

triggered

a

renewed

interest

in

alternatives

to

improve

living

conditions

including

better

soil

management

The

most

negative

outcomes

are

that

in

two

of

these

villages

-LRB-

Kaynakas

and

Talahuanca

-RRB-

replication

rates

are

currently

very

low

and

in

all

villages

CLs

are

no

longer

active

as

trainers

It

seems

that

the

dynamics

of

the

process

came

to

a

halt

after

the

project

's

withdrawal

Some

farmers

cautiously

experiment

and

replicate

SWC

practices

but

most

of

them

only

maintain

existing

practices

and

wait

for

tangible

results

before

investing

in

new

ones

Similarly

the

CLs

find

themselves

in

a

vacuum

they

are

rarely

asked

for

advice

and

there

is

no

common

objective

to

keep

the

CLs

groups

active

The

catalyst

of

the

process

the

project

is

no

longer

there

The

CLs

were

expected

to

fulfill

this

motivating

role

after

the

project

's

withdrawal

but

this

has

not

happened

On

the

other

hand

in

Tomoroco

and

Kaynakas

the

landscape

has

visibly

changed

due

to

the

installed

SWC

practices

and

internal

regulations

concerning

controlled

grazing

are

being

complied

with

-LRB-

Kessler

-RRB-

According

to

the

respondents

in

the

ex-post

evaluation

SWC

contests

work

of

respondents

are

positive

about

the

actual

impact

of

the

contests

Most

importantly

for

many

farmers

the

experiences

acquired

during

the

contests

with

alternative

techniques

and

practices

have

served

as

a

basis

for

experimentation

Under

the

marginal

conditions

of

poor

farmers

adapting

innovations

is

more

important

than

adopting

innovations

-LRB-

Van

de

Fliert

and

Braun

-RRB-

The

message

that

alternatives

are

available

to

improve

productivity

has

come

through

people

are

interested

and

have

started

to

experiment

with

new

techniques

In

this

respect

it

is

interesting

to

observe

the

usage

of

other

SWC

practices

that

were

not

included

in

the

contests

but

are

now

practiced

by

interested

farmer

groups

and

CLs

Table

shows

that

several

of

these

practices

are

currently

in

use

by

a

considerable

number

of

families

especially

improved

traditional

practices

like

crop

rotations

-LRB-

including

leguminous

crops

-RRB-

and

mixed

cropping

systems

Hence

knowledge

transfer

from

farmer

to

farmer

does

also

occur

spontaneously

If

these

SWC

practices

would

have

been

included

in

the

SWC

contests

their

adoption

rate

could

have

been

much

higher

Therefore

a

first

recommendation

of

this

paper

is

to

also

conduct

SWC

contests

in

which

practices

are

not

previously

defined

The

contests

described

in

this

paper

filled

an

important

knowledge

gap

and

provided

farmers

with

basic

information

However

the

failure

of

earth

bunds

and

the

removal

of

other

practices

by

several

families

prove

that

only

executing

contests

with

some

predefined

practices

is

not

enough

Stimulating

people

's

creativity

and

having

each

individual

family

decide

which

management

practices

best

fit

their

conditions

is

considered

crucial

in

the

MARENASS

and

SID

projects

-LRB-

Van

Immerzeel

and

De

Zutter

-RRB-

Local

adaptations

of

existing

practices

will

become

available

sooner

if

more

space

is

left

for

farmers

initiatives

during

the

contests

Hence

the

JGRC-type

of

contests

can

be

maintained

as

a

training

tool

but

other

-LRB-

more

general

-RRB-

SWC

contests

should

be

organized

as

a

follow-up

activity

Table

of

families

using

other

SWC

practices

two

years

after

project

withdrawalSWC

practicesExperimental

villagesValidation

villagesObservationsTomorocoKaynakasTalahuancaPatallajtaManure

traditional

practiceGreen

practiceCrop

traditional

practiceStrip

practiceMixed

traditional

practiceSource

Ex-post

evaluation

data

in

A

second

recommendation

is

to

strengthen

the

role

of

local

organizations

in

providing

follow-up

support

to

the

SWC

contests

The

major

weakness

of

the

JGRC

project

was

its

incapacity

to

institutionalize

the

process

SWC

activities

continued

at

a

high

rate

when

the

project

fulfilled

its

catalyst

function

but

drastically

decreased

after

the

project

's

withdrawal

Of

course

municipalities

were

always

involved

in

the

activities

but

their

genuine

participation

was

not

achieved

Longer-lasting

institutional

support

in

organizing

and

facilitating

more

SWC

contests

would

have

strengthened

the

CLs

role

and

would

have

kept

the

dynamic

process

going

To

some

extent

farmers

can

respond

to

land

degradation

without

external

support

but

they

need

continued

provision

of

technical

assistance

and

information

in

order

to

make

progress

-LRB-

Paudel

and

Thapa

-RRB-

Farmers

have

often

lost

the

self-confidence

and

capacity

to

adapt

and

innovate

-LRB-

Reijntjes

and

others

-RRB-

without

external

support

they

will

continue

to

farm

in

the

way

they

have

in

the

past

-LRB-

Percy

-RRB-

Given

that

SWC

contests

are

a

low-budget

extension

tool

they

can

be

easily

organized

by

municipalities

and

local

NGOs

for

example

However

despite

the

involvement

of

local

leaders

during

the

SWC

contests

the

active

involvement

of

many

extension

workers

is

needed

especially

when

larger

areas

are

to

be

covered

in

order

to

achieve

a

wide-scale

impact

This

can

be

a

major

limitation

for

local

institutions

policies

at

the

macro-level

that

enable

the

implementation

of

a

farmer-based

extension

approach

are

therefore

required

Earlier

in

this

paper

we

already

mentioned

that

in

Bolivia

profound

changes

at

institutional

level

are

required

that

give

priority

to

extension

Only

when

such

changes

are

made

can

SWC

contests

become

an

effective

extension

tool

to

make

haste

slowly

In

Bolivia

to

date

governments

have

never

committed

themselves

to

extension

strategies

were

not

clearly

defined

and

the

extension

service

constituted

a

large

burden

on

the

state

budget

-LRB-

Bojanic

-RRB-

Presently

many

participatory

approaches

and

tools

are

available

-LRB-

Chambers

and

others

-RRB-

that

have

proven

their

effectiveness

over

the

last

decades

Based

on

case

studies

in

Thailand

and

Laos

Connell

-LRB-

-RRB-

concludes

that

there

are

several

opportunities

for

the

institutionalization

of

participatory

approaches

in

mainstream

extension

but

that

they

all

require

significant

political

commitment

Particularly

regarding

environmental

problems

different

interest

groups

often

pull

in

complementary

and

opposing

directions

-LRB-

Röling

and

Pretty

-RRB-

The

challenge

ahead

for

effective

extension

is

to

combine

efforts

This

has

been

done

in

Chile

where

the

government

has

contracted

private

technology

companies

to

cater

for

the

larger

commercial

farmers

and

NGOs

for

small

subsistence-oriented

farmers

Rivera

and

Qamar

-LRB-

-RRB-

for

example

propose

a

mixture

of

funding

and

service

delivery

modalities

governments

could

provide

funding

and

NGOs

could

deliver

the

extension

services

If

the

political

willingness

is

present

this

could

also

present

an

interesting

opportunity

in

Bolivia

Conclusions

The

challenge

we

face

in

SWC

is

to

quickly

achieve

widespread

sustainable

results

i.e.

to

make

haste

slowly

-LRB-

Savenije

and

Huijsman

-RRB-

Based

on

the

success

of

SWC

contests

elsewhere

in

the

Andes

-LRB-

Van

Immerzeel

and

De

Zutter

-RRB-

the

JGRC

project

used

this

innovative

tool

in

five

rural

Bolivian

villages

to

put

making

haste

slowly

into

practice

Mixed

results

were

achieved

with

SWC

contests

between

farmer

groups

On

the

one

hand

in

villages

where

a

solid

foundation

for

sustainable

development

had

already

been

laid

participation

rates

in

the

SWC

contests

were

high

Most

farmers

were

still

involved

in

SWC

activities

even

two

years

after

project

withdrawal

without

receiving

any

incentive

In

these

villages

large

areas

are

currently

protected

with

physical

SWC

practices

and

farmers

have

also

started

to

experiment

with

other

soil

management

practices

On

the

other

hand

in

the

same

villages

the

renewed

system

of

collaboration

focused

on

SWC

was

lost

when

the

project

withdrew

and

Conservation

Leaders

did

not

continue

with

their

training

activities

Despite

the

visible

widespread

impact

of

the

contests

sustainability

is

thus

not

yet

assured

Farmers

easily

become

disillusioned

and

unmotivated

in

the

absence

of

a

catalyst

to

keep

the

process

of

SWC

contests

and

farmer-to-farmer

training

going

Moreover

tangible

results

such

as

higher

soil

productivity

take

a

long

time

to

appear

Farmers

are

opportunistic

in

poor

regions

like

the

Bolivian

mountain

valleys

especially

they

will

grasp

any

opportunity

to

increase

income

Two

recommendations

were

given

in

this

paper

to

make

SWC

contests

more

effective

in

an

extension

strategy

First

in

addition

to

the

contests

described

here

other

SWC

contests

should

be

organized

in

which

practices

are

not

predefined

this

will

stimulate

peoples

creativity

in

developing

adaptations

of

existing

practices

Second

commitment

is

required

from

local

institutions

to

support

SWC

contests

as

an

extension

tool

only

then

can

Conservation

Leaders

continue

their

activities

and

can

a

widespread

impact

be

achieved

Given

the

responsibility

of

Bolivian

municipalities

for

rural

development

they

must

be

the

first

to

become

actively

involved

in

extension

However

steering

and

support

with

adequate

strategies

from

departmental

and

state

institutions

is

indispensable

this

will

motivate

municipalities

to

take

natural

resources

conservation

and

rural

development

more

seriously

Without

such

support

any

attempt

to

spread

SWC

practices

via

participatory

extension

methodologies

such

as

farmer

contests

will

likely

fail

no

matter

how

logical

and

well-designed

the

strategy

may

be

O B I I I O O O O O O O B I I B I I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

soil and water conservation
sustainable rural development
farmer contests
bolivian mountain valleys

farmer-based extension
farmer-to-farmer training


Hypothermia following antipsychotic drug use Objective Hypothermia is an adverse drug reaction -LRB- ADR -RRB- of antipsychotic drug -LRB- APD -RRB- use . Risk factors for hypothermia in ADP users are unknown . We studied which risk factors for hypothermia can be identified based on case reports . Introduction Antipsychotic drugs -LRB- APDs -RRB- can influence thermoregulation . Even before its psychotropic properties were clear in the early 1950s , the first manufactured APD , chloropromazine , was used to suppress compensatory responses to body cooling in surgery -LRB- artificial hibernation -RRB- -LSB- 1 -RSB- . The hypothermic effects of APDs seem less well known than the hyperthermic effects -LRB- e.g. , malignant neuroleptic syndrome -RRB- . Besides occasional case reports , little emphasis has been placed in scientific literature on hypothermia as adverse drug reaction -LRB- ADR -RRB- . To our knowledge , a review of all reported and published cases of antipsychotic associated hypothermia has not yet been published . Methods The WHO international database for Adverse Drug Reactions was searched for reports of hypothermia and APD use -LRB- ATC-code N05A , with exclusion of lithium -RRB- . The data in the database are collected from 77 countries participating in the WHO Program for International Drug Monitoring . This database comprises more than 3.5 million case reports , to which around 50,000 new reports are added quarterly . The relationship between the APD and hypothermia is evaluated by calculating the Reporting Odds Ratios -LRB- RORs -RRB- and 95 % confidence intervals -LRB- 95 % CI -RRB- in a case/non-case design . The ROR compares the frequency of the reported ADR for a certain drug with the frequency of reports of that adverse drug reaction for all other drugs in the database . Reports concerning hypothermia were considered as cases , all other reports as non-cases . Index reports included all reports on an APD -LRB- ATC code beginning with N05A , with exclusion of lithium -RRB- , all other reports were controls . When the number of reports of hypothermia in association with the APD is high and the number of reports of hypothermia in association with other drugs is low , ROR will be high . This also happens when the number of reports of other ADRs in association with the APD is low and the number of reports of other ADRs in association with other drugs is low . Since the vast majority of cases in the WHO database do not contain any details on indication of drug use , start and/or end dates and outcome , these factors can not be analyzed with data from the WHO database . To get more information regarding characteristics of patients developing hypothermia during APD use , we performed a literature search in Medline and Embase for case reports with search terms `` -LRB- antipsychotic OR neuroleptic -RRB- AND -LRB- hypothermia OR body temperature regulation -RRB- , with no selection on date or language . From these articles , we searched the references for missing articles . Two reviewers judged all case reports . All relevant case reports were studied for patient , drug and environmental characteristics . Results In the WHO database , in January 2007 , 480 reports were registered of patients developing hypothermia during the use of APDs . Characteristics of these reports are presented in Table 1 . In the same period , 524 reports of hyperthermia associated with antipsychotic drug use were registered . Based on the reports , no specific pharmacological subgroup can be associated with an increased risk for hypothermia . Atypical antipsychotics are responsible for 55 % of the reports , but this is mainly attributable to risperidone . Risperidone alone was responsible for 27 % of all reports . A remarkable high association is found for pipamperone -LRB- ROR : 24.62 ; 95 % CI 13.16 -- 46.07 -RRB- , an antipsychotic drug mainly used in Europe . Table 1Antipsychotic drugs and hypothermia : reports from the WHO databaseAntipsychotic drugNumber of reports for hypothermiaNumber of reports for any ADR with this drugReported OR -LRB- CI -RRB- a for ADRs with ≥ 3 reportsTioxanthenes Zuclopenthixol13109415 .88 -LRB- 9.18 -- 27.47 -RRB- Flupenthixol616774 .73 -LRB- 2.12 -- 10.55 -RRB- Chlorprothixen450210 .58 -LRB- 3.95 -- 28.31 -RRB- Tiotixene39044 .38 -LRB- 1.41 -- 13.62 -RRB- Clopenthixol2293-Phenothiazines Thioridazine2344366 .90 -LRB- 4.57 -- 10.41 -RRB- Chlorpromazine1661823 .43 -LRB- 2.09 -- 5.60 -RRB- Levomepromazine1123486 .21 -LRB- 3.43 -- 11.24 -RRB- Cyamemazine911979 .99 -LRB- 5.18 -- 19.27 -RRB- Periciazine843025 ,00 -LRB- 12.41 -- 50.36 -RRB- Pipothiazine319720 .36 -LRB- 6.50 -- 63.71 -RRB- Fluphenazine326561 .49 -LRB- 0.48 -- 4.62 -RRB- Trifluoperazine318952 .09 -LRB- 0.67 -- 6.48 -RRB- Perphenazine21522 - Prochlorperazine24451 - Promazine2307 - Mesoridazine1215-Butyrofenones Haloperidol32105436 .21 -LRB- 3.43 -- 11.24 -RRB- Pipamperone1054624 .62 -LRB- 13.16 -- 46.07 -RRB- Droperidol21178 - Benperidol1146-Benzamides Tiapride559611 .14 -LRB- 4.62 -- 26.89 -RRB- Sulpiride418282 .89 -LRB- 1.08 -- 7.70 -RRB- Amisulpiride11514 - Sultopride172-Others Loxapine49285 .70 -LRB- 2.13 -- 15.23 -RRB- Pimozide36286 .31 -LRB- 2.03 -- 19.65 -RRB- Zotepine2260 - Prothipendyl193 - Penfluridol158-Atypical Risperidone129184319 .65 -LRB- 8.09 -- 11.52 -RRB- Clozapine68442552 .05 -LRB- 1.61 -- 2.61 -RRB- Olanzapine44160903 .65 -LRB- 2.71 -- 4.91 -RRB- Quetiapine2153745 .19 -LRB- 3.38 -- 7.98 -RRB- Aripiprazole1145663 .18 -LRB- 1.76 -- 5.76 -RRB- Ziprasidone829633 .57 -LRB- 1.78 -- 7.15 -RRB- aROR = -LRB- a/c -RRB- / -LRB- b/d -RRB- ; -LRB- a = no . of reports of adverse drug reaction with suspected drug ; b = no . of reports of adverse drug reaction in total database ; c = no . of reports regarding the suspected drug in database ; d = total no . of reports in database -RRB- . ROR is only calculated for APDs with three or more reports The literature search resulted in 32 articles containing 43 case reports -LRB- December 2006 -RRB- -LSB- 3 -- 34 -RSB- from which characteristics are summarized in Table 2 . Hypothermia following antipsychotic drug use is not associated with a specific age group . Reported ages vary from 0 to 90 years . In most cases , hypothermia is detected shortly following the start or dose increase of an antipsychotic drug . Most patients suffered from schizophrenia . Table 2Characteristics of cases with hypothermia following antipsychotic drug use in literature -LRB- 43 case reports , 46 episodes -RRB- CharacteristicsDataMale41 % Age : mean -LRB- SD -RRB- 49 -LRB- 23.0 -RRB- Range 0 -- 90 yearsReported body temperature : mean -LRB- SD -RRB- 32,6 °C -LRB- 2.7 -RRB- Range 20.0 -- 36.1 °C Diagnosis known -LRB- n = 35 -RRB- Schizophrenia51 % Mental retardation11 % Bipolar disorder11 % Dementia11 % Drug change Start or dose increase80 % No change16 % Interval drug change detection hypothermia < 2 days57 % 2 -- 7 days16 % Outcome death4 % ICU admission24 % Hospitalization -LRB- incl . prolonged -RRB- 69 % Discussion Hypothermia in patients using an APD is a serious , unpredictable , type B adverse event frequently leading to hospital and ICU admission and sometimes even to death . Some authors have even suggested that a substantial proportion of unexplained deaths should be attributed to antipsychotic-induced hypothermia -LSB- 3 , 35 -RSB- . No single sufficient cause for hypothermia can be found in case reports . First , drug-receptor profile may play a role . Serotonin is associated with thermoregulation and APDs with a stronger affinity for the 5-HT2a receptor than for the D2-receptor -LRB- pipamperone , the atypical APDs -RRB- seem to be associated with hypothermia . The high association for relatively new drugs , like the atypical APDs , can partially be explained by reporting bias -LRB- reporting incidence for adverse drug effects is higher for new drugs and tends to decline in time ; the so-called Weber-effect -RRB- , but the high number of reports for risperidone should keep clinicians alert . Blocking alpha2-adrenergic receptors -LRB- e.g. , chloropromazine , risperidone , clozapine , thioridazine -RRB- may also increase the hypothermic effect , by inhibiting peripheral responses to cooling -LRB- vasoconstriction and shivering -RRB- . Next to this receptor profile , many patient-bound factors must be considered . Patients with pre-existing brain damage may be more susceptible to hypothermic effects . The pre-optic anterior hypothalamic region regulates body temperature . Animal studies show that lesions of this region give a hypothermic response following administration of an APD -LSB- 36 , 37 -RSB- . In patients with multiple sclerosis , hypothermia is also associated with thalamic lesions -LSB- 38 -RSB- . Studies in schizophrenic patients show that core temperature decreases following the administration of APDs -LSB- 39 , 40 -RSB- . Our search shows a predominance of case reports for schizophrenic patients and little for other frequent APD user groups like demented or delirious elderly . In schizophrenia , thermal regulation is altered . This may be explained by changes in neurotensine levels in schizophrenia . Neurotensine -LRB- NT -RRB- is one of the most important thermoregulatory peptides that also plays a role in the antipsychotic actions of APDs . In schizophrenic patients , NT concentration in cerebro-spinal fluid -LRB- CSF -RRB- is low and will be normalized following antipsychotic drug use -LSB- 41 -RSB- . The hypothermic reaction is also dependent on ambient temperature . In animal studies , APD administration at ambient temperatures below 22 °C led to hypothermia , whereas APD administration in a room temperature of 29 °C gave no thermal response and at 32 °C an increase in rectal temperature -LSB- 41 , 42 -RSB- . Normally , a cold environment will result in behavior aimed at protection against the cold -LRB- taking extra blankets or clothes -RRB- . APDs , however , will induce apathy and indifference , resulting in unawareness of developing hypothermia . Since some case reports also mention the co-existence of infections at the time of development of hypothermia , this may also play a role in the dysregulation of thermal homeostasis . There is an ongoing discussion concerning the value of case reports and spontaneous reports in the field of drug safety . There can be no discussion that pharmacodiligence requires prospective studies , access to regulatory filings for controlled and monitored use of drugs , and some sense of relative potency for comparison between different drug entities . However , large cohorts are needed for the detection and analysis of type B reactions . Since these data are lacking , case and spontaneous reports by alert clinicians must be analyzed -LSB- 43 -RSB- . The outcome of such an analysis can not be seen as solid evidence , but can help to get more insight in the adverse drug reaction -LRB- ADR -RRB- . The use of measures like ROR and disproportionality can help to detect drugs with an increased association with an ADR . A statistically significant ROR may be indicative of a higher risk for that particular event during the use of a specific medication , but is never conclusive for the actual existence of a causal relation -LSB- 2 -RSB- . The results of this study should alert physicians of the risk of hypothermia in psychiatric patients using APDs . There seems to be no direct relation between stable drug dose and the ADR ; the period shortly after starting the APD or dose increase seems to be the high risk period . Often , drug changes are indicated by behavioral problems also leading to separation or isolation of the patient . In the case of separation , patients will be dressed lightly and , even at normal room temperature , can cool down easily . In these cases , the patient 's body temperature should be monitored daily -LRB- with a thermometer that can measure low body temperatures -RRB- . Also , every change in behaviour or co-morbidity -LRB- e.g. , infections -RRB- should be a warning sign to look for hypothermia .

B O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O

antipsychotic agents
adverse drug effect