Exploring

Large

Hyperdocuments

Fisheye

Views

of

Nested

Networks

Emanuel

G.

Noik

-LRB-

noik@db.toronto.edu

-RRB-

Computer

Systems

Research

Institute

University

of

Toronto

Toronto

Canada

Abstract

Browsing

large

hypertexts

by

following

links

can

be

difficult

and

confusing

especially

if

links

span

distant

nodes

Often

a

user

would

like

to

explore

several

regions

of

a

network

simultaneously

when

studying

the

end

points

of

one

or

more

links

for

example

Although

this

can

be

achieved

by

displaying

each

area

of

interest

in

a

separate

zoomed-in

window

the

union

of

such

views

is

not

always

meaningful

In

particular

valuable

context

showing

the

relationships

between

the

views

is

lost

By

balancing

local

detail

and

global

context

fisheye

views

display

information

at

several

levels

of

abstraction

simulta

neously

We

have

devised

a

novel

technique

for

generating

fisheye

views

of

hierarchically

nested

structures

with

multiple

variable

strength

focal

points

In

this

paper

we

demonstrate

its

feasibility

as

a

tool

for

exploring

large

nested

hypertext

networks

Introduction

Although

hypertext

and

hypermedia

systems

have

matured

in

terms

of

power

and

sophistication

many

usability

issues

remain

unresolved

One

problem

area

that

has

been

receiving

growing

attention

is

the

scarcity

of

effective

navigation

tech

niques

for

exploring

large

or

unfamiliar

hyperdocuments

-LSB-

-RSB-

Lost

in

hyperspace

is

a

common

phenomenon

cited

by

users

who

have

felt

disoriented

when

navigating

through

the

information

space

In

response

numerous

techniques

including

landmarks

timestamps

and

footprints

have

been

proposed

-LSB-

-RSB-

These

approaches

were

devised

with

the

assump

tion

that

most

users

navigate

hyperdocuments

in

order

to

locate

some

pertinent

item

of

information

Unfortunately

these

techniques

are

of

limited

benefit

for

users

who

set

out

to

understand

the

overall

structure

of

a

large

hyperdocument

With

respect

to

this

latter

goal

several

techniques

have

been

proposed

including

multi-level

overviews

-LSB-

-RSB-

nesting

and

link

inheritance

-LSB-

-RSB-

and

three-dimensional

displays

of

networks

-LSB-

-RSB-

Nonetheless

these

have

not

been

completely

successful

overviews

do

not

scale

well

nesting

provides

a

second

level

of

organization

that

can

aid

users

understanding

but

it

too

does

not

fare

well

when

the

information

space

grows

in

size

link-inheritance

although

useful

in

decluttering

a

display

by

reducing

the

number

of

visible

links

does

not

allow

more

information

-LRB-

greater

number

of

nodes

-RRB-

to

be

displayed

effectively

by

harnessing

the

implicit

effect

of

the

geometry

of

point

perspective

displays

provide

a

natural

single

focal

point

fisheye

view

of

the

information

space

but

this

technique

alone

does

not

permit

the

simultaneous

emphasis

of

two

or

more

regions

of

a

network

The

problem

of

visualizing

large

information

spaces

is

not

confined

to

the

exploration

of

hypertext

networks

the

limitations

of

video

display

technology

and

the

human

visual

system

constrain

the

amount

information

that

can

be

effectively

shown

and

discerned

on

a

computer

console

To

combat

this

problem

Furnas

suggested

an

analogy

to

the

wide

angle

or

fisheye

lens

the

generalized

fisheye

view

-LSB-

-RSB-

By

balancing

local

detail

and

global

context

fisheye

views

-LRB-

FEVs

-RRB-

display

information

at

several

levels

of

abstraction

simultaneously

We

have

devised

a

novel

technique

for

generating

FEVs

of

hierarchically

nested

structures

employing

multiple

variable

strength

focal

points

In

this

paper

we

describe

how

this

technique

is

applied

to

the

visualization

of

nested

hypertext

networks

This

paper

appeared

in

modified

form

in

Hypertext

The

ACM

Conference

on

Hypertext

and

Hypermedia

Seattle

WA

Nov.

-LSB-

-RSB-

The

paper

proceeds

as

follows

Furnas

formulation

of

generalized

FEVs

is

outlined

a

sample

hyperdocument

is

introduced

and

several

overview

visualizations

created

using

existing

techniques

are

demonstrated

our

FEV

approach

is

described

several

exploration

scenarios

are

suggested

in

order

to

demonstrate

how

our

technique

can

be

used

to

generate

effective

FEVs

of

the

sample

hyperdocument

the

remainder

comprises

a

few

notes

on

implementation

directions

for

future

work

and

conclusions

Fisheye

views

Furnas

generalized

FEV

technique

relied

upon

an

abstract

notion

of

a

view

element

with

an

associated

a

priori

importance

-LRB-

API

-RRB-

and

a

distance

measure

between

any

pair

of

elements

One

element

was

selected

to

be

the

fisheye

focal

point

-LRB-

FP

-RRB-

A

degree

of

interest

-LRB-

DOI

-RRB-

function

computed

a

measure

of

the

user

's

interest

in

each

element

the

DOI

increased

with

API

and

decreased

with

distance

to

the

FP

A

FEV

was

obtained

by

displaying

only

elements

whose

DOI

exceeded

a

threshold

The

exact

formulations

of

the

DOI

and

distance

functions

were

expected

to

vary

with

each

application

Recent

applications

of

generalized

FEVs

can

be

loosely

grouped

into

two

categories

filtering

FEVs

and

distorting

FEVs

Filtering

FEV

approaches

use

thresholding

to

constrain

the

display

of

information

to

relevant

or

interesting

elements

and

have

remained

more

faithful

to

Furnas

original

conception

For

example

this

approach

was

used

to

filter

the

display

of

aircraft

maintenance

data

-LSB-

-RSB-

to

control

the

amount

of

output

produced

in

response

to

boolean

queries

-LSB-

-RSB-

and

to

determine

the

most

interesting

links

in

hypertext

navigation

-LSB-

-RSB-

Furnas

described

similar

filtering

FEVs

of

C

programs

and

appointment

calendars

-LSB-

-RSB-

One

graph

FEV

approach

-LSB-

-RSB-

described

in

the

next

section

also

belongs

in

this

category

Distorting

FEV

approaches

on

the

other

hand

pursue

the

analogy

to

the

fisheye

lens

further

but

in

doing

so

they

begin

to

depart

from

Furnas

The

basic

idea

is

to

geometrically

distort

visualizations

to

obtain

visual

fisheye

effects

Rather

than

filtering

elements

distortion

is

used

to

alter

elements

positions

and

sizes

Two

graph

FEV

approaches

-LSB-

-RSB-

described

in

the

next

section

are

of

this

type

FEVs

of

graphs

Several

approaches

for

obtaining

FEVs

of

graphs

have

been

documented

-LSB-

-RSB-

Fairchild

et

al

described

three

filtering

FEVs

of

the

networks

of

SemNet

clustering

three-dimensional

point

perspective

and

sampling

density

-LSB-

-RSB-

In

clustering

recursive

subdivision

of

the

graph

volume

yielded

an

tree

with

SemNet

nodes

partitioned

among

its

leaves

tree

distance

-LRB-

an

approximation

of

euclidean

distance

-RRB-

was

used

in

the

DOI

function

The

second

strategy

was

based

on

the

implicit

effect

of

the

geometry

of

point

perspective

in

three

dimensions

by

which

nearby

points

loom

large

and

distant

points

appear

small

Although

not

implemented

the

third

technique

was

motivated

by

the

workings

of

the

human

retina

which

samples

an

image

densely

at

its

center

of

focus

and

in

successively

less

detail

for

points

further

away

All

three

strategies

were

defined

in

terms

of

a

single

FP

Sarkar

and

Brown

described

a

distorting

FEV

of

graphs

in

which

a

drawing

of

a

graph

was

subjected

to

a

distortion

that

altered

the

positions

and

sizes

of

nodes

-LSB-

-RSB-

Although

their

solution

could

be

implemented

efficiently

using

special

purpose

graphics

hardware

it

was

limited

to

non-nested

graphs

with

a

single

FP

Misue

and

Sugiyama

described

three

distorting

FEVs

fisheye

orthogonal

fisheye

and

biform

-LSB-

-RSB-

These

methods

have

been

applied

to

drawings

of

compound

digraphs

-LSB-

-RSB-

a

nested

graph

formalism

The

first

two

method

employed

distortions

similar

to

Sarkar

and

Brown

's

while

the

third

used

uniform

scaling

Although

these

methods

supported

multiple

equal

strength

FPs

they

could

not

handle

variable

strength

FPs

The

main

problem

with

all

of

these

approaches

is

their

reliance

on

a

geometric

interpretation

of

distance

Under

this

assumption

the

resulting

FEV

depends

completely

on

the

original

drawing

of

the

graph

elements

positioned

near

a

FP

receive

a

higher

DOI

rating

Such

approaches

are

therefore

only

effective

in

cases

where

the

abstract

distance

between

nodes

corresponds

to

their

proximity

in

the

drawing

-LRB-

e.g.

transportation

networks

where

nodes

are

positioned

using

cartographic

data

-RRB-

This

basic

flaw

was

also

noted

in

previous

work

-LSB-

-RSB-

The

layout-independent

FEV

technique

outlined

in

this

paper

overcomes

this

limitation

Other

related

work

TreeMaps

-LSB-

-RSB-

and

Cone

Trees

-LSB-

-RSB-

are

two

techniques

for

visualizing

hierarchical

structures

that

incorporate

FEV

concepts

by

using

shape

and

size

distortion

and

perspective

respectively

Note

that

our

FEV

technique

could

be

modified

to

calculate

the

sizes

of

the

nested

rectangles

in

TreeMaps

Although

not

strictly

a

distorting

FEV

the

Perspective

Wall

used

to

display

linear

information

-LSB-

-RSB-

is

a

related

visualization

technique

Nested

hyperdocuments

Nested

graphs

and

networks

Several

nested

graph

and

hypertext

systems

have

been

described

in

the

literature

the

following

are

some

examples

Storyspace

-LSB-

-RSB-

SemNet

-LSB-

-RSB-

Interactive

Graphical

Documents

-LRB-

IGD

-RRB-

-LSB-

-RSB-

NoteCards

-LSB-

-RSB-

state

charts

and

higraphs

-LSB-

-RSB-

the

KJ

method

which

employs

compound

digraphs

-LSB-

-RSB-

semantic

knowledge

networks

-LSB-

-RSB-

and

Intermedia

-LSB-

-RSB-

The

NoteCards

model

of

hypertext

for

example

is

built

around

four

basic

constructs

ffl

Notecards

A

notecard

is

an

electronic

generalization

of

the

paper

notecard

Each

card

may

contain

some

multi-media

artifact

such

as

text

graphics

image

sound

video

Each

card

also

has

a

title

ffl

Links

Links

are

used

to

interconnect

individual

cards

into

networks

Links

are

directed

and

typed

by

a

user-chosen

label

that

describes

the

nature

of

the

relationship

ffl

Browsers

A

browser

is

a

specialized

notecard

that

contains

a

diagram

of

a

network

of

notecards

ffl

Fileboxes

A

filebox

is

a

specialized

notecard

that

is

used

to

organize

or

categorize

large

collections

of

notecards

Browsers

are

used

to

display

the

structure

of

the

network

while

fileboxes

provide

additional

hierarchical

structure

to

aid

in

coping

with

large

networks

A

sample

hyperdocument

The

Canada-U.S.

Free

Trade

Agreement

-LRB-

FTA

-RRB-

is

a

medium-sized

document

that

has

been

converted

into

electronic

format

for

viewing

with

the

lector

flexible

text

display

tool

-LSB-

-RSB-

The

document

has

a

well-defined

hierarchical

structure

that

comprises

parts

chapters

articles

sections

annexes

and

levels

of

itemization

Two

possible

lector

visualizations

are

shown

in

Figures

-LRB-

a

-RRB-

and

-LRB-

b

-RRB-

The

first

example

shows

a

portion

of

the

formatted

parts

chapters

and

articles

filtered

view

while

the

second

example

displays

a

portion

of

the

complete

formatted

text

Note

that

the

size

of

the

document

does

not

permit

a

coherent

textual

overview

without

resorting

to

extreme

information

filtering

Furthermore

textual

overviews

are

very

one-dimensional

a

simple

textual

section

heading

does

not

indicate

how

much

structure

is

contained

within

In

an

effort

to

produce

more

informative

two-dimensional

graphical

overviews

we

converted

the

lector

marked-up

text

of

the

FTA

into

several

types

of

graphs

The

first

graph

shown

in

Figure

provides

a

flat

-LRB-

non-nested

-RRB-

overview

of

the

document

and

consists

of

nodes

and

links

The

nodes

of

the

graph

represent

the

document

headings

The

labelled

links

of

the

graph

are

of

three

kinds

containment

-LRB-

e.g.

from

a

part

to

a

contained

chapter

-RRB-

sequencing

-LRB-

i.e.

the

original

linear

ordering

-RRB-

and

semantic

-LRB-

e.g.

cross

references

-RRB-

Note

that

the

purpose

of

a

graphical

overview

in

a

hypertext

setting

is

to

elucidate

the

structure

of

the

information

space

and

the

user

's

location

within

it

to

aid

navigation

and

exploration

This

technique

was

intended

to

complement

text

visualization

tools

not

to

replace

them

Viewing

the

text

associated

with

the

leaves

of

the

overview

graph

can

be

accomplished

by

integrating

a

tool

like

lector

with

a

graphical

graph

browser

as

done

in

the

Hy

system

for

example

-LSB-

-RSB-

Although

the

flat

graph

of

Figure

is

not

overly

large

by

present-day

standards

it

is

clear

that

a

simple

one-level

overview

is

totally

ineffective

both

as

a

navigation

aid

and

as

a

means

of

displaying

the

structure

of

the

document

Since

the

FTA

had

a

well-defined

structure

we

added

nesting

to

the

flat

graph

resulting

in

the

graph

shown

in

Figure

This

graph

consists

of

the

original

nodes

fileboxes

and

links

-LRB-

sequencing

and

semantic

only

-RRB-

While

the

previous

visualization

is

a

substantial

improvement

over

the

original

flat

overview

it

is

still

cluttered

To

reduce

this

problem

we

applied

the

link

inheritance

technique

-LSB-

-RSB-

to

reduce

the

number

of

visible

links

The

resulting

graph

shown

in

Figure

contains

visible

links

A

more

extreme

decluttering

approach

is

available

through

information

hiding

the

contents

of

selected

nodes

can

be

hidden

and

revealed

as

necessary

Figure

shows

a

graphical

version

of

the

parts

and

chapters

filtered

view

Unlike

its

textual

counterpart

-LRB-

Fig.

-LRB-

a

-RRB-

-RRB-

the

graphical

overview

is

more

two-dimensional

the

physical

extent

of

a

hidden

region

provides

some

indication

of

its

size

These

examples

provide

convincing

evidence

that

the

combination

of

nesting

and

link

inheritance

can

be

used

to

generate

more

effective

overviews

of

medium-sized

hyperdocuments

Nevertheless

as

the

visualization

of

Figure

suggests

as

the

-LRB-

a

-RRB-

A

parts

chapters

and

articles

view

-LRB-

b

-RRB-

A

full

contents

view

Figure

Two

lector

views

of

the

FTA

size

of

the

information

space

grows

overviews

require

the

addition

of

pan

and

zoom

facilities

to

make

it

possible

for

users

to

read

the

node

labels

Layout-independent

FEVs

We

now

describe

our

method

for

producing

FEVs

of

hierarchically

nested

structures

with

multiple

variable

FPs

The

crux

of

our

approach

is

to

generate

FEVs

by

changing

the

size

of

each

element

in

relation

to

its

DOI

before

it

is

positioned

by

a

layout

algorithm

rather

than

by

altering

an

existing

layout

Since

our

technique

does

not

filter

or

distort

existing

layouts

it

does

not

properly

belong

to

either

of

the

filtering

and

distorting

FEV

categories

Before

presenting

our

generalized

FEV

formulation

and

the

generic

FP

proximity

algorithm

we

give

definitions

of

basic

terms

and

give

a

sketch

of

some

graph

layout

and

related

concepts

Preliminaries

Graphs

A

nested

graph

is

G

hG

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

G

-LRB-

A

-RRB-

G

-LRB-

C

-RRB-

i

where

G

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

is

a

set

of

vertices

G

-LRB-

A

-RRB-

G

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

G

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

is

a

set

of

arcs

and

G

-LRB-

C

-RRB-

ae

G

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

G

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

is

a

set

of

containment

arcs

Since

we

insist

on

hierarchical

nesting

the

nesting

graph

Gn

hGn

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

G

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

Gn

-LRB-

A

-RRB-

G

-LRB-

C

-RRB-

Gn

-LRB-

C

-RRB-

i

must

be

a

forest

of

trees

A

simple

nested

graph

and

its

nesting

forest

are

shown

in

Figure

For

v

Gn

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

anc

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

returns

v

's

ancestors

desc

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

v

's

descendants

ch

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

v

's

children

and

anc

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

desc

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

fvg

Vertex

geometry

For

layout

purposes

the

geometry

of

a

vertex

is

specified

relative

to

the

geometry

of

its

parent

in

Gn

This

makes

it

possible

to

resize

all

vertices

in

the

subtree

rooted

at

v

simply

by

changing

the

extents

of

v

The

bounding

box

a

b

c

d

ef

g

hi

j

k

lm

a

b

c

li

k

m

j

h

fe

g

d

Figure

A

sample

graph

and

its

nesting

forest

of

v

is

computed

as

the

smallest

rectangle

that

fully

encloses

v

's

label

and

subgraph

of

contained

vertices

Graph

layout

In

drawing

nested

graphs

topological

nesting

is

naturally

depicted

by

visual

containment

A

simple

bottom-up

algorithm

is

foreach

v

Gn

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

in

postorder

wrt

Gn

-LRB-

A

-RRB-

layout

graph

hch

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

-LRB-

ch

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

ch

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

-RRB-

G

-LRB-

A

-RRB-

i

compute

bounding

box

for

v

endfor

layout

non-nested

vertices

Step

positions

all

vertices

nested

within

a

given

vertex

relative

to

one

another

Similar

layout

algorithms

have

been

described

in

the

literature

-LSB-

-RSB-

As

an

aside

notice

that

a

composite

layout

strategy

-LSB-

-RSB-

can

be

realized

simply

by

associating

a

specific

layout

algorithm

with

each

vertex

Generalized

FEVs

of

nested

graphs

In

this

formulation

the

abstract

view

elements

are

vertices

thus

F

G

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

is

a

set

of

FPs

The

DOI

of

v

G

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

is

expressed

as

doi

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

api

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

-LRB-

p

wt

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

-LRB-

p

-RRB-

proxim

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

-RRB-

The

functions

api

wt

and

proxim

return

non-negative

real

values

api

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

is

v

's

API

wt

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

is

a

generic

measure

of

v

's

proximity

to

the

FPs

proxim

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

is

an

application

specific

measure

of

v

's

proximity

to

the

FPs

and

p

reflects

the

tradeoff

between

generic

and

domain-specific

notions

of

distance

Note

that

api

and

proxim

are

fixed

by

the

semantics

of

the

application

while

wt

is

computed

by

our

algorithm

To

generate

a

FEV

the

following

line

must

be

added

to

the

nested

layout

algorithm

uniformly

scale

the

bounding

box

of

v

by

pdoi

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

which

has

the

effect

of

increasing

the

total

area

of

v

's

bounding

box

by

doi

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

consistent

with

the

interpretation

that

the

amount

of

screen

space

allocated

to

an

element

should

reflect

its

DOI

The

function

mag

maps

a

FP

to

its

non-negative

real-valued

magnification

For

example

mag

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

implies

that

the

area

allocated

to

vertex

f

F

in

the

FEV

should

be

four

times

greater

than

what

it

would

have

been

in

a

regular

view

Generic

FP

proximity

algorithm

Given

Gn

F

api

and

mag

the

algorithm

determines

a

mapping

wt

such

that

f

F

Y

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

wt

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

mag

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

a

b

d

e

h

g

c

i

f

-LCB-

c

f

-RCB-

-LCB-

-RCB-

-LCB-

f

-RCB-

-LCB-

c

-RCB-

-LCB-

f

-RCB-

-LCB-

h

-RCB-

-LCB-

-RCB-

-LCB-

h

-RCB-

-LCB-

c

f

h

-RCB-

j

-LCB-

m

-RCB-

l

k

m

-LCB-

m

-RCB-

-LCB-

m

-RCB-

-LCB-

-RCB-

-LRB-

a

-RRB-

The

marked-up

nesting

forest

-LRB-

the

labels

of

FP

vertices

have

square

corners

while

the

rest

have

rounded

corners

-RRB-

a

b

c

d

ef

g

h

i

j

k

l

m

-LRB-

b

-RRB-

The

resulting

FEV

Figure

The

sample

graph

example

continued

Note

that

due

to

the

relative

geometry

of

vertices

the

final

size

of

a

vertex

depends

on

the

product

of

the

weights

of

its

ancestors

The

above

formula

therefore

says

that

in

the

absence

of

domain-specific

distance

metrics

-LRB-

i.e.

p

in

doi

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

-RRB-

and

in

addition

to

api

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

contribution

each

FP

f

will

have

its

total

area

magnified

by

mag

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

The

trick

then

is

to

distribute

the

value

mag

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

among

the

ancestors

of

f

in

such

a

way

that

the

resulting

layout

will

exhibit

the

desired

FEV

characteristics

Now

we

present

the

algorithm

Step

First

for

each

vertex

v

G

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

we

compute

key

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

desc

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

F

Figure

-LRB-

a

-RRB-

shows

the

keys

associated

with

the

vertices

in

the

sample

graph

given

F

fc

f

h

mg

Vertices

that

share

the

same

key

form

a

path

in

the

nesting

forest

and

are

associated

with

the

same

FP

the

path

's

sink

s

Gn

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

if

s

F

s

is

a

composite

FP

-LRB-

a

least

common

ancestor

of

two

or

more

FPs

-RRB-

In

our

example

there

are

two

composite

FPs

a

and

b

The

mapping

fpSet

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

returns

the

set

of

vertices

associated

with

FP

f

For

example

fpSet

-LRB-

m

-RRB-

fj

k

mg

and

fpSet

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

fd

fg

Step

Having

obtained

the

keys

we

generate

the

FP

containment

graph

Gc

hGc

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

Gc

-LRB-

A

-RRB-

i.

Each

v

Gc

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

is

a

FP

that

either

contains

one

or

more

FPs

or

is

contained

by

a

FP

Gc

-LRB-

A

-RRB-

ae

Gc

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

Gc

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

is

the

set

of

-LRB-

u

v

-RRB-

arcs

such

that

u

contains

v

and

there

is

no

w

for

which

u

contains

w

and

w

contains

v.

Following

our

example

Gc

is

the

subgraph

induced

by

the

dashed

arcs

in

Figure

-LRB-

a

-RRB-

Step

We

now

compute

the

values

mag

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

for

each

composite

FP

f

in

a

single

postorder

traversal

of

Gc

The

magnification

of

each

composite

FP

is

a

function

of

the

set

of

FPs

that

it

contains

For

example

mag

-LRB-

b

-RRB-

-LRB-

fmag

-LRB-

c

-RRB-

ss

-LRB-

c

b

-RRB-

mag

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

ss

-LRB-

f

b

-RRB-

g

-RRB-

where

ss

-LRB-

u

v

-RRB-

Y

-LRB-

u

-RRB-

-LSB-

fvg

ffi

-LRB-

w

u

anc

-LRB-

u

-RRB-

-RRB-

computes

the

product

of

vertex

weights

along

the

v

to

u

path

assuming

that

F

fug

and

ffi

-LRB-

v

f

S

-RRB-

is

a

function

that

assigns

a

weight

to

v

assuming

that

mag

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

is

distributed

among

the

vertices

in

S.

For

the

examples

shown

in

this

paper

-LRB-

S

-RRB-

returns

the

minimum

element

in

S

while

ffi

-LRB-

v

f

S

-RRB-

distributes

mag

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

evenly

among

all

of

the

vertices

in

S

-LRB-

i.e.

ffi

-LRB-

v

f

S

-RRB-

mag

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

Sj

v

S

-RRB-

Next

with

a

single

postorder

traversal

of

Gc

for

every

-LRB-

u

v

-RRB-

Gc

-LRB-

A

-RRB-

we

scale

FP

magnifications

as

follows

mag

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

mag

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

mag

-LRB-

u

-RRB-

Step

Now

we

are

ready

to

compute

wt

First

wt

is

initialized

as

follows

v

G

-LRB-

V

-RRB-

wt

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

Then

using

the

scaled

magnification

values

for

every

FP

f

-LRB-

both

composite

and

original

-RRB-

and

for

every

vertex

v

fpSet

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

we

compute

wt

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

ffi

-LRB-

v

f

fpSet

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

-RRB-

The

resulting

FEV

is

shown

in

Figure

-LRB-

b

-RRB-

that

mag

-LRB-

f

-RRB-

could

also

be

used

to

explicitly

reduce

f

's

area

FEVs

of

nested

networks

We

now

present

two

simple

scenarios

that

demonstrate

how

FEVs

can

be

used

when

exploring

large

nested

hypertext

networks

Scenario

In

our

first

example

a

user

navigates

through

a

hyperdocument

by

following

links

and

uses

an

overview

diagram

as

a

you

are

here

style

guide

map

When

by

following

a

link

the

vantage

point

shifts

to

a

distant

or

unfamiliar

part

of

the

network

the

user

would

like

to

get

a

more

detailed

overview

of

the

new

region

Pan

and

zoom

facilities

can

be

used

to

do

just

that

however

it

becomes

more

difficult

to

simultaneously

display

overviews

of

both

the

original

and

target

regions

The

main

deficiency

of

zoomed-in

views

is

the

loss

of

valuable

intervening

context

that

shows

how

such

views

are

related

global

context

is

exchanged

for

local

detail

Following

our

FTA

example

suppose

a

user

is

exploring

Article

in

Chapter

of

the

document

and

discovers

that

there

is

a

link

to

Annex

in

Chapter

The

user

would

like

to

ascertain

whether

following

this

link

will

prove

fruitful

in

his

search

and

wishes

to

examine

an

informative

overview

that

shows

both

of

these

items

and

their

neighbourhoods

simultaneously

Since

the

current

location

is

deemed

by

the

user

to

be

more

important

a

FEV

with

FPs

f

-LRB-

Intellectual

-RRB-

-LRB-

Monopolies

-RRB-

g

is

produced

These

settings

result

in

the

former

item

's

total

area

being

increased

by

percent

and

the

latter

's

area

increased

ten-fold

in

relation

to

the

original

nested

overview

diagram

as

shown

in

Figure

This

visualization

successfully

combines

local

detail

and

global

context

the

relationships

among

nodes

and

links

are

preserved

while

two

regions

have

been

simultaneously

magnified

so

that

contained

labels

can

be

easily

discerned

Scenario

A

second

type

of

task

that

is

quite

common

in

the

context

of

hypertext

exploration

is

the

discovery

of

common

features

in

the

network

Powerful

text

searching

engines

such

as

pat

-LSB-

-RSB-

developed

for

the

new

Oxford

English

Dictionary

project

can

be

used

to

explore

the

textual

information

in

a

hyperdocument

Returning

to

our

FTA

example

suppose

that

a

user

is

interested

in

finding

all

the

occurrences

of

the

word

trade

in

a

full

document

heading

As

it

turns

out

there

are

four

such

instances

centering

a

FP

on

each

one

results

in

the

diagram

shown

in

Figure

Once

again

the

details

of

the

four

regions

are

clearly

visible

as

are

the

features

of

the

global

structure

Implementation

All

Figures

shown

in

this

paper

were

produced

by

graphite

a

suite

of

Unix

programs

developed

at

the

University

of

Toronto

-LSB-

-RSB-

Graphite

comprises

approximately

lines

of

C++

source

code

and

includes

programs

that

can

perform

composite

graph

layout

of

nested

graphs

produce

several

types

of

FEV

visualizations

-LRB-

including

those

obtained

by

the

technique

described

in

this

paper

-RRB-

and

convert

graphs

into

Encapsulated

PostScript

Several

graphite

components

have

been

incorporated

into

existing

systems

including

G

Hy

-LSB-

-RSB-

and

-LSB-

-RSB-

Future

directions

The

application

of

our

algorithm

to

nested

hypertext

networks

suggests

several

directions

for

future

research

Our

generic

FP

proximity

algorithm

ignores

the

arcs

of

the

nested

graph

We

are

currently

investigating

formulations

of

the

DOI

that

capture

link-sensitive

distance

metrics

through

appropriate

choices

of

the

application

specific

proxim

function

In

particular

we

are

studying

the

generation

of

dynamic

FEV

navigation

maps

in

which

a

node

's

DOI

also

reflects

its

abstract

distance

from

the

current

node

-LRB-

user

's

location

in

the

hyperdocument

-RRB-

that

is

in

addition

to

wt

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

proxim

-LRB-

v

-RRB-

may

approximate

v

's

connectivity

to

the

current

node

The

computation

of

such

a

proximity

measure

requires

the

formalization

of

the

DOI

contributions

of

a

single

link

a

set

of

links

on

a

path

and

a

set

of

paths

-LRB-

e.g.

the

contribution

of

a

single

link

may

vary

according

to

its

type

direction

and

proximity

to

the

current

node

-RRB-

A

second

problem

with

our

approach

is

that

of

layout

stability

It

is

very

common

to

position

the

nodes

displayed

in

an

overview

diagram

by

an

automatic

layout

algorithm

Since

many

such

algorithms

are

sensitive

to

the

sizes

and

shapes

of

the

objects

that

they

position

changing

nodes

sizes

-LRB-

as

done

when

generating

FEVs

-RRB-

can

greatly

influence

the

output

of

the

layout

algorithm

During

the

process

of

creating

a

FEV

then

many

nodes

may

be

repositioned

in

relatively

arbitrary

ways

causing

the

user

to

become

disoriented

It

would

be

invaluable

to

determine

the

class

of

incremental

stable

layout

algorithms

that

could

be

used

to

automatically

position

the

nodes

of

a

nested

network

Another

usability

issue

with

the

present

version

of

the

algorithm

is

the

requirement

that

the

user

supply

exact

magnification

values

when

specifying

FPs

An

inexperienced

user

can

not

easily

predict

the

effect

of

FPs

magnifications

on

the

resulting

visualization

the

effect

is

a

function

of

the

topology

and

size

of

the

network

larger

networks

require

stronger

FPs

to

magnify

interesting

areas

to

an

acceptable

size

A

more

user-friendly

solution

would

have

the

user

supply

a

list

of

FPs

that

are

partially

ordered

with

respect

to

magnification

from

which

the

exact

magnification

values

could

be

determined

algorithmically

Conclusion

Exploring

large

hyperdocuments

can

be

difficult

in

the

absence

of

effective

visualization

facilities

Although

the

overview

and

pan

and

zoom

techniques

can

help

a

user

to

understand

the

structure

of

large

networks

these

approaches

do

not

support

some

forms

of

exploration

In

particular

these

approaches

are

inadequate

at

presenting

several

regions

of

a

network

in

detail

while

simultaneously

displaying

the

network

's

global

structure

As

one

strategy

for

coping

with

this

problem

we

described

a

generalized

approach

for

generating

layout-independent

fisheye

views

of

nested

graphs

with

multiple

variable

focal

points

and

demonstrated

its

feasibility

as

a

tool

to

aid

in

the

exploration

of

large

nested

hypertext

networks

References

-LSB-

-RSB-

M.

Bernstein

J.D.

Bolter

M.

Joyce

and

E.

Mylonas

Architectures

for

Volatile

Hypertext

In

Hypertext

pages

San

Antonio

Tx

Dec.

ACM

-LSB-

-RSB-

M.P.

Consens

I.F.

Cruz

and

A.O.

Mendelzon

Visualizing

Queries

and

Querying

Visualizations

ACM

SIGMOD

Record

-LRB-

-RRB-

Mar.

-LSB-

-RSB-

M.P.

Consens

A.O.

Mendelzon

and

A.G

Ryman

Visualizing

and

Querying

Software

Structures

In

Intl.

Conf

on

Software

Engineering

pages

-LSB-

-RSB-

G.

Dittrich

and

K.

Tochtermann

Browsing

in

unstrukturierten

Hyperdokumenten

In

Hypertext/Hypermedia

pages

Graz

Austria

Mar.

Springer-Verlag

-LSB-

-RSB-

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annex

22 2324 2526 2728

30 3132 2223 2425

29 3032 3435 3637

47 4849 5253 5455

70 7172 7374 7576

15 1617 1819

29 3031 3233 3435

37 3839 4041 4243

45 4647 4849 5051

30 3234 3536 3738

40 4142 4344 4546

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OTHER

PROVISIONS

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Other

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a

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Statistical

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TRADE

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No

Disguised

B

a

b

Compatibility

Accreditation

Acceptance

of

Information

Exchange

a

bc

d

Further

Implem

ab

c

i

ii

Definitions

Agriculture

article

Agricultural

S

Special

Provis

b

ca

b

a

bc

Market

Access

Market

Access

Market

Access

a

bc

Market

Access

ab

iiiiii

Market

Access

Technical

a

b

cd

e

a

bc

a

b

i

ii

iii

iv

vvivii

viii

iii

iii

Consultations

International

Definitions

annex

iii

c

a

i

ii

iii

iv

v

vi

vii

viii

ix

x

xi

i

ii

iii

ii

i

ii

iii

iv

i

i

a

ba

b

ab

ab

iii

b

c

d

e

f

iii

b

c

d

ab

c

a

b

c

d

e

f

g

hi

a

b

ab

a

b

ca

b

c

de

f

g

a

b

c

d

a

b

a

b

c

d

e

iiiiii

a

b

a

iiiiii

iv

ca

b

c

de

a

b

ab

c

a

b

i

ii

iii

ivv

d

Wine

and

Distil

article

Coverage

a

bc

Listing

a

bc

d

ef

Pricing

a

bc

d

e

fg

Distribution

ab

Blending

Requirement

Distinctive

Products

International

Definitions

Energy

article

Scope

a

bc

d

Import

and

Exp

annex

ab

Export

Taxes

Other

Export

M

a

bc

Regulatory

and

Government

Inc

National

Secur

a

bc

d

International

Definitions

annex

a

bc

Trade

in

Automo

article

Existing

Arra

Waiver

of

Cus

a

ba

b

a

b

Import

Restrictions

a

bc

d

e

Select

Panel

Relationship

a

b

Definitions

annex

a

bc

d

e

fg

a

b

Emergency

Action

article

Bilateral

Actions

a

iii

c

a

b

c

d

Global

Actions

ab

Arbitration

Definitions

Exceptions

for

article

GATT

Exceptions

Protocol

of

P

Miscellaneous

a

bc

Beer

and

Malt

a

bc

GATT

Rights

GOVERNMENT

PROCUREMENT

chapter

Government

Proc

article

Objective

Reaffirmation

Scope

Coverage

Expanded

Proc

ab

iiiiii

d

Monitoring

an

ab

Further

Negot

National

Security

Definitions

annex

22 2324 2526 2728

30 3132 2223 2425

29 3032 3435 3637

47 4849 5253 5455

70 7172 7374 7576

15 1617 1819

29 3031 3233 3435

37 3839 4041 4243

45 4647 4849 5051

30 3234 3536 3738

40 4142 4344 4546

4952 5354 5556

a

ba

b

c

de

fg

hi

j

SERVICES

INVEST

chapter

Services

article

Scope

and

Coverage

a

bc

d

Rights

and

Ob

a

bc

a

bc

Licensing

and

Sectoral

Annexes

Future

Implem

ab

Denial

of

Benefits

Taxation

Definitions

annex

Scope

and

Coverage

Development

of

M

a

bc

d

e

Implementation

ab

iii

Review

Scope

and

Coverage

ab

Obligations

a

bc

d

Relationship

to

ab

Consultation

ab

Objective

Scope

and

Coverage

Rights

and

Obligations

a

bc

d

ef

Existing

Access

Monopolies

Exceptions

iii

b

iiiiii

Definitions

Temporary

Entry

article

General

Principle

Obligations

Consultation

ab

Dispute

Settlement

ab

Relationship

Definitions

annex

a

bc

a

b

ca

ba

ba

b

cd

Investment

article

Scope

and

Coverage

a

bc

National

Treatment

a

bc

d

a

ba

ba

bc

Performance

R

a

bc

d

Monitoring

Expropriation

a

bc

d

Transfers

a

bc

a

b

cd

e

f

Existing

Legi

a

bc

Disputes

Taxation

and

International

Definitions

annex

a

b

a

bc

iii

b

a

b

c

d

a

b

c

i

ii

iii

ivv

iiiiii

a

bc

a

b

c

iii

b

ii

a

b

a

b

ab

c

FINANCIAL

SERVICES

chapter

Financial

Services

article

Scope

and

Coverage

Commitments

o

Commitments

o

a

bc

d

e

ab

c

d

Notification

General

Provisions

Definitions

a

ba

b

INSTITUTIONAL

PR

chapter

Institutional

P

article

Application

The

Commission

Notification

Consultations

Initiation

of

Arbitration

ab

Panel

Procedures

Referrals

of

Binational

Pane

article

General

Provisions

Retention

of

ab

cd

iii

Review

of

Sta

ab

ab

iii

Review

of

Fin

a

ba

b

c

iiiii

b

a

bc

d

e

f

g

a

bc

d

e

iiiiii

iii

Prospective

A

ab

Duration

Working

Group

a

bc

Consultations

Establishment

Code

of

Conduct

Definitions

annex

ab

c

d

a

b

c

iii

iii

a

b

c

i

iiiii

iv

vvi

vii

iiiiii

v

a

iii

ab

OTHER

PROVISIONS

chapter

Other

Provisions

article

Tax

Convention

Balance

of

Payments

a

bi

National

Security

a

bi

c

Intellectual

Cultural

Industries

Retransmissio

a

ba

i

vb

Print-in-Cana

Plywood

Standards

Softwood

Lumber

Monopolies

a

ba

b

Nullification

Definitions

a

bc

d

e

FINAL

PROVISIONS

chapter

Final

Provisions

article

Statistical

R

ab

Publication

Annexes

Amendments

Entry

into

Force

Duration

and

Figure

A

different

fisheye

view

of

the

nested

version

of

the

FTA

Here

focal

points

are

Establishment

o

No

Disguised

B

Trade

in

Automo

and

Exceptions

for

-LRB-

all

have

mag

-RRB-

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