Patent ID: 12236120

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIG.1, described below, offers an example of a chiplet system and the components operating therein. As explained below, such chiplet systems may include a memory controller that has programmable atomic units that execute programmable atomic transactions that comprise one or more instructions. One way to store these instructions is to have the instructions reside in a memory (e.g., a memory die) controlled by the memory controller and have the instructions loaded as part of the atomic transaction. However, this solution adds significant latency to a particular programmable atomic transaction.

Instead, prior to execution, the instructions corresponding to a programmable atomic transaction are stored in a memory of the programmable atomic unit. For example, an operating system may load one or more programmable atomic transactions in a memory of the programmable atomic unit. In some examples, the memory is a Random Access Memory (RAM) of the programmable atomic unit. In some examples, the memory for storing the instructions corresponding to a programmable atomic transaction may be partitioned into fixed size blocks of instructions. Each programmable atomic transaction may use one or more contiguously located instruction blocks.

FIGS.1A and1Billustrate an example of a chiplet system110, according to an embodiment.FIG.1Ais a representation of the chiplet system110mounted on a peripheral board105, that can be connected to a broader computer system by a peripheral component interconnect express (PCIe), for example. The chiplet system110includes a package substrate115, an interposer120, and four chiplets, an application chiplet125, a host interface chiplet135, a memory controller chiplet140, and a memory device chiplet150. Other systems may include many additional chiplets to provide additional functionalities as will be apparent from the following discussion. The package of the chiplet system110is illustrated with a lid or cover165, though other packaging techniques and structures for the chiplet system can be used.FIG.1Bis a block diagram labeling the components in the chiplet system for clarity.

The application chiplet125is illustrated as including a network-on-chip (NOC)130to support a chiplet network155for inter-chiplet communications. In example embodiments NOC130may be included on the application chiplet125. In an example, NOC130may be defined in response to selected support chiplets (e.g., chiplets135,140, and150) thus enabling a designer to select an appropriate number or chiplet network connections or switches for the NOC130. In an example, the NOC130can be located on a separate chiplet, or even within the interposer120. In examples as discussed herein, the NOC130implements a chiplet protocol interface (CPI) network.

The CPI is a packet-based network that supports virtual channels to enable a flexible and high-speed interaction between chiplets. CPI enables bridging from intra-chiplet networks to the chiplet network155. For example, the Advanced eXtensible Interface (AXI) is a widely used specification to design intra-chip communications. AXI specifications, however, cover a great variety of physical design options, such as the number of physical channels, signal timing, power, etc. Within a single chip, these options are generally selected to meet design goals, such as power consumption, speed, etc. However, to achieve the flexibility of the chiplet system, an adapter, such as CPI, is used to interface between the various AXI design options that can be implemented in the various chiplets. By enabling a physical channel to virtual channel mapping and encapsulating time-based signaling with a packetized protocol, CPI bridges intra-chiplet networks across the chiplet network155.

CPI can use a variety of different physical layers to transmit packets. The physical layer can include simple conductive connections, or can include drivers to increase the voltage, or otherwise facilitate transmitting the signals over longer distances. An example of one such physical layer can include the Advanced Interface Bus (AIB), which in various examples, can be implemented in the interposer120. AIB transmits and receives data using source synchronous data transfers with a forwarded clock. Packets are transferred across the AIB at single data rate (SDR) or dual data rate (DDR) with respect to the transmitted clock. Various channel widths are supported by AIB. AIB channel widths are in multiples of 20 bits when operated in SDR mode (20, 40, 60, . . . ), and multiples of 40 bits for DDR mode: (40, 80, 120, . . . ). The AIB channel width includes both transmit and receive signals. The channel can be configured to have a symmetrical number of transmit (TX) and receive (RX) input/outputs (I/Os), or have a non-symmetrical number of transmitters and receivers (e.g., either all transmitters or all receivers). The channel can act as an AIB master or slave depending on which chiplet provides the master clock. AIB I/O cells support three clocking modes: asynchronous (i.e. non-clocked), SDR, and DDR. In various examples, the non-clocked mode is used for clocks and some control signals. The SDR mode can use dedicated SDR only I/O cells, or dual use SDR/DDR I/O cells.

In an example, CPI packet protocols (e.g., point-to-point or routable) can use symmetrical receive and transmit I/O cells within an AIB channel. The CPI streaming protocol allows more flexible use of the AIB I/O cells. In an example, an AIB channel for streaming mode can configure the I/O cells as all TX, all RX, or half RX and half RX. CPI packet protocols can use an AIB channel in either SDR or DDR operation modes. In an example, the AIB channel is configured in increments of 80 I/O cells (i.e. 40 TX and 40 RX) for SDR mode and 40 I/O cells for DDR mode. The CPI streaming protocol can use an AIB channel in either SDR or DDR operation modes. Here, in an example, the AIB channel is in increments of 40 I/O cells for both SDR and DDR modes. In an example, each AIB channel is assigned a unique interface identifier. The identifier is used during CPI reset and initialization to determine paired AIB channels across adjacent chiplets. In an example, the interface identifier is a 20-bit value comprising a seven-bit chiplet identifier, a seven-bit column identifier, and a six-bit link identifier. The AIB physical layer transmits the interface identifier using an AIB out-of-band shift register. The 20-bit interface identifier is transferred in both directions across an AIB interface using bits32-51of the shift registers.

AIB defines a stacked set of AIB channels as an AIB channel column. An AIB channel column has some number of AIB channels, plus an auxiliary channel. The auxiliary channel contains signals used for AIB initialization. All AIB channels (other than the auxiliary channel) within a column are of the same configuration (e.g., all TX, all RX, or half TX and half RX, as well as having the same number of data I/O signals). In an example, AIB channels are numbered in continuous increasing order starting with the AIB channel adjacent to the AUX channel. The AIB channel adjacent to the AUX is defined to be AIB channel zero.

Generally, CPI interfaces on individual chiplets can include serialization-deserialization (SERDES) hardware. SERDES interconnects work well for scenarios in which high-speed signaling with low signal count are desirable. SERDES, however, can result in additional power consumption and longer latencies for multiplexing and demultiplexing, error detection or correction (e.g., using block level cyclic redundancy checking (CRC)), link-level retry, or forward error correction. However, when low latency or energy consumption is a primary concern for ultra-short reach, chiplet-to-chiplet interconnects, a parallel interface with clock rates that allow data transfer with minimal latency may be utilized. CPI includes elements to minimize both latency and energy consumption in these ultra-short reach chiplet interconnects.

For flow control, CPI employs a credit-based technique. A recipient, such as the application chiplet125, provides a sender, such as the memory controller chiplet140, with credits that represent available buffers. In an example, a CPI recipient includes a buffer for each virtual channel for a given time-unit of transmission. Thus, if the CPI recipient supports five messages in time and a single virtual channel, the recipient has five buffers arranged in five rows (e.g., one row for each unit time). If four virtual channels are supported, then the recipient has twenty buffers arranged in five rows. Each buffer holds the payload of one CPI packet.

When the sender transmits to the recipient, the sender decrements the available credits based on the transmission. Once all credits for the recipient are consumed, the sender stops sending packets to the recipient. This ensures that the recipient always has an available buffer to store the transmission.

As the recipient processes received packets and frees buffers, the recipient communicates the available buffer space back to the sender. This credit return can then be used by the sender allow transmitting of additional information.

Also illustrated is a chiplet mesh network160that uses a direct, chiplet-to-chiplet technique without the need for the NOC130. The chiplet mesh network160can be implemented in CPI, or another chiplet-to-chiplet protocol. The chiplet mesh network160generally enables a pipeline of chiplets where one chiplet serves as the interface to the pipeline while other chiplets in the pipeline interface only with themselves.

Additionally, dedicated device interfaces, such as one or more industry standard memory interfaces145(such as, for example, synchronous memory interfaces, such as DDR5, DDR 6), can also be used to interconnect chiplets. Connection of a chiplet system or individual chiplets to external devices (such as a larger system can be through a desired interface (for example, a PCIE interface). Such as external interface may be implemented, in an example, through a host interface chiplet135, which in the depicted example, provides a PCIE interface external to chiplet system110. Such dedicated interfaces145are generally employed when a convention or standard in the industry has converged on such an interface. The illustrated example of a Double Data Rate (DDR) interface145connecting the memory controller chiplet140to a dynamic random access memory (DRAM) memory device150is just such an industry convention.

Of the variety of possible support chiplets, the memory controller chiplet140is likely present in the chiplet system110due to the near omnipresent use of storage for computer processing as well as sophisticated state-of-the-art for memory devices. Thus, using memory device chiplets150and memory controller chiplets140produced by others gives chiplet system designers access to robust products by sophisticated producers. Generally, the memory controller chiplet140provides a memory device specific interface to read, write, or erase data. Often, the memory controller chiplet140can provide additional features, such as error detection, error correction, maintenance operations, or atomic operation execution. For some types of memory, maintenance operations tend to be specific to the memory device150, such as garbage collection in NAND flash or storage class memories, temperature adjustments (e.g., cross temperature management) in NAND flash memories. In an example, the maintenance operations can include logical-to-physical (L2P) mapping or management to provide a level of indirection between the physical and logical representation of data. In other types of memory, for example DRAM, some memory operations, such as refresh may be controlled by a host processor or of a memory controller at some times, and at other times controlled by the DRAM memory device, or by logic associated with one or more DRAM devices, such as an interface chip (in an example, a buffer).

Atomic transactions are one or more data manipulation operations that, for example, may be performed by the memory controller chiplet140. In other chiplet systems, the atomic transactions may be performed by other chiplets. For example, an atomic transaction of “increment” can be specified in a command by the application chiplet125, the command including a memory address and possibly an increment value. Upon receiving the command, the memory controller chiplet140retrieves a number from the specified memory address, increments the number by the amount specified in the command, and stores the result. Upon a successful completion, the memory controller chiplet140provides an indication of the commands success to the application chiplet125. Atomic transactions avoid transmitting the data across the chiplet mesh network160, resulting in lower latency execution of such commands.

Atomic transactions can be classified as built-in atomics or programmable (e.g., custom) atomic transactions. Built-in atomic transactions are a finite set of operations that are immutably implemented in hardware. Programmable atomic transactions are small programs with one or more instructions (e.g., an instruction set) that may execute on a programmable atomic unit (PAU) (e.g., a custom atomic unit (CAU)) of the memory controller chiplet140.FIG.1illustrates an example of a memory controller chiplet that discusses a PAU.

The memory device chiplet150can be, or include any combination of, volatile memory devices or non-volatile memories. Examples of volatile memory devices include, but are not limited to, random access memory (RAM)—such as DRAM) synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), graphics double data rate type 6 SDRAM (GDDR6 SDRAM), among others. Examples of non-volatile memory devices include, but are not limited to, negative-and-(NAND)-type flash memory, storage class memory (e.g., phase-change memory or memristor based technologies), ferroelectric RAM (FeRAM), among others. The illustrated example includes the memory device150as a chiplet, however, the memory device150can reside elsewhere, such as in a different package on the peripheral board105. For many applications, multiple memory device chiplets may be provided. In an example, these memory device chiplets may each implement one or multiple storage technologies. In an example, a memory chiplet may include, multiple stacked memory die of different technologies, for example one or more SRAM devices stacked or otherwise in communication with one or more DRAM devices. Memory controller140may also serve to coordinate operations between multiple memory chiplets in chiplet system110; for example, to utilize one or more memory chiplets in one or more levels of cache storage, and to use one or more additional memory chiplets as main memory. Chiplet system110may also include multiple memory controllers140, as may be used to provide memory control functionality for separate processors, sensors, networks, etc. A chiplet architecture, such as chiplet system110offers advantages in allowing adaptation to different memory storage technologies; and different memory interfaces, through updated chiplet configurations, without requiring redesign of the remainder of the system structure.

FIG.2illustrates components of an example of a memory controller chiplet205, according to an embodiment. The memory controller chiplet205includes a cache210, a cache controller215, an off-die memory controller220(e.g., to communicate with off-die memory275), a network communication interface225(e.g., to interface with a chiplet network285and communicate with other chiplets), and a set of atomic and merge unit250. Members of this set can include, for example, a write merge unit255, a memory hazard unit260, built-in atomic unit265(for performing built in atomic transactions), or a programmable atomic unit (PAU)270(for performing programmable atomic transactions). The various components are illustrated logically, and not as they necessarily would be implemented. For example, the built-in atomic unit265likely comprises different devices along a path to the off-die memory. For example, the built-in atomic unit265could be in an interface device/buffer on a memory chiplet, as discussed above. In contrast, the programmable atomic unit270could be implemented in a separate processor on the memory controller chiplet205(but in various examples may be implemented in other locations, for example on a memory chiplet).

The off-die memory controller220is directly coupled to the off-die memory275(e.g., via a bus or other communication connection) to provide write operations and read operations to and from the one or more off-die memory, such as off-die memory275and off-die memory280. In the depicted example, the off-die memory controller220is also coupled for output to the atomic and merge unit250, and for input to the cache controller215(e.g., a memory side cache controller).

In the example configuration, cache controller215is directly coupled to the cache210, and may be coupled to the network communication interface225for input (such as incoming read or write requests), and coupled for output to the off-die memory controller220.

The network communication interface225includes a packet decoder230, network input queues235, a packet encoder240, and network output queues245to support a packet-based chiplet network285, such as CPI. The chiplet network285can provide packet routing between and among processors, memory controllers, hybrid threading processors, configurable processing circuits, or communication interfaces. In such a packet-based communication system, each packet typically includes destination and source addressing, along with any data payload or instruction. In an example, the chiplet network285can be implemented as a collection of crossbar switches having a folded Clos configuration, or a mesh network providing for additional connections, depending upon the configuration.

In various examples, the chiplet network285can be part of an asynchronous switching fabric. Here, a data packet can be routed along any of various paths, such that the arrival of any selected data packet at an addressed destination can occur at any of multiple different times, depending upon the routing. Additionally, chiplet network285can be implemented at least in part as a synchronous communication network, such as a synchronous mesh communication network. Both configurations of communication networks are contemplated for use for examples in accordance with the present disclosure.

The memory controller chiplet205can receive a packet having, for example, a source address, a read request, and a physical address. In response, the off-die memory controller220or the cache controller215will read the data from the specified physical address (which can be in the off-die memory275or in the cache210), and assemble a response packet to the source address containing the requested data. Similarly, the memory controller chiplet205can receive a packet having a source address, a write request, and a physical address. In response, the memory controller chiplet205will write the data to the specified physical address (which can be in the cache210or in the off-die memories275or280), and assemble a response packet to the source address containing an acknowledgment that the data was stored to a memory.

Thus, the memory controller chiplet205can receive read and write requests via the chiplet network285and process the requests using the cache controller215interfacing with the cache210, if possible. If the request cannot be handled by the cache controller215, the off-die memory controller220handles the request by communication with the off-die memories275or280, the atomic and merge unit250, or both. As noted above, one or more levels of cache may also be implemented in off-die memories275or280; and in some such examples may be accessed directly by cache controller215. Data read by the off-die memory controller220can be cached in the cache210by the cache controller215for later use.

The atomic and merge unit250are coupled to receive (as input) the output of the off-die memory controller220, and to provide output to the cache210, the network communication interface225, or directly to the chiplet network285. The memory hazard unit260, write merge unit255and the built-in (e.g., predetermined) atomic unit265can each be implemented as state machines with other combinational logic circuitry (such as adders, shifters, comparators, AND gates, OR gates, XOR gates, or any suitable combination thereof) or other logic circuitry. These components can also include one or more registers or buffers to store operand or other data. The PAU270can be implemented as one or more processor cores or control circuitry, and various state machines with other combinational logic circuitry or other logic circuitry, and can also include one or more registers, buffers, or memories to store addresses, executable instructions, operand and other data, or can be implemented as a processor. An example PAU270is shown inFIG.3.

The write merge unit255receives read data and request data, and merges the request data and read data to create a single unit having the read data and the source address to be used in the response or return data packet). The write merge unit255provides the merged data to the write port of the cache210(or, equivalently, to the cache controller215to write to the cache210). Optionally, the write merge unit255provides the merged data to the network communication interface225to encode and prepare a response or return data packet for transmission on the chiplet network285.

When the request data is for a built-in atomic operation, the built-in atomic unit265receives the request and reads data, either from the write merge unit255or directly from the off-die memory controller220. The atomic transaction is performed, and using the write merge unit255, the resulting data is written to the cache210, or provided to the network communication interface225to encode and prepare a response or return data packet for transmission on the chiplet network285.

The built-in atomic unit265handles predefined atomic transactions such as fetch-and-increment or compare-and-swap. In an example, these transactions perform a simple read-modify-write operation to a single memory location of 32-bytes or less in size. Atomic memory transactions are initiated from a request packet transmitted over the chiplet network285. The request packet has a physical address, atomic operator type, operand size, and optionally up to 32-bytes of data. The atomic transaction performs the read-modify-write to a cache memory line of the cache210, filling the cache memory if necessary. The atomic transaction response can be a simple completion response, or a response with up to 32-bytes of data. Example atomic memory transactions include fetch-and-AND, fetch-and-OR, fetch-and-XOR, fetch-and-add, fetch-and-subtract, fetch-and-increment, fetch-and-decrement, fetch-and-minimum, fetch-and-maximum, fetch-and-swap, and compare-and-swap. In various example embodiments, 32-bit and 64-bit operations are supported, along with operations on 16 or 32 bytes of data. Methods disclosed herein are also compatible with hardware supporting larger or smaller operations and more or less data.

Built-in atomic transactions can also involve requests for a “standard” atomic standard on the requested data, such as comparatively simple, single cycle, integer atomics—such as fetch-and-increment or compare-and-swap—which will occur with the same throughput as a regular memory read or write operation not involving an atomic operation. For these operations, the cache controller215may generally reserve a cache line in the cache210by setting a hazard bit (in hardware), so that the cache line cannot be read by another process while it is in transition. The data is obtained from either the off-die memory275or the cache210, and is provided to the built-in atomic unit265to perform the requested atomic transaction. Following the atomic transaction, in addition to providing the resulting data to the packet encoder240to encode outgoing data packets for transmission on the chiplet network285, the built-in atomic unit265provides the resulting data to the write merge unit255, which will also write the resulting data to the cache210. Following the writing of the resulting data to the cache210, any corresponding hazard bit which was set will be cleared by the memory hazard unit260.

The PAU270enables high performance (high throughput and low latency) for programmable atomic transactions (also referred to as “custom atomic transactions” or “custom atomic operations”), comparable to the performance of built-in atomic transactions. Rather than executing multiple memory accesses, in response to an atomic transaction request designating a programmable atomic transaction and a memory address, circuitry in the memory controller chiplet205transfers the atomic transaction request to PAU270and sets a hazard bit stored in a memory hazard register corresponding to the memory address of the memory line used in the atomic operation, to ensure that no other operation (read, write, or atomic transaction) is performed on that memory line, which hazard bit is then cleared upon completion of the atomic transaction. Additional, direct data paths provided for the PAU270executing the programmable atomic transactions allow for additional write operations without any limitations imposed by the bandwidth of the communication networks and without increasing any congestion of the communication networks.

The PAU270includes a multi-threaded processor320, for example, such as a RISC-V ISA based multi-threaded processor, having one or more processor cores, and further having an extended instruction set for executing programmable atomic transactions. When provided with the extended instruction set for executing programmable atomic transactions, the processor320of PAU270can be embodied as one or more hybrid threading processors. In some example embodiments, the processor320of PAU270provides barrel-style, round-robin instantaneous thread switching to maintain a high instruction-per-clock rate.

PAU270may include a local memory305, such as Static Random-Access Memory (SRAM), NAND, phase change memory, or the like. The local memory305may include registers335, instruction memory325, and cache330. The local memory305may be accessible to the processor320through a memory controller310.

Programmable atomic transactions can be performed by the PAU270involving requests for programmable atomic transactions on the requested data. A user can prepare programming code in the form of one or more instructions to provide such programmable atomic transactions. For example, the programmable atomic transactions can be comparatively simple, multi-cycle operations such as floating-point addition, or comparatively complex, multi-instruction operations such as a Bloom filter insert. The programmable atomic transactions can be the same as or different than the predetermined atomic transactions, insofar as they are defined by the user rather than a system vendor. For these operations, the cache controller215can reserve a cache line in the cache210, by setting a hazard bit (in hardware), so that cache line cannot be read by another process while it is in transition. The data is obtained from either the cache210or the off-die memories275or280, and is provided to the PAU270to perform the requested programmable atomic transaction. Following the atomic operation, the PAU270will provide the resulting data to the network communication interface225to directly encode outgoing data packets having the resulting data for transmission on the chiplet network285. In addition, the PAU270will provide the resulting data to the cache controller215, which will also write the resulting data to the cache210. Following the writing of the resulting data to the cache210, any corresponding hazard bit which was set will be cleared by the cache controller215.

In selected examples, the approach taken for programmable atomic transactions is to provide multiple, generic, programmable atomic transaction request types that can be sent through the chiplet network285to the memory controller chiplet205from an originating source such as a processor or other system component. The cache controllers215or off-die memory controller220identify the request as a programmable atomic transaction and forward the request to the PAU270. In a representative embodiment, the PAU270: (1) is a programmable processing element capable of efficiently performing a user defined atomic transaction; (2) can perform load and stores to memory, arithmetic and logical operations and control flow decisions; and (3) leverages the RISC-V ISA with a set of new, specialized instructions to facilitate interacting with such controllers215,220to atomically perform the user-defined transaction. In desirable examples, the RISC-V ISA contains a full set of instructions that support high level language operators and data types. The PAU270can leverage the RISC-V ISA, but will commonly support a more limited set of instructions and limited register file size to reduce the die size of the unit when included within the memory controller chiplet205.

As mentioned above, prior to the writing of the read data to the cache210, the set hazard bit for the reserved cache line is to be cleared, by the memory hazard unit260. Accordingly, when the request and read data is received by the write merge unit255, a reset or clear signal can be transmitted by the memory hazard unit260to the cache210to reset the set memory hazard bit for the reserved cache line. Also, resetting this hazard bit will also release a pending read or write request involving the designated (or reserved) cache line, providing the pending read or write request to an inbound request multiplexer for selection and processing.

FIG.3illustrates a block diagram of a programmable atomic unit270according to some examples of the present disclosure. As previously described, programmable atomic units may include one or more programmable atomic transactions that are specified by sets of one or more atomic instructions stored in instruction memory325that are custom defined and perform operations on memory managed by the memory controller. The instructions of atomic transactions may be specified by applications and/or processes outside the programmable atomic unit270that may reside on the memory controller chiplet205, other chiplets (such as application chiplet125), or an off chiplet-device. In some examples, the instructions of the programmable atomic transaction are loaded by the operating system when registered by a process. To execute the programmable atomic transaction, the initiating process sends a CPI message including an instruction to execute the requested programmable atomic transaction on the local memory305of the programmable atomic unit270by providing an index into the local memory of the programmable atomic unit270. The programmable atomic transactions may utilize cache330, registers335, and other memory of local memory305during execution. Local memory controller310may manage the local memory305. In some examples, programmable atomic unit270may not need the local memory controller as the local memory305may be SRAM.

As previously described, loading the instructions for a programmable atomic transaction as part of execution of the atomic transaction would add significant latency to the transaction. Disclosed in some examples, are methods, systems, devices, and machine readable mediums that store instructions for programmable atomic transactions in a memory of the programmable atomic unit prior to execution of the programmable atomic transaction. The memory in some examples may be an instruction RAM. The memory in some examples may be partitioned into partitions of a fixed size that stores a same number of instructions. Each programmable atomic transaction may use one or more contiguously located instruction partitions. By loading the instructions ahead of time, the instructions are ready for execution when the transaction is requested.

When requesting execution of a particular programmable atomic transaction, a requesting process may send a CPI request packet indicating the particular memory location (e.g., partition(s) within local memory305) within the programmable atomic unit which contain the previously loaded programmable atomic instructions to execute, a location of the memory managed by the memory controller chiplet205(e.g., off-die memory275,280) that is to be operated upon, and one or more arguments. The processor (e.g., processor320) then begins executing the instructions at the indicated partition. That is, the first instruction at the indicated partition is executed. The partition identifier may be used by the programmable atomic unit to retrieve a data structure indicating a number of partitions for the transaction and an instruction limit. The number of partitions is used to validate that a transaction is executing within appropriate partitions. An exception may be detected and the executing operation may be terminated if execution in an inappropriate partition is detected.

The programmable atomic unit performs one or more programmable atomic transactions by executing instructions from an instruction memory (such as a RAM) that is initialized by an operating system or another process. Execution of a programmable atomic transaction fails if the instruction RAM is not pre-initialized with the instructions. In some examples, the instruction RAM may be partitioned into regions of 32 instructions each partition. Each programmable atomic transaction is assigned a system unique index which is used to specify the instruction RAM partition to begin execution of the programmable atomic transaction. The system programmable atomic index is included as a field in the programmable atomic request message. In some examples, the instruction RAM may have one or more partitions, such as sixty-four partitions.

FIG.4illustrates a request packet for requesting execution of a particular programmable atomic transaction. The fields are described as:

FieldField NameWidthValueDescriptionCMD8126Extended VC1LEN5Packet LengthSC10Sequence Continue(ignored for EMD)DID12Destination NOC endpointPATH8Endpoint Offset <14:7>CP21Credit/Path Order - CreditReturn enabled in flits 3-Nand Path field based pathorderingTU2Transaction ID <9:8>EpOFF<6:0>7Endpoint Offset <6:0>TA8Transaction ID <7:0>EPOffset<33:15>19Endpoint Offset <33:15>EXCMD8Extended CommandBTYPE48BTYPE of 8 is EMDvendor definedSID12Source NOC endpointEPOFFSET <37:34>4Endpoint Offset <37:34>RSV40ReservedCR/RSV4Credit ReturnCrPKnd4Credit pool kindCrPIdx8Credit Pool IndexRSV40ReservedCaPIdx8Custom Atomic Partition IndexCaIntv8Interleave SizeCR/RSV4Credit ReturnDATA32Argument Data: 0, 1, 2, or 464 Bit ValuesCR/RSV4Credit Return

A programmable atomic transaction begins by executing the first instruction located at the partition in the instruction RAM (e.g., local memory305of programmable atomic unit270) of the programmable atomic transaction specified by the Custom Atomic Partition Index (CaPIdx). The operation starts at the first instruction within the partition. The CaPIdx may also be used to index into a control structure that contains additional information for the operation. The additional information includes a flag to indicate whether the transaction is valid, the number of partitions for the transaction and the instruction execution limit. The number of partitions is used to validate that an operation is executing within the appropriate partitions. An exception is detected and the executing operation is terminated if execution in an inappropriate partition is detection.

A response to the programmable atomic transaction is provided as a memory response. For example,FIG.5illustrates the response message. The fields of the response message are as follows:

FieldField NameWidthDescriptionCMD8Packet commandLEN5Encoded Packet LengthSC1Sequence Continue. When set, this packetis part of a multi-packet transfer and thispacket is not the last packet in thesequence. This bit is present in thefirst flit of all packet typesDID8Destination Endpoint ID bits 7:0 -destination fabric endpointSTAT4Response StatusPath8The Path field is used to specify a paththrough a CPI fabric to force orderingbetween packets. For both CPI native andAXI over CPI the read response packet'sPATH field contains the TID valueCP2Credit Present/Path Ordering. The CP fieldcontains an encoded value that specifiesboth if field CR of flits 3-N of the packetcontains credit return information as well aswhether path ordering is enabled.Data32Read response data - bits N*8-1:0CR/RSV4Credit Return InformationRSV4Reserved

FIG.6illustrates a flowchart of a method600of handling a request to execute a programmable atomic transaction according to some examples of the present disclosure. At operation605, the programmable atomic unit stores a set of instructions in the memory of the programmable atomic unit. For example, a request message may be sent to store a particular set of instructions at one or more particular partitions. An operating system may track and manage which partitions are assigned to which programmable atomic units and may specifically allocate partitions to processes when requested. At this point, the control structure may be initialized which specifies that the request is valid and stores the number of instructions and the number of partitions.

At operation610, the programmable atomic unit may receive an instruction to execute a programmable atomic transaction. As previously described the instruction may specify one of a plurality of programmable atomic instruction sets that were previously stored within the memory of the programmable atomic unit that define operations performed for a particular programmable atomic transaction. The instruction may specify the particular programmable atomic transaction based upon a memory partition identifier as previously described.

At operation612, the programmable atomic unit may perform the instructions of the programmable atomic transaction. Such instructions may include reading values from memory (e.g., off-die memory275,280) controlled by the memory controller of which the programmable atomic unit270is a part of. Such instructions may perform operations to the value read from the memory, and may store modified values back to the memory (e.g., off-die memory275,280). Such operations provide reduced latency to processes that call the PAU. At operation615, a response may be sent to the calling processor when either a termination instruction is reached or an exception is determined. The response may indicate whether the programmable atomic terminated normally or whether it terminated with an exception. For example, a response message such as shown inFIG.5. Exceptions may include the number of instructions exceeding the instruction execution limit (e.g., the instructions of the transaction did not include a termination instruction), the instruction executing outside a legal partition (e.g., as defined by the Custom Atomic Partition Index (CAPIdx) and the number of partitions), or the like.

FIG.7illustrates a flowchart of a method of executing instructions of the programmable atomic transaction according to some examples of the present disclosure. At operation705a request to execute a programmable atomic transaction is received. In some examples, once the programmable atomic transaction unit is ready to execute the requested transaction a program counter (PC) is initialized to the first instruction of the partition given in the request and an instruction counter may be reset to zero. At operation707, transaction parameters (such as an instruction limit and a number of partitions) may be determined. In some examples, the partition index may also be used to index into a control structure that contains the additional information for the programmable atomic transaction. The additional information may include the instruction execution limit, a flag to indicate whether the transaction is valid, the number of partitions for the transaction, and the like.

At operation710a determination is made to determine whether an instruction is present at the memory location pointed to by the program counter. For example, if the partition was not loaded with instructions prior to the request. In some examples, the program counter may be a register storing an instruction of the currently executing instruction. If there is not an instruction present at that location, a response with an error status code is sent to the calling processor at operation745. If the instruction is present, then at operation715it is determined whether the instruction is a termination instruction. If the instruction is a termination instruction, then the custom atomic transaction is terminated, any locks are released, clean up is performed, and at operation750a response is sent with a normal status code (which may be a status code set by the programmable atomic transaction). If the instruction is not a termination instruction, then at operation720, the instruction is executed. For example, a memory read, an increment, a decrement, a mathematical operation, a memory write, or the like. At operation725the instruction counter is incremented. At operation730the program counter is incremented to the next instruction in the memory of the programmable atomic transaction.

At operation735a check is made to determine whether the program counter is now pointing to an instruction that is in a partition with an index that is past the partition index in which the programmable atomic transaction started and the partition count. For example, if the partition in the request is partition1, and the maximum partitions provided is 3, and if the instruction lies within partition5, then the instruction is illegal. If the program counter is pointing to an illegal instruction, then an error is sent to the calling processor at operation745. Otherwise, flow proceeds to operation740.

At operation740, a check is made to determine whether an instruction counter is less than the instruction execution limit. By limiting the number of instructions that may be executed, infinite loops in the programmable atomic transaction may be prevented. If the instruction counter is greater than or equal to the instruction execution limit, the programmable atomic transaction is terminated, locks and other resources are released, and an error is sent to the calling processor at operation745. For example, the programmable atomic transaction unit may force execution of the termination instruction instead of a next instruction in the programmable atomic transaction. Otherwise, flow of the method proceeds to operation710where the next instruction is checked and potentially executed.

FIG.8illustrates a block diagram of a memory controller800according to some examples of the present disclosure.FIG.8is another example of a memory controller205and shows many of the same components as shown inFIG.2. For example, the cache802and885are examples of cache210; DRAM(s)845are examples of off-die memory275-280; atomic/write merge880and the programmable atomic unit895may be an example of atomics and merge unit250; other components ofFIG.8may be examples of other components ofFIG.2such as off-die memory controller220and cache controller215. NOC Request Queue805receives requests from the network-on-chip and provides a small amount of queuing. Atomic Request Queue810receives requests from the programmable atomic unit and provides a small amount of queuing. Inbound Request Multiplexer (IRM)815selects between inbound memory request sources. The three sources, in order of priority are: Memory Hazard Requests, Atomic Requests, and Inbound NOC Requests. Cache (Read)802and Cache (Write)885is an SRAM data cache. The diagram shows the cache as two separate blocks (802and885), one providing read access, the other providing write access. Delay Block825provides one or more pipeline stages to mimic the delay for an SRAM cache read operation. A cache miss requires access to memory to bring the desired data into the cache. During this DRAM access time, the memory line is not available for other requests. The Memory Hazard block (Set block830and Clear block890) maintains a table of hazard bits indicating which memory lines are unavailable for access. An inbound request that tries to access a line with a hazard is held by the Memory Hazard block until the hazard is cleared. Once the hazard is cleared then the request is resent through the Inbound Request Multiplexer. The memory line tag address is hashed to a hazard bit index. The number of hazard bits may be chosen to set the hazard collision probability to a sufficiently low level. Inbound DRAM Control Multiplexer (IDCM)835selects from an inbound NOC request and a cache eviction request. Bank Request Queues840—each separately managed DRAM bank has a dedicated bank request queue to hold requests until they can be scheduled on the associated DRAM bank.

Scheduler842selects across the bank request queues840to choose a request for an available DRAM bank. The DRAM(s)845represents the external DRAM device or devices. Request Hit Data Queue850holds request data from cache hits until selected. Request Miss Data Queue855holds data read from the DRAM(s) until selected. Miss Request Queue860is used to hold request packet information for cache misses until the request is selected. Hit Request Queue865holds request packet information for cache hits until selected. Data Selection Multiplexer (DSM)870selects between DRAM read data and cache hit read data. The selected data is written to the SRAM cache. Request Selection Multiplexer (RSM)875selects between hit and miss request queues860and865.

Atomic/Write Merge880either merges the request data and DRAM read data, or, if the request is a built-in atomic, the memory data and request data are used as inputs for an atomic operation. Cache (Write) block885represents the write port for the SRAM cache. Data from a NOC write request and data from DRAM read operations are written to the SRAM cache. Memory Hazard (Clear) block890represents the hazard clear operation for the memory hazard structure. Clearing a hazard may release a pending NOC request and send it to the Inbound Request Multiplexer. Programmable Atomic Unit895processes programmable atomic transactions. NOC Outbound Response Multiplexer (ORM)897selects between memory controller responses and custom atomic unit responses and sends the selection to the NOC.

FIG.9illustrates a block diagram of an example machine900with which, in which, or by which any one or more of the techniques (e.g., methodologies) discussed herein can be implemented. Examples, as described herein, can include, or can operate by, logic or a number of components, or mechanisms in the machine900. Circuitry (e.g., processing circuitry) is a collection of circuits implemented in tangible entities of the machine900that include hardware (e.g., simple circuits, gates, logic, etc.). Circuitry membership can be flexible over time. Circuitries include members that can, alone or in combination, perform specified operations when operating. In an example, hardware of the circuitry can be immutably designed to carry out a specific operation (e.g., hardwired). In an example, the hardware of the circuitry can include variably connected physical components (e.g., execution units, transistors, simple circuits, etc.) including a machine readable medium physically modified (e.g., magnetically, electrically, movable placement of invariant massed particles, etc.) to encode instructions of the specific operation. In connecting the physical components, the underlying electrical properties of a hardware constituent are changed, for example, from an insulator to a conductor or vice versa. The instructions enable embedded hardware (e.g., the execution units or a loading mechanism) to create members of the circuitry in hardware via the variable connections to carry out portions of the specific operation when in operation. Accordingly, in an example, the machine-readable medium elements are part of the circuitry or are communicatively coupled to the other components of the circuitry when the device is operating. In an example, any of the physical components can be used in more than one member of more than one circuitry. For example, under operation, execution units can be used in a first circuit of a first circuitry at one point in time and reused by a second circuit in the first circuitry, or by a third circuit in a second circuitry at a different time. Additional examples of these components with respect to the machine900follow.

In alternative embodiments, the machine900can operate as a standalone device or can be connected (e.g., networked) to other machines. In a networked deployment, the machine900can operate in the capacity of a server machine, a client machine, or both in server-client network environments. In an example, the machine900can act as a peer machine in peer-to-peer (P2P) (or other distributed) network environment. The machine900can be a personal computer (PC), a tablet PC, a set-top box (STB), a personal digital assistant (PDA), a mobile telephone, a web appliance, a network router, switch or bridge, or any machine capable of executing instructions (sequential or otherwise) that specify actions to be taken by that machine. Further, while only a single machine is illustrated, the term “machine” shall also be taken to include any collection of machines that individually or jointly execute a set (or multiple sets) of instructions to perform any one or more of the methodologies discussed herein, such as cloud computing, software as a service (SaaS), other computer cluster configurations.

The machine (e.g., computer system)900can include a hardware processor902(e.g., a central processing unit (CPU), a graphics processing unit (GPU), a hardware processor core, or any combination thereof), a main memory904, a static memory (e.g., memory or storage for firmware, microcode, a basic-input-output (BIOS), unified extensible firmware interface (UEFI), etc.)906, and mass storage908(e.g., hard drives, tape drives, flash storage, or other block devices) some or all of which can communicate with each other via an interlink (e.g., bus)930. The machine900can further include a display unit910, an alphanumeric input device912(e.g., a keyboard), and a user interface (UI) navigation device914(e.g., a mouse). In an example, the display unit910, input device912and UI navigation device914can be a touch screen display. The machine900can additionally include a mass storage (e.g., drive unit)908, a signal generation device918(e.g., a speaker), a network interface device920, and one or more sensors916, such as a global positioning system (GPS) sensor, compass, accelerometer, or other sensor. The machine900can include an output controller928, such as a serial (e.g., universal serial bus (USB), parallel, or other wired or wireless (e.g., infrared (IR), near field communication (NFC), etc.) connection to communicate or control one or more peripheral devices (e.g., a printer, card reader, etc.).

Registers of the processor902, the main memory904, the static memory906, or the mass storage908can be, or include, a machine readable medium922on which is stored one or more sets of data structures or instructions924(e.g., software) embodying or utilized by any one or more of the techniques or functions described herein. The instructions924can also reside, completely or at least partially, within any of registers of the processor902, the main memory904, the static memory906, or the mass storage908during execution thereof by the machine900. In an example, one or any combination of the hardware processor902, the main memory904, the static memory906, or the mass storage908can constitute the machine readable media922. While the machine readable medium922is illustrated as a single medium, the term “machine readable medium” can include a single medium or multiple media (e.g., a centralized or distributed database, or associated caches and servers) configured to store the one or more instructions924.

The term “machine readable medium” can include any medium that is capable of storing, encoding, or carrying instructions for execution by the machine900and that cause the machine900to perform any one or more of the techniques of the present disclosure, or that is capable of storing, encoding or carrying data structures used by or associated with such instructions. Non-limiting machine-readable medium examples can include solid-state memories, optical media, magnetic media, and signals (e.g., radio frequency signals, other photon-based signals, sound signals, etc.). In an example, a non-transitory machine-readable medium comprises a machine-readable medium with a plurality of particles having invariant (e.g., rest) mass, and thus are compositions of matter. Accordingly, non-transitory machine-readable media are machine readable media that do not include transitory propagating signals. Specific examples of non-transitory machine readable media can include: non-volatile memory, such as semiconductor memory devices (e.g., electrically programmable read-only memory (EPROM), electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM)) and flash memory devices; magnetic disks, such as internal hard disks and removable disks; magneto-optical disks; and CD-ROM and DVD-ROM disks.

In an example, information stored or otherwise provided on the machine readable medium922can be representative of the instructions924, such as instructions924themselves or a format from which the instructions924can be derived. This format from which the instructions924can be derived can include source code, encoded instructions (e.g., in compressed or encrypted form), packaged instructions (e.g., split into multiple packages), or the like. The information representative of the instructions924in the machine readable medium922can be processed by processing circuitry into the instructions to implement any of the operations discussed herein. For example, deriving the instructions924from the information (e.g., processing by the processing circuitry) can include: compiling (e.g., from source code, object code, etc.), interpreting, loading, organizing (e.g., dynamically or statically linking), encoding, decoding, encrypting, unencrypting, packaging, unpackaging, or otherwise manipulating the information into the instructions924.

In an example, the derivation of the instructions924can include assembly, compilation, or interpretation of the information (e.g., by the processing circuitry) to create the instructions924from some intermediate or preprocessed format provided by the machine readable medium922. The information, when provided in multiple parts, can be combined, unpacked, and modified to create the instructions924. For example, the information can be in multiple compressed source code packages (or object code, or binary executable code, etc.) on one or several remote servers. The source code packages can be encrypted when in transit over a network and decrypted, uncompressed, assembled (e.g., linked) if necessary, and compiled or interpreted (e.g., into a library, stand-alone executable etc.) at a local machine, and executed by the local machine.

The instructions924can be further transmitted or received over a communications network926using a transmission medium via the network interface device920utilizing any one of a number of transfer protocols (e.g., frame relay, internet protocol (IP), transmission control protocol (TCP), user datagram protocol (UDP), hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), etc.). Example communication networks can include a local area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), a packet data network (e.g., the Internet), mobile telephone networks (e.g., cellular networks), plain old telephone (POTS) networks, and wireless data networks (e.g., Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 family of standards known as Wi-Fi®, IEEE 802.16 family of standards known as) WiMax®, IEEE 802.15.4 family of standards, peer-to-peer (P2P) networks, among others. In an example, the network interface device920can include one or more physical jacks (e.g., Ethernet, coaxial, or phone jacks) or one or more antennas to connect to the communications network926. In an example, the network interface device920can include a plurality of antennas to wirelessly communicate using at least one of single-input multiple-output (SIMO), multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), or multiple-input single-output (MISO) techniques. The term “transmission medium” shall be taken to include any intangible medium that is capable of storing, encoding or carrying instructions for execution by the machine900, and includes digital or analog communications signals or other intangible medium to facilitate communication of such software. A transmission medium is a machine readable medium. To better illustrate the methods and apparatuses described herein, a non-limiting set of Example embodiments are set forth below as numerically identified Examples.

OTHER NOTES AND EXAMPLES

Example 1 is an apparatus comprising: a memory controller; a programmable atomic unit coupled to the memory controller, the programmable atomic unit comprising: a memory storing a programmable atomic transaction, the memory partitioned into multiple partitions; a processor, the processor configured to: store a set of instructions in the memory of the programmable atomic unit, the set of instructions stored within one or more of the multiple partitions including a first instruction of the set of instructions stored in a first partition, the set of instructions corresponding to a programmable atomic transaction; receive, at the programmable atomic unit, a request from a requesting processor to execute the programmable atomic transaction, the request specifying the programmable atomic transaction by specifying the first partition on which the set of instructions is stored; execute the set of instructions including executing the first instruction at a location of the first partition in the memory; and responsive to reaching a last instruction or encountering an exception, send a response to the requesting processor.

In Example 2, the subject matter of Example 1 includes, wherein the processor is configured to store the set of instructions by being configured to receive a message including the set of instructions.

In Example 3, the subject matter of Example 2 includes, wherein the message is received from the requesting processor.

In Example 4, the subject matter of Examples 1-3 includes, wherein the processor is further configured to: receive a request to execute a second programmable atomic transaction, the request specifying a second partition; determine that the second partition does not have any instructions; and send a response to the requestor indicating that the second programmable atomic transaction failed because the instructions did not exist.

In Example 5, the subject matter of Examples 1-4 includes, wherein a control structure includes a number of contiguous partitions in which the set of instructions are stored; and wherein the processor is configured to execute the set of instructions by being configured to verify that a current instruction is within a range of instructions specified by the first partition and the number of contiguous partitions.

In Example 6, the subject matter of Examples 1-5 includes, wherein a control structure includes a maximum number of instructions to execute and wherein the processor is configured to execute the set of instructions by being configured to verify that a current instruction count does not exceed the maximum number of instructions.

In Example 7, the subject matter of Examples 1-6 includes, wherein the response includes a status code.

Example 8 is a method comprising: storing, a set of instructions in a memory of a programmable atomic unit of a memory controller, the memory partitioned into multiple partitions, the set of instructions stored within one or more of the multiple partitions including a first instruction of the set of instructions stored in a first partition, the set of instructions corresponding to a programmable atomic transaction; receiving, at the programmable atomic unit, a request from a requesting processor to execute the programmable atomic transaction, the request specifying the programmable atomic transaction by specifying the first partition on which the set of instructions is stored; executing the set of instructions including executing the first instruction at a location of the first partition in the memory; and responsive to reaching a last instruction or encountering an exception, sending a response to the requesting processor.

In Example 9, the subject matter of Example 8 includes, wherein storing the set of instructions comprises receiving a message including the set of instructions.

In Example 10, the subject matter of Example 9 includes, wherein the message is received from the requesting processor.

In Example 11, the subject matter of Examples 8-10 includes, receiving a request to execute a second programmable atomic transaction, the request specifying a second partition; determining that the second partition does not have any instructions; and sending a response to the requestor indicating that the second programmable atomic transaction failed because the instructions did not exist.

In Example 12, the subject matter of Examples 8-11 includes, wherein a control structure includes a number of contiguous partitions in which the set of instructions are stored; and wherein executing the set of instructions comprises verifying that a current instruction is within a range of instructions specified by the first partition and the number of contiguous partitions.

In Example 13, the subject matter of Examples 8-12 includes, wherein a control structure includes a maximum number of instructions to execute and wherein executing the set of instructions comprises verifying that a current instruction count does not exceed the maximum number of instructions.

In Example 14, the subject matter of Examples 8-13 includes, wherein the response includes a status code.

Example 15 is a non-transitory machine-readable medium, storing instructions, which when executed, cause a memory controller to perform operations of: storing, a set of instructions in a memory of a programmable atomic unit of the memory controller, the memory partitioned into multiple partitions, the set of instructions stored within one or more of the multiple partitions including a first instruction of the set of instructions stored in a first partition, the set of instructions corresponding to a programmable atomic transaction; receiving, at the programmable atomic unit, a request from a requesting processor to execute the programmable atomic transaction, the request specifying the programmable atomic transaction by specifying the first partition on which the set of instructions is stored; executing the set of instructions including executing the first instruction at a location of the first partition in the memory; and responsive to reaching a last instruction or encountering an exception, sending a response to the requesting processor.

In Example 16, the subject matter of Example 15 includes, wherein the operations of storing the set of instructions comprises receiving a message including the set of instructions.

In Example 17, the subject matter of Example 16 includes, wherein the message is received from the requesting processor.

In Example 18, the subject matter of Examples 15-17 includes, wherein the operations further comprise: receiving a request to execute a second programmable atomic transaction, the request specifying a second partition; determining that the second partition does not have any instructions; and sending a response to the requestor indicating that the second programmable atomic transaction failed because the instructions did not exist.

In Example 19, the subject matter of Examples 15-18 includes, wherein a control structure includes a number of contiguous partitions in which the set of instructions are stored; and wherein the operations of executing the set of instructions comprises verifying that a current instruction is within a range of instructions specified by the first partition and the number of contiguous partitions.

In Example 20, the subject matter of Examples 15-19 includes, wherein a control structure includes a maximum number of instructions to execute and wherein the operations of executing the set of instructions comprises verifying that a current instruction count does not exceed the maximum number of instructions.

In Example 21, the subject matter of Examples 15-20 includes, wherein the response includes a status code.

Example 22 is an apparatus comprising: a memory controller; a programmable atomic unit coupled to the memory controller, the programmable atomic unit comprising: means for storing, a set of instructions in a memory of a programmable atomic unit of the memory controller, the memory partitioned into multiple partitions, the set of instructions stored within one or more of the multiple partitions including a first instruction of the set of instructions stored in a first partition, the set of instructions corresponding to a programmable atomic transaction; means for receiving, at the programmable atomic unit, a request from a requesting processor to execute the programmable atomic transaction, the request specifying the programmable atomic transaction by specifying the first partition on which the set of instructions is stored; means for executing the set of instructions including executing the first instruction at a location of the first partition in the memory; and means for, responsive to reaching a last instruction or encountering an exception, sending a response to the requesting processor.

In Example 23, the subject matter of Example 22 includes, wherein the means for storing the set of instructions comprises means for receiving a message including the set of instructions.

In Example 24, the subject matter of Example 23 includes, wherein the message is received from the requesting processor.

In Example 25, the subject matter of Examples 22-24 includes, means for receiving a request to execute a second programmable atomic transaction, the request specifying a second partition; means for determining that the second partition does not have any instructions; and means for sending a response to the requestor indicating that the second programmable atomic transaction failed because the instructions did not exist.

In Example 26, the subject matter of Examples 22-25 includes, wherein a control structure includes a number of contiguous partitions in which the set of instructions are stored; and wherein the means for executing the set of instructions comprises means for verifying that a current instruction is within a range of instructions specified by the first partition and the number of contiguous partitions.

In Example 27, the subject matter of Examples 22-26 includes, wherein a control structure includes a maximum number of instructions to execute and wherein the means for executing the set of instructions comprises means for verifying that a current instruction count does not exceed the maximum number of instructions.

In Example 28, the subject matter of Examples 22-27 includes, wherein the response includes a status code.

Example 29 is at least one machine-readable medium including instructions that, when executed by processing circuitry, cause the processing circuitry to perform operations to implement of any of Examples 1-28.

Example 30 is an apparatus comprising means to implement of any of Examples 1-28.

Example 31 is a system to implement of any of Examples 1-28.

Example 32 is a method to implement of any of Examples 1-28.

The above detailed description includes references to the accompanying drawings, which form a part of the detailed description. The drawings show, by way of illustration, specific embodiments in which the invention can be practiced. These embodiments are also referred to herein as “examples”. Such examples can include elements in addition to those shown or described. However, the present inventors also contemplate examples in which only those elements shown or described are provided. Moreover, the present inventors also contemplate examples using any combination or permutation of those elements shown or described (or one or more aspects thereof), either with respect to a particular example (or one or more aspects thereof), or with respect to other examples (or one or more aspects thereof) shown or described herein.

In this document, the terms “a” or “an” are used, as is common in patent documents, to include one or more than one, independent of any other instances or usages of “at least one” or “one or more.” In this document, the term “or” is used to refer to a nonexclusive or, such that “A or B” can include “A but not B,” “B but not A,” and “A and B,” unless otherwise indicated. In the appended claims, the terms “including” and “in which” are used as the plain-English equivalents of the respective terms “comprising” and “wherein”. Also, in the following claims, the terms “including” and “comprising” are open-ended, that is, a system, device, article, or process that includes elements in addition to those listed after such a term in a claim are still deemed to fall within the scope of that claim. Moreover, in the following claims, the terms “first,” “second,” and “third,” etc. are used merely as labels, and are not intended to impose numerical requirements on their objects.

The above description is intended to be illustrative, and not restrictive. For example, the above-described examples (or one or more aspects thereof) can be used in combination with each other. Other embodiments can be used, such as by one of ordinary skill in the art upon reviewing the above description. It is submitted with the understanding that it will not be used to interpret or limit the scope or meaning of the claims. Also, in the above Detailed Description, various features can be grouped together to streamline the disclosure. This should not be interpreted as intending that an unclaimed disclosed feature is essential to any claim. Rather, inventive subject matter can lie in less than all features of a particular disclosed embodiment. Thus, the following claims are hereby incorporated into the Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own as a separate embodiment, and it is contemplated that such embodiments can be combined with each other in various combinations or permutations. The scope of the invention should be determined with reference to the appended claims, along with the full scope of equivalents to which such claims are entitled.