Patent ID: 12249063

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

I. System Overview

A. Hardware and Software Arrangement

FIG.1shows an arrangement100for diagnosing conditions (e.g. various forms of cancer, including, but not limited to, melanoma) based upon tissue sample slides prepared from patient tissue as part of a treatment diagnosis and regime. The arrangement includes a computing processor110that can be acceptable system, such as a server, laptop, PC, cloud computing environment, etc. The processor110receives image data from a variety of sources, including, but not limited to one or more slide imagers120,122that transform optical information from a part of, or whole, slides, via a microscope optics and associated image sensor, into digital image data in a desired format. As described further below, the slide imager120is used in the field to image patient slides for diagnosis in runtime, and this data130is thereby presented to the processor110. The other slide imager122can be part of a system that produces a large volume of slide image data based upon various types of cells and/or conditions. This data132is part of a training set that is input to the processor110for use in construction a CNN as described further below. Note that the processor110is generally representative of one or more processing/computing devices that can be used in any of the stages of the overall system and method. In practice, one processor can be used to train the CNN, while another processor produces final images and even another is used to operate a runtime portal accessed by practitioners seeking to analyze one or more patient slides using the system and method. Hence, the term “processor” or “computing device” as used herein should be taken broadly to include one or more discrete processors/computing devices used at one or more stages of the over training and/or runtime operation of the system and method.

As also described below, the data130,132can consist of images that constitute different staining techniques. In an example, a conventional H&E technique is used for slides provided in runtime slide data140. For the training set132, the slide data134is initially produced via H & E staining. These same slides are then distained using known techniques and the IHC technique is applied to the same set of slides, which are then reimaged by (e.g.) the imager122to produce an IHC set136. The image data is acquired from both sets is correlated (using identifiers, flags, color filters, machine learning-based image transformations, etc.) so that H&E slides and IHC slides of the same tissue are mated together in the data set. The data in these slide pairs can then be aligned/registered by the processor as described below for comparison.

The processor110contains a plurality of functional processes(ors) or modules. There is an image segmentation module/process(or)152that allows both training and runtime slides to be broken into smaller feature sets for reduction in processing overhead and/or to identify specific conditions within the data. The segmentation can include a registration that is used at training time to align features in each type of slide in a pair-H&E and IHC. This can allow for comparison, as well as masking and other image overlay operations described below. A CNN training module/process(or)154controls the construction of the CNN160, which is stored along with appropriate classifiers, image data, etc. as shown. Likewise, a CNN runtime module/process(or)156controls application of the CNN160to runtime data130to achieve diagnostic results. These results are handled by a result module/process(or)158that can present desired information graphically and/or textually as desired.

The process(or)110can be part of, or in communication with, a computing device170, which as described below can be any acceptable computing device or group of computing devices. The computing device170can handle or manage system settings, user inputs and result outputs. The computing device170herein includes an exemplary graphical user interface (GUI) having a display (e.g. a touchscreen)172, mouse174and keyboard176. The computing device170can interface with various network asserts/data utilization devices, such as data storage, printers, display, robots, network ports, etc. Again, while the interface/display device (computing device170) herein is shown as a standalone PC or laptop with separate keyboard and mouse, this can be representative of any acceptable platform for entering, receiving and manipulating information, including those with a single all-in-one functionality (e.g. a touchscreen display), such as found on a smartphone, tablet or miniaturized laptop.

B. Overall Operating Procedure

FIG.2is a flow diagram showing an overall operational procedure200utilizing the arrangement100ofFIG.1. In general, the procedure entails a training process, to be described further below. The training process generates the CNN using a large volume of training slides according to step210. The CNN and any associated image data is stored (step220) with respect to the process(or)110for use in follow-on runtime operations. This trained CNN can also be termed herein a “virtual IHC” (vIHC) During runtime, the user (e.g. a medical practitioner) prepares one or more slides of the tissue of interest from a biopsy or other tissue/cell-gathering task. These slides are stained for contrast using (e.g.) the H&E procedure (step230). In step240, the slides are imaged, and such runtime image data is stored, using an appropriate imaging microscope system. In step250, the images are provided via the user interface to the process(or). Then, in step260, the trained CNN is run on the images to identify various trained features. This can include image segmentation as also described herein. Then, in step260diagnostic information is returned by the process(or) to the user in an appropriate format (or set of formats) via a user interface.

II. Exemplary Implementation

The following description relates to an exemplary implementation of the system and method herein, including experimental results.

A. Digital Slide Preparation

A database search was carried out for recent cases that had been stained with SOX10 IHC as part of their routine workup. Twelve tissue blocks from different cases were selected to span a variety of histological diagnoses and to maximize the overall tissue surface area. This final set of images (neural net (NN) set) consisted of eight invasive melanomas, two in-situ melanomas, one neuroma, and one pigmented basal cell carcinoma. The tissue sites included nine (9) skin biopsies and three (3) lymph nodes with metastatic melanoma.

A diagram depicting the overall approach 300 to creating the vIHC is shown inFIG.3. New tissue sections were cut from the corresponding blocks at 5 μm and stained with H&E using a routine processor (block310). The resulting slides were scanned at 400× (312) using one of either the Leica Aperio AT2 or the Leica Aperio CS2 scanner (Buffalo Grove, IL, USA). This creates the H&E WSI313. A washout process (314) was then applied to the tissue slides to remove the H&E stain, and the slides were re-stained (316) with SOX10 IHC (Leica, PA0813, pre-diluted) using automated techniques (Leica Bond; Leica Microsystems, Bannockburn, IL, USA) with appropriate controls. The resulting SOX10 IHC slides (block320) were scanned (322) at 400× using the same Leica scanners as above. This creates the depicted IHC WSI324.

i. Convolutional Neural Network Specifications

All CNNs were created using either a pre-trained VGG19 network or InceptionV3 (e.g.) using MATLAB R2018b, available from MathWorks of Natick, MA as version 9.5.0.944444. The networks were trained using a Titan Xp, available from NVidia, Santa Clara, CA, USA) graphics processing unit and a Ryzen Threadripper 1950X 16-Core CPU, available (e.g.) from Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) of Santa Clara, CA, USA. Each network was trained between 30 and 300 epochs in accordance with the procedures described below.

ii. Training Image Dataset Preparation

Referring further toFIG.3, H&E and IHC WSIs313,324in the NN-set were registered (block330) in several steps. In order to use the IHC WSI to annotate cells from the H&E WSI, the images needed to be precisely registered so that corresponding nuclei overlapped from each image. In the exemplary implementation, the WSIs are typically too large to be registered in one step due to memory considerations, so registration is performed sequentially at various magnifications, similar to previously described method. See by way of background, Lotz J, Olesch J, Muller B, Polzin T, Galuschka P, Lotz J M, et al. Patch-Based Nonlinear Image Registration for Gigapixel Whole Slide Images. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 2016; 63: 1812-1819. Note that in alternate (e.g. academic, medical and/or commercial) implementations, sufficient computing power can be made available to omit some, or all, of the multiple steps employed in the present example. In the procedure300, the WSIs313,324are first coarsely-registered at low magnification. The coarsely-registered H&E and IHC images were then divided into 1,000×1,000-pixel sub-image (See Frame A inFIG.4) for fine-registration. This generates the Registered IHC WSI (block336).

A ground truth (nuclear) mask layer350is then created for each sub-image. The mask layer350is first pre-populated (block340) with segmented nuclei using a seeding technique (described in Malon, CD, referenced above). In this method, a neural network is trained (block354) to identify the center of a cell nucleus. Hence the above-described vIHC NN (block360) is generated. The exemplary procedure ensures that overlapping nuclei are treated separately. Each nucleus in this nuclear-mask350is then annotated (block352) as being SOX10-positive or negative based on the staining intensity of the same cell nucleus in the corresponding IHC image. This creates the annotated nuclear mask shown as block370.

In prior experimental procedures, all H&E sub-images in the NN-set were compared to their corresponding IHC sub-images and annotated according to IHC positivity. It was noted, however, that large areas of the WSI did not contain any areas with SOX10 positive-melanocytes. In the present experimental procedure, as described herein, to avoid spending computational time annotating regions with no SOX10 positive cells, regions of interest were highlighted by a medical doctor, and only cells within these regions were compared to their corresponding IHC. All nuclei that were outside the regions of interest were automatically categorized as non-melanocytic. Non-melanocytic SOX10-positive cells were omitted from the regions of interest. However, it is expressly contemplated that regions of interest (ROIs) can be identified and bounded automatically by any acceptable, commercially available, pattern recognition/machine vision process (e.g. contrast tools, blob tools, etc.).

iii. Registration

In the exemplary procedure, only H&E and IHC sub-images in the NN-set that overlapped with the ROI undergo fine-registration, which is carried out in two sequential steps. The first step is a multimodal affine registration that allows for rotation, translation, scale change, and shearing. Again, various alignment tools can be employed to provide such results, including machine learning registration techniques. This registration step is followed by a non-rigid diffeomorphic technique (See Frame B inFIG.4, and refer by way of background to the teaching in Szegedy C, Vanhoucke V, Ioffe S, Shlens J, Wojna Z. Rethinking the Inception Architecture for Computer Vision [Internet]. 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR). 2016. doi:10.1109/cvpr.2016.308; and Lotz J, Olesch J, Muller B, Polzin T, Galuschka P, Lotz J M, et al. Patch-Based Nonlinear Image Registration for Gigapixel Whole Slide Images. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 2016; 63: 1812-1819.6. The ground truth mask nuclei in these areas are classified as either positive-or-negative for SOX10 depending the stain intensity of the corresponding registered SOX10 IHC sub-image (See Frame D inFIG.4). This is achieved by applying thresholding techniques to the color channels of the registered IHC image.

In the experimental procedure herein, the registered sub-images were overlaid and evaluated for registration quality by a medical doctor as shown in Frame C ofFIG.4. It is noted that some images had poor registration, despite efforts to fine-tune the registration parameters. A categorical CNN can be created to identify these poorly-registered images, and they can be removed from the dataset. To save on computational resources, all sub-images with less than 20 nuclei are also removed in this implementation (but can be retained, in whole or in part, in implementations with appropriate computing power). The NN-set is randomly split into a training-set (NN-training subset) that consists of 90% of the images, and a test-image set (NN-test subset) that consisted of the remaining 10% of the images. This NN-training subset is then used to create the SOX10 virtual IHC (vIHC) neural network (360inFIG.3) using a VGG19-segmentation CNN.

B. Evaluation

In operation, according to the-experimental procedure herein, the SOX10-vIHC network was first evaluated by processing the NN-test subset images. A MATLAB program was created to compare the output segmentation layer to the corresponding ground-truth mask. Raw vIHC output images were processed to distinguish individual nuclei. This was achieved by setting all areas with a combined SOX10 positive and negativity score<0.95 to 0. A connected-components analysis was then performed to delineate each nucleus. The mean SOX10 positivity-score and SOX10-negativity score for each segmented nucleus was computed, and the category with the largest score was recorded and compared to the ground truth category. The results for 20,000 melanocytes and 20,000 non-melanocytic cells were aggregated and used to calculate the true positive (TP), true negative (TN), false positive (FP), and false negative (FN) values. A cumulative density plot and a receiver operator curve were produced using these scores.

By way of further background, IHC is used in clinical practice by a pathologist to visually evaluate a lesion. To fully compare the vIHC and IHC, the two were directly compared graphically by a human dermatopathologist. This allowed for characterization of the cell populations that were over and-under called as SOX10-positive. An additional set of images was used for this purpose (IHC-test-set). See Table 1 below for a listing of image sets and relevant descriptions. Five H&E sub-images from a single case of inflamed melanoma were processed by the CNN. This case was chosen as it was not used in the training set. The five sub-images in the IHC-test-set contained areas of normal skin, an area of dysplastic junctional melanocytes, and frankly invasive melanoma interfacing with lymphocytic inflammation. In a manner similar to that described above, the H&E slides were scanned at 400× resolution. The slide was then de-stained, after which SOX10 IHC performed. vIHC was applied to the H&E WSI. To visualize the vIHC output, a color map was overlaid on top of the H&E image. The color map was scaled so that nuclei predicted to be SOX10-negative were green, while nuclei predicted to be SOX10-postive were red. The color map was directly compared to the SOX10 IHC.

A final set of images (Subjective-test-set) that consisted of a lymph node containing metastatic melanoma, three cases of primary melanoma, a benign nevus, and one case of basal cell carcinoma were also graphically evaluated. Due to limitations in cost, SOX10 IHC was not obtained directly on the same tissue layer, but the appropriate staining pattern was inferred by an experienced board-certified dermatopathologist based on either the diagnosis or SOX10 IHC performed on an adjacent tissue layer.

TABLE 1Description of image-sets.Same-layerAliasLesion typesCasesIHCDescriptionNN-SetMelanoma in-sit, malignant12 WSIYesAll H&E images withmelanoma, metastaticcorresponding digitalmelanoma, basal cell carcinoma,IHC masks; seeneuromaTable 2NN-Training SubsetSubset of NN-Superset used to train the neural networkNN-Testing SubsetSubset of NN-Superset used for quantitative analysis of theneural networkIHC-Test-Set1 case of enflamed melanoma1 WSIYesImage used forgraphical evaluationof vIHC with directcomparison to IHCSubjective-Invasive melanoma, metastatic5 WSINoGraphical evaluationTest-Setmelanoma, basal cell carcinomaof vIHC using H&EonlyHematoxylin and eosin: H&E; Immunohistochemistry: IHC; Neural network: NN; Whole slide image: WSI.

C. Results

i. Immunohistochemistry Training-Set

SOX10 IHC highlighted multiple cell populations within each specimen. Nuclear staining was present in all benign and malignant melanocytes, as well as Schwann cells, and the myoepithelial cells of eccrine glands. One case with a neuroma had SOX10 positivity within the neoplasm. For the data shown in here, only regions that contained SOX10 positive melanocytes were highlighted as regions of interest, and non-melanocytic SOX10 positive cells were purposefully excluded.

ii. Registration

The total number of sub-images, the number of well-registered sub-images with more than 20 nuclei, and the number of corresponding melanocytic and non-melanocytic cells for each WSI in the NN-set are shown in Table 2. The NN-set consisted of 18,122 well-registered images, and these were randomly split into the NN-training set consisting of 16,309 images, and a NN-test set that consisted of 1,813 sub-images.

TABLE 2Histopathologic characteristics of the NN-set.Post-quality check, sub-images with >20 nucleiPre-qualityNumber of cellscheckPercentCellSub-SOX10SOX10SOX10fraction ofCaseLocationLesion typeimagesSub-imagespositivenegativepositivedataset1SkinMIS324619876543172610.2%8.4%2SkinMIS190612905941878750.3%5.0%3SkinMelanoma33792168191423360585.4%9.4%4SkinMelanoma34092004195512647446.9%7.5%5SkinBCC3062601051582221.8%1.6%6SkinMelanoma10699752549316717513.2%5.1%7SkinNeuroma483361556663140.8%1.8%8SkinMelanoma753488312109942023.9%3.4%9LNMM37352796184026613432.7%17.9%10LNMM37432249619016237969.0%18.1%11SkinMelanoma1250768109649175410.7%2.7%12LNMM4373277611664852270618.2%16.9%Total27,65218,122306,1663,396,6688.3%100%BCC: Basal cell carcinoma;LN: Lymph node;MIS: Melanoma in-situ;MM: Metastatic melanoma.

The average SOX10 vIHC positivity-and-negativity scores were calculated for every nucleus in the testing-set. The TP and TN values were calculated by comparing the ground truth category of each nucleus to the scores computed by the vIHC network. This is further depicted inFIG.5, showing an example image from the experimental NN-test set. Frame A is an exemplary H&E image of melanoma in a tissue section of skin (H&E, 400× magnification). Frame B is a corresponding IHC (SOX10, 400× magnification); Frame C is a raw vIHC output, where the green color channel is scaled to the SOX10-negativity score, and the (contrasting) red color channel is scaled to the SOX-10-positivity score. A strongly red (or another appropriate color) nucleus is predicted to be SOX-10 positive, while a strongly green (or another appropriate contrasting color) nucleus is predicted to be SOX-10 negative. Frame D is a corresponding color map where nuclei are colored depending on their true SOX10 IHC and predicted vIHC positivity. True-positives are colored red (or another appropriate color), true-negatives are colored green (or another appropriate color), false-negatives are colored blue (or another appropriate color), and false positives are colored and pink (or another appropriate color). Note that alternate indicia (instead of or in addition to, color), such as grayscale shading, dot shading and/or line shading, can be used to distinguish different types of tissue/cells. A receiver operator curve of True Positive (TP) Rate versus False Positive (FP) Rate was computed (graph600inFIG.6), and the area under the curve was 0.9422. The resulting, depicted, TP and TN rates are 91.62% and 85.66% respectively at the optimal point on the ROC curve which was a score of 0.3868. The resulting cumulative distribution plot700is shown inFIG.7.

iii. Graphical Evaluation

The five sub-images from the IHC-test-set were evaluated (SeeFIG.8). SOX10 IHC highlighted several cell populations in the IHC-test-set images. Benign melanocytes, dysplastic melanocytes, and malignant melanocytes within the melanoma were all highlighted. More particularly,FIG.8is a diagram showing exemplary H&E test images in (top row, image Frames A-D) along with their corresponding SOX10 immunohistochemistry (middle row, image Frames E-H) and the SOX10 vIHC output (bottom row, image Frames I-L), in which Frames A, E and I depict normal skin, Frames B, F, J, depict lymphocytic inflammation of the superficial dermis, Frames C, G, K depict nests of dysplastic melanocytes, and Frames D, H, L depict inflamed invasive melanoma. Note that in this exemplary operation, lymphocytes, which are erroneously labelled as melanocytes by the CNN, are indicated with white arrows. Further training and refinement of the overall process can help to eliminate such errors in an operation embodiment.

The resulting vIHC is compared to the SOX10 IHC stain performed on the same cell layer. The CNN subjectively highlighted most of the malignant melanoma cells, and appropriately did not highlight most of the inflammatory infiltrates interfacing with the lesion. Nests of dysplastic melanocytes were also appropriately highlighted. The SOX10 vIHC was comparable to the IHC in areas of malignant melanoma, nested melanocytes, and in normal skin, as assessed by an experienced board-certified dermatopathologist. The vIHC effectively highlighted several foci of lymphocytes as well as rare keratinocytes (See, inFIG.8, Frames I and J). As noted above, rarely, melanoma cells have been improperly classified as non-melanocytic using the vIHC of the exemplary embodiment.

In experimental operations, the vIHC of the present embodiment is also applied to the images in the Subjective-test set, wherein IHC is performed on an adjacent tissue later or was inferred based on the diagnosis. These images include primary melanomas, a metastatic melanoma, a nevus, and basal cell carcinoma. Most metastatic melanoma cells in the lymph node are appropriately classified as melanocytic.FIG.9more particularly showsFIG.9representative images from the Subjective-test set. The images depicting vIHC are created by superimposing the SOX10-positive scores and the H&E images to ensure a high contrast is achieved. Image Frame A is a minute focus of malignant melanoma abutting a hair follicle (H&E, 400×), with the corresponding SOX-10 IHC (Image Frame B) and SOX10 vIHC (Image Frame C). Depicted image Frame D is a large focus of malignant melanoma transected at the base (H&E, 400×), with the corresponding SOX-10 IHC (image Frame E) and SOX10 vIHC (image Frame F). Image Frame J shows a different region of the same lesion as image Frames G-I, with SOX10 positivity (H&E, 400×), with the corresponding SOX-10 IHC (image Frame K) and SOX10 vIHC (image Frame L). Image Frame M shows multiple nodules of melanoma (H&E, 400×) with corresponding vIHC (image Frame N). Depicted image Frame O shows basal cell carcinoma (H&E, 400×) with corresponding vIHC (image Frame P). Depicted image Frame Q shows metastatic melanoma within a lymph node (H&E, 400×) with corresponding vIHC (image Frame R). Notably, variable results are obtained in some of the primary melanomas which should have been uniformly positive. Note that the basal cell carcinoma, which is expected to have only scattered SOX10 positivity due to the presence of benign melanocytes within the lesion, is erroneously predicted to be diffusely SOX10 positive (SeeFIG.9, image Frames O-P). Again, such errors can be reduced through further training and refinement of the process in an operational embodiment.

II. Further Considerations

In various embodiments, a segmentation network capable of distinguishing melanocytes from other cells can be created using SOX10 IHC. Cell-specific segmentation is achieved using partially-supervised machine learning in the exemplary embodiment of the system and method. Also, in order for the individual cells to be labelled appropriately, the nuclei in the H&E and corresponding IHC images required a high degree of overlap. Achieving this degree of overlap can be challenging given the size of the WSI which can be in excess of 40,000×40,000 pixels. Registering such large images demands a low tolerance for error on the order of 0.02%. This margin for error is significantly smaller than that seen in other manipulations of high-resolution images. Registering satellite images, for example, deals with large images, but does not undergo a similarly high degree of warping. See Serief C, Bentoutou Y, Barkat M. Automatic Registration of Satellite Images [Internet]. 2009 First International Conference on Advances in Satellite and Space Communications. 2009. doi:10.1109/spacomm.2009.19. Likewise, for various imaging modalities in conventional medical imaging such as MRI and CT scans, the two dimensional image sizes are significantly smaller than those of WSIs, and the relative tolerance required for the method to be useful is much higher. See Dean C J, Sykes J R, Cooper R A, Hatfield P, Carey B, Swift S, et al. An evaluation of four CT-MRI co-registration techniques for radiotherapy treatment planning of prone rectal cancer patients [Internet]. The British Journal of Radiology. 2012. pp. 61-68. doi:10.1259/bjr/11855927. In smaller-scale computing environments H&E and IHC WSIs may be too large to be simultaneously loaded into our RAM at the same time. Previous studies that registered H&E and IHC from serial tissue sections were likewise not as spatially precise because they aimed only to correlate areas of tissue and not individual cells. Multiple registration steps at various magnifications, using both rigid and non-rigid registration techniques, was essential to achieving a high degree of overlap. This method nevertheless resulted in poor nuclear overlap in 34.5% of images in the NN-set. In some embodiments, the step of manually registering the images can be employed to overcome disadvantages. As described above, further training and refinement can be expected to improve performance, as can the use of resources of larger academic and commercial computing environments.

The above-described experimental procedure yielded certain unexpected positive results. Due to the significant differences in tumor microenvironment between skin and lymph node, one could expect that a CNN trained largely on skin samples would perform poorly when tested on lymph nodes images. However, this was not the case: the CNN reliably and correctly identified melanoma metastases within a case of melanoma that had metastasized to a lymph node, and did not mislabel significant numbers of other cells. Future work could examine the network's ability to identify melanoma metastasis in a wide variety of tissues.

The sensitivity and specificity achieved by the experimental procedure were much higher than those that were reported by a similar approach that used phosphohistone-H3 to detect mitotic figures. This may be partially attributed to the use of a rigorous automated-registration protocol that removed poorly registered images from the data-set. The sensitivity in obtained from our procedure was comparable that reported by other work that investigated cytokeratin immunofluorescence, however the specificity was lower. There are several factors that may have contributed to this difference. Some can be related to biology; melanocyte morphology is notoriously varied when compared to other tumors, including the cytokeratin-positive pancreatic carcinoma cells examined in previous work. In our study, the NN-set consisted of multiple lesion types and tissue types. Such diversity may have improved generalizability, but at the cost of some accuracy.

III. Operational Implementations

It is contemplated that the analysis provided by the system and method herein can be made available to practitioners and other interested parties via a number or channels of communication and trade. For example, users can create stained slides at remote sites or those with limited resources, capture images using widely available equipment, and download such data (e.g. via the Internet or physical storage media—thumbdrives, etc.) to a subscription site that performs the analysis using the vIHC described herein. User data received can also be used to further train and expand the vIHC under certain circumstances. The analysis can be delivered to the user via a secure communication channel for review and study by the user. Costs can be borne by users through one-time fees, subscriptions or membership in a not-for-profit arrangement. The vIHC and associated processes can be instantiated on institutional computers—for example a large hospital system or governmental agency for access by associated practitioners. More generally, the system and method ca be made available as an online software package to be loaded onto a user's own computing platform.

IV. Conclusion

Conventional IHC is expensive, labor-intensive, time-consuming, and can waste precious tissue in small biopsy samples. Nevertheless, the diagnostic information provided by IHC can be extremely useful, and is indispensable in some cases. A rapid and inexpensive method to accurately obtain the same information, according to the system and method herein, provides numerous benefits for both research and clinical care. The system and method herein allows immunohistochemical data with cell-specific resolution to be obtained using artificial intelligence, with clear advantages in terms of time, labor, and cost are clear. Initial experimental results using the system and method indicate that vIHC with good-quality accuracy can be achieved. Moreover, the system and method generally supports an inexpensive, rapid, accurate tool, capable of yielding indispensable diagnostic information, could become widely used in the diagnosis of patients with cancer or other diseases.

The foregoing has been a detailed description of illustrative embodiments of the invention. Various modifications and additions can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of this invention. Features of each of the various embodiments described above may be combined with features of other described embodiments as appropriate in order to provide a multiplicity of feature combinations in associated new embodiments. Furthermore, while the foregoing describes a number of separate embodiments of the apparatus and method of the present invention, what has been described herein is merely illustrative of the application of the principles of the present invention. For example, where a graphical representation of the output data is provided, such representation should not be limited to histologic images, but can also include a statistical representation of the data according to any acceptable format. Additionally, while the non-IHC stain used, in a first preparation herein, is typically H&E, it is expressly contemplated that any appropriate non-IHC stain (or a plurality for such stains) can be used as the second preparation in each slide. This second preparation can include, but is not limited to, at least one of Dif Quik, Romanowsky stain, Papanicolaou stain, Periodic Acid Schiff, Gram stain, Trichrome stain, Coloidal Iron, and/or Sudan Black. Also, as used herein, the terms “process” and/or “processor” should be taken broadly to include a variety of electronic hardware and/or software based functions and components (and can alternatively be termed functional “modules” or “elements”). Moreover, a depicted process or processor can be combined with other processes and/or processors or divided into various sub-processes or processors. Such sub-processes and/or sub-processors can be variously combined according to embodiments herein. Likewise, it is expressly contemplated that any function, process and/or processor herein can be implemented using electronic hardware, software consisting of a non-transitory computer-readable medium of program instructions, or a combination of hardware and software. Additionally, as used herein various directional and dispositional terms such as “vertical”, “horizontal”, “up”, “down”, “bottom”, “top”, “side”, “front”, “rear”, “left”, “right”, and the like, are used only as relative conventions and not as absolute directions/dispositions with respect to a fixed coordinate space, such as the acting direction of gravity. Additionally, where the term “substantially” or “approximately” is employed with respect to a given measurement, value or characteristic, it refers to a quantity that is within a normal operating range to achieve desired results, but that includes some variability due to inherent inaccuracy and error within the allowed tolerances of the system (e.g. 1-5 percent). Accordingly, this description is meant to be taken only by way of example, and not to otherwise limit the scope of this invention.