A method of fabricating an electrochromic device, the method comprising: providing a substrate having a first transparent electronically conductive layer comprising a first transparent electronically conductive material; forming an electrochromic stack over the substrate having the first transparent electronically conductive layer, wherein forming the stack comprises: forming an electrochromic layer comprising an electrochromic material; and forming a counter electrode layer comprising a counter electrode material; forming a second transparent electronically conductive layer over the electrochromic stack, the second transparent electronically conductive layer comprising a second transparent electronically conductive material, whereby the first and second transparent electronically conductive layers sandwich the electrochromic stack; and performing a particle-removal operation to reduce the number of defects in the formed electrochromic device, wherein the particle-removal operation is performed after the first transparent electronically conductive layer is provided on the substrate and before forming the second transparent electronically conductive layer; and performing a lithiation operation to provide lithium ions to the electrochromic device, wherein the lithiation operation is performed immediately after performing the particle-removal operation, wherein the particle-removal operation comprises a technique selected from the group consisting of contact cleaning, irradiation, heat treatment, plasma treatment, contact with supercritical fluid, acoustic vibration, and contact with flowing ionized air. providing a substrate having a first transparent electronically conductive layer comprising a first transparent electronically conductive material; forming an electrochromic stack over the substrate having the first transparent electronically conductive layer, wherein forming the stack comprises: forming an electrochromic layer comprising an electrochromic material; and forming a counter electrode layer comprising a counter electrode material; forming an electrochromic layer comprising an electrochromic material; and forming a counter electrode layer comprising a counter electrode material; forming a second transparent electronically conductive layer over the electrochromic stack, the second transparent electronically conductive layer comprising a second transparent electronically conductive material, whereby the first and second transparent electronically conductive layers sandwich the electrochromic stack; and performing a particle-removal operation to reduce the number of defects in the formed electrochromic device, wherein the particle-removal operation is performed after the first transparent electronically conductive layer is provided on the substrate and before forming the second transparent electronically conductive layer; and performing a lithiation operation to provide lithium ions to the electrochromic device, wherein the lithiation operation is performed immediately after performing the particle-removal operation, wherein the particle-removal operation comprises a technique selected from the group consisting of contact cleaning, irradiation, heat treatment, plasma treatment, contact with supercritical fluid, acoustic vibration, and contact with flowing ionized air. <EOS>