A device for determining a parameter of a substance in a sample, the device comprising: a substrate having an active sensor and a control sensor , wherein the active sensor is disposed above the substrate and responds to an electrostatic or capacitance change; wherein the active sensor comprises a metal layer and a first electrical component having a first electrical characteristic and the control sensor comprises a second electrical component having a second electrical characteristic; a functionalized structure comprising a plurality of binding receptors each having at least one cysteine group directly engineered on each of the binding receptors such that the cysteine group on each of the binding receptors secures each of the binding receptors directly to the metal layer of the active sensor and the distance between each of the binding receptors and the metal layer is 3 nm or less, wherein the plurality of binding receptors are configured to bind with the substance to undergo a reaction resulting in the release of ions such that the release of the ions results in a change in the first electrical characteristic of the first electrical component independent of current flow in solution, and wherein the interaction of the substance with the control sensor does not result in a change in the electrical characteristic of the second electrical component; wherein the first electrical component of the active sensor is configured to generate a first signal upon the application of an electrical stimulus and the second electrical component of the control sensor is configured to generate a second signal upon the application of the electrical stimulus; and wherein the parameter of the substance is determined by a difference between the first signal generated by the first electrical component of the active sensor and the second signal generated by the second electrical component of the control sensor . a substrate having an active sensor and a control sensor , wherein the active sensor is disposed above the substrate and responds to an electrostatic or capacitance change; wherein the active sensor comprises a metal layer and a first electrical component having a first electrical characteristic and the control sensor comprises a second electrical component having a second electrical characteristic; a functionalized structure comprising a plurality of binding receptors each having at least one cysteine group directly engineered on each of the binding receptors such that the cysteine group on each of the binding receptors secures each of the binding receptors directly to the metal layer of the active sensor and the distance between each of the binding receptors and the metal layer is 3 nm or less, wherein the plurality of binding receptors are configured to bind with the substance to undergo a reaction resulting in the release of ions such that the release of the ions results in a change in the first electrical characteristic of the first electrical component independent of current flow in solution, and wherein the interaction of the substance with the control sensor does not result in a change in the electrical characteristic of the second electrical component; wherein the first electrical component of the active sensor is configured to generate a first signal upon the application of an electrical stimulus and the second electrical component of the control sensor is configured to generate a second signal upon the application of the electrical stimulus; and wherein the parameter of the substance is determined by a difference between the first signal generated by the first electrical component of the active sensor and the second signal generated by the second electrical component of the control sensor . <EOS>