A computer-implemented method of spatial localization, comprising: acquiring from a sensor supported by a first vehicle of a group of vehicles (1702; 1704, 1718, 1720, 1722, 1730, 1732, 1734) an image including a portion of a physical-surface configuration ; identifying features in the acquired image; associating identified features in the acquired image with identified features in a reference representation of the portion of the physical-surface configuration; selecting a plurality of pairs of features in the acquired image having corresponding identified pairs of features in the reference representation; for each selected feature pair in the acquired image, determining an angle of view between the features of the feature pair , and generating a three-dimensional geoarc associating the determined angle of view and the feature pair in the reference representation corresponding to the selected feature pair ; identifying locations where the geoarcs for the selected feature pairs overlap; selecting a location in the reference representation corresponding to where the geoarcs overlap the most as the location of the first vehicle ; determining whether a distance of the first vehicle from a physical-surface configuration is known, if the distance is known, acquiring altitude of the first vehicle , and performing a two-dimensional spatial localization operation, where the reference representation is two-dimensional, if the altitude is not known or available, performing a three-dimensional spatial localization operation, where the reference representation is three-dimensional, and determining a location of a second vehicle (1702; 1718, 1720, 1722, 1730, 1732, 1734) from the group of vehicles (1702; 1704, 1718, 1720, 1722, 1730, 1732, 1734) based on the selected location and a presumed known or knowable relative spatial relationship to the first vehicle . acquiring from a sensor supported by a first vehicle of a group of vehicles (1702; 1704, 1718, 1720, 1722, 1730, 1732, 1734) an image including a portion of a physical-surface configuration ; identifying features in the acquired image; associating identified features in the acquired image with identified features in a reference representation of the portion of the physical-surface configuration; selecting a plurality of pairs of features in the acquired image having corresponding identified pairs of features in the reference representation; for each selected feature pair in the acquired image, determining an angle of view between the features of the feature pair , and generating a three-dimensional geoarc associating the determined angle of view and the feature pair in the reference representation corresponding to the selected feature pair ; identifying locations where the geoarcs for the selected feature pairs overlap; selecting a location in the reference representation corresponding to where the geoarcs overlap the most as the location of the first vehicle ; determining whether a distance of the first vehicle from a physical-surface configuration is known, if the distance is known, acquiring altitude of the first vehicle , and performing a two-dimensional spatial localization operation, where the reference representation is two-dimensional, if the altitude is not known or available, performing a three-dimensional spatial localization operation, where the reference representation is three-dimensional, and determining a location of a second vehicle (1702; 1718, 1720, 1722, 1730, 1732, 1734) from the group of vehicles (1702; 1704, 1718, 1720, 1722, 1730, 1732, 1734) based on the selected location and a presumed known or knowable relative spatial relationship to the first vehicle . <EOS>