A force sensor comprising: a beam (206, 1902, 2002) comprising a proximal end portion, a distal end portion, and a first face between the proximal end portion of the beam and the distal end portion of the beam (206, 1902, 2002); a first Wheatstone bridge on the first face of the beam (206, 1902, 2002), the first Wheatstone bridge comprising first and second tension gauge resistors (R T1, R T2) and first and second compression gauge resistors (R C1, R C2); and a second Wheatstone bridge on the first face of the beam (206, 1902, 2002), the second Wheatstone bridge comprising third and fourth tension gauge resistors (R T3, R T4) and third and fourth compression gauge resistors (R C3, R C4); wherein the first and third tension gauge resistors (R T1, R T3) and the first and third compression gauge resistors (R C1, R C3) are at the proximal end portion of the beam (206, 1902. 2002), and the second and fourth tension gauge resistors (R T2, R T4) and the second and fourth compression gauge resistors (R C2, R C4) are at the distal end portion of the beam (206, 1902, 2002); the beam (206, 1902, 2002) is a rectangular beam having four elongated rectangular side faces and rectangular end faces; a longitudinal axis of the beam (206, 1902, 2002) is defined to extend between the proximal end portion of the beam (206, 1902, 2002) and the distal end portion of the beam (206, 1902, 2002); a neutral axis (1904, 2004) in the first face of the beam (206, 1902, 2002) is defined to extend parallel to the longitudinal axis and equidistant from opposite edges of the first face; the first, second, third and fourth tension gauge resistors (R T1, R T2, R T3, R T4) are located on the first face and are each aligned along the neutral axis (1904, 2004); the first, second, third and fourth compression gauge resistors (R C1, R C2, R C3, R C4) are located on the first face and are each aligned along the neutral axis (1904, 2004); characterized in that elongated portions of the tension gauge resistors (R T1, R T2, R T3, R T4) are aligned parallel to the longitudinal axis of the beam (206, 1902, 2002); and elongated portions of the compression gauge resistors (R C1, R C2, R C3, R C4) are aligned perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam (206, 1902, 2002). a beam (206, 1902, 2002) comprising a proximal end portion, a distal end portion, and a first face between the proximal end portion of the beam and the distal end portion of the beam (206, 1902, 2002); a first Wheatstone bridge on the first face of the beam (206, 1902, 2002), the first Wheatstone bridge comprising first and second tension gauge resistors (R T1, R T2) and first and second compression gauge resistors (R C1, R C2); and a second Wheatstone bridge on the first face of the beam (206, 1902, 2002), the second Wheatstone bridge comprising third and fourth tension gauge resistors (R T3, R T4) and third and fourth compression gauge resistors (R C3, R C4); wherein the first and third tension gauge resistors (R T1, R T3) and the first and third compression gauge resistors (R C1, R C3) are at the proximal end portion of the beam (206, 1902. 2002), and the second and fourth tension gauge resistors (R T2, R T4) and the second and fourth compression gauge resistors (R C2, R C4) are at the distal end portion of the beam (206, 1902, 2002); the beam (206, 1902, 2002) is a rectangular beam having four elongated rectangular side faces and rectangular end faces; a longitudinal axis of the beam (206, 1902, 2002) is defined to extend between the proximal end portion of the beam (206, 1902, 2002) and the distal end portion of the beam (206, 1902, 2002); a neutral axis (1904, 2004) in the first face of the beam (206, 1902, 2002) is defined to extend parallel to the longitudinal axis and equidistant from opposite edges of the first face; the first, second, third and fourth tension gauge resistors (R T1, R T2, R T3, R T4) are located on the first face and are each aligned along the neutral axis (1904, 2004); the first, second, third and fourth compression gauge resistors (R C1, R C2, R C3, R C4) are located on the first face and are each aligned along the neutral axis (1904, 2004); characterized in that elongated portions of the tension gauge resistors (R T1, R T2, R T3, R T4) are aligned parallel to the longitudinal axis of the beam (206, 1902, 2002); and elongated portions of the compression gauge resistors (R C1, R C2, R C3, R C4) are aligned perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam (206, 1902, 2002).