An electrode comprising a conducting substrate and a layer of a conjugated copolymer, wherein the conjugated copolymer comprises a plurality of a first monomer subunit having one or more acid side chains and a plurality of a second monomer subunit that does not have the acid side chains, wherein the conjugated copolymer consists of repeat units having a structure selected from the group consisting of A-B, A-B-B, A-B-B-B, A-B-B-B-B, A-A-B, and A-A-B-B, wherein A represents the first monomer subunit and has a structure according to any one of the following formulas: wherein each occurrence of R 1 is independently selected from the group consisting of C 1 -C 30 carboxylic acid side chains, C 1 -C 30 thiocarboxylic acid side chains, C 1 -C 30 dithiocarboxylic acid side chains, C 1 -C 30 phosphonic acid side chains, C 1 -C 30 boronic acid side chains, H, C 1 -C 30 alkyl sidechains, C 2 -C 30 alkenyl side chains, C 2 -C 30 alkynyl side chains, C 3 -C 30 cycloalkyl side chains, C 1 -C 30 heterocycloalkyl side chains, C 3 -C 30 cycloalkenyl side chains, C 1 -C 30 heterocycloalkenyl side chains, aryl side chains, heteroaryl side chains, and a combination thereof, so long as at least one occurrence of R 1 is selected from the group consisting of C 1 -C 30 carboxylic acid side chains, C 1 -C 30 thiocarboxylic acid side chains, C 1 -C 30 dithiocarboxylic acid side chains, C 1 -C 30 phosphonic acid side chains, and C 1 -C 30 boronic acid side chains, and wherein B represents the second monomer subunit and has a structure selected from the group consisting of structures according to following Formula 1B, Formula 2B, Formula 3B, Formula 4B, Formula 5B, and Formula 6B: wherein each occurrence of X is independently selected from the group consisting of S, Se, O, and NR, where R is a H, phenyl, benzyl, or C 1 -C 30 substituent, wherein the number of first monomer subunits in the conjugated copolymer is at least the minimum number of first monomer subunits such that the conjugated copolymer is solvent resistant, wherein the conjugated copolymer has a solubility of less than 0.01 mg/ml in both aqueous and organic solvents at a pH of 1 to 9 and at a temperature of 20 °C to 80 °C. wherein the conjugated copolymer comprises a plurality of a first monomer subunit having one or more acid side chains and a plurality of a second monomer subunit that does not have the acid side chains, wherein the conjugated copolymer consists of repeat units having a structure selected from the group consisting of A-B, A-B-B, A-B-B-B, A-B-B-B-B, A-A-B, and A-A-B-B, wherein A represents the first monomer subunit and has a structure according to any one of the following formulas: wherein each occurrence of R 1 is independently selected from the group consisting of C 1 -C 30 carboxylic acid side chains, C 1 -C 30 thiocarboxylic acid side chains, C 1 -C 30 dithiocarboxylic acid side chains, C 1 -C 30 phosphonic acid side chains, C 1 -C 30 boronic acid side chains, H, C 1 -C 30 alkyl sidechains, C 2 -C 30 alkenyl side chains, C 2 -C 30 alkynyl side chains, C 3 -C 30 cycloalkyl side chains, C 1 -C 30 heterocycloalkyl side chains, C 3 -C 30 cycloalkenyl side chains, C 1 -C 30 heterocycloalkenyl side chains, aryl side chains, heteroaryl side chains, and a combination thereof, so long as at least one occurrence of R 1 is selected from the group consisting of C 1 -C 30 carboxylic acid side chains, C 1 -C 30 thiocarboxylic acid side chains, C 1 -C 30 dithiocarboxylic acid side chains, C 1 -C 30 phosphonic acid side chains, and C 1 -C 30 boronic acid side chains, and wherein B represents the second monomer subunit and has a structure selected from the group consisting of structures according to following Formula 1B, Formula 2B, Formula 3B, Formula 4B, Formula 5B, and Formula 6B: wherein each occurrence of X is independently selected from the group consisting of S, Se, O, and NR, where R is a H, phenyl, benzyl, or C 1 -C 30 substituent, wherein the number of first monomer subunits in the conjugated copolymer is at least the minimum number of first monomer subunits such that the conjugated copolymer is solvent resistant, wherein the conjugated copolymer has a solubility of less than 0.01 mg/ml in both aqueous and organic solvents at a pH of 1 to 9 and at a temperature of 20 °C to 80 °C.