A three-dimensional, engineered, biological renal tubule model comprising: a. a layer of renal interstitial tissue, the renal interstitial tissue comprising renal fibroblasts and endothelial cells, and wherein the layer of renal interstitial tissue possesses an apical and basolateral surface; and b. a layer of renal epithelial tissue, the renal epithelial tissue comprising renal tubular epithelial cells, wherein the layer of renal epithelial tissue is in direct contact with the apical surface of the layer of renal interstitial tissue or is separated from the apical surface of the renal interstitial tissue by extracellular matrix to form the three-dimensional, engineered, biological renal tubule model; wherein: the layer of renal epithelial tissue covers by 50% or more the apical surface of the layer of renal interstitial tissue, the fibroblasts and endothelial cells are present in the layer of renal interstitial tissue at a ratio of 95:5 to 5:95 fibroblasts to endothelial cells, 75:25 to 25:75 fibroblasts to endothelial cells, 60:40 to 40:60 fibroblasts to endothelial cells, or 50:50 fibroblasts to endothelial cells, and any of the layer of renal interstitial tissue or layer of renal epithelial tissue is at least 30% living cells by volume, provided that the interstitial tissue comprises an interstitial bio-ink comprising renal fibroblasts and endothelial cells, and the epithelial tissue comprises an epithelial bio-ink comprising renal tubular epithelial cells. a. a layer of renal interstitial tissue, the renal interstitial tissue comprising renal fibroblasts and endothelial cells, and wherein the layer of renal interstitial tissue possesses an apical and basolateral surface; and b. a layer of renal epithelial tissue, the renal epithelial tissue comprising renal tubular epithelial cells, wherein the layer of renal epithelial tissue is in direct contact with the apical surface of the layer of renal interstitial tissue or is separated from the apical surface of the renal interstitial tissue by extracellular matrix to form the three-dimensional, engineered, biological renal tubule model; wherein: the layer of renal epithelial tissue covers by 50% or more the apical surface of the layer of renal interstitial tissue, the fibroblasts and endothelial cells are present in the layer of renal interstitial tissue at a ratio of 95:5 to 5:95 fibroblasts to endothelial cells, 75:25 to 25:75 fibroblasts to endothelial cells, 60:40 to 40:60 fibroblasts to endothelial cells, or 50:50 fibroblasts to endothelial cells, and any of the layer of renal interstitial tissue or layer of renal epithelial tissue is at least 30% living cells by volume, provided that the interstitial tissue comprises an interstitial bio-ink comprising renal fibroblasts and endothelial cells, and the epithelial tissue comprises an epithelial bio-ink comprising renal tubular epithelial cells. the layer of renal epithelial tissue covers by 50% or more the apical surface of the layer of renal interstitial tissue, the fibroblasts and endothelial cells are present in the layer of renal interstitial tissue at a ratio of 95:5 to 5:95 fibroblasts to endothelial cells, 75:25 to 25:75 fibroblasts to endothelial cells, 60:40 to 40:60 fibroblasts to endothelial cells, or 50:50 fibroblasts to endothelial cells, and any of the layer of renal interstitial tissue or layer of renal epithelial tissue is at least 30% living cells by volume, provided that the interstitial tissue comprises an interstitial bio-ink comprising renal fibroblasts and endothelial cells, and the epithelial tissue comprises an epithelial bio-ink comprising renal tubular epithelial cells.