A method of estimating the risk of dysplasia progressing to cancer in a subject, the method comprising: (a) detecting and classifying dysplastic target cells in a cytological preparation from a biological sample from the subject, wherein the target cells are epithelial cells; (b) detecting and classifying T-cells, B-cells, macrophages and/or other cells of the innate immune system as non-target cells; (c) detecting the presence of anti-inflammatory cytokines in dysplastic or non-dysplastic cells; and (d) estimating the risk of dysplasia progressing to cancer in the subject based upon whether at least one anti-inflammatory cytokine is present in dysplastic or in other cells detected in the specimen, wherein (i) a normal risk of progression is indicated by the absence of cells exhibiting detectable amounts of one or more anti-inflammatory cytokines; (ii) a slightly increased risk of progression is indicated by the presence of non-target cells exhibiting detectable amounts of one or more anti-inflammatory cytokines; (iii) a moderately increased risk of progression is indicated by the presence of target cells exhibiting detectable amounts of one or more anti-inflammatory cytokines; and (iv) a greatly increased risk of progression is indicated by the presence of both target cells and non-target cells exhibiting detectable amounts of one or more anti-inflammatory cytokines. (a) detecting and classifying dysplastic target cells in a cytological preparation from a biological sample from the subject, wherein the target cells are epithelial cells; (b) detecting and classifying T-cells, B-cells, macrophages and/or other cells of the innate immune system as non-target cells; (c) detecting the presence of anti-inflammatory cytokines in dysplastic or non-dysplastic cells; and (d) estimating the risk of dysplasia progressing to cancer in the subject based upon whether at least one anti-inflammatory cytokine is present in dysplastic or in other cells detected in the specimen, wherein (i) a normal risk of progression is indicated by the absence of cells exhibiting detectable amounts of one or more anti-inflammatory cytokines; (ii) a slightly increased risk of progression is indicated by the presence of non-target cells exhibiting detectable amounts of one or more anti-inflammatory cytokines; (iii) a moderately increased risk of progression is indicated by the presence of target cells exhibiting detectable amounts of one or more anti-inflammatory cytokines; and (iv) a greatly increased risk of progression is indicated by the presence of both target cells and non-target cells exhibiting detectable amounts of one or more anti-inflammatory cytokines. (i) a normal risk of progression is indicated by the absence of cells exhibiting detectable amounts of one or more anti-inflammatory cytokines; (ii) a slightly increased risk of progression is indicated by the presence of non-target cells exhibiting detectable amounts of one or more anti-inflammatory cytokines; (iii) a moderately increased risk of progression is indicated by the presence of target cells exhibiting detectable amounts of one or more anti-inflammatory cytokines; and (iv) a greatly increased risk of progression is indicated by the presence of both target cells and non-target cells exhibiting detectable amounts of one or more anti-inflammatory cytokines.