A method for determining model parameters associated with a sample, comprising operations of: applying, to the sample, an excitation using a source, wherein the excitation has at least a wavelength and an intensity or a flux, and wherein the excitation comprises one of: electromagnetic radiation, a radio-frequency wave, a particle beam, a sound wave, a magnetic field associated with a susceptibility measurement device, or an electric field associated with an impedance measurement device; measuring, using a measurement device, a response associated with the sample to the excitation; computing, using a predetermined predictive model which has the measured response and information specifying the excitation as inputs, the model parameters on a voxel-by-voxel basis in a forward model with multiple voxels that represent the sample, wherein the predetermined predictive model was trained, prior to the applying and the measuring, using simulated training data computed using the forward model and a range of model parameters and a range of excitations, wherein the forward model simulates response physics occurring within the sample to a given excitation with a given wavelength and a given intensity or a given flux, that are within a range of measurement conditions that includes the excitation, the wavelength and the intensity or the flux, and at least a different wavelength and at least a different intensity or a different flux, and wherein the forward model is a function of the excitation, the model parameters of the multiple voxels, and differential or phenomenological equations that approximates the response physics; determining, using a computer, an accuracy of the model parameters by comparing at least the measured response and a calculated predicted value of the response using the forward model, the computed model parameters and the excitation; providing, when the accuracy exceeds a predefined value, the model parameters as an output to a user, to another electronic device, to a display or to memory; and when the accuracy is less than the predefined value, the method comprises: calculating, using information specifying the excitation and the accuracy as inputs to a second predetermined predictive model, a revised excitation that has at least a revised wavelength, a revised intensity or a revised flux; and repeating the applying, measuring, computing and determining operations with the revised excitation instead of the excitation. applying, to the sample, an excitation using a source, wherein the excitation has at least a wavelength and an intensity or a flux, and wherein the excitation comprises one of: electromagnetic radiation, a radio-frequency wave, a particle beam, a sound wave, a magnetic field associated with a susceptibility measurement device, or an electric field associated with an impedance measurement device; measuring, using a measurement device, a response associated with the sample to the excitation; computing, using a predetermined predictive model which has the measured response and information specifying the excitation as inputs, the model parameters on a voxel-by-voxel basis in a forward model with multiple voxels that represent the sample, wherein the predetermined predictive model was trained, prior to the applying and the measuring, using simulated training data computed using the forward model and a range of model parameters and a range of excitations, wherein the forward model simulates response physics occurring within the sample to a given excitation with a given wavelength and a given intensity or a given flux, that are within a range of measurement conditions that includes the excitation, the wavelength and the intensity or the flux, and at least a different wavelength and at least a different intensity or a different flux, and wherein the forward model is a function of the excitation, the model parameters of the multiple voxels, and differential or phenomenological equations that approximates the response physics; determining, using a computer, an accuracy of the model parameters by comparing at least the measured response and a calculated predicted value of the response using the forward model, the computed model parameters and the excitation; providing, when the accuracy exceeds a predefined value, the model parameters as an output to a user, to another electronic device, to a display or to memory; and when the accuracy is less than the predefined value, the method comprises: calculating, using information specifying the excitation and the accuracy as inputs to a second predetermined predictive model, a revised excitation that has at least a revised wavelength, a revised intensity or a revised flux; and repeating the applying, measuring, computing and determining operations with the revised excitation instead of the excitation. calculating, using information specifying the excitation and the accuracy as inputs to a second predetermined predictive model, a revised excitation that has at least a revised wavelength, a revised intensity or a revised flux; and repeating the applying, measuring, computing and determining operations with the revised excitation instead of the excitation.