mgor/protobowl-11-13 huggingface dataset:
Category: Science
Question: This planet was mapped by the Magellan probe. This planet had a notable transition of the sun in 2004 and is scheduled to make another in 2012. When it appears, it is this brightest object in the night sky. Its dense, carbon dioxide dominated atmosphere results in a runaway greenhouse effect. For 10 points, name this planet named after the Roman goddess of love, the second planet from the sun.
Answer: Venus

Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is a terrestrial planet and is the closest in mass and size to its orbital neighbour Earth. Venus is notable for having the densest atmosphere of the terrestrial planets, composed mostly of carbon dioxide with a thick, global sulfuric acid cloud cover. At the surface it has a mean temperature of 737 K (464 °C; 867 °F) and a pressure of 92 times that of Earth's at sea level. These extreme conditions compress carbon dioxide into a supercritical state close to Venus's surface.
Internally, Venus has a core, mantle, and crust. Venus lacks an internal dynamo, and its weakly induced magnetosphere is caused by atmospheric interactions with the solar wind. Internal heat escapes through active volcanism, resulting in resurfacing instead of plate tectonics. Venus is one of two planets in the Solar System, the other being Mercury, that have no moons. Conditions perhaps favourable for life on Venus have been identified at its cloud layers. Venus may have had liquid surface water early in its history with a habitable environment, before a runaway greenhouse effect evaporated any water and turned Venus into its present state.
The rotation of Venus has been slowed and turned against its orbital direction (retrograde) by the currents and drag of its atmosphere. It takes 224.7 Earth days for Venus to complete an orbit around the Sun, and a Venusian solar year is just under two Venusian days long. The orbits of Venus and Earth are the closest between any two Solar System planets, approaching each other in synodic periods of 1.6 years. Venus and Earth have the lowest difference in gravitational potential of any pair of Solar System planets. This allows Venus to be the most accessible destination and a useful gravity assist waypoint for interplanetary flights from Earth.
Historically, Venus has been a common and important object for humans, in both their cultures and astronomy. Orbiting inferiorly (inside of Earth's orbit), it always appears close to the Sun in Earth's sky, as either a "morning star" or an "evening star". While this is also true for Mercury, Venus appears more prominent, since it is the third brightest object in Earth's sky after the Moon and the Sun. In 1961, Venus became the target of the first interplanetary flight, Venera 1, followed by many essential interplanetary firsts, such as the first soft landing on another planet by Venera 7 in 1970. These probes demonstrated the extreme surface conditions, an insight that has informed predictions about global warming on Earth. This finding ended the theories and then popular science fiction about Venus being a habitable or inhabited planet.
Category: Science
Question: The French equivalent to costing "an arm and a leg" is the cost of these body parts. In Latin, this word translates as "oculus," while the Greek translation, "ophthalmos," gives the terms "ophthalmologist" and "optometrist" for doctors of these body parts. "Les yeux" in French and "los ojos" in Spanish identify, for 10 points, what body parts that you can idiomatically have "four" of if you wear glasses?
Answer: eyes

An eye is a sensory organ that allows an organism to perceive visual information. It detects light and converts it into electro-chemical impulses in neurons (neurones). It is part of an organism's visual system.
In higher organisms, the eye is a complex optical system that collects light from the surrounding environment, regulates its intensity through a diaphragm, focuses it through an adjustable assembly of lenses to form an image, converts this image into a set of electrical signals, and transmits these signals to the brain through neural pathways that connect the eye via the optic nerve to the visual cortex and other areas of the brain.
Eyes with resolving power have come in ten fundamentally different forms, classified into compound eyes and non-compound eyes. Compound eyes are made up of multiple small visual units, and are common on insects and crustaceans. Non-compound eyes have a single lens and focus light onto the retina to form a single image. This type of eye is common in mammals. The human eye is a non-compound eye.
The simplest eyes are pit eyes. They are eye-spots which may be set into a pit to reduce the angle of light that enters and affects the eye-spot, to allow the organism to deduce the angle of incoming light.
Eyes enable several photo response functions that are independent of vision. In an organism that has more complex eyes, retinal photosensitive ganglion cells send signals along the retinohypothalamic tract to the suprachiasmatic nuclei to effect circadian adjustment and to the pretectal area to control the pupillary light reflex.
Category: Science
Question: Two liquids are said to be immiscible if they cannot combine to form this type of mixture. In the most common form of this mixture, solid particles are small enough to completely dissolve in a liquid. For 10 points, name this type of mixture that is not a colloid or suspension, an example of which is sugar dissolved in water.
Answer: {solution} [prompt on mixture]

Solution may refer to:

Solution (chemistry), a mixture where one substance is dissolved in another
Solution (equation), in mathematics
Numerical solution, in numerical analysis, approximate solutions within specified error bounds
Solution, in problem solving
A business solution is a method of organizing people and resources that can be sold as a product
Solution, in solution selling
Category: Mythology
Question: In one myth, these creatures rose from the blood spilled by Uranus when his son Cronus castrated him. They chased Oedipus (ED-uh-puhs) for wedding his mother and are believed to punish those who swear false oaths. Their members include Alecto (uh-LEK-toh), Megaera (muh-JEER-uh), and Tisiphone (ti-SIF-uh-nee). For 10 points, name these fearsome female winged deities of vengeance from Greco- Roman mythology.
Answer: {Erinnyes} [{accept} Eumenídes; accept {Furies;} accept Dirae (dahy-ree)]

The Erinyes ( ih-RIN-ee-eez; sing. Erinys  ih-RIN-iss, ih-RY-niss; Ancient Greek: Ἐρινύες, pl. of Ἐρινύς), also known as the Eumenides (commonly known in English as the Furies), are chthonic goddesses of vengeance in ancient Greek religion and mythology. A formulaic oath in the Iliad invokes them as "the Erinyes, that under earth take vengeance on men, whosoever hath sworn a false oath". Walter Burkert suggests that they are "an embodiment of the act of self-cursing contained in the oath". They correspond to the Dirae in Roman mythology. The Roman writer Maurus Servius Honoratus wrote (ca. AD 400) that they are called "Eumenides" in hell, "Furiae" on Earth, and "Dirae" in heaven. Erinyes are akin to some other Greek deities, called Poenai.
According to Hesiod's Theogony, when the Titan Cronus castrated his father, Uranus, and threw his genitalia into the sea, the Erinyes (along with the Giants and the Meliae) emerged from the drops of blood which fell on the Earth (Gaia), while Aphrodite was born from the crests of sea foam. Pseudo-Apollodorus also reports this lineage. According to variant accounts they are the daughters of Nyx ("Night"), while in Virgil's Aeneid, they are daughters of Pluto (Hades) and Nox (Nyx). In some accounts, they were the daughters of Euronymè (a name for Earth) and Cronus, or of Earth and Phorcys (i.e. the sea). In Orphic literature, they are the daughters of Hades and Persephone.
Their number is usually left indeterminate. Virgil, probably working from an Alexandrian source, recognized three: Alecto or Alekto ("endless anger"), Megaera ("jealous rage"), and Tisiphone or Tilphousia ("vengeful destruction"), all of whom appear in the Aeneid. Dante Alighieri followed Virgil in depicting the same three-character triptych of Erinyes; in Canto IX of the Inferno they confront the poets at the gates of the city of Dis. Whilst the Erinyes were usually described as three maiden goddesses, the Erinys Telphousia was usually a byname for the wrathful goddess Demeter, who was worshipped under the title of Erinys in the Arkadian town of Thelpousa.
Category: History
Question: This man was killed by a crossbow bolt while besieging the castle Charlus-Chabrol. After the departure of Philip Augustus of France, this man led the Christian armies in the Third Crusade, during which he achieved peace with Saladin. He was succeeded by his brother John. For 10 points, name this 12th-century King of England known by an epithet signifying his bravery.
Answer: Richard I of England [or Richard the Lionhearted; or Richard Coeur de Lion; prompt on Richard]

Richard I (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199), known as Richard Cœur de Lion (Norman French: Quor de Lion) or Richard the Lionheart because of his reputation as a great military leader and warrior, was King of England from 1189 until his death in 1199. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy, Aquitaine, and Gascony; Lord of Cyprus; Count of Poitiers, Anjou, Maine, and Nantes; and was overlord of Brittany at various times during the same period. He was the third of five sons of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine and was therefore not expected to become king, but his two elder brothers predeceased their father.
By the age of 16, Richard had taken command of his own army, putting down rebellions in Poitou against his father. Richard was an important Christian commander during the Third Crusade, leading the campaign after the departure of Philip II of France and achieving several victories against his Muslim counterpart, Saladin, although he finalised a peace treaty and ended the campaign without retaking Jerusalem.
Richard probably spoke both French and Occitan. He was born in England, where he spent his childhood; before becoming king, however, he lived most of his adult life in the Duchy of Aquitaine, in the southwest of France. Following his accession, he spent very little time, perhaps as little as six months, in England. Most of his reign was spent on Crusade, in captivity, or actively defending his lands in France. Rather than regarding his kingdom as a responsibility requiring his presence as ruler, he has been perceived as preferring to use it merely as a source of revenue to support his armies. Nevertheless, he was seen as a pious hero by his subjects. He remains one of the few kings of England remembered more commonly by his epithet than his regnal number, and is an enduring iconic figure both in England and in France.
Category: Science
Question: One form of this concept is equal to the product of charge and voltage. For a spring, this quantity is given by one-half times the spring constant times the square of the distance from equilibrium. The gravitational form of this quantity is equal to an object's weight times its height. For 10 points, give this “stored” energy that is converted into kinetic energy.
Answer: {potential energy} [or {potential} energy after “energy”; prompt on energy]

In physics, potential energy is the energy held by an object because of its position relative to other objects, stresses within itself, its electric charge, or other factors. The term potential energy was introduced by the 19th-century Scottish engineer and physicist William Rankine, although it has links to the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle's concept of potentiality.
Common types of potential energy include the gravitational potential energy of an object, the elastic potential energy of an extended spring, and the electric potential energy of an electric charge in an electric field. The unit for energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule (symbol J).
Potential energy is associated with forces that act on a body in a way that the total work done by these forces on the body depends only on the initial and final positions of the body in space. These forces, whose total work is path independent, are called conservative forces. If the force acting on a body varies over space, then one has a force field; such a field is described by vectors at every point in space, which is in-turn called a vector field. A conservative vector field can be simply expressed as the gradient of a certain scalar function, called a scalar potential. The potential energy is related to, and can be obtained from, this potential function.
Category: Religion
Question: This man's brothers were Nahor and Haran, and his father was Terah. He told his wife to say that she was his sister to evade Egyptian guards. This man fathered Ishmael with Hagar, but he is more famous for nearly (*) sacrificing his son, Isaac. For 10 points, name this Old Testament figure whose wife was Sarah and who made a covenant with God, making him a patriarchal figure in Islam, Christianity, and Judaism.
Answer: Abraham [accept Abram]

Abraham (originally Abram) is the common Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father of the special relationship between the Jews and God; in Christianity, he is the spiritual progenitor of all believers, whether Jewish or non-Jewish; and in Islam, he is a link in the chain of Islamic prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad. As the namesake of the Abrahamic religions, Abraham is also revered in other Abrahamic religions, such as Druze Faith and Baháʼí Faith.
The story of the life of Abraham as told in the narrative of the Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible revolves around the themes of posterity and land. He is said to have been called by God to leave the house of his father Terah and settle in the land of Canaan, which God now promises to Abraham and his progeny. This promise is subsequently inherited by Isaac, Abraham's son, by his wife Sarah, while Isaac's half-brother Ishmael is also promised that he will be the founder of a great nation. Abraham purchases a tomb (the Cave of the Patriarchs) at Hebron to be Sarah's grave, thus establishing his right to the land; and, in the second generation, his heir Isaac is married to a woman from his own kin to earn his parents' approval. Abraham later marries Keturah and has six more sons; but, on his death, when he is buried beside Sarah, it is Isaac who receives "all Abraham's goods" while the other sons receive only "gifts".
Most scholars view the patriarchal age, along with the Exodus and the period of the biblical judges, as a late literary construct that does not relate to any particular historical era, and after a century of exhaustive archaeological investigation, no evidence has been found for a historical Abraham. It is largely concluded that the Torah, the series of books that includes Genesis, was composed during the early Persian period, c. 500 BC, as a result of tensions between Jewish landowners who had stayed in Judah during the Babylonian captivity and traced their right to the land through their "father Abraham", and the returning exiles who based their counterclaim on Moses and the Exodus tradition of the Israelites.
Category: Science
Question: One of Maxwell's equations describes how this physical quantity produces a magnetic field. A diode allows it to flow in only one direction. It equals (*) voltage over resistance according to Ohm's law, and comes in alternating and direct types. For 10 points, name this quantity whose units are amperes, and which measures the rate of charge flowing in a circuit.
Answer: electric current [accept direct current; prompt on \"DC\"]

An electric current is a flow of charged particles, such as electrons or ions, moving through an electrical conductor or space. It is defined as the net rate of flow of electric charge through a surface.: 2 : 622  The moving particles are called charge carriers, which may be one of several types of particles, depending on the conductor.  In electric circuits the charge carriers are often electrons moving through a wire. In semiconductors they can be electrons or holes. In an electrolyte the charge carriers are ions, while in plasma, an ionized gas, they are ions and electrons.
In the International System of Units (SI), electric current is expressed in units of ampere (sometimes called an "amp", symbol A), which is equivalent to one coulomb per second. The ampere is an SI base unit and electric current is a base quantity in the International System of Quantities (ISQ).: 15  Electric current is also known as amperage and is measured using a device called an ammeter.: 788 
Electric currents create magnetic forces, which are used in motors, generators, inductors, and transformers. In ordinary conductors, they cause Joule heating, which creates light in incandescent light bulbs. Time-varying currents emit electromagnetic waves, which are used in telecommunications to broadcast information.
Category: Fine Arts
Question: Prince Calaf (cah-LAHF) sings "Nessun dorma" in this composer's unfinished final work. Another opera by this composer sees Lieutenant Pinkerton marry the title character, Cio-Cio San (CHO CHO sahn), before returning to America. This composer of the unfinished Turandot also composed an opera about the poet Rodolfo's love for the seamstress Mimi, who dies of tuberculosis. For 10 points, name this Italian who created Madame Butterfly and La Boheme [boh-EMM].
Answer: Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria {Puccini} [accept {Turandot} before "this composer"]

Giacomo Puccini (22 December 1858 –  29 November 1924) was an Italian composer known primarily for his operas. Regarded as the greatest and most successful proponent of Italian opera after Verdi, he was descended from a long line of composers, stemming from the late-Baroque era. Though his early work was firmly rooted in traditional late-19th-century Romantic Italian opera, he later developed his work in the realistic verismo style, of which he became one of the leading exponents.
His most renowned works are La bohème (1896), Tosca (1900), Madama Butterfly (1904), and Turandot (1924), all of which are among the most frequently performed and recorded of all operas.
Category: Religion
Question: One figure involved in this event is drunk with the blood of saints. During it, seven vials are poured by seven angels in order to wreak havoc. It is set to take place on the Hill of Megiddo. Death, Famine, War, and Pestilence are the “Four Horsemen” of this event. For 10 points, identify this Biblical event where the forces of good and evil will do battle one last time.
Answer: {Apocalypse} [accept {Armageddon}]

Apocalypse (from Ancient Greek  ἀποκάλυψις (apokálupsis) 'revelation, disclosure') is a literary genre in which a supernatural being reveals cosmic mysteries or the future to a human intermediary. The means of mediation include dreams, visions and heavenly journeys, and they typically feature symbolic imagery drawn from the Hebrew Bible, cosmological and (pessimistic) historical surveys, the division of time into periods, esoteric numerology, and claims of ecstasy and inspiration. Almost all are written under pseudonyms (false names), claiming as author a venerated hero from previous centuries, as with the Book of Daniel, composed during the 2nd century BC but bearing the name of the legendary Daniel. 
Eschatology, from Greek eschatos, last, concerns expectations of the end of the present age, and apocalyptic eschatology is the application of the apocalyptic world-view to the end of the world, when God will bring judgment to the world and save his followers. An apocalypse will often contain much eschatological material, but need not: the baptism of Jesus in Matthew's gospel, for example, can be considered apocalyptic in that the heavens open for the presence of a divine mediator (the dove representing the spirit of God) and a voice communicates supernatural information, but there is no eschatological element.
Scholars have identified examples of the genre ranging from the mid-2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD, and examples are to be found in Persian and Greco-Roman literature as well as Jewish and Christian. The sole clear case in the Jewish Bible (Old Testament) is chapters 7-12 of the Book of Daniel, but there are many examples from non-canonical Jewish works; the Book of Revelation is the only apocalypse in the New Testament, but passages reflecting the genre are to be found in the gospels and in nearly all the genuine Pauline epistles.
Category: Science
Question: The "abstract" form of this branch of mathematics concerns rings and fields, while the "linear" form concerns matrices. The elementary form of it introduces variables to represent numbers in expressions and equations. For 10 points, identify this branch of mathematics concerned with finding solutions for various types of equations, including quadratics and systems of equations.
Answer: algebra

Algebra is the branch of mathematics that studies algebraic structures and the manipulation of statements within those structures. It is a generalization of arithmetic that introduces variables and algebraic operations other than the standard arithmetic operations such as addition and multiplication.
Elementary algebra is the main form of algebra taught in school and examines mathematical statements using variables for unspecified values. It seeks to determine for which values the statements are true. To do so, it utilizes different methods of transforming equations to isolate variables. Linear algebra is a closely related field investigating variables that appear in several linear equations, so-called systems of linear equations. It tries to discover the values that solve all equations at the same time.
Abstract algebra studies algebraic structures, which consist of a set of mathematical objects together with one or several binary operations defined on that set. It is a generalization of elementary and linear algebra since it allows mathematical objects other than numbers and non-arithmetic operations. It distinguishes between different types of algebraic structures, such as groups, rings, and fields, based on the number of operations they use and the laws they follow. Universal algebra constitutes a further level of generalization that is not limited to binary operations and investigates more abstract patterns that characterize different classes of algebraic structures.
Algebraic methods were first studied in the ancient period to solve specific problems in fields like geometry. Subsequent mathematicians examined general techniques to solve equations independent of their specific applications. They relied on verbal descriptions of problems and solutions until the 16th and 17th centuries, when a rigorous mathematical formalism was developed. In the mid-19th century, the scope of algebra broadened beyond a theory of equations to cover diverse types of algebraic operations and algebraic structures. Algebra is relevant to many branches of mathematics, like geometry, topology, number theory, and calculus, and other fields of inquiry, like logic and the empirical sciences.