WhatsApp

Encryption Overview
Technical white paper

Version 7 Updated September 27, 2023

Version 6 Updated January 24, 2023

Version 5 Preview (Applicable to Multi-Device Beta Only) Updated September 27, 2021

Version 4 Preview (Applicable to Multi-Device Beta Only) Updated July 14, 2021

Version 3 Updated October 22, 2020

Version 2 Updated December 19, 2017

Version 1 Originally published April 5, 2016

SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

Contents

Messaging Security..................................................................................................... 3
Terms........................................................................................................................... 3
Client Registration....................................................................................................... 5
Initiating Session Setup.............................................................................................. 6
Receiving Session Setup.............................................................................................8
Exchanging Messages................................................................................................ 8
Group Messages....................................................................................................... 11
Message Add-ons in Community Announcement Groups..................................... 12
Sender Side Backfill...................................................................................................13
Message History Syncing......................................................................................... 14
Call Setup...................................................................................................................14
Group Calling............................................................................................................. 15
Statuses..................................................................................................................... 16
Live Location..............................................................................................................16
App State Syncing Security.......................................................................................19
Verifying Keys............................................................................................................ 26
Companion Device Removal.....................................................................................27
Transport Security..................................................................................................... 28
Defining End-to-End Encryption................................................................................ 29
Implementation on WhatsApp Services...................................................................29
Encryption Has No Off Switch.................................................................................. 30
Displaying End-to-End Encryption Status.................................................................31
Conclusion................................................................................................................. 31

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Messaging Security

Introduction

This white paper provides a technical explanation of WhatsApp’s end-to-end
encryption system. Please visit WhatsApp’s website at
www.whatsapp.com/security for more information.

WhatsApp Messenger allows people to exchange messages (including chats,
group chats, images, videos, voice messages and files), share status posts, and
make WhatsApp calls around the world. WhatsApp messages, voice, and video
calls between a sender and receiver that use WhatsApp client software use the
Signal protocol outlined below. See “Defining End-to-End Encryption” for
information about which communications are end-to-end encrypted.

The Signal Protocol, designed by Open Whisper Systems, is the basis for
WhatsApp’s end-to-end encryption. This end-to-end encryption protocol is
designed to prevent third parties and WhatsApp from having plaintext access to
messages or calls. Due to the ephemeral nature of the cryptographic keys, even
in a situation where the current encryption keys from a user’s device are
physically compromised, they cannot be used to decrypt previously transmitted
messages.

A user can have multiple devices, each with its own set of encryption keys. If the
encryption keys of one device are compromised, an attacker cannot use them to
decrypt the messages sent to other devices, even devices registered to the same
user. WhatsApp also uses end-to-end encryption to encrypt the message history
transferred between devices when a user registers a new device.

This document gives an overview of the Signal Protocol and its use in WhatsApp.

Terms

Device Types

● Primary device - A device that is used to register a WhatsApp account
with a phone number. Each WhatsApp account is associated with a
single primary device. This primary device can be used to link additional
companion devices to the account. Supported primary device platforms
include Android and iPhone.

● Companion device - A device that is linked to an existing WhatsApp
account by the account’s primary device. Primary device platforms, such

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as iPhone and Android, do not support being linked as a Companion
device.

Public Key Types

● Identity Key Pair – A long-term Curve25519 key pair, generated at
install time.

● Signed Pre Key – A medium-term Curve25519 key pair, generated at
install time, signed by the Identity Key, and rotated on a periodic
timed basis.

● One-Time Pre Keys – A queue of Curve25519 key pairs for one time
use, generated at install time, and replenished as needed.

Session Key Types

● Root Key – A 32-byte value that is used to create Chain Keys.

● Chain Key – A 32-byte value that is used to create Message Keys.

● Message Key – An 80-byte value that is used to encrypt message
contents. 32 bytes are used for an AES-256 key, 32 bytes for a
HMAC-SHA256 key, and 16 bytes for an IV.

Other Key Types

● Linking Secret Key - A 32-byte value that is generated on a
companion device and must be passed by a secure channel to the
primary device, used to verify an HMAC of the linking payload received
from a primary device. The transmission of this key from companion
devices to the primary device is done by scanning a QR code.

Companion Linking

● Linking Metadata - An encoded blob of metadata assigned to a
companion device during linking, used in conjunction with the
companion device’s Identity Key to identify a linked companion on
WhatsApp clients.

● Signed Device List Data - An encoded list identifying the currently linked
companion devices at the time of signing. Signed by the primary
device’s Identity Key using the 0x0602 prefix.

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● Account Signature - A Curve25519 signature computed over the 0x0600
prefix, Linking Metadata, and companion device’s public Identity
Key using a primary device’s Identity Key.

● Device Signature - A Curve25519 signature computed over the 0x0601
prefix, Linking Metadata, companion device’s public Identity Key,
and primary’s devices public Identity Key using a companion
device’s Identity Key.

Client Registration

Primary Device Registration

At registration time, a WhatsApp client transmits its public Identity Key,
public Signed Pre Key (with its signature), and a batch of public One-Time
Pre Keys to the server. The WhatsApp server stores these public keys
associated with the user’s identifier.

Companion Device Registration

To link a companion device to a WhatsApp account, the user’s primary device
must first create an Account Signature by signing the new device’s public
Identity Key and the companion device must create a Device Signature by
signing the primary’s public Identity Key. Once both signatures are
produced, end-to-end encrypted sessions can be established with the companion
device.

To link a companion device:

1. The companion client displays its public Identity Key (Icompanion) and a
generated ephemeral Linking Secret Key (Lcompanion) in a linking QR
code. Lcompanion is never sent to WhatsApp server.

2. The primary client scans the linking QR code and saves Icompanion to disk.

3. The primary loads its own Identity Key as Iprimary.

4. The primary generates Linking Metadata as Lmetadata and updated Device
List Data containing the new companion as ListData.

5. The primary generates an Account Signature for the companion,
Asignature = CURVE25519_SIGN(Iprimary, 0x0600 || Lmetadata ||
Icompanion).

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6. The primary generates a Device List Signature for the updated Device
List Data, ListSignature = CURVE25519_SIGN(Iprimary, 0x0602
|| ListData).

7. The primary serializes the Linking Data (Ldata) containing Lmetadata,
Iprimary and Asignature.

8. The primary generates a Linking HMAC, PHMAC =
HMACSHA256(Lcompanion, Ldata).

9. The primary sends ListData, ListSignature, Ldata and PHMAC to
WhatsApp server. See “Transport Security” for information about the
secure connection between WhatsApp clients and servers.

10. The server stores ListData and ListSignature, and forwards Ldata
and PHMAC to the companion.

11. The companion verifies PHMAC, decodes Ldata into Lmetadata, Iprimary and
Asignature, and verifies Asignature.

12. The companion saves Lmetadata and Iprimary to disk.

13. The companion generates a Device Signature for itself, Dsignature =
CURVE25519_SIGN(Icompanion, 0x0601 || Lmetadata ||
Icompanion || Iprimary).

14. The companion uploads Lmetadata, Asignature, Dsignature, Icompanion, the
companion’s public Signed Pre Key (with its signature), and a batch of
public One-Time Pre Keys to WhatsApp server.

15. The server stores the uploaded data associated with the user’s identifier
combined with a device specific identifier.

Initiating Session Setup
In order for WhatsApp users to communicate with each other securely and
privately, the sender client establishes a pairwise encrypted session with each of
the recipient’s devices. Additionally, the sender client establishes a pairwise
encrypted session with all other devices associated with the sender account.
Once these pairwise encrypted sessions have been established, clients do not
need to rebuild new sessions with these devices unless the session state is lost,
which can be caused by an event such as an app reinstall or device change.

WhatsApp uses this “client-fanout” approach for transmitting messages to
multiple devices, where the WhatsApp client transmits a single message N

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number of times to N number of different devices. Each message is individually
encrypted using the established pairwise encryption session with each device.

To establish a session:

1. The initiating client (“initiator”) requests the public Identity Key, public
Signed Pre Key, and a single public One-Time Pre Key for each device of
the recipient and each additional device of the initiating user (excluding
the initiator).

2. The server returns the requested public key values. A One-Time Pre Key
is only used once, so it is removed from server storage after being
requested. If the recipient’s latest batch of One-Time Pre Keys has been
consumed and the recipient has not replenished them, no One-Time Pre
Key will be returned. Additionally, for each companion device (for both
the initiator’s account and the recipient’s), the server also returns the
Linking Metadata (Lmetadata), Account Signature (Asignature) and Device
signature (Dsignature) that was uploaded by the companion device when
linked.

3. For every returned key set for a companion device, the initiator needs to
verify Asignature by CURVE25519_VERIFY_SIGNATURE(Iprimary,
0x0600 || Lmetadata || Icompanion), and Dsignature by
CURVE25519_VERIFY_SIGNATURE(Icompanion, 0x0601 || Lmetadata
|| Icompanion || Iprimary). If any of the verification fails for a
companion device, the initiator terminates the encryption session
building process immediately and will not send any messages to that
device.

After getting the keys from server and verifying each device identity, the initiator
starts to establish the encryption session with each individual device:

1. The initiator saves the recipient’s Identity Key as Irecipient, the
Signed Pre Key as Srecipient, and the One-Time Pre Key as
Orecipient.

2. The initiator generates an ephemeral Curve25519 key pair, Einitiator.

3. The initiator loads its own Identity Key as Iinitiator.

4. The initiator calculates a master secret as master_secret =
ECDH(Iinitiator, Srecipient) || ECDH(Einitiator, Irecipient) ||
ECDH(Einitiator, Srecipient) || ECDH(Einitiator, Orecipient). If there
is no One Time Pre Key, the final ECDH is omitted.

5. The initiator uses HKDF to create a Root Key and Chain Keys from
the master_secret.

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Receiving Session Setup
After building a long-running encryption session, the initiator can immediately
start sending messages to the recipient, even if the recipient is offline.

Until the recipient responds, the initiator includes the information (in the header
of all messages sent) that the recipient requires to build a corresponding
session. This includes the initiator’s (Einitiator and Iinitiator). Additionally, if the
initiator is a companion device, it also includes its Iprimary, Lmetadata, Asignature and
Dsignature.

When the recipient receives a message that includes session setup information:

1. If the sender is a companion device, the recipient needs to verify
Asignature by CURVE25519_VERIFY_SIGNATURE(Iprimary, 0x0600 ||
Lmetadata || Icompanion), and Dsignature by
CURVE25519_VERIFY_SIGNATURE(Icompanion, 0x0601 || Lmetadata
|| Icompanion || Iprimary). If any of the verifications fail, the receiver
stops building the encryption session and rejects the message from
that sender device.

2. The recipient calculates the corresponding master_secret using its
own private keys and the public keys advertised in the header of the
incoming message.

3. The recipient deletes the One-Time Pre Key used by the initiator.

4. The initiator uses HKDF to derive a corresponding Root Key and
Chain Keys from the master_secret.

Exchanging Messages
Once a session has been established, clients exchange messages that are
protected with a Message Key using AES256 in CBC mode for encryption and
HMAC-SHA256 for authentication. The client uses client-fanout for all the
exchanged messages, which means each message is encrypted for each device
with the corresponding pairwise session.

The Message Key changes for each message transmitted, and is ephemeral,
such that the Message Key used to encrypt a message cannot be reconstructed
from the session state after a message has been transmitted or received.

The Message Key is derived from a sender’s Chain Key that “ratchets”
forward with every message sent. Additionally, a new ECDH agreement is

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performed with each message roundtrip to create a new Chain Key. This
provides forward secrecy through the combination of both an immediate “hash
ratchet” and a round trip “DH ratchet.”

Calculating a Message Key from a Chain Key

Each time a new Message Key is needed by a message sender, it is calculated
as:

1. Message Key = HMAC-SHA256(Chain Key, 0x01).

2. The Chain Key is then updated as Chain Key =
HMAC-SHA256(Chain Key, 0x02).

This causes the Chain Key to “ratchet” forward, and also means that a stored
Message Key can’t be used to derive current or past values of the Chain Key.

Calculating a Chain Key from a Root Key

Each time a message is transmitted, an ephemeral Curve25519 public key is
advertised along with it. Once a response is received, a new Chain Key and
Root Key are calculated as:

1. ephemeral_secret = ECDH(Ephemeralsender,
Ephemeralrecipient).

2. Chain Key, Root Key =
HKDF(Root Key, ephemeral_secret).

A chain is only ever used to send messages from one user, so message keys are
not reused. Because of the way Message Keys and Chain Keys are
calculated, messages can arrive delayed, out of order, or can be lost entirely
without any problems.

In Chat Device Consistency

In end-to-end encrypted chats, for each outgoing message to a pairwise
encryption session, including those sent during session setup, the sender
includes information about the list of the sender and receiver’s devices inside the
encrypted payload. This information includes:

1. The timestamp of the sender’s most recent Signed Device List

2. A flag indicating whether the sender has any companion devices
currently linked

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3. The timestamp of the recipient’s most recent Signed Device List

4. A flag indicating whether the recipient has any known linked companion
devices

When performing “client-fanout” to your own devices, 3 and 4 above continue to
refer to the recipient of the original message.

Transmitting Media and Other Attachments

Large attachments of any type (video, audio, images, or files) are also end-to-end
encrypted:

1. The WhatsApp user’s device sending a message (“sender”) generates
an ephemeral 32 byte AES256 key, and an ephemeral 32 byte
HMAC-SHA256 key.

2. The sender encrypts the attachment with the AES256 key in CBC mode
with a random IV, then appends a MAC of the ciphertext using
HMAC-SHA256.

3. The sender uploads the encrypted attachment to a blob store.

4. The sender transmits a normal encrypted message to the recipient that
contains the encryption key, the HMAC key, a SHA256 hash of the
encrypted blob, and a pointer to the blob in the blob store.

5. All receiving devices decrypt the message, retrieve the encrypted blob
from the blob store, verify the SHA256 hash of it, verify the MAC, and
decrypt the plaintext.

Group Messages
End-to-end encryption of messages sent to WhatsApp groups utilize the
established pairwise encrypted sessions, as previously described in the “Initiation
Session Setup” section, to distribute the “Sender Key” component of the Signal
Messaging Protocol.

When sending a message to a group for the first time, a “Sender Key” is
generated and distributed to each member device of the group, using the
pairwise encrypted sessions. The message content is encrypted using the
“Sender Key”, achieving an efficient and secure fan-out for the messages that are
sent to groups.

The first time a WhatsApp group member sends a message to a group:

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1. The sender generates a random 32-byte Chain Key.

2. The sender generates a random Curve25519 Signature Key key pair.

3. The sender combines the 32-byte Chain Key and the public key from
the Signature Key into a Sender Key message.

4. The sender individually encrypts the Sender Key to each member of
the group, using the pairwise messaging protocol explained previously.

For all subsequent messages to the group:

1. The sender derives a Message Key from the Chain Key, and updates
the Chain Key.

2. The sender encrypts the message using AES256 in CBC mode.

3. The sender signs the ciphertext using the Signature Key.

4. The sender transmits the single ciphertext message to the server, which
does server-side fan-out to all group participants.

The “hash ratchet” of the message sender’s Chain Key provides forward
secrecy. Whenever a group member leaves, all group participants clear their
Sender Key and start over.

In Chat Device Consistency information is included when distributing a “Sender
Key” and then excluded from the subsequent messages encrypted with the
Sender Key.

Message Add-ons in Community
Announcement Groups
Group members cannot send regular messages in Community Announcement
Groups but are able to interact with messages such as reacting to them by
sending Message Add-ons. In order to improve the performance of Community
Announcement Groups we will use Add-on Sender Keys instead of traditional
Group Sender Keys to encrypt the Add-ons. When an admin sends a message
into a Community Announcement Group it will be encrypted with a traditional
“Group Sender Key” as described in “Group Messages”, the end-to-end encrypted
message payload will also contain a random key “Message Secret”.

End-to-end encryption of add-ons sent to WhatsApp Community Announcement
Groups utilize the established pairwise encrypted sessions, as previously
described in the “Initiation Session Setup” section, to distribute a dedicated

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“Add-on Sender Key” component of the Signal Messaging Protocol. When
sending an Add-on to a Community Announcement Group for the first time, an
“Add-on Sender Key” is generated and distributed to each member device of the
group, using the pairwise encrypted sessions. The Add-on content is encrypted
using a key derived from the target message’s “Message Secret” and then
encrypted again using the “Add-on Sender Key”, achieving an efficient and secure
fan-out for the Add-ons that are sent to Community Announcement Groups.

The first time a WhatsApp group member sends an Add-on to a Community
Announcement Group::

1. The sender generates a random 32-byte Chain Key.

2. The sender generates a random Curve25519 Signature Key key pair.

3. The sender combines the 32-byte Chain Key and the public key from
the Signature Key into an Add-on Sender Key message.

4. The sender individually encrypts the Add-on Sender Key to each
member of the community announcement group, using the pairwise
messaging protocol explained previously.

For all Add-ons sent to a community announcement group:

1. The sender derives an encryption key from the target message’s
Message Secret Add-on Target Key = HKDF(length=32,
key=Target Message Secret, info=Target Message
Identifier || Target sender Identifier || Add-on
Sender Identifier || “Add-on type string”).

2. The sender then encrypts the Add-on content with Add-on Target
Key using AES-256-GCM to produce inner ciphertext.

3. The sender derives a Message Key from the Chain Key, and updates
the Chain Key

4. The sender encrypts the inner ciphertext using AES256 in CBC mode to
produce outer ciphertext.

5. The sender signs the outer ciphertext using the Signature Key.

6. The sender transmits the single outer ciphertext Add-on message to the
server, which does server-side fan-out to all group participants.

The “hash ratchet” of the Add-on sender’s Chain Key in conjunction with the
target message’s message secret provides forward secrecy. Whenever a group
member leaves, all Admins clear their Group Sender Key and start over. Group
members, including admins, will not clear their Add-on Sender Key when a group

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member leaves and instead will continue to use the existing key to encrypt for the
remaining participants of the group. When promoted to admin group members
will generate a new regular Group Sender Key but will not update their Add-on
Sender Key.

Sender Side Backfill
As described above, in WhatsApp, because each message is encrypted for each
device with the corresponding pairwise session, the sender client must specify all
the destination devices at the sending time. Any device which is not listed at the
sending time will not be able to receive the encrypted message. Each client
maintains a list of verified companion devices for WhatsApp accounts the user
communicates with, as well as all other devices associated with it’s own account,
and uses this list to specify the destination devices at the sending time.

However, when sending a message, it is possible for a client to miss valid
companion devices if it’s maintained device list is out-of-date. The mechanism
“Sender Side Backfill” is designed so that these missed devices may recover from
permanently missing the entire message. When WhatsApp receives the
encrypted message from the sender, it compares the hash of all the destination
devices listed by the sender, to the hash of server-side device records of these
accounts. If there is a mismatch between two hash values, the server will notify
the sender to update the devices list for itself and all the recipient accounts. The
sender client will verify all fetched new companion devices, establish the
pairwise sessions with those devices using the same method described in the
“Initiating Session Setup” section, encrypt and resend the original message to
these new devices.

To ensure the confidentiality of the message, this backfill mechanism is only
allowed within a short duration after the initial message sending. Additionally, the
backfill message will never be sent to any companion device which failed the
device verification. Moreover, during the backfill process, if a recipient registers
on a new phone, all its companion devices will be excluded from the resending
list. Therefore, the resend message will never be sent to any companion device of
a recipient with a changed identity key.

Message History Syncing
Immediately after linking a companion device, the primary device end-to-end
encrypts a copy of messages from recent chats. The primary device will also
include a copy of the user’s stored public identity key when copying messages for
one-to-one chats. This process, called Messaging History Syncing, generates

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bundles of the end-to-end encrypted messages and other data for the chat using
the same mechanism of encryption as described in the “Transmitting Media and
Other Attachments” section. Steps 1 through 5 explain the specifics regarding
key, IV, mac generation, as well as the encryption, transmission, and decryption of
these end-to-end encrypted bundles. Once a companion device has successfully
decrypted, unpacked, and stored all the messages of a given bundle, all the
associated data (including the downloaded encrypted bundle blob, the pointer to
the encrypted blob storage, and all the keys) are deleted from the companion
device.

Call Setup
WhatsApp voice and video calls are end-to-end encrypted. When a WhatsApp
user initiates a voice or video call:

1. The initiating client (“initiator”) establishes encrypted sessions with
each of the devices of the recipient (as outlined in the Initiating Session
Setup Section), if these haven’t been set up yet.

2. The initiator generates a set of random 32-byte SRTP master secrets for
each of the recipient’s devices.

3. The initiator sends an incoming call message to each of the devices of
the recipient. Each recipient’s device receives this message, which
contains the end-to-end encrypted SRTP master secret.

4. If the responder answers the call from one of the devices, a SRTP
encrypted call is started, protected by the SRTP master secret generated
for that device.

The SRTP master secret is persisted in memory on the client device and used
only during the call. WhatsApp servers do not have access to the SRTP master
secrets.

Group Calling
WhatsApp group calls are end-to-end encrypted. Unlike one-to-one calls that
setup keys only once, in group calls, keys are reset whenever a participant joins
the call or leaves the call.

Key reset in group calls is achieved by the following steps:

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1. When a participant joins or leaves the call, the WhatsApp server
arbitrarily selects one of the active participants as the key distributor.

2. The key distributor generates a random 32-byte SRTP master secret.

3. The key distributor establishes an encrypted session with the active
device of each connected participant in the current group call (as
outlined in the Initiating Session Setup Section), if these haven’t been
setup yet.

4. The key distributor initiates one message with end-to-end encrypted
SRTP master secret for each participant. When these messages are
delivered, a SRTP encrypted group call ensues.

Note that in a group call, a participant becomes active when they initiate a group
call or accepts the group call invitation from any of their devices. Therefore each
active participant has exactly one active device.

The SRTP master secret is persisted in-memory, and is overwritten when a new
SRTP master secret is generated and delivered. To continue decrypting data
encrypted with the old key while all participants transition to the new key, the old
`SRTP` crypto session is kept alive for up to 5 seconds after group update.

Whatsapp servers do not have access to them, and cannot access the actual
audio and video media.

To ensure call quality and to avoid race conditions from conflicting user actions,
the WhatsApp server stores the state of the current group call (for example:
participant list, call initiator) and media metadata (e.g. resolution, media type).
With this information, the WhatsApp server is able to broadcast participant
membership changes and select one as key distributor to initiate key reset.

Statuses
WhatsApp statuses are encrypted in much the same way as group messages.
The first status sent to a given set of devices follows the same sequence of
steps as the first time a WhatsApp group member sends a message to a group.
Similarly, subsequent statuses sent to the same set of devices follow the same
sequence of steps as all subsequent messages to a group. When a status sender
removes a receiver either through changing status privacy settings or removing a
number from their address book, the status sender clears their Sender Key and
starts over.

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Live Location
Live location messages and updates are encrypted in much the same way as
group messages. Currently, sending and receiving live locations is only supported
on primary devices. The first live location message or update sent follows the
same sequence of steps as the first time a WhatsApp group member sends a
message to a group. But, live location demands a high volume of location
broadcasts and updates with lossy delivery where receivers can expect to see
large jumps in the number of ratchets, or iteration counts. The Signal Protocol
uses a linear-time algorithm for ratcheting that is too slow for this application.
This document offers a fast ratcheting algorithm to solve this problem.

Chain keys are currently one-dimensional. To ratchet N steps takes N
computations. Chain keys are denoted as CK(iteration count) and
message keys as MK(iteration count).

Consider an extension where we keep two chains of chain keys:

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In this example, message keys are always derived from CK2. A receiver who
needs to ratchet by a large amount can skip M iterations at a time (where M is an
agreed-upon constant positive integer) by ratcheting CK1 and generating a new
CK2:

A value of CK2 may be ratcheted up to M times. To ratchet N steps takes up to
[N÷M] + M computations.

After a sender creates a message key and encrypts a message with it, all chain
keys on the path that led to its creation must be destroyed to preserve forward
secrecy.

Generalizing to D dimensions, a sender can produce D initial chain keys. Each
chain key but the first is derived from the preceding chain key using a distinct
one-way function: these are the right-pointing arrows in the diagram above.
Senders distribute all D chain keys to receivers who need them, except as noted
below.

Legal values for D are positive powers of two less than or equal to the number of
bits in the iteration counter: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32. Implementors select a value of
D as an explicit CPU-memory (or CPU-network bandwidth) tradeoff.

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If a chain key CKj (for j in [1, D]) has an iteration count of M, it cannot be used.
This algorithm restores the chain keys to a usable state:

 1. If j = 1, fail because the iteration count has reached its limit.

 2. Derive CKj from CKj-1.

3. Ratchet CKj-1 once, recursing if necessary.

Moving from one iteration count to another never ratchets a single chain key
more than M times. Therefore, no ratcheting operation takes more than D×M
steps.

Signal uses different functions for ratcheting versus message key computation,
since both come from the same chain key. In this notation {x} refers to an array
of bytes containing a single byte x.

Each dimension must use a different function. Keys are initialized as:

And ratcheted as:

App State Syncing Security
Introduction

App State Syncing enables a consistent experience across devices, and is
end-to-end encrypted. Prior to supporting companion devices, the WhatsApp
client was the sole owner and the source of truth for all client settings and other
data, referred to as App State. With the introduction of companion devices, App

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State is synchronized between all of the user’s devices securely, using end-to-end
encryption.

Example App State Syncing client settings and other data include the following:

● Chat properties, such as Muted, Pinned, Deleted

● Message properties, such as Deleted for Me, Starred

● Contact-related properties, such as contact names, broadcast list
names

● Most recently used GIFs, stickers, emojis

App State does not include user messages’ content, nor keys that could be used
to decrypt messages, nor settings that might impact the secrecy of messages.

The synchronization of App State between a user’s devices requires storage of
end-to-end encrypted data on the WhatsApp server to facilitate the transmission
between the different devices for the user’s account. WhatsApp servers do not
have access to the keys that could be used to decrypt the App State data that is
stored.

A Collection is a representation of several use-cases that are grouped together.
For example, various Chat Properties (see above) can be modelled as a single
Collection. Collections are implemented as a dictionary (a set of Index-Value
pairs) and are fixed to specific client versions.

Initially, Collections are empty. To modify a Collection, a client device submits a
Mutation which either sets a new Value for a given Index (SET Mutation), or
removes the pair from the Collection (REMOVE Mutation).

A group of Mutations submitted together constitute a Patch, which atomically
changes the Collection from version N to version N + 1. The server maintains an
ordered queue of Patches (Patch Queue), which consists of all Patches
submitted in the last X days.

A server-side process, called a Base Roller, periodically builds a Snapshot which
represents the state of the Collection after applying all Patches up until and
including the Patch with version N. The first Snapshot is built from the entire
Patch Queue, while subsequent Snapshots are built by applying new Patches to
the previous Snapshot. A Snapshot can be used to initialize a newly registered
device or to optimize the data traffic by sending a Snapshot instead of the list of
Patches.

App State Syncing is designed to guarantee the secrecy and integrity of the data
being synchronized. The pairwise encrypted sessions (as outlined in the Initiating
Session Setup Section) are used for transferring secret keys between different
devices of the same account.

19 WhatsApp Encryption Overview

SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

Terms

● Base Key - Input key material used to generate the keys used to
encrypt the data or provide its integrity.

● Index MAC Key - Key derived from the Base Key via HKDF and used
to compute the HMAC of the index.

● Value Encryption Key - Key derived from the Base Key via HKDF
and used to encrypt the combined Mutation index and value. The
encryption is done via AES-256 in CBC mode.

● Value MAC Key - Key derived from the Base Key via HKDF and used
to compute the HMAC of the combined Mutation index and value. Used
on the MAC stage of Encrypt-then-MAC approach to provide
authenticated encryption.

● Snapshot MAC Key - Key derived from the Base Key via HKDF and
used to provide anti-tampering for Snapshots generated by Base Roller.

● Patch MAC Key - Key derived from the Base Key via HKDF and used
to provide anti-tampering for Patches.

● KeyID - Unique identifier for the Base Key. Base Keys are rotated
periodically and when a device is removed from the account to provide
eventual future secrecy. An attacker in possession of a removed device
and access to the server can no longer decrypt the content of SET
Mutations submitted after the removal.

● Operation - Byte value which identifies a Mutation as SET or REMOVE.

Encryption of Mutations

In order for Base Roller to coalesce sequences of actions to the same index, it
needs the index submitted to the server to be deterministic. HMAC of the index is
used as an identifier of the index-value record the Mutations refers to. This also
makes sure that the indexes that the server sees have the same length and
prevents the server from guessing the record for which the Mutation is applied.

Values (together with indexes, as mentioned above) are encrypted using
standard authenticated encryption (described below) with random IVs.

Combined index and value plaintext are supplemented with arbitrary length
padding in order to enable some model of differential privacy on the type of the
records.

1. Generate the Index MAC Key, Value Encryption Key, Value
MAC Key, Snapshot MAC Key, and Patch MAC Key from Base
Key by means of HKDF.

20 WhatsApp Encryption Overview

SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

2. Compute HMAC-SHA2-256 of the index.

3. Construct the plaintext by combining Index and Value with random
padding (used to obfuscate the size of the Mutation from the server).

4. Construct the associated data by concatenating Operation with
KeyID.

5. Apply Encrypt-then-MAC approach with AES-256-CBC keyed by
Value Encryption Key and HMAC-SHA2-512 keyed by Value
MAC Key.

6. MAC computed on Step 2, ciphertext computed on Step 5, together with
Operation and KeyID form an encrypted Mutation.

Anti-Tampering

The anti-tampering mechanisms described below are designed to prevent:

● Drop, reorder, or replay Mutation within a Patch

● Drop, reorder, or replay (including a construction of new Patches)
Patches within a Collection or even between the Collection

● Drop or replay Mutations within a Snapshot constructed by a Base Roller

Snapshot Integrity

The server periodically runs a Base Roller which compacts the Patch Queue into
a single Snapshot. Clients cannot predict when the Snapshot is going to be built
(at the extreme the Snapshots could be built on every Patch). Thus, clients
include an additional unforgeable checksum for each Patch in order to be able to
verify all possible Snapshots built by the server.

Our approach relies on a homomorphic hashing algorithm called LtHash. It has
the following two important properties:

● Set homomorphism: for any two disjoint sets S and T, LtHash(S) +
LtHash(T) = LtHash(S U T).

● Collision resistance: it is difficult (computationally infeasible) to find
two distinct sets S and T for which LtHash(S) = LtHash(T).

21 WhatsApp Encryption Overview

SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

A 1024-bit variant called LtHash16 and HKDF as an extensible output function
(XOF) is used. For each Collection clients must maintain a 1024-bit value of
LtHash16 computed over the current Snapshot of the Collection. The MAC
computed over the content of plaintext index and value together with
authenticated data is used as input to the LtHash.

Upon receiving or constructing a new Patch, the set homomorphism property of
LtHash is used to compute the new 1024-bit value corresponding to the new
state (after applying the Patch in question):

● Assume that the current value of digest is CurrentLtHash, and Patch
P is being processed.

● Build a set R of MACs of previous states of all records that are affected
(deleted with REMOVE or overwritten with a SET operation).

● Build a set A of MACs of all SET records (in encrypted form) in the Patch
P.

● Construct NewLtHash =
LtHash16Add(LtHash16Subtract(CurrentLtHash, R), A).
See below on how these operations are defined.

LtHash16Add operation mentioned above is defined as follows:

where PointwiseAdd16 performs pointwise overflowing addition of two
1024-bit byte arrays interpreting them as arrays of 16-bit unsigned integers.
Operation LtHash16Subtract is defined similarly to LtHash16Add replacing
pointwise addition with pointwise subtraction.

Further, a MAC over the computed value of LtHash16 concatenated with 8 byte
Patch version and the name of the Collection is computed:

22 WhatsApp Encryption Overview

SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

Patch Queue Integrity

To prevent tampering with content of a Patch, clients must compute the HMAC
over the 32-byte MACs of each individual Mutation that is part of the Patch
together with the Patch version number and Collection Name:

where MutationMAC_i is the last 32 bytes of value ciphertext of Mutation #i in
the Patch, and PatchVersion is the version of the Patch about to be submitted
(i.e. latest known version of the Collection plus one). Note that upon receiving a
Patch, the client must verify it, including the expected version of the Patch (which
must match the server-assigned version).

Both values PatchMAC and SnapshotMAC are included in the Patch and
submitted to the server.

Verification

After downloading a Patch, clients must first verify its correctness by
recomputing the PatchMAC and comparing it with the value included with the
Patch. After that, clients verify that SnapshotMAC is correct as well by repeating
the steps outlined above.

The Base Roller process on the server must preserve SnapshotMAC (and the
KeyID used to generate it) of the latest Patch that was used to construct the
Base Rolled Snapshot. This value is used by a client that received a Snapshot to
independently verify its integrity by applying LtHash16 over all of its records and
further compute the MAC as described above.

23 WhatsApp Encryption Overview

SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

Key Rotation

A Key Rotation involves a client randomly generating a new key tuple and
broadcasting it to all other devices. In the event of Key Rotation, all future
Mutations must not use any previous key version. To preserve the ability of the
server to coalesce the Mutations applied to a record when updating across a key
boundary, a client must submit a REMOVE Mutation with the old key and a SET
Mutation (if needed) with the new key.

It is notable that a simultaneous REMOVE and SET occurring as the key version
increases will be relatively easy for the server to correlate as equating to an
update of the record. In collusion with anyone with access to the old key,
WhatsApp would therefore be able to determine with high confidence the value of
the new index; and might be able to assume that this means it has been updated.

The following two mechanisms are used to combat this:

1. Post-Rotation Update Obfuscation - When submitting a Mutation to the
server, clients will use this opportunity to rotate some other number of
records, ensuring that WhatsApp cannot determine which of the old
indexes was being updated, and cannot directly map any of the old
records to which new record represents them.

2. Asynchronous Key Catch-Up - Ensures that after a Key Rotation, there
will be at some point in the future when no current records are
encrypted with the preceding key(s). This means that on some cadence,
clients will issue a series of SET and REMOVE to re-encrypt old records
under a new key version, without updating the actual plaintext values.
Catch-Up updates are indistinguishable from a logical UPDATE
operation, so that the server in collusion with a removed device can
never determine when an old record is being updated.

The key must be rotated whenever a device is being unregistered. Additionally,
clients rotate the key periodically (for example once a month).

Each device maintains a list of the encryption keys together with additional data:

1. KeyData - Actual base key bytes

2. KeyID - ID of the key

3. Fingerprint - Data structure which identifies a list of devices existing
at the moment when the key was generated (and thus was shared with)

4. Timestamp - Time when the key was created

24 WhatsApp Encryption Overview

SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

The KeyID is composite and consists of 4 byte Epoch and 2 byte DeviceID.
Epoch is selected randomly between 1 and 65536 by the primary devices during
the registration of the first companion device, and after that increases by 1 every
time a device rotates a key. The DeviceID component of the KeyID is used to
resolve races between several devices rotating the key at the same time, so that
all keys will receive unique IDs. To settle on a single key after such an event,
clients prefer the key with the smallest DeviceID component when Epoch
components are equal. Otherwise, always prefer the KeyID with the largest
Epoch. Additionally, one (or in rare cases several) encryption keys can be active
at any given time.

Key Rotation must happen under the following conditions:

● If a client detects that a previously known device was removed, it must
locally mark all active encryption keys as expired.

● Upon receiving an AppStateSyncKeyShare message mark all keys
with smaller Epoch as expired.

● Upon receiving a Mutation in any Collection mark all keys with a smaller
Epoch as expired.

● When a client wants to submit a new Patch to the server it first must
check the list of known keys. If there is one that is still active it uses it.
Otherwise, it performs the Key Rotation. To rotate the key:

1. Generate a new KeyID by concatenating DeviceID with an
incremented Epoch (maximum value among all known
encryption keys).

2. Generate new key material from CSPRNG.

3. Generate a new Fingerprint from the current registration
data.

4. Persist the key information and send it to all other devices
using the corresponding pairwise encrypted sessions.

5. Use the key to encrypt the Mutations and submit them to the
server.

● In some cases, clients cannot determine whether a key is still valid
based on event ordering alone. To compute whether the last known
active key is valid or not, clients compare the key’s Fingerprint with
the current device registration data.

If a device receives a Mutation from the server and the KeyID is not known, a
device can request to resend the encryption keys from other devices.

25 WhatsApp Encryption Overview

SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

To guarantee that encryption keys are not shared with untrusted devices, all
client applications only send them via authenticated pairwise encrypted
sessions:

1. While performing Key Rotation, a device must send the new key to all
other devices which are known to be authorized by the primary.

2. When a device receives a new key from a device which is not authorized
by the primary this key is ignored.

To make sure that other devices will not inadvertently use an encryption key that
should be expired on device removal, the device that performs the removal (the
companion device itself or primary device) submits a Patch into all Collections
marking all the current keys as expired. This Patch informs other devices that
encryption keys with epoch less or equal to the provided epoch should not be
used going forward.

Verifying Keys
WhatsApp users additionally have the option to verify the keys of their devices
and the devices of the users with which they are communicating in end-to-end
encrypted chats, so that they are able to confirm that an unauthorized third party
(or WhatsApp) has not initiated a man-in-the-middle attack. Verification can be
done by scanning the QR code or by comparing the 60-digit number between two
primary devices. WhatsApp users can also verify individual companion devices
manually by using a primary device to check the same QR code or 60-digit
number.

The QR code contains:

1. A version.

2. The user identifier for both parties.

3. The full 32-byte public Identity Key for all devices of both parties.

When either device scans the other’s QR code, the keys are compared to ensure
that what is in the QR code matches the Identity Key as retrieved from the
server.

The 60-digit number is computed by concatenating the two 30-digit numeric
fingerprints for each user’s device Identity Keys. To calculate a 30-digit
numeric fingerprint:

26 WhatsApp Encryption Overview

SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

1. Lexicographically sort public Identity Keys for all of the user’s devices
and concatenate them.

2. Iteratively SHA-512 hash the sorted Identity Keys and user identi-
fier 5200 times.

3. Take the first 30 bytes of the final hash output.

4. Split the 30-byte result into six 5-byte chunks.

5. Convert each 5-byte chunk into 5 digits by interpreting each 5-byte
chunk as a big-endian unsigned integer and reducing it modulo 100000.

6. Concatenate the six groups of five digits into thirty digits.

Companion Device Removal
Companion devices can log themselves out from a WhatsApp account, may be
logged out by the user’s primary device, or may be logged out by the WhatsApp
server. When a primary device logs out or detects the log out of one or more of
its companion devices, while one or more companions remain linked, it generates
and uploads new Signed Device List Data removing the previously authorized
device.

To update the signed device list:

7. The primary detects a device removal and loads its own Identity Key as
Iprimary.

8. The primary generates updated Device List Data containing the currently
linked devices, as ListData.

9. The primary generates a Device List Signature for the updated Device
List Data, ListSignature = CURVE25519_SIGN(Iprimary, 0x0602
|| ListData).

10. The primary sends ListData and ListSignature to WhatsApp
server. See “Transport Security” for information about the secure
connection between WhatsApp clients and servers.

Even if no device removal has been detected, while one or more companions
remain linked, primary devices will periodically upload updated Signed Device List
Data following the above steps to produce a signature with an updated
timestamp.

27 WhatsApp Encryption Overview

SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

Signed Device List Expiry

In end-to-end encrypted chats, Signed Device Lists are expired with a Time to Live
of 35 days or less. Clients will only send and receive messages and calls with the
primary device of an account with an expired Signed Device List. Once an
updated Signed Device List is received with a more recent timestamp, senders
will once again communicate with a user’s linked companion devices.

On receipt of In Chat Device Consistency Data with an updated timestamp for the
sender’s device list, receiving devices reduce the TTL of the sender’s current
device list to 48 hours or less from receipt of the message. In order to maintain
message reliability the reduced TTL will not be enforced until the receiving client
comes online after the 48 hour window.

Companion Device Compromise

The Time to Live of Device List Signatures, and In Chat Device Consistency
revoke the associated signed device lists after 35 days and 48 hours respectively.
If a companion device’s private keys become compromised the compromised
device should no longer be used, and removed from the account. Devices are
revoked automatically after their removal to limit the potential for a third party
who compromised the device colluding with WhatsApp to continue to send and
receive messages from the previously linked account. The primary device’s
identity key pair can be re-generated by deleting and reinstalling WhatsApp on
your primary device to revoke all devices immediately.

Transport Security
Communication between WhatsApp clients and WhatsApp chat servers is
layered within a separate encrypted channel using Noise Pipes with Curve25519,
AES-GCM, and SHA256 from the Noise Protocol Framework for long running
interactive connections.

This provides clients with a few nice properties:

1. Extremely fast lightweight connection setup and resume.

2. Encrypts metadata to hide it from unauthorized network observers. No
information about the connecting user’s identity is revealed.

3. No client authentication secrets are stored on the server. Clients
authenticate themselves using a Curve25519 key pair, so the server only
stores a client’s public authentication key. If the server’s user database

28 WhatsApp Encryption Overview

SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

is ever compromised, no private authentication credentials will be
revealed.

Note: In cases where a business user delegates operation of their Business API
client to a vendor, that vendor will have access to their private keys - including if
that vendor is Facebook. However, these private keys will still not be stored on
the WhatsApp chat server. See below for details.

Defining End-to-End Encryption
WhatsApp defines end-to-end encryption as communications that remain
encrypted from a device controlled by the sender to one controlled by the
recipient, where no third parties, not even WhatsApp or our parent company
Facebook, can access the content in between. A third party in this context means
any organization that is not the sender or recipient user directly participating in
the conversation.

Implementation on WhatsApp
Services
This is straightforward when it comes to two people communicating on their
phones or computers using WhatsApp Messenger or the WhatsApp Business
App: each person’s WhatsApp endpoint is running on a device they control.

Some organizations may use the WhatsApp Business API, an application that can
be deployed as a WhatsApp endpoint on a server. The Business API allows those
organizations to programmatically send and receive messages.

29 WhatsApp Encryption Overview

SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

WhatsApp considers communications with Business API users who manage the
API endpoint on servers they control to be end-to-end encrypted since there is no
third-party access to content between endpoints.

Some organizations may choose to delegate management of their WhatsApp
Business API endpoint to a vendor. In these instances, communication still uses
the same Signal protocol encryption and clients on or after version v2.31 are
configured to generate private keys within the vendor-controlled API endpoint.
However, because the WhatsApp Business API user has chosen a third party to
manage their endpoint, WhatsApp does not consider these messages end-to-end
encrypted.

In 2021, organizations who use the Business API will be able to designate
WhatsApp’s parent company, Facebook, as the vendor that operates the Business
API endpoint on their behalf. Since such messages are not delivered directly to
an endpoint controlled by the organization, WhatsApp does not consider chats
with organizations who choose to use Facebook to operate their API endpoint to
be end-to-end encrypted.

30 WhatsApp Encryption Overview

SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

Invocation Message Responses
Users on WhatsApp can now interact with automated chats, by first sending a
special type of message called an Invocation Message. It’s important to note:

Invocation Messages are optimized for messages that are sent sentence by
sentence versus an entire message at a time. This is most suited for automated
chats.

Invocation Messages can only be initiated by a user, whether it’s a user
interacting with an automated chat account directly, or in chats between two or
more users, where an automated chat account is @mentioned in the
conversation.

All personal messages that are sent in an individual chat or group remain end to
end encrypted. When an Invocation Message is sent, a copy of only that message
is securely sent to an automated account using the WhatsApp Business API
infrastructure.

When a user sends an Invocation Message to an automated chat account:

1. The sender generates a random 32-byte Message Secret.

2. The sender derives an Invoke Message Secret from the Message Secret:
HKDF-SHA256(length=32, key=Message Secret, info="Invoke
Message").

3. The message to the WhatsApp Business API account, other users’ devices,
and if relevant, other participants in the chat is sent using the Signal protocol
encryption.

The message to the WhatsApp Business API account contains the Message
Secret if this account is a participant of the chat in which the Invocation
Message is being sent. Otherwise, it contains the Invoke Message Secret.

The message to all other recipients contains the Message Secret.

4. In order to improve the privacy and performance of Invocation Message
Responses, they are encrypted with the Invoke Message Secret previously
shared with other participants of the chat in the Invocation Message. As the
WhatsApp Business API account generates the response (an initial response or
an update to the initial response), it derives a Message Encryption Key from
the Invoke Message Secret: HKDF-SHA256(length=32, key=Invoke

31 WhatsApp Encryption Overview

SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

Message Secret, info=Message Identifier || Invoker
Identifier || Invocation Responder Identifier)

5. The WhatsApp Business API account then encrypts the entire message
payload with the Message Encryption Key using
AES-256-GCM(tagLength=16, iv=random 12 bytes, aad=Message
Identifier || Invoke Responder Identifier) to produce an
authenticated ciphertext.

6. The WhatsApp Business API account then transmits this ciphertext and the IV
to the server, which does server-side fan-out to all participants of the chat the
Invocation Message was sent to.

7. Upon receipt of the Invoking Message Response from the WhatsApp Business
API account, participants who received a message from the sender in step 3b
derive a Invoke Message Secret from the Message Secret as in step 2,
then calculate the Message Encryption Key as in step 4, and Additional data
as in step 5. Finally, they decrypt the message using AES-256-GCM.

8. The latest update (according to the sender-generated timestamp) to the
Invocation Message Response is displayed to the user and all previous updates
are discarded.

Encryption Has No Off Switch
All chats use the same Signal protocol outlined in this whitepaper, regardless of
their end-to-end encryption status. The WhatsApp server has no access to the
client’s private keys, though if a business user delegates operation of their
Business API client to a vendor, that vendor will have access to their private keys
- including if that vendor is Facebook.

When chatting with an organization that uses the Business API, WhatsApp
determines the end-to-end encryption status based only on the organization’s
choice of who operates its endpoint.

The encryption status of an end-to-end encrypted chat cannot change without
the change being visible to the user.

32 WhatsApp Encryption Overview

SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

Displaying End-to-End Encryption
Status
Across all our services, WhatsApp makes the end-to-end encryption status of a
chat clear. If the user’s phone sees that it’s communicating with an API endpoint
that delegates operation of its API to a vendor, the phone will display this to the
user. The user can also double check the encryption status within the chat or in
the business info section of their app.

Conclusion
All WhatsApp messages are sent with the same Signal protocol outlined above.
WhatsApp considers all messages, voice calls, and video calls sent between all
devices controlled by a sender user and all devices controlled by a recipient user
to be end-to-end encrypted. WhatsApp message history syncing and app state
syncing are also protected by end-to-end encryption. Communications with a
recipient who elects to use a vendor to manage their API endpoint are not
considered end-to-end encrypted. If this occurs, WhatsApp makes it clear to
users within the chat.

The Signal Protocol library used by WhatsApp is based on the Open Source
library, available here:

http://github.com/whispersystems/libsignal-protocol-java/

33 WhatsApp Encryption Overview


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How to Setup MT4 and EA on VPS
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How to Setup MT4 and EA on VPS
Nurul
General
Introduction
The idea of trading in financial markets completely hands-off is one that many traders will love. This is because manual trading puts many traders at the risk of making mistakes due to their emotions. The emotions of fear, hope and greed lead several traders to lose lots of money. However, with automated trading powered by
Forex VPS
, traders can make lots of profits without having to make trading decisions themselves.
Here, you will learn how to set up MT4 and EA for your VPS system, about automated trading, and the need for VPS.
How to Setup MT4 and EA on VPS
After getting it, you need to know how to set up both MT4 and EA on your VPS service, and we will be discussing that here. However, you do this one after the other. First, you setup MT4 on VPS and then setup the EA.
Setting up MT4 on VPS
Before we discuss the step-by-step process, we need to understand what the MT4 is.
What is MT4?
To trade on the Forex market, you need a platform. Other services that you can get from your trading platform include charting and analysis tools, access to market news, and much more. While your broker can provide you with a proprietary trading platform of their own, the best trading platforms are usually third-party ones. Any broker can integrate their systems on these platforms which means you don’t have to change platforms anytime you switch from one broker to another.
Nonetheless, before you choose a trading platform, you must look out for some features. These include:
– User-friendliness: Your trading platform must be usable for traders of all categories, from beginners to advanced ones. For starters, it must be easy to navigate the platform. Traders must be able to access analysis tools quite easily and the process of entering a trade must not be cumbersome.
– Tools and Resources: The trading platform must possess the latest and most advanced indicators and charting tools. Apart from that, traders must be able to take advantage of all other resources that help in their analysis.
– Support for Automated Trading: By far the most important here, your trading platform of choice must be one that allows you to trade with expert advisors and trading robots. If your platform does not support automated trading, then it is not really advisable to get a VPS.
While several third-party platforms satisfy the above requirements and more, the one which most experts recommend the most is the MT4. MT4 is short for MetaTrader 4 and is, by far, the most popular trading platform for retail Forex traders in the world. It is also one of the most advanced and supports automated trading. Then, most VPS services support the MT4.
How to Setup MT4 on VPS
This step-by-step process should help you setup MT4 on VPS.
1. Sign-up with a VPS Service
The first step to setup MT4 on VPS is to get onboard with a VPS service
provider
. Several providers are out there, but not all are worth signing up with.  You should look out for some factors. For instance, your VPS service of choice must provide you with dedicated Forex VPS hosting. While there is nothing wrong with general VPS hosting packages, oftentimes, they are not well targeted towards the needs of Forex traders.
Secondly, you should note if your provider allows for flexibility and expansion in the future. When starting out, you will have to select some parameters such as the RAM and bandwidth. However, traders always tend to need more of these later one. Some VPS providers do not offer expandability, and you don’t want that.
Then, your VPS provider must be compatible with your operating system of choice. Windows is, however, the best operating system for using VPS systems because they are usually most compatible with it. Finally, the VPS provider must prioritize security and have safeguards in place against breaches.
After choosing your VPS service, you can then sign-up with them. Upon conclusion of the process, you will be given a special address for your VPS along with its password. The VPS address is an IP address, consisting of 8 digits, which cannot be changed. You are free to change the password, however. Here is a more comprehensive guide on how
to

set-up multiple MT4 accounts on one VPS (1 – 200 MT4)
.
2. Preliminary Steps (e.g. Set up the RDC)
Before carrying out the setup properly, you need to get a few things in place. You must ensure that your internet connection is strong enough. Then, you need to get a remote desktop connection (RDC). A remote desktop connection (RDC) or service (RDS) enables you to use other computers right from your own computer. It is here that the VPS will be hosted.
You should go on to set up the RDC. Setting up a remote desktop connection might differ from one operating system to another. However, since Windows is the most popular for VPS systems, we will be discussing the setup process on Windows. MacOs users can always setup Windows on their devices.
Step 2: Preliminary Steps (Transferring files)
Remote Desktop Connection (RDC) is always pre-installed on Windows (from Windows Server 2008 r2 to the latest).  All you need do is go to the Start bar or click the Windows icon on the bottom left corner of the screen. When the “search bar” pops up, you should type in “remote desktop”, which should bring up the RDC.
Upon clicking it, two fields will pop-up. One is named “Computer” where you will install the VPS IP address you were given by your VPS service provider. The other field is “Username” where you will enter the password. Click on the “Connect” icon and you already have a VPS service running.
3. Install the MT4
The next step is to install your MT4 on your computer. You can do this by visiting your broker website which will likely have a provision for downloading MT4. You may, however, search online.
Installing the MT4.
4)      Setup the EA on VPS
The process is not complicated. All you need to do is to follow the same procedures for installing the MT4. Go to the site or file where you can access your Expert Advisor and download it. You can then launch it. Once you get this done, you can start automated trading with a VPS service.
Why You Need Automated Trading
In the past, trading was all about manually making buying and selling decisions for profit. The trader had to rely on their knowledge of market analysis to decide where the price of a currency pair would likely go next. They may apply fundamental analysis which involves checking market-moving news to predict price movements. Majority of retail traders use technical analysis which is all about reading the charts and studying indicators and other mathematical tools to decide in what direction to trade.
However, this was not optimal. For one, learning and mastering either or both of fundamental and technical analyses can be quite difficult. Then traders, being humans, have their trading influenced by their emotions. Even though many traders have rules and strategies to guide their trading, they may not be able to observe them in the face of emotions. This has caused many traders to become grossly unprofitable and to lose a lot of their hard-earned capital to the Forex market.
Nonetheless, with technology, computers can now trade and, in many cases, have even become better than humans in being profitable in the market. Hence, it is no surprise that computer programs are what the biggest players in the Forex market, that is, the banks and the hedge funds, use to trade. The software keeps running around the clock making trading decisions and making huge profits, with minimal human interference. Now, so many retail traders are getting in to take their trading to the next level.
At the retail level, most automated trading software or systems are called Expert Advisors (EA).
However, retail traders may face some challenges. Most EA systems are designed to work round the clock. The reason for this is so that they can detect good trading opportunities whenever they present themselves. However, it is logically impracticable to have EAs work 24/7 because the devices on which the EA is hosted cannot remain on all the time. Thus, it means they lose out on a lot of potentially profitable trades.
Large financial institutions that trade the Forex market sometimes experience similar issues, but they solve them by acquiring servers which are usually expensive to own and maintain. Although it seems that retail traders are at a disadvantage, that is actually not the case. They can also get their own servers and keep their EAs running around the clock and making themselves profits. The technology known as the Virtual Private Server (VPS) makes this possible.
All You Need to Know About Virtual Private Server (VPS)
The virtual private server is simply a “virtual” computer system that enables your computer to continue working even after a shutdown. With the VPS, whatever you were doing with your computer system goes on without being subjected to shutdown or even lack of access to the internet. This is quite helpful for Forex EA and automated trading.
If, as a forex trader, you need to have your trading software on all the time, then you need servers also. With your own servers, your trading algos will not require any device or internet access to trade. They can make money anywhere, anytime. But the question many traders, particularly the expert ones, ask:
how many MT4 terminals can I run on my VPS?
While dedicated servers, for example, are expensive, their virtual versions, that is, the VPS, can work well for the retail trader and power up to 32 MT4 terminals. As a result, with VPS, anyone can access server services without being assigned a special or dedicated server.
VPS services keep the data on a virtual server which helps to keep the data online at all times even without the device being available. Wherever they are, traders can also remotely access their data and software.
Conclusion
VPS systems can bring great improvement to your trading. Fortunately, setting them up is not complicated. All you need to do is to follow the above step-by-step instructions, and you can start generating profits 24/7.
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How Using VPS Will Facilitate Your Forex Trading
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How Using VPS Will Facilitate Your Forex Trading
Nurul
General
When you are first starting your journey in forex trading, every little edge counts. That’s why many traders choose to use a virtual private server (VPS) to speed up their order execution and maximize their profits. A VPS can provide you with many benefits that will help you trade more effectively.
In this article, we are going to recognize what VPS is and will understand in detail how it can facilitate your forex trading.
Let’s begin now.
What is VPS and how Does it Work?
Virtual Private Server – or VPS for short is a type of server that can be remotely controlled from anywhere in the world.
It acts as a server on the web and hosts either an operating system version or desktop experience depending upon what you want to do with your own space in terms of this browser-based environment – so it is a great thing.
VPS for Forex Trading
VPS hosting is the only solution for ensuring your computer stays connected to high-speed internet during market fluctuations. A VPS creates an ideal environment because you don’t have traditional hardware problems like other solutions do, making it easier and safer when trading forex on automated programs such as traders usually use. Combining the VPS using and a choice of a reliable broker your forex trading process will be much easier and the chance to get high profits will be bigger.
See the review of one of the best Forex brokers for Malaysia here.
Why traders use VPS
It doesn’t matter whether you are a beginner trader or the one with a few years of trading experience behind your back – trading with VPS can be a good option for everyone.
We have highlighted a few reasons why traders use VPS. If you are still not using it, maybe these reasons can push you to start trading via this service too, so let’s go to them now.
Secure data
The VPS also offers security for your data and blocks access from those who shouldn’t have it. Working with a virtual private server is an excellent way to ensure the safety of all information on-site, including customer records or other sensitive material that could be compromised by hackers if they got inside its network perimeter.
This way of hosting also ensures safety in case there is ever an attack on another website or server and protects from viruses.
Availability 24/7
The 24/7 customer service is a great way to ensure that no matter what, traders will be able to solve any problems they may come across.
In the unlikely event that a trader faces an issue with VPS, they can contact 24/7 customer support for assistance. This ensures peace of mind and security when it comes to trading.
Perfect for traders who travel
The great thing about trading via VPS is that you can work while traveling. Even if you don’t have the access to the smartphone or PC you trade from, you can install the service and work in any corner of the world.
Quicker trade execution
High-speed operations are guaranteed with a VPS. Without one, the chances of failure or malfunctions during these transactions increase greatly.
A Virtual Private Server offers high-speed protection for your online trading and makes sure that everything runs smoothly no matter how many times you make purchases and sales in quick succession.
The speed at a fraction of the cost of buying your personal machine
As you see, the advantages of a VPS server are many, but one of the key benefits is speed. Its traces allow for immediate transmission and access to information which means faster entry into your financial market – where you can make more money.
Conclusion
Forex trading can be a great way to make money trading with currency pairs, and using a Virtual Private Server (VPS) can help make your experience smoother and more successful. By choosing a reputable broker and setting up your VPS correctly, you’ll be on your way to forex trading success in no time.
If you are a beginner, you can start trading via small deposit brokers.
Check the review of the broker with one of the smallest minimum deposits as an example.
So, what are you waiting for? Pick out and start trading!
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Hosting ERP: Cloud-based SaaS vs Dedicated Server
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Hosting ERP: Cloud-based SaaS vs Dedicated Server
Jackson
Dedicated Server Hosting
What is ERP?
Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is a real-time integrated management of core business processes mediated by software.
ERP Software helps centralize workflows, improves communication among different departments and liquidates tasks among team members.
Overall, ERP Software leads to a better working system with improved efficiency and effectiveness.
Popular (Top 10) ERP Software
Oracle JD Edwards EnterpriseOne

SAP Business ByDesign

Sage Business Cloud Enterprise Management

SYSPRO ERP

Microsoft Dynamics ERP

Infor StyeLine

Enterprise IQ

NetSuite OneWorld

Epicor ERP 10

IFS Applications
Real-time collaboration and communication via ERP Software requires 24/7 Internet connection.
A server solves this problem by existing as an intermediary off-site computer connected to a redundant power source 24 x 7 x 365.
Redundancy refers to having a backup power source in the case of a power outage. This ensures minimum losses due to downtime. And it keeps the company data safe and secure.
Most ERP Software companies offer 2 types of hosting solutions:
Solution 1:
Your company purchases the ERP software and hosts on a remote
dedicated server
.
Solution 2
Your company subscribes to the ERP’s Software as a Service (SaaS) packaged with cloud hosting.
Hosting ERP On A Dedicated Server
There are 2 methods to host a purchased ERP Software on a remote dedicated server:
Method 1: Your company purchases and locates a dedicated server in your own server room.
This is unlikely for SMEs.
Purchasing a dedicated server, setting up the network infrastructure, maintaining the server as well as maintaining a server room come with extravagant price.
Method 2 is a more viable long-term solution.
Method 2: Your company rents a dedicated server from a hosting company.
Hosting companies locate their servers in a data center. A world-class data center like CX2, is fully equipped with premium network infrastructure, power redundancy, cooling system and protection against fire hazard.
You can choose to either manage the server on your own or outsource server management to the very same hosting company. We offer both unmanaged and managed dedicated server plans.
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Hosting ERP On A Cloud-Based SaaS
There is another type of ERP hosting solution- cloud hosting.
Cloud hosting usually comes with a subscription-based Software as a Service (SaaS).
Simply put, when you subscribe to SaaS, you are subscribing to a company service that allows you to access and use their software (without ownership) via the Internet.
Bitrix24 is a great example of a SaaS. You access the software via Bitrix24 online portal. Then, the cloud server hosts all your tasks, documents and conversations.
Cloud-Based SaaS
The simplest way to explain
cloud computing
is like having many copies of one document and storing each physical document in different storage locations. This promises redundancy, or a reliable backup system that avoid data losses.
But, cloud is less flexible when it comes to server management. Cloud doesn’t allow for root access, and that leaves users with no say about modding the server configuration or environment.
Besides, its performance is also rather shaky. Since all users share the same server resources, cloud cannot promise every user a stable performance.
When one user takes up too much resources, that leaves the rest of the users with lesser resources, resulting in a less promising performance.
On top of that, the safety of your company data is also a main concern when hosted in cloud.
The
cyber attack on Apple’s iCloud
has left 26 celebrities with breached privacy- leaked nude photos.
Apple is not the only victim of cyber attacks. Microsoft, Dropbox, LinkedIn, Yahoo and Home Depot suffered from cyber attacks as well. This certainly means hackers are increasingly targeting Cloud due to its rocketing popularity.
Cloud has a fairly low entry price. But the cost of cloud can scale up relatively fast and expensive if not managed and utilized properly.
✓ Redundancy
✕ No root access
✕ Performance not guaranteed
✓ Able to handle sudden heavy workload (Scalable while online)
✕ Upgrades are expensive
✕ Data Security
Dedicated Server
When you subscribe to a dedicated server hosting, your company rents the entire physical server. This gives you plenty of resources to work around with.
A finely tuned dedicated server promises redundancy using RAID storage, peak performance, flexibility with fullroot access and theability to handle sudden heavy workload.
Hosting ERP on dedicated server promises data security for 3 main reasons.
Reason 1: You don’t share your server with anyone.
Reason 2: We install Firewall so that only authorized persons can access your server.
Reason 3: To keep data phishers at bay, we install Intrusion Detection System on our dedicated servers. If someone without authorization accesses your sever, you will be notified immediately.
Over the long run, the cost of having a dedicated server offers the best savings. Its scalability, or ability to handle scaled workload as your needs expand doesn’t require you to invest in frequent upgrades.
Hosting ERP on dedicated server is the right solution for a growing company.
✓ Redundancy
✓ Root access
✓ Guaranteed performance
✓ Able to handle sudden heavy workload (Little offline time needed to scale)
✓ Affordable upgrades
✓ Data Security
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Knowledgebase
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Web Hosting
Articles
30-Day Happiness Guarantee
VPS Malaysia work with confidence that you’ll always get your money’s worth. Customer...
Avoid Spam & Phishing Mail
Avoid Phishing Phrases and Spam Trigger Words

When you’re composing client emails, always try...
Backup cPanel
Making a Backup in cPanel
To create a full backup:
1.Select Backup from the first page.
2....
Backup cPanel Email
Step 1
Log Into Your File Manager

Access to your cPanel account, find and click on the File...
Benefit of Dedicated IP
Reseller/Webhosting default using a shared IP for cPanel account which is simply when multiple...
Check domain registered to which server
What is a domain name?A domain name is a string of text that maps to a numeric IP address, used...
FAQ My site was hacked
FAQ My site was hacked

Help I think I’ve been hacked
Suffering a hack can...
How To Access FTP Via FileZilla
Step 1
Firstly, grab a copy of FileZilla application (FileZilla Client) from...
How To Increase the PHP Max Upload Size in cPanel ?
What Is “upload_max_filesize” in PHP?
The upload_max_filesize directive is a PHP variable set in...
How To Redirect HTTP To HTTPS Using .htacces
In order to force your web traffic to use HTTPS, edit the codes in the .htaccess file.

Before...
How To Secure A WordPress Website
Introduction
WordPress is one of the most popular content management systems today, making it...
How to change WordPress home and siteurl
To move the Wordpress you would need to move the files from the directory:...
IP Blacklist
If you login to the VPS Control panel or Web hosting server and attempted login fails 3x in 3600...
Migration Of Gmail Email To cPanel
How To Use Thunderbird To Transfer Emails To A cPanel Mail Account
The following conditions must...
Redirect a Domain Using DNS Records
If you have registered a domain with DOMAINS  and wish to redirect this domain name to another...
Themes - Jupiter
In the Jupiter theme the Addon, Aliases, and Subdomains sections were consolidated into the...
Why Has My IP Address Been Blocked By The Firewall?
When you cannot log into cPanel/Webmail/Mail Client, please do not try to do it as many times as...
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