 *Corresponding author.

Email: mkhairi@umt.edu.my

eISSN: 2550-2166 / © 2020 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources

  Food Research 4 (4) : 1162 - 1171 (August 2020)
  Journal homepage: http://www.myfoodresearch.com

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The effects of different pre-treatments on the physicochemical composition and

sensory acceptability of ‘Kacang Koro’ energy bar

1Wan Mohamad Din, W.N.I., 1Mohd Zin, Z., 2Abdullah, M.A.A. and 1,*Zainol, M.K.

1Faculty of Fisheries and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030, Kuala Nerus,

Terengganu, Malaysia
2Faculty of Science and Marine Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030, Kuala Nerus,

Terengganu, Malaysia

Article history:

Received: 31 January 2020

Received in revised form: 14

March 2020

Accepted: 22 March 2020

Available Online: 5 April

2020

Keywords:

Pre-treatments,

‘Kacang Koro’ (Canavalia

ensiformis),

Energy bar

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.4(4).042

Abstract

Every good food comes with its negative side, and ‘Kacang Koro’ is one of them.

Although ‘Kacang Koro’ contains a lot of protein, it also has a negative side, such as an

anti-nutritional factor. These anti-nutrient factors need to be removed in order to produce

nutritious food. This study was aimed to determine the effect of pre-treatment (soaking,

soaking-boiling, soaking-roasting, soaking-microwave) on physicochemical composition

and sensory acceptability in ‘Kacang Koro’ energy bar. The energy bars were subjected to

physical analyses, proximate analysis, calorie content, phytochemical analyses and

sensory analysis. All the different treatments of ‘Kacang Koro’ energy bar showed

moisture content of 8.29 - 12.42%, ash of 1.09 - 1.11%, crude protein of 7.51 - 10.14%,

crude fat of 12.75 - 17.77%, crude fibre of 2.78 - 3.62%, and carbohydrate of 57.19 -

63.91%. The calorie content was found to be 484.81 - 511.29 kcal/100 g. The oxalate

content in all ‘Kacang Koro’ pre-treated is ranged between 29.81 - 45.1 mg/kg. The phytic

acid content is between 0.15% - 0.37% and the tannin content is in the range of 25.53 L -

52.30 mg GAE/L. Energy bar with soaking-microwave pretreated ‘Kacang Koro’ has

higher value in crude protein, crude fat, and crude fibre but moderate in moisture and

carbohydrate content, meanwhile lower in ash content. Sensory acceptability tests showed

the sweetness, taste and overall acceptability of the samples were significantly different

between ‘Kacang Koro’ energy bars using soaking compared to soaking-microwave pre-

treatment. The pre-treatment of ‘Kacang Koro’ may boost the use of these ‘Kacang Koro’

in the food industry and promote their application.

1. Introduction

‘Kacang Koro’ or Jack Bean (Canavalia ensiformis)

is native to Central America and West Indies, but it has

been widely cultivated in the humid tropics of Africa and

Asia (Uadia, 2017). This plant is an annual perennial

climbing that has a strong root system and is able to

grow up to 2 m high. The young pods and green seeds of

‘Kacang Koro’ can be eaten as vegetables, and

sometimes, the seeds are also used as a coffee substitute,

and the mature seed of ‘Kacang Koro’ is mostly used as

animal feed. ‘Kacang Koro’ is considered as

underutilized legume as it is rarely used for human

consumption because it requires more processing

techniques before it can be consumed (Karoli et al.,

2017).

Often, every good food comes with its negative side

and ‘Kacang Koro’ is one of them. Although ‘Kacang

Koro’ contains plenty of protein, it also has a negative

side, such as an anti-nutritional factor. Anti-nutritional

factor is substances that are generated in natural

feedstuffs through normal metabolism which when

ingested, can compromise optimum nutrition through

mechanisms such as nutrient inactivation, it can also

interfere with the digestive process, and metabolic feed

utilization (Betancur-Ancona et al., 2012). Anti-

nutritional factors (ANFs) in most legumes such as in

‘Kacang Koro’ make them forbidden to be eaten raw.

Some of the anti-nutritional factors that contain in

‘Kacang Koro’ include protease inhibitors, lectins,

saponins, and tannins (Eke et al., 2007) and thus,

excessive consumption should be avoided.

The nutritive value of legumes depends on their

processing pre-treatments, presence or absence of

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3629-586X

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7058-8482

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6387-9927

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antinutritional or toxic factors and possible interaction of

nutrients with other food components (Ghadge et al.,

2008). It is also essential to remove or reduce the anti-

nutritional factors in order to improve the nutritional

quality and also to provide effective utilization of

legumes (Akande and Fabiyi, 2010). These processing

pre-treatments will make legume seeds more edible and

eliminate or inactivate the toxic factors contained in

many of them (Betancur-Ancona et al., 2012). Akande

and Fabiyi (2010) and Abbas and Ahmad (2018) stated

that processing techniques or treatments such as soaking,

cooking, toasting, autoclaving, microwave cooking,

pressure cooking, germination, and chemical treatment

can be used to inactivate the ANFs and it also can

improve the quality of legumes.

An energy bar is one of the foods that started out in

space projects snack that provides both energy and

nutrition for an astronaut (Narang, 2017). Nowadays,

energy bars are consumed by athletes and other

physically active people as it provides the energy and

vitality needed to sustain physical and mental activities.

Thus, it contains high carbohydrates but moderate in

protein to meet the caloric demands (Uma et al., 2018).

However, energy bars are also consumed by ordinary

people or not physically active people because it offers a

fast, convenient food source that requires no preparation,

higher shelf life and does not need refrigerated storage

(Gir and Mridula, 2016). The most popular sources of

protein from energy bars are soy and dairy, and it also

comes with other protein sources such as peanut butter,

nuts, to improve their protein content (Aldrich, 2015).

The development of the new product based on

underutilized legumes such as ‘Kacang Koro’ could

maximize the utilization of ‘Kacang Koro’ in the form of

energy bar hence promoting local farmers to increase the

production for commercial purposes (Maphosa and

Jideani, 2017). Therefore, the purpose of this research

was to determine the effect of pre-treatment on the

physicochemical properties of the ‘Kacang Koro’ energy

bar and also to determine the effect of pre-treatment on

sensory acceptability of ‘Kacang Koro’ energy bar.

2. Materials and methods

‘Kacang Koro’ seeds were obtained from Kuala

Berang, Terengganu. The other ingredients for making

the energy bar such as almond, cashew, rolled oat, raisin,

honey, butter, and brown sugar were obtained from the

local supermarket.

2.1 Pretreatment of ‘Kacang Koro’

‘Kacang Koro’ was treated with four different pre-

treatments namely soaking, soaking-boiling, soaking-

roasting and soaking-microwave. All ‘Kacang Koro’ was

first immersed in the water of the tap at room

temperature for 48 hrs and the water was changed 5

times. The ratio of ‘Kacang Koro’ and water is 1:5,

respectively and the seeds were de-hulled. The second

pre-treatment which is boiling, ‘Kacang Koro’ was

boiled for 30 mins at 100°C. In the roasting pre-

treatment, ‘Kacang Koro’ was roasted in the convection

oven at 150°C for 30 mins. The last treatment pre-

treatment was microwave which required 5 mins in the

microwave using the frequency 2450 MHz.

2.2. Development of ‘Kacang Koro’ energy bar

‘Kacang Koro’ energy bars were prepared based on

the formulation shown in Table 1. Almond, cashew, and

rolled oat were roasted at 175°C in the convection oven

for 15 mins prior to the preparation of the energy bar. All

the chopped nuts (uniformly chopped) and pre-treated

‘Kacang Koro’ were then mixed with the rolled oats and

nuts mixture. Butter, honey and brown sugar were mixed

together on the non-stick pan over slow-heat until it

completely dissolved. Then, the rolled oat and nuts

mixture was added into the pan and mixed well for 3

min. The energy bars were then weighed 20 g each and

then pressed into the mould, baked at 140°C for 10 mins

and then stored in the freezer for about 30 mins. After

the unmoulding process, the energy bars were stored in

the chiller to control its shelf life.

2.3 Physical analyses

2.3.1 Sample pH analysis

The samples were prepared by blended finely and

homogenized 5 g of samples with 20 mL of distilled

water. Prior to analysis, pH meter was calibrated with

standard buffer solutions of pH 7.0 and pH 4.0. Then, the

pH value was recorded.

2.3.2 Colour profile analysis

Colour (L*, a*, and b* values) of the samples were

determined using Colourimeter (Minolta Chroma CR

300, Japan). Colour was measured by spectrophotometer

(trismulus colour machine with CIE lab colour scale)

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Ingredients Percentage (%)

‘Kacang Koro’ 15

Almond 9

Cashew 9

Rolled oat 20

Raisin 10

Honey 10

Butter 12

Brown sugar 15

Total 100

Table 1. Formulation for ‘Kacang Koro’ energy bar (KKEB)

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(Hunter, Lab Scan X E, Reston VA). The sample was

crushed coarsely and flattened prior to colour

determination.

2.3.3 Texture profile analysis

A double arm texture analyser was used (TA.HD

plus) to analyse the texture of the energy bar, the probe

used was HDP/BSW; blade set with warner bratzler.

Sample was subjected to post-test speed (10 mm/sec),

with test speed (2 mm/sec), and the distance was 25 mm,

having a load cell of 100 kg. The texture of the energy

bars was measured according to their hardness.

2.4 Chemical analyses

2.4.1 Proximate analysis

The method of AOAC (2007) was used for the

determination of moisture, ash, crude protein, crude fat,

crude fibre, and carbohydrate content.

2.4.2 Determination of calorie content

Bomb calorimeter was used to determine the calorie

content of the ‘Kacang Koro’ energy bar. The sample

was weighed (1 g), and placed in the crucible. Then the

crucible was placed in its container, 10 cm of fuse wire

was inserted in its slot, and the wire was formed as 'U'.

The bomb charger was attached and the fill switch was

pressed and the oxygen was filled until the pressure

reached 420 PSI. The bomb was then inserted into the

bomb bucket, followed by filling the tank with 2000 mL

of water. Next, the bomb bucket was placed inside the

bomb bucket well and the lid was closed. The analysis

started and the heat of combustion (cal/g) was recorded

after inserting the length of the remaining fuse wire.

2.4.3 Determination of oxalate content

One gram of pulverized sample was weighed and 75

mL of 3M sulphuric acid was added and stirred for an

hour. Then, 25 mL aliquot of the filtrate was collected

and heated to 80 - 90°C. The filtrate was kept above 70°

C at all times. Next, the hot aliquot was titrated against

0.05 M potassium permanganate oxide until an

extremely faint pale pink colour persisted for 15 - 30 s.

Then, the oxalate content was calculated by taking 1 mL

of 0.05 M of potassium permanganate oxide as

equivalent to 2.2 mg oxalate (Agbaire, 2011).

2.4.4 Determination of phytic acid

Two grams of sample was weighed into a conical

flask and soaked with 100 mL of 2% hydrochloric acid

for 3 hrs and filtered (Whatman No. 4). Next, 25 mL

aliquot of the filtrate was placed in a separate conical

flask and 5 mL of 0.3 % ammonium thiocyanate solution

was added. Then, approximately 53.5 mL of distilled

water was added and then was titrated with standard iron

(III) chloride solution until brownish yellow colour

persisted for 5 mins. Lastly, the phytic acid was

calculated using equation 1 (Unuofin et al., 2017):

Phytic acid (%) = titrate value x 0.00195 x 1.19 x 100

2.4.5 Determination of tannin content

The tannin was determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu

method. One millilitre of the sample extract was added to

a volumetric flask (10 mL) containing 7.5 mL of distilled

water and 0.5 mL of Folin-Ciocalteuphenol reagent, 1

mL of 35 % sodium carbonate solution and dilute to 10

mL with distilled water. The mixture was shaken well

and kept at room temperature for 30 mins. A set of

reference standard solutions of gallic acid (20, 40, 60, 80

and 100 µg/mL) were prepared in the same manner as

described earlier except only 0.1 mL of gallic acid was

used. Absorbance for test and standard solutions were

measured against blank at 725 nm with a UV/Visible

spectrophotometer. The tannin content was expressed in

terms of mg of GAE/L of extract.  A standard curve was

plotted and the tannin content was calculated using the

equation from the standard curve.

2.5 Sensory evaluation

It is conducted with the purpose to find out the

acceptance level of the product among the consumer.

The sensory evaluation was carried out by 30 panellists.

The master sheet and score sheets for ‘Kacang Koro’

Energy Bar (KKEB) were prepared using a 7-point

hedonic scale which 1 indicates extreme dislike and 7

indicates extreme like. The attributes include colour,

sweetness, hardness, taste, bitter aftertaste, and overall

acceptability.

2.6 Statistical analysis

The statistical comparison was performed with one-

way analysis (ANOVA) using Fisher's Least Significant

Difference (LSD) test and values of p < 0.05 were

considered significant. The statistical software used to

analyze the data is Minitab 19.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Physical analyses

3.1.1 pH analysis

Table 2 shows the pH of four ‘Kacang Koro’ Energy

Bar (KKEB) using different types of pre-treatments. The

result shows a somewhat significant difference between

soaking-boiling and soaking-microwave pre-treatments.

The pH value of KKEB prepared using soaking-boiling

pre-treatments exhibited the lowest pH value to that of

the other pre-treatment, which is 5.09. On the other hand,

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the highest pH for KKEB was illustrated in soaking-

microwave pre-treatments (5.44). The data shows that

the pH value decreased in the order of pre-treatment used

namely soaking-boiling < soaking < soaking-roasting <

soaking-microwave. The range pH value of KKEB is

between 5.09 and 5.44. However, Silva et al. (2016)

showed a higher range of pH value for their jeriva flour

snack bars, which is between 6.78 to 6.92 and it was due

to the acidic pH of jeriva flour itself, which is 4.96. The

KKEB are considered as low-acid food as the pH is

higher than 4.6 (McGlynn, 2003) As the pH of KKEB in

this study is more acidic compared to jeriva flour snack

bars, then, it is convinced that it may due to the pH of

raisins and honey as their pH are range between 3.80 to

4.10 (USFDA, 2019) and 3.20 to 4.66, (Zulkhairi Amin

et al., 2018), respectively.

3.2.2 Colour profile analysis

Table 2 shows the result for the colour profile of the

energy bar using different pre-treated ‘Kacang Koro’.

The result showed that lightness varies significantly

between soaking, soaking-roasting energy bars and

soaking-microwave. Nevertheless, it shows no

significant difference between the pre-treatments of

soaking-boiling and soaking-roasting, and the pre-

treatments of soaking-microwaving. The value for

lightness (L*) ranges between 47.35 and 59.36 which

represent a slightly darker colour; for the redness (a*),

the value ranges from 4.81 to 6.53 which shows it is

slightly red in colour; and for the yellowness (b*), the

value obtained is from 21.23 to 23.74 which shows that

KKEB is yellowish in colour.

Table 2 shows the lowest lightness for the soaking

pre-treatments which is 47.35 and the highest lightness

for the soaking-roasting pre-treatments which is 59.36.

The lightness value is between 33.62 and 57.49,

according to Gir and Mridula (2016), who use the

experimental energy bar combined with potato

extrudates. It is slightly darker than KKEB, and it has

been stated that the increase in the percentage of potato

extruders and sweeteners significantly reduces the light

energy bar value. In this study, the L* the value of

KKEB shows the highest value when using the soaking-

roasting pre-treatments. Contrary to a study by Ee et al.

(2018), which showed a consequence of roasting various

types of beans and decreased the L* value along with the

time. They observed the change was due to the loss of

surface moisture which decreased the luminosity of the

sample (Gowen et al., 2007).

The redness value did not show a significant

difference between all KKEB prepared. The soaking-

microwave energy bar has the higher a* value (6.53)

suggesting that the sample has more red colour than the

others; whereas the lower a* value is 4.81 when using

soaking-boiling process. Based on a study by Srebernich

et al. (2016), the results showed a* values ranging from

7.60 to 11.93 higher than this analysis for their cereal

bars. They convinced that the variation of a* and b*

value in their samples are due to the level of potato

extrudates and sweeteners used in the formulation. The

higher a* values for the previous study compared to this

study might be because of the high level of sweeteners

used in their formulation, which are up to 45 to 55%

while KKEB only used 25% of sweeteners (honey and

brown sugar) in each of the formulations.

In yellowness value (b*), it ranges between 21.23

and 23.74, and thus, it showed no significant difference

between each sample. The lower b* value (21.23)

obtained in the KKEB is when using the soaking pre-

treatments and the higher one (23.74) is when using the

soaking-microwave pre-treatments. The b* the value for

potato extrudates energy bars is between 8.87 to 16.62

which is much lower than this study (Gir and Mridula,

2016). In addition, based on Srebernich et al. (2016), the

b* values obtained in their cereal bars (with the addition

of acacia gum, inulin, and sorbitol) are ranges between

22.36 to 28.03, which is quite similar to this study. In

another study, the b* values ranged from 20.21 to 40.23,

where the protein bar enriched with Spirulina plantensis

was used as samples (Kumar et al., 2018).  The higher b*

values obtained in this study might be due to the

ingredients used such as honey, butter, roasted cashew,

and almond. However, the comparison colour within

each sample shows somewhat similar profiles; it is

believed because of the same ingredients and amount

used for each formulation, with only the pre-treatments

for ‘Kacang Koro’ being changed.

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 Pre-treatments  Soaking Soaking + boiling Soaking + roasting Soaking + microwave

pH 5.28±0.13ab 5.09±0.09b 5.38±0.16ab 5.44±0.01a

Colour

L* 47.35±4.38c  54.82±2.04ab  59.36±1.17a  52.63±0.54b

a* 6.00±1.27a  4.81±0.92a  5.95±0.78a  6.53±1.66a

b* 21.23±2.13a 21.38±1.31a  22.11±2.66a  23.74±4.62a

Texture: hardness (N) 7.17±0.28a 6.97±0.2 a  11.14±4.09a  12.71±4.24a

Table 2. Physical analysis of ‘Kacang Koro’ energy bar (KKEB)

Values with different superscript letters within the column are significantly different (p<0.05).

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3.2.3 Texture profile analysis

Table 2 also shows the Texture Profile Analysis

(TPA) of KKEB using different pre-treatment. The result

shows the range of the hardness for each of the energy

bars is between 7.0N and 12.71N and the lower value

(7.0N) is obtained using soaking-boiling pre-treatment

while the higher value (12.7N) is obtained when using

the soaking-microwave pre-treatment. This means that

the texture of KKEB is harder when using the soaking-

microwave pre-treatment, while the softer texture is

observed when using soaking-boiling. Mridula et al.

(2013) stated that the hardness of the energy bar is

significantly affected by the level of sweeteners and

flaxseed. As the sweetener used for this study is same for

all formulations, the softness of the KKEB might be

because of the soggy texture that is contributed by the

boiling pre-treatment used as it has a higher water

absorption capacity (Amon et al., 2014) compared to

other pre-treatments.

3.3 Chemical analyses

3.3.1 Proximate analysis

Table 3 shows the proximate analysis for KKEB

using different types of pre-treatment used. The result for

moisture content shows a significant difference between

all the samples. The moisture content ranges between

8.29% and 12.42% with soaking-roasting pre-treatment

showed the lowest moisture content among all the

samples and the highest moisture content in KKEB is

when using the soaking pre-treatment. The lowest

moisture content due to the used of the roasting pre-

treatment is expected by Ee et al. (2018), as similarly

studies, who stated that dry heat processing such as

roasting may cause alteration in the quality of food

materials due to evaporative loss or heat-induced

chemical reactions. The highest moisture content was

expected in the soaking pre-treatment. Similar results

were reported by Doss et al. (2011), who also found that

compared to others, the soaking pre-treatment exhibited

the highest moisture content, which could be due to the

high absorption of water during the process as the was

drying procedure was applied onto the soaked pre-treated

‘Kacang Koro’. The ash content of all the KKEBs shows

no significant difference as the results shown in Table 3

range from 1.09 - 1.11%. The lower percentage of ash

content is when using the soaking-microwave and

soaking pre-treatment while the higher percentage is

when using the soaking-roasting pre-treatment. The ash

content in raw ‘Kacang Koro’ is 0.94%, however, the

previous studies showed the percentage of ash content in

‘Kacang Koro’ after roasting is 3.6% (Akanji and

Ogungbesan, 2014), and 3.5% (Agume et al., 2017),

which clearly shows an increase of the percentage when

using the roasting pre-treatment. Okoye and Eke-Ejiofor

(2018) have obtained slightly higher ash content in his

energy bar than this study which ranges between 1.54%

and 1.90% and the energy bar was made of nuts, sesame

seeds, and cereals. The ash content (1.09 - 1.11%) is

comparable to those reported for ‘energy’ snack bars

containing glutinous rice strips and banana puree as the

main ingredient which is 1.13% (Ho et al., 2016). This

indicates that KKEB may contain macrominerals and

microminerals as most of the ingredients used such as

‘Kacang Koro’, and rolled oat which was recorded by

many researchers that it has a rich source of essential

minerals (Kay, 1979).

Table 3 also showed a significantly different crude

protein content between samples using the soaking-

boiling pre-treatment with the sample using the soaking-

roasting and soaking-microwave pre-treatment.

However, there is no significant difference between

samples using the soaking-roasting and soaking-

microwave pre-treatment. The crude protein content of

KKEB when using soaking-boiling pre-treatment is the

lowest which is 7.51% and the highest protein content is

when using the soaking-microwave pre-treatment which

is 10.14%. Oboh et al. (2010), stated that the levels of

protein will increase gradually during the roasting

process. It is believed that the crude protein is breaking

down into smaller polypeptides during processing and it

might be the reason for the increment of the total protein

content of roasted legume seed. The soaking-boiling pre-

treatment showed a lower fat content which is 12.75%,

while the higher value of crude fat is 17.77% which is

when using the soaking-microwave pre-treatment. As the

crude fat content in the soaking pre-treatment is higher

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Treatment  Soaking  Soaking + Boiling  Soaking + Roasting  Soaking + Microwave

Moisture  12.42±0.39 a 11.95±0.10 b 8.29±0.22 c 10.22±0.33 c

Ash  1.09±0.03 a  1.10±0.03 a  1.11±0.12 a  1.09±0.14 a

Crude protein  8.81±0.49 ab  7.51±0.71 b  9.95±0.62 a  10.14±0.01 a

Crude fat  17.02±0.41 a  12.75±0.19 a 17.44±1.37 a  17.77±4.62 a

Crude fibre  2.89±1.74 a  2.78±0.67 a  3.35±0.12 a  3.62±0.21 a

Carbohydrate  56.83±1.53a 59.68±1.34a 58.41±2.34a 57.87±4.07a

Table 3. Proximate analysis of ‘Kacang Koro’ energy bar (KKEB)

Values with different superscript letters within the column are significantly different (p<0.05).

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than the soaking-boiling pre-treatment, it shows that

boiling could reduce the crude fat content in KKEB. This

is in close agreement with the finding of Ndidi et al.

(2014) who also illustrated a significant reduction of

crude fat in the Bambara groundnut when it is boiled.

Similar findings were reported by Parreidt et al. (2018),

which the boiling treatment decreases the crude fat in the

‘Kacang Koro’ the most compared to toasting, soaking,

and fermentation pre-treatment. Canavalia plagiosperma

also showed a reduction of crude fat content when it was

boiled (Alagbaoso et al., 2015), as they also convinced

that the crude fat content decreased with increased

processing time. It could occur due to the fat leaching

out into the cooking water as stated by Okaka et al.

(1992).

Table 3 also illustrates the crude fibre result for all

pre-treatment pre-treatments for KKEB. The soaking-

microwave pre-treatment has a higher value of crude

fibre which is 3.62% and the lower one is when using the

soaking-boiling pre-treatment (2.78%). The crude fibre

content of KKEB using the soaking pre-treatment is

reduced to 2.78% when boiling was performed. In

contrast, Doss et al. (2011), who reported that the crude

fibre when using the soaking pre-treatment has shown

the most reduction of crude fibre in ‘Kacang Koro’,

followed by boiling, and autoclaving pre-treatment.

Besides, the crude fibre content in ‘Kacang Koro’

showed the lowest value (1.2%) when using the roasting

pre-treatment (the seed was dehulled) in a study by

(Agbede and Aletor, 2005). Onyeike et al. (2015) also

mentioned that the fibre content in all legumes seeds was

decreased throughout the roasting process and it is due to

the breaking of bonds between the polysaccharides

chains and also the glycosidic linkages in dietary fibre,

and this will result in increasing the solubilization of

fibre. In contrast, fibre content was increased after going

through the roasting process. The crude fibre for

“energy” snack energy studied by Ho et al. (2016)

showed a lower value compared to this study which is

only 1.16%. In comparison, a higher crude fibre content

in date bars ranging between 3.56 - 3.88% in a previous

was reported (Nadeem et al., 2012). In addition Okoye

and Eke-Ejiofor (2018), also reported a high crude fibre

in their cereal bar made with cereals and nuts with the

value ranging from 3.89 - 6.08%.

3.3.2 Determination of calorie content

Table 4 shows the total calorie content in KKEB for

each pre-treatment used. The total calorie content ranges

between 484.81 (soaking pre-treatment) and the highest

calorie content is when using the soaking-microwave pre

-treatment (511.29 kcal/100 g). The total energy of cereal

bars made from cereals and nuts shows the value ranged

from 452.6 kcal to 505.0 kcal (Okoye and Eke-Ejiofor,

2018). Meanwhile, energy bars made from potato

extrudates by Gir and Mridula (2016) showed lower

calories which is from 332.8 - 343.41 kcal. Furthermore,

E'zzati (2019) also observed quite similar results with

this study which is between 347.8 - 438.35 kcal/100 g.

Both these studies used honey as one of the ingredients

in developing energy bars. As honey has high

carbohydrate content, thus it is an excellent source of

energy, and it might contribute to the calorie content of

the sample.

3.3.3 Determination of oxalate content

Table 5 shows no significant differences in the

oxalate content of the pre-treatment pre-treatments used

for ‘Kacang Koro’. The higher value of oxalate content

was observed for the soaking pre-treatment which is 45.1

mg/kg while the lower one was the soaking-roasting pre-

treatment which is 29.81 mg/kg. The trend shows that

the oxalate content in ‘Kacang Koro’ is reduced when

treated with the second treatment such as boiling,

roasting, and microwave. The reduction of the soaking-

roasting pre-treatment is 99.25% while the soaking pre-

treatment reduces 98.87% of the oxalate content in

‘Kacang Koro’. Adekanni et al. (2009) found that the

soaking pre-treatment could reduce oxalate content in

Tigernut up to 37 - 58%. These studies reveal a similar

result of this current study where the use of the dry

heating method reduced the oxalate content better than

the wet method. Compared to previous research, the high

reduction in oxalate content may be due to the use of

combination pre-treatments in this analysis.

3.3.4 Determination of phytic acid content

Table 5 also shows that significant differences in

phytic acid content have been observed between ‘Kacang

Koro’ by soaking-boiling pre-treatment, and by the

soaking-roasting process, yet there is no significant

difference between each pretreatment applied. The

lowest phytic acid content was observed in the soaking-

boiling pre-treatment, which is 0.15%, while the highest

phytic acid content in ‘Kacang Koro’ is 0.37% when

using the soaking-roasting pre-treatment. The trend

shows that the percentage of phytic acid increases after

going through a roasting and microwave pre-treatment,

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Pre-treatments  Soaking Soaking + boiling Soaking + roasting Soaking + microwave

Calorie (kcal/100 g) 484.8±3.50c 489.3±15.40bc 501.6±8.20ab  511.3±2.70a

Table 4. Calorie content of ‘Kacang Koro’ energy bar (KKEB)

Values with different superscript letters within the column are significantly different (p<0.05).

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and reduces when using boiling. In soaking-boiling, wet

heat treatment reduces phytic acid better than soaking-

roasting and soaking-microwaving, which is a wet and

dry heat pre-treatment. This data is in concert with

Nelson et al. (1978), who stated that wet heat has been

proved to produce higher detoxification of ANFs than

dry heat. The raw ‘Kacang Koro’ seed contains 2.81% of

phytic acid. The percentage of phytic acid found in the

soaking-boiling process is 0.15%, suggesting a reduction

of 94%. In the meantime, for the soaking-roasting

process, the level of phytic acid reduction is only 86.7 %.

The higher reduction in phytic acid when using soaking-

boiling pre-treatment might be due to phytic acid

leaching out into the water (Osman, 2007). Soaking-

boiling pre-treatment reduced the phytic acid better than

the soaking-roasting pre-treatment. This data is in a close

agreement with Heleena and Usha (2018) who found that

the reduction of phytic acid in maize is higher when

using the boiling pre-treatment than when using the

roasting pre-treatment. Nelson et al. (1978) also stated

that wet heat has been proved to produce higher

detoxification of ANFs than dry heat.

3.3.5 Determination of tannin content

Table 5 illustrates the raw ‘Kacang Koro’ seeds

containing up to 250.43 mg GAE/L of tannins.  It can be

observed that the tannin content in all of the pre-

treatment pre-treatments reduced after going through the

soaking pre-treatment. The data also shows a significant

difference between the soaking and soaking-boiling, and

soaking-roasting pre-treatment. The lowest tannin

content is when using the soaking-roasting pre-treatment

which is 25.53 mg GAE/L and the highest tannin content

is when using the soaking pre-treatment which is 52.30

mg GAE/L. The reduction in tannin was estimated at

99.9% after soaking-roasting, while soaking could

reduce up to 99.8%. This result is in a close agreement

with a study conducted by Agume et al. (2017), who

used soybean flour as a sample and showed that tannin

content decreased generally using the soaking-roasting

pre-treatment. It was also shown a similar result in a

study by Agume et al. (2016), using 48 hrs of soaking-

roasting of maize, and the tannin content was reduced by

22%. The data also showed that the tannin content in

‘Kacang Koro’ in soaking pre-treatment remained higher

at double pre-treatment pre-treatments. In addition,

Mubarak (2005) has observed a quite lower reduction of

tannin in his mung bean which is 39.4% when soaked in

water for 12 hrs at 25°C. Udensi et al.  (2008) also

reported that the reduction of tannin content in Mucuna

flagellipes is ranged up to 58.4% to 74.9% when soaked

for 6 to 24 hrs. Based on a study by Abbas and Ahmad

(2018), their result has shown that the soaking pre-

treatment reduced tannin content in various legumes

lesser than boiling, extrusion, and microwave pre-

treatment. The tannin content is found to be reduced

when using the soaking pre-treatment. It might be due to

diffusion of the ANFs into the soaking water.

3.6 Sensory evaluation

Table 6 shows the acceptance of colour of all

pretreatment of KKEB demonstrates no significant

difference between all samples. The soaking-boiling

pretreatment showed higher value compared to that of

the other samples. Similar acceptance of colour may

have resulted because the substance and quantity used

for each sample are identical. The data exhibited that

panelists favoured dark brown colour, which was in

accordance to the study by Gir and Mridula (2016) who

reported that the most preferred energy bar by panelist

was the slightly dark in colour with L* value 51.33, a*

value is 7.11, and the b* the value is 13.96. The pre-

treatment for each sample appears to affect the sweetness

acceptance of the KKEB even though the ingredients

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Pre-treatments  Untreated Soaking Soaking + boiling Soaking + roasting Soaking + microwave

Oxalate (mg/kg) 400±24.58 45.10±4.67a 39.71±1.71a  29.81±5.76a  37.84±10.58a

Phytic acid (%) 2.81±0.67 0.23±0.09bc 0.15±0.09c  0.37±0.04a  0.34±0.02ab

Tannin (mg GAE/L) 250.43±13.57 52.30±2.95a 28.76±15.03b 25.53±6.05b  31.88±3.54ab

Table 5. Phytochemical analysis of ‘Kacang Koro’ energy bar (KKEB)

Values with different superscript letters within the column are significantly different (p<0.05).

Attributes Soaking Soaking + boiling Soaking + roasting Soaking + microwave

Colour 5.3±1.17a 5.5±1.28a 5.3±1.17a 5.3±1.14a

Sweetness 4.8±1.64b 4.8±1.56b 5.2±1.18ab 5.8±1.04a

Hardness 4.3±1.21a 4.4±1.22a 4.4±1.38a 4.7±1.39a

Taste 4.7±1.36b 5.1±1.23ab 5.2±1.60ab 5.5±1.11a

Bitter aftertaste 5.3±1.32a 5.0±1.35a 5.2±1.26a 5.6±1.13a

Overall acceptability 4.8±1.50b 5.2±1.19ab 5.2±1.27ab 5.7±0.95a

Table 6. Sensory evaluation of ‘Kacang Koro’ energy bar (KKEB)

Values with different superscript letters within the column are significantly different (p<0.05).

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eISSN: 2550-2166 © 2020 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources

used for each sample were the same. The boiling and

soaking pre-treatment may have a sweeter taste because

it can absorb more fluid (from melting sugar, butter, and

honey) than the dry heat method, such as roasting and

microwave (Amon et al., 2014). There was no significant

difference in the acceptability of hardness in which the

sample was pre-treated using microwave and soaking

treatment. It shows that the panellist preferred the hard

energy bar rather than the soft product. Okoye and Eke-

Ejiofor (2018) also showed the result of his most

preferred texture acceptability of cereal bars has low

moisture content.  The lowest acceptability for taste

attributes is 4.7, which is KKEB using the soaking

process, while the highest acceptability rating for taste of

KKEB is 5.5, which is when using the soaking-

microwave technique. There is also no significant

difference between the soaking-microwave pre-treatment

and the soaking-boiling and the soaking-roasting pre-

treatment. The high acceptability of taste from the

previous study may be attributed to the ingredients used

most often by children, such as cornflakes, puffed rice,

coconut flakes, etc., as the target consumer is children

(Kumar et al., 2018). Table 6 also reveals that the bitter

aftertaste attribute indicates no significant difference

between each of the samples, yet the lower score was

recorded in the soaking-boiling pre-treated samples. The

bitter aftertaste may also not be detectable due to

sweeteners used in the production of KKEB (Kumar et

al., 2018).

4. Conclusion

The study shows a significant difference between

samples using different pre-treatments for pH, lightness

in colour profile analysis, moisture content, crude

protein, calorie content, phytic acid content, and tannin

content. However, no significant difference was found

for a* and b* in colour profile analysis, texture profile

analysis, ash content, crude fat, crude fibre,

carbohydrate, and oxalate content.  Sensory evaluation

showed that the panels like KKEB the most when using

the soaking-microwave pre-treatment based on the

overall acceptance. All the pre-treatments used in this

study are able to significantly reduce the ANFs content

in ‘Kacang Koro’.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest

Acknowledgement

This research was supported by Universiti Malaysia

Terengganu. The authors would like to thank the UMT’s

central lab and FOFIFOS for the facilities provided to

conduct the study.

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Shawwan

Sticky Note

untuk menghafal setiap wazan dari fi'il tsulatsi mujarrad, maka dapat menggunakan jembatan keledai :

"bAjU AlI mAnA bIsA tUrUn sendIrI"

الباب الأول : bAjU = فعَل-يفعُل

الباب الأول : AlI = فعَل-يفعِل

الباب الأول : mAnA = فعَل-يفعَل

الباب الأول : bIsA = فعِل-يفعَل

الباب الأول : tUrUn = فعُل-يفعُل

الباب الأول : sendIrI = فعِل-يفعِل


 *Corresponding author.

Email: bgyata@gmail.com

eISSN: 2550-2166 / © 2018 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources

  Food Research 3 (2) : 117 - 122 (April 2019)
  Journal homepage: http://www.myfoodresearch.com

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Comparative assessment of adoption determinants of electronic wallet system

by rice farmers in Benue and Taraba States, Nigeria

*Gyata, B.A.

Department of Agricultural Education, College of Education, Katsina-Ala, Nigeria

Article history:

Received: 6 July 2018

Received in revised form: 17

October 2018

Accepted: 22 October 2018

Available Online: 6

November 2018

Keywords:

Adoption determinants,

Assessment,

Electronic wallet,

Farmers

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.3(2).132

Abstract

The Federal Government of Nigeria introduced the electronic wallet system in 2013,

to help deliver government subsidized farm inputs directly to farmers. A survey was,

therefore, conducted to compare adoption determinants of electronic wallet system by rice

farmers in Benue and Taraba States, Nigeria. Both descriptive and inferential statistics

were used for data analysis. The results showed among others, that some (36%) of the

respondents had at most a secondary education. Whereas 40% of the respondents realized

an average of less than N100,000.00 per annum from their rice farm, 67% of the

respondents did not have extension contact and only 30% had access to credit. Also, the

relative advantage (x̄=2.5) and relevant content (x̄=2.43) were the most important

determinants of adoption of elan ectronic wallet system in Benue State. In Taraba State,

observability (x̄=2.88) and relative advantage (x̄=2.84) were the most important factors

that determined adoption of electronic wallet system. On constraints affecting adoption of

e-wallet system, Epileptic network, EPEP (0.589*), Lack of power supply, LOPS

(0.723*), Distance to the registration centre, DRC (0.722*), Long queues at the

registration centre, LQARC (0.725*), Distance to the redemption centre, DREC (0.745*),

Insufficient fertilizer supply, IFS (0.697*), Insufficient seed supply, ISS (0.617*), Low

quality fertilizer supply, LQFS (0.870*), Low quality seed supply, LQSS (0.540*),

Untimely inputs delivery, UID (0.783*), Poor Policy Implementation, POPI (0.632*),

High cost of mobile phone/accessories, HCMA (0.858**), High cost of air time, HCOAT

(0.889**), Lack of skills and knowledge in use of GSM, LOSK (0.699**) and Lack of

transport facilities for collection, LOTF (0.469**) were significant constraints that

affected the adoption of electronic wallet system. The study concluded that there was a

significant difference between respondents in Benue State and their counterparts in Taraba

State. It is recommended that Government should step up efforts at ensuring that farm

inputs are distributed on time.

1. Introduction

Several efforts have been made in the past to

enhance the output of farmer, in terms of making farm

inputs accessible and affordable for the farmers. In spite

of the numerous efforts made by the Federal Government

by providing farm inputs at a subsidized rate in Nigeria,

there are still complaints of fertilizer not reaching all the

target farmers every year, even though procurement and

distribution increases yearly. This could be attributed to

“high level of corruption, insincerity and political

interruption in the distribution channels” (Adebo, 2014).

It was in view of these constraints that the Federal

Government introduced the electronic wallet (e-wallet)

system in 2012, with the main goal of ensuring access

and affordability of farm inputs by farmers. However,

the programme has been underperforming due to low

level of awareness by the farmers and insufficient

fertilizer and seed supply (Adebo, 2014). Abdullahi

(2014) also reported that it took a lot of time to complete

the registration of a farmer and cost of mobile phones

was high. To alleviate the challenge of the cost of mobile

phones, the Federal Government at the inception of the e

-wallet system had promised to provide mobile phones to

farmers at no cost (Adesina, 2012).  The phones have not

been supplied as promised. Farmers are still left with the

task of purchasing their personal phones (Haruna et al.,

2013). These constraints could limit the adoption of the e

-wallet system by rice farmers in Benue and Taraba

States. The system was terminated by the Federal

Government in 2015; only for the same Government to

118 Gyata / Food Research 3 (2) (2019) 117 - 122

eISSN: 2550-2166 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources

reintroduce the scheme after one year with a promise to

improve on the scheme.

Several research works had been conducted on the

use of the e-wallet system for distribution of farm inputs

to farmers in other States of the Federation; for instance,

Liverpool-Taise et al. (2013) assessed fertilizer voucher

programme in Kano and Taraba States and found out that

although participants paid significantly lower prices,

timeliness of fertilizer distribution worsened and there

was no improvement in fertilizer quality. Similarly,

Adebo (2014) carried out an investigative study on the

effectiveness of e-wallet practice in grassroots

agricultural services delivery in Kwara State, Nigeria and

recommended that radio and television broadcasts of the

programmes on e-wallet system in various Nigerian local

languages should be increased. However, none of these

studies had attempted to assess adoption determinants of

e-wallet system by rice farmers in Benue and Taraba

States. It has, therefore, become imperative to fill this

research gap.

Specifically, the objectives of this study were to

describe the socio-economic characteristics of rice

farmers who adopted electronic wallet system in Benue

and Taraba States, to identify the determinants of

adoption of electronic wallet system in Benue and

Taraba States and to identify the constraints associated

with the adoption of electronic wallet system in Benue

and Taraba States.

2. Materials and methods

This study which adopted cross-sectional survey

using a research questionnaire to collect data was carried

out in Benue and Taraba States, Nigeria. A total of 325

respondents were selected as sample size using

multistage sampling techniques. In total, 311

questionnaires were returned for analysis. Data for this

study were analyzed using descriptive statistics, such as

frequency, percentages and mean as well as inferential

statistics, such as the Mann-Whitney (U) test and Factor

analysis. South Texas Art Therapy Association

(STATA), version 15 constituted the statistical software

used for data analysis.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Socio-economic characteristics of respondents

3.1.1 Age (years)

Table 1 shows that few (30%) respondents in Benue

State were aged 41- 50 years. This was followed by

those (28%) in the age bracket of 31-40 years. Another

22% were aged 51-60 years. The mean age of the

respondents in Benue State was 44.00 years. In Taraba

State, many (34%) respondents were aged 31- 40 years.

This was followed by those (32%) in the age bracket of

41-50 years. Another 15% were aged 51-60 years. The

mean age of respondents in Taraba State was 45 years.

The result shows in the pooled sample that most (31%)

of the respondents were aged 31-40 years and only 8%

were more than 60 years old. The pooled mean age was

44.12 years. The result shows in the pooled sample that

most (30.55%) of the respondents were aged 31-40 years

and only 8.04% were more than 60 years old. The pooled

mean age was 44.12 years. This result implies that

farmers who adopted the electronic wallet system in the

study area are matured in age and in their active years

which indicates their capacity to adopt innovations and

to work, respectively. The result is similar with the result

of Ezihe et al. (2016) where the researchers investigated

accessibility and repayment of agricultural loan among

farmers in Benue State, Nigeria and reported that farmers

have a mean age of 46.84 years.  In Taraba State, Tijjani,

Bakari, Usman and Adebayo (2016) accessing the

determinants of adoption of agricultural technologies

among rice farmers in Taraba State, Nigeria reported that

many (48%) respondents were aged 30-49 years.

3.1.2 Sex

The study (Table 1) shows that 73% of the

respondents were male, while 27% were female in Benue

State. In Taraba State, 75% and 25% respondents were

male and female respectively. The pooled result shows

that 74% of the respondents were male and 27% were

female in the study area. The results suggest that as far as

farming activities were concerned, both sexes are willing

to adopt agricultural innovations for improved

productivity. The male dominance implies the laborious

nature of farming activities which are very tedious for

female farmers to handle. In assessing farmers’ use of

new information and communication technologies as

sources of agricultural information in Ushongo local

government area, Benue state, Nigeria, Okwu and Iorkaa

(2011) also reported that majority of their respondents

were males. The result is also in consonance with Ani

and Baba (2009), who reported that more than 70% of

the farmers who utilized selected electronic mass media

as sources of agricultural information in Northern Taraba

State, Nigeria were males.

3.2 Level of Education

Table 1 shows that 98% of the respondents had one

form of formal education or the other in Benue State. A

breakdown shows that majority (36%) had secondary

education, 27% had sub-degree education and 18% had

primary education. Another 9% and 9% had postgraduate

and university education respectively. The mean year of

educational level was 12.06 years. In Taraba State, 94%

of the respondents had one form of formal education or

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the other. A break down shows that 38% had sub-degree

education, 36% had secondary education and 9% had

primary education. The remaining 10% had a university

education. The mean year of education was 12.21 years.

In the pooled result (Table 1), 36% had secondary

education, 31% had sub-degree, 15% had primary

education, 9% had university education and only 6% had

a postgraduate education. The remaining 3.54% had no

formal education. The mean year of educational level

was 12.12 years. This result implies that there was a

relatively high educational standard prevalent among the

farmers in the study area. This could be an added

advantage for the respondents to quickly understand and

adopt innovations in agriculture. According to Akinbile

and Ndagbu (2000), education has an important

implication particularly for the adoption of new

technology and practice. This could have been a reason

for the popularity of the Growth Enhancement Support

Scheme in the study area. This result is similar to the

findings of Bidemi and Clement (2017), in their

assessment of perceived training needs of smallholder

rice farmers on urea deep placement technology in

Benue State, Nigeria. The researchers reported that a

significant proportion (42.5%) of their respondents had

secondary school education, Elsewhere, Haruna et al.

(2013), assessed ownership and use of mobile phones

among farmers in North Senatorial Zone of Kaduna State

and reported that 35.0% of their respondents had a

secondary education.

3.3 Average annual income

Data in Table 1 shows that the mean income of

Benue farmers was N121,264.00. In Taraba State, The

mean income of Taraba farmers was N294,927.00. The

pooled mean income of Benue and Taraba farmers was

N186,598.00. The implication of the result to this study

is that, given the right orientation, farmers will be willing

and able to at least pay for farm inputs distributed

through electronic wallet system, if convinced that it will

actually lead to an improvement in their productivity.

This is consistent with Odoemenem and Otanwa (2011),

where the researchers economically analyzed cassava

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Variable
Benue State (n=194) Taraba State (n=117) Pooled (n=311)

F % x̄ F % x̄ F % x̄
Age (years)     43.62     44.95     44.12
        21-30 28 14.42   10 8.55   38 12.21
        31-40 54 27.84   40 34.19   94 30.23

        41-50 58 29.90   37 31.62   95 30.55
        51-60 42 21.65   17 14.53   59 18.97

        >60 12 6.19   13 11.11   25 8.04

        Sub-total (a) 194 100   117 100   311 100
 Sex

        Male 141 72.68   88 75.21   229 73.63

        Female 53 27.32   29 24.79   82 26.37

        Sub-total (b) 194 100   117 100   311 100
Level of Education (Years)     12.06     12.21     12.12

        Non- formal (0) 4 2.06   7 5.98   11 3.54

        Primary (6) 35 18.04   11 9.40   46 14.79

        Secondary (12) 69 35.57   42 35.90   111 35.69

        Sub- Degree (14) 51 26.29   45 38.46   96 30.87
        University (16) 17 8.76   12 10.26   29 9.32

        Post-Graduate (17) 18 9.28   0 0.00   18 5.79

        Sub-total (c) 194 100   117 100   311 100
Average Annual Income

(N’000.00)
    121,264     294,927     208,096

        ≤ 100 118 60.86   06 5.13   124 39.87
       101-200 49 25.25   32 27.36   81 26.04

       201-300 17 8.76   38 32.46   55 17.68

       301-400 4 2.96   18 15.39   22 7.08

       > 401 6 3.07   23 19.66   29 9.33

        Sub-Total (d) 194 100   117 100   311 100
Extension Contact

        Yes 84 43.30   19 16.24   103 33.12

        No 110 56.70   98 83.76   208 66.88

        Sub-Total (e) 194 100   117 100   311 100
Access to credit

        Yes 81 41.75   13 11.11   94 30.23
        No 113 58.25   104 88.89   217 69.77

Sub-Total (f) 194 100   117 100   311 100

Table 1.  Distribution of respondents based on socio-economic characteristics (n=311)

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production in Benue State, Nigeria and reported that

many (41.40%) respondents earned between N50,000

and N100,000 in a year.

3.4 Extension contact

The pooled result shows that while 66.88% of the

respondents did not have extension contact, 33.12% of

the respondents had extension contact. This result

implies that farmers’ access to improved farming

technologies is limited. Yuguda et al. (2013) also

reported that more than 60 percent of their respondents

had no contact with extension workers or change agents.

3.5 Access to credit

The pooled result shows that 69.77% of the

respondents did not have access to credit while only

30.23% had access to credit. This suggests that most of

the farmers do not have farm credit for production. Low

access to credit adversely affects productivity because it

leads to low capital investment. This result confirms the

finding of Bolarinwa and Fakoya (2011) in their study of

the impact of farm credit on farmers’ socio-economic

status in Ogun State, Nigeria, that only 37.6% of the

farmers secured loan from commercial banks and

Nigeria Agricultural and Rural Development Bank.

3.6 Adoption determinants of electronic wallet system

Data in Table 2 shows that relative advantage (x̄

=2.5) and relevant content (x̄=2.43) were the most

important factors that determined adoption of an ectronic

wallet system in Benue State. In Taraba State,

observability (x̄=2.88) and relative advantage (x̄=2.84)

were the most important factors that determined adoption

of electronic wallet system. While compatibility (x̄=1.66)

and poor income (x̄=1.87) were not important factors that

determined adoption of electronic wallet system in

Benue State, high cost of mobile phone (x̄=1.15) and

poor income (x̄=1.16) were not important determinants

of adoption of electronic wallet system in Taraba State.

Although, relative advantage (x̄=2.5) was the first major

determinant of adoption for Benue State farmers, it was

the second most important (x̄=2.84) factor for Taraba

State implying that, respondents have actually

appreciated electronic wallet system as been better than

the previous technologies/ programmes employed for the

distribution of farm inputs in the two states. This could

be partly responsible for the increased adoption of the

system after first year of its implementation. This

confirms the findings of Adebo (2014) that 80.00% of

the respondents in Kwara State who participated in

GESS programme had better accessibility to improved

seeds and fertilizer. The result also shows that poor

income was the second least (x̄=1.87) and (x̄=1.16) in

Benue State and Taraba State respectively implying that

farmers could easily afford the farm inputs distributed

through the electronic wallet system. Okwu and Umoru

(2008) also reported that a reasonable number of their

respondents earn an average income in Apa local

government area of Benue State.

3.7 Constraints associated with the adoption of

electronic wallet system in the study area

Table 3 shows that there were two major categories

of constraints associated with adoption of electronic

wallet system in the study area namely; factor 1 and

factor 2. Though poor economic base of farmers (PEBF)

is a socio-economic cum infrastructural constraint, it is

not significant because of its low loadings. This implies

that the respondents can continuously afford to at least,

pay for the inputs distributed to them through the

electronic wallet system. This is particularly so as only a

few quantities are allocated to each farmer. Similarly,

both parochial attitudes (PARA) and Ethnocentric

attitudes (ETCA) are Socio-economic cum

infrastructural constraints, they are not significant

because of their low loadings. This means that most

respondents appreciate the existence of electronic wallet

system and were willing to continue to obtain their farm

inputs through the system. This confirms the findings of

Haruna et al. (2013) on the constraints of mobile phone

use by farmers, that about 78%, 68% and 62% of the

respondents reported high cost of subscription charges,

poor quality of mobile phone and its accessories and

power problem respectively to be major constraints.

3.8 Mann-Whitney test for difference in the determinants

of adoption of electronic wallet system between rice

farmers in Benue and Taraba States

Ho: There is no significant difference in the

determinants of adoption of electronic wallet system

between rice farmers in Benue State and Taraba State.

The hypothesis was subjected to Mann-Whitney (U) test

using STATA 15 statistic software. The following

factors were used in assigning scores to farmers; cost of

mobile phone, poor income, relevant content,

complexity, relative advantage, nearness to redemption

centre, observability and compatibility. From the result,

Z value was -2.184 and an Asymptotic p-value (2-tailed)

of 0.0289. Since the p-value is less than 0.05, it is

significant at 5% level of significance. Therefore, the

hypothesis is rejected.

4. Conclusion

The study was designed to compare the determinants

of adoption of e-wallet system among rice farmers in

Benue and Taraba States, Nigeria. The result showed that

a higher percentage of the respondents were active and

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mature. Also, majority of the respondents were male who

were married. Most of the respondents had secondary

education. The respondents earned a reasonable income,

even though majority had no access to credit and

extension contact. The study finally revealed a

significant difference between farmers in Benue State

and farmers in Taraba State interns of determinants of

adoption of e-wallet system.

From the result obtained, the study concludes that

determinants of adoption of e-wallet system differ

among respondents in Benue and Taraba States. The

determinants for Benue farmers were; Nature of e-wallet,

Content, Complexity, Distance to redemption centre,

Observability and Cost of mobile phones.  The

determinants for Taraba farmers were; Observability,

Nature of e-wallet, Distance to redemption centre,

Complexity and Content.

Based on the findings of this research, the following

recommendations were made:

I. Electronic wallet system should continue to be used

for the distribution of farm inputs and it should

embrace all the farm inputs because of the following

reasons, as established by the research:

• Most respondents appreciate the existence of

electronic wallet system and they see it has been

better than other systems that were used in the

distribution

• The respondents were young, active (in their

productive age) and had a reasonable level of

education and income with which they can buy

mobile phones and airtime.

II. Since many respondents did not have access to

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S/N Constraints aFactor 1 bFactor 2

1 High Cost of mobile phone / accessories 0.231 0.858b
2 High Cost of air time 0.181 0.889b
3 Lack of skills and knowledge in use of GSM 0.259 0.699b

4 Epileptic network 0.589a 0.212

5 Lack of power supply 0.723a 0.212
6 Distance to the registration centre 0.722a 0.327

7 Long queues at the registration centre 0.725a 0.201
8 Distance to the redemption centre 0.745a 0.271

9 Insufficient fertilizer supply 0.697a 0.202

10 Insufficient seed supply 0.617a 0.166
11 Low quality fertilizer supply 0.870a 0.170

12 Low quality seed supply 0.540a 0.278
13 Poor economic base of farmers 0.00697 -0.021

14 Poor Policy Implementation 0.632a -0.213

15 Untimely inputs delivery   0.783a -0.128
16 Lack of transport facilities for collection 0.469 0.630b

17 Parochial attitudes 0.00739 0.200
18 Ethnocentric attitudes 0.00724 0.169

Table 3. Constraints associated with the use of e-wallet system in the study area

Source:  Field Survey, 2017.

Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization
aFactor 1: Politico-administrative constraints
bFactor 2: Socio-economic cum infrastructural constraints

Note: Factors with a value of 0.3 and above are significant and are tagged with “a” under factor 1. Similary, factors with a value

of 0.3 and above are significant and are tagged with “b” under factor 2. Where a factor is loading high in both columns, the

factor is considered to be significant under the column it is loading higher.

 Factor
Benue (n=194) Taraba (n=117)

  Factor
x̄ SD Rank x̄ SD Rank

Nature of e-wallet 2.51* 0.56 1st Observability 2.88* 0.37 1st

Content 2.43* 0.57 2nd Nature of e-wallet 2.84* 0.55 2nd

Complexity 2.30* 0.74 3rd Distance to redemption centre 2.81* 0.47 3rd

Distance to redemption centre 2.22* 0.68 4th Complexity 2.73* 0.39 4th

Observability 2.22* 0.67 5th Content 2.63* 0.33 5th

Cost of mobile phone 2.03* 0.80 6th Compatibility 1.80 0.39 6th

 Income of farmers 1.87 0.89 7th Income of farmers 1.16 0.39 7th

Compatibility 1.66 0.80 8th Cost of mobile phone 1.15 0.97 8th

Table 2. Rank ordered distribution of adoption determinants of e-wallet system (n=311)

*Very important determinant (x̄ ≥ 2)

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extension contacts, the government should deploy

more extension agents in order to improve on the

access to farm inputs through the electronic wallet.

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