i

Risalah Penuntut Ilmu (RPI)

Takbir Mursal/Mutlaq dan

Takbir Muqayyad Pada

Sekitar Hari Raya

Disediakan oleh:

5 Ogos 2019

“Penuntut Ilmu”

Dr. Abdullaah Jalil

Fakulti Ekonomi dan Muamalat, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia

ii

Isi Kandungan

Persoalan: ........................................................................................ 1

Jawapan: .......................................................................................... 1

Definisi/Takrif/Tasawwur Asas ................................................... 1

Takbir Mursal ............................................................................ 2

Takbir Muqayyad ...................................................................... 2

Hari Raya Aidil Fitri ..................................................................... 3

Takbir Mursal (Aidil Fitri) ......................................................... 4

Takbir Muqayyad (Aidil Fitri) ................................................... 5

Hari Raya Aidil Adha .................................................................... 6

Takbir Mursal (Aidill Adha) ...................................................... 7

Orang Yang Mengerjakan Haji ............................................... 7

Takbir Muqayyad (Aidil Adha) .................................................. 8

Orang Yang Mengerjakan Haji ............................................... 8

Orang Yang Tidak Mengerjakan Haji ..................................... 8

Solat Yang Dituntut Bagi Takbir Muqayyad ............................... 10

Lafaz Takbir ................................................................................. 11

Beberapa Tambahan................................................................... 12

Faedah Tambahan: ..................................................................... 14

1

Persoalan:

Boleh ustaz terangkan tentang Takbir Mursal dan Muqayyad yang

dianjurkan pada sekitar Hari Raya?

Jawapan:

َواِبَّٰالل ّٰ ِّٰهَداَيًةّٰلِلصَّ  ُهمَّ

Definisi/Takrif/Tasawwur Asas

Takbir secara literal merujuk kepada lafaz:

 َاهللَُّٰأْكَبُّٰ

“Allah Maha Besar (Kemuliaan dan KeagunganNya)”

Perhatian penting: Makna Allah Maha Besar adalah besar

kemuliaan (ʿizzah) dan keagunganNya (ʿaẓamah) dan bukan

bermakna besar rupa atau saiz kerana rupa (ṣūrah) dan saiz

(ḥadd/ḥajm) adalah sifat makhluk dan kedua-duanya adalah

mustahil bagi Allah.

Golongan yang menetapkan rupa (ṣūrah) dan saiz (ḥadd/ḥajm)

bagi Allah adalah kaum Mujassimah yang sesat.

Dari sudut makna yang dikehendaki di dalam perbahasan ini

adalah merujuk kepada Takbir yang menjadi syiar pada Hari Raya

Aidil Fitri dan Aidil Adha serta Hari ‘Arafah dan hari-hari Tashriq

dengan lafaz yang masyhur.

2

Hari Raya Aidil Fitri 1 Shawwal
Hari ‘Arafah 9 Zul Hijjah
Hari Raya Aidil Adha 10 Zul Hijjah
Hari Tashriq Pertama 11 Zul Hijjah
Hari Tashriq Kedua 12 Zul Hijjah
Hari Tashriq Ketiga 13 Zul Hijjah

Para ulama’ membahagikan takbir bagi Hari Raya kepada dua

jenis:

1. Takbir Mursal atau Mutlaq

2. Takbir Muqayyad

Takbir Mursal

Takbir mursal atau mutlaq adalah merujuk kepada takbir yang

tidak diikat dengan waktu solat fardu. Ia dilakukan pada mana-

mana waktu, tempat dan keadaan (dalam tempoh

penshariatannya).

Takbir Muqayyad

Takbir Muqayyad pula adalah merujuk kepada takbir yang diikat

dengan waktu solat fardu (atau solat-solat yang lain akan

disebutkan nanti) dan ia dilakukan selepas solat fardu (atau solat-

solat tersebut).

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Berdasarkan hakikat ini, maka Takbir Muqayyad adalah lebih afdal

berbanding Takbir Mursal kerana ia merupakan tābiʿ (pengikut)

bagi solat (Fiqh al-‘Ibadat HDI).

Hari Raya Aidil Fitri

Dalil bagi penshariatan takbir bagi Hari Raya Aidil Fitri. Firman

Allah  (al-Baqarah 2:185):

“(Masa yang diwajibkan kamu berpuasa itu ialah) bulan

Ramadan yang padanya diturunkan Al-Quran, menjadi

petunjuk bagi sekalian manusia, dan menjadi keterangan-

keterangan yang menjelaskan petunjuk dan (menjelaskan)

perbezaan antara yang benar dengan yang salah. Oleh itu,

sesiapa dari antara kamu yang menyaksikan anak bulan

Ramadan (atau mengetahuinya), maka hendaklah ia

berpuasa bulan itu; dan sesiapa yang sakit atau dalam

musafir maka (bolehlah ia berbuka, Kemudian wajiblah ia

berpuasa) sebanyak hari yang ditinggalkan itu pada hari-hari

yang lain. (Dengan ketetapan yang demikian itu) Allah

menghendaki kamu beroleh kemudahan, dan Ia tidak

menghendaki kamu menanggung kesukaran. Dan juga

supaya kamu cukupkan bilangan puasa (sebulan

Ramadan), dan supaya kamu membesarkan Allah

kerana mendapat petunjukNya, dan supaya kamu

bersyukur.”

4

Imam Shafie berkata (Mughni al-Muhtaj):

ةِّّٰٰاْْلَُرادُّٰ:َّٰيُقوُلّّٰٰبِاْلُقْرآنِّّٰٰاْلُعَلََمءِِّّٰٰمنَّّْٰٰأْرَضاهَُّّٰٰمنَّّْٰٰسِمْعت ةُّّٰٰبِاْلِعدَّ ْوِم،ِّٰعدَّ َّٰوبِالتَّْكبِيِّّٰٰالصَّ

ْكََملِِّّٰٰعنَْدّٰ  اْْلِ

“Aku telah mendengar orang yang aku redai dari kalangan

para ulama’ al-Qur’an berkata: Maksud yang dikehendaki

dengan ‘iddah (bilangan) adalah ‘iddah (bilangan) puasa;

dan (maksud yang dikehendaki) dengan takbir adalah

setelah sempurnanya (puasa sebulan Ramadan).”

Takbir Mursal (Aidil Fitri)

Takbir Mursal disunatkan untuk dilakukan di rumah-rumah,

jalan-jalan, masjid-masjid dan pasar-pasar dengan mengangkat

suara (al-Nawawi, Minhaj al-Talibin), bagi orang yang hadir (tidak

bermusafir), musafir, lelaki, wanita dan sebagainya (al-Khatib al-

Sharbini, Mughni al-Muhtaj).

Waktu: Bermula waktunya dari terbenam matahari malam Hari

Raya Aidil Fitri sehingga Imam melakukan Takbiratul Ihram bagi

solat Hari Raya [al-azhar] (al-Nawawi, Minhaj al-Talibin).

Takbir adalah zikir yang paling afdal untuk disibukkan pada waktu

ini. Bahkan ia lebih utama berbanding amalan Selawat pada waktu

ini dan lebih utama berbanding Surah al-Kahfi sekiranya malam

Raya adalah malam Jumaat (Fiqh al-‘Ibadat HDI).

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Takbir Muqayyad (Aidil Fitri)

Berkenaan Takbir Muqayyad pada Hari Raya Aidil Fitri, terdapat

dua pandangan mengenainya:

Pandangan asahh (Minhaj al-

Talibin)

Pandangan yang disahihkan oleh

Imam al-Rafi’i

Ia juga merupakan pandangan

Imam al-Nawawi di dalam

kebanyakan kitabnya dan ia

adalah pandangan muktamad

mazhab Shafie.

Takbir Muqayyad tidak

disunatkan pada malam/Hari

Raya Aidil Fitri.

(Kerana itu sebahagian kitab

menyebut Takbir Muqayyad

hanya ada pada Hari Raya

Aidil Adha dan tidak ada pada

Hari Raya Aidil Fitri)

Pandangan yang dipilih oleh

Imam al-Nawawi di dalam kitab

al-Adhkar.

Nas Imam al-Shafi’i yang

dinukilkan oleh Imam al-Bayhaqi

di dalam kitab Fada’il al-Awqat.

Ini adalah pandangan yang

diamalkan oleh kebanyakan

masyarakat (mazhab Shafi’i)

Takbir Muqayyad disunatkan

pada malam/Hari Raya Aidil

Fitri.

Ini bermakna Takbir

Muqayyad dilakukan selepas

solat fardu Maghrib, Isyak dan

Subuh (sebelum solat Hari

Raya Aidil Fitri).

(al-Khatib al-Sharbini – Mughni al-Muhtaj)

Waktu: Berdasarkan pandangan kedua, waktu Takbir Muqayyad

Aidil Fitri adalah selepas solat fardu Maghrib, Isyak dan Subuh

pada malam dan siang Hari Raya Aidil Fitri.

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Hari Raya Aidil Adha

Dalil penshariatan bagi Takbir ketika Hari Raya Aidil Adha adalah

qiyas/ analogi kepada ayat surah al-Baqarah 2:185 yang

dinyatakan sebelum ini berkenaan penshariatan Takbir bagi Hari

Raya Aidil Fitri (Mughni al-Muhtaj).

Maka berdasarkan ini, perintah Takbir bagi Hari Raya Aidil Fitri

lebih kuat kerana diperintahkan secara nas dan Takbir bagi Hari

Raya Aidil Adha ditetapkan dengan qiyas (Mughni al-Muhtaj).

Sebahagian kitab menyebut bahawa di antara dalil bagi

penshariatan Takbir bagi Hari Raya Aidil Adha adalah firman

Allah  (al-Baqarah 2:203):

“Dan sebutlah kamu akan Allah (dengan takbir

semasa mengerjakan Haji) dalam beberapa hari

yang tertentu bilangannya. Kemudian sesiapa yang

segera (meninggalkan Mina) pada hari yang kedua, maka ia

tidaklah berdosa dan sesiapa yang melambatkan

(meninggalkan Mina) maka ia juga tidaklah berdosa;

(ketiadaan dosa itu ialah) bagi orang yang bertaqwa dan

hendaklah kamu bertaqwa kepada Allah dan ketahuilah

sesungguhnya kamu akan dihimpunkan kepadanya.

Imam al-Bukhari berkata: (Saidina) ‘Abdullah Ibn ‘Abbas

berkata (Sahih al-Bukhari):

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 الترشيقّٰأيامّٰاْلعدوداتّٰاأليام

“Al-Ayyam al-Ma’dudat (hari-hari yang tertentu) itu adalah

hari-hari Tashriq (11-13 Zul Hijjah).”

Takbir Mursal (Aidill Adha)

Takbir Mursal bagi Aidil Adha disunatkan untuk dilakukan di

rumah-rumah, jalan-jalan, masjid-masjid dan pasar-pasar dengan

mengangkat suara (al-Nawawi, Minhaj al-Talibin), bagi orang yang

hadir (tidak bermusafir), musafir, lelaki, wanita dan sebagainya

(al-Khatib al-Sharbini, Mughni al-Muhtaj).

Bermula waktunya dari terbenam matahari malam Hari Raya Aidil

Adha sehingga Imam melakukan Takbiratul Ihram bagi solat Hari

Raya [al-azhar] (al-Nawawi, Minhaj al-Talibin).

Orang Yang Mengerjakan Haji

Orang yang mengerjakan Haji (dan Umrah) tidak disunatkan

untuk melakukan Takbir pada malam Hari Raya Aidil Adha kerana

syiar orang yang melakukan Haji adalah Talbiyah sehinggalah

solat Zohor pada Hari Raya Haji (atau mereka selesai melakukan

Tawaf (al-Ifadah) atau berTahallul).

8

Takbir Muqayyad (Aidil Adha)

Orang Yang Mengerjakan Haji

Orang yang melakukan Haji disunatkan melakukan Takbir

Muqayyad seperti berikut:

Bermula Berakhir
Zohor Hari Raya Haji

Kerana ini adalah solat mereka
yang pertama di Mina dan waktu
berhentinya Talbiyah

Dan ia solat pertama yang
dilakukan selepas Tahallul (al-
Manhaj al-Qawim)

Subuh Hari Tashriq yang
terakhir

Kerana ini adalah solat
Terakhir mereka di Mina.

(Mughni al-Muhtaj); (al-Manhaj al-Qawim)

Ini adalah pandangan azhar.

Orang Yang Tidak Mengerjakan Haji

Bagi orang yang tidak melakukan Haji, mereka disunatkan untuk

melakukan Takbir Muqayyad seperti berikut (dengan tiga

pandangan yang berbeza):

Pandangan Ulama’

Mazhab Shafie

Bermula Berakhir

Pandangan pertama

(azhar) & (mayshur

dalam mazhab menurut

Imam Nawawi di dalam

al-Majmu’)

Zohor Hari Raya

Haji

Kerana mengikut

orang yang

Subuh Hari Tashriq

yang terakhir

Kerana mengikut

orang yang

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melakukan Haji. melakukan Haji.

Pandangan kedua Daripada Maghrib

Malam Hari Raya

Haji

Subuh Hari Tashriq

yang terakhir.

Pandangan ketiga

Pandangan yang

diamalkan ( َُعلَىَُواْلَعَملُ

 (َهَذا

Berdasarkan perbuatan

Saidina ‘Umar ,

Saidina ‘Ali , Saidina

‘Abdullah Ibn Mas’ud 

dan Saidina ‘Abdullah

Ibn ‘Abbas  tanpa

diingkari.

Pandangan Imam

Nawawi di dalam al-

Tashih dan al-Majmu’.

Beliau menyatakan ia

sebagai asahh di dalam

al-Adhkar. Di dalam al-

Rawdah, Imam Nawawi

menyatakan ia adalah

pandangan azhar di sisi

muhaqqiqin.

Subuh Hari

‘Arafah

Asar Hari Tashriq

yang terakhir (atau

terbenamnya

matahari Hari

Tashriq yang

terakhir).

(Mughni al-Muhtaj)

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Pemerhatian penulis: Namun begitu, berdasarkan amalan Takbir

Muqayyad di dalam masyarakat Islam di Malaysia, mereka pada

kebiasaannya menggabungkan pandangan kedua bagi permulaan

Takbir Muqayyad (solat Maghrib malam Hari Raya Aidil Adha)

dan pandangan ketiga bagi pengakhiran Takbir Muqayyad (solat

Asar Hari Tashriq yang terakhir). Dan ia tidak mengapa - insha

Allah.

Solat Yang Dituntut Bagi Takbir Muqayyad

Apakah solat yang dituntut untuk melakukan Takbir Muqayyad?

Terdapat tiga pandangan yang disebut di dalam Mughni al-Muhtaj.

Pandangan (1) iaitu azhar: selepas solat jenazah, qada’,

fardu, nazar, sunat rawatib, sunat mutlaq atau muqayyad

dan dhat al-sabab seperti tahiyyat al-masjid kerana ia

adalah syiar waktu ini.

Dan asas lafaz takbir adalah:

،َّٰاهللُ ،َّٰاهللَُّٰأْكَبُ ،َّٰاهللَُّٰأْكَبُ ّّٰٰهَّٰإل َّّٰٰلَّّٰٰأْكَبُ ،ّٰاهللُوَّّٰٰاهللُّٰإلَّ ،َّٰاهللَُّٰأْكَبُ  ْمُدّٰـَّٰالّّْٰٰوَّٰهلِلَِِّٰأْكَبُ

Pandangan kedua: hanya dilakukan selepas solat fardu

sahaja sama ada tunai atau qada’ bagi hari-hari ini atau hari-

hari yang lain yang dilakukan pada waktu ini.

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Pandangan ketiga: hanya dilakukan selepas solat fardu bagi

hari-hari ini sahaja sama ada tunai atau qada’.

Lafaz Takbir

Lafaz takbir yang disunatkan adalah:

،َّٰاهللُ ،َّٰاهللَُّٰأْكَبُ ،َّٰاهللَُّٰأْكَبُ َأْكَبُ
ّّٰٰهَّٰإل َّّٰٰل1ّّٰٰ ،ّٰاهللُوَّّٰٰاهللُّٰإلَّ ،َّٰاهللَُّٰأْكَبُ ّْٰمُدّٰـَّٰالّّْٰٰوَّٰهلِلَِِّٰأْكَبُ

(al-Nawawi – Minhaj al-Talibin wa ‘Umdat al-Muftin) – Fasl

fi al-Takbir al-Mursal wa al-Muqayyad

Dan disunatkan untuk ditambah:

 َوَأِصيًلُّّٰٰبْكَرةًّّٰٰاهللَِّٰوُسْبَحانَّٰ  َكثًِياِّّٰٰهللِّْٰمُدّٰـََوالَّّْٰٰكبًِيا(َّٰبُّٰكّْٰأَّّٰٰهللُ)اَّٰ

(al-Nawawi – Minhaj al-Talibin wa ‘Umdat al-Muftin) – Fasl

fi al-Takbir al-Mursal wa al-Muqayyad

Dan disunatkan untuk ditambah:

ّّٰٰهَّٰإل َّّٰٰلّٰ َّّٰٰنْعُبُدَّّٰٰوَلّّٰٰ،اهللُّٰإلَّ اهُّّٰٰإلَّ ينََّّٰٰلهُُُّّٰٰمْلِِصيَّّٰٰإيَّ ّّٰٰهَّٰإل َّّٰٰلّّٰٰاْلَكافُِروَن،َّٰكِرهََّّٰٰوَلوّّْٰٰالدِّ ّٰاهللُّّٰٰإلَّ

َّّٰٰوْعَدُه،َّٰصَدَقّّٰٰ،َوْحَدهُّٰ ُّٰجنَْدُه(،َّٰعْبَدُه،َّٰوَنَصَ ّّٰٰإَلهََّّٰٰلَّّٰٰوْحَدُه،ّٰاأْلَْحَزاَبَّّٰٰوَهَزمَّٰ)َوَأَعزَّ ّٰإلَّ

 َأْكَبَُّّٰٰوَاهللُّٰاهللُ

(al-Khatib al-Sharbini – Mughni al-Muhtaj); (Fath al-Qarib

al-Mujib)

Maka lafaz takbir yang sempurna adalah:

1  Sebanyak tiga kali, ini adalah pandangan al-Jadid, dan
berdasarkan riwayat Jabir  dan ‘Abdullah Ibn ‘Abbas . Pada

pandangan al-Qadim: sebanyak dua kali (Mughni al-Muhtaj).

12

،َّٰاهللُ ،َّٰاهللَُّٰأْكَبُ ،َّٰاهللَُّٰأْكَبُ ّّٰٰهَّٰإل َّّٰٰلَّّٰٰأْكَبُ ،ّٰاهللُوَّّٰٰاهللُّٰإلَّ  ْمُدّٰـَالّّْٰٰوَّٰهلِلَِِّٰأْكَبَُّّٰٰاهللَُّٰأْكَبُ

ّٰ  َوَأِصيًلُّّٰٰبْكَرةًّّٰٰاهللَِّٰوُسْبَحانَّٰ َكثًِياّٰهللِِِّّْٰٰمُدّٰـََوالَّّْٰٰكبًِياَاهللَُّٰأْكَبُ

ّّٰٰهَّٰإل َّّٰٰلّٰ َّّٰٰنْعُبُدَّّٰٰوَلّّٰٰ،اهللُّٰإلَّ اهُّّٰٰإلَّ ينََّّٰٰلهُُُّّٰٰمْلِِصيَّّٰٰإيَّ ّّٰٰهَّٰإل َّّٰٰلّّٰٰاْلَكافُِروَن،َّٰكِرهََّّٰٰوَلوّّْٰٰالدِّ ّٰاهللُّّٰٰإلَّ

َّّٰٰوْعَدُه،َّٰصَدَقّّٰٰ،َوْحَدهُّٰ ُّٰجنَْدُه،َّّٰٰعْبَدُه،َّٰوَنَصَ ّّٰٰإَلهََّّٰٰلَّّٰٰوْحَدُه،ّٰاأْلَْحَزاَبَّّٰٰوَهَزمََّٰوَأَعزَّ ّٰإلَّ

 َأْكَبَُّّٰٰوَاهللُّٰاهللُ

Bagi lelaki disunatkan dilakukan dengan mengangkat suara kerana

ia adalah syiar al-yawm (syiar pada hari raya). (Minhaj al-Talibin;

Mughni al-Muhtaj); (al-Manhaj al-Qawim).

Bagi wanita dan khuntha tidak disunatkan mengangkat suara (al-

Manhaj al-Qawim) jika ada bersama lelaki bukan mahramnya

(Mughni al-Muhtaj) dengan kadar hanya dia mendengarnya sahaja

(Fiqh al-Ibadat HDI).

Beberapa Tambahan

 Tidak disunatkan Takbir Muqayyad selepas Sujud Tilawah

atau Sujud Syukur melainkan di sisi sahib al-Rawnaq

(Mughni al-Muhtaj).

 Jika seseorang itu terlupa melakukan Takbir selepas solat,

maka dibolehkan untuk dia melakukannya apabila

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teringatkannya walaupun jarak waktu itu pendek atau

panjang (asahh) (Mughni al-Muhtaj).

 Dan disunatkan juga untuk bertakbir apabila melihat al-

an’am (unta, lembu dan kambing) pada ayyām maʿlūmāt (1-

10 Zul Hijjah) berdasarkan firman Allah  (Al-Hajj 22:28):

“Supaya mereka menyaksikan berbagai perkara yang

mendatangkan faedah kepada mereka serta

memperingati dan menyebut nama Allah, pada hari-

hari yang tertentu, kerana pengurniaanNya kepada

mereka dengan binatang-binatang ternak (untuk

dijadikan korban); dengan yang demikian makanlah

kamu dari (daging) binatang-binatang korban itu dan berilah

makan kepada orang yang susah, yang fakir miskin.”

Ini juga berdasarkan athar yang dinukilkan daripada para

sahabat Rasulullah . Al-Marūzī telah meriwayatkan di

dalam kitab al-ʿĪdayn daripada Mujāhid bahawa beliau

menyatakan:

وَقَّّٰٰيْأتَِيانَِّّٰٰكاَناُّٰهَرْيَرةََّّٰٰوَأَباُّٰعَمرَّّْٰٰبنَّّٰٰاهللَِّٰعْبَدَّّٰٰأنَّّٰ امَّّٰٰالسُّ اِن،ّٰاْلَعرْشَِّّٰٰأيَّ َ َّٰيْأتَِيانَِّّٰٰلَّّٰٰفُيَكبِّ

وَقّٰ ّّٰٰالسُّ  لَِذلَِكّّٰٰإِلَّ

“Sesungguhnya ʿAbdullāh Bin ʿUmar  dan Abū Hurayrah

: mereka berdua datang ke pasar pada sepuluh hari (awal

14

Zul Ḥijjah) dan lantas mereka bertakbir. Mereka berdua

tidak datang ke pasar melainkan untuk itu (bertakbir).”

(al-Suyuti – Natijat al-Fikr fi al-Jahr bi al-Dhikr)

Faedah Tambahan:

Ashhur al-Hajj al-Ma’lumat

Bulan-bulan Haji yang
ditentukan

Shawwal, Zul Qi’dah dan Zul Hijjah

Ayyam al-Hajj al-Ma’lumat

Hari-hari Haji yang
ditentukan

Hari Tarwiyah – 8 Zul Hijjah
Hari ‘Arafah – 9 Zul Hijjah
Hari al-Nahr – 10 Zul Hijjah
Hari Tashriq – 11-13 Zul Hijjah

Hari al-Qarr – 11 Zul Hijjah
Hari al-Ru’us – 12 Zul Hijjah
Hari al-Sadr – 13 Zul Hijjah

Ayyam Ma’lumat

1 – 10 Zul Hijjah

Ayyam al-Hajj al-Ma’dudat Hari-hari Tashriq – 11 -13 Zul
Hijjah

ّٰمُّّٰتَّٰأَّّٰٰهُّٰمُّٰلّْٰعِّٰوَّّٰٰمُّٰلَّٰعّْٰأَّّٰٰاهللُوَّٰ




HIZB AL-BAHR

al-Imam Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili



ِحيمِ  ْْحِٰن الرَّ  بِْسِم اهللِ الرَّ

 ،َاللُّٰهمَّ َيا َعِِلُّ َيا َعظِيُم، َيا َحلِيُم َيا َعلِيمُ

، َونِْعَم اْل  بُّ َرِّبي ، َوِعْلُمَك َحْسبِي، َفنِْعَم الرَّ ُب َحْسبِي، َتنُُْصُ َمْن ْس ـََأْنَت َرِّبي

ِحيُم.آَتَش   ُء، َوَأْنَت الَْعِزيُز الرَّ

َكنَاِت َواْلَكلََِمِت َوْاإِلَراَداِت َواْل ـََنْسأَُلَك اْلِعْصَمَة ِِف اْل  َن َطَراِت مِ ـََرَكاِت َوالسَّ

ُكوِك َوالظُّنُوِن َوا اتَِر ِ لِْلُلُلوِب َعْن ُمطَاَلَعةِ ْلَ الشُّ الُْغُيوِب، َفَلِد اْبتُِِلَ  ْوَااِ  السَّ

َرٌض َما َوالَِّذيَن ِِف ُقُلوِِبْم مَ  نَافُِلونَ ـُْؤِمنُوَن َوُزْلِزُلوا ِزلَْزاالً َشِديدًا، َوإِْذ َيُلوُل الْ ـُالْ

 َوَعَدَنا اهللُ َوَرُسوُلُه إاِلَّ ُغُروًرا.

ْر لَنَا ٰاَذا الَبْحَر، كَ  َنا َوَسخي ْرَت الَْبْحَر لِ َفثَبيْتنَا َواْنُُصْ ْرَت وَسى ]ـُ ََم َسخَّ [، َوَسخَّ

ْبَراِايَم ] بَاَل َواْل النَّاَر إِلِ ْرَت اْْلِ يَح َد ]وِديَد لَِداوُ ـَ[، َوَسخَّ ْرَت الري [، َوَسخَّ

نَّ لُِسَلْيََمَن ] يَاطنَِي َواْْلِ ْر َلنَا ُكلَّ َبْحٍر ُاَو لََك ِِف ْالَْرِض َوالشَّ ََمِء، [، َوَسخي َوالسَّ

ٍء، َيا َمْن بَِيِدِه ـَْلِك َوالْ ـَُوالْ  ْر لَنَا ُكلَّ ََشْ ْنَيا َوَبْحَر ْاآلِخَرِ ، َوَسخي َلُكوِت، َوَبْحَر الدُّ

ٍء.  َمَلُكوُت ُكـلي ََشْ

  ،ص  ٰهٰيع  ك   ،ص  ٰهيٰع  ك   ،ص  ٰهٰيع  ك

يَن، َواْفتَْح َلنَا فَ  َنا َفإِنََّك َخْْيُ النَّاِِصِ إِنََّك َخْْيُ اْلَفاِِتِنَي، َواْغِفْر َلنَا َفإِنََّك َخْْيُ ُاْنُُصْ

نَ  اِزقنَِي، َواْاِدَنا َوَنجي اِْحنَِي، َواْرُزْقنَا َفإِنََّك َخْْيُ الرَّ نَا َفإِنََّك َخْْيُ الرَّ ا الَْغافِِريَن، َواْرَْحْ

َاا َعَليْنَا ِمْن نَي، َوَاْب لَنَا ِرحيًا َطييبًَة َكََم ـِ ِمَن الَْلْوِ  الظَّالِ  ْ ُُ  ِاَي ِِف ِعْلِمَك، َواْن

ْنَيا  يِن َوالدُّ الََمِة َواْلَعافَِيِة ِِف الدي َخَزائِِن َرْْحَتَِك، َواْْحِْلنَا ِِبَا َْحَْل الَْكَراَمِة َمَع السَّ

ٍء َقِديٌر.  َوْاآلِخَرِ ، إِنََّك َعََل ُكلي ََشْ

ْ لَنَا ُأُموَرَنا، الََمِة َوالَْعافَِيِة ِِف دِينِنَا  َاللُّٰهمَّ َيِّسي اَحِة لُِلُلوبِنَا َوَأْبَدانِنَا، َوالسَّ َمَع الرَّ

َوُدْنيَاَنا، َوُكْن لَنَا َصاِحباً ِِف َسَفِرَنا، َوَخلِيَفًة ِِف َأْالِنَا، َواْطِمْس َعََل ُوُجوِه َأْعَدائِنَا،

 ِجيَء إِلَْينَا.ـَِِضَّ َوالَ الْ ـُ وَن الْ َواْمَسْخُهْم َعََل َمَكاَنتِِهْم َفالَ َيْسَتطِيعُ

ۇ  ۇ.ڭھ ھ ے ے ۓ ۓ ڭ ڭ

 ۆ ۆ ۈ ۈ ٴۇ ۋ ۋ ۅ

چ .ڃ چ چ.ڄ ڃ ڃ.ڦ ڄ ڄ.ڦ ڦ.ڤ

ک ک ک .ڌ ڎ ڎ ڈ ڈ ژ ژ ڑ.ڇ ڇ ڇ ڇ ڍ ڍ

ڳ ڱ ڱ ڱ ڱ ں .ک گ گ گ گ ڳ ڳ

 .ں ڻ ڻ ڻ ڻ ۀ

 َشاَاِت الُوُجوُه، َشاَاِت الُوُجوُه، َشاَاِت الُوُجوُه،

 ۈئ ۈئەئ ەئ وئ وئ ۇئ ۇئ ۆئ ۆئ

 .ق  س  ع  ْٰح   -م  ٰطس   -ٰطس

 .ٺ ٺ ٺ ٿ. ڀ ڀ ڀ

 ،ٰحم   ،ٰحم   ،ٰحم   ،ٰحم   ،ٰحم   ،ٰحم   ،ٰحم

وَن.  ُحمَّ ْالَْمُر َوَجاَء النَُّْصُ َفَعَليْنَا الَ ُينَُْصُ

ٿٹ ٹ ٹ ٹ ڤ ڤڤ ڦ ڦ ڦ ڦ ڄ ڄ ڄ ڄ

 ڃ ڃ ڃ ڃ چ چ چ

اَيتُنَا، ق  س  ع  ْٰح   كَِفاَيتُنَا، ص  ٰهٰيع  ك   َسْلُفنَا، بِْسِم اهللِ َباُبنَا، َتَباَرَك ِحيَطاُننَا، ٰيس  [  ِْحَ

ِميعُ  َوُاوَ  اهللُ  َفَسَيْكِفيَكُهمُ   kali 3 ]اْلَعلِيمُ  السَّ

ى ائ ِسْْتُ الَْعْرِش َمْسبُوٌل َعَلْينَا، َوَعنْيُ اهللِ َناظَِرٌ  إَِليْنَا، بَِحْوِل اهللِ الَ ُيْلَدُر َعَلْينَا، [

 3 ].ڀ ٺ ٺ ٺ ٺ ٿ ٿ. ۆئ ۈئ ۈئ.  وئ وئ ۇئ ۇئ.  ائ ەئ

kali

 kali 3  ] ٱ ٻ ٻ ٻ ٻ پ پ پ پ ڀ [

 kali 3   ]  ۋ ۅ ۅ ۉ ۉ ې ې ې ې ى ى ائ ائ ەئ [

ٌء ِِف ْالَْرِض َوالَ ِِف السَّ [ ِميعُ  َوُاوَ  ِء،َمآبِْسِم اهللِ الَِّذي الَ َيُُضُّ َمَع اْسِمِه ََشْ  السَّ

 kali 3  ] اْلَعلِيمُ

َ  إاِلَّ بِاهللِ اْلَعِِلي الَْعظِيمِ َوالَ َحْوَل َوالَ [  kali 3   ]ُقوَّ

َم. َواْل  ٍد َوَعََل آلِِه َوَصْحبِِه َوَسلَّ   نَي.ـِ ْمُد هللِ َربي اْلَعالَ ـََوَصَلَّ اهللُ َعََل َسييِدَنا ُُمَمَّ


1

An Islamic Review of the Mainstream Framework for Project

Evaluation

Abdullaah Jalil

Faculty of Economics and Muamalat

Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM)

Abstract

There are several major issues pertaining to the mainstream framework that need

reconsideration from the Islamic standpoint. Moreover, the mainstream framework has

been developed over the years in isolation from Islamic input. In carrying out this study,

the researcher has followed the descriptive method to illustrate the project evaluation

framework in mainstream economics. The researcher has also applied both the inductive

and deductive methods as well as the analytical method to thoroughly examine and

analyze the literature of the Muslim scholars. This study has reconsidered the Islamic

stance towards the main issues pertaining to the mainstream project evaluation

framework.

Keywords: Project Evaluation

Presented at the 2
nd

 Islamic Economics Conference (iECONS 2007), Berjaya Times

Square, Kuala Lumpur from 17
th

 to 19
th

 July 2007.

2

1.0 PROJECT EVALUATION FRAMEWORK IN MAINSTREAM ECONOMICS

1.1 Definition of Project

In general, a project means a plan, a design or scheme for doing something and it is

relatively new when the development practitioners and academics use the term to denote

the investment or productive activity with the use of resources (Baum & Tolbert, 1985).

A project can be defined as a proposal for future investment which aims to create, expand

and/or develop specific facilities to increase the production of goods and/or services in a

community or place within a determined period of time (Sang, 1995; UNIDO & IDCAS,

1980). Baum & Tolbert (1985) suggest the definition of a project as “a discrete package

of investments, policy measures, and institutional and other actions designed to achieve a

specific development objective (or set of objectives) within a designated period”.

A project often forms part of an economic or investment plan. An economic or

investment plan may consist of a single project or projects that are strongly or weakly

inter-related (Little & Mirrless, 1974). Investment decision-making includes the

consideration for embarking on a new project (Palm & Qayum, 1985). Project evaluation

then forms a fraction of the complete phases of a project (project cycle).

The further splitting-up of a project into several parts or units is possible for

reasonable consideration. Each of those parts is can then be defined as a separate project.

However, this requires that the sub-project can be analysed and evaluated technically,

commercially and economically as an independent and separable unit of investment

(Little & Mirrless, 1974; Sang, 1995; UNIDO & IDCAS, 1980). If two or more activities

are theoretically separable but practically indivisible, they should be treated as one single

subject for evaluation purposes (Palm & Qayum, 1985). An example of separable sub-

projects in a project given by Muqorobin (1998) is the RM20 billion high-tech scheme of

the Multimedia Supercorridor (MSC). The MSC project can be separated and evaluated

into several separable independent projects such as the Kuala Lumpur International

Airport (KLIA). This fact suggests that an enormous project may consist of several

projects that can be evaluated separately at different levels.

1.2 Project Evaluation Definition and Function

Project evaluation or analysis or appraisal
1
, in the general sense, is basically an

examination between a project’s costs and benefits over its lifetime to determine the net

worth of the project from the commercial and national point of view. In this sense, Sang

(1995) defines project evaluation as “a studied judgment on the balance of all the positive

and negative effects of a project and its relative merits among the alternatives for

1
 These three terms are used in the literature to connote the same meaning. However, the use of a particular

term may have some logical grounds as well as practical advantages (Sang, 1995).

3

achieving government or private enterprise objectives”
2
. It is an analysis of the project’s

expected future events in order to determine the current attractiveness of the project

(Palm & Qayum, 1985). There are several other closely related terms which are used

interchangeably to denote this meaning of project evaluation such as cost-benefit

analysis, cost-effectiveness analysis and capital budgeting. However, each of these terms

may reveal a specific meaning.

Cost-benefit analysis
3
 and cost-effectiveness analysis, in most situations, refer to the

evaluation of public projects only. The former concerns the net result between the

project’s quantifiable costs and benefits whilst the latter deals with the project’s non-

quantifiable benefits in determining the least expensive project’s cost from its alternatives

that would provide the targeted outcome. On the other hand, the term ‘capital budgeting’

is often used to denote project evaluation by private individuals concerning the sources

and types of financing (Sang, 1995; Zarqa’, 1982).

Project evaluation is involved in three main situations where the decision is to accept

or reject a single project; to choose one single project amongst a range of projects; or to

decide on a certain number of projects within a range of proposed projects (Zarqa’, 1982)

Hence, it does have several critical functions. They are (Sang, 1995):

a) Provision of necessary information on a project.

b) Establishment of an order of priority among competing projects.

c) Assessment of the profitability of a project.

d) Rationalisation of the allocation of resources among the various sectors and

projects at the macroeconomic and microeconomic levels.

1.3  Project Evaluation vis-à-vis the Project Cycle

The various stages of information gathering and decision making that take place

between a project’s inception and completion are known by economists as the “project

cycle” (Irvin, 1978). In other words, a project cycle refers to the step-by-step process by

which a project is formulated, identified, evaluated, implemented and completed (World

Bank, n.d.). These various stages are conveniently known as the ‘project cycle’ to denote

that they are closely linked to each other and follow a logical progression (Baum &

Tolbert, 1985). This concept of project cycle was first introduced by the World Bank in

describing the working procedures of its financing in developing countries
4
. A slightly

2
 His other definition of project evaluation is “an assessment of the net benefit expected of a project in

comparison with its alternatives for achieving national or private business goals”. This definition is very

similar to the first one.
3
 Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) is also known as Social Cost-Benefit Analysis (SCBA) as it attempts to

consider all of the project’s pros and cons to the society as a whole (Boardman, Greenberg, Vining &

Weimer, 2001).
4
 The project cycle as conceived by the World Bank comprises (1) identification, (2) preparation, (3)

appraisal, (4) negotiations and board, (5) implementation and supervision, (6) implementation completion,

(7) evaluation and lastly (8) country assistance strategies. See www.worldbank.org

http://www.worldbank.org/

4

different framework concerning educational projects was suggested by UNESCO
5
.

Different authors provide different detailed explanations of the stages a project should

follow and each project has its own distinctiveness and no two projects are alike (Sang,

1995). Indeed, the divisions of the project cycle are somewhat artificial in practice but do

illustrate the whole concept of a continuous decision-making task (Irvin, 1978).

However, there is a general evolutionary pattern amongst projects comprising several

common stages (Sang, 1995). Muqorobin (1998) observes at least five major stages of a

project cycle. It appears to the researcher that the sequence of stages of the project cycle

as observed by him is the most explicable for summarising a typical project cycle
6
. The

sequence of the project cycle is as follows:

1. Project Formulation

2. Feasibility Study

3. Investment Decision

4. Implementation

5. Ex-post Evaluation

1.3.1 Project Formulation

At this stage, there are three main steps that should take place. The first step is the

identification of needs and problem recognition. This will entail the second step i.e., the

formulation of objectives that projects should aim at. The third one is the identification of

suitable projects whose desirability and suitability should conform to the established

objectives. In this sense, projects are actually designed to solve specific problems and/or

to meet the particular needs of a society, a country or an individual (Sang, 1995). These

steps can be depicted by Figure 1.

Figure 1: Steps Involved at the Project Formulation Stage

5
 UNESCO’s suggestion is as follows: (1) evaluation of a system’s performance and needs; (2) formulation

of program objectives and project goals; (3) design of alternative projects; (4) pilot project and

experimentation; (5) project implementation; (6) project operation; and (7) outcome evaluation.
6
 His suggestions for this project cycle are mostly excerpted from the works of George Irvin (1978), Baum

& Tolbert (1985), Axel Sell (1991) and Heng-Keng Sang (1995).

5

1.3.2 Feasibility Study

After the potential projects have been recognised, a feasibility study for each of them

will be carried out. A feasibility study can be defined as the examination of the viability

of the proposed projects in an exhaustive and comprehensive investigation to resolve the

most sound project (s) in terms of the technical, financial, economic and social aspects

(Sang, 1995). A typical feasibility study of a project includes quantitative and qualitative

analysis considering the direct and indirect effects in comparison to other alternatives, if

any. This stage can be divided into the pre-feasibility study and the detailed feasibility

study (Irvin, 1978; Muqorobin, 1998). The former differs essentially from the latter as it

requires less workload and a more simple analysis (Irvin, 1978). The pre-feasibility study

provides the basis for choosing one project or a small number of alternative projects for a

more detailed feasibility study (Sang, 1995). The result of the pre-feasibility study is less

accurate in nature than the detailed one. However, this is justifiable as a detailed

feasibility study on all proposed projects will cost a lot in terms of everything, and yet

would find them to be unacceptable. Therefore, if the results of the pre-feasibility studies

are promising, then, a more detailed feasibility study should be undertaken (Zarqa’,

1994).

A good feasibility study will provide answers on the project’s conformity with the

objectives and priorities of a country, demand for the output of the project, its technical

and environmental soundness, economic and financial profitability, administrative

workability, and its compatibility with the customs and traditions of the beneficiaries

(Baum & Tolbert, 1985).  In reality, the scope and duration of feasibility studies can

differ as widely as the projects themselves. UNIDO (1978) identifies nine critical aspects

of a feasibility study. The financial and economic evaluation of an industrial project takes

place at the end of a feasibility study. The nine aspects are as follows:

1. Project background and history

2. Market and plant capacity

3. Materials and input

4. Location and site

Identification of Needs Problems Recognition

Formulation of Objectives

Determination of

Suitable Potential

Projects

6

5. Project engineering

6. Plant organisation and overhead costs

7. Manpower

8. Implementation scheduling

9. Financial and economic evaluation

Irvin (1978) and Sell (1991) envisage the feasibility studies as having three different

sections, namely techno-economic, financial and economic analyses. On the other hand,

Sang (1995) enumerates the essential parts of a typical feasibility study in the following

points:

1. A general description of the project including the background, salient

features, configuration, and social and economic environment of the

project.

2. A cost-benefit analysis of the project and its overall feasibility.

3. The formulation of the project’s plans and design for implementation.

4. Financial plans and projections.

Project evaluation - as explained in most of the literature under this study –

constitutes a part of the feasibility study of a project (Irvin, 1978; Muqorobin, 1998). It

refers to the analysis of the soundness and benefits of the projects in comparison with

other competing alternatives to attain commercial and national (social and economic)

objectives (Sang, 1995). However, it is observed that financial and economic evaluations

of projects are the two major aspects that have been emphasised and discussed in most of

the literature pertaining to project evaluation.

1.3.3 Investment Decision

With the results of the feasibility study, the decision-makers - not the analysts - make

decisions based on certain investment criteria that are important to them. The decision-

makers could be local or international financial institutions, planning authorities,

individual or institutional investors etc. Each of the decision makers has his own

investment criteria and a project is acceptable if it can meet the respective criteria. If the

decision makers are financial institutions, the project’s financial viability, its liquidity and

capital plan are of crucial importance. If they are planning authorities, the project’s

contribution to national development is their primary concern. The presentation of

investment or project justifications according to the stipulations and requirements of the

international investors is necessary to obtain their resources.  And if the projects are

privately or publicly owned, for the commercial activities, the commercial profitability is

the major concern (Sang, 1995).

1.3.4 Implementation

7

This stage is about making the project a reality. The earlier stages are directed toward

the successful implementation of the project (Baum & Tolbert, 1985). At this stage, there

are two things that constitute the main focus. The first one is the mobilisation of physical

and financial resources. Secondly is the recruitment and training of personnel for the

successful implementation and operation of the projects. Close monitoring and

supervision to ensure the project’s adherence to the plan are essential during this stage

(Irvin, 1978; Sang, 1995).

1.3.5 Ex-Post Evaluation

The ex-ante evaluation involves many forecasts and estimates of the project’s

viability. On the other hand, the ex-post evaluation of a project finds out its actual

incomes and makes comparisons with anticipations in hindsight (Sang, 1995). An

important purpose of this stage is to ascertain the reason for the project’s success or

failure, in order to pinpoint the pitfalls that should be avoided or the successful features

that deserve replication in the future (Baum & Tolbert, 1985). This is an audit process to

assess the extent of achievement or possible deviation from the objectives for which the

project is undertaken. The result of ex-post evaluation would be the lessons learned from

the experience of planning and implementation of the project (Sang, 1995). The ex-post

evaluation also unveils the errors in forecast, measurement and evaluation during the pre-

investment stages (Boardman, Greenberg, Vining & Weimer, 2001).

As a summary of the foregoing discussions, Figure 2 illustrates the position of project

evaluation and its relationship with other relevant terms that have a broader meaning and

scope.

Figure 1: The Relationship between the Economic/Investment Plan, Project Cycle, Project Feasibility

Study and Project Evaluation

8

1.4 Overview on the Major Developments of the Project Evaluation Framework

in Mainstream Economics

The practice of private project evaluation can be traced back to the early days of

Capitalism where the profit motive was the emphasis of mainstream economics. The

focus of analysis was on the microeconomics of a firm and the social significance of the

private project was seldom raised. The role of government (and public projects) during

those days was believed to be limited to the maintenance of law and order and the

provision of certain public facilities and services. However, the situation has seen

changes after two great events, namely the Great Depression and the Second World War.

The emergence of welfare economics, the increased government involvement in the

mobilisation of resources and socio-economic affairs, and the influence of Keynesian

economics have provided bases and a theoretical background for the development of

project evaluation foundations and techniques (Sang, 1995).

The development of social cost-benefit analysis (hereafter cited as SCBA) can be

considered as the cornerstone of the project evaluation framework in mainstream

economics, particularly for public projects. The earliest idea of comparison between

projects’ costs and benefits can be found in Benjamin Franklin’s advice in 1772 for

making personal decision where he named it as “Moral or Prudential Algebra”

(Boardman et al, 2001; Sang, 1995). In 1808, Albert Gallatin - U.S. Secretary of the

Treasury - recommended the comparison of costs and benefits in water-related projects

(Hanley & Spash, 1993). However, the modern methods of SCBA are accredited to the

work of Jules Dupuit, a French engineer, in his paper entitled “On the Measurement of

the Utility of Public Works” in 1844 (Anand, 1993; Sang, 1995).

Economic/Investment Plan

Project Cycle

Project Feasibility

Study

Project

Evaluation

9

In terms of the practice of SCBA, it was first put into practice with the enunciation of

the Flood Control Act 1936 in the USA. According to the Act, flood-control projects

should be approved if the benefits to whomsoever they accrue are in excess of the

estimated costs (Anand, 1993; Campen, 1986; Pearce, 1983; Sang, 1995). In 1950, the

U.S. Federal Inter-Agency River Basin Committee issued a manual entitled “Proposed

Practice for Economic Analysis of River Basin Projects” in an attempt to instill some

agreed set of rules for comparing costs and benefits. The manual was later replaced by

Budget Circular A-47 issued by the U.S. Bureau of Budget (Campen, 1986; Hanley &

Spash, 1993; Pearce, 1983; Sang, 1995). In the 1950s, there was a number of significant

writings
7
 that further advanced the theory and practice of SCBA. The advent of

development economics and the increase of project aid flows to the Third World

countries within the same period aroused great interest in the application of SCBA in

developing countries. During the 1960s, SCBA became increasingly accepted as the

analytical tool for project evaluation. It is observed that the practice of SCBA made its

first move in the USA, particularly in water-related projects, before being extended to

Europe and the developing countries (Anand, 1993; Irvin, 1978; Sang, 1995).

With regard to the framework and methodologies of project evaluation, the

international co-operation for development, particularly OECD, UNIDO and IDCAS

have played a prominent role in this area. The OECD introduced its Manual of Industrial

Project Analysis in Developing Countries in 1968. The OECD Manual was published in

two volumes. The first volume is mainly concerned with project evaluation from a firm’s

point of view. The second volume deals with the examination of projects from the social

point of view i.e. SCBA (OECD, 1972)
8
. Then, in 1974, the same authors of the OECD

Manual i.e., Little & Mirrlees, revised their previous approach and provided a more

systematic exposition in a new book entitled “Project Appraisal and Planning for

Developing Countries” (Anand, 1993; Sang, 1995).

On the other hand, UNIDO has also published two main works on project evaluation

framework and methodologies. The first one was published in 1972 under the title

Guidelines for Project Evaluation. The authors of the Guidelines were Dasgupta, Sen and

Marglin.  In 1975, Squire and van der Tak reconciled the differences between the OECD

and UNIDO approaches. The OECD Manual and UNIDO Guidelines insist on the

superiority of the national profitability of a project and the need for CBA. The second one

by UNIDO was the Manual for Evaluation of Industrial Projects. The Manual was

prepared in collaboration with IDCAS in 1980. The UNIDO & IDCAS Manual differs

conceptually from the UNIDO Guidelines, OECD Manual and Little & Mirrlees (1974)

in its simplicity and operational step-by-step approach. The UNIDO & IDCAS Manual

suggests the use of net-value added criteria which judge the merits of a project based on

its contribution to the national income (Anand, 1993; Sang, 1995; UNIDO & IDCAS,

1980). The works of the OECD (Little & Mirrlees), UNIDO and IDCAS are known as

the “New Methodologies” of SCBA. In spite of several technical and methodological

7
 Three highly important publications are the works of Otto Eclstein (Water Resource Management), John

Krutilla and Eckstein (Multiple Purpose River Development), and Roland N. Mckean. All of their works

were published in 1958 (Anand, 1993; Pearce, 1983; Sang, 1995).
8
 The revised edition of the Manual was published in 1972.

10

differences with the traditional SCBA, these “New Methodologies” have the same

framework as the traditional one (Sang, 1995).

1.5 The Framework for Project Evaluation

The structure (or approach) of project evaluation is somewhat different amongst the

literature in mainstream economics. However, there are two aspects of a project’s

profitability which have been the focus in the evaluation of projects. The first aspect is

the project’s commercial profitability and the second one is the national profitability
9
 of

the project. Whilst the former is the main concern of individuals, the latter has been

emphasised in public project evaluation. The two aspects of the project’s profitability

mainly make up the objectives which a particular project is intended to satisfy
10

. Thus,

the project evaluation framework necessarily examines the project’s contribution to the

attaining of commercial and national objectives. The basic framework for project

evaluation in mainstream economics
11

 is depicted in Figure 3.

9
 The national profitability basically represents the social profitability of the project. The net social gains

may usefully be called national profits, when the society is identified with the nation. This should include

the economic and non-economic costs and benefits of a project that would affect national or social welfare

(UNIDO, 1972).
10

 Some authors suggest a more detailed division of project objectives. For example, Ahmad (1999) gives

four aspects of project objectives namely, economic, technological, social and political.
11

 The main references the researcher refers to in constructing this framework are: UNIDO & IDCAS

(1980), UNIDO (1972) and Sang (1995).

11

Figure 2: The Framework for Project Evaluation in Mainstream Economics

Financial

Analysis

Investment

Profitability Analysis

Social Cost-Benefit Analysis

Simple

Methods

Discounted Cash-

Flow Methods
Liquidity

Analysis

Capital Structure

Analysis

(i) Identification and

enumeration of project

costs and benefits

(ii) Quantification and

valuation of identified

cost and benefits

(iii) Computation of key

indicators with

discounting future costs

and benefits

Uncertainty Analysis

Project’s Overall Merit

Commercial Profitability National Profitability

Project Evaluation Objectives

12

1.5.1 Commercial Profitability

Commercial profitability analysis is concerned with the feasibility of the project from

the financial point of view. At this stage, the project’s costs and benefits are calculated in

pecuniary terms at the prevailing market prices (UNIDO & IDCAS, 1980). The cash flow

(inflows and outflows) estimation is the basis for the commercial profitability analysis.

Thus, constructing relevant cash flows is of great importance to assure reliable results

from the analysis (Sell, 1991). The commercial profitability analysis is composed of:

a) Investment Profitability Analysis

b) Financial Analysis

Each type of analysis deals with different aspects of the project. Hence, they are not

complementary and not substitutable (UNIDO & IDCAS, 1980).

1.5.1.1 Investment Profitability Analysis

Investment profitability analysis measures the return on the capital put into the

projects regardless of the sources of the financing. In other words, it analyses the

expected earning power of the resources committed to a project without taking into

consideration the financial transactions which occur over the project’s lifetime (UNIDO

& IDCAS, 1980). The main methods for this analysis are divided into two groups:

1) Discounted Cash-Flow Methods

2) Simple Methods

Discounted cash-flow methods comprise the two most important and regularly used

methods i.e. Net Present Value (NPV) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR). These two

methods are classified under this category as they take into consideration the economic

life of the project as a whole by discounting future cash inflows and outflows to their

present values. The NPV method determines the divergence between the present values

of a project’s cash inflows and outflows. The cash flows are discounted by an appropriate

discount rate to determine their present value (Sang, 1995; UNIDO & IDCAS, 1980).

The IRR, by definition, is the rate of discount that equates the present value of its

cash inflows to the present value of its costs (Brigham & Houston, 2001). In another

sense, it is the rate that equates the NPV of the project to zero (Levy & Alderson, 1988;

Sang, 1955; UNIDO & IDCAS, 1980). The IRR is then being compared to the cut-off

rate (or hurdle rate) that represents the minimum acceptable rate at which the capital

invested should be compounded. The project is acceptable if the IRR is bigger than the

cut-off rate. It seems that the IRR has a somewhat a “breakeven” feature that makes it

really useful in project evaluation. This method is helpful if the project analysts find it

difficult to attain the appropriate discount rate for calculating the NPV of the project

(Brigham & Houston, 2001; UNIDO & IDCAS).

13

The simple methods consist of two simple and straightforward methods. The methods

do not take into account the present value of the project’s future cash flows or the whole

life span of the project. They rely on one model period, usually one year. The methods

are the simple rate of return and payback period. The simple rate of return is the ratio of

the project’s net profit to the total investment – both fixed and working capital (Sang,

1995; UNIDO & IDCAS, 1980). The pay-back period method calculates the expected

number of years required to recover the original investment. The result of this method

will then be compared to the cut-off payback period set by the decision-makers to decide

on its acceptance or rejection (Brigham & Houston, 2001; Irvin, 1978).

1.5.1.2 Financial Analysis

Financial analysis consists of liquidity and capital structure analysis. Liquidity

analysis checks the possibilities of cash deficiency in the years of a project’s life (Sang,

1995). It concerns the financial transactions affecting a project’s cash balance which are

not highlighted in the investment profitability analysis. It is done on a year-by-year basis

and, hence, the cash flows are calculated at their nominal values (UNIDO & IDCAS,

1980).

The question of capital sufficiency is analysed in the capital structure analysis. It is

performed to ensure that each type of investment (fixed or working capital) is covered by

a suitable type of finance. The most commonly used as the indicator of an enterprise’s

capital structure is the debt equity ratio. It is simply the ratio of long-term loans to equity

capital. There is no specific favourable debt equity ratio. It depends upon the earnings of

the project, the nature of the enterprise and the uncertainties of the future. However, a

low debt equity ratio reflects a lower risk of solvency or heavy financial obligations and

vice-versa (Sang, 1995; UNIDO & IDCAS, 1980).

1.5.2 National Profitability

The national profitability analysis is seen necessary due to several limitations of

commercial profitability analysis. For example, the use of market price in commercial

profitability analysis could be misleading and it is not a good guide to social gains.

Additionally, a project may have effects outside the market which have not been treated

in commercial profitability analysis (UNIDO, 1972). Thus, international agencies such as

UNIDO, the OECD and the World Bank have repeatedly emphasised the need for SCBA,

particularly for public projects, in their various publications to account for the national

profitability of a project (Anand, 1993). The methodology of SCBA, its conceptual

foundations, valuation and measurement issues are massive topics and they are not within

the scope of the study. However, the researcher describes here its main framework. The

framework of SCBA is worthy of explanation as “various techniques have been

developed for project studies within the framework of cost-benefit analysis” (Sang, 1995).

14

1.5.2.1 Social Cost-Benefit Analysis

The basic framework of SCBA can be summarised in the following points (Sang,

1995; Boardman et al, 2001):

1) Identification and enumeration of project costs and benefits

The relevant costs and benefits are defined by type, region, recipient or other

criteria. This includes the effects of the project in the realm of production and

distribution, positive and negative, direct and indirect, internal and external,

measurable and immeasurable effects.

2) Quantification and valuation of identified costs and benefits

In order to determine precisely the net balance between the project’s costs and

benefits, the individual items have to be quantified and valued. The project

analysts should quantify as many items as possible and attach a value or a degree

of significance to each of the remaining items so that the overall merit or demerit

of the project can be determined.

3) Computation of key indicators with discounting future costs and benefits

Selected indicators are computed on the basis of available data and valuations.

The most commonly applied indicators for public project are the NPV and IRR.

Next, these indicators will undergo uncertainty analysis and then, the advantages

and disadvantages of the project are weighed against each other to arrive at the

project’s overall merit.

1.5.3 Uncertainty Analysis

The previous stages of the framework are carried out under the assumption of

certainty of the future. In reality, there is always uncertainty about the future, and with

uncertainty, there is likely a conflict between what is theoretically correct and practically

feasible (Bierman & Smidt, 1993). The outcome of the project may turn out to be slightly

or considerably different from the initial expectations. Managers in a firm might tend to

be optimistic in their forecasts as they have to compete for internally rationed funds

(Meera, n.d.). Unfortunately, reality seems to prove that an underestimation of cost is

more usual than vice-versa. In other words, it is always the case that the analysts seem to

overestimate the benefit and the potential danger is underestimated (Sell, 1991).

Therefore, it is obvious that the uncertainty analysis is indispensable and it has been

discussed, in short or great detail, by almost all the literature pertaining to project

evaluation. Each variable needed for uncertainty analysis could be a source of uncertainty

that affects the outcome of the project. Some of the common variables are the size of

investment, operating costs and sales revenue - cash flow estimation (UNIDO & IDCAS,

15

1980). The uncertainties might also be caused by inadequate data, insufficient money and

time and poor performance by the project analysts. Uncertainties are either internal or

external. Internal uncertainties are related to the project itself that constitute the elements

and structure of the project. On the other hand, external uncertainties relate to the

surrounding environment of the project in which it operates such as political, social and

economic changes during the lifetime of project
12

 (Sang, 1995; UNIDO & IDCAS,

1980).

There are several methods for project analysts to carry out uncertainty analysis. The

simplest one is the break-even analysis. A more systematic approach for uncertainty

analysis is the sensitivity analysis. Sensitivity analysis shows how the value of the crucial

indicators (the NPV, IRR or any other criteria) changes with a given change in an input

variable, sometimes more than one variable, with other things held constant. This

technique is used to determine how sensitive the results of project evaluation would be in

relation to changes in crucial variables or key parameters. Where there are great

uncertainties in the future or each variable has a significant chance of occurrence,

probability analysis is recommended. This method identifies the possible range of each

key variable, if not all, and does not restrict the judgment to a single optimistic,

pessimistic or realistic estimation (Brigham & Houston, 2001; UNIDO & IDCAS, 1980).

1.5.4 Project’s Overall Merit

Based on the uncertainty analysis results, the project’s overall attractiveness from the

commercial and national points of view is presented. This framework for project

evaluation is basically a quantitative analysis of a project to arrive at the present

attractiveness of the project. The analytical quantitative methods and criteria described

here are not exhaustive; rather it is a list of main examples for each stage of the analysis.

The choice of methods and criteria depends on the objectives of project evaluation, the

decision makers, the economic environment, and the availability of relevant data (Sang,

1995; UNIDO & IDCAS, 1980).

2.0 REVIEW OF THE FRAMEWORK: ISLAMIC POINT OF VIEW

Credit and recognitions should be given to mainstream economics for its

contributions to the birth and development of the existing framework for project

evaluation that takes into consideration the national or social interest, especially in

SCBA. Nevertheless, the framework and methodology have been developed in isolation

from Islamic input during the last one and half centuries. Consequently, there is a need to

review the existing framework and methodology for project evaluation from the Islamic

point of view.

Having presented the project concept and the framework for project evaluation in

mainstream economics, we now turn to the second part of Chapter two: Review of the

principles of project evaluation framework from the Islamic point of view. This section

12

 Some examples of external uncertainties are (1) civil wars might occur; (2) national economy falls into

recession; (3) governments change their policies and priorities; and (4) new laws are imposed.

16

starts with the raison d'être for conducting ex-ante project evaluation from the Islamic

point of view. Following that is the discussion on the main selected issues pertaining to

the framework for project evaluation from the Islamic standpoint. The focus of the

researcher in this review is on the principles of the mainstream framework and not on

methodological and technical matters. The methodological and technical issues of project

evaluation are not within the scope of the present study.

2.1 The Raison D'être for Ex-ante Project Evaluation from the Islamic

Standpoint

A project is a way of using resources, and the decision to undertake a particular

project or not is a choice between alternative ways of using resources (Sugden &

Williams, 1978). Resources, in Islam, are envisaged as trusts of Allah. Man, as His

vicegerent and servant, is entrusted to utilise these resources in the right way within the

Shari‘ah boundaries (Haneef, 1997). Appraisal of a project prior to its execution in order

to determine the optimal use of the resources is in line with the spirit of Islam as

manifested in the following points:

a) Project evaluation is about rationalising the use of resources for specific

purposes. Likewise, Islam calls on its followers to rationalise the use of

resources. The irrational and unjustified use of resources is highly condemned

in Islam as evident in a hadith narrated by Ahmad and al-Nasa’i where a bird

which was killed for no useful purpose will claim to Allah in the hereafter and

say: “Oh God! This man has killed me for no purpose and not for any benefit”

(Al-Masri, 1999; Al-Qardawi, 1999).

b) Islam also favours efficiency and in this context, encourages ex-ante

evaluation of a project before it could be undertaken to achieve its goal of

prevention of israf - wanton use of resources, either in production or

consumption (Choudhury & Malik, 1992; Zarqa’, 1983). It is crystal clear that

the prevention of israf is a founding trait of Islamic economics. This is evident

in the Qur’an’s condemnation on israf (Muqtader, n.d.).

c) Project evaluation also involves prioritisation of potential competing projects

for limited resources. Likewise, the prioritisation of actions and deeds is

embedded in Islam since the Shari‘ah assigns different weights/values to

different actions and deeds. With the right status, each matter could be ordered

and prioritised according to its importance and urgency from the viewpoint of

the Shari‘ah (Al-Qardawi, 2000). In a way, fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence) itself

is all about prioritisation as each matter (including projects) can be

categorised into one of the main five values, namely obligatory (wajib),

recommended (mandub), permissible (mubah), reprehensible (makruh), and

forbidden (haram).

17

2.2 The Mainstream Framework for Project Evaluation: Review of the Main

Issues from the Islamic Standpoint

In view of the vastness of the subject and the limitations of this study, the researcher

has selected several main issues that are particularly significant in theory for

reconsideration from the Islamic point of view. The major issues pertaining to the

principles of the project evaluation framework in mainstream economics (as recognised

by the researcher) and which will be discussed in this section can be itemised into four

main points. They are:

1. The need to accommodate Shari‘ah objectives

2. The principle of cost benefit analysis

3. The rationale for discounting project’s cost and benefit

4. The notion of (commercial) profit maximisation for private project

2.2.1 The Need to Accommodate Shari‘ah Objectives

A project is designed to achieve specific objectives. In the mainstream framework,

the commercial and national profitability objectives cover the “dual dimension” of a

project’s overall objectives. An Islamic framework for project evaluation should classify

and prioritise projects according to the extent of their contribution to the realisation of

Shari‘ah objectives. The Shari‘ah aims at the welfare (maslahah) of people in this life

and in the hereafter (Khan & Ghifari, 1992). Maslahah can be classified further into three

categories. The three categories are (‘Afar, 1992; Kamali, 1989; Zarqa’, 1984):

1) Daruriyyat (Necessities): These Necessities are defined as those

activities and things that are essential to the preservation of the five

foundations of individual and social life according to Islam i.e.

Religion, Life, Mind, Offspring and Wealth. Their neglect leads to

total disruption and chaos in life. Khan and Ghifari (1992) assert that

one foundation i.e. freedom should be added to the list. They see

freedom as the sixth element that should be promoted along with the

five elements.

2) Hajiyyat (Conveniences): This category comprises all activities and

things that are not vital to the preservation of the five foundations, but

are necessary to relieve or remove impediments and difficulties in life.

Conveniences promote and supplement the Necessities and their

neglect leads to hardship but not to the total disruption of normal life.

3) Tahsiniyyat (Refinements): The Refinements refer to activities and

things that go beyond the limits of Conveniences and whose realisation

leads to the improvement and attainment of that which is desirable

such as jewellery, innocent hobbies, politeness in behaviour and

speech, Islamic etiquette in cleanliness, moderation or avoiding

extravagance and etc. Going beyond Refinements into prodigality and

18

self-indulgence is perceived by Islam as a disutility for both

individuals and society, and is strongly disapproved.

As a general rule, a project that falls under the category of Necessities should be

preferred to that of Conveniences in an Islamic framework. Similarly, a project that is

considered as a Convenience must be preferred to that of Refinements (Khan & Ghifari,

1992; Meera, n.d.). The significance of this concept of maslahah or Shari‘ah objectives

in an Islamic framework for project evaluation will be further discussed in Chapter Three.

2.2.2 The Principle of Cost Benefit Analysis

The Flood Control Act 1936 in the USA, which is considered as the earliest

application of SCBA, states that “…projects should be approved if the benefits to

whomsoever they accrue are in excess of the estimated costs” (Anand, 1993; Campen,

1986; Pearce, 1983; Sang, 1995). The idea of comparing between cost and benefit to

select the best project is not peculiar in Islam. A similar statement has been recorded

hundreds years ago from Abu Yusuf where he states that, “If its benefit (project of

excavation of canal) is greater, then he (the decision-maker) would leave as it is (e.g. it

should go ahead); and if its harm is greater, than he would order to demolish it (i.e.

should abandon it),” (Meera & Ahsan, 1992).

There is evidence from the Holy Qur’an of analysis between the cost and benefit of a

matter. For example, the comparison between the advantage and disadvantage of wine

before it is being strictly forbidden in verse 2:219
13

. In the end, the wine or any

intoxicating liquid is forbidden in Islam as it contradicts one of the Shari‘ah objectives

i.e. protection of the mind.  Another example is the story of Musa and Khidr from 18:61

to 18:82. Khidr has shown Musa that he scuttled the boat, slew the young man and set up

the wall on the point of falling down without asking for recompense as the benefits of

doing those things are greater than their evils (Al-Qardawi, 2000).

Cost and benefit, in Islam, are generally denoted as mafsadah and maslahah

respectively
14

 (Muqorobin, 1998). Analysis between cost and benefit is thought necessary

as all masalih (plural of maslahah) and mafasid (plural of mafsadah) are not equal. Some

are more important than others and some are less important (Khan & Ghifari, 1992). Al-

Qardawi (2000) mentioned three situations where the analysis of maslahah and mafsadah

could take place. The situations are:

a) Analysis between masalih, one to another

b) Analysis between mafasid, one to another

c) Analysis between masalih and mafasid

13

 “They ask thee concerning wine and gambling. Say: In them is great sin, and some profit, for men; but

the sin is greater than profit.”
14

 However, a cost does not necessarily stand for mafsadah in the context of project evaluation.

19

When there are trade-offs between the masalih, we choose the greater maslahah over

the lower one, public maslahah over the private one
15

, permanent maslahah over the

temporary one, actual maslahah over the potential one and so forth. In the second

situation, the principle of choosing the lesser evil would be applied. And as there are

contradictions between maslahah and mafsadah, they should be evaluated against each

other to find the final resolution (Al-Qardawi, 2000). It is evident that cost-benefit

analysis is indispensable in an Islamic framework for project evaluation and the

application of SCBA, in principle, is in line with the spirit of Islam.

2.2.3 The Rationale for Discounting Project’s Cost and Benefit

Discounting
16

 a project’s benefit and cost is essential in both commercial and national

profitability analyses in the mainstream framework. The two most regularly used and

superior methods in investment profitability analysis i.e. the NPV and IRR are based on

this technique
17

. In SCBA, the cost and benefit are quantified, valued and discounted to

determine their present value. The discounting technique revalues all the project’s costs

and benefits that occur at different times throughout the lifetime of project to make them

comparable to the present costs and benefits. Discounting explicitly takes into

consideration the role of time in the flow of a project’s cost and benefit (Little &

Mirrlees, 1974; Palm & Qayum, 1985; Sang, 1995; UNIDO & IDCAS, 1980).

The discussions concerning the practice of discounting in Islamic economics center

around two main issues, namely the justifications for the validity or invalidity of positive

time preference (or time value of money) and the alternative discount rate that is different

from the interest rate. The discussions are very important as they are related with the

most superior and widely used technique in project evaluation in mainstream economics.

The following subsections reviews this concept from the Islamic point of view.

2.2.3.1 Positive Time Preference

Time preference indicates the extent of an individual’s preference for current

consumption over future consumption, and positive time preference generally

means that people think present consumption of an amount is superior to future

consumption of the same amount (Rosly, 2003). Zarqa’ (1983) does not recognise

this concept as either a principle of rationality or an empirically prime tendency

amongst the economic agents. According to him, it is only one of the three

15

 If the rights or property of an individual have to be removed, he or she should be compensated fairly.
16

 Discounting is a procedure to convert future values of costs and benefits into present worth through the

application of a discount rate (Sang, 1995).
17

 On the theoretical ground, most of the literature, in both conventional and Islamic economics, asserts the

superiority of NPV over IRR (Bierman & Smidt, 1993; Brigham & Houston, 2001; Levy & Alderson,

1998; Zarqa’, 1982 & 1983).

20

patterns of inter-temporal choice
18

. Similarly, Khan (1994) argues that “the utility

of money in the present is greater than the utility of same money in the future” is

conceptually a faulty assumption. He adds that the concept would lead to

legitimacy of interest on capital lent. Others with similar stands are Iqbal & Khan

(1981). Muqorobin (1998) believes its rationality in production rather than in

consumption.

On the other hand, a number of Islamic scholars believe in its acceptability

and validity in Islam. Amongst them are Khan (1991), Azhar (1992), Saadallah

(1994), Al-Masri (1999) and Rosly (2003). According to them, there is nothing

against positive time preference or against realising a time value of money in the

Islamic framework, as long as the time value of money is not claimed as a

predetermined value (Khan, 1991). Additionally, the Shari‘ah admits that time

has a value and recognises the innate human preference of what is in hand to what

is loaned and of the immediate to the deferred (Saadallah, 1994). The prohibition

of any conditional increase in the principal of a loan in return for deferred

repayment does not indicate the invalidity of the concept of the time value of

money in Islam (Saadallah, 1994; Al-Masri, 1999; Rosly, 2003).

Indeed, Islam does recognise positive time preference, as evident in the

sayings of the Prophet PBUH. The Prophet PBUH said: “Virtuous are they who

pay back their debts well.” On another occasion, Mujahid reported that ‘Abd

Allah Ibn ‘Umar took some dirhams as a loan and paid back better dirhams
19

(Rosly, 2003). It is encouraged, in Islam, for the debtor to pay his debt well to

manifest his gratitude towards the creditor. It is true, as the creditor has forgone

his current consumption of the loaned money and relinquished the potential for

income opportunities that may be obtained through putting the money to use in an

economic activity. The potential profit of the economic activity is the economic

cost borne by the creditor and is the indirect value of time from the perspective of

the creditor. However, the potential for generating income is an unknown factor

as it is subject to business risk. Thus, Islam does not allow any form of

contractual reward (determined up-front) given in exchange for a loan (Rosly,

2003; Saadallah, 1994).

Moreover, the loan contract is also seen as a charitable contract from the

Islamic point of view. The creditor (perceived as a donor) actually donates his

potential opportunity of using the money to the debtor, and thus, the creditor

deserves the (spiritual) reward from Allah as stated in a saying of the Prophet

PBUH (Saadallah, 1994). From the above explanation, it is observed that the

concept of the time value of money has justifications from the Islamic

perspective. Therefore, it is acceptable to accept the concept of positive time

preference or the time value of money in an Islamic framework, particularly in

18

 The other two are zero and negative time preference. According to him, each of them is valid and rational

under its own conditions (Zarqa’, 1983).
19

 See Appendix 2 for full texts of the hadith. It should be noted that giving extra or addition in repayment

of debt is a matter of choice and not a general ruling in the Shari‘ah.

21

matters pertaining to investment activities such as project evaluation
20

. This also

entails that economic agents in an Islamic economy would have positive time

preference, except in certain circumstances as highlighted by Zarqa’ (1983), and

there will be indicators (which are different from the interest rate) available in the

economy to approximate the rate of their time preferences (Khan, 1991).

2.2.3.2 Discounting Future Costs and Benefits

In spite of the differences between Islamic scholars on the preceding issue,

there is a general agreement that discounting is allowed irrespective of the

agreement, whether or not the concept of positive time preference is valid in Islam

(Iqbal & Khan, 1981). Those who hold the invalidity of positive time preference

amongst the economic agents argue that discounting future values is necessitated

by considerations of inter-temporal economic efficiency as well as the avoidance

of israf in consumption or production (Zarqa’, 1983; Sattar, 1991). Additionally,

the fact that Muslims are permitted to choose several halal (legitimate or lawful)

investment opportunities in the society for a quite likely positive return makes the

money now in hand more valuable than money in future (Iqbal & Khan, 1981;

Sattar, 1991).

 2.2.3.3 Discount Rate

Interest is a form of riba and the elimination of riba is one of the important

features of Islamic economics. This requires other alternative rates that are

acceptable and appropriate in an Islamic framework. It is unanimously agreed in

the literature on Islamic economics that the rate of return on capital (or equivalent

profit rate) should replace the interest rate as the discounting factor in an Islamic

framework (Choudhry, 1983; Zarqa’, 1983; Khan, 1991; Sattar, 1991; Muqorobin,

1998). The use of the profit rate or rate of return on capital is based on the

principle of opportunity cost. The rate of return in projects of comparable risks

may be taken as the discount rate to reflect properly the true opportunity cost of

project cash flows. The rate of discount for public projects, Social Rate of

Discount (SRD), should properly represent the social opportunity cost (Zarqa’,

1983). The fact that the profit rate and interest rate could perform as discount

rates in the discounting technique does not justify that both could be used in an

Islamic framework. The legitimacy of the former in an Islamic economy

precludes the use of latter. Moreover, the profit rate in an Islamic economy is a

completely different concept from the interest rate in mainstream economics

(Iqbal & Khan, 1981).

20

 The validity of the concept of the time value of money in Islam as a justification for discounting is still a

matter of debate amongst the Muslim scholars and there is no authoritative opinion in this issue. Yet, most

of them agree on the legitimacy of discounting technique for project evaluation.

22

2.2.3.4 Time as an Element in Contract of Exchange and Project Evaluation

Islam sees time as not a mere consumption phenomenon, but also one of

production. Work or activity (or to be more specific investment or production) is

given priority over consumption, as consumption constitutes a means and

production is an end (Muqorobin, 1998). Time is considered a subsidiary factor

(not primary) of production in Islamic economics (Al-Masri, 1999)
21

. It is true as

time alone neither gives a yield nor produces by itself, unless it is joined to

property – be it cash or any kind -, it acquires an indirect value (Saadallah, 1994).

A labourer increases his output with time, land produces its crops with work and

time, and a leased item is used during the leasing period (or time) and its rental is

higher with a longer leasing time. In a way, rents and wages basically include a

fixed reward for the time element (Khan, 1991). All these testify that time is an

indispensable element for economic consideration as each economic process takes

place within a period of time.

In addition to that, the jurists assert that time is a portion of price (Al-Masri,

1999). This is evident from the juristic consensus that the price of an item may be

increased in case of deferred payment as in bay’ al-mu’ajjal
22

. This is permitted,

as the time element is involved in the process of exchange, to offset the delayed

payment (Khan, 1991; Saadallah, 1994). The proponents of the validity of the

time value of money concept in the Islamic framework maintain that the

legitimacy of this type of sale gives more support to the validity of such concept

in Islam. In terms of the involvement of the time element in project evaluation,

the project that yields returns earlier is preferable to one that requires a longer

period, provided all the income and other things related to both projects are the

same (Al-Masri, 1999).

From the above discussion, the researcher reasserts that the mainstream discounting

technique for project evaluation can be modified to suit the Islamic concepts and

principles. Thus, the use of the discounting technique to get the present value of a

project’s cost and benefit is possible in an Islamic framework with the rate of return as

the discount rate.

2.2.4 The Notion of (Commercial) Profit Maximisation for Private Projects

The project evaluation framework in mainstream economics involves two broad

categories of project profitability as described earlier. They are commercial and national

21

 There are five factors of production in Islamic economics, three of them are primary and the last two are

subsidiary factors. The primary factors are land, work, and property, whilst the subsidiary factors consist of

risk and time elements. Risk and time are considered as subsidiary factors because these two elements

could not generate output by themselves, as they need to be joined to land or work or property to generate

output.
22

 Bay‘ al-mu’ajjal is a sale on deferred payment, i.e. the goods are delivered not but the price is delayed to

the future. In this contract, the price may be different from the prevailing market price (Khan, 1991).

23

profitability. The former relates mainly to private projects and the latter relates to public

ones (Muqorobin, 1998). Private individuals are acceptably assumed to make decisions

on the basis of the commercial profitability of a project. This entails that individuals

should decide on projects that maximise their commercial profitability. This is considered

as the nature of the private business environment. The impact of the project on the

national and social profitability is mainly the concern of the public authorities (Sang,

1995). The notion of (commercial) profit maximisation still stands as the basic

assumption even though many have argued that individuals have objectives other than

profit maximisation (Amin & Yusof, 2002). The emphasis on the consideration of the

national and social impact of a project in the mainstream literature is mainly meant for

public projects (Sugden & Williams, 1978). However, the notion of profit maximisation

has received objections from some Islamic scholars.

The Islamic standpoint on this issue should be clear for the project analysts of private

projects. The understanding of this issue will have an impact on their judgment later.

Zarqa’ (1982) asserts that the notion of profit maximisation is not in line with the spirit of

Islam, except in certain circumstances. However, he supports this notion for awqaf

projects. According to him, awqaf administration should choose a project which

maximises the present value of net profits from an investment. His argument is that awqaf

administration in most Muslim countries lacks sufficient income to properly carry out

their major functions in society and burdening them with the objectives other than

profitability would adversely affect the ability of awqaf to fulfill its other social

responsibilities (Zarqa’, 1994). On the other hand, Faridi (1983) observes awqaf

institutions as examples of the voluntary sector in the Islamic economy which is not by

intent or design, undertaken to attain any economic or material benefit for the doer (s) but

could cause wide ranging economic ramifications. Hence, the profit maximisation notion

does not suit the awqaf institutions. Amongst the examples of such voluntary activities

are the provision of shelter and meals to wayfarers, the cash disbursement of Sadaqat and

charitable contribution to the state’s defence needs (Faridi, 1983).

Arief (1982) conceives profit maximisation as irrelevant as money income ceases to

be the primary objective in Islam. Nevertheless, profit must be maximised in order to

survive in a situation of perfect competition since the profits so maximised are by

definition ‘normal’ profit. Profit maximisation per se in this limiting case does not

apparently violate the Islamic principles. But, profit maximisation in situations of

monopolistic competition, oligopoly, monopoly etc., resulting in abnormal profits is

certainly not in conformity with the Islamic economic order (Arief, 1982). Islamic

individual behaviour should be guided by the pursuit of falah (success). This concept

considers the individual as a maximiser of falah in this present life as well as in the

hereafter. This attitude rules the Islamic rationality, as opposed to the Smithian notion of

individual self-interest (Hallaq, 1994; Sattar, 1991).

On the other hand, Amin & Yusof (2002) conclude that the notion of profit

maximisation can still be applied in an Islamic framework. All together, they stress the

incorporation of Islamic values, particularly the concept of maslahah, in the

determination of the cost of production in an Islamic framework. Similarly, Hassan

24

(1992) maintains that profit maximisation in an Islamic economy is likely to be different

from that in mainstream economics. This is due to several reasons. For examples, the

abolition of interest and the profit-sharing system with labour in the Islamic economy

would promote growth and distributive justice at the same time. In addition to that, Islam

also envisages business as a fard al-kifayah where social obligation takes precedence over

self-enrichment. Thus, the application of profit maximisation should not violate any of

these values (Hassan, 1992).

It appears to the researcher that the notion of profit maximisation is acceptable in

Islam, provided that individuals do not violate any Islamic principles in applying the

concept. As a general principle in Islam, individuals are permanently recognised as

having the right to own and decide on economic activities of their choice within the

Shari‘ah boundaries and Islam allows ample scope for individuals to move and

manoeuvre their economic activities (Hassan, 1995). It should also be understood that the

notion of profit maximisation should be comprehended and applied in line with the

objectives of Man’s existence i.e. to achieve well-being in this world and the hereafter

and the approval of Allah (Amin & Yusof, 2002).

3.0 CONCLUSION

The topic of project evaluation is an enormous and vast topic covering a lot of issues.

This study, however, concentrates only on the framework for project evaluation to give

the study focus, conciseness and persistent direction. The methodological and technical

issues are not within the scope of the present study. Firstly, we have seen that the

framework for project evaluation offered today in mainstream economics, with its

complexity and thoroughness, has been developed in isolation from Islamic input. The

active participation from international organisations such as the World Bank, UNIDO,

IDCAS and the OECD has further developed and advanced the framework for project

evaluation in mainstream economics. With due acknowledgements to the contributions of

mainstream economics towards the birth and development of the existing methodology

and framework for project evaluation, the study insists on its deficiency and inability to

serve the Muslim governments and individuals to opt for the most preferable project

under the light of Shari‘ah.

Reconsidering the main principles of the mainstream project evaluation framework

from the Islamic point of view, this study found that most of the mainstream framework

is Islamically acceptable in principle. The technical tools that have been developed in

mainstream economics are very helpful and valuable in the profitability analysis of

projects in an Islamic framework. Nonetheless, the detailed justification and structure of

an Islamic framework for project evaluation might differ from the mainstream one. For

example, the role of interest should be abolished in an Islamic framework and be replaced

with the rate of return or equivalent profit rate.

The study also found that the concept of maslahah or Shari‘ah objectives has a

significant impact on an Islamic framework for project evaluation and would greatly

distinguish the Islamic framework from the mainstream one. The significance of this

25

maslahah concept is to ensure the coherence of the selected project with the Shari‘ah’s

objectives and the Islamic system as a whole. Furthermore, the maslahah concept could

rationalise the choice of a project in an Islamic framework eventhough the selected

project seems to be irrational from the mainstream economics point of view.

Project analysts and decision makers in an Islamic framework for project evaluation

should also be guided by Islamic values in making their judgments. This is imperative to

ensure that decisions made will not contradict the established values in Islam. The values

could also influence the attitude of the project analysts and decision makers towards

several important issues in an Islamic framework and could be used as a basis for giving

preference for some projects over others.

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