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Fiqh Muamalat | 01.09.2019
July 9, 2020
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 *Corresponding author.

Email: sraharjo@ugm.ac.id

eISSN: 2550-2166 / © 2020 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources

  Food Research 4 (4) : 1024 - 1029 (August 2020)
  Journal homepage: http://www.myfoodresearch.com

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Formulation, characterization and stability of o/w nanoemulsion containing rice

bran oil prepared by emulsion phase inversion

Sari, Y.P., *Raharjo, S., Santoso, U. and Supriyadi

Department of Food and Agricultural Product Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Universitas

Gadjah Mada, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia

Article history:

Received: 11 December 2019

Received in revised form: 6

February 2020

Accepted: 9 February 2020

Available Online: 9 March

2020

Keywords:

Rice bran oil,

Virgin coconut oil,

Palm oil,

Nanoemulsion,

Surfactant

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.4(4).409

Abstract

Rice bran oil (RBO) contains naturally occurring antioxidants such as carotenoids,

tocopherol, and γ-oryzanol. The aim of this research was to formulate and evaluate the

characteristics of nanoemulsion which was prepared using RBO containing naturally

occurring antioxidants. The RBO-in-water nanoemulsion was prepared by the emulsion

phase inversion method. The oil phase of the nanoemulsion was prepared by either virgin

coconut oil (VCO) or palm oil (PO) combined with RBO with the ratio of 5:5; 4:6, 3:7,

2:8 and 0:10. Tween 80 was used as a surfactant. The surfactant to oil ratios was

predetermined at 2.5:1.0 and 3.0:1.0. The aqueous phase (80% w/w) was titrated into an

organic phase that consisted of Tween 80 and oil phase (approximately 20% w/w).

Droplet size, zeta-potential and polydispersity index of the nanoemulsion were used as the

main parameters. The results showed that the smallest droplet (<100 nm) of the

nanoemulsion was obtained when the ratio of VCO: RBO at 3:7 and the ratio of PO: RBO

at  4:6 with the surfactant to oil ratio (SOR) was 2.5. Nanoemulsion with a relatively small

polydispersity index of 0.3 was achieved when the ratio of PO: RBO was 3:7 and SOR at

3. All of the freshly prepared RBO containing nanoemulsion have good stability with zeta-

potential values of < -30 mV. Nanoemulsions were stable against centrifugation at 2300

rpm for 15 mins, but they were not stable against heating at 105°C for 5 hrs. The RBO-in-

water nanoemulsion could be successfully prepared by phase inversion method, by

combining RBO with either VCO or PO at different ratios.

1. Introduction

Rice bran oil (RBO) contains naturally occurring

antioxidants such as carotenoids, tocopherol, and γ-

oryzanol as the main antioxidant. The amounts of γ-

oryzanol in rice bran oil was <0,1-1,4% (Patel and Naik,

2004; Pestana et al., 2008; Dhavamani et al., 2014;

Cuevas et al., 2017).To optimize the utilization of it into

an aqueous product, γ-oryzanol should be carried in

delivery systems due to its characteristic as lipophilic.

Lipophilic delivery systems in nano-sizes are solid lipid

nanoparticle (SLN), nano lipid carrier (NLC) and

nanoemulsion (NE). The main difference of them is in

the lipid phase. SLN has a solid lipid phase while the

lipid phase of NLC is a mixture of solid and liquid lipids.

Nanoemulsion has liquid oil as the oil phase (Hentschel

et al., 2008; Seetapan et al., 2010; Rohmah et al., 2019).

Many researchers have been produced delivery systems

for γ-oryzanol in SLN, NLC and NE for application in

pharmaceutical and food products (Seetapan et al., 2010;

Alfaro et al., 2015; Chusut et al., 2015; Ishaka et al.,

2016).

Nanoemulsions are defined as emulsions with the

mean droplet diameter about 20-200 nm, so it is

transparent or slightly turbid. Although nanoemulsion is

more unstable and requires less surfactant than

microemulsion (Suhendra et al., 2012; Yuwanti et al.,

2012; Komaiko and McClements, 2016).The high-

energy methods like using microfluidizer, high-shear

homogenizer or ultrasonication able to produce

nanoemulsion. But it is costly and more samples were

needed. Many researchers produced nanoemulsion using

low energy method by emulsion phase inversion or

spontaneous emulsification, successfully (Mayer et al.,

2013; Hategekimana et al., 2015; Komaiko and

McClements, 2015). Either emulsion phase inversion or

spontaneous emulsification is simply a titrating method

to produce nanoemulsion. In the spontaneous

emulsification method, an organic phase containing oil

and surfactant mixed were titrated into the water with

continuous stirring. The EPI method is described as

titration of organic phase using an aqueous solution with

continuous stirring (Komaiko and McClements, 2015).

 Sari et al. / Food Research 4 (4) (2020) 1024 - 1029

eISSN: 2550-2166 © 2020 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources

Therefore, spontaneous emulsification and emulsion

phase inversion were categorized as low energy

isothermal method.

We consider that the EPI method is easier to

implement than spontaneous emulsification. But, the

disadvantage of the low energy method is that it needs

more surfactant to produce nanoemulsion than the high-

energy methods. Therefore, it is important to obtain the

right formula of the nanoemulsion and followed by its

characterization.

In this research, either virgin coconut oil or palm oil

was selected to combine with rice bran oil as the oil

phase. Virgin coconut oil is rich in medium fatty acids

(46.64-48.03% as lauric acid) (Marina et al., 2009), and

its characteristic is important to produce nanoemulsion

by low energy method. Palm oil that rich in palmitic acid

(44%) was also selected to compare with VCO (Basiron,

2005). Tween 80 or polyoxyethylene-20-sorbitan

monooleate (hydrophilic-lipophilic balance = 15) was

used as a surfactant. The aqueous phase is deionized

water.

In this study, we aimed to formulate and evaluate the

characteristics of nanoemulsion which was prepared

using RBO containing naturally occurring antioxidants.

Turbidity, particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta-

potential were used to evaluate the nanoemulsion

formula.

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Materials

Rice bran oil (RBO), virgin coconut oil (VCO) and

palm oil were bought from the local market. Tween 80

(Merck) and deionized water were used as a surfactant

and aqueous phases, respectively.

2.2 Nanoemulsion preparation

The RBO-in-water nanoemulsion was prepared by

the emulsion phase inversion method. The oil phase of

the nanoemulsion was prepared by either virgin coconut

oil (VCO) or palm oil (PO) combined with RBO with the

ratio of 5:5; 4:6, 3:7, 2:8 and 0:10 (w/w) by magnetically

stirring (AREC digital ceramic hot plate stirrer, VELP

Scientifica, Italy) at 800 rpm for 20 mins. Tween 80 was

added into the oil phase then it called an organic phase.

The surfactant-to-oil ratio (SOR) was varied by 1.0; 1.5;

2.0; 2.5 and 3 (w/w). For SOR determination, only VCO

was selected as an oil phase. The organic phase was

mixed at 800 rpm for 20 mins. Deionized water (80% w/

w) was titrated into the organic phase at 800 rpm for 10

min. Added mixing was done at 1100 rpm for 20 mins.

2.3 Nanoemulsion stability

Stability test for nanoemulsion was done by

accelerated tests (Ariviani et al., 2015). Either

nanoemulsion were centrifuged at 2300 x g for 15 mins

at 27°C or heated at 105°C for 5 hrs. The turbidity of

nanoemulsion was analyzed in triplicate.

2.4 Nanoemulsion characterization

Mean particle diameter (z-average), zeta-potential,

and polydispersity index of the nanoemulsion were

analyzed by dynamic light scattering using Zetasizer

Nano ZS (Malvern Instruments, UK). Samples were

diluted in deionized water prior to analysis to avoid

multiple scattering effects. Turbidities of selected

nanoemulsions were analyzed at 600 nm using UV-Vis

Spectrophotometer (Zhong et al., 2017).

2.5 Experimental design

All measurements were analyzed at least in

triplicate. Results are presented as mean±standard

deviation. One way ANOVA (SPSS version 24)

followed the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) was

done to analyze the data.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Determination of surfactant to oil ratio (SOR)

Initially, we examined the effect of surfactant to oil

ratio (SOR) on the turbidity of nanoemulsion. Virgin

coconut oil (VCO) and Tween 80 were selected as oil

phase and surfactant, respectively. The SORs were

varied by 1-3 and turbidity was the main parameter in

this section. From Figure 1, we know that the turbidity of

nanoemulsion was a decline as increasing in SOR. The

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Figure 1. Effect of surfactant to oil ratio (SOR) on turbidity of

nanoemulsions produced by emulsion phase inversion

method. Nanoemulsions were prepared using virgin coconut

oil (VCO), surfactant phase (Tween 80) and 80% (w/w)

deionized water at a stirring speed 800-1100 rpm at ambient

temperature.

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eISSN: 2550-2166 © 2020 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources

greater amount of surfactant up to a certain level will

decrease in the interfacial tension so small droplets could

be formed (Saberi et al., 2013). The turbidity of

nanoemulsion that produced by SOR at 2.5 and 3 was

not statistically significant (p<0.05). Therefore, the

optimum of SOR in this system was 2.5. In the next

experiment, SOR at 2.5 and 3 were selected to formulate

nanoemulsion with oil combinations. SOR 3 was used to

confirm the effect of higher SOR on nanoemulsions

characterization.

3.2 Characterization of nanoemulsions

The oil phase of the nanoemulsion was prepared by

either virgin coconut oil (VCO) or palm oil (PO)

combined with RBO with the ratio of 5:5; 4:6, 3:7, 2:8

and 0:10. Tween 80 was used as a surfactant at SOR 2.5

and 3. The aqueous phase was standardized at 80% (w/

w). In this research, we aimed to maximize the

utilization of rice bran oil to deliver γ-oryzanol. For all

the different oil compositions and SOR, nanoemulsion

with a diameter below 200 nm could be formed using the

emulsion phase inversion method. The results showed

that the smallest droplet (<100 nm) of the nanoemulsion

was obtained when the ratio of VCO: RBO at 3:7 and the

ratio of PO: RBO at  4:6 with the surfactant to oil ratio

(SOR) was 2.5 (Figure 2). Our experiment indicated that

these formulae were optimum oil phase compositions

required for the formation of nanoemulsion. The

viscosity of VCO is lower than the RBO and PO. In the

lower oil viscosity, the surfactant molecules will move

faster, and therefore the smaller the droplets will be

produced (Saberi et al., 2013). When the ratio of VCO:

RBO at 5:5 and 4:6, the mean particle diameter of this

formula were higher than at 3:7. Besides, Saberi and co-

workers in 2013 also reported that the composition and

physicochemical properties of surfactant-oil-water

mixtures are more important than the characteristics of

pure oil. One might expect that a combination of PO and

RBO could produce nano size emulsion due to the

relatively high SOR in this system (SOR 2.5 and 3).

Therefore, nanoemulsion with tiny droplets successfully

achieved by this method.

For most of the samples, the mean particle diameter

of nanoemulsions produced by SOR at 3 was higher than

nanoemulsions produced by SOR at 2.5. It was assumed

that the spontaneous breakup of the oil-water interface

depends on the formation of associated liquid crystal.

Thus, at a certain surfactant level, the high order of the

crystalline, the droplet size will increase (Saberi et al.,

2013). Most of the freshly prepared RBO containing

nanoemulsion were polydisperse (Figure 3). The

nanoemulsion which produced by a combination of VCO

and RBO has a more homogeneous particle size

distribution than the PO and RBO combination. Zeta-

potential values of all of the nanoemulsions formula

were < -30 mV (Figure 4). This parameter measures

charges on droplet nanoemulsion and its contribution to

the stabilization of nanoemulsion. Although Tween 80

was non-ionic surfactant, the negative values of zeta-

potential maybe are due to the adsorption of OH- species

from the aqueous phase onto the interface (Jo and Kwon,

2014).

There are some reports on the combination of

medium and long-chain triglyceride oil could produce

nanoemulsions by low energy methods. Zhong et al.

(2017) had combined medium-chain triglyceride and fish

oil at ratio 7:3, SOR at 1, Tween 80 and Span 20 (3:1)

were used as a surfactant, could produce nanoemulsion

with 150 nm diameter. The tiny particle diameter of

nanoemulsions also could be obtained by the

combination of grape seed oil with orange oil (1:1) and

medium-chain triglyceride with citrus essential oil (1:1)

(Davidov-Pardo and McClements, 2015; Lou et al.,

2017). To the best of our knowledge, none of the reports

in the scientific literature producing and characterization

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(a) (b)

Figure 2. Effect of oil ratio, virgin coconut oil: rice bran oil (a) and palm oil: rice bran oil (b) on mean particle diameter of

nanoemulsions prepared by emulsion phase inversion at room temperature. The surfactant phase was Tween 80 and deionized

water was used as aqueous phase.

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eISSN: 2550-2166 © 2020 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources

of nanoemulsions with combination either of virgin

coconut oil or palm oil with rice bran oil as oil phase.

3.3 Stability test of nanoemulsion

Nanoemulsion with the smallest particle diameter

from each oil combination group was selected to stability

test against centrifugation at 2300 rpm for 15 mins and

heating at 105°C for 5 hrs (accelerated test). All

nanoemulsion formula were stable after centrifugation

but not stable after the heating test (Table 1). Turbidity

of nanoemulsion is not significantly affected between

before and after centrifugation. But, after heating,

nanoemulsion tends to unstable due to dehydration of

Tween 80’s head groups leading to changes in their

solubility and optimum curvature (Guttoff et al., 2015).

4. Conclusion

The smallest particle (<100 nm) of the nanoemulsion

was obtained when the ratio of VCO: RBO at 3:7 and the

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(a) (b)

Figure 3. Effect of oil ratio, virgin coconut oil: rice bran oil (a) and palm oil: rice bran oil (b) on polydispersity index of

nanoemulsions prepared by emulsion phase inversion at room temperature. The surfactant phase was Tween 80 and deionized

water was used as aqueous phase.

(a) (b)

Figure 4. Zeta-potential values of all samples. Either nanoemulsion were prepared by combination of VCO: RBO (a) or PO:

RBO (b), SOR at 2.5 and 3. Tween 80 and deionized water (80% w/w) were used as surfactant and aqueous phase, respectively.

Nanoemulsion formula Before After centrifugation After heating

PO: RBO 4:6, SOR 2.5 9.208±1.084aA 7.854±0.352a 1.423±0.099B*

PO: RBO 4:6, SOR 3 2.436±0.296aA 2.429±0.117a 4.662±0.708A*

VCO: RBO 3:7, SOR 2.5 4.09±0.381aA 3.633±0.565a 3.633±0.565A*

VCO: RBO 3:7, SOR 3 3.768±0.053aA 3.56±0.642a 4.746+ 0.416B*

Table 1. The changes of turbidity nanoemulsion before and after stability test by accelerated test

Data are expressed as mean±SD. PO: Palm Oil; VCO: Virgin Coconut Oil; RBO: Rice Bran Oil

*Phase separation in nanoemulsion.

Different small letters indicate significant differences after centrifugation (p<0.05). Different capital letters indicate significant

differences after heating (p<0.05).

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eISSN: 2550-2166 © 2020 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources

ratio of PO: RBO at 4: 6 with the surfactant to oil ratio

(SOR) was 2.5. All of the freshly prepared RBO

containing nanoemulsion have good stability with zeta-

potential values of < -30 mV. The RBO-in-water

nanoemulsion could be successfully prepared by phase

inversion method, by combining RBO with either VCO

or PO at different ratios.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

This research was funded by Ministry of Research,

Technology, and Higher Education, Republic of

Indonesia, through ‘Pendidikan Magister Menuju Doktor

Untuk Sarjana Unggul’ (PMDSU), which was

administered by Universitas Gadjah Mada with contract

number 2975/UN1.DITLIT/DIT-LIT/LT/2019.

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Ruktanonchai, U.R. (2010). Rheological and

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(2012). Formulasi dan Stabilitas Mikroemulsi O/W

sebagai Pembawa Fucoxanthin. Agritech, 32(3), 230

–239 [In Bahasa Indonesia].

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(2012). Mikroemulsi Minyak dalam Air (O/W)

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Sunlight Flavor Pada Susu Full Cream Akibat

Fotooksidasi. Agritech, 32(2), 179–185 [In Bahasa

Indonesia].

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-Oryzanol Nanoemulsions Produced by a Low-

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https://doi.org/10.1039/C7FO00023E




RATIB AL-HADDAD

Al-Imam Qutb al-Dacwah wa al-Irshad

Abdullah Ibn cAlawi al-Haddad al-cAlawi al-Husayni



Kekerapan Bacaan Bil

1 kali
 ڻ ڻ ڻ ۀڇ

پ پ پ پ ڀ     ٱ ٻ ٻ ٻ ٻ

ڀ ڀ ڀ  ٺ ٺ ٺ ٺ  ٿ ٿ ٿ

ٿ ٹ  ٹ ٹ ٹ ڤ  ڤ ڤ ڤ

 ڦ ڦ ڦ ڦ ڄ ڄ ڄ

1

1 kali
ڻ ۀ ۀ ہ ہ ہ ہ ھ ھ ھ ھ ے ے ۓ ۓ ڭ ڭ

ڭ ڭ ۇ ۇ ۆ ۆ ۈ ۈ ٴۇ ۋ ۋ ۅ ۅ ۉ ۉ

ې ې ې ې ى ى ائ ائ ەئ ەئ وئ وئ ۇئ ۇئ

ۆئ ۆئ ۈئ ۈئ ېئ ېئ ېئ ىئ ىئ ىئ ی

 ی ی

2

1 kali
ڳ ڳ ڳ ڱ ڱ ڱ ڱ ں ں ڻ ڻ ڻ

ڻ ۀ ۀ ہ ہ ہ ہ ھ ھ ھ ھ ے

ے ۓ ۓ ڭ ڭ ڭ ڭ  ۇ ۇ ۆ ۆ ۈ

ۈ ٴۇ ۋ ۋ ۅ ۅ ۉ ۉ ې ې ې ې ى ى ائ

ائ ەئ ەئ وئ وئ ۇئ ۇئ ۆئ ۆئ ۈئ ۈئ ېئ

ېئ ېئ ىئ ىئ ىئ ی ی ی ی جئ حئ مئ ىئ يئ جب حب خب

 مب ىب يب جت حت خت مت

3

3 kali  يَك َلُه، َلُه ْمُد ُُيْيِي ـَْلُك َوَلُه الْ ـُالْ الَ إِل َـَه إاِلَّ اهللُ َوْحَدُه الَ ََشِ

ٍء َقِدير    َوُيِميُت، َوُهَو َعََل ُكلِّ ََشْ

4

3 kali  ْ5 ، َوالَ إِل ََه إاِلَّ اهللُ َواهللُ َأْكَبُ ْمُد هللِـَُسْبَحاَن اهللِ َوال

3 kali  ِ6 ُسْبَحاَن اهللِ َوبَِحْمِدِه، ُسْبَحاَن اهللِ اْلَعظِيم

3 kali  ِحيمُ َرْبنَا اُب الرَّ  7 اْغِفْر َلنَا َوُتْب َعَلْينَا، إِنََّك َأْنَت التَّوَّ

3 kali   ٍد، َالل   ]َسيِِّدَنا[ ُهمَّ َصلِّ َعََل َالل  8 ُهمَّ َصلِّ َعَلْيِه َوَسلِّمْ ُُمَمَّ

3 kali  اِت ِمْن ََشِّ َما َخَلَق  9 َأُعوُذ بَِكلََِمِت اهللِ التَّامَّ

3 kali ََمِء َوُهَو بِْسِم ا ء  ِِف ْاألَْرِض َوالَ ِِف السَّ هلِل الَِّذي الَ َيُُضُّ َمَع اْسِمِه ََشْ 10

ِميُع اْلَعلِيمُ   السَّ

3 kali ْساَلِم ِدْينـًا ٍد ]َسيِِّدَنا[ ـَوبِ ، َرِضينَا بِاهللِ َربـًّا، َوبِاْْلِ  َنبِيـًّا []ُُمَمَّ

 ]َوَرُسوالً[

11

3

kali
ُّ بَِمِشيَئِة اهللِ هللِْمُد ِـََوالْ بِْسِم اهللِ  ْْيُ َوالَّشَّ  ، َواْْلَ

12

3 kali 13 آَمنـَّا بِاهللِ ِواْلَيْوِم ْاآلِخِر، ُتْبنـَا إََِل اهللِ َباطِنًا َوَظاِهًرا

3 kali نَا َواْعُف َعنَّا، َواْمُح الَِّذي َكاَن ِمنَّـا  14 َيا َربَّ

7 kali  ْ15 َوْاِْلْكَراِم، َأِمْتنَا َعََل ِديِن ْاِْلْساَلمِ اَلِل ـََيا َذا ال

3 kali  ِ16 نيَ ـَِيا َقِويُّ َيا َمتنُِي، اِْكِف ََشَّ الظَّال

3 kali  َْف اهللُ ََشَّ الْ ـَُأْصَلَح اهللُ ُأُموَر ال  17 ْؤِذينَ ـُْسلِِمنَي، ََصَ

3 kali ،18 َيا َسِميُع َيا َبِصُْي، َيا َلطِيُف َيا َخبِْيُ  َيا َعِِلُّ َيا َكبُِْي، َيا َعلِيُم َيا َقِديُر

3 kali  َْيا َمْن لَِعْبِدِه َيْغِفُر َوَيْرَحمُ ـََيا َفاِرَج ال ، ، َيا َكاِشَف اْلَغمِّ  19 مِّ

3 kali  ْاَيا، َأْسَتْغِفُر اهللَ ِمَن اْل  20 َطاَياـََأْسَتْغِفُر اهللَ َربَّ اْلَبَ

50 kali  َّ21  اهللُ الَ إَِل ه إاِل

1 kali  َد َم َوََمَّ َف َوَكرَّ َم، َوََشَّ د  َرُسوُل اهلِل َصَلَّ اهللُ َعَلْيِه َوآلِِه َوَسلَّ ُُمَمَّ
22

َوَعظََّم، َوَرِِضَ اهلُل َتَعاََل َعْن َأْهِل َبْيتِِه الطَّيِّبنَِي الطَّاِهِريَن،

َهاِت الْ ، َوَأْزَواِجِه نيَ مِ رَ كْ ألَ َوَأْصَحابِِه اْ  ْؤِمننَِي، ـُالطَّاِهَراِت ُأمَّ

يِن، َوَعَلْينَا َمَعُهمْ ـَُوالتَّابِِعنَي لَ  بَِرْْحَتَِك  مْ يهِ فِ وَ  ْم بِإِْحَساٍن إََِل َيْوِم الدِّ

اِْحنِيَ   َيا َأْرَحَم الرَّ

3 kali
ٱ ٻ ٻ ٻ ٻ  پ پ .    ھ ھ ھ ھ

 پ  پ ڀ ڀ ڀ ڀ  ٺ ٺ ٺ ٺ ٿ ٿ

23

1 kali
ٹ ڤ ڤ   ٿ ٿ ٹ ٹ ٹ.  ھ ھ ھ ھ

ڤ ڤ  ڦ ڦ ڦ ڦ ڄ ڄ  ڄ ڄ ڃ

 ڃ ڃ ڃ    چ چ چ چ ڇ ڇ

24

1 kali
ڇ ڇ ڍ ڍ ڌ  ڌ . ھ ھ ھ ھ

ڎ ڎ    ڈ ڈ ژ  ژ ڑ ڑ ک ک

ک ک گ گ گ گ  ڳ ڳ ڳ

 ڳ

25

1 kali  َْة إََِل ُروِح َسيَِّدنَا اْلَفِقيِه ال ٍد ْبِن َعِِلٍّ َباَعَلِوْي، ـَُاْلَفاِِتَ ِم، ُُمَمَّ َقدَّ

ِة َساَداتِنَا آِل َأِِب َعَلِوْي، َأنَّ اهللَ ُيْعِِل َوُأُصولِِه  َوُفُروِعِه، َوَكافَّ

يَن ـََدَرَجاِِتِْم ِِف الْ  اِرِهْم َوَأْنَواِرِهْم ِِف الدِّ نَِّة َوَيْنَفُعنَا ِِبِْم َوبَِأْْسَ

26

ْنَيا َوْاآلِخَرِة. ]الفاِتة  ]َوالدُّ

1 kali  ََة إََِل َأْرَواِح َساد ْت َاْلَفاِِتَ وفِيَِّة، َأْينَََم َكاُنوا، َوَأْينَََم َحلَّ اتِنَا الصُّ

ا، َأنَّ اهللَ ُيْعِِل َدَرَجاِِتِْم ِِف  َأْرَواُحُهْم ِِف َمَشاِرِق ْاألَْرِض َوَمَغاِرِِبَ

اِرِهْم َوَأْنَواِرِهْم، َوُيْلِحُقنَا ِِبِمْ ـَالْ   نَِّة َوَينَْفُعنَا ِِبِْم َوبُِعُلوِمِهْم َوبَِأْْسَ

 ]ِِف َخْْيٍ َوَعافَِيٍة ]الفاِتة

27

1 kali  اتِِب، ُقْطِب ْاِْلْرَشاِد، َوَغْوِث اْلِعَباِد َة إََِل ُروِح َصاِحِب الرَّ َاْلَفاِِتَ

اِد، َوُأُصولِِه َوُفُروِعِه،ـَبِيِب َعْبِد اهللِ ْبِن َعَلِوي الْ ـََواْلباَِلِد، الْ  َأنَّ  دَّ

اِرِهْم َوَأْنَواِرِهْم ـَِِف الْ  اهللَ ُيْعِِل َدَرَجاِِتِمْ  نَِّة َوَينَْفُعنَا ِِبِْم َوبَِأْْسَ

ْنَيا َوْاآلِخَرِة. ]الفاِتة يَن َوالدُّ  ]َوَبَرَكاِِتِْم ِِف الدِّ

28

1 kali  ِِة ِعَباِد اهلل وَن، َوَوالِِدينَا َوَوالِِديُكْم، َولَِكافَّ َة َلنَا َوَلُكْم َيا َحاِِضُ َاْلَفاِِتَ

ا ِميِع الْ الصَّ نَي، َوِلَ ْسلََِمِت، ـُْسلِِمنَي َوالْ ـُ ْؤِمنَاِت، َوالْ ـُْؤِمننَِي َوالْ ـُِلِ

اِرِهْم ـَُأنَّ اهللَ َيْغِفُر َلنَا َولَ  اُهْم، َوَينَْفُعنَا ِِبِْم َوبَِأْْسَ نَا َوإِيَّ ْم، َوَيْرَْحُ

 ]َوَبَرَكاِِتِْم. ]الفاِتة

29

1 kali Kemudian, dilanjutkan dengan doa:

ًدا ُيَواِِف نَِعَمهُ  هللِِْمُد ِـََالْ  ُهمَّ َصلِّ َوُيَكافُِئ َمِزيَدُه، َالل   َربِّ اْلَعاَلنَِي، َْحْ

ٍد َوَأْهِل َبْيتِ  ْم. َالَعََل َسيِِّدَنا ُُمَمَّ ا َنْسَئُلَك بَِحقِّ ل  ِه َوَصْحبِِه َوَسلِّ ُهمَّ إِنَّ

ِة الْ  ْبِع الْ َعظََّمِة، ـُاْلَفاِِتَ َل ـََوالسَّ ، َوَأْن َتَتَفضَّ َثاِِن َأْن َتْفَتَح َلنَا بُِكلِّ َخْْيٍ

30

َعَلنَا ِمْن َأْهِل اْلْ  ، َوَأْن ََتْ ، َوَأْن ُتَعاِمَلنَا ُمَعاَمَلَتَك ـََعَلْينَا بُِكلِّ َخْْيٍ ْْيِ

َفَظنَا ِِف َأْديَانِنَا َوَأْنُفِسنَا َوَأوْ ـَأِلَْهِل اْلْ  ، َوَأْن َِتْ نَا الَِدَنا َوَأْصَحابِ ْْيِ

ل  َوَأْحَبابِنَا ِمْن ُكلِّ ُمِْ  ، َوُمَتَفضِّ ، إَِنكَّ َوُِّيُّ ُكلِّ َخْْيٍ نٍَة َوُبْؤٍ  َوَضْْيٍ

اِْحنَِي. َوَصَلَّ اهللُ  َعََل  ، َيا َأْرَحَم الرَّ ، َوُمْعٍط لُِكلِّ َخْْيٍ بُِكلِّ َخْْيٍ

ٍد َوَعََل آلِِه َوَصْحبِ  َم، َوالْ َسيِِّدَنا ُُمَمَّ  َربِّ اْلَعاَلنِيَ  هللِْمُد ِ ـَ ِه َوَسلَّ

3 kali   ا َنْسَأُلَك ِرَضاَك َوالْ َالل  31 نََّة، َوَنُعوُذ بَِك ِمْن َسَخطَِك َوالنَّارِ ـَهم إِنَّ

3 kali  َْْتَ َعنَّا، َوَعافِنَا َواْعُف َعنَّا، و تِِك السِّ ِّ ِمنَّا، الَ َِتْ َ الِّسِّ ُكْن َلنَا َيا َعاِِل

 َحْيُث ُكنَّا

32

3 kali  ْا، َيا اهللُ بُِحْسِن اْل ا، َيا اهللُ ِِبَ  33 اِِتَةِ ـََيا اهللُ ِِبَ

1 kali  ْ34 َربِّ اْلَعاَلنِيَ  هللِْمُد ِـََوال


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Ibra’ in BBA
December 9, 2016
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429 Too Many Requests

nginx


 *Corresponding author.

Email: fadzelly@uthm.edu.my

eISSN: 2550-2166 / © 2020 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources

  Food Research 4 (4) : 1030 - 1037 (August 2020)
  Journal homepage: http://www.myfoodresearch.com

F
U

L
L

 P
A

P
E

R

Sensorial and physicochemical characteristics of herbal noodle enriched with

Centella asiatica

1Fadzil, N.F., 1*Abu Bakar, M.F., 1,2 Yusop, M.H.M. and 1Abu Bakar, F.I.

1Centre of Research for Sustainable Uses of Natural Resources (CoR-SUNR), Faculty of Applied Sciences

and Technology, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), Hub Pendidikan Tinggi Pagoh, KM1,

Jalan Panchor, 84600 Muar, Johor, Malaysia
2Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu,

Sabah, Malaysia

Article history:

Received: 11 December 2019

Received in revised form: 31

December 2019

Accepted: 2 January 2020

Available Online:  26

February 2020

Keywords:

Herbal noodle,

Centella asiatica,

Antioxidant,

Nutritional composition

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.4(4).408

Abstract

Centella asiatica is one of the traditional herbs found commonly in Malaysia. It has been

used as an important ingredient in many traditional medicine practices due to its

antioxidant and pharmacological properties. This study was done by adding three different

percentages of C. asiatica extracts (20%, 40% and 60%) in noodles. Sensory evaluation

involving appearance, colour, taste and aroma (affective test), physicochemical properties

(texture, pH and colour), antioxidant activity (DPPH, FRAP, TPC and TFC assays) and

nutritional composition on control noodle and herbal noodles enriched with C. asiatica

were conducted. For sensory test, control noodle is the most favorable followed by 60%

herbal noodle. There was a reduction in the firmness of cooked 20% and 60% herbal

noodles. The pH value of herbal noodles also decreased as the concentration of herbal

noodles increased due to the addition of C. asiatica. Colour analysis showed that the L*

values of all the samples were increased, a* values decreased which indicated strong green

colour among the herbal noodles while b* values showed the highest value for control

noodle. Antioxidant tests such as DPPH showed that 60% herbal noodle exhibited higher

free radical scavenging with a value of 49.200% as compared to control noodle

(16.027%). The same finding was observed for FRAP assay where 60% herbal noodle

displayed higher value (111.335 µg/mL) than control noodle (71.233 µg/mL). TFC of

60% herbal noodle also showed the highest value as compared to other noodles. However,

TPC of 40% herbal noodles had greater value as compared to 60% herbal noodle. A

decrease in the nutritional value of herbal noodle compared to control noodle was also

observed. In conclusion, herbal noodles enriched with C. asiatica showed promising

antioxidant potential which can be used in functional food applications.

1. Introduction

Wheat-based foods such as noodles are very popular

as staple food in Malaysia. There are wide variability

among noodles due to different ingredients and

processing methods. The consumption of the noodles

began 1000 years earlier. Now, noodles have been

recognized worldwide and the demand is increasing

globally (Hatcher, 2001). The most popular type of

noodle is yellow alkaline noodle compared to regular salt

noodle in South-East Asian markets where the

ingredients used are flour, water and salts either alkaline

or sodium chloride (Hatcher, 2007). In general, there are

different types of noodles available in markets which are

moist or fresh noodles, dry form noodles, boiled and

steamed noodles. The preparation of these noodles are in

the form of many different preferences such as hot or

cold noodles, steamed, stir-fried, boiled or even served in

soups. The quality of noodles set by the consumer is

based on visual or appearance aspect of noodles such as

colour (colour intensity), mouth feel, texture and

appearance of the noodles (Hatcher, 2007).

Traditional noodles are known to be lack of other

beneficial nutritional components such as antioxidant.

Thus, noodle products with health potential benefits such

as antioxidant rich are greatly needed. One of the sources

of antioxidants is vegetables. In Malaysia, the Ministry

of Health has been promoting the consumption of ‘Ulam’

or raw salad and vegetables under the Malaysian Dietary

Guidelines (Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2010). The

results from the third National Health and Nutrition

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Examination Survey revealed that consumers who

consumed salad and raw vegetable tend to increase

serum level of vitamins, including vitamin C, vitamin E,

folic acid, β-carotene, and lycopene (Su and Arab, 2006).

In fact, people who always eat raw vegetables also tend

to get higher likelihood of optimal mental states such as

greater happiness and more life satisfaction (Lesani et

al., 2016).  Centella asiatica or ‘Pegaga’ is one of the

traditional plants that is being consumed widely in Malay

culture. This plant refers to a small green plant that

creeps around wet areas in Malaysia and other countries

such as Indonesia, India and China (Li et al., 2014). It

grows wildly on the land of tropical and subtropical

areas that contain high moisture and humus-rich soil, or

sandy and clayey soils (Jamil et al., 2007). There are

different types of ‘Pegaga’ or C. asiatica which are

Pegaga Cina or Nyonya, Pegaga Daun Lebar, Pegaga

Salad and Pegaga Renek (Anon, 2011a; Anon, 2011b).

C. asiatica has active components known as

triterpenes and saponins that exhibit their role in

medicine and nutraceutical fields (Loiseau and Mercier,

2000). Asiatic acid, madecassic acid, asiaticosside, and

madecassoside are the most important active components

in C. asiatica (Inamdar et al., 1996) for the usage in the

quality assessment as biomarker components (Zheng and

Qin, 2007). In Malaysia, the harvested C. asiatica

contains only 3 types of triterpenes which are

asiaticoside, madecassoside and asiatic acid and the

highest amount of these components are found in leaves

(Zainol et al., 2008). The consumption of C. asiatica is

very common in Malay culture as it acts as antioxidant in

natural ways. It is also very effective in improving the

immune system especially in inhibiting free radical

actions (Rajadurai and Prince, 2006) and balance the

oxidative stress in our body (Kormin, 2005).

Interestingly, the antioxidant content in C. asiatica

(84%) has been found to be similar with Vitamin C

(88%) and grape seed (83%) (Hashim et al., 2011). In

addition, other study found that the reducing activity of

C. asiatica is higher than ascorbic acid, but lower than

BHT (Suzanna, 2014). Study conducted by Zainol et al.

(2003) showed that leaf extract possessed highest

phenolic contents (8.13–11.7 g/100 g) than the other

parts of the plants such as root and petiole with the

values of 6.46–10.5 g/100 g and 23–4.91 g/100 g,

respectively. Previous studies also found the presence of

flavonoid compounds in C. asiatica such as rutin,

quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin and catechin (Zainol et

al., 2009; Andarwulan et al., 2010). These compounds

are believed to exhibit the antioxidant properties in some

vegetables and fruits (Hertog et al., 1992). Hence, this

study aimed to develop healthy noodle enriched with C.

asiatica which is rich in antioxidants and

phytochemicals.

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Preparation of Centella asiatica extract

C. asiatica was washed and pad dried before blended

with a portion of water according to the ratio: 20 g of C.

asiatica in 100 mL of water for 20% herbal noodles and

these same steps were repeated for 40% and 60% herbal

noodles.

2.2 Noodle processing

In this step, there were three ratios of C. asiatica

extract; 20%, 40% and 60% where the extract solutions

of C. asiatica were mixed with 2 eggs and salt until the

volume of the extract solution reached 200 mL. Next, the

dry ingredient, wheat flour (500 g) was placed in a

mixer. The extract solution was slowly added to the flour

and the mixture was kneaded to form a solid dough in

the mixer for about 1 min where several chemical and

physical transformations occurred in order to

homogenize all the ingredients (Fennema, 1996). Then,

the dough was extruded to form noodle strands. Lastly,

the extruded noodle was parboiled in boiled water mixed

with oil for about 1 min before it was tossed and coated

with oil again to prevent the noodles from sticking. For

control, no C. asiatica extract was added into the noodle

during processing.

2.3 Sensory evaluation

An affective test involving fifty untrained panelists

from different ages, states and races was conducted at

Sensory Analysis Laboratory of Universiti Tun Hussein

Onn Malaysia (UTHM). All the samples were blind

coded with 3 digits which differed from each other

where control noodle, 20% herbal noodle, 40% herbal

noodle and 60% herbal noodle were coded as 247, 223,

239 and 210, respectively. The panelists were asked to

evaluate the colour, taste, appearance, odour, flavor and

overall quality of the samples by using 9-point hedonic

scale (varied from dislike extremely or like extremely).

2.4 Determination of noodle firmness

Firstly, a calibration of the texture profile analyser

was performed which includes the height and weight of

load cell before any testing was done. Each sample was

evaluated using texture profile analyser model where a

few strands (about 4-5 strands) of uncooked herbal

noodles were placed on the metal plate and a flat probe

was used. The sample was compressed twice at the speed

of 50 mm/min and load cell of 50N before the required

force needed to shear the noodle was processed using the

Texture Expert software (Gull et al., 2016).

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2.5 pH test

A total of 5 g of both parboiled noodles were

homogenised in 45 mL of distilled water using

homogeniser and the pH values were measured using pH

meter (Eutech Instruments, pH 700) (Norlaili et al.,

2014).

2.6 Colour analysis

The colours of each sample which comprised of

control and herbal noodles were measured using Colour

Spectrophotometer (Hunter Lab 4500L Model

MiniScans E2, USA) (Norlaili et al., 2014). Data were

collected in three different values; L* value: lightness, a*

value: greenness (negative value) and redness (positive

value) and b* value: blueness (negative value) and

yellowness (positive value) (Norlaili et al., 2014).

2.7 Determination of free radical scavenging activity

2.7.1 2,2-diphenyl-1-pyeryl-hydrazyl (DPPH)

Firstly, the extraction of sample was done according

to Gull et al. (2016). A total of 2 g of each sample was

extracted with 10 mL of 80% methanol. The mixture was

stirred using magnetic stirrer for 2 hrs. Then, it was

filtered using a filter paper and the supernatants were

collected and stored in a freezer at -20°C. DPPH test was

conducted according to Bakar et al., (2017) where DPPH

solution was prepared by dissolving 5.9 mg of DPPH

powder in 100 mL of 99.8% of methanol. Then, 77 µl of

the extracted sample was pipetted into the test tube and 3

mL of DPPH solution was added to the test tube. The

sample was left for about 15 mins before any reading

was taken. After 15 mins, the absorbance reading was

taken at 515 nm using UV-Vis spectrometry (Model

T6u, PG Instrument, USA). The antioxidant activity was

calculated as % of discoloration as the following

equation:

2.7.2 Ferric reducing/ antioxidant power (FRAP)

assay

Extracted samples were diluted by dissolving 100 µL

of the extracted sample with 300 µL of deionised water.

Then, 2.5 mL of FeCl3, 2.5 mL of TPTZ and 25 mL of

buffer solution were added into the same test tube to

form FRAP reagent (Benzie and Strain, 1996) before the

addition of 100 µL of the sample. The sample was left

for about 4 mins before the absorbance reading was

taken at 593 nm using UV-Vis spectrometry (Model

T6u, PG Instrument, USA).

2.8 Total phenolic content (TPC)

TPC was determined using Folin-Ciocalteu reagent

(Hassan and Bakar, 2013). A total of 20 g of sodium

carbonate was dissolved in 100 mL of distilled water to

obtain a 20% (w/v) of sodium carbonate. Then, 200 µL

of the sample was mixed with 3 mL of distilled water,

followed by the addition of 0.5 mL of Folin-Ciocaltue

solution and left for about 3 mins. Next, 2 mL of 20%

(w/v) sodium carbonate was added and left for about 1

hr. All these steps were prepared in the dark. Lastly, the

mixture was vortexed and measured at 650 nm using UV

-Vis spectrometry (Model T6u, PG Instrument, USA).

Gallic acid was used as a standard and the results were

expressed as μg gallic acid equivalents/ml (μg GAE/

mL).

2.9 Total flavonoid content (TFC)

TFC was determined using aluminium chloride

colorimetric method (Bakar et al., 2015). An aliquot (1

mL) of the extracted sample was mixed with 4 mL of

distilled water in a test tube followed by the addition of

0.3 mL of 5% sodium nitrate solution and left to stand

for 6 mins. Then, 0.3 mL of 10% aluminium chloride

hexahydrate was added and the mixture was left to stand

for 5 mins. 2 mL of 1M sodium hydroxide was added

and left for another 5 mins. The mixture was vortexed

and measured at 520 nm using UV-Vis spectrometry

(Model T6u, PG Instrument, USA). Rutin was used as a

standard and results were expressed as μg rutin

equivalent/ml (μg RE/mL).

2.10 Determination of nutritional compositional

Analysis of protein and fat content was conducted

based on AOAC (1984) while ash content was

determined according to AOAC (2005) using moisture

analyzer (AND MX 50). Carbohydrate content was

determined by the difference in the following equation

(Dusuki et al., 2019):

Carbohydrates – (protein% + fat %+ ash %+ moisture %)

2.11 Statistical analysis

All experiments were carried out in triplicate and

statistical analysis was done using one-way analysis of

variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan’s multiple

range test. Differences were considered significant at

p<0.05 and data were analyzed using Statistica software.

3. Results and discussion

For sensory evaluation, the control noodle and 60%

herbal noodle have a similar rating. However, for 20%

and 40% herbal noodle, they showed a lower preference

in terms of taste attribute (Figure 1). Table 1 shows the

results obtained for physicochemical analysis of control

and herbal noodles. The texture of uncooked noodles had

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greater value than cooked noodles. The decrement from

20 014.085 g force (uncooked) to 14 933.380 g force

(cooked) was observed for control noodle while the

greater decrement was observed in 60% herbal noodles

as it decreased from 19 563.709 g force to 1, 140.245 g

force. For pH value, it was observed that the pH value

was slightly decreased from 6.743 to 6.557 as the

concentration of herbal noodles increased. Colour

analysis showed an increment in L* and b* values as the

concentration of herbal noodles increased. Meanwhile,

a* value which indicates the greenness showed

decrement from -2.143 to -1.570 as the concentration of

herbal noodle increased.

Table 2 shows the antioxidant activity of control and

herbal noodles which include DPPH, FRAP, TPC and

TFC tests. Based on the results obtained, 60% herbal

noodle displayed the highest value as compared to that of

control noodle for all the antioxidant assays; DPPH

inhibition (60% herbal noodle: 49.200; control noodle:

16.027), FRAP (60% herbal noodle: 111.335; control

noodle: 71.233), TFC (60% herbal noodle: 9.285; control

noodle: 4.823) and TPC (60% herbal noodle: 69.875;

control noodle: 55.866). In addition, the nutritional

composition analysis showed that protein, fat, and

carbohydrate of 60% herbal and control noodles were

observed to be in the ranges of 5.9 to 6.0%, 2.3 to 2.7%,

and 15.54 to 16.37%, respectively (Table 3).

From the results obtained, it can be said that

different concentration of C. asiatica extract

incorporated in the noodles gave different preferences

towards each sensory attribute as significant different

(p<0.05) was observed for all attributes among the

samples. 60% herbal noodle and control noodle showed

similar preferences from the panelists except for taste.

However, control noodle had no significantly higher

value than 60% herbal noodle for all the attributes.

Comparing between 20% and 40% herbal noodles, it was

observed that the preference of panelists towards both of

samples were almost the same. However, 20% herbal

noodle had slightly lower value as compared to 40%

herbal noodle.  However, for aroma, both samples had

the same preference by the panelists. Meanwhile, 20%

herbal noodle had no significantly higher value for

overall acceptability than 40% herbal noodle.

In this study, the cooking time was standardized to 1

minute and the results showed that cooked noodles had

lower firmness than uncooked noodles. This might be

due to the absorption of water during the parboiling

process, resulting the decrease of compact structure of

gluten. For uncooked noodles, it was observed that 60%

herbal noodle had a higher value than 20% herbal

noodle, but slightly lower than the control noodle. In

general, the addition of herbal extract in the noodle has

an effect on the disruption of the protein network.

For cooked noodle, it was observed that the firmness

of herbal noodles decreased as the concentration of

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 Sample

Texture (g force)
pH value

Colour value

Uncooked Cooked L* a* b*

Control 20 014.085 14 933.380 6.743±0.042 52.220±0.120 -2.143±0.386 39.030±1.204

20% herbal noodle 15 264.326 19 708.443 6.757±0.125 56.983±0.747 -1.787±0.100 22.343±1.115

40% herbal noodle 19 921.022 10 919.917 6.627±0.015 57.433±0.237 -1.637±0.042 23.603±0.295

60% herbal noodle 19 563.709  1 140.245 6.557±0.006 53.810±0.420 -1.570±0.118 24.283±0.086

Table 1. Results obtained for overall physicochemical analysis for both control and herbal noodles.

Figure 1. The spider web obtained from the sensory test

which represents five attributes.

Sample %  inhibition DPPH FRAP (µg/mL) TFC (µg/mL) TPC (µg/mL)

control noodle 16.027±0.960 71.233±0.128 6.005±0.093 55.866±1.150

20% herbal noodle 28.007±0.898 73.023±0.094 6.274±0.081 72.885±1.112

40% herbal noodle 29.319±0.458 99.648±0.466 4.823±0.000 83.209±9.360

60% herbal noodle 49.200±2.943 111.335±0.094 9.285±0.047 69.875±1.499

Table 2. Results obtained for overall antioxidant assays of four different samples.

Sample Control noodle %(w/w)
60% herbal noodle

%(w/w)

Protein 6 5.9

Fat 2.7 2.3

Carbohydrate 15.542 16.367

Ash 8.072 7.983

Moisture 67.687 67.45

Table 3. Results obtained for overall nutrition composition

between control and 60% herbal noodles.

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herbal incorporated in noodles increased. This happened

likely due to the transition caused by thermal treatment

during the parboiling process which resulted in

denaturation of gluten when heated above its

denaturation temperature (Nasehi et al., 2009). Firstly,

monomer of proteins when being heated above 70 to 80°

C causes other reactions to occur at disulphide or

sulfhydryl chain (Schofield et al., 1983; Payne et al.,

1987; Delcour et al., 2012). Secondly, the reduction of

firmness occurs due to the overcooking process of

noodles as the different concentration of herbal noodles

have specific cooking time. In the previous study, it was

stated that the cooking time for herbal noodles was

shorter (i.e. 5% herbal noodle: 150 seconds, 10% herbal

noodle: 130 seconds and 15% herbal noodle: 70 seconds)

as compared to control noodle (Norlaili et al., 2014).

Thus, overcooked noodles appeared to be soft and little

soggy which make it easy to break (Park and Bail, 2004).

The highest value of L* obtained in this study (i.e.

40% herbal noodle: 57.433) was due to the colour loss

during cooking (Gull et al., 2016). In addition, a* value

indicates greenness of the noodle whereby the green

colour of the noodles increased as the concentration of

the herbal extract increased. This was clearly seen for the

60% herbal noodle which had a higher value (-1.570)

and nearest to the zero while the lowest value was shown

by control noodle (-2.143). Besides, b* value indicates

yellowness of the sample which means, theoretically, it

refers to the control noodle as the highest value was

obtained (39.030).

A significant different (p<0.05) was observed for all

the samples tested for pH value. Herbal noodle had a

slightly higher pH than the control noodle. However,

among the different ratios of herbal noodles, the highest

ratio of herbal noodle; 60% herbal noodle in this case,

had slightly lower pH value than the other herbal

noodles. In previous study, the addition of herbal plant

(Cosmos caudatus) resulted in a lower pH as the amount

of herbal plant incorporated in the noodle increased

(Norlaili et al., 2014). Hence, in this study, it was

believed that lower pH values obtained in herbal noodles

(i.e 4.5-5.5) were due to acidic properties exhibited by C.

asiatica.

In addition, the results showed that they were

statistically significant difference between all samples

for DPPH scavenging free-radical activity (p<0.05).

DPPH inhibition increased gradually as the concentration

of herbal incorporated in the noodles increased. From

this, it can be concluded that C. asiatica extract is one of

the effective radical scavenging substances which is

probably due to its phenolic compounds. As stated in the

previous study, phenolic compound is known as

hydrogen donor which has shown good antioxidant

properties (Rice-Evans et al., 1995).

Based on Table 2, the results obtained have shown

an increment of FRAP value from control noodle to

herbal noodles and significant difference (p<0.05) was

observed among the samples. There was 2.5% increment

for 20% herbal noodle, 40% increment for 40% herbal

noodle and 56% increment for 60% herbal noodle. This

might be due to the presence of phenolic compound

which acts as a reducing compound (hydrogen donor and

singlet oxygen quenchers) and able to exhibit reduction

effect (Sugunabai et al., 2015). For instance, quercetin-3,

5-diglucoside and cyanidin-3-sophoroside-5-glucoside

exhibit reducing properties by breaking the free radical

chain and donate a hydrogen atom to the specific

compound (Gordon, 1990; Duh et al., 1999). Previous

study also stated that the reducing activity of C. asiatica

was higher than the reducing activity in ascorbic acid,

but lower than BHT (Suzanna, 2014).

In this study, 60% herbal noodle had the highest

TFC value than other noodles. There was a significant

difference (p<0.05) observed between all samples. This

may be due to the presence of flavonoid compounds that

exhibit the antioxidant properties in some vegetables and

fruits (Hertog et al., 1992; Wang et al., 1999). In

previous studies, they found that flavons and flavonons

components in C. asiatica exist in free form of 5-OH

such as quercetin and rutin (Fatmawati, 2005). Besides,

other components such as luteolin, apigenin, and

kaempferol also found in some parts of C. asiatica

(Zainol et al., 2009).

For the determination of TPC, there was a significant

difference (p<0.05) observed between all samples and

the TPC value increased gradually as the concentration

of herbal incorporated in noodles increased. This might

be due to the presence of phenolic components such as

tocopherol and flavonoids. This finding was in an

agreement with the previous study which stated that

phenolic compounds that derived naturally have the

potentials in exhibiting antioxidant properties. However,

it was slightly decreased of TPC value in 60% herbal

noodle in this study as the high temperature during the

parboiling process might disrupt the phenolic compound

interaction. In fact, there are few factors that may induce

the degradation of antioxidants such as oxygen, water

and heat treatment that are being applied especially

during the food processing which contributes to the

oxidative degradation of some components of

antioxidants in the sample (Fares et al., 2010).

From the nutritional composition analysis, herbal

noodles had slightly lower value compared to control

noodle. According to Uma Maheswari (2012), tannin has

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the ability in reducing protein content by decreasing the

digestibility and palatability of the protein. Firstly, tannin

disrupts the protein by binding to it and form tannin

protein complexes, resulting protein availability to be

decreased (Gopalan et al., 2007). Since complexes

formed are insoluble, thus, it decreases the digestibility

of protein (Bello et al., 2008). Secondly, tannin disrupts

iron by binding to it and causes irreversible changes in

the absorption of iron. Therefore, it can be said that the

consumption of herbal noodles provides benefits for the

dietary management of inherited metabolic disorders,

liver failure and it may be introduced for medical

purposes (Uma Maheswari, 2012). Meanwhile, the

results of carbohydrate and moisture contents were in

agreement with the previous study by Gull et al. (2016).

Carbohydrate content may be affected by the

incorporation of grains such as chickpea flour or soybean

flour, seeds and dietary fibres as they provide benefits to

hyperglycemia by reducing the glycemic index of

products (Li et al., 2014). Both noodles (control and 60%

herbal) had 67.45% and 67.69% moisture content,

respectively. This might be due to the ingredient used in

the noodles such as wheat flour. The starch content in

flour is a hygroscopic substance that can absorb more

water into the noodles (Rehman and Shah, 1999).

4. Conclusion

In conclusion, the development of herbal noodle has

been accepted in our community due to health

consciousness and its nutritional value. Herbal noodle

enriched with C. asiatica also contains high antioxidant

and phytochemical contents which can be used in

functional food applications.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The researcher would like to thank Universiti Tun

Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) for providing research

grants (H277) and research facilities.

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