 *Corresponding author.

Email: norizah@umt.edu.my

eISSN: 2550-2166 / © 2020 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources

  Food Research 4 (4) : 944 - 956 (August 2020)
  Journal homepage: http://www.myfoodresearch.com

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Emerging of bio-nano composite gelatine-based film as bio-degradable food

packaging: a review

1Tuan Zainazor, T.C., 1Fisal, A., 2Goh, E.G., 3Che Sulaiman, N.F. and 1*Sarbon, N.M.

1Faculty of Fisheries and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu

 2Faculty of Ocean Engineering Technology and Informatics, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala

Nerus, Terengganu

3Faculty of Business, Economics and Social Development, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala

Nerus, Terengganu

Article history:

Received: 7 November 2019

Received in revised form: 12

January 2019

Accepted: 23 January 2020

Available Online: 19

February 2020

Keywords:

Nanoparticles,

Gelatine-based films,

Waste management

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.4(4).365

Abstract

The increase in production of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) from various sectors of the

industry should be taken seriously globally. Efficient waste management has been

promoted for a great and clean environment. The industry’s by-products waste such as

fish and poultry waste have been gaining researchers interest to seriousness converted it

to a valuable commodity like alternative gelatine. Therefore, the review on current waste

from industry in Malaysia and its impacts, potentially used of fish and poultry wastes as

gelatine-based film using bio-nanotechnology approaches and business opportunities was

discussed. Application of nanoparticles in food packaging is growing rapidly worldwide

especially the development and implementation of bio-degradable packaging system that

works against moisture, gas and microbial barrier is a very useful approach to achieve

the mentioned function. Replacement of petroleum-based non bio-degradable plastics by

bio-degradable packaging material significantly useful for future application in order to

protect human health. This is because the major risk associated with nano-sized

components is their potential opposing health effects due to its migration into food.

1. Introduction

Various industries rapidly expanding with the

utilization of latest technology globally. However, there

has been a lot of waste produced including agricultural

and livestock waste. Sahu et al. (2017) reported that

million tonnes of fish and prawn waste throughout the

food chain is produced by fish and prawn processing

industries. The waste such as fish intestine, gills,

muscles, fat and prawn could be reused for other

beneficial purposes. The reused principle normally refers

to the repeated use of products or components for their

intended purpose and the targets of reduction principle

are to minimize of raw material use, energy input, and

waste production (Ghisellini et al., 2016). Many studies

have been conducted using this waste in the production

of food packaging with the use of Nano-technology.

Recently, Nano-technology is the most recognized

technology that shows the ability to synthesize new

products with diverse applications and advantages.

Application of nanoparticles in food packaging including

nanoencapsulation, nanocomposite, nanoemulsions,

edible nanocoatings and nano-coating materials (Sharma

and Dhanjal, 2016). Moreover, biotechnological aid is

applied to synthesize nanoparticles that helping by living

entities such as bacteria (Farhoodi, 2016). The function

of this technology that involved in food packaging,

therefore, to protect food from damage and

contamination, and extends the shelf life of food

products, thus potentially reducing wasted food (Heller,

2017).

Sharma and Dhanjal (2016) stated that bio-

nanotechnology proposals advanced anticipation in food

packaging which will deliver the longer shelf-life, secure

packaging and recover the quality of food. An intelligent

food packaging can attentive on spoilage food whereas,

during the active packaging, antimicrobials is added as

preservatives into the food during the initiation of the

spoilage (Duncan, 2011). Gelatine and silver

nanoparticles and organo-clay that exhibit a significant

activity of antimicrobial towards pathogenic bacteria. In

addition, gelatine based nanocomposite films will benefit

in competing and eliminating the bacterial invaders that

can prolong the shelf life and improve the quality of food

(Sharma and Dhanjal, 2016).

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Therefore, this paper presents a contemporary review

of potential value added product that can be produced

from industrial waste especially by- products from fish

and poultry processing industry. The introduction of

gelatin alternative from fish and poultry by-products

offer a potential biodegradable film packaging which

benefit to the mentioned industry in order to manage

their waste. Thus, indirectly solve the environmental

problems.

2. Environmental impact

2.1 Solid waste generation in Malaysia Farm waste

Municipal solid waste (MSW) generation increases

steadily in Malaysia - as a response to the growing

population (Abushammala et al., 2011). Based on 2017

estimation by CIA (2018), the country land area of

329,847 km2 is home to 31.38 million. The relative

amount of MSW generation is strongly linked to the

respective population of the states (Manaf et al., 2009).

Among the 11 states in Peninsular Malaysia, the

contribution of MSW is mainly from congested states

like Selangor, Kuala Lumpur (capital of Malaysia) and

Johor. Areas with fewer residents like Perlis, Melaka and

Negeri Sembilan have the lowest figures.

The rate of MSW generation in 1990 for Malaysia

was 0.7 kg/capita/day - slightly below that in developed

countries like Singapore and the United Kingdom at 0.85

and 0.845 respectively (Eusuf et al., 2011). However, it

was much higher than other countries like the Philippines

at 0.5. The Malaysia number soared to 1.5 in 2007 and is

anticipated to increase further due to population growth

and development (Periathamby et al., 2009). Waste

management comes with an excessively high cost,

comprising up to 50% of the municipal operating budget.

The waste collection alone constitutes 70% of the

budget, albeit collecting only 70% of total MSW (Johari,

2014). The situation would reach a tipping point should

it continues. In curbing the issue, long ago the federal

government passed a bill in 2007 to allow privatization

of solid waste management company. A list of Malaysia

transformation of solid waste management policies and

plans was summarized by Razali et al. (2019).

The main contribution of MSW is activities of daily

living, street cleaning, industrial production, construction

works, landscape conservation, institutional and

commercial activities (Johari, 2014). The residential

waste alone amounts to 48% of gross MSW.

The waste generally comprises of food, paper,

plastic, glass, metal, textiles and wood (Budhiarta et al.,

2012; Fazeli et al., 2016; Zainu, 2017). Food represents

as high as 45% of the total waste. Wet food waste from

households constitutes 38.32% of the total food waste

generated in Malaysia (Ministry of Housing and Local

Government Malaysia, 2011). To minimise household

food waste, Jereme et al. (2018) has identified a few

solutions such as the formulation of households food

wastes policies. The remainder of 60% of food waste

originates from production to retailing (FAO, 2011). Due

to high food waste percentage, MSW typically has high

moisture content. For example, Kuala Lumpur waste

contains 55% moisture content by weight (Kathirvale et

al., 2004). Other typical characteristics of the trash are

high carbon and chlorine contents.

In the stages of agriculture, first is farming and

husbandry activities, followed by food processing and

manufacturing. The third stage is the retail at wet

markets, grocers and supermarket. Lastly is at household,

food service departments (restaurants, hospitality sector,

cafe) and institutions such as education institutions,

hospitals, prisons. As each point gives rise to food waste

quantity, it is pertinent to consider revising the steps in

bringing down the food waste.

At the present time in Malaysia, the majority of the

waste is disposed and a minute portion recycled,

composted, incinerated and used as landfill (Agamuthu,

2006). Landfill is generally categorized as inert, sanitary

and unsanitary landfill (Agamuthu, 2006). Until 2002,

5% was subjected to recycling, 5% into sanitary landfills,

and 90% as other disposal sites. Utilization of rubbish

improved tremendously in 2006, with percentage

increment of recycling to 5.5%, composting 1.0%, inert

landfill 3.2%, sanitary landfills 30.9% other disposal

sites 59.4%.

Albeit no latest statistics of waste reduction, it is

believed that there is still a big gap before the

achievement of the objectives of Malaysian Vision of

2020. Given the short span of one year before the

deadline, it arduous to accomplish 22% recycling, 8%

composting, increase incineration to 16.8%, the inert

landfill to be increased to 9.1%, and aiming the sanitary

landfill at 44.1% and a full closure of the unsanitary

landfill. The most favoured options are to practice

prevention, minimization, and reuse, rather than

recycling, energy recovery, and land disposal (Lim et al.,

2019).

2.2 Environmental impacts of solid wastes

Through the study of the life cycle inventory of open

dumping and sanitary landfill starting from MSW

collection in the residential area, Saheri (2011) has

identified the severe environmental impacts of waste

production, either directly or indirectly due to energy

consumption, air emissions, and water discharge.

Production and release of atmospheric carbon dioxide in

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energy consumption processes leads to global warming.

Leachate - water discharged from unsanitary landfill has

various toxicities and is harmful to the surrounding

ecosystem. The high organic content of leachate has high

biochemical oxygen demand that deprives oxygen from

living organism. The lack of respiratory gas kills many

lives. The absence of free oxygen also forces anaerobic

reaction to occur and produces climate change by-

products like methane. Electricity generation produces

toxic air such as hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride,

ammonia, nitrous oxides, sulfur oxides, all of which

could cause acidification of rain, and aquatic

eutrophication nitrogen and phosphorus (Abdul Aziz,

2007; Tonini et al., 2018). In energy utilization, heavy

metals are emitted too (Abdul Aziz, 2007).

3. Type of waste

3.1 Fish waste

The fishing industries include any industry or

activity that involves in taking, culturing, processing,

preserving, storing, transporting, marketing or selling

fish or fish products. Approximately 140 million tons of

fish production, including aquaculture, are derives from

a huge market share of international channels in which

110 million were for human consumption (Benhabiles et

al., 2012). In addition, Food Agriculture Organization

(FAO) also reported that aquaculture’s contribution to

total fish food supply grew at an average annual rate of

3.2% from 1961 to 2013 (Ishak and Sarbon, 2018). This

data showed that more than 60% of the industry’s by-

products are fish wastes including head, skin, trimmings,

fins, frames, viscera, and roe. These fish waste,

especially from fish processing industries, are an

important environmental contamination source. An

important waste reduction strategy for the industry is the

recovery of marketable by-products from fish wastes

(Ishak and Sarbon, 2018).

Consequently, in the last two decades, fish by-

products have been gaining attention as a significant

additional source of nutrition. For instance, a wide range

of fish by-products is found such as oils, collagen,

gelatine, hydrolysates, and bioactive peptides. Fish

wastes, including frames, head, skin, scales, bone, and

viscera, are used to produce protein hydrolysates

(Ovissipour et al., 2009; Ishak and Sarbon, 2017; Rasli

and Sarbon, 2019), gelatine (Cheow et al., 2007; Rosli

and Sarbon, 2015; Rasli and Sarbon, 2019), bioactive

peptides (Halim et al., 2016; Ishak and Sarbon, 2017;

Halim and Sarbon, 2017; Halim et al., 2018) and

collagen (Hamdan and Sarbon, 2019; Hadfi and Sarbon,

2019). Many studies have been reported on gelatine

production from different part of fish by-products like

from fish skin such as thornback ray (Lassoued et al.,

2014), shortfin scad (Rasli and Sarbon, 2018); from fish

scales such as lizardfish (Saurida spp.) (Wangtueai and

Noomhorm, 2008); from fishbone such as Freshwater

Fish (Cirrhinus mrigala) (Chandra et al., 2013), Tiger-

toothed croaker (Otolithes ruber) and Pink perch

(Nemipterus japonicus) (Koli et al., 2012).

3.2 Poultry waste

Recently, poultry waste especially chicken skin has

been gaining researchers interest in the efforts to obtain

alternative gelatine as this commodity can be easily

found due to its common consumption by consumers all

over the world. This was proven throughout statistics

data reported by The United States Department of

Agriculture (USDA) where the global poultry production

was 111,000 thousand metric tons in 2015 and predicted

to increase by 24% over the next decades, reaching

131,255 thousand metric tons in 2025 (“Global Industry

Statistics, Poultry Hub”, 2018). Therefore numerous

studies have been developed regarding this poultry by

which almost all part of that animal has been exploited

recently including feet part (Lee et al., 2015), skin part

(Sarbon et al., 2015; Nor et al., 2017; Soo and Sarbon,

2018) and also its meat residue (Rammaya et al., 2012)

despite the consumption of its meat and eggs.

Currently, rapid progress on the development of

gelatine sources from skin and bones derived from

poultry underway have been spotted as these sources

never had a problem with health issue regarding mad

cow diseases caused by bovine spongiform

encephalopathy, BSE. Concerning the abundant amount

of chicken waste linearly contributed by the high

consumption number of chicken from time to time,

chicken skin based gelatine have been highlighted and

studied by Sarbon et al. (2013; 2015) before followed by

Nazmi et al. (2017) and Nor et al. (2017) with further

application in food packaging area. By examining the

functionalities of this type of gelatine by Sarbon et al.

(2013), it found that gel strength from chicken gelatine

has significantly higher bloom value compared with

bovine gelatine due to the intrinsic characteristic such as

protein chain composition, molecular weight

distribution, amino acid content and types of extraction

treatment as well as the properties of collagen.

3.3 Potential of gelatine base film

The use of gelatine to form films or coatings was

very well studied in the 1960’s, which resulted in many

patents being filed, mainly in the pharmaceutical area

(Park et al., 2008). However, gelatine has again attracted

much attention from researchers in recent years as

packaging films and coatings due to its natural

abundance, renewable, relatively low cost,

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biodegradability, film-forming ability and excellent

functional properties (Jahit et al., 2016). The α-, β-, γ-

chains and other peptide fragments of gelatine enable it

to be an ideal dispersing and film-forming agent by

holding the native hydrophilic and hydrophobic domains

in the structure (Ahmad et al., 2015). Due to the

existence of reactive functional groups include -NH2, -

COOH, and -OH along the backbone and side chains,

gelatine can be further blended with other functional

polymeric molecules to form composite film with better

functional properties (Nur Hanani et al., 2012; Ahmad et

al., 2015).

Properties of gelatine films vary depending on both

the gelatine type and concentrations used.  The

functional properties of gelatine film are influenced by

different types of gelatine (Nur Hanani et al., 2012), as

their physical and structural properties of gelatine are

mainly influenced by the molecular weight distribution

and amino acid composition (Gómez-Guillén et al.,

2009). The study of Nur Hanani et al. (2012) revealed

that high concentration gelatine films had good

mechanical properties as well as good gas barrier

properties. Gelatine film also thin, flexible and possess

high optical properties with higher degree of

transparency (Jahit et al., 2016; Nur Hazirah et al.,

2016). However, gelatine films have some major

limitations due to their high moisture sensitivity, high

brittleness as well as poor thermal stability

(Arvanitoyannis et al., 1998; Nur Hazirah et al., 2016).

However, gelatine film possesses poor water vapour

barrier and water-resistant due to its high amount of

hydrophilic amino acids with negligible or no sulfur

containing amino acids (Hoque et al., 2011). Therefore,

several research studies have been conducted to improve

the functionality of gelatine films by blending and/or

mixing with other biopolymers, plasticizers, cross-

linking agent, strengthening agents or additives with

antimicrobial or antioxidant properties (Al-Hassan and

Norziah, 2012; Nur Hanani et al., 2012; Ramos et al.,

2016, Said and Sarbon, 2019).

3. Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is a revolutionary field of micro

manufacturing involving chemical and physical changes

to produce nano-sized material. The word ‘nano’ is a

Latin word meaning ‘dwarf’. Currently, this technology

has increasingly been considered an attractive field that

has revolutionized in various industrial areas like

agriculture, food, medicine and etc. It is a technology

that involves designing, synthesis and characterization of

material (molecule or atom) structure by controlling the

sizes and shapes on the nanometre scale.  Gupta et al.

(2016) and Rai et al. (2009) state that these materials

have a unique properties, unlike their macroscale

counterparts due to the changes in the high surface to

volume ratio and other novel physicochemical properties

like appearance, colour, optical, texture, strength,

solubility, diffusivity, thermodynamic and etc.

Therefore, nanotechnology offers a huge possibility and

opportunity for the development and application for

solving obstacles ranging from food packaging,

pharmaceutical industry, medical, to electronics and

energy industry or system with new and unique

properties (Omanović-Mikličanin et al., 2019).

Nowadays, nanotechnology has carried new industrial

revolution and both developed and developing countries

are interested in participating more in this adaptable and

sustainable technology (Qureshi et al., 2012; Singh et al.,

2017).

3.1 Nanotechnology in food packaging

The food industry is growing rapidly in line with the

increasing number of human in the world. Referring to

the United Nation (2017) report, the world’s population

has reached 7.6 billion by mid-2017 and the world

population is projected to increase by more than one

billion people within the next 13 years, reaching 8.6

billion in 2030, and to increase further to 9.8 billion in

2050. Thus, the demand for food also increased and

that’s why researchers want a diversity of methods,

technologies and innovations to meet the needs of huge

populations demand. Currently, the food packaging

sector became the most of nanotechnology applications

in the food industry (Reig et al., 2014). This is mainly

due to the vast development of nanotechnology in this

sector, to a higher acceptance by the consumer of the use

of this technology in food packaging rather than in food

as ingredients.  Moreover, based on the requirements of

regulations, application in packaging is less restrictive

than for the enforced current food legislation. All of

these contributes to the fact that there are many more

applications in this area compared to the others food

sector, together with the necessity of lighter, stronger,

sustainable, efficient and intelligent packages. These

packages would be able to provide safe products with

superior quality and at the same time can maintaining the

food products in the best possible conditions and with a

longer shelf-life.

Generally, the functions of packaging are numerous

and not only as protecting or preserving of raw or

processed food against spoilage or pathogen

microorganism, but it also provides as a barrier in

controlling potentially damaging levels of light, oxygen

and water. It facilitates ease of use, offers adequate

storage, conveys information and provides evidence of

possible product tampering. Currently, a desirable

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packaging material must have gas and moisture

permeability combined with light but have a good

strength and biodegradability capabilities (Couch et al.,

2016). Thus, nano-based ‘smart’ or ‘intelligent’ and

‘active’ food packaging confer several advantages over

conventional packaging methods from providing better

packaging material with improved mechanical strength,

barrier properties, antimicrobial films to nanosensing for

spoilage or pathogen detection and alerting consumer to

the safety status of foodstuff (Mihindukulasuriya and

Lim, 2014).

A wide variety of nano-materials or nanocomposite

from organic and inorganic such as protein,

carbohydrate, chitosan, silver nanoparticle, titanium

nitride nanoparticle, nano-zinc oxide and nanoclay are

introduced as functional additives to food packaging

system (Tager, 2014). Application of nanotechnology in

food packaging system can be divided into three main

categories as i). improve packaging: Nanoparticles are

mixed with polymer chain to improve the gas barrier

properties, as well as, humidity and temperature

resistance of packaging; ii). Active packaging: The use

of nanomaterials is helpful to interact directly with food

or environment to allow better protection of the food

product. Several nanomaterials such as nanosilver,

carbon nanotubes and nano magnesium oxide can

provide antimicrobial properties; iii). Intelligent/smart

packaging: The use of nanoparticles is to design and help

in sensing the biochemical or microbial changes in the

food. It can detect specific pathogen developing in the

food or specific gases from food spoiling. Some smart

packaging has been developed to use as tracing devices

for food safety (Pal, 2017).

The applications of nanoparticles are not limited to

antimicrobial food packaging but have been actively

used in food packaging to provide a barrier from

mechanical shock or external hazards and protect from

extreme thermal to extending shelf-life in the form of

nanocomposite and nanolaminates. Application of

nanotechnology also can be used in coatings or labels of

packaging that providing information about the

traceability and tracking of the outside as well as inside

food products conditions through the whole food chain.

Some example of these application are: temperature

variations (freeze-thaw-refreezing, monitoring of cold

chain by means of silicon with nanopores structure); leak

detection for food that packed under vacuum or modified

atmosphere (some compounds change of colour,

therefore warming to the consumers that air has come

inside due to the leaking problem) (Mills and Hazafy,

2009); humidity changes or foodstuffs being deteriorate

or spoil (unusual microbial presence). Liu et al. (2007)

state that these sensors work producing a specific pattern

of answer against each type of microorganism. In this

way, the incorporation of nanoparticles into packaging

materials contributes to the best quality foodstuff with

longer shelf-life and solves environmental problems by

reducing the necessity of using plastics that manage to

aid the worldwide waste issue. With all the benefits

provided, attempts should be made to develop low-cost

packaging by using nanotechnology. The packaging

applications along with the most commonly used type of

nanomaterial in each situation are briefly described in

Table 1.

4. Food safety

4.1 Gelatine based film with antimicrobial property

The rapid development in the food packaging

industry is in line with the diversity of foods that have

been created and produced. The use of food packaging is

subject to the functionality of the wrapper itself in

protecting foods from physical, chemical, or biological

damage. Instead of the conventional packaging that offer

the single layer with Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)

or Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) and composite

package (LDPE/EVOH), development of antimicrobial

packaging system that works against moisture, gas and

microbial barrier is very useful approach to achieve the

mentioned function (Lu et al., 2018).

Antimicrobial packaging is classified under active

packaging that prevents surface growth of pathogenic

microorganisms in food by the use of antimicrobial

agents. The antimicrobial agents incorporated with the

inner layer of the packaging will release into food

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Application Type of Nanomaterial Characteristic

Mechanical properties Carbon nanotubes
A relatively low loading can improve polymer properties without

impact on density, transparency and few other properties.

Barrier properties Nano-clay Improved gas-barrier and protect against visible and UV light.

Antimicrobial activity Silver nanoparticles
Biocidal action based on size and shape-dependent interaction with

microorganisms.

Active packaging Inorganic nanoparticles such as iron
Oxidation of iron instead of food constituents such as myoglobin in

meat products.

Intelligent packaging  Cellulosic nanomaterials
Monitoring of pH changes in foods and controlled release of bioac-

tive agents.

Table 1. Applications and characteristic of nanomaterial-based food packaging

Adapted from Tsagkaris et al. (2018)

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surface during storage and distribution. It prevents the

degradation of packaged food which providing

protection against microorganisms and therefore,

maintain the quality of the food products. According to

Suppakul et al. (2003), the lag phase will be extended

and the growth rate of microorganisms is reduced which

then extending shelf life and maintaining product quality

and safety. Table 2 shows the application of

antimicrobial packaging done by a few researchers.

Normally, antimicrobial agents such as spices,

chitosan, enzymes, bacteriocins and organic acids may

be coated, incorporated, immobilized, or surface

modified onto packaging materials has been tested with a

different result (Gautam and Kumar, 2017). In a study

carried out by Lopez-Carballo et al. (2008), an

antimicrobial photo sensitizer-containing edible films

and coatings based on gelatine as the polymer matrix,

incorporating sodium magnesium chlorophyllin (E-140)

and sodium copper chlorophyllin (E-141) showed the

inhibiting effect towards Staphylococcus aureus and

Listeria monocytogenes with reduction of 5 logs and 4

logs respectively. Fernández et al. (2009) found that

silver nanoparticles in fluff pulp and nanostructured

Lyocell fibres which are immersed in silver nitrate

effective against Escherichia coli and S. aureus. Many

researchers found that silver nanoparticles have

antimicrobial activity towards Gram-negative and Gram-

positive bacteria and fungi (Hoffmann et al., 2019).

This revealed that silver-based nanotechnology is

potentially used as antimicrobial packaging. According

to Yadav et al. (2019), silver (Ag) usually incorporated

with other materials and served as a nanofiller in food

packaging to give antibacterial properties. Kim et al.

(2011) investigated the utilization of antimicrobial nano-

particle incorporated into polymer matrix towards

pathogenic bacteria as well as factor contributed to the

quality of food product such as odour. Chitosan

biopolymer films (CBFs) with different viscosities of

chitosans were used in this study. The researchers found

that CBFs were more effective for inhibition of L.

monocytogenes as compare to Salmonella enterica

serovar Typhimurium and E. coli O157: H7. Li et al.

(2012) reviewed on the effectiveness of antimicrobial

activity of films which are PLA (polymer 4060D) +AIT

(essential oil component of cruciferous plants) and

Chitosan + AIT against S. enterica serovar Stanley. The

microbial growth was reduced from 4.57 to 4.04 and

from 4.35 to 4.15 log cycles for PLA +AIT and chitosan

+ AIT coatings, respectively. However, direct addition of

AIT into foods may significantly decrease its

antimicrobial activity. In addition, Aguirre et al. (2013)

reported on carvacrol and thymol in biodegradable and

edible packaging film that was plasticized with glycerol.

The used of 1% (w/w) oregano EO including carvacrol

and thymol effective in controlling gram-positive S.

aureus compared to gram-negative such as E. coli and

Pseudomonas aeruginosa that were tested in their study.

In other findings, Singh et al. (2015) revealed that nisin

and eugenol oil combination which incorporated into

bioactive chitosan film (BAC) showed a potent

antimicrobial additive for food applications.

4.2 Safety of Bio-nano composite

Replacement of petroleum-based non bio-degradable

plastics with biodegradable packaging material sounds to

be very important for future application in order to

protect human health. The major risk linked with nano-

sized components is their potential adverse health effects

contributed by its migration into the food (Echegoyen

and Nerin, 2013). In certain cases, nanoparticles

indicated that vascular disease, intracellular damages and

pulmonary inflammation can be induced. Since many

nanomaterials are not fully discovered and understood,

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Material used Application Reference

Chlorophyllins incorporated into the gelatine film-

forming solution

Inhibiting effect of the cast films that reduced the

growth of Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria

monocytogenes.

Carballo et al.

(2008)

Silver nanoparticles in fluff pulp and nanostructured

Lyocell fibres which were immersed in silver nitrate
Effective on Escherichia coli and S. aureus.

Fernández et al.

(2009)

Chitosan biopolymer films (CBFs)

Effective inhibition towards L. monocytogenes rather

than Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and

E. coli O157: H7.

Kim et al. (2011)

PLA(polymer 4060D) +AIT(allyl isothiocyanate) and

Chitosan + AIT
Reduction effect on S. enterica serovar Stanley. Li et al. (2012)

Carvacrol and thymol in biodegradable and edible

packaging film that was plasticized with glycerol

Used of 1% (w/w) oregano EO including carvacrol

and thymol effective in controlling gram-positive S.

aureus compared to gram-negative (E. coli and

Pseudomonas aeruginosa).

Aguirre et al. (2013)

Bioactive chitosan film (BAC)

Revealed that nisin and eugenol oil combination

showed a potent antimicrobial additive for food

applications.

Singh et al. (2015)

Table 2. The application of antimicrobial packaging.

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the toxicological study is required to clarify the risks

involved and food regulation should be established

(Mihindukulasuriya and Lim, 2014). Moreover,

European act and FDA regulations are already setting the

permitted levels of the nanoparticles in food (Chaudhry

et al., 2008). In line with that concern, lately, many

researchers conducted a study on the effect of nano

packaging especially related to food and the impact on

regulations.

Li et al. (2008) reported that titanium dioxide (TiO2)

is not categorized as toxic mineral particles and widely

used in drug, cosmetics and food. Nano-TiO2 shows

specific characteristics but with unknown risks on human

health. It’s showed that the erythrocytes treated with

nanoTiO2 underwent abnormal sedimentation,

hemagglutination and dose-dependent hemolysis which

were totally different from those treated with micro-

TiO2. Their findings suggest that nano-TiO2 may toxic

and effected human health. In the near future, about 10

and 100 times of nanosilver of sewage treatment plants

are estimated to be released (Mueller and Nowack,

2008). Another few reports related to nanoparticles that

show significant influences on aquatic microorganisms

that impact to fish reported by Handy et al. (2008) who

established evidence of toxicity. The Titanium dioxide

nanoparticles are present in the viscera and gills of fish

as reported by Zhang et al. (2007).  In another study,

Sawosz et al. (2007) found that 25 mg/kg of silver

nanoparticles in drinking water exposed to quails

affected gastrointestinal microflora.

de Abreu et al. (2010) simulated many types of food

and highlighted on the migration of caprolactam, 5-

chloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenol (triclosan) and

trans,trans-1,4-diphenyl-1,3-butadiene (DPBD) from

polyamide and polyamide-nanoclays. Those substances

were migrated from matrix polymer into food found to

be slow down up to six times with the presence of

polymer nanoparticles. Certain nanoparticles will affect

some organ that was studied which indicated the

spreading of nanoparticles into the reproductive system,

testis and brain. The potential migration of nanoparticles

also will be a specific concern of brain and unborn foetus

(Silvestre et al., 2011). The health effect on other

particles incorporated or coated to food packaging is still

under study such as ZnO nanoparticles (Lin and Xing,

2008) and fullerenes (Xia et al., 2010).

5. Cost opportunity

5.1 Waste management in Malaysia

Waste management has become one of serious

concern in Malaysia. The traditional approaches to

reducing waste management which is reduce, recycle,

and reuse (3R) method are practised but at the low to

moderate levels due to the lack of policy and

participation from the public. Private sectors were

encouraged to participate in green technology.  The

Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water has

given serious concern towards minimizing waste

management. The ministry determination in dealing the

global environmental change has been carried out by

promoting the more environmentally sound waste

management (Sreenivasan et al., 2012).

5.2 Economic perspective

Actions are necessary and urgent throughout food

systems on producing more food, moderating demand,

reducing waste and improving governance to move

towards more sustainable food systems (Godfray and

Garnett, 2014). Proper waste management and reduced

food waste can save economic resources, lessen negative

impacts of food leftover on waste management systems

and contribute to food security. The large economic

impact of food wastage affects all the individuals and

organizations involved in the food supply chain. Saving

money can be a driving factor to prevent food waste

behaviours; therefore, people need to understand the

economic costs of food wastage that can occur when

they do so (Quested et al., 2013; Graham-Rowe et al.,

2014; Waste Minz, 2014).

Research has shown that the higher the incomes of

household, the more varied diet they will consume

(Drewnowski, 1999; Pingali and Khwaja, 2004; French

et al., 2019). In developed countries, people eat more

protein, energy-rich and convenience foods, and eat less

rice. For example, western foods that have shorter shelf-

life foods and more vulnerable may lead to greater food

waste (Lundqvist et al., 2008). Conrad et al. (2018)

stated that the food will be less wasted in the more

repetitive diet rather than a diversified diet. Hence in

restaurants, spread menus will lead to more food waste

since there are extra ingredients to manage.

5.3 Business opportunities for fishbone and poultry

waste

Previously, seafood and poultry waste business is not

popular among the entrepreneur. Due to low economic

value, seafood and poultry waste were thrown out as

waste or leftover as organic fertiliser. Moreover, there

are only a few available proven processing technologies

exhibited by industrial players that contribute to the

underdevelopment of the seafood and poultry waste

industry. In addition, financial institutions also have a

low confidence level towards most seafood and poultry

investor due to the lack of mature technologies that will

lead to unsuccessful financing support.

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Industrialization of food systems will affect the

foods that people eat, contributes to increasing the types

and quantities of food waste (Parfitt et al., 2010). The

food production and preparation has been shifted from

home to factory and also from cooking to buying

(Strasser, 1999). For example, in industrialized food

systems, people will purchase pre-cut meats, such as

chicken legs. Thus, there are no other parts of the

chicken to be wasted because the other parts of the

chicken are utilized by industry during the chicken

processing. Therefore, these seafood and poultry waste

can be good business opportunities for industry player

and entrepreneur.

Waste to wealth should be applied among the

consumer in order to reduce the global warming

phenomenon from seafood and poultry waste toward

sustainable waste management. For instance, the

commercial fish processing industry generates a problem

when only flesh is used to make a product and a huge

number of unwanted parts will be dumped as waste. Fish

waste has active ingredients that can produce a high

value product. Collagens are among others the example

of the product that can be extracted from seafood waste

and widely used in the pharmaceutical field

(Raghuraman et al., 2013). Without proper utilization of

waste, environmental problems might occur. The fish

waste was testified as a good source of protein content

and polyunsaturated lipid. Active ingredients that present

in food waste can create natural product such as proteins,

polysaccharides, fibres, flavour compounds, and

phytochemicals have shown potential market (Baiano,

2014).

6. Conclusion

In conclusion, the recent development of

nanocomposite technology has provided renewed

opportunities for the use of gelatine-based

nanocomposite films in the food packaging industry.

Gelatine films composited with nanofillers, such as

nanoclay, organic fillers, and nanometals (like AgNPs,

CuNPs, ZnO NPs), and TiO2 NPs, have shown not only

improved film properties but also strong antimicrobial

activity. However, the properties of gelatine-based

nanocomposite films produced are depending on the type

of gelatine used. Proper utilization of fish and poultry

waste has been proved contributed to the economy

through the introduction of high-value products besides

generating a solved environmental problem. Thus, the

waste to wealth concept applied to the fish and poultry

waste can be achieved by focusing on integrating

nanoparticles with biopolymers as antimicrobial

packaging.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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López-Carballo, G., Hernández-Muñoz, P., Gavara, R.

and Ocio, M.J. (2008). Photoactivated chlorophyllin-

based gelatine films and coatings to prevent

microbial contamination of food products

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2), 65-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/

j.ijfoodmicro.2008.05.002

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of Nanofibrillated Cellulose on OPP/LDPE Film as

Oxygen Barrier and Antimicrobial Coating Based on

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mechanically deboned chicken meat residue.

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Rasli, H.I. and Sarbon, N.M. (2018). Optimization of

enzymatic hydrolysis condition and characterization

of Shortfin scad (Decapterus Macrosoma) skin

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Methodology (RSM). International Food Research

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Rasli, H.I. and Sarbon, N.M. (2019). Preparation and

physicochemical characterization of fish skin

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V.A.C. (2014). Nanomaterials: a Map for Their

Selection in Food Packaging Applications.

Packaging Technology and Science, 27(11), 839-

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Rosli, N. and Sarbon, N.M. (2015). Physicochemical and

structural properties of eel (Monopterus sp.) skin

gelatine as compared to bovine gelatine.

International Food Research Journal, 22(2), 699-

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and Begum, R.A. (2011). Environmental assessment

of municipal solid waste disposal options in

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Sciences, 5(11), 1069-1073.

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Mohapatra, S., Senapati, S., Das, K.C. and Sundaray,

J.K. (2017). Recycled fish processing waste for

welfare of aquaculture industry: A review.

International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic

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Said, N.S. and Sarbon, N.M. (2019). Response surface

methodology (RSM) of chicken skin gelatine based

composite films with rice starch and curcumin

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Sarbon, N.M., Badii, F. and Howell, N.K. (2013).

Preparation and characterisation of chicken skin

gelatine as an alternative to mammalian gelatine.

Food Hydrocolloids, 30(1), 143-151. https://

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Sarbon, N.M., Badii, F. and Howell, N.K. (2015). The

effect of chicken skin gelatine and whey protein

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Food Hydrocolloids, 45, 83-92. https://

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Silvestre, C., Duraccio, D. and Cimmino, S. (2011).

Food packaging based on polymer nanomaterials.

Progress in Polymer Science, 36(12), 1766-1782.

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PENUNTUT ILMU
Dr. Abdullaah Jalil
40 Hadith (13)

Academic Advisory, Supervision and Review

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Awards

Books (40)

Chapter in Books

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Books (40)
2023
40. Abdullaah Jalil. (2023). Pengantar Qawa’id Fiqhiyyah Kubra. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (PDF)
39. Abdullaah Jalil. (2023). 40 Hadith Berkenaan Zakat bersama Nota Fiqh Asas. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (PDF)
38. Abdullaah Jalil. (2023). Imam Syafie: Sejarah, Manaqib, Manhaj dan Sumbangan. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (PDF)
37. Abdullaah Jalil. (2023). Matan al-Yaqut al-Nafis: Bahagian Muamalat. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (PDF)
36. Abdullaah Jalil. (2023). 40 Hadith Asas Muamalat Islam. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (PDF)
35. Abdullaah Jalil. (2023). Natijah Fikir Berkenaan Hukum Menjaharkan Zikir. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
PDF
)
34. Abdullaah Jalil. (2023). 40 Hadith Berkenaan 40 Amalan Sunat Harian: Keampunan Dosa dan Pahala Luar Biasa. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
PDF
)
33. Abdullaah Jalil. (2023). Fiqh Qurban, Aqidah dan Asas Penyembelihan. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (PDF)
2022
32. Abdullaah Jalil. (2022). Pengenalan Asas bagi Mengenal Kelebihan Rasululah – صلى الله عليه وسلم. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
PDF
)
31. Abdullaah Jalil. (2022). Matan Ummu al-Barahin dan Pengenalan Ahli Sunnah dan Jamaah . Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
PDF
)
30. Abdullaah Jalil (Terjemahan, Ulasan dan Edit). (2022). Empat Puluh Hadith Qudsi oleh Al-Imam Al-‘Allamah al-Muhaddith al-Faqih Mulla ‘Ali al-Qari al-Hanafi al-Maturidi al-Sufi (w.1014H) . Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
PDF
)
2021
29. Abdullaah Jalil. (2021). Mutiara Nabawiyyah Berkenaan Kelebihan Haji, Umrah dan Zulhijjah. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
PDF
)
28. Abdullaah Jalil. (2021). Matan Abi Shuja’: Bahagian Muamalat. Nilai: Wisdom Publication (Modul) (
PDF
).
2020
27. Abdullaah Jalil. (2020). 40 Hadith Imam Nawawi Berkenaan Asas-asas Agama Islam dan Prinsip Hukum Shariat. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. [ISBN:978-967-14967-2-5] (
PDF
) (
PDF 2023
)
26. Abdullaah Jalil. (2020). 40 Hadith Kemuliaan Masjid dan Adab-adabnya. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. [ISBN:978-967-14967-3-2] (
PDF
)
25. Abdullaah Jalil. (2020). Aqidah Murshidah dan Beberapa Muqaddimah Aqidah. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (PDF)
2019
24. Abdullaah Jalil. (2019). 40 Hadith Berkenaan Kelebihan Penghulu Para Rasul AS (Abdullaah Jalil: Terjemahan dan Edit)
23. Abdullaah Jalil. (2019). 40 Hadith Kelebihan Ilmu dan Adab-adabnya. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. [ISBN:978-967-10299-6-1] (
PDF
)
22. Abdullaah Jalil. (2019). 50 Hadith Doa Rasulullah SAW dan Adab serta Kelebihannya. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
PDF
)
21. Abdullaah Jalil. (2019). Natijah Fikir dan Mutiara Nabawi Berkenaan Majlis Zikir. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
PDF
2021)
20. Abdullaah Jalil. (2019). 50 Hadith Utama Berkenaan Kepentingan dan Kelebihan Zikir. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
PDF 2020
) (
PDF

2022
)
2018
19. Suraiya Osman & Abdullaah Jalil. (2018). Islamic Law of Tort. Nilai: Wisdom Publication.
18. Abdullaah Jalil. (2018). 40 Hadith Berkenaan Ibadat Harta. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. [ISBN:978-967-14967-1-8] (
PDF
) (
PDF 2021
)
2017
17. Yusuf Isma’il al-Nabhani. (2017). 40 Hadith Berkenaan Ketegasan Pengharaman Riba (Abdullaah Jalil, Trans.). Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
PDF1
)(
PDF2
)(
PDF3
– 2020)(
PDF4
– 2021)
16. (2017) Quranic Index for Economics, Business and Management.
15. (2017) Quranic Index for Medical Sciences.
2016
14. Asmaddy Haris, Rusmawati Said, Muhammad Ridhwan Abd. Aziz, Abdullaah Jalil & Asharaf Mohd Ramli (Eds.). (2016). Sosial Sekuriti (Takaful Ijtima’i) Menurut Perspektif Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Arial Communications. (
JPG
) (PDF)
13. Abdullaah Jalil (2016). 40 Hadith Puasa dan Ramadan: Dengan Nota Ringkas Fiqh Mazhab al-Shafi’i dan Fiqh Perbandingan. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
Cover 2016
) (
PDF – Jun 2016
) (
Cover 2019
) (
PDF – 7 Mei 2019
)(
2022
)
8b: Abdullaah Jalil, Zainurrijal Abd Razak, Mohd Aizuddin Abd. Aziz, Ahmad Norsyafwan Norawavi, & Rabiah Abdul Rahman (2016). Nusus Turathiyyah: Dirasah Manhajiyyah. Nilai: USIM Press. (
JPG
) (
PDF
)
2015
12. Nuradli Ridzwan Shah Mohd. Dali, Hisham Sabri, Izlawanie Muhammad, Norasikin Salikin, & Abdullaah Jalil (2015). Miftah al-Muamalat: The Gateway to Business. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
JPG
) (PDF)
2014
11. Lazim Omar, & Abdullaah Jalil (2014). Arabic-English Terminology for Special Purposes in Management Studies. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
JPG
) (PDF)
10. Abdullaah Jalil (2014). Fiqh and Management of Hajj and ‘Umrah: The Malaysian Perspective. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
PDF
)
9. Abdullaah Jalil, Asharaf Mohd. Ramli, & Syahidawati Shahwan (2014). The Four Main Contracts of Fiqh Muamalat. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
JPG
) (
PDF
)
2013
8. نصوص تّراثية : دراسة منهجية (الحلقة).2013،2014. زين الرجال عبد الرزاق، عبد الله جليل، محمد عزالدين عبد العزيز، أحمد نور، صفوان نوراواوي، ربيعة عبد الرحمن. نيلاي: الوحدة للمتطلبات الجامعية، مركز الدراسات الأساسية. (
JPG
) (PDF)
7. Abu al-‘Abbas al-Uqlishi. (2013). Cahaya-Cahaya Sunnah Yang Khusus Berkenaan Kelebihan Selawat Ke Atas Nabi Yang Terpilih SAW (Abdullaah Jalil, Trans.). Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
Cover 2015
) (
Sampel 2015
); (
Cover 2020
); (
Sampel 2020
)
6. Abdullaah Jalil, & Mohd Aizuddin Abd. Aziz. (2013). Pengajian Halaqah UTH3012: Program Pensiswazahan Guru. Nilai: USIM. (
JPG
) (PDF)
5. Abdullaah Jalil. (2013). Natijah Fikir dan 40 Hadith Kelebihan Zikir. Nilai: Wisdom Publication.        [Tiada cetakan terbaru. Buku ini ditelah dibahagikan dan dikembangkan menjadi Natijah Fikir dan Mutiara Nabawi Berkenaan Majlis Zikir (2019) & 50 Hadith Utama Berkenaan Kepentingan dan Kelebihan Zikir (2019)]
4. Abdullaah Jalil. (2013). Menjawab Persoalan Agama: Konsep al-Tark dan Perkara Baru dan Baik dari Perspektif Shariat. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
PDF
)
3. Abdullaah Jalil. (2013). 40 Hadith Pengurusan Harta dan Perancangan Kewangan. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
PDF 2013
)
2012
2. Asharaf Mohd. Ramli, Abdullaah Jalil, Norman Hamdan, Asmaddy Haris, & Mohammad Aizuddin Abdul Aziz. (2012). Pengurusan Kewangan Masjid: Model Imarah Masjid TM. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
PDF 2017
) (
PDF 2020
)
2011
1. Abdullaah Jalil, Asharaf Mohd. Ramli, & Syahidawati Shahwan (2011). The Four Introductory Theories of Fiqh Muamalat. Nilai: Wisdom Publication. (
JPG
) (
PDF
)
2010
*. Nuradli Ridzwan Shah Mohd. Dali, Abdullaah Jalil, & Ainulashikin Marzuki (Eds.). (2010). Selected Readings in Islamic Economics and Finance. Nilai: Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia. (
JPG
) (PDF)
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