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 *Corresponding author.

Email: usmanbashar78@gmail.com

eISSN: 2550-2166 / © 2018 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources

  Food Research 3 (2) : 164 - 170 (April 2019)
  Journal homepage: http://www.myfoodresearch.com

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SRI single seedling transplanting implement: an innovative technique to

challenges on SRI planting and spacing techniques

1Bashar Z.U., 1Graham W.B.R, 2,3Aimrun W. and 2Razif M.M.

1Department of Agricultural and Bio-Environmental Engineering, Waziri Umaru Federal Polytechnic, B/

Kebbi, Kebbi State, Nigeria
2Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra

Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
3SMART Farming Technology Research Centre, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400

Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia

Article history:

Received: 8 June 2018

Received in revised form: 11

October 2018

Accepted: 17 October 2018

Available Online: 14

November 2018

Keywords:

System of Rice

Intensification,

Conventional Transplanters,

Spacing Patterns,

Missing Hills,

Loosening Index

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.3(2).118

Abstract

In rice production, seedling quality and transplanting potentials stand as a prerequisite for

proper completion of rice production for optimum yield. The overall objective of this

research was to develop a transplanting implement capable of placing rice seedling singly

into the field by dropping with respect to SRI planting conditions. It is aimed at using

seedlings established from SRI-tray designed with adjustable spacing options of within

and between rows of 25 cm, 30 cm and 40 cm leading to nine SRI spacing options to suite

SRI practitioners’ preference. Performance evaluation was based on suitable growing

media, planting speed, percentages of single, missing and multiple planting as well as field

capacity and field efficiency. The data revealed that the speed of operation at 0.18 m/s

reported the highest significance percentage of single planting when subjected to spacing

patterns of 25 × 35 cm (84%), 25 × 25 cm (81%), 30 × 30 cm (73%) and 40 × 40 cm

(83%). But, a decreasing trend was recorded when the speed increased to 0.45 m/s. The

performance recorded were 53%, 56% and 72% on 25 x 35 cm, 25 x 25 cm and 30 x 30

cm spacing patterns respectively with a surprising performance stability of 83% on the 40

× 40 cm. The results on growing media indicated that clay with compost had the highest

significance with respect to the weight of seedling (25.3 g) giving the loosening index of

66 seconds and the planting depth of 16 mm. At the speed of 0.18 m/s, the field capacity

was 1.29 ha/hr and, the field efficiency was 79.5% but, changed to 1.55 ha/hr and 75%

respectively, at the speed of 0.45m/s.

1. Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Asia or (Oryza glaberrima)

in Africa stands as a staple food to most of the world’s

human population with the highest consumption in the

Asian region. It is classified as the third – highest

worldwide production after Sugarcane and Maize

(FAOSTAT, 2012). Research has indicated that it is a

good source of protein and also plays a vital role in

nutrition to much more number of world populations

with a significant figure in Asia, Latin America and

Africa (Brown and Funk, 2008; Bruinsma, 2009;

Godfray et al., 2010; FAO et al., 2012). According to

FAOSTAT (2012), this versatile crop represents a central

food security to over half of the world populations.

The requirements of SRI systems are to transplant

single seedling at a very young age of about 8 to 10 days

after seed germination in a nursery with an innovative

spacing of 20 x 25 cm, 25 x 25 cm, 30 x 30 cm or 40 x

40 cm or even more depending on field topography and

soil fertility. Despite all these versatile opportunities on

SRI-rice production practices, the current techniques of

seedling transplanting still remain a challenging

constraint among SRI practitioners as the existing

transplanting machines do not accurately respond to the

full SRI transplanting conditions of single seedling per

hill with respect to SRI spacing patterns geometry.

Although, several attempts were made by different

researchers on the modification of the existing

transplanting machines to satisfy full SRI mechanized

farming (Chiu and Fon, 2000; Dixit et al., 2007; Ersson

et al., 2011; Hussain et al., 2013; Dhananchezhiyan et

al., 2013), but still the problem of multiple planting per

hill, noticeable percentage of unplanted hills and non-

165 Bashar et al. / Food Research 3 (2) (2019) 164 - 170

eISSN: 2550-2166 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources

compliance of SRI spacing standards within and between

rows continue to remain as farmers nightmare.

Consequently, the only promising practice that

accurately tallies with the SRI principles is manual

transplanting, but it engulfs high labor requirement

ranging from 180-250 man/hr/ha (Dixit et al., 2007;

Farooq et al., 2011; Joshi et al., 2013) and others stresses

of long hours of bending with barefooted in the puddled

field, transplanting shock as a result of pulling and less

profitable as the resources are becoming increasingly

scarce among others. Therefore, in order to wipe away

these existing stresses of manual transplanting as well as

reducing the transplanting shock experienced by the

young rice plant and other hindering production costs,

the new innovative transplanting implement has been set

on board and tagged as “SRI Single Seedling

Transplanting Implement: Innovative Technique to

Challenges on SRI Planting and Spacing Techniques”.

The developed technique in this study is aimed to serve

as a pathway in addressing the issues relating to full

compliance of SRI planting and spacing mechanization

to enhance its sustainability.

2. Materials and methods

The present study involved an observational

framework on the cultivation of rice in accordance with

the full mechanization of SRI planting and spacing

principle. This relates to the development of the most

suitable transplanting implement capable of placing/

planting single soil bearing seedling per hill with respect

to SRI spacing patterns.

The SRI single seedling transplanting implement

was designed to use soil bearing seedling type with

preference to the seedlings established from SRI-tray

that provides root separated seedling coupled with soil.

Selection on the suitable media that grantee the design

objective of proposed transplanting implement was

carefully conducted using the most common soils found

in the fadama fields (loam and clay soils).

2.1 Adjustable spacing patterns

Spacing pattern plays a major key role in SRI rice

production, therefore, much interest was bestowed on

how best the SRI spacing standards could be achieved to

its full mechanized transplanting technique. This single

seedling transplanting implement was designed with

three adjustable spacing patterns (25 cm, 30 cm and 40

cm) for both within and between the rows leading to nine

optional patterns (25 cm × 25 cm, 25 cm × 30 cm, 25 cm

× 40 cm, 30 cm × 25 cm, 30 cm × 30 cm, 30 cm × 40

cm, 40 cm × 25 cm, 40 cm × 30 cm and 40 cm × 40 cm)

depending on the farmers’ preference as well as on the

topography and the fertility of the transplanting site.

Therefore, the selection of the spacing pattern between

rows was designed based on the seedling guide.

2.2 Soil – machine relationship

The SRI single seedling transplanting implement

was designed to use soil bearing seedling type with

preference to the seedlings established from SRI-tray

that provides root separated seedling coupled with soil.

Selection on the suitable media that guarantees the

design objective of proposed transplanting implement

was carefully conducted using the most common soils

found in the fadama fields (loam and clay soils). In

achieving the suitable media for raising soil bearing

seedling, different composition of soils was made and

analyzed in order to come up with the most suitable soil

capable of completing the planting objective. These

include Clay + compost (M1), Clay alone (M2), Loam +

compost (M3) and Clay + Loam + compost (M4) and the

parameters taken into consideration were loosening

index (Li), free falling analysis from the gated opener by

analyzing the weight and the related distance from the

opener to the ground, stability of the seedling after

falling and recovery of the seedling after three days of

transplanting.  Likewise, the volume of media required

per planting area was also computed using Equation (1).

Where Vm is the volume of media (m3); A is the area

occupied by the growing media; and h represents the

height of the growing cavity.

   2.3 Seedling number per planting area

The number of required to plant one hectare of

puddled field according to SRI spacing was also

computed in order to know the number of trays to be

purchased for nursery preparation. Equation (2) was used

in determining this value.

Where Sn is number of seedlings; A is area (m2); and Spt

represents spacing pattern (m2)

2.4 Percentages of single seedling planting, missing hill

and multiple planting per area

The number of hills with planted single seedling was

recorded upon randomly selected square meter (m2) and

with three replications to minimize the error for each of

the proposed nine spacing options and the average was

taken from each. The data was recorded in percentage

with respect to the number of seedlings required per

meter square and were evaluated per hectare. The similar

method was also used in determining the percentage of

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mV A h= 

n

pt

A
S

S
=

(1)

(2)

 Bashar et al. / Food Research 3 (2) (2019) 164 - 170 166

eISSN: 2550-2166 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources

missing hills as well as the percentage of multiple

planting per hill.

2.5 The field efficiency

This  represents the difference between the actual

field capacity and that of the theoretical field capacity

and expressed in percentage as shown in Equation (3) as

reportedly employed on the performance evaluation of

farm machineries (Behera et al., 2009; Manjunatha et al.,

2009; Madusanka, 2011; Murumkar et al., 2015).

2.6 Actual field capacity

 This was considered as the area covered by the

actual time taken to cover that area including the time

lost in turning and reloading of seedlings while the

theoretical field capacity was defined as the forwarding

speed by the width of the machine with Equation (4).

Where A = Area (ha); TH = Turning head (hr); TR =

Loading time (hr); and TW= Working time (hr)

The theoretical field is the rate of field coverage that

would be obtained if the transplanting implement was

operating continuously without interruptions of reloading

time and turning head or speed of the operation by the

width of the coverage (machine). This can be expressed

in Equation (5) as used by Adebija and Jackson, (2013).

Where w = Width of the coverage (m); and S = Speed of

operation (kmph)

2.7 Statistical analysis

The data were statistically analyzed by analysis of

variance (ANOVA) technique as applicable to random

complete block design (RCBD) based on the statistical

analysis software (SAS 9.2 for Windows). Duncan’s

multiple ranging tests (DMRT) was used to evaluate the

differences between the treatment means at 5%

probability level.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Adjustable spacing within rows

The gearing arrangement of the driven shaft

composed of 32 teeth, 24 teeth and 20 teeth sprockets

which were designed to mate with the driver sprocket of

32 teeth from the planting wheel; it was made with the

fundamental aim of generating three optional revolutions

and/or rotations to be chosen according to the

requirement of SRI spacing conditions with the help of

the gear shifter or selector in three distinct positions.

These positions were designed and developed to work on

a 1-2-3 shifting basis (position one [1] was to put 20

teeth sprocket on the run with the driver 32 teeth;

position two [2] was to combine 24 teeth with 32 teeth of

the driver sprocket and position three [3] was set to work

on one on one of both 32 teeth between the driver and

the driven sprockets). The computation of the

transplanting spacing was evaluated by considering the

perimeter of the transplanting wheel (800 mm) and the

gear ratio obtained when connected to one another. In

obtaining the spacing of 300 mm within a row, the

combination of 32 teeth (driver) to 24 teeth (driven) was

made and resulted in a gear ratio of 0.75. When

multiplied with the perimeter (800 mm), it provided a

displacement of 600 mm on the ground. Therefore,

considering the opening and closing of the gated opener

(having a downward and upward movement per one

complete revolution of the driven shaft) this lead to a

ground displacement of opening at 300 mm  and closing

at 300 mm with respect to the two operations of the

gated opener (opening at 180° and closing at 180°). The

same computational method was adopted for the other

two spacing options (250 mm and 400 mm) with gear

ratio of 0.62 and 1, respectively and whose positioning

was based on the farmers and/or spacing preference as

well as the topography and fertility of the rice-growing

environment. Similar methods were reported with the

conventional transplanting machine although non-SRI

compliance reasons to fact that the spacing options

provided by this machine did not tally with the

recommended spacing pattern designed by SRI planting

and spacing techniques (Manjunatha et al., 2009;

Hussain et al., 2013; Lutfar Rahman, 2013; Ojha and

Kwatra, 2014; Murumkar et al., 2015). Their findings

revealed that although the common spacing options were

120, 140, 160, 180 and 210 mm for the spacing within

row, but other attempts were also made on the

improvement of planting and spacing pattern with

adjustment on the picking fingers with the sole target of

transplanting seedling singly in the puddled field

deviating from the clumps transplanting in order to

closely tally with the SRI planting conditions.

3.2 Adjustable spacing between rows

The adjustment of spacing between rows was

powered based on the fixed replaceable seedling guide

made in three pieces each representing a specified SRI

spacing standard. The seedling guide was made to

control the spacing between rows fixed at 25 cm, 30 cm

and 40 cm on replaceable manner i.e. depending on the

farmer’s preference on the spacing. Therefore, for a

spacing of 25 cm, a seedling guide whose orifices

(seedling chambers) were spaced at 25 cm was used that

enabled the transplanting of up to 10 seedlings (10 rows)

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(3)

(4)

(5)

167 Bashar et al. / Food Research 3 (2) (2019) 164 - 170

eISSN: 2550-2166 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources

per single opening of the gate through the seedlings

queuing chamber (control the queuing of the seedlings

before falling into the field) (Figure 1). Likewise, when

the spacing was changed to 30 cm interval between rows,

8 rows seedling guide was used that facilitate the

transplanting or placing of 8 seedlings per single opening

of the gated opener. However, when the spacing was

fixed at 40 cm interval between rows, it resulted in

placing 6 seedlings into the puddled field. The similar

arrangement was also found on the conventional

transplanting machine although with one single option of

mostly 30 cm (Pateriya and Datta, 2012; Selvan et al.,

2014; Murumkar et al., 2015).

3.3 Percentage of single seedling planting per m2 at

varying speeds

As SRI is aimed at improving the quality and

transplanting potential of the young sprouted rice

seedling for safe and peaceful landing in the puddled

field without transplanting shock, the transplanting of the

semi-dried seedling with clay soil was tested at varying

speeds so as to have the most reliable and effective

transplanting rate with less damages and free from

transplanting shock (Zubairu et al., 2015). Therefore,

data from the field test revealed that seedlings planted

with SRI spacing pattern of 25 × 30 cm have indicated

the highest number of single seedling planting of

virtually 10 out of 13 seedlings at working speed S1, but

the trend changed when subjected to 25 × 25 cm having

9 out of 16 seedlings and leading to the collection of 3

out 6 seedlings at the same working speed for 40 × 40

cm spacing patterns. This was obtained from the

randomly selected square meter in three replications to

minimize error; the counting was made to ascertain the

number of singly planted seedlings with respect to the

nine (9) optional SRI spacing patterns improvised by the

implement. Similarly, the ANOVA and DMRT revealed

that seedlings planted at a spacing pattern of 25 × 25 cm,

25 × 30 cm and 25 × 40 cm have indicated a significant

influence with respect to the speed of operation (S1) with

a planting percentage of 81, 84 and 80 and were grouped

as ‘b’, ‘a’ and ‘b’ respectively. However, there was

report of declination when the speed was increased to S2

and S3 respectively where the percentage of single

seedling planted per m2 was dropped to 62.5%, 76% and

70% with respect to S2 on maintaining same spacing

patterns of 25 × 25 cm, 25 × 30 cm and 25 × 40 cm and

reported ‘g’, ‘a’ and ‘c’ with Duncan’s means grouping

(Table 1). Furthermore, similar trend was also recorded

when the speed was increased to S3 where a significant

decrease was observed especially with the spacing

pattern of 25 × 25 cm with only about 56% success rate

and that of 25 × 30 cm having as low as 53% with the

lowest reporting value of 50% at the operating speed of

S3 (Figure 2 and Table 1). When pruned to 40 x 40 cm

spacing, an appreciating speed value was recorded on the

same operating speed of S3. Therefore, the decrease in

planting rates observed was due to the changes in speed

where the speed operation of the gated opener was faster

and therefore the planting mechanism was moving faster

thereby causing damages on the planted seedlings. A

similar trend was reportedly used by Ali et al. (2013)

who recorded the highest plant height, panicles and root

length with line transplanting seedlings as against the

direct seeded, likewise, Dixit et al. (2007); Ali et al.

(2012); Dhananchezhiyan et al. (2013); Cavallaro et al.

(2014); and Islam et al. (2014) had reported on various

planting geometry and further improvement by the

adjusting the transplanting claws of the conventional

transplanting machines although non-SRI compliance

transplanting machine all targeting towards the

transplanting of picking one single seedling in order to

minimize the seedling density as well as reducing the

competition among the growing rice plant

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Figure 2. Assembled gear selector for spacing with in row

Treatment S1 S2 S3
25 × 25 81.13b 62.47g 56.26g
25 × 30 84.53a 76.83a 53.87h
25 × 40 80.33b 70.33c 60.00f
30 × 25 76.83c 76.87a 61.43f
30 × 30 73.97d 63.60f 72.63d
30 × 40 75.17d 74.67b 50.00i
40 × 25 79.83b 69.67d 80.33b
40 × 30 74.97d 75.00b 74.67c
40 × 40 83.27a 66.53e 83.30a

Table 1. Duncan’s means grouping for single seedling per m2

at varying speeds

Values with different alphabet superscript is significantly

different (p<0.05).

Figure 1. Assembled seedling guide fixed at 25 cm

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3.4 Percentage of missing point per planting area

The average seedlings pruned to missing hills at

various speeds are presented in Figure 3. It was observed

that seedlings planted at SRI spacing pattern of 25 × 30

cm and 30 × 25 cm have indicated a significant influence

on the rate of missing hills,  where the recorded value of

30.8% was obtained when the speed of the operation was

increased to its highest level of 0.45 m/s. Furthermore,

seedlings spaced at 25 × 25 cm presented the highest

observation of unplanted areas with 31.2% of the overall

area on which the readings were observed when the

planting speed was subjected to 0.45 m/s and this was

recorded by DMRT as ‘a’, however, when the speed of

operation was changed to 0.18 m/s a remarkable

improvement was recorded with a significant drop to

12.5% and even lower value of 7.7% when the spacing

was changed to 25 × 30 cm. The difference was

attributed as results planting speed as the rate to which

the gated opener operated; thus the movement was slow

at low speed thereby encouraging smooth operation of

the entire planting mechanism. Similar findings were

reported by Dixit et al. (2007) on transplanting

performance of rice transplanting machines, Ali et al.

(2013) who evaluated the planting methods of rice

seedlings, Gutiérrez et al. (2009) on strawberry and

Harunur et al. (2014) on variation of planting

performance between direct seeded and transplanted.

3.5 Percentage of multiple planting per hill

The percentage of multiple seedlings planted per

area was also recorded at varying operational speeds (S1,

S2 and S3), where the data obtained revealed that

seedlings planted with SRI spacing pattern of 25 × 25 cm

and 30 × 40 cm indicated the highest significant effect

with respect to multiple planting of  12.5 and 25%

respectively, when the Tractor was set to high speed (S3);

thus representing a lost in single seedling planting but

when compared to planting at low speed (S1) with

minimum of 6.3% (25 × 25 cm) and zero at 40 × 40 cm,

respectively. Therefore, it can be observed that the speed

of the operation had a great influence vis-à-vis to the

number of multiple seedlings planting.  However, data

from the Duncan means grouping revealed that the speed

of operation had greater impact on the performance of

the SRI single seedling transplanting implement; when

the speed of the operation was at S1 lowest values of

multiple planting were reported on spacing pattern of 40

× 25 cm (0%) and 40 × 40 cm (0%) with both DMG of

‘f’, respectively, but when the spacing was reduced to 25

× 25 cm it recorded a multiple planting percentage of

6.27 with a DMG of ‘e’ with a highest Duncan grouping

of value ‘a’ on  30 × 30 cm spacing. Therefore, majority

of the loss due to multiple seedlings planting was

observed when the speed was increased. Thus, the lower

the speed the less risk of multiple planting.

3.6 Field capacity

The actual field capacity was computed based on the

pilot plot used at the Ladang 2, Universiti Putra Malaysia

with a total area of 18 m × 15 m = 270 m2. As the test

was conducted at three different speeds (S1, S2 and S3),

therefore, the number of turning was found as Eight (8)

when run along the width 18 m and considering the

actual time taken for the Tractor to make one turn which

was observed as 60 seconds and considering the number

of turning, therefore, the overall time turning time to

cover the area was computed as 60 s × 8 = 540 s = 0.13

hr (recorded as TH). Furthermore, reloading time was

also observed as 100 sec = 0.03hr (recorded as TR),

having the variation in speed; the computation for the

actual field capacity and theoretical field capacity as well

as the field efficiency were therefore subjected to the

varying speeds. Hence, for the field operation speed of

0.18 m/s, the field efficiency was found as following the

formula adopted by Murumkar et al. (2015) and

Manjunatha et al. (2009) while conducting the

performance evaluation of their machines:

Therefore, the overall field capacity when the SRI

single seedling transplanting implement was subjected to

planting of one complete hectare was computed with

respect to the value obtained from the Ladang 2 field

testing plot and was recorded in accordance to the

variations in speed of operation. When the speed was

maintained at 0.18 m/s the field capacity indicated value

of 1.29 ha/hr and this value reported an increase with

increasing speed of operation with records as 1.37 ha/hr

for 0.24 m/s speed and 1.55 ha/hr for the speed of 0.45

m/s, respectively (Table 2). Similar results were reported

from different research works on the variation of field

capacity by Thakur et al. (2010); Sharif (2011); Pateriya

and Datta (2012); Selvan et al. (2014); and Murumkar et

al. (2015).

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Figure 3. Percentage of missing hills per m2 at varying speeds

169 Bashar et al. / Food Research 3 (2) (2019) 164 - 170

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4. Conclusion

A suitable transplanting implement has been

designed to serve a breakthrough in responding to the

challenges of mechanized SRI transplanting to precisely

transplant seedling singly with respect to Nine (9) SRI

spacing options of 25 cm x 25 cm, 25 cm x 30 cm, 25 cm

x 40 cm, 30 cm x 25 cm, 30 cm x 30 cm and 30 cm x 40

cm, 40 x 25 cm, 40 x 30 cm and 40 x 40 cm.

The implement was fabricated with respect to all the

designed safety measures and to fully tally with the

developed SRI-tray that provides soil bearing seedlings

in separated cavities thereby corresponding to any soil

fertility level due to the versatile ranges of spacing

options.

In achieving a high percentage of seedlings’ planting

and spacing qualities to tally with design specifications

of the implement, it is suggested that compost should be

mixed in seedling media preparation.

The operating speed at 0.18 m/s was found to have

responded SRI planting and spacing geometry when

compared with other speeds (0.24 m/s and 0.45 m/s).

The field capacity and field efficiency indicated that

when the tractor maintained the speed at 0.18 m/s, the

field capacity and field efficiency reported the values of

1.29 ha/hr and 79.5%, respectively but, when the speed

was set to 0.45 m/s, these values changed to 1.55 ha/hr

and 75% respectively.

Acknowledgement

The authors express their sincere appreciation and

gratitude to TetFund 2016 Intervention (Waziri Umaru

Federal Poly) and Universiti Putra Malaysia for the fund

released through the Research University Grant Scheme

(RUGS) on project number: 05–02–12–2199RU (Vot

9376900) for the successful taking and completion of the

Research.

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