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Bustan al-Salatin

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Text notes
In these notes  JH = Jelani Harun,   SH = Siti Hawah.

MCP text

BS.R 4/1/5

[...]

text missing, misprint

BS.R 2/9:158

[...]

line missing, misprint

BS.M 3/2:309

[...]

kurang lengkap

BS.M 3/4:518

[...]

MS:  ...  dan hari orang itu bahagian dalam ...  maka naik ke atasnya ...

BS.M 3/4:561

[...]

kurang lengkap

BS.R 2/10:198

`Ammuriyyah

JH:  not in manuskrip

BS.L 2/13:68

abluk

i.l.k

BS.S 1/34

`abrah

salinan:  `ubrah

BS.R 1:47

`Ada

= `Awwa´

BS.L 2/13:45

adalah

[a]dalah

BS.R 1:7

`adam

JH:  = ketiadaan

BS.M 3/4:506

adil

kurang jelas

BS.R 2/10:215

`Adyun

`.y.d.y.w.n

BS.R 2/1:88

Ailiya

i.e.  Jerusalem

BS.S 1/27

air beku

ertinya:  salji

BS.R 1:13

Airam

a.y�.ra.m�

BS.S 1/26

Akil

Iklil

BS.M 3/2:305

al-Jundari

= al-Junid

BS.R 2/10:211

Al-Lami`

a.l.l.a.m.`, ‘that which shines’

BS.R 2/10:213

al-Mabul

a.l.m.b.w.l

BS.R 2/10:211

Al-Ramzat

r.m.z.t, ‘allusions’

BS.L 2/13:49

al-Salam

al-Salam mereka itu akan antusan akan pergi

BS.M 3/3:502

alang

JH:  alang[kah]

BS.R 2/9:166

alu-alu

MS B & C:  ali-ali

BS.R 2/4:118

`Amaliq

JH:  `Amalip

BS.R 2/8:149

Amirulmukminin

i.e.  Uthman

BS.S 1/26

Amlain

al-Butain

BS.M 3/2:322

Anas

? atau:  Abas

BS.M 3/1:301

Apa ia itu

kurang jelas

BS.R 1:68

Aqlim

JH:  Benua

BS.R 2/2:106

Artalas

JH:  Aristotle

BS.R 1:47

Aslil

= Iklil

BS.R 1:75

`Aud

JH:  'Wad

BS.S 1/26

`Awada

Awwa

BS.L 2/13:58

ayapan

aya[pan]

BS.R 2/1:77

bagi

i.e.  bahagian

BS.M 3/4:510

bagi

MS:  keranamu

BS.R 4/1/14

bahunya

ba.hu.w°, better:  bauh for bau

BS.R 2/10:214

bala samihat

b.a.l.a s.a.m.h.t

BS.L 2/13:62

bangun

? baghul, Arab keldai

BS.L 2/13:69

bangunnya

bangunya [sic]

BS.M 3/2:442

Barsus

kurang jelas

BS.M 3/2:358

basari

? = kulit

BS.R 1:47

Batn al-Hauthi

Batn al-Hut

BS.R 2/2:99

benda

MS B & C:  batu

BS.R 2/10:204

benih

atau:  jenis

BS.M 3/2:471

berambilan

MS:  berambalan

BS.S 1/32

berandakan

cf.  meranda

BS.L 2/13:52

berangkat

bera[ngkat]

BS.L 2/13:60

berbansi

naskah: berbesan

BS.L 2/13:70

berbatang

ber[ba]tang

BS.S 1/25

bercakiwala

= bercakerawala

BS.R 2/13:243

bergersu

? = berkeris

BS.L 2/13:34

beristikadaham

b.r.a.s.t.k.d.h.m [?]

BS.L 2/13:33

berjerabaikan

b.j.r.b.n.k.n

BS.R 4/1/27

berperang

MS A:  berpaling;  MS C:  berparang

BS.R 2/13:243

bersandangan

JH:  bersaudangan

BS.S 1/9

bertampak-tampak

= bertepuk-tepuk

BS.S 1/36

berpijak

= berpijak

BS.S 1/36

bertijak

= berpijak

BS.R 2/12:226

Bijinagara

Bijayanegara

BS.M 3/2:329

bikr

= bikir

BS.R 2/10:212

biqadh al-`ayûn

b.q.d.h a.l.`.y.w.n

BS.R 2/13:243

biram

JH:  birim

BS.R 2/13:249

biram

JH:  birim

BS.R 2/13:249

Biram

JH:  Birim

BS.R 2/2:105

Bukht-Nassar

JH:  Nebuchadnezzar

BS.L 2/13:47

bunga-bungaan

bunga-bungaan daripada bunga-bungaan

BS.M 3/4:524

cium

kurang jelas

BS.S 1/26

Dabran

Dabaran

BS.R 1:12

daerah

JH:  khemah?

BS.R 4/1/11

[daftar]

added from parallel manuscripts

BS.R 2/2:98

Damawanda

MS:  Dumawwanda

BS.S 1/14

damkh

name of a mountain

BS.R  1:13

damping

JH:  [ter]damping

BS.R 4/1/16

[dan]

added from parallel mansucripts

BS.M 3/4:544

dan

MS:  dan dan

BS.L 2/13:35

dan

dan dan

BS.L 2/13:66

dan

d[an]

BS.L 2/13:68

dan

d[an]

BS.R 2/12:222

Dandang

i.e.  Dinding

BS.R 2/13:241

dap

JH:  dapa

BS.M 3/2:449

dapatkan

kurang jelas

BS.L 2/13:64

daripada

[da]ripada

BS.S 1/4

daripadanya

?  = kepadanya

BS.R 4/1/24

[datang .. sembahyang]

added from parallel manuscripts

BS.S 1/9

daulatnya

salinan:   duwalatnya

BS.M 3/2:393

Demi didengar

JH: lebih baik dihilangkan

BS.L 2/13:66

di istana

d.i.s

BS.R 4/1/16

didengar

didengarnya in parallel manuscripts

BS.R 1:41

dihasarakan

= dicampurkan

BS.L 2/13:30

dihiasi

dihiasi oranglah akan

BS.L 2/13:56

dijanjikan

[di]janjikan

BS.R 4/1/21

[dikau]

added from parallel manuscripts

BS.R  2/10:179

dilihat

JH:  dilihat[nya]

BS.M 3/2:328

dilihatnya .. cincin

JH:  dilihatnya dalam rangka dewal itu suatu cincin

BS.M 3/4:518

dinas

d.y.n.s

BS.L 2/13:41

dipersembahkan

[di]persembahkan

BS.L 2/13:26

Diraja

SH:   pengaruh Arab pada Sanskrit   adiraja

BS.M 3/1:301

disesatkannyalah

MS:  didisatkannyalah

BS.S 1/36

ditijak

= pijak

BS.M 3/2:389

diunjukkannyalah

JH:  [diucapkannyalah]

BS.R 2/9:165

diwal

JH:  dul

BS.R  2/8:145

faligh

fa.a.li.gh

BS.M  3/1:301

farqan

≈  furqan

BS.R 2/2:114

Farwiz

MS:  Farwis

BS.R 2/13:235

Fidar

i.e.  Pedir

BS.S 1/26

Furu`

Fargh

BS.S 1/26

Furu`

Fargh

BS.R 2/12:228

Gelang

i.e.  Kelang

BS.S 1/38

gelembar

?  gelembur

BS.R 4/1/16

ghubala

ghu.ba.la, = gembala

BS.R 4/1/13

gumbala

gembala

BS.R 4/1/13

gumbala

gembala

BS.S 1/4

habbat

?  hubbat

BS.R 4/1/20

hairamlah

hairam, ha.y°.ra.m° -- ? hairan

BS.S 1/34

hairan

text:   jairan

BS.M  3/2:468

hajam

= hajim

BS.M  3/2:468

hajam

= hajim

BS.M  3/2:468

hajam

= hajim

BS.M  3/2:468

hajam

= hajim

BS.M  3/2:468

hajam

= hajim

BS.M  3/2:468

hajam

= hajim

BS.M  3/2:468

hajam

= hajim

BS.M  3/2:468

hajam

= hajim

BS.R 2/9:176

Hamtimah

h.m.t.h

BS.M 3/2:420

Harman

= Hurmazd

BS.M 3/2:428

hasil

added by JH

BS.S 1/26

Hatafah

Haqah

BS.L 2/13:71

hayakil

h.i.k.l,   Aceh:   hayake [tujuh], sejenis mantera

BS.L 2/13:46

hendak

henda[k]

BS.R 4/1/19

Hudhaifah

Kha.zi.y°.na.h

BS.R 4/1/19

Hudhaifah

Kha.zi.y°.na.h

BS.R 4/1/19

Hudhaifah

Kha.zi.y°.na.h

BS.R 2/10:205

ia

JH:  i.e.  Bakyal

BS.R 2/10:193

Ibrahim

JH:  Ibrahin

BS.R 4/1/13

[ilham]

added from parallel manuscripts

BS.R 2/5:121

Imra´

= Imru´

BS.R 2/5:121

Imra´

= Imru´

BS.R 2/5:121

Imra´

= Imru´

BS.L 2/13:74

Inayat

Inayat Syah

BS.L 2/13:44

Indera

In[de]ra

BS.R 1:21

itu

JH:  iaitu Jibrail

BS.R 4/1/23

[itu .. Allah]

added from a parallel manuscript

BS.R 4/1/28

jadi

MS A:  seperti khalikin [?]

BS.M 3/4:520

jadikan}

MS:  kaucahkan

BS.L 2/13:34

Jambangan

j.m.b.a.`.b.l.n

BS.L 2/13:34

jari

mungkin juga: cari

BS.S 1/26

Jayyah

[not known;  the list is incomplete, at this point 6 names are omitted]

BS.S 1/26

Jihat

Jabhah

BS.R 2/9:177

Jimah

j.y.m.h

BS.R 2/13:258

jua pun

j.w.f.n

BS.M 3/1:295

jujat

MS:  juja

BS.R 2/12:222

Julan

i.e.  Culan

BS.M 3/1:294

Jur

= Gur

BS.S 1/5

k.y.n

?  ≈  kiyân

BS.S 1/5

k.y.n

?  ≈  kiyân

BS.S 1/6

k.y.n

?  ≈  kiyân

BS.S 1/24

k.y.n

?  ≈  kiyân

BS.S 1/24

k.y.n

?  ≈  kiyân

BS.S 1/37

k.y.n

?  ≈  kiyân

BS.S 1/39

k.y.n

?  ≈  kiyân

BS.S 1/39

kadan

?  kadin

BS.S 1/39

kadan

?  kadin

BS.R 2/12:221

Kaikawus

text:   Kikawus

BS.R 2/12:222

Kalangkabau

i.e.  Langgiu

BS.S 1/40

kalatan

?  ke la[u]tan, ? ke [se]latan

BS.M 3/4:553

kalihkan

kurang jelas

BS.L 2/13:39

kamu

ka[mu]

BS.R 2/1:84

Kana`an

= Kan`an

BS.L 2/13:45

kandang

k[a]ndang

BS.L 2/13:45

kandang

ka[n]dang

BS.L 2/13:45

kandang

ka[n]dang

BS.L 2/13:45

kandang

ka[n]dang

BS.R 2/12:222

Kandi Hindi

i.e.  Kida Hindi

BS.R 4/1/16

[karena kerja ini]

added from parallel mansucripts

BS.M 3/2:312

kariba

? = karung

BS.R 4/1/15

[katanya]

added from parallel manuscripts

BS.L 2/13:49

Kautikam

SH: seharusnya:   Deutecom

BS.L 2/13:27

Kaya

Kaya Kaya

BS.M 3/3:496

kedulapan

syarat kedelapan tiada ada dalam manuskrip

BS.M 3/4:520

kelakuan

MS:  kelu engkau

BS.R 2/2:97

Kemudian

JH:  i.e.  kemudian daripada

BS  2/2:97

Kemudian

JH:  i.e.  kemudian daripada

BS.M 3/2:318

keperluannya

kurang jelas

BS.M 3/2:318

keperluannya

kurang jelas

BS.R 2/11:217

kerai

k.r.y

BS.R 4/1/13

kerajaan

MS:  pekerjaan

BS.L 2/13:64

kerajaan

kerajaan ada yang meremung pedang kerajaan

BS.M 3/2:451

kerana

MS:  kerana pagi Jumaat

BS.M 3/1:293

kerana ia siapa-siapa

JH:  tanpa mengira siapa ia

BS.M 3/2:487

kerani

kurang jelas MS ? kerana

BS.L 2/13:47

keremunting

naskah:   k.r.m.i.n.ng

BS.S 1/37

keruh

k.r.w.h

BS.L 2/13:40

kesudah-kesudahannya

kesuda[h]-kesudahannya

BS.M 3/2:416

ketiga

yang kedua tidak ada di manuskrip

BS.R  2/8:149

khala`

kh.a.l.`

BS.M 3/2:388

khalifah

kurang jelas

BS.M 3/2:442

Khurasan

kurang jelas

BS.R  1:73

kubur

JH:  kubur[nya]

BS.M 3/4:514

kuhimpunkan

MS:  demikian kata

BS.R 2/8:140

kulit

JH:  kulit (qulqah)

BS.R 1:64

Kurrah

= kurah

BS.R 1:64

kurrah

= kurah

BS.R 1:64

kurrah

= kurah

BS.R 1:65

kurrah

= keruh

BS.R 1:30

kutian

ku.ti.ya.n�

BS.R 1:39

'l-munkar

JH:  amar bil ma‘rufwa yanhayi ’anil munkari

BS.R 1:73

'l-munkar

JH:  amar bil ma‘rufi wanahi ’anil munkari

BS.M 3/2:331

lagi sempurna .. binatang

JH:  om.

BS.R 2/2:105

Lahrasab

cf.  Lahrussab

BS.R 4/1/12

laki-laki

la.ka.2

BS.R 4/1/16

[lalu]

MS:  ada,   but other manuscripts have   lalu

BS.S 1/42

lanjut

text:   lananjat

BS.M 3/4:508

lawannya

? or:  pahlawannya

BS.S 1/25

lekasnya

ertinya:  lajunya

BS.R 2/12:228

Maimanah

i.e.  Mimat

BS.M 3/2:331

Maka ditanggungannya .. bahunya

JH.  om.

BS.R 2/12:233

Makota Kuda

i.e.  Megat Kudu

BS.R 4/1/24

[malam]

added from parallel manuscripts

BS.M 3/2:411

mamang

JH:  mama [mamang]

BS.R 1:47

Manu`ah

= Han`ah

BS.M 3/2:435

Marwa

kurang jelas

BS.R 2/10:214

masriq

m.s.r.`

BS.R 1:74

mazhab

MS B:  Imam

BS.M 3/4:534

melenggang

kurang jelas

BS.M 3/2:447

memasang

seharusnya:  menunggang

BS.L 2/13:28

membaiatkan

m.m.b.`.t.k.n

BS.L 2/13:63

membawa

[memba]wa

BS.L 2/13:64

membawa

memba[wa]

BS.L 2/13:63

membawa cemeti

MS:   m.m.b.a.j.m.i.t.n

BS.M 3/4:523

membinasakan

kurang jelas

BS.M 3/2:321

memenuhi

MS:  membunuh [sic]

BS.M 3/5:565

memenuhi

MS:  membunuh

BS.R 1:38

mempiharakan

MS B:  memeliharakan

BS.M 3/2:478

mempunyai

kurang jelas ? = mendiami

BS.R 4/1/2

menakuti

[Qur´an 51:50]

BS.M 3/2:372

mencuca

text:   menchuja

BS.M 3/2:319

mengenderaan

JH:  berkenderaan

BS.L 2/13:54

mengentatkan

Aceh:   menghantarkan

BS.M 3/2:349

menghabis

= penghabis

BS.M 3/2:358

menghalakan

kurang jelas

BS.R 1:28

mengrana

ma.ng�.ra.a.na

BS.M 3/2:384

[menjujat

JH:  menjuja

BS.R 4/1/13

menyuca

? mencerca

BS.R 4/1/13

menyuca

mencerca

BS.S 1/12

merajin

m.r.a.j.n

BS.R 4/1/19

Meri

= beri

BS.L 2/13:60

meruhai

Aceh: meuruhe, bercerita

BS.R 2/13:261

meruwahi

? meruahi

BS.R 2/10:198

Mikail

JH:  Michael

BS.R 2/12:230

Minah

i.e.  Mah

BS.R 4/1/14

minum daripada

MS:  daripada minum

BS.R 1:74

mithran

‘Archbishops’

BS.R 1:12

Mu`az

JH:  i.e.  Ja`far ibn Mu`az

BS.R 1:26

mud

mu.d

BS.R 1:42

mudnan

mu.d�.nan

BS.R 2/13:63

mukanya

muka mukanya

BS.L 2/13:53

Mughayat

SH, MS:   Riayat, suatu kesilapan dari penyalin

BS.L 2/13:63

mukanya

muka mukanya

BS.M  3/2:369

mukhalitah

? mukhalatah

BS.L 2/13:62

mulamma

SH:   Arab belang-belang;   MS:   t.m

BS.M 3/2:439

mulang-mulang

= mengulang-ulang

BS.L 2/13:59

Mulia

Muli [sic]

BS.R 4/1/24

nafkah

ni.f°.qa.h°

BS.M 3/2:328

Nahawandi

= Nihavand

BS.R 2/12:229

Naji

i.e.  Naja

BS.M 3/4:547

nama

= kenamaan

BS.R 1:30

Nasyi

na.s�.yi

BS.L 2/13:38

ngadap

ngada[p]

BS.M 3/6:572

nisya[n]

JH:  ? = khatib

BS.L 2/13:25

nyabung

[me]nyabung

BS.R 4/1/6

[oléhmu]

omitted in the MS

BS.R 2/2:106

orang

JH adds:  ‹  ditangkap ›

BS.L 2/13:59

pangkat

SH:   tingkat

BS.M 3/4:545

panglima

MS:  syeikh

BS.M 3/4:545

panglima

MS:  syeikh

BS.R 2/12:225

Parsul Bahrain

i.e.  Farasul Bahri

BS.S 1/18

pegawai

ertinya:  alat

BS.M 3/4:520

pelanduk

MS:  pelantan

BS.S 1/21

pengakat

= pangkat

BS.L 2/13:69

penjurunya

penju[ru]nya;   MS:   m.n.c.u.ny

BS.M 3/4:517

perabul

p.r.b.u.1

BS.M 3/4:518

perabul

p.r.b.u.1

BS.M 3/4:518

perabul

p.r.b.u.1

BS.R 2/12:233

Permaisuri

i.e.  Parameswara

BS.S 1/31

pihlan

?   pahlawan

BS.L 2/13:58

pirus

p.i.r.u.n

BS.S 1/30

Qatat

?   Qitat

BS.R 2/10:211

Qazîn al-Dhahab

q.z.y.n a.l.dh.h.b,   meaning unclear

BS.R 2/10:186

Qistintiniyah

i.e.  Nicomedia

BS.S 1/26

Rabban

Zubana

BS.M 3/2:422

radiallahuanhu

nama tokoh tiada dinyatakan pada manuskrip

BS.R 1:22

Rafuq

ra.fu.w.k

BS.R 2/12:224

Raika

i.e.  Dika

BS.R 2/12:221

Raja

i.e.  Tun Seri Lanang

BS.M 3/4:521

raja-raja

MS:  raja raya-raya

BS.S 1/4

rajin

r.a.j.n

BS.S 1/17

rajin

r.a.j.n

BS.S 1/25

rajin

r.a.j.n

BS.S 1/25

rajin

r.a.j.n

BS.L 2/13:34

Rama

[Ra]ma

BS.R 2/2:108

rawahrawahin

cf. variants:   rawahrawahin (1), rawahurahan (2), ruwahrawahin (4)

BS.R 1:28

rawahurahan

cf. variants:   rawahrawahin (1), rawahurahan (2), ruwahrawahin (4)

BS.R 1:27

rawahurahannya

ra.wa.hu.w�.ra.a.ha.n�.ny
cf. variants:   rawahrawahin (1), rawahurahan (2), ruwahrawahin (4)

BS.R 2/12:230

Rawana

i.e.  Raden

BS.L 2/13:46

rungkau

r.ng.k.r

BS.R 2/4:119

ruwahrawahin

cf. variants:   rawahrawahin (1), rawahurahan (2), ruwahrawahin (4)

BS.R 2/5:120

ruwahrawahin

cf. variants:   rawahrawahin (1), rawahurahan (2), ruwahrawahin (4)

BS.R 2/8:124

ruwahrawahin

cf. variants:   rawahrawahin (1), rawahurahan (2), ruwahrawahin (4)

BS.R 2/8:145

ruwahrawahin

cf. variants:   rawahrawahin (1), rawahurahan (2), ruwahrawahin (4)

BS.M 3/2:385

s.b.u.s.q

s.b.w.s.q,   ? or:  sesusuk,   meaning unclear

BS.M 3/4:534

saadat

MS:  sahadat

BS.R 2/13:243

saga

text:   saka

BS.R 1:72

Sahra

JH:  Sahara

BS.R 2/12:221

Salatin

i.e.  Sulalatus Salatin

BS.L 2/13:58

salup

Aceh:  bungkus

BS.R 2/13:235

Samadar

i.e.  Samudera

BS.R 1:47

Samak

= Simak

BS.R 2/13:256

Samatra

? i.e.  Samudera

BS.M 3/4:562

Samatrani

kurang jelas

BS.S 1/31

Sarandib

i.e.  Sri Lanka

BS.S 1/29

sarta

= semesta

BS.S 1/26

Sartain

Sharatain

BS.M  3/2:365

satimi

= setemi

BS.L 2/13:63

senjata

naskah:   sanjak

BS.L 2/13:41

seperti

seper[ti]

BS.M 3/2:409

Seperti sabda Nabi

MS:  Seperti firman Allah sabda Nabi

BS.M 3/4:520

Setengah

MS:  Setelah

BS.R 2/8:151

Su`bah

= Syu`bah

BS.M 3/2:460

sujud

kurang jelas

BS.L 2/13:66

suka

k.k.l

BS.R 4/1/6

Sultan

added below the line

BS.R 2/1:83

sundut

su.w�.nu.d�

BS.M 3/2:394

sungai

MS:  keruh dan segala sungai

BS.R 2/12:226

Supraba

i.e.  Si Perba

BS.M 3/2:376

surah-surahnyakah

kurang jelas

BS.R 4/1/16

surokan

su.ru.w°.ka.n°,   cf.  sérokan

BS.R 2/8:150

Sya`bah

= Syu`bah

BS.R 2/9:160

Sya`bah

= Syu`bah

BS.L 2/13:71

syahmura

sy.h.m.u

BS.S 1/26

Syimal

Simak

BS.R 2/1:93

Syu`aib

JH:  Syu'aya

BS.R 1:47

Ta`yim

= Na`a´im

BS.R 2/8:142

Tablas

t.a.b.l.s [?]

BS.S 1/46

tahiyyat

text:   tahlilnya

BS.S 1/19

Tairatil

?   Tirata´il

BS.S 1/26

Talubah

Tarf

BS.R 1:74

tariq

= bitrîq, ‘Patriarch’;  B:  bitrîq

BS.S 1/46

tasyhaduh

?  tasyahud

BS.M 3/2:307

tatkala .. khalifah

JH:  tatkala Nabi Sulaiman jadi khalifah

BS.R 4/1/27

[Taubatlah]

MS:  Larilah,   translating Fa-firru ila (for Wa-tubu)

BS.R 2/3:116

Taurat

B & C:  Taurat daripada bahasa `Ibrani kepada bahasa Yunani

BS.S 1/21

tawwabi

i.e.  tubi

BS.M 3/4:544

tedung

kurang jelas

BS.M 3/4:521

temannya

MS:  tambunnya

BS.L 2/13:48

tembikai

naskah:   t.m.b.k.m

BS.M 3/2:462

tentang itu

JH:  = menentang penyakit

BS.M 3/1:298

terganggang

MS:  terkangkang

BS.M 3/1:294

teringan-ringankan

JH:  [meringan-ringankan]

BS.M 3/1:304

tertinggi

kurang jelas

BS.R 2/10:198

Theophilus

apparently substituted for the reading of the manuscript by JH

BS.S 1/9

thuluth

ertinya:  sepertiga

BS.R 1:26

Tuba

ka.yu.w� tu.w�.ba.y�

BS.S 1/31

tuntutnya

= penutupnya

BS.S 1/26

Turba

Thurayya

BS.S 1/37

tuselang

?  terselang

BS.S 1/45

ujarlah

ertinya:  ajarlah

BS.R 2/12:230

Unang Kuminang

i.e.  Onang Kuminang

BS.R 2/12:222

Unangkayau

Onang Kiu

BS.R 1:49

unta

MS:  ‹  h ›antu

BS.R 2/10:206

Uqlidis

JH:  ‹  Euclid ›

BS.R 4/1/27

Wa-tubu

MS:  Fa-firru ila

BS.R 1:47

Zabana

= Zubana

BS.S 1/26

Zabar

Zubrah

BS.L 2/13:58

zabarjad

[za]barjad

BS.R  2/11:216

Za´ib

i.e.  Aurangzeb

BS.S 1/26

Zara`a

Dhira

BS.R 2/2:105

Zaradasht

JH:  Zoroaster

BS.R 2/10:198

Zibatra dan Malatya

JH:  tiada pada manuskrip
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Is there a Penang Style of Malay Manuscript Illumination?

Some preliminary comments on the art of the Malay book,

with special reference to manuscripts in the Muzium Negeri Pulau Pinang
1
by Annabel Gallop

The British Library
annabel.gallop@bl.uk
ABSTRACT
Studies of Malay manuscripts have historically focused
on the content of the texts, with little attention paid to the form of the
manuscript, and therefore little is known about the development of Malay
manuscript art.  However, work has recently begun to attempt to identify
distinct regional styles of decorating Malay manuscript books, revealing a
distinctive school of Acehnese manuscript illumination, and hinting at the
existence of a characteristic style of manuscript art from the east coast of
the peninsula.  Furthermore, there are signs that illuminated Chinese
Islamic manuscripts may have influenced some aspects of Malay manuscript
art.  On the basis of two important
manuscripts - a manuscript of the Taj
al-Salatin held in the British Library, copied in Penang in 1824, and a
Qur'an in the Muzium Negeri Pulau Pinang, it is also suggested that a
sophisticated and unusual school of Islamic book art may have flourished in
Penang in the 19th century.
CONTENTS

Introduction

Approaches to the study of the art of the Malay book

An 'Acehnese style' of manuscript illumination

Illuminated manuscripts from the east coast of the Malay peninsula

Chinese influence

A possible 'Penang style' of Malay manuscript illumination

Endnotes

Bibliography

ILLUSTRATIONS

Acehnese Qur'an
Introduction
The
Malay world of maritime Southeast Asia is home to hundreds of different
linguistic and ethnic groups, but for centuries the port-kingdoms of the
coastal areas have been linked by the faith of Islam and by their shared use of
the Malay language for trade and diplomacy.
In all these regions - from Sumatra to the southern Philippines - there
is a manuscript culture which is recognizably Islamic, written on paper in the
Arabic script, with books laid out in typical Muslim fashion, with symmetrically
decorated double pages and triangular tapered colophons, often beautifully
illuminated.  But while there is a
growing awareness of the importance of manuscripts as unique sources for many
aspects of Malay culture and society, scholarly attention remains focused on
their content rather than form, and the study of the art of the Malay book has
barely begun.  There are many reasons
for this gap in our knowledge, of which the following can be highlighted.
Firstly,
European studies of Malay have always focused on language and literature: in
the 17th century to serve the needs of trade, diplomacy and evangelism, and by
the 19th century for administrative, bureaucratic and military purposes.  In support of these preoccupations, Western
centres of Malay studies have traditionally concentrated on the study and
teaching of Malay philology and literature, right up to the present day.  Accordingly, the presence of decorative
elements in Malay manuscripts is rarely remarked upon, even in manuscripts
catalogues,
2
and - crucially, for the purposes of the study of Malay manuscript art - almost
no published reproductions of decorated Malay manuscripts were available prior
to the past two decades.  In fact, as
far as I am aware, hardly a single reference to the artistic aspects of Malay
manuscripts appears in early Western writings until a mention, in passing, in
Wilkinson's account of Malay letter-writing in 1907.
3
This silence is matched on the Malay side:
there are no Malay manuscript treatises on book illustration,
4
nor are there any known references in Malay texts to the decoration of
manuscript books or documents.
Furthermore, while Malay manuscripts form a clear subset of the larger
family of Islamic manuscripts, the art of the Malay book has been all but
totally neglected by scholars of Islamic art, due to a long-held perception of
Southeast Asia as a marginal region on the fringes of the Islamic world, a
mind-set which is only now beginning to change.
Secondly,
the study of the art of the Malay book - as is the case in all Islamic cultures
- must take as its point of departure the Holy Qur'an, as the supreme Book, the
manuscript on which the greatest energy, cost and effort would have been
expended in any Muslim court or society.
But Western collectors appear to have shown relatively little interest
in acquiring copies of the Qur'an from the Malay world, compared with their
well-documented interest in literary and historical manuscripts. Until very
recently, the British Library held only two Qur'ans from Southeast Asia, both
acquired by John Crawfurd during the British administration of Java
(1811-1815).  Even when Qur'ans are held
in Western institutions, a further obstacle to their study in the context of
Malay manuscript art can be attributed to the way in which Western manuscript
collections have traditionally been organised and managed primarily on the
basis of language.  Thus Qur'ans from
Southeast Asia will not be listed in catalogues of Indonesian or Malay manuscripts
but in catalogues of Arabic manuscripts, in which the few Southeast Asian
examples are almost invariably overshadowed by much larger numbers of older or
finer Kufic, Mamluk, Safavid, Ottoman or Mughal examples.
5
In some cases, the Southeast Asian
provenance of a Qur'an may not even be apparent from an institutional catalogue
without further recourse to the biography of the donor or seller, or
examination of the manuscript itself.
A
third, and related, issue is the importance of conducting codicological studies
on a regional rather than strictly linguistic basis, and to this ends all the
manuscript products of a certain region should be considered together.  Thus for a study of the art of the book in
Aceh one should look at Malay, Acehnese and Arabic manuscripts produced in
Aceh, or, for Madura, manuscripts from that island written on paper in Malay,
Arabic, Madurese and Javanese.  However,
scholarly studies and reference tools are usually demarcated by language, and a
lot of effort is therefore required to bring together a suitable corpus of
works for examination.
Despite
this background of disinterest and neglect, in the past two decades certain
developments have greatly enhanced the climate for the study of Malay
manuscript art.  Among the most
important was the establishment in 1985 of the Pusat Manuskrip Melayu (PMM) at
the Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia, whose vigorous and pro-active collecting
policies have led to the building up of a collection of over 2,400 Malay
manuscripts since its inception.  Over
the same period of time, another Malaysian institution, the Muzium Islam - part
of the Pusat Islam, Bahagian Hal Ehwal Islam Malaysia, Jabatan Perdana Menteri
- has acquired a complementary collection of over a thousand Islamic
manuscripts written in Malay and/or Arabic, including, apparently, over 300
Qur'ans (Ali 1997:109 n.4).  The same
market conditions which sustained these developments also led to the slow but
steady appearance on the international Islamic art market - and in the illustrated
catalogues of the major London auction houses - of a number of Southeast Asian
Islamic manuscripts.
6
These
collecting activities have been accompanied by no less important efforts at
documenting Malay manuscripts, spearheaded again by the PMM, which has been in
the forefront of cataloguing not only manuscripts in its own collections but
also those of other institutions.   The
past decade has also seen a surge in the publishing of catalogues and studies
of manuscripts.  Thanks to wider public
interest in manuscript art and to technological advances which have greatly
reduced the cost of reproducing images, many of these recent publications are
lavishly illustrated, with a special emphasis on illuminated and decorated
manuscripts.
7
As a
result of these developments in the dual fields of collection development and
documentation, there are now a considerable number of published reproductions
of illuminated manuscripts from Southeast Asia, and easier access to
unpublished ones, so that it may at last be possible to begin to investigate
the art of the Malay book, or, at the very least, certain specific aspects of
this art.
Approaches to the study of the art of the
Malay book
The
term 'Malay book' is used in this study in a very broad sense, to refer to
manuscript volumes or codices from Southeast Asia written in the Arabic script,
usually in the Malay or Arabic language, but sometimes in other regional
languages such as Acehnese, Minangkabau, Javanese or the Tausug language of
Sulu.  Manuscript books on paper from
Southeast Asia only survive from the late 16th century, and most of the
examples in public collections date from the 18th or 19th centuries.  In the Malay book, illumination usually
takes the form of purely ornamental patterns using floral, foliate and
geometric motifs in a range of colours, sometimes with the addition of gold but
rarely with silver.  The orthodox
Islamic prohibition of the depiction of living creatures in official or
religious contexts was taken to heart by Malay scribes, and - with only a few
late exceptions, particularly from Java - there is no evidence of a tradition
of figural illustration in Malay manuscript books.
The
subject of this study is all graphic devices which serve to adorn, emphasize or
beautify the text in Malay manuscript books, whether in the form of elaborate
illuminated frontispieces or chapter headings, or simple marginal ornaments or
text markers.  'Illumination', from the
Latin illuminare, 'to enlighten or
illuminate', refers to the embellishment of a manuscript with luminous colours,
especially gold and silver (Brown 1994:69).
In this study, the terms 'illumination' and 'decoration' will be used
more or less interchangeably, but with a slight difference of qualitative
emphasis: the term 'illumination' is preferred for more ornate examples of ornamentation,
while the scope of 'decoration' is broader, encompassing even the most basic
graphic embellishments of the text.  At
present, there is no standard Malay vocabulary for the description of
decorative features in Malay manuscripts.
It is
to the study of Islamic illumination that we naturally turn in search of a
framework for a study of Malay manuscript art, and it is somewhat surprising to
find that that the study of non-figural Islamic illumination is relatively
unevenly treated, with the attention of art historians traditionally being
focused on miniature painting.  Indeed,
some of the problems mentioned above in connection with Malay manuscripts
appear to be common to the study of other illuminated Islamic manuscripts:
inadequate descriptions of ornamentation in manuscript catalogues; the paucity
of published reproductions; and the lack of a standard descriptive vocabulary,
whether in Arabic or in English, and of an internationally-recognized and
stable classification of decorative elements (Akimushkin & Ivanov 1979:35;
Polosin 1995:16).  Nonetheless, there
are masterly studies of illumination in Persian manuscripts, surveying the
chronological development of types of illumination such as initial 'sun-burst'
roundels (shamsa), chapter headings (úunwÂn), full-page illumination of initial pages (sar-lawÐ), and borders and colophons
(Ettinghausen 1939; Akimushkin & Ivanov 1979).  On the other hand, the subject matter of the text, whether
religious, literary or scientific, is the basis of a study into the function of
illumination in Islamic manuscripts (Waley 1997), while an 'archaeographic'
approach highlights the need for more scientific and exact methods of
describing illumination in Islamic manuscripts to enable the reconstruction of
the principles of graphic proportion on which the work of illuminators was
based (Polosin 1995)
There
is therefore a wide choice of approaches available for the study of the art of
the Malay book, such as a chronological study, starting with the oldest known
illuminated Malay manuscripts of the early 17th century and tracing
developments up to the early 20th century, or a series of regional studies,
based on manuscripts from particular states or produced by certain ethnic or
linguistic groups.  Also important is the
identification of influences on Malay manuscript illumination, whether foreign
(Ottoman, Persian, Indian, Chinese or European) or intra-regional (Javanese,
Bugis, Batak, etc.), or from other artistic media, such as wood-carving,
textile design, metalwork, or architecture.
A study of manuscript art could also be based on genres of texts,
distinguishing between illumination found in Qur'ans and, say, other religious
texts, divination manuals or literary works such as hikayat and syair, whose
poetical structure makes clear demands on the graphic layout of the page.  Alternatively an analysis could focus on the
types of illumination commonly found in Malay manuscripts: illuminated
double-page openings; colophons, whether triangular or round; chapter and section
headings; marginal ornaments; and text frames and borders.  Another criterion which could usefully be
introduced is that of the nature of patronage, distinguishing between
manuscripts produced for traditional Malay rulers and those produced within the
urban kampung of Batavia for the
'court' of the Dutch Governor-General, and those created in more restricted
circumstances in villages and religious schools.
Each
of these criteria would need to be considered for a full understanding of the
art of the Malay book, but at this stage of the investigation it would be a
mistake to take a normative approach and select a method - whether
chronological, regional, typological or generic - and attempt to apply this
rigorously to Malay manuscripts.
Rather, the material should be allowed to speak for itself, to see what
patterns emerge naturally from the evidence.
The current state of our knowledge of Malay manuscript art can be
likened to a jigsaw puzzle where each piece represents a single decorated
manuscript.  In just one or two areas, a
considerable number of jigsaw pieces can be joined together to display a
relatively clear picture.  More often,
only two or three pieces fit together, confirming the underlying presence of a
pattern the precise characteristics of which cannot yet be discerned, or a
small number of individual pieces may be grouped together on the basis of a
common colour or motif, but cannot yet be joined to reveal the image described
therein.  Most commonly of all, there
are numerous individual pieces whose position in the general scheme of things
is still completely unclear.
Examples
of each of these scenarios will be explored below.  Firstly.  there is a
recognizable 'Acehnese style' of manuscript illumination, where more than
thirty manuscripts can be 'linked together' to outline a distinctive school of
manuscript art.  Secondly, and much more
tenuously, there are several small groups of four or five manuscripts, two of
which hint at the existence of a distinctive style of illumination from the
east coast of the Malay peninsula, while another indicates that Chinese Islamic
manuscripts may have exerted some influence on Malay manuscript art.  Thirdly, there is a manuscript that, until
recently was regarded as a single piece of the jigsaw that could not be fitted
in to the overall picture, until the discovery of another single piece.  Put together, the two suggest that a
distinctive 'Penang style' of Malay manuscript illumination may have flourished
in the early 19th century.
An '
Acehnese
style' of manuscript
illumination
After
the fall of Melaka to the Portuguese in 1511, the kingdom of Aceh in north
Sumatra rose to become the most powerful Islamic state in Southeast Asia in the
16th and early 17th centuries, with a thriving literary culture.  Aceh was still an independent state in the
late 19th century when the Dutch colonial government based in Java was
attempting to consolidate and expand its control over the whole Indonesian
archipelago.  Aceh was attacked in 1873,
heralding a war which dragged on into the early 20th century.  During this long conflict, large numbers of
manuscripts were captured from Aceh, ending up partly in Batavia, where they
are now held in the National Library of Indonesia in Jakarta, and in Holland,
primarily in Leiden University Library, the Koninklijk Instituut voor Tropen in
Amsterdam, and the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde in Leiden.  Even where no information is given in the
manuscripts themselves, their Acehnese provenance may be determined by their
known status as war booty, or they may have been donated by well-known figures
in the military campaign.  The flip side
of this pillage is that there are probably more manuscripts from Aceh preserved
in public collections today than from almost any other Malay kingdom, and
despite the looting there are still substantial numbers of manuscripts in Aceh,
in the Museum Negeri Aceh, the Dayah Tanoh Abee, a traditional Islamic college,
and the Yayasan Ali Hasjmy in Banda Aceh.
From a survey of these manuscripts, which mostly date from the 19th
century, a distinct style of double-page illumination can be discerned.  The two defining features of this style are:
The text block is surrounded by a decorated rectangular border, the
verticals of which are extended up and down to form two columns flanking the
text block on left and right.  The tops
of these columns always slope inwards, usually in a wavy line.

On the outer three sides of the text block (i.e. top, bottom, and
facing the vertical edge of the page) are arches which may be semicircular,
triangular or ogival in shape.  The
arches on the vertical sides closest to the foredge are nearly always flanked
by two 'wings', which may be either delicate tendrils or more substantial
constructs.
In addition to these two major features,
certain other characteristic elements are very commonly found:
delicate finials may project from the cusps of the arches

the text block may be framed by a looped vine, which starts from each
of the four corner and rises to a loose intersection at the midpoint of each
side

there may be a plaited border

the colour palette is limited, generally comprising only red,
yellow/ochre and black, sometimes including brown and green, and occasionally
gold
So
far, over thirty manuscripts have been identified which fit this picture,
mostly dating from the late 18th and 19th centuries.  Over half the number are Qur'ans, and the others mostly contain
religious texts such as the popular Masail
al-muhtadi li ikhwan al-mubtadi and the Sirat
al-mustaqim of Nuruddin al-Raniri, one manuscript of which is said to have
been copied during the reign of Sultan Alauddin Muhammad Syah of Aceh
(r.1781-1795).  Twenty four manuscripts
have definite or very likely Acehnese provenances, while the remainder have
been identified as Acehnese on the basis of their decorative features,
including a Qur'an said to be 'written by a Malay', reproduced in 1913 in the
first edition of the Encylopaedia of
Islam (Vol.1, Pl.X).
This is not to suggest that all
manuscripts from Aceh conform to a single decorative template, and there are
many other illuminated manuscripts from Aceh with different decorative
features, such as a boldly-decorated Qur'an now in the Muzium Negeri Pulau
Pinang, formerly owned by Teungku Nyak Abu bin Teungku Chik Ahmad of Aceh
8
.  However, there are not such large numbers of
illuminated manuscripts in any other single style, and, conversely, no
manuscript which fits all the criteria above has been identified as coming from
anywhere else.  So we can have some
confidence in identifying a specific school of Acehnese manuscript
illumination, dating at least from the late 18th century and lasting into the
late 19th century.
Illuminated
manuscripts from the east coast
of the Malay peninsula
The
Acehnese style is characterized by its self-confidence and unswerving sense of
identity, a superb sense of architecture, and its striking and bold use of line
and colour.  But for greater delicacy, a
more subtle palette and a more refined aesthetic sensibility, we have to turn
to the Malay peninsula.  The numbers of
known illuminated manuscripts from this region are so much smaller that it is
more difficult to talk with conviction about identifiable styles of
illumination.  Nonetheless, it seems
probable that one of the finest schools of Malay manuscript illumination
flourished on the east coast of the Malay peninsula, in the states of
Terengganu and Kelantan and the southern Thai region of Patani, and two
distinctive features have been noted which may be characteristic of this
region.
The
first feature is a border hugging the outer edges of a double-page opening,
which is rounded at the corners and sometimes in its undulations mirrors and
complements the scalloped edges of the decorative frame around the text block.  From this outer border projects a series of
finials that reach out to smaller rays protruding from the decorative frame of
the text block, evoking the relationship between stalagmites and
stalactites.  This feature has been
noted in two Qur'an manuscripts which appear to be from Terengganu, one
apparently dated 1871 and now in the Muzium Islam (Manuskrip 1984:17; Tamadun
1997:206) and the second in the Muzium Budaya Melaka, and also in a guide to
reading the Qur'an (Manuskrip 1984:7).
The
second distinctive feature is a motif found usually in the arches that protrude
from the vertical sides of a double-page illuminated frame, but sometimes in
the top and bottom arches as well.  The
arches are formed by two interlocking 'waves' which are then surmounted by a
small ogival dome.  The seven
manuscripts noted with this feature include a prayerbook, Dala’il al-Khayrat by al-Jazuli, in the PMM (MS 1273); a Kitab Maulid in the Muzium Negeri
Kelantan with a Patani colophon (MZ(KN)146:86); a copy of the Hikayat Hang Tuah in the Muzium Negeri Terengganu
(H 83 10); and a very fine Qur'an acquired by the British Library in a London
auction in 1996 (Or.15227).  Possibly
the oldest example is a superb volume containing the Bustan al-Salatin and Taj
al-Salatin, acquired in Pontianak in 1812 and now in the Royal Asiatic
Society (Raffles Malay 42)
9
.   It should also be noted that so far, this
particular 'interlocking wave' motif has not been seen in published Qur'ans
from other parts of the Islamic world; nor is it known from manuscripts in
Indonesian or Dutch collections (which contain relatively few manuscripts from
the Malay peninsula).
If
indeed the motif does derive from the east coast of the peninsula, there is
another possible reason for the rarity of these manuscripts.  In 1882, a devastating fire in Terengganu
destroyed the Sultan's official residence and 1,600 other houses, doubtless
including those of court officials and aristocrats who would naturally live
near the palace.  This fire, which
'swept away all direct evidence of earlier Malay architecture in the Trengganu
capital' (Sheppard 1986:33) may also have wiped out, in a single blow, a large
proportion of the written heritage of the state.   For we know from two surviving letters that the quality of
illumination of royal letters in Terengganu in the early 19th century was
perhaps higher than in any other Malay state
10
,
yet few examples of fine old manuscripts from Terengganu are known.
Chinese
influence
The
third issue is the question of the influence of Chinese Islamic manuscripts on
Malay manuscript illumination.  Over the
past two decades, the international Islamic art market has witnessed the
emergence, for the first time, of substantial numbers of Chinese Qur'ans and
other Islamic manuscripts, dating from the 15th to the 19th centuries.
11
This entire genre of Qur'ans was almost
unknown prior to the 1980s, save for two examples in the Chester Beatty Library
in Dublin (Arberry 1967:78, Pl.70).  The
script and layout of these Qur'ans follows a standard format: double page
openings with decorated frames have three lines of text, while normal pages
have five lines.  Many Chinese Qur'ans
were created in sets of 30 separately-bound juz'
(a thirtieth-part of the Qur'an; plural: ajzÂ), rather than as
a single volume.   Two such Qur'an juz' are held in the Muzium Negeri Pulau
Pinang (PM/034/96 and PM/036/96), acquired in 1996 from a Muslim student from
China studying in Pahang;
12
another example is held in the Muzium Islam Melaka; and the British Library has
also purchased a number of individual juz'
over the past decade.
The
decorative elements of these Chinese Qur'ans appear to shed some light on
certain otherwise inexplicable illuminated Malay manuscripts.  This is particularly evident in the case of
some Malay manuscripts in the British Library from the John Leyden collection,
which were probably acquired either in Penang, where Leyden stayed with Raffles
from October 1805 until January 1806, or Melaka, where he stayed from April to
June 1811.  Several of his manuscripts -
notably a copy of the Hikayat Muhammad
Hanafiah, copied by Muhammad Kasim in 1805 (BL MSS Malay B.6, reproduced in
Gallop & Arps 1991:71) - have on the opening pages decorative rectangular
borders filled with a lotus flower in profile and trailing vines similar to
those found in Chinese Qur'ans.
Also
notable in Chinese Qur'ans is the incorporation of characteristically Chinese
architectural features in marginal ornamental devices, for example as sajdah markers indicating places for
prostration.  These architectural devices
help to explain the decoration in an extraordinary manuscript in the National
Library of Indonesia (A.70, reproduced in Kumar & McGlynn 1996:47) of the Mawlid sharaf al-anam, 'The birth of the
most noble of men', a text on the Prophet Muhammad, which is adorned with
numerous architectural constructs whose Chinese origin can now be more clearly
recognized.
It is
therefore possible that certain elements in Malay manuscript illumination may
be traced back to Chinese roots, especially in areas with large Chinese
populations like Penang, Melaka, Palembang and the north-coast cities of
Java.  Alternatively, in some cases the
shared ornamental vocabulary of some Malay and Chinese Islamic manuscripts may
reflect a common origin from Central Asian prototypes, disseminated east and
southeastwards over many centuries.
A
possible
'Penang style' of Malay manuscript
illumination
In the first case discussed above, enough pieces of the jigsaw can be
fitted together to reveal strong evidence of an Acehnese school of Malay
manuscript art.  In two other cases the
evidence is more scanty but suggests, firstly, an 'East Coast' style of
illumination, and secondly, the possible influence of  Chinese Islamic manuscripts on certain illuminated Malay
manuscripts.  In many, many more cases,
we only have individual manuscripts of great artistic interest but which cannot
yet be linked with others to tell a story.
One of the most impressive of such artistic icons is a superb
manuscript of the Taj al-Salatin,
'The Crown of Kings', in the British Library, which is perhaps one of the
finest examples of Malay manuscript illumination known.  This Malay text, an ethical guide for
rulers, was composed in Aceh in 1603 by Bukhari al-Johori ('of Johor', or
al-Jauhari, 'the jeweller'), and the British Library manuscript was copied in
Penang by a scribe named Muhammad bin Umar Syaikh Farid on 4 Zulhijah 1239
(Saturday 31 July 1824 AD).  Technically
almost flawless, it is nonetheless completely atypical for a Malay manuscript,
with countless features that set it apart from other illuminated Malay books.
13
While the stunning frontispieces draws
heavily on the artistic vocabulary of Indo-Persian and Ottoman manuscripts of
the 17th and 18th centuries, these elements are combined in a Malay fashion that
distinguishes this book from manuscripts from either of the possible source
cultures.  Particularly notable is the
setting of the lines of text on the first two pages within white cloudbands
edged with black ink against a ground of gold.
This is a very common illuminating device in Indian, Persian and Ottoman
manuscripts, but has not been encountered in any other Southeast Asian Islamic
manuscript.  Also very unusual in the
Malay context is the predominance of dark and light blue used in conjunction with
gold and yellow; the combination of blue and gold is again characteristic of
Islamic manuscripts west of the Malay world but is rarely found in Malay
manuscripts, where the dominant colours are red and yellow.  The manuscript is written on English paper
with a watermark date of 1820, which is burnished or polished: this is another
feature common to other Islamic manuscripts, but not Malay manuscripts.
The final pages containing the colophon, with the name of the scribe
and date of copying, are equally technically and artistically accomplished, but
rather different in stylistic tenor.  No
gold is used here, and the graduated multi-lobed outer frame is not commonly
found in other Islamic manuscripts, where - as in the frontispiece - lobed
frames tend to conform to a rectangular pattern.  The name of the scribe, and various pious benedictions in Arabic,
are given in three cartouches while the final one contains the date written in
Persian: this is yet another unusual feature for a Malay manuscript.  The scribe was therefore familiar with
Malay, Arabic and Persian, and may have been of Indian descent.
No comparable Malay manuscript which could shed light or contextualise
any of these unusual features in the Penang Taj
al-Salatin was known, until the recent appearance of a Qur'an in the Muzium
Negeri Pulau Pinang.  According to the
information label in the Museum, the original owner of this manuscript was
Encik Muhammad Noordin Merican, who in 1877 presented it to his son-in-law
Hasyim Yahya Merican, who in turn gave it to his daughter Che Ahmad Nachar (Ma'
Wan), who was the mother-in-law of Haji Fathil.
Although very different from the Taj
al-Salatin, this Qur'an too is copied with the greatest care and artistry,
with exquisite calligraphy and verse markers, and is itself in many ways an
equally unique and atypical illuminated manuscript.  Like many Malay Qur'ans, there are three major illuminated
double-page openings, at the beginning of the Qur'an, in the middle and at the
end.  But while most single-volume
Qur'ans just mark each 30th part of the text with a small decorative marginal
marker, this Penang Qur'an is unusual in marking each juz' with a full double-page decorated frame, every one of which is
unique, each based on a palette of red, yellow and green.
In the present context of our search for connections between
manuscripts, the most important feature is the shape of the outer lobed frame
of the double-page illuminations, which is remarkably similar in both the
Penang Qur'an and the Taj al-Salatin.  Although this is perhaps the only
characteristic common to the two manuscripts, it is deemed distinctive enough
to be significant, and suggests that this shape of frame might be
characteristic of a Penang style of illumination in the 19th century. But
perhaps even more striking is the individuality, creativity and extraordinary
level of technical accomplishment of both manuscripts, and the eclectic array
of sources, which in each manuscript has been absorbed and then re-proferred in
a wholly individual form, entirely consistent with multi-lingual, multi-ethnic
and multi-cultural world of Penang in the 19th century.
ENDNOTES
1.
I am extremely grateful to the Director of the Muzium Negeri Pulau Pinang (MNPP), Khoo Boo Chia, for enabling me to study the collection of Malay manuscripts belonging to the MNPP on 22.12.2000.
2.
For example, one of the finest examples of Malay manuscript art - the double-page illuminated frontispiece of a copy of the Bustan al-Salatin (RAS Raffles Malay 42, ff.1v-2r, reproduced in Gallop & Arps 1991:68-69) - is not even mentioned in two catalogue descriptions of this manuscript (van der Tuuk 1866:14,28; Ricklefs & Voorhoeve 1977:138).
3.
'Besides being most carefully drafted, a Malay letter had to be made as handsome as possible.  It was sometimes adorned with floral patterns such as we find one the illuminated pages of ancient books' (Wilkinson 1907:22).
4.
Compared with, for example, the (admittedly unique) Javanese work on manuscript illumination compiled in Yogyakarta in 1860 (RAS Javanese 46, reproduced in Gallop & Arps 1991:94-95).
5.
A notable exception is the collection of Qur'ans from Southeast Asia in Dutch institutions, which, by virtue of their large number, is presented as a cohesive whole in the most recent handlist of Arabic manuscripts in Dutch collections (Voorhoeve 1980:277-9).
6.
Up to twenty Southeast Asian Islamic manuscripts have appeared in London auction rooms between 1985 and 2002 (based on a study of catalogues published by Christie's, Sotheby's and Bonhams).
7.
See, for example, Gallop 1991; Gallop & Arps 1991; Ahmad 1992; Gallop 1994; Katalog 1995; Kumar & McGlynn 1996; Aksara 1997; Wieringa 1998.
8.
250 ff,  ca. 30 x 22 cm; recently rebound by Arkib Negara Malaysia and heavily laminated.  According to the information label in the manuscript, it was presented to the Museum by Puan Hajah Raguan bte Muhammad Haniff and her mother, Cik Fatimah bte Haji Hussain, of No.352 Dato Keramat Road, Penang; Cik Fatimah was a cousin of Teungku Nyak Abu.
9.
The spatial gulf between Pontianak and the East Coast is not, in itself, an insuperable obstacle to this theory.  Pontianak was an important staging post on the sea route between the east coast of the Malay peninsula and the islands of Riau-Johor.  There were also very close links between the ruling families of Pontianak and Johor, and between those of Johor and Terengganu, and it is likely that important manuscripts travelled between the courts as gifts or were sent for moral edification.
10.
Reproduced in Gallop 1994:39 and Wieringa 1998:388.
11.
For an introduction to this group of Qur'ans, see Bayani 1999:12-21.
12.
Pers.comm., Khoo Boo Chia, 22.12.2000.
13.
A full description of the illumination is given in Gallop 1991:174.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ahmad Jamal, Syed.  1992. Rupa dan jiwa. (2nd ed.)  Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Akimushkin, Oleg F. and Ivanov, Anatol A.  1979. The art of illumination.  In Basil Gray (ed) The arts of the book in central Asia, 14th-16th centuries, pp.35-57. London: Serindia.
Aksara.  [1997].  Aksara.  Jakarta: Yayasan Harapan Kita. (Indonesia indah; Buku ke-9).
Ali Wan Mamat, Wan Haji.  1997.  Kegiatan pengumpulan manuskrip Melayu di Malaya pada abad ke-19 dan 20.  Jurnal filologi Melayu, 6:101-112.
Arberry, A. J.  1967.  The Koran illuminated.  A handlist of the Korans in the Chester Beatty Library.  Dublin: Hodges, Figgis & Co.
Bayani, Manijeh.  1999. Manijah Bayani, Anna Contadini and Tim Stanley.  The decorated word.  Qur'ans of the 17th to 19th centuries.  Part One. London: Nour Foundation. (The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art; Vol. IV, Part 1).
Brown, Michelle P.  1994.  Understanding illuminated manuscripts: a guide to technical terms.  London: The J. Paul Getty Museum in association with The British Library .
Ettinghausen, Richard.  1939.  Manuscript illumination.  In Arthur Upham Pope (ed), Phyllis Ackerman (asst. ed.),  A survey of Persian art. from prehistoric times to the present;  v.3, pp.1937-74.  London: published under the auspices of the American Institute for Iranian Art and Archaeology [by] Oxford University Press.
Gallop, Annabel Teh.  1991.  Malay manuscript art: the British Library collection.  British Library Journal, 17(2):167-189.
Gallop, Annabel Teh.  1994.  The legacy of the Malay letter.  Warisan warkah Melayu.  With an essay by E. Ulrich Kratz.  London: published by the British Library for the National Archives of Malaysia.
Gallop, Annabel Teh and Arps, Bernard.  1991.  Golden letters: writing traditions of Indonesia.  Surat emas: budaya tulis di Indonesia.  London: British Library.
Katalog.  1995.  Katalog pameran manuskrip Melayu antarabangsa.  Kuala Lumpur: Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia.
Kumar, Ann and McGlynn, John H. (eds.).  1996.  Illuminations: writing traditions of Indonesia.  Jakarta: Lontar.
Manuskrip.  1984.  Manuskrip Melayu warisan budaya negara.  Kuala Lumpur: Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia.
Polosin, Valery V.  1995.  To the method of describing illuminated Arabic manuscripts.  Manuscripta Orientalia, 1(2):16-21.
Ricklefs, M. C. and Voorhoeve, P.  1977.  Indonesian manuscripts in Great Britain.  Oxford: Oxford University Press. (London Oriental Bibliographies; 5).
Sheppard, Mubin.  1986.  A royal pleasure ground: Malay decorative arts and pastimes.  Singapore: Oxford University Press.
Tamadun.  1997.  Warisan tamadun Islam.  The heritage of Islamic civilisation.  Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka dan Bahagian Hal Ehwal Islam, Jabatan Perdana Menteri.
Tuuk, H. N. van der.  1866.  Short account of the Malay manuscripts belonging to the Royal Asiatic Society.  Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, New series, 2:85-135.
Voorhoeve, P.  1980.  Handlist of Arabic manuscripts in the Library of the University of Leiden and other collections in the Netherlands. (2nd enlarged ed..  The Hague: Leiden University Press. (Codices manuscripti; VII).
Waley, Muhammad Isa.  1997.  Illumination and its functions in Islamic manuscripts. François Déroche and Francis Richard (eds), Scribes et manuscrits du Moyen-Orient, pp.87-113.  Paris: Bibliothèque nationale de France.
Wieringa, E. P.  1998. E.P. Wieringa, ed. by Joan de Lijster-Streef and Jan Just Witkam. Catalogue of Malay and Minangkabau manuscripts in the Library of Leiden University and other collections in the Netherlands.  Vol. I.  Comprising the acquisitions of Malay manuscripts in Leiden University Library up to the year 1896. Leiden: Legatum Warnerianum in Leiden University Library.
Wilkinson, R. J.  1907.  Papers on Malay subjects. Malay literature. Part III. Letter-writing.  Kuala Lumpur: Government of the F.M.S.
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Bicara

by Amelia Fyfield

The word bicara is assigned several meanings by Malay-English
dictionaries. These can be roughly summarized into two categories of meaning,
namely: discussion or business and opinion. This essay
will explore both these definitions, and the contexts in which they apply, and
finally will consider whether this list of equivalent English terms is sufficiently
comprehensive.

The first category of definition, as circumscribed by
the terms discussion or business, involves the concepts of debate,
examination by argument, and dealings with men and matters. Central to all these
processes is the concept of reaching a resolution or settlement. So where bicara
is used as a noun in the sense of something to be resolved (putus), the
terms discussion or business seem to apply almost universally.
See for example:

Syahadan barang suatu bicara negeri jika tiada Laksamana
tiadalah putus.

Thus whatever the state business, if the Admiral was not present it would not be resolved.

and :

...jika sesuatu bicara, jika Hang Tuah belum masuk, bicaranya belum putus.

...if there was a discussion, if Hang Tuah had not yet entered, the discussion / business was not yet resolved.

The second term, 'opinion', really covers a spectrum of meaning, and as such seems to apply in a wider variety of contexts.  On the one hand, opinion can be speculative or subjective : a "...belief based on grounds short of proof..." On the other, it may denote authoritative or objective "...professional advice".

'Opinion', given the first of these connotations is therefore an appropriate translation for the word 'bicara' as it is used in the text Sejarah Melayu when Sultan Mansor Syah suspects Sri Nara Diraja of having harboured Hang Tuah.  The specific passage:

Hanya kepada bicara kita ada juga si Tuah

in Brown's translation finds itself equated with the English phrase, "I have a feeling that...", indicating the formation of a judgement based on somewhat dubious evidence.

More commonly, though, it seems the word 'opinion' can be said to apply in its more authoritative sense as indicating advice given on a professional level.  Looking at the parties by which it is used and their socio-political context, it seems 'opinion' given this connotation perhaps best describes the function of the term bicara in the question, "Apa bicara...?"  Most frequently it is the Sultan himself who is heard to utter this phrase, and it is almost always directed to his ministers, either individually (eg. "Setelah Demang Lebar Daun datang, maka titah baginda, 'Apa bicara paman...'"), or as a collective group, usually assembled in the balai (eg. "Maka titah baginda, 'Sekarang apa bicara segala orang...'").  Though one may at first doubt the appropriateness of this definition, given the deference of the ruler to the opinion of his subjects that the frequent use of this phrase suggests, the peculiarly diverse nature of real power within the administrative and political system characteristic of the Malay Sultanates, and the role that hikayat literature played in perpetuating this structure, nevertheless supports this interpretation.

Traditionally, the basis of the Sultan's claim to power was notional rather than actual. Says Hashim, "...the concept of ruling and the [Sultan's] prerogative to rule...were primarily spiritual and... [only] put into practice through the physical authority of the state officials..."  Given the geographically fragmented nature of the Sultanate, consisting as it did of an assortment of river-based communities, Gullick concurs in his functionalist study of indigenous Malay political systems that the holders of 'real power' within the system were the district chiefs of each river-based territory, to whom fell the 'hard facts' of government, including "local administration, justice, defence, revenue collection and general leadership." On this basis, a Sultan would be quite considerably constrained in the extent to which he could make purely autocratic decisions, against the will of these 'administrators', and yet be confident of maintaining his rule.  This was particularly so, says Hashim, because the mechanism linking the rakyat to the Sultan was the officials, meaning "...followers were apt to be disloyal to their overlord...to defend the reputation of their particular master..." As such, the sovereignty of the Malay Sultan was heavily dependent upon the support of district chiefs.

The extent to which this was recognised by Malay rulers is evident from a report from the British Governor of the Straits Settlements, which records the well-established Sultan Ahmad of Pahang as explaining that on a matter of state, "...he must ask the opinion of the Chiefs of the Ulu."  In fact, British Agents at the turn of the century frequently noted that in several Malay Sultanates, informally constituted state advisory councils existed before their arrival.  Clearly it was understood that, for the preservation of the realm, consultation with one's chiefs, who controlled the state apparatus, was essential.  Recognition by the ruling elite that a Sultan's sovereignty hinged on cooperation with administratively powerful officials also gave fostered a concern to inculcate in one's successors the concept of consultative rule.  Says Hashim "...in order to secure the...system, a political philosophy regarding this type of cooperation was instilled..."

That this should have ramifications for the reading of hikayat literature is a consequence of the central role these works played in instilling political values. That there was a perceived connection between the hikayat and the maintenance of the Sultan's sovereignty is evidenced by an observation, made by Dutch scholar Valentijn, that, "The Mohammedan Princes and their priests are almost the unique possessors of these works and it is the greatest difficulty...to get...one."  That this connection was related primarily to their content, and the enlightenment it held for future generations, is suggested by the long tradition noted by Milner which required that young princes study hikayat.  The role of the hikayat in reinforcing fundamental political philosophies was such that, says De Jong, in some instances the purpose of hikayat literature was,"...most important, to provide a...truly sacral code of political conduct by which...greatness could be retained..." .

That the importance of consultation was one such theme of hikayat literature appears quite evident from a reading of the Sejarah Melayu.  Therein, for example, is to be found the following advice from the great Sultan Masor Syah on his death bed:

...hendaklah engkau mufakat dengan segala menteri dan segala orang besar-besarmu, kerana raja itu, jikalau bagaimana sekalipun bijaksananya dan tahunya, jikalau tiada mufakat dengan segala pegawainya di mana akan dapat ia melakukan bijaksana itu?  Dan lagi tiada akan sentosa kerajaannya, kerana raja-raja itu upama api, akan segala menteri itu upama kayu; jikalau tiada kayu, di manakah api itu bernyala?

So the importance of consultation is promoted for two reasons: the first being that the implementation of policy (and therefore the exercise of the Sultan's will) was dependent upon officers of state, and the second being that the very safety of the realm depended on the contentment of the Sultan's ministers.  These are themes which occur quite regularly in hikayat literature.  Interestingly also, notes Milner in his analysis of the Hikayat Pahang, whilst the successful rulers are portrayed as the embodiment of a just, consultative government, their enemies and would-be rulers are the antithesis of the ideal, being described as sombong (arrogant) and dzalil (cruel and tyrannical).  In this context, the frequent use of bicara in the posing of questions (particularly those which move from governor to governed) should be viewed as an extension of the undertaking to reinforce the importance of consultation with one's administrators; an illustration of the concept's application in the day-to-day affairs of court.  Therefore, where it appears in the context of a request, bicara is rightly to be read as meaning opinion in the sense of professional or authoritative advice.

However, where the term bicara does not appear in the context of a question, its import ought really reflect the hierarchical nature of interpersonal relations so central to the cohesion of the Sultanate form of government.  As such, some extrapolation from the general synonymy of bicara and opinion may be necessary to convey the full implications of the Malay word in the context of hikayat literature.  Within the Malay Sultanates, inherent power differentials were primarily determinative of interaction in formal contexts.  Says Gullick, "There was a well-recognised etiquette...for proceedings in the balai.  The...officers of state...with due deference...gave their advice taking into account what the ruler appeared to expect.  To argue with the ruler...or...forward proposals which he was unlikely to accept was contrary to convention."  The 'due deference' described suggests that  where a subject is heard to offer, "Pada bicara..." the input which follows is not intended to place the recipient under any compulsion, meaning that mere opinion is indeed an apt translation.  By contrast, however, the obvious importance attached to the Sultan's wishes indicates that if he were to make a suggestion of any kind, it would presumably be afforded more weight than mere 'opinion' implies.  Indeed, Hashim states, "...the position of the ruler was...exalted...to the extent that his..mere gesture [was] likely to be taken as an order to be carried out..."  Given also that bicara is derived from Sanskrit where it denotes a plan, it therefore seems appropriate that, where reference is made by a subject to the bicara of his ruler, it be given such emphatic overtones.

In the context of hikayat literature, this is so much more the case given that the hikayat medium has often been credited with functioning as a didactic tool of the ruling elite.  The extent to which the ruling elite controlled the hikayat medium was considerable.  In addition to maintaining a close guard on the manuscripts themselves (as mentioned earlier), Wilkinson refers to one ruler who "...destroyed deliberately a number of documents that did not corroborate his own version of history..."  Yet this is not to suggest that exposure to hikayat literature was restricted to court circles.  On the contrary, Malay Sultans maintained their own storytellers, Penglipor Lara, who read aloud to the populace from hikayat literature; a contemporary report from the early 1800's indicating that the Sultan of Deli had 'papers' read to his people.  John Anderson records seeing one of the "King's men reading with a loud voice, in a circle of about two hundred people, from a book..." (presumed to be the Hikayat Iskandar).  The controlled dissemination of the hikayat seems to suggest that they were an important means of establishing or reinforcing certain institutions and practices favourable to the Sultan.  Indeed, evidence suggests of hikayat literature that, "...those who listened learned to behave properly and acquired a knowledge of Malay culture," as defined by the ruling elite under whose patronage it was fostered.  Says Milner (of the Hikayat Deli), each of "...[Its] episodes...serve as parables to illustrate or inculcate some facet of Malay political procedure...and to articulate certain critical assumptions...[which] formed the basis of Malay political action..."

Perhaps the most critical of these assumptions to the functioning of the Malay Sultanate, given the primarily 'spiritual' nature of the Sultan's prerogative to rule (expounded above), was that the Sultan was the organising principle of the Malay world.  Hashim discusses the religious, traditional and mystical justifications of this concept in the Sejarah Melayu.  Milner too canvasses the various ways in which this theme was articulated in the Hikayat Deli.  The idea of feudal loyalty and unquestioning deference to the Sultan's will was undoubtedly a significant part of this philosophy.  The Sejarah Melayu, for example, tells audiences that

...kerana adat hamba Melayu itu tiada dapat menyalahi kehendak tuannya.

The obvious importance of the hikayat as a means of perpetuating the Sultanate system of rule, and the associated value in reinforcing the view that the Sultan's merest wish was to be taken as binding, supports the conclusion that, in an English translation, a reference to one's own bicara offered to a superior should always be translated to mean opinion.  Thus, for example, where Sri Nara Diraja is reported as saying:

Tuanku, pada bicara patik, baik juga duli Yang Dipertuan menyuruh membantu Pahang...,

the term bicara is rightly to be translated as opinion.

For these same reasons, any reference by an inferior to the bicara of his better should be taken to mean plan or decision.  Hence where an inferior undertakes to 'follow' his master's bicara, eg:

Ya tuanku Syah Alam, mana bicara yang dipertuan patik sekalian turut,

plan (meaning way of proceeding) seems the most appropriate translation.

Logically, reference by the Sultan to his own bicara ought not to be translated as plan, given that such an emphatic statement of intention would tend to undermine the concern demonstrated in other parts of the text to promote the concept of consultative rule.  Therefore, opinion ought generally be applied, perhaps supplemented by the slightly more imperative 'purpose' (in the sense of design or intention) where the Sultan is referring to a royal desire (hendak).  For example:

Maka titah baginda, 'Hai Mamak Bendahara, adapun pada bicara kita hendak mengutus kebenua Keling kepada saudara kita.'

So his Highness commanded, "O Mamak Bendahara, it is also to my purpose that I wish to send you as a herald to the continent of Keling."

In conclusion, the term bicara can, in different contexts, signify both discussion or business (something to be settled or resolved) and opinion (both in a speculative and an authoritative sense).  Yet given the complexities of the social hierarchy which governed personal interaction in the Malay Sultanates, and the extent to which hikayat literature was used to exemplify and reinforce this structure, it seems the existing definition of bicara provided by English-Malay dictionaries should rightly be expanded to include the terms plan and purpose.

Bibliography

Brown, C.C. (trans) , Sejarah Melayu or Malay Annals, OUP, Kuala Lumpur, 1970

The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English  5th ed.  H.W. Fowler and F.G. Fowler (eds) OUP, London, 1964

Gullick, J.M. Indigenous Political Systems of Western Malaya  OUP, London, 1965

Gullick, J.M. Malay Society in the Late Nineteenth Century: The Beginnings of Change  OUP, Singapore, 1987

Hashim, Muhammad Yusoff, The Malay Sultanate of Malacca: A Study of Various Aspects of Malacca in the 15th and 16th Centuries in Malaysian History  Ministry of Education Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, 1992

Hikayat Hang Tuah, Kassim Ahmad (ed), Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1968

Jeran, Kalthum (ed), Hikayat Pahang, Penerbit Fajar Bakti, Petaling Jaya, 1986

Malayan and Indonesian Studies; Essays presented to Sir Richard Winstedt on his 85th birthday, John Bastin & R. Roolvink (eds.), OUP, Kuala Lumpur, 1964

Mulyadi, S.W.R.  Hikayat Inderaputera: A Malay Romance  Foris, Dordrecht, 1983

Shellabear, W.G.(trans), Sejarah Melayu (3rd ed), Penerbit Fajar Bakti, Kuala Lumpur, 1977

Sulalatus Salatin (Sejarah Melayu),  A. Samad Ahmad (ed), Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1979

Wilkinson, R.J. A Malay-English Dictionary (Romanised) Macmillan, Mytilene, 1932, reprinted London, 1959

Winstedt, R.O. An Unabridged English-Malay Dictionary (2nd ed),  Marican & Sons, Singapore, 1960

Winstedt, R.O. An Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary  Kelly & Walsh, Singapore, 1955
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`Aqâ´id al-Nasafî

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list of words
List of words
Common words listed by frequency ( ‰ )
below
Double-click on any word to search for it in context.
A
A
B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

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Q

R

S

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U

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Y

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Abi  .. 1

Abu  .. 1

acaranya  .. 1

ada  .. 20

adakalanya  .. 5

adalah  .. 1

Adam  .. 1

adanya  .. 13

adapun  .. 5

`adat  .. 2

afdal  .. 1

`Affan  .. 1

agama  .. 6

agamanya  .. 3

Ahahu  .. 1

Ahl  .. 4

ahli  .. 1

Ahmad  .. 2

air  .. 1

ajal  .. 1

ajalnya  .. 1

`ajma´  .. 1

akan  .. 37

akhirat  .. 3

Akhir  .. 1

akmal  .. 1

akshara  .. 1

Aku  .. 2

`Ala  .. 1

`alam  .. 7

alayhi  .. 1

`alayhi  .. 11

al  .. 31

`Ali  .. 2

Allah  .. 55

Allahu  .. 9

`amal  .. 2

amar  .. 1

amat  .. 1

`am  .. 3

ampun  .. 1

ampunnya  .. 1

anak  .. 3

anggota  .. 2

`anhum  .. 1

antara  .. 3

apabila  .. 2

apa  .. 1

api  .. 1

aqal  .. 1

a`rad  .. 2

`arad  .. 2

Ardi  .. 1

arti  .. 3

artinya  .. 1

asa  .. 1

asap  .. 1

`asi  .. 1

atas  .. 23

atasnya  .. 3

atau  .. 7

a`yan  .. 2

azal  .. 3

azali  .. 1

B

A
B
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badihah  .. 1

ba´  .. 1

bagai  .. 4

bagi  .. 22

baginya  .. 3

bahagia  .. 1

bahana  .. 1

bahanya  .. 1

bahaya  .. 1

bahwa  .. 13

baik  .. 2

Bakr  .. 1

balas  .. 1

bangsa  .. 1

Bani  .. 1

banyak  .. 1

Bapa  .. 1

barang  .. 6

Basir  .. 1

Batiniyyah  .. 1

bau  .. 1

beberapa  .. 5

beku  .. 1

belum  .. 1

benar  .. 2

benuanya  .. 1

beraja  .. 1

berapa  .. 1

berbahagia  .. 2

berbaik  .. 1

Berbangkit  .. 1

berbetulan  .. 1

berbuat  .. 1

berbunyi  .. 1

berdiri  .. 6

berhingga  .. 1

beringan-ringan  .. 1

berita  .. 1

berjalan  .. 1

berkaa  .. 1

berkata  .. 6

berkata-kata  .. 2

berkehendak  .. 4

berkenankan  .. 2

berkurang  .. 1

berlaku  .. 1

bermain  .. 1

bermula  .. 65

bersabda  .. 2

bersalahan  .. 1

bersandar  .. 1

bersendakan  .. 1

bersetengah  .. 2

bersuamikan  .. 1

bersuku  .. 3

bersusun  .. 1

bertambah  .. 2

bertannung  .. 1

bertanung  .. 1

bertempat  .. 1

bertemu  .. 2

berubah  .. 3

besar  .. 6

betapa  .. 2

Betul  .. 2

Bi  .. 1

bilang  .. 3

bintang  .. 1

binyasa  .. 1

Bismillahil  .. 1

buddi  .. 3

budi  .. 3

bukan  .. 14

bunuh  .. 1

C

A

B
C
D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

cahaya  .. 1

cawang  .. 1

celaka  .. 3

cenderung  .. 2

ceritera  .. 3

ceriterakan  .. 2

citarasa  .. 1

cucu  .. 1

D

A

B

C
D
E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

Dabbat  .. 1

Dajjal  .. 1

dalam  .. 21

dalamnya  .. 3

dalil  .. 5

dalilnya  .. 1

dan  .. 266

dapat  .. 7

dari  .. 9

daripada  .. 63

daripadanya  .. 6

darma  .. 1

daruhaka  .. 2

daruri  .. 3

datang  .. 2

demikian  .. 3

dengan  .. 57

dengar  .. 1

diadakan  .. 2

diadakannya  .. 1

dia  .. 22

diam  .. 1

diampuninya  .. 1

dianiaya  .. 1

dibaca  .. 1

dibalas  .. 1

Dibangun  .. 1

dibelakang  .. 1

diberati  .. 1

diberi  .. 2

diberinya  .. 1

dibicara  .. 1

dibilang  .. 1

dibinasakan  .. 1

dibunuh  .. 1

diceriterakan  .. 4

Didahulukan  .. 1

didengar  .. 1

didiamkannya  .. 1

di  .. 1

digamari  .. 1

digemari  .. 1

dihafazkan  .. 1

dihinggakan  .. 1

dijadikan  .. 2

dikata  .. 1

dikatanya  .. 2

dikehendakinya  .. 1

dikekalkan  .. 1

dikelubung  .. 1

dikemudiankannya  .. 1

diketahui  .. 3

dikuatkan  .. 1

dilihat  .. 1

dimakan  .. 2

dimuliakan  .. 1

dinanti  .. 1

din  .. 3

dinyatakan  .. 1

dipaccat  .. 1

dipalu  .. 1

dipecahkan  .. 1

dipecat  .. 1

dipelihara  .. 1

diperikan  .. 2

diperoleh  .. 1

diperolehlah  .. 1

diquwwatkan  .. 1

diri  .. 1

dirinya  .. 2

dirupakan  .. 1

disekutukan  .. 1

disharatkan  .. 3

dishiksha  .. 1

disiksa  .. 1

disuratkan  .. 1

disuruhkan  .. 1

ditentukan  .. 1

ditolong  .. 1

diturunkan  .. 1

diturunkannya  .. 1

dosa  .. 8

dosha  .. 8

dua  .. 3

du`a  .. 1

duha  .. 1

dunia  .. 2

dusta  .. 2

E

A

B

C

D
E
F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

empat  .. 1

erti  .. 2

esa  .. 5

esanya  .. 1

F

A

B

C

D

E
F
G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

farad  .. 1

fardu  .. 2

fasiq  .. 3

fatwa  .. 1

fihaq  .. 1

fi`il  .. 2

fiili  .. 1

fi`li  .. 1

G

A

B

C

D

E

F
G
H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

ganti  .. 1

ghaib  .. 1

gugur  .. 1

guru  .. 1

H

A

B

C

D

E

F

G
H
I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

Habashah  .. 1

hadd  .. 2

hadith  .. 2

hadrat  .. 1

hai  .. 2

hajatnya  .. 1

hajj  .. 3

hajji  .. 1

halal  .. 1

hal  .. 1

hamba  .. 14

hambanya  .. 2

Hanafi  .. 1

Hanbal  .. 1

haqiqat  .. 2

haqq  .. 4

haram  .. 4

hari  .. 1

harus  .. 6

haruslah  .. 1

Hashim  .. 1

hati  .. 1

Hawd  .. 1

Hayat  .. 1

hendak  .. 2

hidup  .. 3

hijrat  .. 1

hikmat  .. 1

hilang  .. 1

hingga  .. 1

Hisab  .. 1

hiya  .. 1

hukum  .. 4

hukumnya  .. 1

I

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H
I
J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

ia  .. 66

iaitu  .. 4

iaitulah  .. 1

iasiq  .. 1

ibn  .. 3

ikhlasnya  .. 1

ikhtiyar  .. 1

iktisabi  .. 1

ilaha  .. 1

il  .. 1

ilham  .. 2

illa  .. 1

ilmu  .. 1

`ilmu  .. 12

Ilmunya  .. 1

`Ilmunya  .. 1

imam  .. 6

iman  .. 6

indah  .. 1

indera  .. 3

ini  .. 3

inilah  .. 1

insha´  .. 1

iqrar  .. 3

iradat  .. 1

iradatnya  .. 1

`Isa  .. 4

isi  .. 2

islam  .. 13

istidlal  .. 1

istidlali  .. 1

istita`at  .. 3

`isyan  .. 1

i`tiqadkan  .. 1

itu  .. 139

itulah  .. 4

J

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I
J
K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

jadi  .. 3

jaganya  .. 1

jalan  .. 5

Jama`ah  .. 1

jamad  .. 1

jangan  .. 1

janji  .. 2

jatuh  .. 2

jauh  .. 2

jawhar  .. 5

jika  .. 1

jisim  .. 4

jua  .. 6

juga  .. 17

jum`at  .. 1

K

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J
K
L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

Ka`bah  .. 1

kaca  .. 1

kafir  .. 1

kakalnya  .. 1

Kalam  .. 1

kalanya  .. 5

kama  .. 1

Kami  .. 1

kanak-kanak  .. 1

karamat  .. 4

karana  .. 2

karena  .. 6

Karni  .. 1

Kata  .. 2

kaya  .. 1

keadaan  .. 4

keadaannya  .. 1

kebajikan  .. 2

kebaktian  .. 3

kebesarannya  .. 1

kecil  .. 2

kedua  .. 5

keduanya  .. 7

keempat  .. 2

keesaan  .. 1

ke  .. 1

kegemaran  .. 1

kegemarannya  .. 1

kehendak  .. 3

kehendaknya  .. 2

Kehidupan  .. 1

kejahatan  .. 1

keji  .. 1

kekal  .. 2

keliaran  .. 1

kelihatan  .. 1

kelima  .. 2

keluar  .. 3

Keluarganya  .. 2

keluarnya  .. 1

kemudian  .. 8

kenyataan  .. 1

kepada  .. 4

kepadanya  .. 1

kerajaan  .. 2

Kerajaannya  .. 1

keras  .. 1

kerja  .. 1

kesempurnaan  .. 3

kesuciannya  .. 1

kesudahan  .. 1

ketahuilah  .. 1

ketiga  .. 3

ketika  .. 1

ketinggiannya  .. 1

khabar  .. 6

khalifah  .. 1

Khattab  .. 1

khilafat  .. 1

khurma  .. 1

kiranya  .. 2

kitab  .. 5

kita  .. 12

kota  .. 1

kuasa  .. 4

kufur  .. 11

kullama  .. 1

kull  .. 1

Kumulai  .. 2

L

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K
L
M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

La  .. 1

lagi  .. 2

lain  .. 4

lainnya  .. 3

laki-laki  .. 1

laku  .. 2

lalu  .. 1

lama  .. 1

langit  .. 2

larangnya  .. 1

lati  .. 1

layak  .. 1

lebih  .. 1

lenyap  .. 2

l  .. 1

lidah  .. 4

lima  .. 4

Llahi  .. 1

M

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L
M
N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

Madinah  .. 1

maghrib  .. 3

mahabesar  .. 1

maha  .. 4

Mahamulia  .. 1

Mahamurah  .. 2

Mahatahu  .. 1

Ma´juj  .. 1

maka  .. 21

makanan  .. 2

makhluqat  .. 1

makhluq  .. 3

Makkah  .. 1

mala´ikat  .. 4

Malik  .. 1

mana  .. 1

ma`na  .. 1

manakala  .. 1

manfa`at  .. 1

manushia  .. 7

manusia  .. 10

mardiyyah  .. 1

ma`rifah  .. 1

ma`rifat  .. 3

masa  .. 3

masanya  .. 1

mashaf  .. 1

mashhur  .. 1

mashriq  .. 1

ma`siat  .. 2

masuk  .. 3

matahari  .. 3

mati  .. 2

mau  .. 1

mayyit  .. 2

ma`zul  .. 1

mehabisi  .. 1

mehadap  .. 1

mehalalkan  .. 1

Mehendaki  .. 2

melainkan  .. 3

melakukan  .. 1

melalui  .. 1

melawan  .. 2

melemahkan  .. 1

melihat  .. 7

meluluskan  .. 2

memalas  .. 1

memasukkan  .. 1

mematikan  .. 1

membahagiakan  .. 1

membahagi  .. 1

Membaharui  .. 1

membawa  .. 1

membenari  .. 1

memberatkan  .. 1

memberi  .. 7

memberikan  .. 3

memberitahu  .. 1

membolehkan  .. 1

memelihara  .. 1

memeliharakan  .. 1

memerikan  .. 3

memeri  .. 2

memeritahu  .. 1

memfardukan  .. 1

memicara  .. 1

memohonkan  .. 1

memutuskan  .. 1

menamai  .. 1

menanggungkan  .. 1

menanyai  .. 1

mencelakakan  .. 1

menceriterai  .. 1

mendirikan  .. 3

mendukakan  .. 1

menegah  .. 1

Menengar  .. 2

menerima  .. 1

mengadakan  .. 4

mengajari  .. 1

mengaku  .. 1

mengambil  .. 1

mengampun  .. 1

mengampuni  .. 1

menganiaya  .. 1

Mengasihani  .. 2

mengeluarkan  .. 1

mengembalikan  .. 1

mengenai  .. 1

mengenal  .. 1

mengeras  .. 1

mengerjakan  .. 1

mengesakan  .. 1

mengetahui  .. 2

menggagahi  .. 1

menghalalkan  .. 1

mengharuskan  .. 1

menghasilkan  .. 3

Menghendaki  .. 1

menghidupkan  .. 1

mengiktikad  .. 1

mengira-ngirai  .. 1

mengi`tiqadkan  .. 1

mengucap  .. 1

menjadakan  .. 1

menjadikan  .. 4

menolakkan  .. 1

menunjuki  .. 1

menunjukkan  .. 1

menuntut  .. 2

menyampaikan  .. 1

menyanggerahakan  .. 1

menyapu  .. 1

menyatakan  .. 1

menyebut  .. 2

menyeksa  .. 2

menyekutui  .. 1

menyeriterakan  .. 3

menyerupai  .. 3

menyesatkan  .. 1

menyiksha  .. 2

menyucikan  .. 1

menyungguhkan  .. 2

menyuruh  .. 1

menyuruhkan  .. 2

mereka´  .. 28

mereka  .. 9

mereka´itu  .. 28

min  .. 2

minuman  .. 1

mi`raj  .. 1

mozah  .. 1

mubarak  .. 1

Muhammad  .. 11

muha  .. 1

muhdath  .. 1

mu`jizat  .. 3

mujtahid  .. 1

mukawwan  .. 1

mukmin  .. 1

mulia  .. 2

mu´min  .. 7

mu´mun  .. 1

Munkar  .. 2

murah  .. 1

murakkab  .. 2

Mursalin  .. 1

mutawatir  .. 1

muwafaqat  .. 1

N

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M
N
O

P

Q

R

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W

Y

Z

‰

nabawiyyah  .. 1

nabi  .. 12

Nabinya  .. 2

nahi  .. 1

naik  .. 2

Nakir  .. 2

nama  .. 4

namanya  .. 2

naqal  .. 1

naraka  .. 3

Nasafi  .. 2

Nasfi  .. 2

nass  .. 1

negeri  .. 4

ni`mat  .. 2

nusrat  .. 1

nyata  .. 3

nyatalah  .. 1

nyatanya  .. 1

O

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N
O
P

Q

R

S

T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

oleh  .. 1

olehmu  .. 5

orang  .. 6

orang-orang  .. 1

P

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O
P
Q

R

S

T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

pada  .. 35

padahal  .. 1

padamu  .. 1

paddih  .. 1

pagi-pagi  .. 1

pahala  .. 3

pakaian  .. 1

palu  .. 1

panah  .. 1

panca´  .. 3

panca´indera  .. 3

pandita  .. 2

pangkat  .. 1

pecah  .. 1

pedih  .. 1

pegawai  .. 2

pekerjaan  .. 2

peliharakan  .. 1

pencium  .. 1

pencuri  .. 1

pendekkan  .. 1

penengar  .. 2

pengetahuan  .. 1

penghulu  .. 1

pengiringnya  .. 1

penglihat  .. 1

penguasa  .. 2

penguasanya  .. 1

penunjuk  .. 1

penyamun  .. 1

perasa  .. 2

perbantahan  .. 1

perbuatan  .. 4

perbuatannya  .. 2

perempuan  .. 1

perhimpunan  .. 1

peri  .. 5

perinya  .. 1

periringan  .. 1

periuk  .. 1

perjalanan  .. 2

perkara  .. 5

pertama  .. 3

Pesuruh  .. 6

Pesuruhnya  .. 4

pikirnya  .. 1

pinta  .. 2

pohonnya  .. 2

puasa  .. 4

pujian  .. 1

puji  .. 1

pulang  .. 2

puluh  .. 2

pun  .. 3

punya  .. 2

putus  .. 1

Putuslah  .. 1

Q

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P
Q
R

S

T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

qadanya  .. 1

qa´im  .. 1

qawm  .. 4

qiyamat  .. 1

qubur  .. 1

quburnya  .. 1

Qudrat  .. 1

Qudratnya  .. 2

Qur´an  .. 2

Quraysh  .. 1

quwwat  .. 1

quwwatnya  .. 1

R

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q
R
S

T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

rabi`  .. 2

radiya  .. 1

rahim  .. 1

rahman  .. 1

rahmanil  .. 1

rahmat  .. 4

raja2  .. 1

raja-raja  .. 3

rampasan  .. 1

Rasul  .. 4

raya  .. 1

rela  .. 1

rida  .. 1

rizqi  .. 4

rizqinya  .. 1

rukunnya  .. 1

rupa  .. 1

S

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R
S
T

U

W

Y

Z

‰

sabab  .. 2

sabda  .. 1

sabt  .. 1

sabtu  .. 1

sadaqah  .. 1

sadiq  .. 2

sadyanya  .. 1

sadya  .. 2

Sahabat  .. 2

sah  .. 2

sahibiha  .. 1

saksi  .. 3

salah  .. 1

salam  .. 4

salat  .. 1

salbi  .. 1

salih  .. 4

salla  .. 9

sallam  .. 8

sama  .. 1

samanya  .. 1

sam`i  .. 2

sampai  .. 2

samuhanya  .. 2

sanat  .. 1

sattaru  .. 1

satu  .. 1

Sayyid  .. 1

sebab  .. 1

sebenarnya  .. 16

sebut  .. 5

sedia  .. 3

sedikit  .. 1

segala  .. 92

sejahtera  .. 1

sekalian  .. 18

seksa  .. 2

selama-lamanya  .. 1

sembahyang  .. 6

Semuha  .. 1

sentosa  .. 2

sentosha  .. 2

seorang  .. 2

seperti  .. 12

sepuluh  .. 1

seratus  .. 1

serta  .. 5

serupa  .. 1

seseorang  .. 3

sesuatu  .. 5

Sesudah  .. 1

sesungguhnya  .. 8

setengah  .. 4

seteru  .. 1

seyogianya  .. 1

Shafi`i  .. 1

shahadat  .. 3

shahr  .. 1

shakshi  .. 3

sharat  .. 1

shari`at  .. 3

Shaykh  .. 1

shiksha  .. 2

shorga  .. 4

sia-sia  .. 1

Siddiq  .. 1

sifat  .. 7

sifatnya  .. 6

sihat  .. 1

smi  .. 1

Su´al  .. 1

suara  .. 1

suatu  .. 16

Sufasta´iyyah  .. 1

suku  .. 2

sukunya  .. 3

Sunnah  .. 1

sunyi  .. 1

surat  .. 1

suruhnya  .. 1

syurganya  .. 1

T

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S
T
U

W

Y

Z

‰

Ta`ala  .. 30

ta`at  .. 3

tabi`atnya  .. 1

tadanu  .. 1

tahiyat  .. 1

tahu  .. 6

tahun  .. 3

Takhliq  .. 1

takut  .. 2

takwinnya  .. 1

Talib  .. 1

Tamm  .. 1

tanda  .. 1

tanya  .. 2

taqdirnya  .. 1

Tarziq  .. 1

tasdiq  .. 2

tatkala  .. 3

tawajjuh  .. 1

tawhid  .. 4

teguh  .. 2

teguhkan  .. 1

teguhnya  .. 1

telah  .. 7

telinga  .. 1

tempat  .. 4

tengah  .. 1

tentara  .. 1

terbesar  .. 1

terbit  .. 1

terbitlah  .. 1

terlebih  .. 7

tertentu  .. 1

tertolak  .. 1

terutama  .. 1

thabit  .. 7

thamin  .. 1

tiada  .. 73

tiadakan  .. 4

tiadalah  .. 1

tiadapat  .. 1

tiga  .. 2

timangnya  .. 1

Timbangan  .. 1

Tinggallah  .. 1

tinggi  .. 1

tis`ami´at  .. 1

tis`un  .. 1

titah  .. 1

titahnya  .. 1

Titi  .. 1

tuak  .. 1

tubuh  .. 1

tubuhnya  .. 1

tudanu  .. 1

Tuhan  .. 3

tujazu  .. 1

tunggal  .. 1

tunjuki  .. 1

Tunjukkan  .. 2

turun  .. 2

tuti`u  .. 1

U

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T
U
W

Y

Z

‰

ubatan  .. 1

udara  .. 1

`ulama´  .. 1

`Umar  .. 2

ummatnya  .. 1

untungnya  .. 1

`Uthman  .. 1

W

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U
W
Y

Z

‰

waadnya  .. 1

wa`adnya  .. 1

wa  .. 17

wa`idnya  .. 1

wali  .. 7

waqt  .. 1

warna  .. 2

wujudnya  .. 1

Y

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

W
Y
Z

‰

ya  .. 3

Ya´juj  .. 1

yang  .. 104

ya`ni  .. 54

yawm  .. 2

yogia  .. 2

Z

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

W

Y
Z
‰

zahirnya  .. 1

zakat  .. 4

zati  .. 1

zatnya  .. 2

By frequency

The most frequently occuring words (top 20%).

266 ..  dan

139 ..  itu

104 ..  yang

92 ..  segala

73 ..  tiada

66 ..  ia

65 ..  bermula

63 ..  daripada

57 ..  dengan

55 ..  Allah

54 ..  ya`ni

37 ..  akan

35 ..  pada

31 ..  al

30 ..  Ta`ala

28 ..  mereka´, mereka´itu

23 ..  atas

22 ..  bagi, dia

21 ..  dalam, maka

20 ..  ada

18 ..  sekalian

17 ..  juga, wa

16 ..  sebenarnya, suatu

14 ..  bukan, hamba

13 ..  adanya, bahwa, islam

12 ..  `ilmu, kita, nabi, seperti

11 ..  `alayhi, kufur, Muhammad

10 ..  manusia

9 ..  Allahu, dari, mereka, salla

8 ..  dosa, kemudian, sallam, sesungguhnya

7 ..  `alam, atau, dapat, keduanya, melihat, memberi, mu´min, sifat, telah, terlebih, thabit, wali

6 ..  agama, barang, berdiri, berkata, besar, daripadanya, harus, imam, iman, jua, karena, khabar, orang, Pesuruh, sembahyang, sifatnya, tahu

5 ..  adakalanya, adapun, beberapa, dalil, esa, jalan, jawhar, kalanya, kedua, kitab, olehmu, peri, perkara, sebut, serta, sesuatu

4 ..  Ahl, bagai, berkehendak, diceriterakan, haqq, haram, hukum, iaitu, `Isa, itulah, jisim, karamat, keadaan, kepada, kuasa, lain, lidah, lima, maha, mala´ikat, mengadakan, menjadikan, nama, negeri, perbuatan, Pesuruhnya, puasa, qawm, rahmat, Rasul, rizqi, salam, salih, setengah, shorga, tawhid, tempat, tiadakan, zakat
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