1

SCIENCE
FORM 1

FO
R

M
 1

SCIENCE

K
UR

IKU
LU

M STANDARD SEKOLAH MENENGAH

KSSM
  KEMENTERIAN PENDIDIKAN MALA

YS
IA

ISBN 978-967-14472-5-3

FT071002

DUAL  LANGUAGE  PROGRAMME
RUKUN NEGARA
Bahawasanya Negara Kita Malaysia

mendukung cita-cita hendak;

Mencapai perpaduan yang lebih erat dalam kalangan
seluruh masyarakatnya;

Memelihara satu cara hidup demokrasi;

Mencipta satu masyarakat yang adil di mana kemakmuran negara
akan dapat dinikmati bersama secara adil dan saksama;

Menjamin satu cara yang liberal terhadap
tradisi-tradisi kebudayaan yang kaya dan pelbagai corak;

Membina satu masyarakat progresif yang akan menggunakan
sains dan teknologi moden;

MAKA KAMI, rakyat Malaysia,
berikrar akan menumpukan

seluruh tenaga dan usaha kami untuk mencapai cita-cita tersebut
berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip yang berikut:

KEPERCAYAAN KEPADA TUHAN
KESETIAAN KEPADA RAJA DAN NEGARA

KELUHURAN PERLEMBAGAAN
KEDAULATAN UNDANG-UNDANG
KESOPANAN DAN KESUSILAAN

(Sumber: Jabatan Penerangan, Kementerian Komunikasi dan Multimedia Malaysia)
SCIENCE
Writers

Vengadesh Periasamy
Noraini binti Abdullah
Fauziah binti Mo’men

Editors
Nadiatulaini binti Azenan

Chan Chon Wah

Designer
Mohamad Akmal Ariff bin Kamarudin

Illustrator
Baharin bin Abd. Hamid

KURIKULUM STANDARD SEKOLAH MENENGAH

FORM 1

2016
ii

The publisher would like to thank the following
organisations for their invaluable assistance and
cooperation in the preparation of this book:

Committee members of Quality Control,
Textbook Division,
Ministry of Education Malaysia

Curriculum Development Division, Ministry of
Education Malaysia

Internal	Affairs	and	Research	Office,	Chief
Minister’s Department, Sabah

Department of Statistics Malaysia

KPM2016 ISBN 978-967-14472-5-3

First Published 2016
© Ministry of Education Malaysia

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
produced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior
permission of the Director General of Education, Ministry
of Education Malaysia. Negotiation is subject to the
calculation of royalty or honorarium.

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SERIAL BOOK NO. : 0197 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iii

Contents

Theme 1: Scientific Methodology                                                        1

Chapter 1  Introduction to Scientific Investigation    2
1.1 Science is Part of Daily Life 4
1.2 Your Science Laboratory 9
1.3 Physical Quantities and Their Units 15
1.4 The Use of Measuring Instruments, Accuracy, Consistency, Sensitivity and Errors 18
1.5 Density  28
1.6 Steps in a Scientific Investigation                                                                                33
1.7 Scientific Attitudes and Values in Carrying Out Scientific Investigations                         37
Summative Practice 1                                                                                41

Theme 2: Maintenance and Continuity of Life 43

Chapter 2     Cell as the Basic Unit of Life                        44
2.1 Cell – Structure, Function and Organisation                                                                       46
2.2 Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis                                                                             59
Summative Practice 2    67

Chapter 3     Coordination and Response 70
3.1 Homeostasis in Living Things                                                                                72
Summative Practice 3                                                                                85

Chapter 4     Reproduction 88
4.1 Sexual and Asexual Reproduction                                                                                90
4.2 Human Reproductive System                                                                                97
4.3 The Menstrual Cycle                                                                                104
4.4 Fertilisation and Pregnancy                                                                                107
4.5 Factors Affecting the Development of a Foetus and Baby                                                   111
4.6 Infertility and Contraception                                                                                115
4.7 Plant Reproduction                                                                                119
Summative Practice 4                                                                                133

Theme 3 : Exploration of Elements in Nature                                  135

Chapter 5     Matter 136
5.1 Matter in Nature                                                                                138
5.2 Three States of Matter                                                                                145
Summative Practice 5                                                                                159

iii
iv

Chapter 6     Periodic Table                           162
6.1 Classification of Elements                                164
6.2 Mixtures                                                 176
6.3 Compounds 185
Summative Practice 6                                                                                191

Chapter 7     Air                                           194
7.1 Composition of Air                                                    196
7.2 Combustion                                                                                204
7.3 Air Pollution                     208
Summative Practice 7  214

Theme 4: Energy and Sustainability of Life                                             219

Chapter 8     Light and Optics                          220
8.1 The Usage of Mirrors                                                          222
8.2 Properties of Light 229
8.3 Reflection of Light                                                                                230
8.4 Refraction of Light  233
8.5 Dispersion of Light                                                                                236
8.6 Scattering of Light                                                                                239
8.7 Addition and Subtraction of Light                                                                                241
Summative Practice 8                                                                                250

Theme 5 Exploration of Earth and Space             253

Chapter 9     Earth 254
9.1 The System and Structure of the Earth                                                                                256
9.2 Composition of the Earth                    261
9.3 Main Processes of the Earth                                                                                263
9.4 Geohazard Phenomena                                                                                265
9.5 Age of the Earth                                                                                268
9.6 Earth Resources and Applied Geology                                                                                270
Summative Practice 9                                                                                275

Answers  278
Glossary  284
Reference 287
Index  288
v

Introduction

The Science Form 1 Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Menengah (KSSM) Textbook is written for
Form 1 students based on Dokumen Standard Kurikulum dan Pentaksiran Tingkatan 1 prepared

by the Ministry of Education. KSSM is developed to cater to the new policies under the Malaysian
Education Blueprint 2013 - 2025. For the successful implementation of KSSM, this book is written
with more emphasis on thinking skills, information and communication skills, decision-making
and problem-solving skills so that students can master the skills needed in the 21st century.

To achieve this objective, this book incorporates special features as follows:

Introduction

My Malaysia
Latest information
regarding science in
Malaysia.

Science in Life
Applications of science
in the daily life of
students.

21 CPS

21 ISS

21 ICS Information &
Communication Skills

Interpersonal &
Self-Reliance Skills

Critical Thinking &
Problem Solving Skills

21st Century Skills

QR code
Download the free app
from Google Play to your
mobile smartphone device.
Scan this QR code with
your mobile smartphone
device to obtain additional
information.
(Websites in the public
domain proposed in this
book may be subject to
change from time to time).

Science
Exploration
Provides extra information
related to the topics studied.
vi

History Corner
Information about
the history of science.

I Can Remember!
Formulae or important information
for students to remember.

Formative Practice
Provides questions
to test students’
understanding at
the end of each
subtopic.

Science Careers
Information on
careers related
to science.

Brain Teaser
Questions that
challenge students’
way of thinking.

Science Today
Latest information or
news regarding science.

Future Studies
Studies for the
development of
technology in
the future.
vii

At the end of each chapter

The Next Challenge
Level 5 and level 6
HOTS questions.

Self-Reflection
Simple checklist of
learning contents for
students’ reference.

Summative Practice
Provides questions
to test students’
understanding at the
end of each chapter.

There are five types of activities in this book

Experiments

Discussion

Technology-based
activities

Inquiry-based
activities

Creation and
innovation

Concept Map
Summary of each
chapter is presented
in the form of
concept map.

Applying

Analysing

Evaluating

Creating

HOTS Questions
viii

How to scan three-dimensional animations

4 Step 4

Then, scan the image
on the page with
your smartphone or
tablet and enjoy the
three-dimensional
animations!

1 Step 1

Download the free QR reader
application from the App
Store or Play Store.

2 Step 2

Download the free AR Buku Teks
application by scanning the QR
Code below.

3 Step 3

Find pages that have this icon.

or

Key:
Use the QR reader
application to access
websites and videos

Use the AR BUKU
Teks application to
view 360° pictures

Three-dimensional animation

360o
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

1Chapter 1

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation

Do you realise that our life is based
on science? This includes the food we
eat, the clothes we wear, our modes of
transportation and the energy we use.

1

1Chapter 1

Scientific Methodology

1
Chapter

1

Science is Part of Daily Life
 Your Science Laboratory
 Physical Quantities and
Their Units

The Use of Measuring Instruments,
Accuracy, Consistency, Sensitivity
and Errors

Density
 Steps in a Scientific Investigation
 Scientific Attitudes and Values in
Carrying Out Scientific Investigations

Let’s study:

What is science?
What are physical quantities?
How do we measure density?

Introduction to
Scientific Investigation

2 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

3Chapter 1

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation

T  he word ‘science’ originates from the Latin word ‘Scientia’   which means the knowledge of natural phenomena. People in the olden days observed natural phenomena such as rainbow and thunder. They explained how natural phenomena occur based on their understanding. However, their understanding is usually full of myths and beliefs. Realising this weakness, scientists began to carry out systematic experiments according to the right scientific steps. This enables collection of data to make conclusions on how natural phenomena occur.

ORIGIN OF SCIENCE

SCIENCE BULLETIN

3Chapter 1

Natural phenomena
 Systematic error
 Systematic observation and
experiments
 Careers in science
 Water displacement
 Hazard symbols

Variables
 S.I. units
 Hypothesis
 Prefixes
 Inference
 Random error
 Values
•	 Relate	daily	activities	to	science.
•	 Generalise	the	meaning	of	science.
•	 Summarise	the	importance	of	science	in	everyday	life.
•	 Describe	the	fields	of	science.
•	 Communicate	about	careers	related	to	science.
•	 Relate	subjects	to	be	studied	in	science	to	careers	of	interest.
•	 Describe	innovation	in	technology.

Let’s learn

1.1 Science is Part of Daily Life

What is Science?

Observe the phenomena around you.

Photograph 1.1 Natural phenomena

In order to understand the factors involved and how natural phenomena occur, we
have to carry out scientific investigations. Science is a discipline that involves systematic
observations and experiments of natural phenomena.

How do these phenomena

happen?

4 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

Observe our daily activities.

The Importance of Science in Everyday Life

The examples of the importance of science in everyday life are shown in the figure below.

Figure 1.1 Examples of the importance of science in everyday life

Photograph 1.2 Daily activities

Does science change or affect our daily activities? Give a few other examples of daily
activities that are related to science.

The Importance of Science in Everyday Life

Contributes to the area of engineering such as
construction of tall buildings.

Invention of satellites has made
communication more effective

and faster.

Increases crop yields by invention of fertilisers,
pesticides and hydroponic method.

Discovery of vaccines and antibiotics in
the field of medicine helps in controlling

infectious diseases and reduces death rate.

Tall	buildings

Hydroponic	method Vaccine

TV	satellite

5Chapter 1

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation
Fi
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6 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

Careers in Science

What is your ambition? List the science subjects that you need to study in order to achieve
your ambition.

Figure 1.3 Students’ ambitions

A few examples of careers in science are shown in the tree map below.

Physics Biology Chemistry

Careers in Science

Geology

Astronomer

Oceanographer

Teacher

Meteorologist

Engineer

Physicist

Pharmacist

Oceanographer

Teacher

Forensic scientist

Chemist

Medical doctor

Botanist

Zoologist

Teacher

Oceanographer

Microbiologist

Biologist

Geologist

Teacher

Figure 1.4 Careers in science

Photograph 1.3 Careers in science

I want to become
an engineer. What

are the subjects
that I need to

study?

I want to become a
doctor. What are the

subjects that I need to
study?

Engineer GeologistDoctor Pharmacist

7Chapter 1

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation
Innovation in Technology

Most machines and inventions
that we use every day are
scientific innovations. For
example, cars, aeroplanes,
telephones and computers. These
machines and instruments help us
solve problems in our life.

Aim: To give examples of innovations in technology to solve problems in life

Instruction
1. In groups, search for examples of innovations in technology. Information can be

obtained from the Internet, magazines, newspapers or from other sources.
2. Discuss the information that you have collected and present your discussion in class by

using multimedia presentation such as PowerPoint.
3. Discuss how robots can help us in our life. Look at Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5 Robots can help us in our daily life

I can help my
master to

repair electrical
instruments.

I can help my
master to clean

the house.

1.1

Do you know?
The Nobel Prizes in Science are awarded every year
to the outstanding scientists in fields of science every
year in Stockholm, Sweden. You can browse the
following website for further information.

Photograph 1.5 The Nobel Prize

Nobel prize
http://www.nobelprize.org

Photograph 1.4 Development of technology

21 ICS

8 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

1. Tick (✓) on natural phenomena.

Growth of a baby    Construction of tall buildings

Discovery of new medicine    The occurrence of day and night

2. Fill in the blanks with the correct answers.
 (a) Investigation of science involves systematic  and

of natural phenomena.
 (b) The recent discovery of vaccines to treat dengue infection is a science

knowledge applied in the field of  by microbiologists.
3. List three fields in science and their related careers.

1.1

•	 Identify	and	state	the	functions	of	apparatus.
•	 Identify	symbols	and	examples	of	hazardous	materials	in	the	laboratory.
•	 Draw	and	label	apparatus	commonly	used	in	the	laboratory	and	classify	based	on	how
it	is	used.

•	 Justify	the	regulations	and	safety	measures	in	the	laboratory.

Let’s learn

1.2 Your Science Laboratory

T he science laboratory is a room equipped to conduct scientific investigations and
 experiments. There are many types of materials and apparatus found in the laboratory,
for example, measuring cylinder, retort stand and pipette.

Photograph 1.6 Science laboratory
9Chapter 1

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation
Table 1.1 The apparatus commonly used in a laboratory and their functions

Apparatus Function

To heat small
amounts of
chemicals

Beaker

To hold larger
amounts of
chemicalsConical	flask

Flat-bottom
flask

Measuring
cylinder

To measure
volume of
liquid

Apparatus Function

To measure
volume
of liquid
accurately

To measure a
fixed volume of
liquid

Tripod
stand

To support
apparatus
during heating

Wire
gauze

To spread heat
evenly during
heating

Filter
funnel

To filter or
separate
insoluble solids
from mixtures

Gas	jar

To contain gas

Pipette

Burette

Boiling
tube

Test	tube
To hold small
amounts of
chemicals

10 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

To hold or
support
apparatus

To evaporate
excess solventEvaporating

dish
Retort

stand	with
clamp

Aim: To identify the apparatus commonly used in the laboratory

Instruction
1. In groups, observe the apparatus commonly used in the laboratory.
2. Identify the apparatus and state their functions. Record them in your practical book.
3. Draw and label the apparatus in your practical book.
4. Then, discuss the classification of the apparatus according to their usage.
5. Present your discussion in class by using a tree map.

1.2

Symbols of Hazardous Materials in the Laboratory
Have you seen the symbol as in Figure 1.6? What is the meaning of the symbol?

Some chemicals like
potassium and lithium
will react if exposed
to air. So, these
chemicals must be
kept in paraffin oil.

Science Exploration

Photograph 1.7 Hazardous materials with hazard symbols
Photograph 1.8 Lithium is kept in
 paraffin oil

Most chemicals that we
use in the laboratory

are hazardous. We must
observe the hazard

symbols on chemical
bottles before using them

to prevent accidents.

Figure 1.6 A hazard symbol

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation

11Chapter 1
Hazard Symbols

Figure 1.7 Hazard symbols

Radioactive materials that emit radioactive rays can cause
cancer. Examples: uranium and plutonium.

Chemicals which irritate give out vapour or fumes that will hurt the
eyes, nose and throat. AVOID inhaling the vapour or fumes. Use
the chemicals inside a fume chamber. Examples: chloroform and
ammonia.

Irritant

Radioactive

These chemicals are corrosive. DO NOT touch these chemicals because
it will burn your skin. In case of contact with the skin, wash the affected
part with lots of water. Examples: concentrated acid and alkali.

Corrosive

This chemical is explosive. Use this chemical according to the
instructions CAREFULLY. Examples: hydrogen gas and butane gas.

Explosive

This chemical is poisonous or toxic. DO NOT drink, eat, smell or
taste this chemical. Examples: mercury and chlorine.

Poison / Toxic

This chemical easily vaporises and is flammable. KEEP AWAY this
chemical from fire or heat sources. Use this chemical according to
instructions carefully. Examples: alcohol and petrol.

Flammable

Aim: To identify the hazard symbols

Instruction
1. Work in groups. Identify

the hazard symbols
found in the laboratory.

2. Discuss the information
gathered.

3. Present the discussion in
class.

Photograph 1.9 Chemicals in
 a laboratory

1.3 21 CPS

B
How would you transfer
10 ml of a corrosive
chemical into a beaker?
What will happen if you
use a plastic beaker for this
purpose? Why?

12 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

Rules and Safety Measures in the Laboratory

Safety Measures when Using Chemicals and Apparatus

To prevent unwanted incidents, we should
follow the rules and safety measures in the

laboratory.

Do not enter the laboratory without permission.
Never start an experiment without the teacher’s instructions.
Read and understand the instructions of the experiment beforehand.
Use the chemicals and apparatus correctly and carefully.
Eating, drinking and playing are prohibited in the laboratory.
Do not take the apparatus and chemicals out of the laboratory.
After using, keep the apparatus and chemicals in their original places.
Make sure the place to conduct the experiments is always neat and clean.
Wash all the apparatus and throw away waste materials according to the correct
procedures.
Wash your hands with soap and water before leaving the laboratory.

Laboratory Rules

Do not point the
mouth of the test tube
at your face or at other
people.

Use safety goggles
when mixing or
heating chemicals.

Do not taste or
smell anything
unless allowed by
the teacher.

Keep highly flammable
chemicals away from any
heat sources.

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation

13Chapter 1
3

If an accident occurs, do not panic. Take the necessary actions as demonstrated in the
situations below:

Aim: To discuss the rules and safety measures in the laboratory

Instruction
1. Work in groups. Each group has to look for information about one of the topics given

below:
  (a) Rules in a laboratory
  (b) Safety measures in a laboratory
  (c) Steps to prevent fire in a laboratory
 (d) Actions to be taken in the event of an accident in a laboratory
2. Discuss the information gathered in your group and present it in the class.

1.4

1.2

1. Draw the following apparatus.
 (a) Flat-bottom flask (b) Conical flask (c) Boiling tube (d) Measuring cylinder
2. (a) What is the meaning of the hazard symbols below?

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

(b) State two examples of chemicals with the hazard symbol in (a)(i).
3. Suhaimi sees a small fire on the laboratory table. What actions should he take?

Spilled chemicals should
be reported to the

teacher.

Caution, avoid
contact with the

chemical.1 2

Remember, Farah, if
you accidentally come
into contact with any

chemicals, you need to
rinse it off with plenty

of water.

Din, run quickly! There is a
fire! I have already turned off
the electricity. Let us inform

our teacher.

14 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

Base quantity S.I. unit Symbol of S.I. unit
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A

Table 1.2 Base quantities

S.I. units have been used
as the standard unit of
physical quantities since
1960 to prevent problems
of inconsistent units in
measurement.

•	 Identify	and	use	the	correct	units	for	different	physical	quantities.
•	 Identify	the	symbols	and	values	of	prefixes	used	in	measurement.
•	 Convert	base	quantity	units	for	mass,	length	and	time	such	as	grams	to	kilograms,	centimetres	to
metres,	seconds	to	hours	and	vice	versa.

•	 Justify	the	importance	of	the	use	of	S.I.	units	in	daily	life.

Let’s learn

1.3 Physical Quantities and Their Units

Recall the measurements that you
have learned in primary school.
A physical quantity in science is
defined as a physical characteristic
that can be measured. The common
base quantities used are length,
mass, time, temperature and electric
current (Table 1.2).

The International System of Units, known as S.I. units
(Système Internationale d’Unités) is used for the consistency
of measurement. This allows accurate exchange of data and
scientific knowledge to the entire world.

Aim: To identify physical quantities, values and S.I. units

Instruction
1. Look at the objects in Photograph 1.10. State the S.I. unit that you can use to measure

the physical quantity of each object.

Length	of	table Mass	of	onion Temperature	of	water

Photograph 1.10 Objects
2. Observe the values and units that are used on the specification and labels of daily

products.
3. Record your observation in your practical book.

Photograph 1.11 Daily products

1.5

Value and unit

Value and unit

(a) (b) (c)

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation

15Chapter 1
Prefixes can be used if the value of a physical quantity unit is too big or too small.
 Table 1.3 The values of prefixes and symbols for physical quantity units

Prefix Value Standard form Symbol
giga 1 000 000 000 109 G
mega 1 000 000 106 M
kilo 1 000 103 k
deci 0.1 10–1 d
centi 0.01 10–2 c
milli 0.001 10–3 m
micro 0.000 001 10–6 µ
nano 0.000 000 001 10–9 n

Prefix values are important
and are used widely in
calculations.

Converting Units of Base Quantity

Example:
1. 1.9 kg =  g
 1.9 kg = 1.9 × 1000
  = 1900 g
2. 8200 g =  kg
 8200 g = 8200 ÷ 1000
  = 8.2 kg

kilogram (kg) gram (g)

× 1000

÷ 1000

kilometre (km) decimetre (dm)metre (m) centimetre (cm) millimetre (mm)

× 1000 × 10 × 10 × 10

÷ 1000 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 ÷ 10

Example:
1. 80 m =  cm
 80 m = 80 × 100
  = 8 000 cm

Example:
2. 600 cm =  m
 600 cm = 600 ÷ 100
  = 6 m

Example:
3. 95 mm =  m
 95 mm = 95 ÷ 1000
  = 0.095 m

Example:
1. 7 min =  s
 7 min = 7 × 60
  = 420 s

Example:
2. 450 s =  hr
 450 s = 450 ÷ 60 ÷ 60
  = 0.125 hr

hour (hr) minutes (min) second (s)

× 60

÷ 60

× 60

÷ 60
16 Bab 1

a Mass

b Length

c Time

16 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

The Importance of S.I. units in Life
Inconsistencies of units used in daily
life may cause a lot of problems. For
example, people in certain places may
measure things by using pound and
ounce, whereas people in other places
may use grain and stone. The use of a
standard unit for measurement will
make it easier for scientists to
communicate at international level.
Problems shown in the situations below
may arise if we do not use standard
units.

Situation 1               Situation 2

40 paces 51 paces

Teacher, why
do we have

different number
of paces?

They are different
because the length
of your paces are

different.

Syura, please go
and buy three

fathoms length
of cloth for the

curtain.

Okay,
mother.

17Bab 1

Uncle, I want to buy
three fathoms of cloth

to make a curtain.

Syura, your
fathom is

shorter because
you are still a

child.

Mother, why
is the cloth

so long?

Zaidi and Hafiz, please
measure the length of the

classroom by counting
your paces.

Okay, teacher.

Recall the measurements that you have learned in primary
school such as span, fathom, pace and cubit.

(a)  Span

(c)  Pace

(b)  Fathom

(d)  Cubit

Figure 1.8 Measurements in olden times

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation

17Chapter 1
Aim: To understand the implication of non-standardised units in our life

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Each group should gather information on the implication of non-standardised units

in life.
3. Each group will present their discussion in class by using multimedia presentation such

as PowerPoint.

1.6

1. List five physical quantities that you have studied. What is the S.I. unit and the symbol used
for each of the quantities?

2. Convert the values below.
 (a) 0.13 m =  cm (d)  24 000 g =  kg
 (b) 18 000 mg =  kg (e)  0.006 A =  mA
 (c) 4 m =  µm

1.3

•	 Use	the	right	measuring	instrument	and	use	it	the	right	way	to	measure	accurately	and	consistently
the	quantities	of	length,	mass,	time,	temperature	and	electric	current.

•	 Use	measuring	instruments	with	higher	accuracy	and	compare	the	measurements	in	terms	of
accuracy,	consistency	and	sensitivity.

•	 Explain	how	to	minimise	systematic	errors	and	random	errors.
•	 Estimate	the	length,	area,	mass	or	volume	of	an	object	before	taking	actual	measurements.
•	 Explain	with	examples	innovations	of	various	types	of	measuring	instruments	through	a	multimedia
presentation.

Let’s learn

1.4

The Use of Measuring Instruments,
Accuracy, Consistency, Sensitivity
and Errors

F or the purpose of measurement, different measuring
 instruments are needed to collect data in an experiment.
We need to ensure that we use the right measuring
instruments to measure the quantities of length, mass, time,
temperature and electric current accurately and consistently.

Photograph 1.12 Measuring instruments

Accuracy – The ability of
measuring instruments to
obtain a value closest to the
actual value.
Consistency– The ability of
measuring instruments to
give the same readings with
repeated measurements.
Sensitivity – The ability of
measuring instruments to
detect a small change in the
measurement quantity.

21 ICS

18 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

RingStart, reset and
stop button

a

b

c

Photograph 1.15
A stopwatch

The Use of Right Measuring Instruments

Measuring Length

Length is the distance between two points. The S.I. unit for length
is metre (m). Length can also be measured in millimetres (mm),
centimetres (cm) or kilometres (km).

Photograph 1.13 Instruments used to measure length

When using a ruler, the eyes of the observer must be
parallel to the scale of the ruler to prevent parallax error
(Figure 1.9). Parallax error occurs due to the wrong
positioning of the eyes when taking measurements.

Measuring Mass

The mass of an object is the quantity of matter in it. The
S.I. unit for mass is kilogram (kg).

Photograph 1.14 Instruments used to measure mass

Measuring Time

The S.I. unit for time is second (s).
Other units include minute (min),
hour (hr), day, month, year and
decade.

Figure 1.9 How to prevent
 parallax error

Example of a measuring
instrument used in the
olden times:

Figure 1.10 A weighing
 scale

A stopwatch is used to measure
time with an accuracy of

0.1 s or 0.2 s.

Ruler Measuring	tape

Lever	balance Triple	beam	balance

cm 10 3 4 5 6 72

One smallest scale
value is equivalent
to 1 mm or 0.1 cm.

19Chapter 1

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation
e

d Measuring Temperature

Temperature is the degree of heat of an object. The S.I.
unit for temperature is kelvin (K). However, degree
Celsius (°C) is usually used as a measuring unit for
temperature.

Measuring Electric Current

An ammeter is used to measure electric current in a circuit.

Figure 1.11 Systematic error and random error

Systematic	error	(zero	error) Random	error	(parallax	error)

Zero
adjustment
button

Antiparallax
mirror	to
prevent
parallax	error

0 4

1 32

A

Positive zero error Negative zero error

0 4

1 32

A

Science Exploration

To convert from degree
Celsius to Kelvin, you
have to add 273 to the
temperature in degree
Celsius.
0°C + 273 = 273 K

A laboratory thermometer can be used to
measure temperature with an accuracy of 10C.

Photograph 1.16 Instruments used to measure temperature

A clinical thermometer
can be used to measure
temperature with an
accuracy of 0.10C.

Clinical	thermometer

Laboratory	thermometer

Ammeter

Photograph 1.17 An ammeter

20 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

f Measuring Volume of Water

A measuring cylinder can be used to
measure the volume of water.

Parallax error occurs when the
reader’s eyes are not perpendicular
to the reading scale.

Aim: To use and handle measuring instruments correctly
Materials and apparatus: Ruler, measuring tape, thermometer, stopwatch, triple beam
balance, ammeter, measuring cylinder, book, beaker, water.
Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Each group has to carry out measurements at five stations by using the right measuring

instruments.
 (a) Station 1: Measure the thickness of the Form 1 Science textbook and length of the

whiteboard.
 (b) Station 2: Measure the volume and temperature of water.
 (c) Station 3: Measure the time taken to walk from one end to the other end of the

laboratory.
 (d) Station 4: Measure the mass of a beaker, a book and other objects given.
 (e) Station 5: Measure the electric current in a circuit.
3. Each station will have a piece of paper to record the measurements.
4. Each group is required to take three readings at each station to obtain an accurate

value and calculate the average reading as shown in the table below. Then, state the
relationship between the smallest scale value on the measuring instrument with the
accuracy of the reading.

Measuring instrument Reading 1 Reading 2 Reading 3 Average

The smallest scale value:
5. The time allocated for each station is 10 minutes.
6. Each group will be placed at one station. A bell will be rung once to start the activity and

twice for the groups to move to the next station.
7. Discuss the findings gathered in your group.

1.7

Figure 1.12 The instrument used to measure the volume of water

Measuring	cylinder

11 ml

20

10
12 ml

13 ml

The right way to
take a reading

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation

21Chapter 1
a
Using Measuring Instruments with Higher Accuracy

Measuring Length

Vernier Calipers

Skala utama

Vernier scale

Vernier scale

0 cm 1 2 3 4 5 6

Main scale

The vernier scale coincides
with the main scale at
0.02 cm

3 4

5 1005 100

3.2 cm

Main scale

Reading	=	3.20	+	0.02
	 =	3.22	cm

Figure 1.13 Measurement of a round object by using vernier calipers

Systematic errors are caused by using measuring instruments that are not
accurate. For example, zero error that occurs on the measuring instruments, the
error of the person who takes the measurement or environmental factors.

Zero error can be determined when the jaws of the vernier calipers are closed.

0 1

5 100

No zero error

0 1

5 100

Negative zero error

6th line. Read from
the “10” mark on the
vernier scale

+	0.03	cm –	0.06	cm

0 1

5 100

Positive zero error

3rd line. Read from
the “0” mark on the
vernier scale

Figure 1.14 Zero errors in vernier calipers

To obtain the actual reading, zero error has to be taken into consideration.

Actual reading = Reading of vernier calipers  – zero error

Vernier calipers is used to measure the thickness or outer diameter, inner
diameter and depth of an object. The smallest division of the reading of a
vernier calipers is 0.01 cm or 0.1 mm. Therefore, vernier calipers is much

more accurate compared to a ruler which can only measure the smallest
reading up to 0.1 cm or 1 mm.

To determine the positive
zero error, the error
has to be read from the
“0” mark on the vernier
scale. To determine the
negative zero error, the
error has to be read from
the “10” mark on the
vernier scale.

22 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

Micrometer Screw Gauge

Zero error of the micrometer screw gauge can be determined when the anvil is closed
completely.

To get the actual reading from a micrometer screw gauge, zero error has to be taken
into consideration.

Figure 1.15 Reading of micrometer screw gauge Figure 1.16 The right way to take a reading

The vernier scale has 50
divisions. Each division on

the vernier scale is 0.01 mm.

The eyes of the reader should be
perpendicular to the reading to

prevent parallax error.

A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure the thickness
and diameter of small objects like paper and hair. The

smallest division of the micrometer screw gauge’s reading
is 0.001 cm or 0.01 mm. Therefore, the micrometer screw

gauge is more accurate than the vernier calipers.

0 321
45
40
35
34

Vernier
scale

0.38 mm

3.50 mm

Main scale

Reading of micrometer screw gauge = 3.50 + 0.38
                  = 3.88 mm

Main	scale

Vernier	scaleSpindleAnvil

Photograph 1.18
A micrometer screw gauge

0

Negative zero error
(– 0.02 mm)

45

00
0

Positive zero error
(+ 0.01 mm)

0
0

No zero error

Figure 1.17 Zero error of the micrometer screw gauge

Actual reading = Reading of micrometer screw gauge – zero error

0
0

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation

23Chapter 1
b

c

d

e

Measuring Mass

Measuring Time

Measuring Temperature

Measuring Electric Current

Digital vernier calipers
and digital micrometer

screw gauge can
measure measurements

with more accuracy
and precision.

A digital electronic balance
can read measurement of
mass more accurately and

precisely.

A digital stopwatch is more accurate than a normal stopwatch because
it can measure time accurately up to 0.01 second whereas the normal

stopwatch can only measure up to 0.1 second.

Photograph 1.22 A digital thermometer

Photograph 1.19 A digital vernier calipers and a
digital micrometer screw gauge

A digital thermometer can give temperature
readings more accurately and precisely

because it can measure temperature with
an accuracy up to 0.1°C. Therefore, digital

thermometers are widely used in clinics
nowadays.

Photograph 1.20 A digital electronic balance

Digital	vernier	calipers Digital	micrometer	screw	gauge

Digital	ammeter

A digital ammeter gives more accurate and
precise readings because this instrument can
measure electric current with an accuracy up

to 0.01A.

Photograph 1.23 A digital ammeter

Photograph 1.21 A digital stopwatch

24 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

Aim: To measure, use and handle instruments with higher accuracy correctly
Materials and apparatus: Vernier calipers, micrometer screw gauge, digital electronic
balance, digital ammeter, digital thermometer, clinical thermometer.
Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Each group has to conduct the following measuring activities by using higher accuracy

instruments.
 (a) Measure the thickness of the Form 1 Science textbook using the vernier calipers

and micrometer screw gauge
     (b) Measure the mass of the Form 1 Science textbook using a digital electronic balance
 (c) Measure the electric current of a circuit using a digital ammeter
 (d) Measure the body temperature with a clinical thermometer and a digital thermometer
3. Each group has to take three readings in order to obtain an accurate reading. State the

average reading taken in the table below. Then, relate the smallest scale value on the
measuring instrument to the accuracy of the reading.

Measuring instrument Reading 1 Reading 2 Reading 3 Average

The smallest scale value:
4. Each group has to compare their readings obtained from Activity 1.7 with the reading

obtained from this activity in terms of accuracy, consistency and sensitivity in the table
below. Then, relate the smallest scale value on the measuring instrument to the sensitivity
of reading. Make sure the units are recorded.

Measurement Measuring
instrument

Average
reading Accuracy Consistency Sensitivity

Thickness of
book

Ruler
Vernier calipers
Micrometer screw
gauge

Mass of book
Triple beam balance
Digital electronic
balance

Electric
current

Ammeter
Digital ammeter

Body
temperature

Clinical thermometer
Digital thermometer

5. Present your findings in class.
Questions
1. Based on your findings, which measuring instrument is the most sensitive – ruler, vernier

calipers or micrometer screw gauge?
2. Between the triple beam balance and digital electronic balance, which instrument can

give a more precise and accurate reading?

1.8

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation

25Chapter 1
How to Minimise Systematic Errors and Random Errors

Making an Estimation before Taking the Actual Measurement
When a proper measuring instrument is not available during an experiment, the best way
is to make an estimation beforehand. Later, a precise and accurate measuring instrument
will be used.

Estimating Length

a

Systematic errors Random errors

Examples:
•	 Zero	error
•	 Inaccurate	measuring	instrument

Ways to overcome:
•	 Conduct	experiments	with	caution
•	 Repeat	the	experiment	using	different

measuring instruments

Examples:
•	 Parallax	error
•	 Carelessness	of	observer	when	taking

the reading
•	 Wrong	technique

Ways to overcome:
•	 Take	a	few	readings	of	measurement

and take the average reading
•	 To	reduce	the	impact	of	parallax

errors, observer’s eyes should be
perpendicular to the scale reading

Consistent errors obtained from a measuring
instrument for every measurement.

The uncertainties in measurement caused by
the observer when taking measurements.

Errors

Aim: To make a link between making estimation and taking the actual measurement

Materials and Apparatus: Pencil and ruler

Instruction
1. Measure the length of a pencil (p cm).
2. Measure and record the length of a table using the

pencil.
 Length of table = number of pencil × p cm.
3. Measure and record the length of the table using a

ruler.

Question
What is the difference between the length of the table measured using a pencil (estimated
measurement) and the length of the table measured using a ruler (actual measurement)?

Figure 1.18 Estimating the length
of a table

1.9

26 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

Estimating Area
 Area is the size of a surface. The S.I. unit for area is m2.

For objects with regular shapes, area can be measured
by using formulae. For example, the area of a square is
length × width. What is the formula of the area of other
objects as shown in Figure 1.19?

For objects with irregular shapes, area can be
estimated by using the graph paper method.

Example:

Mark	‘✔’	on	squares	that	are	half	and
more	than	half	covered	by	the	leaf.
Count	the	total	number	of	squares
marked	‘✔’	and	record	your	result.

The	area	of	the	shape	=	23	cm2

1 cm

1 cm

✔✔✔✔

✔✔✔✔✔

✔✔✔✔✔

✔✔✔✔

✔✔

✔✔✔

Figure 1.20 Estimating the area of a leaf

Estimating Mass
 What is the mass of a sheet of paper which is light and

cannot be measured? If the mass of 100 sheets of paper
is 500 g, the mass of 1 sheet of paper is estimated at 5 g.

Estimating Volume
 The volume of an object with a regular shape can be calculated by using formula,

whereas the volume of objects with irregular shapes can be estimated by using the
water displacement method.

Figure 1.22 Calculating volume

Figure 1.19 Objects with
regular shapes

4 cm

4 cm
4 cm

Volume	=	height	×	width	×	length
	 =	4	×	4	×	4
	 =	64	cm3

Object	with	regular	shape

Initial	volume Final	volume

b

c

d

Mass	of	100	sheets	of	paper
=	500	g

Figure 1.21 The mass of
100 sheets of paper

0 8

1
24

2
40

3
56

4
72

g

Stone
15 cm3

23 cm3

Volume	of	the	stone
=	23	cm3	–	15	cm3

=	8	cm3
Object	with	irregular	shape

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation

27Chapter 1
1. What is the reading of the micrometer screw gauge below?
 (a)

0 5 30

25

(b)
0

10

5

2. Estimate the area of the drawing if every square represents
an area of 1 cm × 1 cm or 1 cm2.

3. Chong is standing on a weighing balance. The value shown is
55 kg. What is the meaning of the value?

1.4

Technology and Innovation in Measuring Instruments

Measuring blood pressure is made easier by using the
digital blood pressure monitor (Photograph 1.24).
Patients who have blood pressure problems can obtain
precise and reliable blood pressure reading within a
few seconds. Can you give examples of other types of
innovation in measuring instruments?

•	 Arrange	materials	sequentially	based	on	their	density.
•	 Predict	whether	the	materials	will	float	or	sink	according	to	their	density.
•	 Define	the	operational	definition	of	density.
•	 Calculate	density	using	the	formula	(density	=	mass	/	volume)	and	water	displacement	method.
•	 Explain	the	phenomena	related	to	density	differences	in	everyday	life.
•	 Innovate	objects,	food	or	beverage	using	the	concept	of	density.

Let’s learn

1.5 Density

Look at the picture. Why do people float
on the Dead Sea easily? This is because
the Dead Sea has an extremely high salt
content. This makes the waters of the
Dead Sea higher in density compared to
other seas. What is density? Density of a
material is the mass per unit volume of
the material.

Photograph 1.25  The density of water in the Dead
Sea is extremely high and can make people float easily

Photograph 1.24 A digital blood pressure
 measuring instrument

28 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

The formula of density is as below:

Density (g cm–3) =
Mass (g)

Volume (cm3)

Aim : To investigate the relationship between the mass and density of various solids that
have the same volume

Materials and apparatus: Copper cube, iron cube, cork cube and wooden cube that have
the volume of 1 cm3 each, water, basin, weighing balance.

Instruction
1. You are given four cubes that have the same volume as shown below.

Copper Iron Cork Wood

Figure 1.23 Four cubes that have the same volume

2. Weigh the mass of each cube and calculate the density of each cube using the formula:

Density (g cm–3) = Mass (g)
Volume (cm3)

3. Record the value of mass and density in the table below.

Copper Iron Cork Wood

Volume (cm3) 1 1 1 1

Mass (g)

Density (g cm–3)

4. Put the cubes into a basin of water. Observe whether they float or sink.

Questions
1. What is the relationship between mass and density if the volume of all the four solids is

the same?
2. Arrange the above solids according to their density in an ascending order.
3. Based on the observation from step 4, state the operational definition of density.

1.10

A triangle can be used for the formula that
relates density, mass and volume.

Mass

Density      Volume

29Chapter 1

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation
Recall the information that you have learned in primary school. Materials that
are less dense will float and will be above the materials which are denser whereas
materials which are denser will sink and will be under the materials which are less dense
(Figure 1.24). For example, ice will float on water surface and stones will sink to the bottom.
              Table 1.4 Density of various materials

Material Density (g cm–3)
Gold 19.30
Lead 11.30

Copper 8.92
Aluminium 2.70

Ice 0.92
Cork 0.24

Mercury 13.60
Seawater 1.03

Pure water (at 40°C) 1.00
Petrol 0.80

Calculation of Density by Using Formula

B
Predict what will happen if
both objects are put into a
pail of tap water? How can
you float the two objects?

Photograph 1.26 Objects

Example:
The mass of a measuring cylinder is 230 g.
After 50 cm3 of liquid X is poured into it, the
mass of the measuring cylinder and liquid X
becomes 320 g. What is the density of
liquid X?

Petrol (0.80 g cm−3)

Water (1.00 g cm−3)

Mercury (13.60 g cm−3)

Cork (0.24 g cm−3)

Water (1.00 g cm−3)

Copper (8.92 g cm−3)

Figure 1.24 Materials which are less dense
 than water will float whereas
 materials which are more dense
 than water will sink

Solution:
Mass of liquid X = 320 g – 230 g
  = 90 g

Density (g  c  m–3) =
Mass (g)

Volume (cm3)

= 90 g
50 cm3

= 1.8 g c m–3

Figure 1.25 Arrangement of
 materials in the
 measuring cylinder

From the table above,
the arrangement of
the materials in an

ascending order based
on density is cork,
petrol, ice, water,

copper and mercury.

Copper

Ice

Cork

Petrol

Water

Mercury

30 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

Determining the Density of Objects Using the
Water Displacement Method

The density of irregular objects can be determined by using
water displacement method.

Aim: To determine the volume of objects using the water displacement method
Materials and apparatus: Stone, thread, 100 ml measuring cylinder, weighing balance, water.
Instruction
1. Weigh and record the reading of the mass of a stone.
2. Pour 50 ml water into a 100 ml measuring cylinder. Take the initial reading of the

volume of water.
3. Tie the stone with a piece of thread.
4. Lower the stone slowly into the measuring cylinder until the stone is immersed in the

water (Figure 1.27).

Figure 1.27

Initial
reading

50 ml
Final
reading

Stone 1 ml = 1 cm3

5. Read the new water level (final reading of volume). Next, determine and record the
volume of the stone in cm3.

6. Calculate the density of the stone.
Results
Mass of stone =  g
Initial reading of volume:  cm3

Final reading of volume:  cm3

Volume of stone = Final reading of volume – Initial reading of volume

Density = Mass
Volume

Question
What is the density of the stone?

1.11

Figure 1.26 Archimedes
The water displacement
method was discovered

by a Greek scientist
named Archimedes.

Water displacement method is a
method that is used to measure

the volume of an irregular
objects. Let us carry out the
activity below to determine

density using the water
displacement method.

What is
water

displacement
method?

31Chapter 1

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation
Differences in Density in Everyday Life

There are many phenomena related to differences in density in everyday life.

Photograph 1.27 Phenomena related to the differences in density in everyday life

Aim: To investigate the phenomena related to the differences in density in our everyday life

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Gather information about phenomena related to density in everyday life and discuss.
3. Present the discussion of your group using multimedia presentation.

21 ICS1.12

Innovation of Objects, Food or Drinks Using the Concept of Density
Look at Photograph 1.28. Nowadays, restaurant operators are very creative in preparing
various types of food and drinks using the concept of differences in density. Use your
creativity to create interesting objects, food or drinks for sale.

Photograph 1.28 Innovation of food and drinks

Three-
layered	tea

21 ISS

Ice	is	less	dense	than
water,	so	ice	floats	on	the

surface.

Balloons	that	contain	helium	gas
float	in	the	air	because	helium
gas	is	less	dense	than	air.

Timber	can	be	transported	by
water	because	timber	is	less

dense	than	water.

Layered	juice

32 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

1. Determine the density of the samples in the diagram below.
A B C

Mass of sample A = 200 g

4 cm

5 cm5 cm
Mass of sample B = 100 g

2 cm

5 cm5 cm

Mass of sample C = 50 g

5 cm5 cm

1 cm

2. Three types of liquid which do not mix, P, Q and R are poured together
in a measuring cylinder as shown in the diagram. Which liquid is the
most dense? Why?

1.5

R

Q

P

ml
200

150

100

50

•	 Differentiate	each	science	process	skill.
•	 Make	a	sequence	on	the	steps	of	carrying	out	a	scientific	investigation	in	the	correct	order.
•	 Conduct	a	scientific	investigation	to	solve	a	simple	problem.

Let’s learn

1.6 Steps in a Scientific Investigation

Recall the science process skills that you have learned in primary school. There are twelve
important science process skills in a scientific investigation. Can you differentiate each
skill?

Aim: To differentiate each science process skill

Instruction
1. Work in groups. Each group will be given one station with a science process skill.
2. Each group has to look for information about the science process skill and present their

findings in class.

1.13

Observing Classifying Measuring and using numbers Making inferences

Predicting Communicating Using time-space relationships Interpreting data

Defining
operationally

Controlling
variables

Making a
hypothesis Experimenting

33Chapter 1

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation
Scientific Method

Scientific method is a systematic method used to solve problems in science. This method
consists of a few important steps to enable a problem to be solved or explained using the
correct method.

Construct a hypothesis – We
need to build a hypothesis as
an initial explanation of the
observation or phenomenon
being investigated. The
hypothesis has to be tested.

Control variables – Identify the type of variables involved. Variables are physical quantities
that influence the observation or scientific phenomena and it consists of manipulated
variables, constant variables and responding variables.

Plan an experiment – We have to design an experiment carefully beforehand. We also
need to choose the right materials and apparatus for the experiment.

Conduct the experiment – While conducting the experiment, precautions must be
practised at all times to obtain a more accurate data. Safety measures must also be followed
to prevent accidents.

1

2

3

4

5

Oops, I spilled the
water! What can I use
to absorb the water

quickly?

Cloth towel
absorbs water

more quickly than
tissue paper.

Let’s test your
hypothesis.

Identify a problem – Identify a
problem that could be tested with a
scientific investigation.

34 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

Collect data – Data collection is carried out carefully using suitable instruments while
taking into consideration any random or systematic error that might occur. Make sure the
measurements are carried out at least three times to obtain a more accurate and precise
reading. Use a table to record your data.

Analyse and interpret data – Analysis
must be accompanied by effective
communication forms such as graphs
and tables. Graphs and tables assist us
to easily interpret the data.

Make a conclusion – Conclusions are made based on experimental analysis; either
hypothesis is accepted or rejected. If rejected, we need to make a new hypothesis and
carry out the experiment again.

Write a report – When writing a report, all important data and information must be included.

Problem statement:
Hypothesis:
Aim:
Variables:
Materials and Apparatus:
Procedure:
Observation/results:
Analysis and
interpretation of data:
Conclusion:

We need to carry out
the measurement at

least 3 times to get an
accurate reading.

6

7

8

9

Figure 1.28 The amount of water absorbed
 against types of towels

0

5

10

15

20

25

Th
e

am
ou

nt
 o

f w
at

er

ab
so

rb
ed

(c
m

3 )

Cloth
Types of
towelsTissue paper

35Chapter 1

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation
2. Construct a
hypothesis

2

3. Control variables3

4. Plan and conduct
the experiment

4

5. Present the data
collected

5

Example of a Complete Experiment Report

1. Identify the
problem

1 Problem Statement: How does the length of a pendulum influence
the period of one complete oscillation?
Hypothesis: The longer the length of a pendulum, the longer the
period taken for one complete oscillation.
Aim: To investigate the relationship between the length of a
pendulum and the period of oscillation

A B

One complete oscillation
A     B     A

Length of
pendulum

Pendulum

Wood

Figure 1.29 Set-up of apparatus
Manipulated variable: Length of pendulum
Responding variable: Time taken for 10 complete oscillations
Constant variable: Mass of pendulum, angle of oscillation
Materials and apparatus: Wood, retort stand with clamp,
pendulum, string, stopwatch, metre ruler.
Procedure
1. A pendulum with a length of 20 cm is used.
2. The pendulum is pulled to one side and then released to make

10 complete oscillations.
3. The time taken for 10 complete oscillations is recorded.
4. The experiment is repeated using different lengths of pendulum.

Results
Length of

pendulum (cm)
Time taken for 10 complete oscillations (s)

Reading 1 Reading 2 Reading 3 Average
20 9.1 9.2 9.0 9.1
30 11.3 11.4 11.4 11.4
40 13.1 13.0 13.1 13.1
50 14.4 14.3 14.3 14.3
60 15.2 15.1 15.3 15.2

Discussion

0

20

15

10

5

Length of pendulum (cm)

Ti
m

e
ta

ke
n

fo
r 1

0
co

m
pl

et
e

os
ci

lla
tio

ns
 (s

)

10 20 30 40 50 60 Figure 1.30 Graph

The longer the length of
the pendulum, the longer
the time taken for 10
complete oscillations.

6. Interpret data and
results with

scientific reasoning

6

Note
Students have to

write procedure in
the passive form.

ExperimentExperiment 1.1

36 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

Conclusion: Hypothesis is accepted. The longer the length of the
pendulum, the longer the time taken for 10 complete oscillations.

1. What is an inference?
2. State the manipulated, responding and constant variables when conducting an experiment

regarding water evaporation from containers with different surface area.

1.6

•	 Support	the	scientific	attitudes	and	values	practised	by	scientists.
•	 Justify	the	need	to	practise	scientific	attitudes	and	values	when	carrying	out	an	investigation.
•	 Practise	scientific	attitudes	and	values	while	carrying	out	a	scientific	investigation.

Let’s learn

1.7

Scientific Attitudes and Values
in Carrying Out Scientific
Investigations

What are the scientific approach and values that must be practised by a scientist?

Figure 1.31 Scientific attitudes and moral values

Example of other values that need to be practised during a scientific investigation:

21 ISS

Be honest and
accurate while
recording and
validating data

Scientific attitudes that should be practised

Be interested and
curious about
surroundings

Be responsible for
your own and others
safety as well as for
the environment.

Students must have
positive attitudes and

values while conducting
investigations.

Examples of other values that need to be practised during a scientific investigation:
1. Realise that scientific knowledge is one way to understand our environment
2. Appreciate and practise a clean and healthy lifestyle
3. Appreciate the balance in the natural environment
4. Be polite and respect each other
5. Be grateful that the natural environment is a gift from God

7. Make a conclusion7

37Chapter 1

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation
1. Conclusions of a scientific investigation can be influenced by scientific attitudes and values
practised when carrying out experiments. What are the scientific attitudes and values that
need to be practised by a student to make accurate conclusions?

2. What are the attitudes that will assist scientists to understand the haze phenomenon that
causes air pollution?

1.7

Photograph 1.29 National Science Centre

Besides, we can also become good
problem solvers and responsible

and creative researchers.

Why do we need to
practise scientific

attitudes and values
during a scientific

investigation?

The purpose is to get more accurate results, to be
an effective decision maker, willing to change and

adapt to new ideas.

National Science Centre
http://www.psn.gov.my

Science in Life

My MalaysiaMy Malaysia

The National Science
Centre (Pusat Sains
Negara) was built to
create a generation of
scientists. Students can
learn new things when
visiting the centre. There
are exhibitions about the
earth’s ecosystem, the
history of science and
much more.

38 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

Re
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39Chapter 1

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation
After learning this chapter, you are able to:

1.1 Science is Part of Daily Life

Relate	daily	activities	to	science.

Generalise the meaning of science.

Summarise the importance of science in everyday life.

Describe the fields of science.

Communicate about careers related to science.

Relate	subjects	to	be	studied	in	science	to	careers	of	interest.

Describe innovation in technology.

1.2 Your Science Laboratory

Identify and state functions of apparatus.

Identify symbols and examples of hazardous materials in the laboratory.

Draw and label apparatus commonly used in the laboratory and classify based on how it is used.

Justify the regulations and safety measures in the laboratory.

1.3 Physical Quantities and Their Units

Identify	and	use	the	correct	units	for	different	physical	quantities.

Identify the symbols and values of prefixes used in measurement.

Convert	base	quantity	units	for	mass,	length	and	time	such	as	grams	to	kilograms,	centimetres	to
metres, seconds to hours and vice versa.

Justify the importance of the use of S.I. units in daily life.

1.4 The Use of Measuring Instruments, Accuracy, Consistency, Sensitivity and Errors

Use the right measuring instrument and use it in the right way.

Use measuring instruments with higher accuracy.

Explain how to minimise systematic errors and random errors.

Estimate the length, area, mass or volume of an object before taking actual measurements.

Explain with examples innovations of various types of measuring instruments through a multimedia
presentation.

1.5 Density

Arrange	materials	sequentially	based	on	their	density.

Predict whether the materials will float or sink according to their density.

Define operational definition of density.

Calculate density using the formula (density = mass / volume) and water displacement method.

Explain the phenomena related to density difference in everyday life.

Innovate objects, food or beverage using the concept of density.

1.6 Steps in a Scientific Investigation

Differentiate each science process skill.

40 Chapter 1
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan Saintifik

Summative Practice 1

1. Figure 1 shows a chemical bottle with a hazard symbol. Mark (✔) at the correct hazard symbol.

Radioactive material    Explosive material

Corrosive material    Highly flammable material

2. P, Q, R, S, T, U, V and W are steps to carry out scientific investigations based on inquiry.
Arrange the steps according to the correct sequence.

P –  Control variables
Q –  Conduct the experiment
R –  Construct a hypothesis
S –  Make a conclusion

T –  Plan the experiment
U –  Analyse and interpret data
V –  Identify the problem
W –  Collect data

3. Convert 100 g to kg.
  100 g =

4. Name the measuring instruments below.
(a) (b)

0 cm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0 5 10

Figure 2

5. Azman is asked by his teacher to heat alcohol in a test tube. What are the steps that need to be
taken while handling alcohol? How should these steps be taken? Explain.

Figure 1

Make	a	sequence	on	the	steps	of	carrying	out	a	scientific	investigation	in	the	correct	order.

Conduct a scientific investigation to solve a simple problem.

1.7 Scientific Attitudes and Values in Carrying Out Scientific Investigations

Support scientific attitudes and values practised by scientists.

Justify the need to practice scientific attitudes and values when carrying out an investigation.

Practise scientific attitudes and values while carrying out a scientific investigation.

41Chapter 1

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Investigation
6. A biologist is investigating a butterfly. One of the
required information is the area of both wings of
the butterfly. If every square on the graph paper
represents a scale of 1 cm × 1 cm, calculate the
area of the wings.

7. Wendy conducted an experiment to study the
relationship between surface area and the rate of
evaporation. The results were plotted in a graph form.
Based on the graph, what is the conclusion that could
be made?

8. Henry was given three measuring instruments, P, Q and R. Which one of these could be used
to measure the thickness of a piece of wire accurately and precisely? Why?

0 cm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0 5 10

P

0 5
20
15
10
5

Q

1
2

3
4

5
6

7
8

9
10

11
12

13
14

15

cm0

R

Figure 5

9. During an experiment, a chemical reaction caused a small explosion which resulted in light
injury to Aisyah. Dina happened to be at her side during the incident. What action should
Dina have taken?

10. Aziema observed that clothes that were hung outside the house dried faster than the clothes
that were hung inside the house. Construct a hypothesis.

11. Punita observed that the plant in pot C grew healthier
than the plants in pot A and B. Construct a hypothesis
and plan an experiment to test the hypothesis.

12. Pak Wan wants to sell a type of drink that has many layers to attract his customers. Create a
drink and explain the methods to produce the drink.

Pot A: Watered once every three days
Pot B: Watered once a week
Pot C: Watered everyday Figure 6

Figure 4

Surface area (cm2)

Rate of evaporation (cm3 s−1)

Figure 3

Pot CPot BPot A

42 Chapter 1
43Bab 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikSel Sebagai Unit Asas Hidupan

43Chapter 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 2: Cell as the Basic Unit of Life

43Chapter 2

What is cell?

Why do plants carry out photosynthesis?

What is homeostasis?

How do humans produce offsprings?

How do seeds and fruits of plants form?

2
Maintenance and

Continuity of Life2
44 Chapter 2

Chapter

2
What is the basic unit of life?

What is a cell?

Cell – Structure, Function and Organisation
 Cell Respiration and Photosynthesis

Let’s study:

Cell as the Basic
Unit of Life

44 Chapter 2
45Bab 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikSel Sebagai Unit Asas Hidupan

45Chapter 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 2: Cell as the Basic Unit of Life

Cell
 Unicellular organisms
 Multicellular organisms
 Microscope
 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm
 Chloroplast

Palisade cell
 Epidermis cell
 Tissue
 Organ
 System
 Organism
 Cell respiration
 Photosynthesis

A 	simple	cell	was
	observed	for	the	first	time	b

y	Robert	Hooke

using	his	own	optical	micro
scope	in	1665.	He	reported

his

observations	in	his	book,	M
icrographia.	Before	this,	the

Romans

in	the	first	century	observed
	that	objects	appeared	bigge

r	when

seen	through	glass.	Antonie
	van	Leeuwenhoek	also	obs

erved

microorganisms	in	a	drop	o
f	water	for	the	first	time	in	1

674.

ORIGINS OF CELL
SCIENCE	BULLETIN

45Chapter 2
46 Chapter 2

•	 Explain	that	living	things	are	made	up	of	cells	that	carry	out	life’s	functions	and	undergo	cell	division.
•	 Demonstrate	the	preparation	of	slides	of	animal	cells	and	plant	cells	using	the	correct	procedures.
•	 Communicate	about	each	structure	in	cells	with	their	functions	as	well	as	compare	and	contrast
animal	cells	with	plant	cells.

•	 Explain	with	examples	the	characteristics	of	unicellular	and	multicellular	organisms	for	animal	cells
and	plant	cells.

•	 Differentiate	the	types	and	functions	of	animal	cells	and	plant	cells.
•	 Conceptualise	the	formation	of	a	plant	and	an	animal	with	reference	to	the	sequence	of	cell
organisation:

Cell	→	tissue	→	organ	→		system	→	organism
•	 Appreciate	and	be	amazed	by	the	existence	of	various	organisms.

Let’s learn

2.1
Cell - Structure, Function and
Organisation

What is a Cell?

Robert Hooke

Photograph 2.1 A house built of bricks

This house is built of bricks. Each
brick is the basic unit of the house.
The same applies to living things.

Living things are composed of basic
units called cells.

Oh, our bodies are
made up of cells.
Who was the first

person to discover
the cell?

In 1665, an English scientist named Robert
Hooke invented a simple microscope
to observe a piece of cork. He saw
lots of small box-shaped structures
within the cork. Therefore, he
named the structures as cells.

In 1674, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek invented a powerful microscope. He observed moving microorganisms
in a drop of rain water using his microscope.

Photograph 2.2 Cork cells observed by Robert Hooke
47Bab 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikSel Sebagai Unit Asas Hidupan

Cells carry out all life’s functions such
as growth, respiration, reproduction and
excretion.

Cells undergo division process to form new cells and replace damaged cells. One
individual cell becomes two cells and so on. Scan the picture below to see a video on cell
division.

In controlled conditions, cells divide normally. Cancer occurs when normal cells divide continuously without
control. Figure 2.2 shows three stages of cancerous cell development. What is the main cause of cancer? How
can cancer be detected? Discuss.

Cancer cell Tumour
Cancer

Skin
cell

Blood
vessel

Figure 2.2 Stages of cancerous cell development

Science Exploration

What will happen if
the cells in our bodies
are old or damaged?

The formation of cancer
www.cancercenter.com/
what-is-cancer/

Photograph 2.3 Process of division of a cell

Video on cell
division

Figure 2.1 A cell resembles a microscropic factory

A cell resembles a microscopic
factory where thousands of
chemical reactions occur.

Division of a cell

47Chapter 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 2: Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
48 Bab 248 Bab 2

The Structure of Animal Cells and Plant Cells

How does the structure of animal cells and plant cells look like? Let us carry out the
activity below.

Aim: To investigate the structure of animal cells using cheek cells

Materials and apparatus: Glass slide, cover glass, microscope, toothpick, mounting
needle, methylene blue solution, filter paper, dropper.

Instruction
1. Put a drop of distilled water onto a glass slide.
2. Scrape the inside of your cheek using a toothpick (Figure 2.3).
3. Place the cells onto the glass slide.
4. Add a drop of methylene blue solution on the cells.
5. Gently close the cells with a cover glass using a mounting

needle to make sure no air bubbles get trapped.
6. Use a filter paper to absorb any excess methylene blue solution.
7. Observe the glass slide under a microscope using low power

objective lens, followed by high power lens.
8. Draw and label the structure of the cheek cells observed in

your practical book.

Put distilled
water

Add a drop of
methylene blue
solution

Distilled water
and cheek
cells

Filter paper

Absorb excess
methylene blue solution

a b c

f e d

Figure 2.4 Preparing a cheek cell slide

2.1

Figure 2.3 Scrape the
inside of the cheek

Note
Methylene blue solution
is used to dye the cells

observed under
a microscope.

Observe the cells

Glass
slide

A drop of
distilled
water

Toothpick

Place cheek cells onto
the glass slide.

Mounting
needle

Cover glass

Lower the cover glass
slowly

48 Chapter 2
49Bab 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikSel Sebagai Unit Asas Hidupan

From Activity 2.1 and 2.2, the structure of plant cells and animal cells are shown as in the
picture below.

Photograph 2.4 Onion cells and cheek cells

Onion	cells Cheek	cells

Aim: To investigate the structure of plant cells using onion cells

Materials and apparatus: Glass slide, cover glass, microscope, knife, mounting needle,
dropper, iodine solution, onion, filter paper, forceps.

Instruction

Figure 2.5 Preparing an onion cell slide

1. Peel a layer of epidermis from an onion bulb using a knife.
2. Place the epidermis layer onto a glass slide.
3. Add a drop of iodine solution onto the epidermis layer.
4. Gently place a cover glass on the epidermis layer using a

mounting needle to make sure no air bubbles get trapped.
5. Use a filter paper to absorb any excess iodine solution.
6. Observe the slide under a microscope using low power objective lens, followed by high

power lens.
7. Draw and label the structure of onion cells in your practical book.

Epidermis
of onion

Epidermis
of onion

Distilled water

Forceps

Filter paper

Mounting
needle

45°

Cover
glass

Distilled water and
epidermis of

onion

Iodine
solution

a b c d

h g f e

2.2

Add distilled
water

Observe the specimen

Glass
slide

Be careful when using
a knife.

Knife

Onion
leaf’s scale

49Chapter 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 2: Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
50 Bab 250 Bab 2

Functions of Structures in Animal Cells and Plant Cells

What is the function of each structure?

Figure 2.6 The function of structures in a plant cell

Cytoplasm
•	 Acts	as	a	medium	where

chemical	reactions	occur.

Vacuole
•	 Provides	support	to

cells	when	filled	with
cell	sap.

Nucleus
•	 Controls	all	activities	in

the	cell.
•	 Contains	chromosomes

consisting	of
deoxyribonucleic	acid
(DNA)	that	carries
genetic	information.

Mitochondria
•	 Produces	energy	for

reactions.

Cell membrane
•	 Controls	the	flow	of

materials	in	and	out
of	the	cell.

Cell wall
•	 Provides	support,

protection	and	fixed	shape
to	the	cell.

Chloroplast
•	 Absorbs	light	energy	for	the

process	of	photosynthesis.

Plant cell

50 Chapter 2
51Bab 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikSel Sebagai Unit Asas Hidupan

Figure 2.7 The function of structures in an animal cell

Cell membrane
•	 Controls	the	flow	of	materials

in	and	out	of	the	cell.

Cytoplasm
•	 Acts	as	a	medium	where

chemical	reactions	occur.

Nucleus
•	 Controls	all	activities	in

the	cell.
•	 Contains	chromosomes

consisting	of
deoxyribonucleic	acid
(DNA)	that	carries
genetic	information.

Mitochondria
•	 Produces	energy	for

reactions.

Animal cell

51Chapter 2

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52 Bab 252 Bab 2

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52 Chapter 2
53Bab 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikSel Sebagai Unit Asas Hidupan

Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms

Unicellular organisms (“uni” means one) are organisms that consist of only one cell while
multicellular organisms (“multi” means many) are organisms that consist of more than
one cell. Even though unicellular organisms consist of only one cell, the organisms can
carry out all the processes of life such as growth and reproduction.

Mucor

Spirogyra
Hydra

Unicellular organisms in the
animal kingdom are Amoeba and
Paramecium that live in watery areas. A unicellular organism

in the plant kingdom is
Chlamydomonas.

Euglena has the characteristics
of both plants and animals.
Euglena can make its own food
using sunlight like plants and
move like animals.

Amoeba Paramecium

Chlamydomonas

Euglena

Figure 2.10 Examples of multicellular organisms

Figure 2.9 Examples of unicellular organisms

Unicellular organisms

Multicellular organisms

My body
consists of many

cells.

I am a multicellular
organism.

I am also a
multicellular

organism.

53Chapter 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 2: Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
54 Bab 254 Bab 2

Aim: To identify the characteristics of unicellular organisms and multicellular organisms

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Each group has to present the characteristics of unicellular organisms and multicellular

organisms in class using a mind map.

2.3

The Types and Functions of Animal Cells and Plant Cells

Animal Cells

Figure 2.11 The types of cells in our bodies

Epithelium cells
Form a layer that protects organs
in the body. These cells also secrete
mucus.

Nerve cells
Contain long fibres that function
to carry information in the form
of impulse to all parts of the body.

Reproductive cells
Sperms carry male genetic
materials and an ovum
carries female genetic
materials.

White blood cells
Change their form to
surround foreign particles
and destroy them.

Ovum Sperm

Muscle cells
Contract and relax muscles
to enable movement.

Video on Cell
Structure and
Function

21 CPS

Red blood cells
•	 Have	no	nucleus.
•	 Biconcave	disc	shaped	to

increase	surface	area
•	 Contain	haemoglobin	that

functions	to	transport	oxygen
to	all	parts	of	the	body.

•	 Transport	carbon	dioxide
from	cells	in	all	parts	of	the
body	to	the	lungs.

54 Chapter 2
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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikSel Sebagai Unit Asas Hidupan

Plant Cells

Figure 2.12 The types of cells in plants

The Formation of an Organism
A group of cells with specific functions combine to form a tissue.
A group of tissues combine to form an organ. A group of organs
combine to form a system. Various systems combine to form
an organism. The cell organisation of forming multicellular
organisms is shown in Figure 2.13.

Root hair cells
Root hair cells increase the surface
area to absorb more water and nutrient
from the soil.

Epidermis
tissue

Root
hair

Guard cells
Guard cells control the opening and closing of stoma.
A stoma is a small pore between the guard cells.
The stoma is usually open during the day to carry out
photosynthesis. The stoma is closed at night or when
the plant loses a lot of water on a hot day.

Cross section of a leaf

Guard
cell

Epidermal
cell

Stoma

Upper
epidermis

Xylem

Guard cell

Cuticle

O2

CO2

Lower
epidermis

Air space
between cells

Phloem

Skin is the largest organ
in the human body.

Science Exploration

Epidermal cells
Function to reduce
water loss, allow
gaseous exchange
and absorption of
water and nutrient.

Palisade cells
Contain
chlorophyll to
absorb sunlight
to carry out
photosynthesis.

55Chapter 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 2: Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
56 Bab 256 Bab 2

Figure 2.13 Cell organisation in organisms

Most cells inside
an organism have
specific functions.

Cell

Cells with the same
function combine to
form a tissue.

Tissue

Different tissues that
work together to
perform a specific
function forms an
organ.

Organ

A few organs with
related functions
that work together
for a specific
function forms a
system.

System

All the systems work
together to support
an organism.

Organism

In animals In plants

Stomach

Nerve
tissue

Epithelium
tissue

Muscle

Cell Tissue Organ System Organism

The order of cell organisation

Epidermal	cell

Epidermal	tissue

Leaf

Transportation	system

Epithelium cell

Epithelium tissue

Organism Organism

Digestive system

Mouth

Oesophagus

Stomach
Small
intestine

Large
intesine

Water

Root

Leaf

Stem

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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikSel Sebagai Unit Asas Hidupan

Aim: To study the way organisms are formed from basic unit of cells

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Each group has to present how cells form an organism using multimedia presentation

in class.

2.4

Systems in the Human Body

There are various systems that carry out important functions inside the human body. Each
system consists of a few organs that work together to carry out a specific function. The
various functions of all systems must be coordinated so that the human body can carry
out all life processes or activities effectively.

21 ICS

Excretory system

Lymphatic system Digestive system

Skeletal system

Systems in the human body
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body

Kidney

LungSkin

Mouth

Large
intestine

Oesophagus

Stomach

Small
intestine

Lymph

Breaks down complex food into simpler
form so that it is more easily absorbed by
the body.

Drains lymphatic fluid into blood vessels to
protect the body from infections of bacteria,
virus and others.

Removes excretory waste from
the body.

Supports the body and protects the inner
organs such as the lung and heart.

Bone

Skull

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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 2: Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
58 Bab 258 Bab 2

Figure 2.14 Examples of systems in the human body

Cell organisation form various organisms. We should be thankful to God for the
existence of various organisms that are beneficial to us.

Muscular system Integumentary system

Blood circulatory system

Endocrine system Reproductive system

Respiratory system

Nervous system

Muscle

Brain

Nerve

Spinal
cord

Heart

Blood
vessel

Nose

Lung

Testis

Pancreas
Adrenal

Thyroid
Pituitary

Ovary
Penis

Ovary Testis

Helps in the movements of
the body and inner organs.

Protects the body from
dehydration and regulates
body temperature.

Carries information from the brain to
the entire body in the form of impulse.

Carries oxygen, nutrients and hormones to
all parts of the body.

Absorbs oxygen and releases carbon
dioxide from the body.

Produces hormones required to coordinate
reactions in the body.

Produces sperms and ovum to produce
offspring.

Skin

58 Chapter 2
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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikSel Sebagai Unit Asas Hidupan

1. Fill in the blanks with correct answers.

(a) Blood plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and  in blood are the
basis for the  system.

(b) ,  and  play a role in the excretory system
in humans.

2. Match each plant cell with its correct function.
 Palisade cell Absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis
 Epidermis cell Controls the opening and closing of stoma
 Root hair cell Reduces water loss
 Guard cell Absorbs water from soil

3. Name the structure in a plant cell which has the following function.

Protects and maintains cell shape =

2.1

•	 Communicate	about	the	process	of	cell	respiration.
•	 Communicate	about	the	process	of	photosynthesis.
•	 Differentiate	the	process	of	cell	respiration	and	photosynthesis.
•	 Explain	how	the	process	of	cell	respiration	and	photosynthesis	complement	each	other.

Let’s learn

2.2 Cell Respiration and Photosynthesis

What is Respiration?
Respiration can be divided into external respiration (breathing) and internal
respiration (cell respiration). Breathing involves exchange of gases between the
organism and environment whereas cell respiration is the oxidation process and break
down of glucose that occur inside living cells to release energy.

Cell Respiration

Cell respiration is the process of breaking down food to release energy. The energy
released will be used for all life processes that occur inside the body. Cell respiration
requires oxygen and glucose to produce energy, carbon dioxide and water.

+																		 →																											 	 				+														+				Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water Energy

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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 2: Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
60 Bab 260 Bab 2

Test for the presence of starch

Plucked

Heat

Boiling
water

Hot
water

Ethanol

Iodine
solution
White
tile

Photosynthesis

Plants make their own food through photosynthesis. Food made by plants is kept in the
form of glucose known as starch. Therefore, the presence of starch in leaves shows the
occurrence of photosynthesis.

What are the requirements for photosynthesis? Light energy, carbon dioxide, water
and chlorophyll are needed for photosynthesis. Before investigating the requirements for
photosynthesis (Experiment 2.1 to 2.4), we need to know how to carry out a test to identify
the presence of starch in a leaf first.

Figure 2.15 Steps to carry out the test for the presence of starch

Instruction:

(a)  Dip a leaf into boiling water to break the cell wall of the leaf to soften it.
(b) Half fill a boiling tube with ethanol and put the leaf into it.
(c) Place the boiling tube into a beaker containing hot water.
(d) After 5 minutes, take out the leaf from the boiling tube. Observe the colour changes on

the leaf.
(e) Dip the leaf into the hot water for a few seconds to soften the leaf.
(f) Place the leaf on a white tile and put a few drops of iodine solution on it.

Observation: The colour of iodine solution changes from brown to dark blue if starch is present.

60 Bab 2

Notes
Ethanol removes

chlorophyll in
the leaf.

1.   Make sure that ethanol
is not exposed to
heat sources such as
flame from the Bunsen
burner as ethanol is
flammable.

2. Always be careful
when handling iodine
solution and hot water.Hot water

60 Chapter 2
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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikSel Sebagai Unit Asas Hidupan

Problem statement: Is light energy needed in photosynthesis?

Hypothesis: Plants need light energy for photosynthesis.

Aim: To investigate the need for light energy in photosynthesis.

Variables
Manipulated variable: The presence of sunlight
Responding variable: The colour change of iodine solution
Constant variable: Type of plants

Materials and apparatus: Two similar plants in different pots, hot water, ethanol, iodine
solution, boiling tube, white tile, dropper, forceps, beaker, Bunsen burner, tripod stand,
wire gauze.

Procedure
1. Keep two similar plants in a dark place for two days

to remove starch.
2. After two days, place one of the plants under sunlight

(Figure 2.16).
3. After a week, pluck a leaf from each plant.
4. Test for the presence of starch on both leaves and

record the observations.

Conclusion: Is the hypothesis accepted or rejected? Give your reasons.
Figure 2.16

In	the	dark Under	sunlight

ExperimentExperiment 2.1

Problem statement: Is chlorophyll needed in photosynthesis?

Hypothesis: Plants need chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

Aim: To investigate the need for chlorophyll in photosynthesis.

Variables
Manipulated variable: The presence of chlorophyll
Responding variable: The colour change of iodine solution
Constant variable: Type of plants

Materials and apparatus: A variegated leaf, hot water, ethanol, iodine solution, boiling
tube, white tile, dropper, forceps, beaker, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, wire gauze.

Procedure
1. Pluck a variegated leaf which has been exposed

to sunlight for a few hours (Figure 2.17).
2. Draw a diagram showing the green colour

distribution of the leaf. Figure 2.17 A variegated leaf

ExperimentExperiment 2.2

Non-green
part of leaf
Green part
of leaf

Notes
A variegated leaf is a leaf
which has a few colours.

Some leaves are reddish and
has little chlorophyll behind

the red pigment.

61Chapter 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 2: Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
62 Bab 262 Bab 2

3. Test for the presence of starch on the leaf.
4. Record your observations.

Conclusion
Is the hypothesis accepted or rejected? Give your reasons.

Problem statement: Is carbon dioxide needed in photosynthesis?

Hypothesis: Plants need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

Aim: To investigate the need for carbon dioxide in photosynthesis.

Variables
Manipulated variable: The presence of carbon dioxide
Responding variable: The colour change of iodine solution
Constant variable: Type of plants

Materials and apparatus: Two similar plants in different pots, hot water, ethanol, iodine
solution, potassium hydroxide solution, bell jar, boiling tube, white tile, dropper, forceps,
beaker, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, wire gauze, glass plate with vaseline.

Procedure
1. Place two similar plants in a dark place for two days to remove starch.
2. Place the two plants in two different bell jars and label A and B for each plant

(Figure 2.18).
3. In bell jar A, put a beaker of potassium hydroxide solution. Potassium hydroxide solution

is used to absorb carbon dioxide in the air.
4. Place both plants under sunlight for four days.

Figure 2.18

ExperimentExperiment 2.3

A

Air without
carbon dioxide

Green plant
Potassium
hydroxide
solution

Glass plates
with vaseline

Bell jar

Sunlight

B

Sunlight

Video on photosynthesis

62 Chapter 2
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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikSel Sebagai Unit Asas Hidupan

Problem statement: Is water needed for photosynthesis?

Hypothesis: Plants need water for photosynthesis.

Aim: To investigate the need for water in photosynthesis.

Variables
Manipulated variable: The presence of water
Responding variable: Colour change of the iodine solution
Constant variable: Type of plants

Materials and apparatus: Two similar plants in different pots, water, hot water, ethanol,
iodine solution, boiling tube, white tile, dropper, forceps, beaker, Bunsen burner, tripod
stand, wire gauze.

Procedure
1. Keep two similar plants in a dark place for two days to remove starch.
2. After two days, place the two plants under sunlight. Label the plants as A and B.
3. Water plant A everyday (Figure 2.19).
4. After a week, pluck a leaf from each plant.

5. Test for the presence of starch on the leaves.
6. Record your observations.

Conclusion
Is the hypothesis accepted or rejected? Give your reasons.

Figure 2.19
Pasu QPasu P

ExperimentExperiment 2.4

A B

5. Test for the presence of starch on the leaves.
6. Record your observations.

Conclusion:
Is the hypothesis accepted or rejected? Give your reasons.

63Chapter 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 2: Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
64 Bab 264 Bab 2

From the results of Experiment 2.1 to 2.4, it can be concluded that the process of
photosynthesis requires light energy, chlorophyll, carbon dioxide and water to produce
glucose and oxygen as shown in Figure 2.20.

Figure 2.20 The process of photosynthesis

The Differences between Cell Respiration and Photosynthesis

Table 2.1 shows the differences between cell respiration and photosynthesis.

Table 2.1 The differences between cell respiration and photosynthesis

Cell Respiration Photosynthesis
Occurs in mitochondria Occurs in chloroplast
Process to release energy Process to absorb energy
Uses chemical energy in food Uses energy from light
Occurs in humans, animals, plants and
microorganisms

Occurs in plants and microorganisms

Breaks down glucose to produce energy Synthesises glucose
Uses glucose and oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide, water and energy

Uses carbon dioxide and water to produce
oxygen and glucose

Occurs at all times Occurs only in the presence of light

Light energy
Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen

Chlorophyll

The	word	equation	for	photosynthesis

Chlorophyll

Glucose

Carbon dioxide

Sunlight Oxygen

Traps light energy

Water

64 Chapter 2
65Bab 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikSel Sebagai Unit Asas Hidupan

The processes of cell respiration and photosynthesis complement each other. During
cell respiration, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is released. Released carbon dioxide
will be used by plants to carry out photosynthesis. On the other hand, photosynthesis
produces oxygen that is needed by all organisms for cell respiration.

Figure 2.21 The processes of cell respiration and photosynthesis complement each other

Plants use
carbon dioxide

and water during
photosynthesis

Sunlight

All organisms use glucose
and oxygen during

cell respiration

Plants produce
glucose and oxygen

All organisms produce
carbon dioxide

and waterRespiration

Photosynthesis

2.2

1. Name the process that occurs in the diagram.
What is the purpose of this process?

2. Fill in the blanks in the diagram shown below.

energy to
maintain
process of life
and activity

Green plants produce changes to during

Carbon
dioxide

Oxygen

65Chapter 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 2: Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
66 Bab 266 Bab 2

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66 Chapter 2
67Bab 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikSel Sebagai Unit Asas Hidupan

After	learning	this	chapter,	you	are	able	to:

2.1 Cell – Structure, Function and Organisation
	 Explain	that	living	things	are	made	up	of	cells	that	carry	out	life’s	functions	and	undergo	cell	division.

Demonstrate	the	preparation	of	slides	of	animal	cells	and	plant	cells	using	the	correct	procedures.

Communicate	about	each	structure	in	cells	with	their	functions	as	well	as	compare	and	contrast	animal
cells	with	plant	cells.

Explain	with	examples	the	characteristics	of	unicellular	and	multicellular	organisms	for	animal	cells	and
plant	cells.

Differentiate	the	types	and	functions	of	animal	cells	and	plant	cells.

Conceptualise	the	formation	of	a	plant	and	an	animal	with	reference	to	the	sequence	of	cell	organisation:

Cell	→	tissue	→	organ	→	system	→	organism

Appreciate	and	be	amazed	by	the	existence	of	various	organisms.

2.2 Cell Respiration and Photosynthesis
	 Communicate	about	the	process	of	cell	respiration.

Communicate	about	the	process	of	photosynthesis.

Differentiate	the	process	of	cell	respiration	and	photosynthesis.

Explain	how	the	process	of	cell	respiration	and	photosynthesis	complement	each	other.

Summative Practice 2

1. Label structures P, Q and R in Figure 1.

R :

Q :

P :

Figure 1

2. Mark (✓) in the boxes which represent organs.

Epithelium          Sperm         Kidney         Ovum         Lung

67Bab 2 67Chapter 2

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 2: Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
68 Bab 268 Bab 268 Bab 2

(a) (b) (c)

Photograph 1

3. Name the cells below.

Figure 2

4. If a plant cell and an animal cell are observed under a microscope, what are the characteristics
of the cells that enable you to identify the cell as a plant cell?

5. Explain why the skin is an organ and not a tissue.

6. Give one example of an organ. Predict the condition of a human if he loses the organ.

7. Figure 3 shows the organisation of a system in a human.

Figure 3

State the system and discuss its functions.

8. Herbivores such as the cow shown in Photograph 1
eat grass. Energy from the grass reaches the cow and
returns to the grass. How do living things depend on
each other in this case? Discuss.

Red blood
cells

White
blood cells

Tissue
Heart

System

68 Chapter 2
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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikKoordinasi dan Gerak Balas

69Chapter 3

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 3: Coordination and Response

9. Amirah and Azma collected a water sample from a pond. They found an organism inside a
drop of the water when it was observed using a microscope.

Chloroplast
Flagellum

Figure 4

Amirah thinks that the organism is a type of animal but Azma feels that the organism is a
type of plant. In your opinion, which is the better statement regarding the organism above?

Give a reason.

10. Zuliha carried out an investigation to study cells that formed the heart. In your opinion,
which cell in Figure 5 assists in the contraction and relaxation of the heart muscles?

Give your reasons.

P Q R

Figure 5

11. Three students are talking about cells. Their conversation is as below.

Mei Foong: In my opinion, all organisms consist of one cell only.

Keetha: My opinion is that some organisms consist of one cell while other organisms
consist of many cells to carry out various functions.

Hidayah: I do not agree. All living things are complex and consist of many cells to carry
out various functions.

In your opinion, which student’s statement is correct? Give reasons to support your choice.

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikSel Sebagai Unit Asas HidupanPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 2: Cell as the Basic Unit of Life

69Bab 2 69Chapter 2
70 Bab 3

Chapter

3

Humans and living things
move all the time.

How do humans and living
things regulate the internal

environment inside the body?

Coordination and
Response

Homeostasis in Living Things

Let’s study:

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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 3: Coordination and Response

Homeostasis
 Transpiration
 Pulse count

Regulation
 Response
 Biological action

OUR BODY IS THE BEST TEMPERATURE REGULATORSCIENCE BULLETIN

O ur body temperature generally stays at 37°C so that chemical reactions in the body

can function efficiently. Therefore, 37°C is the normal body temperature. Do you know

that mammals and birds also have a normal body temperature? Normal body temperature

differs according to the types of animals. For example, normal body temperature for a

magpie is about 39°C while normal body temperature for a porcupine is around 31°C.

When we are running, our body produces heat that will increase the body temperature.

Thus, the sweat glands in our body will produce sweat to reduce the body temperature.

If the body temperature does not drop to its normal range, our body cells cannot function

efficiently and it might cause death. Body temperature exceeding 6°C from the normal

temperature will cause death. Therefore, patients with fever should be

monitored closely to prevent their body temperature from rising too high.

71Chapter 3
72 Bab 3

•	 Communicate	about	meaning	of	homeostasis.
•	 Explain	with	examples	the	systems	involved	with	homeostasis	in	humans	and	animals.
•	 Explain	with	examples	the	systems	involved	in	plant	homeostasis.
•	 Appreciate	the	importance	of	homeostasis	in	humans	and	living	things.

Let’s learn

3.1 Homeostasis in Living Things

W hat is meant by homeostasis? Homeostasis refers to
 the maintenance of the internal environment in the
body of an organism, such as temperature, water, pH and
blood pressure to be in a balanced and stable condition.
The maintenance of the internal environment in the body of
an organism in a balanced and stable condition, allows all
living processes in the body of the organism to work well.
If the internal conditions are not balanced, for example the
temperature is too high, the cells of the organism may die.

Homeostasis in Humans

Photograph 3.1 Thermostat of an oven

Have you ever used an oven? Do you know
that a thermostat is used to control the
temperature of an oven? If the thermostat
detects the temperature of the oven
is too high, the heating function
in the oven will switch off and
the temperature will decrease.
If the thermostat detects the
temperature of the oven is too
low, the heating function in the
oven will switch on to increase
the temperature.

The same goes to our body which has a mechanism
that can regulate body temperature, water content and
others to be in a balanced and stable condition.

Photograph 3.2 Homeostasis in our body allows processes in the body
 to function efficiently

Homeostasis comes
from two Greek words,
‘homeo’ meaning
‘similar’ and ‘stasis’
meaning ‘stable’.

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Homeostatic Control Process

When the internal environment in our body such as the body temperature increases, the
control centre at the brain will detect the changes. A corrective mechanism will then take
place and the temperature will reduce to its normal range. When the body temperature
decreases, a corrective mechanism will take place and the temperature will rise to its
normal range (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1 Homeostatic control process

Homeostasis is important to humans. Among the most important homeostasis in the
human body are the regulation of water and body temperature.

Aim: To gather information about homeostasis in our body

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Each group has to collect information on homeostasis such as regulation of water

content and body temperature. Information can be obtained from the Internet,
magazines and other sources.

3. Discuss the information that you have collected in your group.
4. After that, each group has to present their discussion in class using multimedia

presentation.

3.1

Normal Temperature Range

Control
centre

Control
centre

Corrective
mechanism

Corrective
mechanism

Normal Temperature Range

Decreases

Increases

Increases

Decreases

How does my body
regulate body
temperature?

How does my body
regulate water

content?

21 ICS

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74 Bab 3

Regulation of Water Content
Systems that are involved in water regulation are the excretory system and endocrine
system. Examples of organs involved are kidneys and brain.

Figure 3.2 The regulation of water content

Detected by the
brain

Water content
in the body
increases when
we drink water.

Water content in the body
decreases when we sweat.

Water content in the
body decreases.

Water content in the
body increases.

Increases

Decreases

Corrective mechanism

•	 The	brain	will	stimulate	the	secretion	of	a
hormone	so	that	the	kidneys	increase	the
production	of	urine.

•	 More	urine	is	produced.

Detected by the brain

Corrective mechanism

•	 The	brain	will	stimulate	the
secretion	of	a	hormone	so
that	the	kidneys	will	decrease
the	production	of	urine.

•	 Feel	thirsty.

Normal water level

Brain

Brain

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Regulation of Body Temperature
Systems that are involved in regulation of body temperature are the excretory system and
endocrine system. Examples of organs involved are skin, brain and skeletal muscles.

Figure 3.3 The regulation of body temperature

Detected by
the brain

Detected by
the brain

During a
cold day,
our body
temperature
will decrease.

Body temperature decreases.

Body temperature increases.

Increases

Decreases

Corrective mechanism

•	 Blood	vessels	constrict
•	 Hairs	stand	erect
•	 Decrease sweating
•	 Skeletal muscles will contract and relax actively and

it	will	cause	an	individual	to	shiver to increase the
body	temperature.	At	the	same	time,	certain	hormones
will	be	secreted	to	increase	body	metabolism.

Normal temperature (37°C)

Brain

Brain

Corrective mechanism

•	 Blood	vessels	dilate
•	 Hairs	lie flat
•	 Increase	sweating
•	 Activity	of	the	skeletal	muscles	and

certain	hormone	secretion	will	reduce
and	eventually,	decrease	the	body
temperature.

•	 Less	urine

During a hot day, our body
temperature will increase.

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76 Bab 3

Figure 3.4 The condition of skin layer during higher and lower surrounding temperature

Problem statement: Do we sweat in a hot or cold condition?

Hypothesis: We sweat in a hot condition.

Aim: To study how the biological actions respond to changes in temperature.

Variables
Manipulated variable: The surrounding temperature
Responding variable: Presence of sweat
Fixed variable: Time taken

Materials and Apparatus: Stopwatch

ExperimentExperiment 3.1

Hairs lie flat to reduce air
trapped on the skin so that
heat can be released easily.

Blood vessels dilate to let more
blood flow close to the skin to
increase heat loss.

Blood vessels constrict to let more
blood flow away from the skin to
reduce heat loss.

Higher surrounding
temperature

Skin layer

Lower surrounding
temperature

Video of the role of skin
thermoregulation

Erect hairs trap a layer
of air that acts as a heat
insulator.

Sweat glands produce
more sweat to cool
the skin when sweat
is evaporated.

Sweat
glands

Sweat

Hairs lie flat

Blood vessels
dilate

Hairs stand erect

Blood vessels
constrict

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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikKoordinasi dan Gerak Balas

Procedure
1. Enter the laboratory without switching on the fans for 10 minutes.
2. Record whether or not you are sweating.
3. Then, switch on the fans for 10 minutes.
4. Record whether or not you are sweating.

Results

The surrounding temperature Presence of sweat

Hot (Fan is switched off)

Cool (Fan is switched on)

Question
1. What will happen to the body when we are in a higher surrounding temperature?

Conclusion: Is the hypothesis accepted? Give your reason.

Problem statement: Does the pulse count increase when executing heavy tasks?

Hypothesis: Pulse count will increase when executing heavy tasks.

Aim: To study how biological actions respond to pulse count.

Variables
Manipulated variable: Types of activities
Responding variable: Pulse count
Fixed variable: Time taken

Materials and apparatus: Stopwatch, a student from each group.

Procedure
1. Choose one student from each group to carry

out the activities planned which are at rest,
walking and jogging for 5 minutes.

2. Then, count the pulse of each student for a
minute by placing two fingers on their wrist
and record the reading after each activity
(Photograph 3.3).

Photograph 3.3 The way to count pulse

ExperimentExperiment 3.2

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78 Bab 3

3. Record the results in the table as shown below.

Results

Group
number

Student’s
name

Pulse count
At rest Walking Jogging

1
2
3
4

Questions
1. What is shown by the data collected?
2. What other observations can be seen on students after doing heavy tasks?
3. Why is sweat produced when doing heavy tasks?

Conclusion: Is the hypothesis accepted or rejected? Give your reason.

Homeostasis in Animals

Homeostasis also occurs in animals. Animals like cats and dogs do not have sweat
glands except on their sole. How do they maintain homeostasis during changes in
surrounding temperature?

Photograph 3.4 Responses of animals towards changes in surrounding temperature

I lick my fur to reduce my
body temperature.

I hang my tongue
out so that the

temperature
decreases.

My fur stands erect
when it is cold to trap

heat.

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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikKoordinasi dan Gerak Balas

How do reptiles such as lizards maintain homeostasis towards changes in surrounding
temperature?

How do snails and bees maintain homeostasis towards the increase in surrounding
temperature?

Photograph 3.6 Snail

Loses a lot of water through
evaporation on skin surface.

Produces fluid and looks for
humid places to reduce water
loss.

Cold Surrounding:

•	 Body	activities	become	slower
•	 Muscles	function	more	slowly
•	 Movements	become	slower
•	 Metabolism	rate	decreases
•	 Body	temperature	decreases

Hot Surrounding:
•	 The	heart	beats	faster
•	 Movements	become

faster
•	 Metabolism	rate

increases
•	 Body	temperature

increases

How does homeostasis
occur in the body of
snakes and polar bears?

B

21 CPS

Photograph 3.7 Bee

Has waxy skin layer and loss of water vapour occurs
through its spiracles.

Closes spiracles between two breathing movements
to reduce water loss.

Photograph 3.5 Lizards regulate body temperature when
the surrounding temperature changes

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80 Bab 3

1

In	the
afternoon

Homeostasis in Plants

Observe the plant condition during different
times	in	a	day.	Plants	need	sufficient	water	to
prevent them from withering and die. How do
plants regulate water content during hot and
cold days?

Water from plants are lost through a
process known as transpiration. During
transpiration, plants lose water from leaves in
the form of water vapour to the surrounding
through the stoma. This involves the transport
system in plants.

•	 Transpiration	helps	plants	to	absorb	and	carry	water	and	minerals	from	the	soil	to	all	parts
of	the	plant	(Figure	3.5).

•	 Evaporation	of	water	from	the	leaves	cools	the	plant	during	hot	days.

Figure 3.5 Transpiration helps in water transportation from roots to leaves

Almost 90% of water
absorbed by the
roots of plants is lost
through transpiration.

2

Transpiration on
leaves produces
force that draws
water from the
stems of plants.

2

Roots of plants
absorb water and
minerals from soil.

1

In	the
evening

Photograph 3.8 Banana tree leaves roll up in
the afternoon to avoid excessive
water loss

Science Exploration

Water in
soil

Root hairs

Water vapour Stoma
Cross section of a leaf

Key:
Flow of water

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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikKoordinasi dan Gerak Balas

Stoma

Guard	cells	control	the	opening and closing	of	stoma.	During	the	day,	stoma	opens	to	enable
exchange	of	gas.	At	the	same	time,	water	vapour	will	be	lost	from	the	leaves	and	this	will
increase	the	rate	of	water	intake	by	the	roots.

Figure 3.6 The opening and closing of stoma

During the day, stoma
opens to enable more
water to be evaporated
from the leaves through
transpiration.

When the temperature
is too high, stoma
closes to reduce water
evaporated from
the leaves through
transpiration.

When the temperature is too high

During the day

Guard
cell
Opened
stoma

Guard
cell

Closed
stoma

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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 3: Coordination and Response
82 Bab 3

Aim: To gather information on transpiration

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Each group has to collect information on transpiration such as its function in

the regulation of water content in plants. Information can be obtained from the
Internet, magazines and other sources.

3. Discuss the information that you have collected.
4. After that, each group has to present their discussion in class using multimedia

presentation.

3.2

82 Bab 382 Chapter 3
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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikKoordinasi dan Gerak Balas

Importance of Homeostasis to Humans and Living Things

Homeostasis in human body and living things is to provide the optimum conditions
in	the	body	so	that	cells	can	carry	out	metabolism	activities	efficiently.	All	chemical
reactions in living cells are controlled by enzymes that are sensitive to surrounding
changes.	Changes	in	temperature	will	influence	the	enzyme	activities.

We should be grateful that homeostasis enables the internal environment of our
body to be regulated and maintained in a balanced and stable condition. Imagine our life
without homeostasis. What would happen if the temperature in our body or other living
things continue to increase or decrease? What would happen if the water content in our
body or other living things is lost without control?

Aim: To discuss the importance of homeostasis.

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Discuss the importance of homeostasis. Each student must give at least one idea.
3. Present the group discussion in the form of multimedia presentation such as

PowerPoint in class.

3.3

1. What is homeostasis?
2. Give two examples of important regulation in the human body.

3.1

Ouch, my body
temperature
has not gone

down yet!

Ouch, my
body is getting

warmer!

21 ICS

Figure 3.7 Condition of humans and plants without homeostasis

83Chapter 3

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 3: Coordination and Response
84 Bab 3

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84 Chapter 3
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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikKoordinasi dan Gerak Balas

After	learning	this	chapter,	you	are	able	to:

3.1 Homeostasis in Living Things
	 Communicate	about	meaning	of	homeostasis.

Explain	with	examples	the	systems	involved	with	homeostasis	in	humans	and	animals.

Explain	with	examples	the	systems	involved	in	plant	homeostasis.

Appreciate	the	importance	of	homeostasis	in	humans	and	living	things.

Summative Practice 3

1. How do plants control homeostasis?

2. How do our bodies respond to changes in temperature when we enter a very cold room?

3. What is the role of blood vessels in increasing heat loss?

4. What is the advantage of having a constant body temperature?

5. During exercise, our body loses a lot of water. Why do people who exercise need to drink water
before feeling thirsty?

6. Why does our face look red after doing an active exercise but pale when feeling cold?

7. The graph in Figure 1 shows that the quantity of sweat and urine changes with temperature.

Q
ua

nt
ity

(m
l)

Urine

Sweat

External body temperature (°C)
1050

200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40

0
20

3530252015

Figure 1

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86 Bab 3

(a) What would happen to the quantity of sweat when temperature increases?
   Explain why it happens.
  (b) What would happen to the quantity of urine when temperature increases?
   Explain why it happens.
  (c) Relate the relationship between both reasons in answers (a) and (b).

8. Khairul stayed in a house and was given the same quantity of food and drinks for three days.
The quantity of urine produced was collected and measured.

Table 1

Day Quantity of urine (ml)
Day one 1900
Day two 500

Day three 850

(a) Why must we ensure that the quantity of food and drinks for all three days is the same?
  (b) On which day did Khairul do the most vigorous activity? Give your reason(s).
   (Answer guide: relate it with the quantity of urine produced)

9. Why is wearing a few layers of thin clothing better than wearing a layer of thick clothing to
maintain body temperature?

10. The statement below shows a hypothesis.

Plants regulate water content through the stoma.

Design an experiment to prove the hypothesis above.

The report must include:
 	 •	 Problem	statement
 	 •	 Hypothesis
 	 •	 Aim
 	 •	 Variables
 	 •	 Apparatus	and	materials
 	 •	 Procedure
 	 •	 Data	tabulation

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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikKoordinasi dan Gerak Balas

11. The statement below shows the functions of skin.

Skin is an excretory organ, protective organ of other organs and the organ that regulates
body temperature.

In your opinion, is the statement true? Give your reason.

12. The statement below shows a hypothesis.

More urine is produced when we drink a lot of water compared to when we drink less water.

Design an experiment to prove the hypothesis above.

The report must include:
 	 •	 Problem	statement
 	 •	 Hypothesis
 	 •	 Aim
 	 •	 Variables
 	 •	 Apparatus	and	materials
 	 •	 Procedure
 	 •	 Data	tabulation

87Chapter 3

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88 Bab 388 Chapter 3

Chapter

4

Sexual and Asexual Reproduction
 Human Reproductive System
 Menstrual Cycle
 Fertilisation and Pregnancy

Factors Affecting the
Development of a Foetus and
Baby

Infertility and Contraception
 Plant Reproduction

Let’s Study:

The average of live births occuring
daily in Malaysia is 1,400 births.

(Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2014).
What is the importance of birth?

Reproduction

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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

89Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction

Sexual reproduction
 Asexual reproduction
 Fertilisation
 Vegetative reproduction
 Puberty

Menstruation
 Ovulation
 Implantation
 Placenta
 Pollination

ABritish scientist, Robert Edwards, was awarded the 2010 Nobel Prize for Medicine. He had

successfully invented the in vitro fertilisation (IVF) technology, a method of fertilisation

which takes place in a glass dish (test tube).

How is the IVF procedure done? The IVF procedure involves fertilising an egg cell that

has been removed from the mother in a glass dish with sperm cells obtained from the father in a

laboratory. The fertilised egg cell is left to grow until it develops into an early stage of embryo.

Then, the embryo is placed in the uterus. The embryo grows in the uterus until it is born as

a baby.

Edwards’s	research	began	in	the	1950s.	His	rese
arch	succeeded	for	the	first	time	on

25th	July	1978	when	the	world’s	first	test	tube	baby
was	born.	The	baby	was	named

Louise Brown.

His achievement has helped many married couples with fertility problems to

have children. The IVF technology has since brought millions of test tube babies

into the world.

ROBERT EDWARDS, NOBEL LAUREATE
SCIENCE BULLETIN
•	 Compare	and	contrast	sexual	and	asexual	reproduction	in	animals	and	plants.
•	 Reason	the	importance	of	reproduction.
•	 Be	grateful	for	the	ability	to	reproduce	and	the	continuation	of	life	as	a	gift	from	God.

Let’s learn

4.1 Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

D o you know what reproduction is? Reproduction is the
 process of producing new individuals from living
organisms. Reproduction is the basic characteristic of each
living organism. Photograph 4.1 indicates how humans and
animals reproduce.

Reproduction can be divided into, sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction.
The classification of reproduction can be seen in the following thinking map.

Photograph 4.1 Ways of reproduction for humans and animals

Whales reproduce
by giving birth.

Chickens
reproduce by
laying eggs.

Humans reproduce
by giving birth.

Science
        Career

Doctors who specialise
in this field are known
as obstetricians and
gynaecologists.

90 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

Sexual

Involves reproductive cells

Occurs in:
•	 humans
•	 higher	animals	(mammal,	bird,	fish,

reptile	and	amphibian)
•	 flowering	plants

Occurs in:
•	 plants	(onion,	ginger,	potato)
•	 simple	organisms	(Amoeba,

Hydra,	Paramecium)

Photograph 4.2 Humans reproduce sexually

Reptile

Fish

Mammal

Flowering
plant

Photograph 4.4 A few examples of living organisms
that reproduce asexually

Amoeba

Paramecium

Onion

Amphibian

Photograph 4.3 A few examples of living organisms
that reproduce sexually

Bird

Does not involve reproductive cells

Asexual

Reproduction

Potato

Hydra

Ginger

91Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction is the main type of reproduction that
is carried out by human, higher animals and plants. Human
reproduction is not only to produce offsprings, but it also
involves family bonding and love.

Sexual reproduction involves two parents, which are

Sexual reproduction produces a new generation that is different from its parents and
shows genetic variation. Do you know how a new generation is formed? What causes the
formation of babies in the body of pregnant mothers? The first process involved is known
as fertilisation.

Figure 4.1 Process of gamete production

Testis
Male gamete (sperm)

has
produces

Female

Female gamete (ovum)

has produces

• male parent that carries male
reproductive cell

• female parent that carries female
reproductive cell

Ovary

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
was the first scientist who
studied sperm cell using a
microscope in 1677.

Male

92 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

There are two types of sexual fertilisation which are internal fertilisation and external
fertilisation. The differences between internal and external fertilisation are summarised
in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Differences between internal and external fertilisation

Internal fertilisation Characteristics External fertilisation

Nucleus	of	the	male	gamete	fuses
with	the	nucleus	of	the	female
gamete	inside	the	body	of	the
female	parent.

Happens	when Nucleus	of	the	male	gamete	fuses
with	the	nucleus	of	the	female
gamete	outside	the	body	of	the
female	parent.

The	male	parent	releases	sperm
into	the	body	of	the	female	parent.

Place of fusion The	male	parent	releases	sperm	and
the	female	parent	releases	ovum.	This
fertilisation	occurs	in	the	water.

The	male	gamete	from	the	male
reproductive	organ	will	be	released
into	the	female	reproductive	organ
which	has	the	female	gamete	and
fuses	to	form	a	zygote.

Process The	male	gamete	usually	swims
towards	the	ovum	and	fuses	with	it.

Figure 4.2 Internal fertilisation of dragonflies Figure 4.3 External fertilisation of fish

Sperm

Ovum

B
Why do fish ova have a
layer of gel coating?

93Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction occurs in simple organisms like Amoeba,
Paramecium and Hydra. Plants like onion, ginger and potato
also reproduce asexually.

For asexual reproduction, only one parent is involved.
Fertilisation does not occur in asexual reproduction. The new
individuals produced are genetically identical to their parents.
Variations do not occur among the new individuals. Various
types of asexual reproduction is explained in Figure 4.5.

Aim:	To	gather	and	interpret	information	about	sexual	and	asexual	reproductions

Instruction
1. Work	in	groups.
2.	 Discuss	the	differences	and	similarities	between	internal	and	external	fertilisation.
3.	 Record	your	discussion	in	a	table	as	below.

Internal fertilisation Characteristics External fertilisation

4.	 Collect	information	from	the	Internet	on	the	following	types	of	asexual	reproductions:
	 (a)	 binary	fission
	 (b)	 budding
	 (c)	 spore	formation
	 (d)	 vegetative	reproduction
	 (e)	 regeneration

4.1

Tissue culture
www.isaaa.org

Asexual reproduction is
a process of producing

new individuals
without involving
reproductive cells.

Science Exploration

Tissue culture is an
example of biotechnology
that produces new
individuals. This technique
produces new plants in a
short time.

Figure 4.4 Tissue culture

94 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

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95Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
Vegetative Reproduction

Vegetative part Example of plant

Root
		Roots	of	parent	plant	will
grow	into	new	plants.

Stem
		Stems	of	parent	plant	will
grow	into	new	plants.

Leaf
		Leaves	of	parent	plant	will
grow	into	new	plants.

The Importance of Reproduction
All living organisms reproduce to produce new individuals.
What would happen if a living organism does not reproduce?
 Reproduction is very important to increase the number
of organisms of the species. The failure of an organism to
reproduce can cause extinction. What are the other importance
of reproduction?

Reproduction	increases	the	number
of	individuals	of	the	same	species

Reproduction	transfers	the	genetic
information	to	the	new	generation

Photograph 4.5 Importance of reproduction

I incubate my eggs
and take care of my

offsprings to ensure my
species keep on living.

(a)	Underground	stem (b)	Runner

(c)	Bulb

B
Predict what would
happen to humans if the
extinction of animal and
plant species increases?

Runner

Grass

Node

Root

Carrot

New
plant

Sweet potato

New potato
Old potato Adventitious

rootPotato

Stem

Onion
Adventitious
root

Bryophyllum

Bud

Begonia

New plant

96 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

Be Grateful for the Ability to Reproduce and the
Continuation of Life as a Gift from God

Baby dumping cases have been increasing tremendously day by day. Do you know that
the ability to reproduce is a gift from God which has to be appreciated? Baby dumping is
a barbaric act and should not happen. The babies born are the descendants of the
human species.

Aim: To	discuss	the	importance	of	reproduction	and	the	problems	that	will	arise	if
reproduction	decreases	for	all	living	things.

Instruction
1.	 Work	in	groups.
2.	 Each	group	has	to	collect	information	on	the	importance	of	reproduction	and	the

problems	that	will	arise	if	an	organism	does	not	reproduce.
3.	 Present	your	discussion	using	a	multimedia	presentation.

4.2 21 ICS

1.	 What	are	the	differences	between	sexual	and	asexual	reproduction?
2.	 State	the	parts	of	the	following	plants	that	reproduce	vegetatively.
	 (a)			Onion																	(c)			Ginger																	(e)			Potato
	 (b)			Yam																				(d)			Lallang																(f)			Bryophyllum
3.	 What	is	the	importance	of	reproduction	to	living	things?

4.1

•	 Identify	the	structures	and	function	of	the	male	and	female	reproductive	systems.
•	 Communicate	about	the	physical	changes	that	occur	during	puberty.
•	 Compare	and	contrast	the	male	gamete	with	the	female	gamete	in	the	reproductive	system.

Let’s learn

4.2 Human Reproductive System

H umans reproduce sexually. The human reproductive system consists of the male
 and female reproductive system. What are the organs involved in both systems?

Both the male and female reproductive systems are very important. Married
couples cannot produce offsprings if any of their reproductive system malfunctions. Let
us study the structure of the male and female reproductive systems.

97Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
Table 4.2 Parts and functions of the male reproductive system

Male Reproductive System

Prostate gland

Seminal vesicle

Urinary bladder

Penis

Sperm duct

Urethra

Testis

Scrotum

Figure 4.6 The front view of male
reproductive system

Figure 4.7 The side view of male
reproductive system

Part Function

Seminal	vesicle Secretes	nutritional	fluid	for	the	sperms

Urethra A	channel	to	discharge	sperms	and	urine
from	the	body

Sperm	duct Transports	sperms	from	the	testis	to	the
urethra	inside	the	body

Penis Transfers	sperms	into	the	vagina	of	the
female	during	copulation

Scrotum Holds	and	protects	the	testes

Testis Produces	male	gametes	(sperms)	and	male
sex	hormones

Prostate	glands Secrete	fluid	which	contains	nutrients	and
protects	sperm	cell.

98 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

Table 4.3 Parts and functions of the female reproductive system

Female Reproductive System

Part Function

Fallopian	tube Place	where	fertilisation	between	sperm	and
ovum	occurs

Ovary Produces	female	gamete	(ovum)	and	female
sex	hormones

Uterus
(womb)

Place	where	the	embryo	develops	and	grows

Cervix Produces	mucus	to	enable	sperms	to	swim	into
the	uterus

Vagina Receives	sperms	and	as	a	channel	through
which	a	baby	is	born

Figure 4.8 The front view of female
reproductive system

Figure 4.9 The side view of female
reproductive system

Fallopian
tube

Ovary
Uterus

Cervix

Vagina

99Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
Aim:	To	observe	the	structures	and	function	of	the	reproductive	system.

Instruction
1.	 Work	in	groups.
2.	 Observe	the	structures	of	the	male	and	female	reproductive	systems	from	the	Internet.
3.	 Draw	and	label	the	male	and	female	reproductive	organs	on	a	manila	card.
4.	 Present	your	drawing	in	class.
5.	 Display	your	work	at	the	science	corner	of	your	class	or	in	the	laboratory.

4.3

Physical Changes that Occur During Puberty

Puberty is the early stage of the maturity of the reproductive system. Adolescents
who have reached puberty will experience growth and change emotionally, physically
and physiologically.

Look at these photos!
You’ve changed so

much! I wonder how
I will look when I

grow up.

We will see when you
reach puberty. You’ll look
different too. You will be
experiencing changes in

your body during puberty.

Figure 4.10 Puberty causes changes in individuals

Science in Life

100 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

Boys reach puberty at approximately 14-17 years old. Meanwhile, girls reach puberty
earlier than boys, which is 10-12 years old. What are the changes that occur to boys and
girls when they reach puberty?

Figure 4.11 Changes that occur during puberty

Reproductive organs
•	 Testes	produce	sperms

and	sex	hormones
•	 Hair	grows	at	pubic

region
•	 Penis	and	scrotum

enlarge

Reproductive organs
•	 Ovaries	produce	ova

and	sex	hormones
•	 Hair	grows	at	pubic

region
•	 Menstrual	cycle	begins

Male Female

Body
•	 Breasts	grow
•	 Hips	become	firm

and	broader
•	 Hair	grows	on	the

armpits

Body
•	 Moustache	and	beard

begin	to	grow
•	 Hair	grows	on	the

face,	armpits	and	chest

Voice
•	 Vocal	cord	(larynx)

enlarges
•	 Voice	becomes	deeper

101Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
Aim:	To	discuss	the	changes	that	occur	during	puberty.

Instruction
1.	 List	the	physical	changes	that	occur	during	puberty.
2.	 Is	it	normal	if	an	18-year-old	girl	still	has	not	had	her	menstruation	yet?	Explain

your	answer.
3.	 Suppose	that	you	work	as	a	magazine	editor	for	an	advice	column.	A	teenager	wants

your	advice	on	a	serious	acne	problem.	What	advice	will	you	give	to	him/her?

4.4

Comparison between the Male and Female Gametes

You have learned from the previous subtopic that sperm is a male gamete or male
reproductive cell, while ovum is the female gamete or female reproductive cell. Sperm is
the smallest cell in the male’s body and its shape is like a tadpole. Ovum is the largest cell
in the female’s body. Figure 4.12 shows the structures of sperm and ovum.

Figure 4.12 The structures of a sperm and an ovum

OvumSperm

HeadNucleus

Middle piece

Tail

Gel layer
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane

102 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

The head of a sperm contains nucleus that carries genetic and hereditary
information to be transferred to the offspring. The tail enables the sperm to move
or swim in the semen inside the vagina, uterus and Fallopian tube of the female
reproductive system. The normal number of sperms released is 60 million per
cubic centimetre.

Ovum is spherical in shape with a diameter of about 0.1 mm. The nucleus contains
genetic and hereditary information to be transferred to the offspring. The ovum is not
able to move by itself. A normal woman usually produces one ovum per month.
Figure 4.13 shows the comparison between sperm and ovum.

Produced	by
testis

Produced	by
ovary

Carries	genetic
information

Male	gamete Female	gamete

Smallest	cell	in
the	male’s	body

Largest	cell	in
the	female’s

body

Not	able	to
move

Sexual
reproductive

cell

Able	to	move

Sperm Ovum

Figure 4.13 Comparison between sperm and ovum

Science Exploration

Ovum can live up to two
days after being released
from the ovary while
sperms can live up to
three or four days.

B
If a woman releases her
ovum every 28 days for
35 years, how many ova
has she released? Show
your calculation.

103Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
1.	 What	is	the	importance	of	the	reproductive	system	to	males	and	females?
2.	 State	the	functions	of	the	urethra,	penis	and	scrotum	in	the	male	reproductive	system.
3.	 State	the	functions	of	the	Fallopian	tube,	vagina	and	uterus	in	the	female

reproductive	system.
4.	 What	is	meant	by	puberty?
5.	 During	puberty,	teenagers	will	encounter	body	odour	problem.

Explain	how	this	problem	occurs.
6.	 If	a	woman’s	ovaries	are	damaged,	can	she	still	get	pregnant?	Explain	your	answer.

4.2

•	 Communicate	about	the	menstrual	cycle	and	the	sequence	of	changes	in	the	uterus	lining	during
menstruation.

•	 Relate	the	fertile	phase	of	the	menstrual	cycle	to	the	process	of	fertilisation.
•	 Justify	the	importance	of	personal	hygiene	during	menstruation.

Let’s learn

4.3 The Menstrual Cycle

W omen will undergo menstruation when they reach
 puberty. Menstruation marks the beginning of the menstrual
cycle for each woman. Menstruation is the breakdown of the
lining of the uterine wall and discharge of blood through the
vagina. Menstrual cycle refers to a series of changes that occurs
in the uterine wall and the ovaries. Menstrual cycle also
involves the formation and release of mature ovum.

Menstrual cycle is controlled by the brain and
endocrine system which secretes hormone.
Normally, a menstrual cycle lasts for 28
days and it differs for each individual.
There are various factors that affect
the menstrual cycle such as nutrient
intake, abrupt change in body
weight, emotional changes
and mental pressure. Figure
4.14 shows the phases in the
menstrual cycle.

Menstruation
www.ubykotex.com/
en-us/periods

Science Exploration

The menstruation of a
female will stop when
she reaches menopause
which is around   48 – 55
years old.

Figure 4.14 The menstrual cycle

28
27

26

25

24
23

22
21

20
19

18

17
16

15
13

12
11

10
9

8
7

6
5

4
3

21

Ovulation

R
epair phase

Menstruation phase

Pr
em

en
st

ru
al

p
ha

se

Fertile phase

14

104 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

Day 1 – 5

Menstruation phase
The	uterine	lining	breaks	down
as	menstruation	begins	and	is
discharged	together	with	blood,
unfertilised	ovum	and	mucus.

Day 12 – 17

Fertile phase
An	ovum	is	released	from	the	ovary
on	the	14th	day	of	the	menstrual
cycle	(ovulation).	The	uterine	lining
continues	to	thicken.	Fertilisation	is
likely	to	occur	if	sperms	are	present.

Day 6 – 11

Repair phase
Uterine	lining	starts	to	rebuild	and
thicken.	Blood	vessels	in	uterine	lining
are	formed	and	ready	to	receive	the
implantation	of	fertilised	ovum.

Day 18 – 28

Premenstrual phase
The	uterine	lining	continues	to
thicken	and	becomes	richly	supplied
with	blood	vessels.	Implantation	of
an	embryo	is	ready	if	fertilisation
occurs.	The	menstrual	cycle	will
repeat	if	fertilisation	does	not	occur.

Uterine lining
breaking down
and flowing out

Uterine
lining
thickening

Uterine lining
continues to
thicken

Ovum

Figure 4.15 The phases in the menstrual cycle

105Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
Importance of Personal Hygiene During Menstruation

Personal hygiene during menstruation is very important
to ensure the reproductive system is not infected with
microorganisms like bacteria, virus and fungi. How do you
manage your personal hygiene during menstruation?
Figure 4.16 shows the ways of practising good personal
hygiene during menstruation and their importance.

Figure 4.16 The importance of personal hygiene during menstruation

An irregular menstruation refers to a condition where a
woman does not experience menstruation every month, has
too long or too short menstrual cycles. Irregular menstruation
might be caused by several factors such as an increase in body
weight, hormonal imbalance, emotional disruption, excessive
exercise and can also be caused by cervical tumour.

During	menstruation,	a	woman
must	change	her	sanitary	pad
3-4	times	a	day	to	prevent	the
infection	of	bacteria	and	virus
that	might	cause	urinary	tract
infection	(UTI).

Change	sanitary	pad
3-4	times	a	day

1

Clean	your	body

A	menstruating	woman	is
encouraged	to	bathe	frequently	to
clean	her	body.

2

Urinary Tract
Infection (UTI)
http://www.dettol.
com.my/my/
illnesses/urinary-
tract-infections/

What would happen if
a woman experiences

irregular menstruation?

B
Why does the emotional
state of a woman affect
her menstrual cycle?

106 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

1.	 Explain	the	phases	of	menstrual	cycle.
2.	 At	what	age	does	a	woman	start	to	experience	menstruation	and	how	long	does	it	last?
3.	 What	is	ovulation	and	where	does	ovulation	normally	occur?
4.	 Is	it	true	that	you	cannot	wash	your	hair,	drink	cold	water,	eat	ice	cream	or	play	sport

during	menstruation?	Explain	your	answer.

4.3

•	 Communicate	about	the	process	of	fertilisation	and	the	implantation	of	embryo.
•	 Justify	the	importance	and	functions	of	placenta	and	umbilical	cord.
•	 Describe	the	development	of	a	zygote	into	an	embryo	and	subsequently	into	a	foetus	during
pregnancy	until	birth.

Let’s learn

4.4 Fertilisation and Pregnancy

Y ou have learned in subtopic 4.1, that fertilisation is a fusion between sperm and
 ovum. What happens after fertilisation?

Irregular	menstruation	can	cause	negative	effects	to	a	woman’s	health.	Some	of	the
negative	effects	of	irregular	menstruation	to	woman	are:

1. Infertility	–	Irregular	menstrual	cycle	is	an	early	sign	of	having	reproductive	system
problems.	A	late	treatment	can	cause	serious	health	problems	such	as	ovarian	cancer,
cervical	cancer	and	uterus	cancer.

2. Having difficulties in family planning	–	Irregular	menstrual	cycle	causes	a	woman	to
have	difficulties	in	determining	her	fertile	day.	Hence,	it	is	hard	to	plan	a	pregnancy.

3. Health problems such as anaemia	–	Irregular	menstrual	cycle	can	cause	a	long
menstruation.	This	causes	an	excessive	loss	of	blood.	The	body	becomes	weak	and	the
woman	faints	easily.

After the fertilisation, the
woman will get pregnant,

zygote will form and grow in the
uterus until birth.

What happens after the
fertilisation between sperm

and ovum?

107Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
Fallopian	tube

Ovary Sperm

Fertilisation

Figure 4.17 The process of fertilisation and embryo implantation

The implanted embryo will grow and become a foetus that resembles a human
(baby). This process is known as pregnancy. After approximately 38 weeks, the foetus
will be born. Figure 4.18 shows the development of zygote to embryo until birth.

3	 After	fertilisation,	the	zygote	will	divide
itself	and	become	a	ball	of	cells	known	as
embryo.	The	embryo	will	be	implanted	on
the	uterine	wall	at	the	uterus.

If	an	ovum	is	present	in	the	Fallopian
tube,	fertilisation	may	occur.	Sperm	will
fuse	with	ovum	in	the	Fallopian	tube	and
form	a	zygote.

Sperms	will	swim
into	the	vagina	during
copulation.

1

2

108 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

Week 20-37
•	 Foetus	will

resemble	a	baby.

Week 38-40
•	 Foetus	is	formed	completely.
•	 The	foetus	turns	until	the	head	is	engaged	at

the	cervix.
•	 The	muscle	of	the	uterine	lining	will	contract

strongly,	the	amnion	will	burst	and	amniotic	fluid
will	be	released.

•	 Foetus	is	pushed	out	of	the	uterus	through	the
vagina	and	then	out	of	the	body.

Week 1 – 4
•	 Hands	and	feet

will	start	to	form.
•	 The	embryo	has
	 a	tiny	tail.

Week 7-9
•	 Nose,	ears	and

fingers	will	be
visible.

Week 10-19
•	 Embryo	will

look	like	a	baby.
•	 The	embryo	is

now	known	as
 a foetus.

Figure 4.18 The growth of zygote to embryo and foetus until birth

Video on
Embryonic
Development

109Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
The Importance and Functions of the
Placenta and the Umbilical Cord

An embryo grows and develops into a foetus in a sac that
is surrounded by a membrane known as amnion. Amnion
contains fluid to protect the foetus. How does a foetus obtain
nutrients and oxygen inside the uterus? How does a foetus
remove its waste?

Placenta
•	 Made	up	of	tissue	from	both	mother

and	the	embryo
•	 Place	where	exchange	of	oxygen

and	carbon	dioxide,	supply
of	nutrients	and	removal	of
waste	materials	through	the
mother’s	blood	and	the
foetus	occur.

Umbilical cord
•	 Tube	which	connects	the

foetus	to	the	placenta
•	 There	are	blood	vessels	inside

the	tube	to	transport	blood	to
and	from	the	foetus

Uterine wall
•	 Consists	of	muscular	wall
•	 The	place	where	the	embryo

is	implanted	and	develops

Amnion
•	 Membrane	that

forms	a	sac	and
contains	fluid

Foetus
•	 Embryo

develops	to
form	a	foetus

Amniotic fluid
•	 Acts	as	a	cushion	to

absorb	concussion
and	protects	the
foetus	from	injuries

Figure 4.19 Functions of placenta, umbilical cord, uterine wall, amniotic fluid and amnion

1.	 If	embryo	implantation	occurs	on	the	uterine	lining,	will	menstruation	occur?
2.	 Explain	the	development	of	zygote	after	fertilisation.
3.	 Complete	the	flow	chart	below	on	the	development	of	zygote.

Zygote

4.	 State	the	functions	of	amnion,	placenta	and	umbilical	cord.

4.4

Science Exploration

Amniocentesis test is done
to detect a few types of
birth defect such as Down
syndrome and muscle
contraction. An amount of
amniotic fluid is taken and
tested.

110 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

•	 Relate	the	importance	of	taking	nutritious	food	during	pregnancy	to	the	health	of	both	mother
and	foetus.

•	 Justify	the	importance	of	avoiding	the	intake	of	harmful	substances	to	the	foetus.
•	 Justify	the	benefits	of	breastfeeding	compared	to	formula	milk	on	the	infant’s	development.
•	 Realise	that	every	living	creature	has	a	right	to	live	even	if	it	is	in	the	womb.

Let’s learn

4.5
Factors Affecting the Development
of a Foetus and Baby

W hy is the nutritional requirement between a woman who is pregnant and one who
 is not pregnant different? You have learned foetus obtains nutrients and oxygen
from the mother in subtopic 4.4. A pregnant woman must have a healthy and balanced
diet and take good care of her health to deliver a healthy baby. The calorie requirement
for a pregnant woman is higher. Figure 4.20 shows the daily calorie requirement of a
pregnant woman.

Protein
•	 Pregnant:
	 85	g
•	 Not	pregnant:
	 39	g

Calcium
•	 Pregnant:
					1	000	–	1	500	mg
•	 Not	pregnant:
					400	–	500	mg

Vitamin A
•	 Pregnant:
					900	µg
•	 Not	pregnant:
					750	µg

Iron
•	 Pregnant:
					15	mg
•	 Not	pregnant:
					10	mg

Vitamin C
•	 Pregnant:
					50	mg
•	 Not	pregnant:
					30	mg

Figure 4.20 Daily calorie requirement of a pregnant woman

Carbohydrate
•	 Pregnant:
	 11	592	kJ
•	 Not	pregnant:
	 9	450	kJ

111Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
The intake of nutrients by a pregnant woman must be balanced and contain more
carbohydrate, fat, protein, folic acid, vitamin C, calcium, phosphorus, iron and fibre. Each
of the nutrients plays a vital role for the health of the mother and her baby. Figure 4.21
shows the nutrients which are needed by a pregnant woman.

Fibre
•	 Examples:	cereal,

vegetables	and	fruits
•	 Function:	prevents

constipation

Carbohydrate and fat
•	 Examples:	rice,	bread,

butter	and	cheese
•	 Function:	provide

energy	for	daily
activities

Iron
•	 Examples:	liver,	red

meat	and	fish
•	 Function:	formation	of

haemoglobin	to	prevent
anaemia

Vitamin C
•	 Examples:	citrus	fruits,

guava	and	tomatoes
•	 Functions:	for	skin

health	of	foetus	and
mother	and	to	prevent
bleeding	gums

Folic acid
•	 Examples:	broccoli,	spinach

and	groundnuts
•	 Function:	important	for	the

nervous	system	development
of	the	foetus

Calcium and phosphorus
•	 Examples:	anchovies,

cheese	and	milk
•	 Functions:	for	a	healthy

formation	of	foetus	bones
and	to	protect	the	bones
and	teeth	of	the	mother

Protein
•	 Examples:	chicken,	red

meat,	fish,	milk	and
cheese

•	 Function:	important	for
the	growth	of	new	cells
of	the	foetus

Figure 4.21 Nutrients needed by a pregnant woman

What are the
nutrients needed
by a pregnant
woman?

112 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

Pregnant women must not smoke and consume alcohol or drugs. The effects of
smoking, alcoholic drinks and drugs on a pregnant woman are explained in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4 The effects of smoking, intake of alcoholic drinks and drugs on
 a pregnant woman

Substance Effects

Cigarette •	 The	baby	may	have	low	birth	weight
•	 The	baby	may	have	a	higher	mortality	rate
•	 The	baby	may	become	retarded	and	have

physical	disabilities
•	 The	baby	may	be	born	premature
•	 Miscarriage	of	foetus	may	happen

Alcoholic
drink

•	 The	baby	may	be	born	with	Foetal
Alcohol	Syndrome

•	 Foetal	development	may	be	delayed
•	 The	brain,	nervous	system	and	the	heart	may

be	damaged

Drug •	 Foetal	defects	may	occur

Importance of Breast Milk

A newborn baby does not have teeth and cannot eat

solid food.
 Babies depend solely on milk as their source

of nutrients. Breast milk is the best food for them

because it is more nutritious compared to formula

milk.

• Breast milk contains all the essential nutrients

for a baby.
• Breast milk contains antibodies that can protect

a baby from certain diseases.

• Relationship between mother and baby will

become closer and it is important for the

emotional development of the baby.

• Baby who consumes breast milk has better

digestion compared to formula milk.

B
Why is having frequent
x-ray tests not good for a
pregnant woman?

Photograph 4.6 Breast milk is important
for the development of a baby

Science Exploration

Characteristics of a baby
who suffers from
Foetal Alcohol Syndrome:
• born with a low birth

weight
• small head

measurement
• retarded
• facial abnormalities

113Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
Pregnant women must take good care
of their health because every living
thing has the right to live even though
it is still in the womb.

Therefore, a mother must ensure
that her baby gets sufficient nutrients
and avoid the intake of substances that
might harm her own health and her
baby.

Aim: To	suggest	ways	to	solve	problem	of	abnormality	in	newborn	babies	due	to	the
unhealthy	lifestyle	of	pregnant	mothers.

Instruction
Read	the	situation	below	carefully.

A	 pregnant	 woman	 practises	 an	 unhealthy	 lifestyle	 such	 as	 smoking,
consumption	of	alcoholic	drinks	and	drugs.

In	groups,	discuss
	 (a)	 the	risks	towards	the	baby.
	 (b)	 the	healthy	lifestyle	that	should	be	practised	by	the	woman	during	pregnancy.
	 (c)	 suggest	ways	to	reduce	the	number	of	abnormal	babies	born	due	to	the	unhealthy

lifestyle	of	mothers	during	pregnancy.

21 ICS4.5

1.	 Why	does	a	pregnant	woman	need	more	nutrients?
2. Why	do	the	teeth	and	bones	of	a	pregnant	woman	decay	more	easily?
3.	 Compare	between	breast	milk	and	formulated	milk.

4.5

Photograph 4.7 A healthy baby is born from a
 healthy family

114 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

•	 Communicate	the	meaning	of	infertility	and	how	to	overcome	them.
•	 Differentiate	methods	of	contraception.
•	 Realise	the	importance	of	practising	frequent	health	screening	and	to	get	immediate	treatment	for
problems	related	to	the	reproductive	system.

•	 Criticise	the	abuse	of	knowledge	on	contraception	methods	and	its	effect	to	society.

Let’s learn

4.6 Infertility and Contraception

Infertility

I nfertility is the inability to produce offsprings. When a married couple is unable to
 bear children, the husband or wife or both may be sterile. Figure 4.22 shows the
various factors of sterility in males and females.

Factors of
sterility in

males

Hormone
imbalance Ovaries cannot

produce	ovum

Blockage	in	the
Fallopian	tubes

Abnormal
uterus

Tumour	in	the
uterus

Health
problems	like

diabetes

Defective
reproductive
organs	or

organs	infected
with	disease

Impotent

Produces	low
quality	sperms

Low	sperm
count

Testes cannot
produce	sperms

Factors of
sterility in

females

Figure 4.22 Factors of sterility in males and females

When the married couple has tried to conceive for more than a year, but they are still
not successful, the couple is advised to seek medical consultation.

115Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
Figure 4.23 Scene of a couple consulting a doctor

Ovum and sperm are fertilised in a glass dish to form a zygote through in vitro fertilisation

Laparoscope surgery for blockage in
Fallopian tube

1 Hormone treatment
	 •	 This	treatment	is	suitable	for	individuals	who	have

imbalanced	hormone.

2 Surgery
	 •	 Surgery	is	done	on	women	who	have	blockage

in	their	Fallopian	tube	or	men	who	have
blockage	in	their	sperm	duct.

3 In vitro fertilisation (IVF)
	 •	 This	procedure	is	done	on	women	who	have

blockage	in	their	Fallopian	tube.
	 •	 This	method	takes	out	the	ovum	to	be

fertilised	with	the	sperm	outside	the	body	in	a
glass	dish.

•	 The	embryo	formed	is	then	put	inside	the
uterus.

Methods to Overcome Sterility

Hormone being injected

Fallopian
tube

Ovary

Uterus

We’re still not blessed
with a child. What can

we do?

You may want to try
hormone treatment, surgery

or in vitro fertilisation.

Figure 4.24 Methods to overcome sterility
116 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

Methods of Contraception

There are several methods of contraception for married couples who want to plan their
family as shown in Figure 4.25.

Contraceptive pills Implants

Contraceptive	pills	can	prevent	ovulation.

Contraceptive pills

Implants	secrete	a	hormone	that	prevent	the
ovary	from	producing	ovum.

Implants

Use of condom Intrauterine Contraceptive Device, IUCD

Condom	is	worn	over	the	penis	before
copulation	to	prevent	the	sperm	from	entering
the	vagina	during	ejaculation.

Condom

This contraceptive
device is inserted
inside	the	woman’s
uterus to prevent
implantation.

IUCD

Vasectomy Ligation

Tied sperm duct

Surgery	is	carried	out	to	cut	the	sperm	duct
and	the	two	ends	are	then	tied	to	prevent	the
sperms	from	being	transported	to	the	urethra.

Tied Fallopian tube

Surgery	is	carried	out	to	cut	the	Fallopian
tubes	and	the	two	ends	are	then	tied	to
prevent	the	ovum	from	meeting	the	sperms.

Figure 4.25 Methods of contraception

Implant	is	inserted
to	the	skin	below
the	arm

Implant

Fallopian tube
is cut and tied

Contraceptive	pills	can	prevent	ovulation.

Video on
artificial
methods of
contraception

Sperm duct
is cut and
tied

117Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
The Importance of Practising Frequent Health Screening to
Get Immediate Treatment for Problems Related to
Reproductive System

Aim: To	debate	on	the	abuse	of	knowledge	regarding	contraception	methods	and	the	effects
to	society.

Instruction
1.	 In	group,	organise	a	debate	competition	between	the	proposition	and	the	opposition

regarding	the	motion	below.

“Birth	control	should	be	allowed	in	our	country”

2.	 Find	the	information	on	the	motion	using	reference	materials	such	as	magazines,	flyers
and	the	Internet	to	prepare	for	the	debate.

3.	 Carry	out	the	debate.
4.	 After	the	debate,	summarise	the	main	points	from	the	speeches.

4.6

•	 Cancer	involving	reproductive	system
such	as	uterine	cancer,	cervical	cancer
and	prostate	cancer	can	still	be	treated	if
it	is	detected	earlier.

•	 Practising	health	screening	can	reduce
the	risk	of	health	problems	which
require	high-cost	treatments.

An individual is encouraged
to do at least one health

screening per year starting at
the age of 40.

Why is health screening
so important?

•	 Health	screening	is	done	as	an	evaluation	to
detect	early	symptoms	of	chronic	diseases.

21 ICS

Photograph 4.8 Health screening

•	 The	correct	and	safe	contraceptive	method	can
be	understood	by	consulting	a	doctor	during	the
health	screening.

118 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

1. List	four	factors	of	sterility	in	males	and	females.
2.	 What	methods	can	be	used	to	help	a	married	couple	to	have	a	child	if
	 (a)	 the	husband	is	sterile?
	 (b)	 the	wife	has	a	blockage	in	her	Fallopian	tubes?
3.	 Explain	vasectomy	and	ligation	method.
4.	 What	is	meant	by	test	tube	baby?
5.	 State	two	importance	of	practising	frequent	health	screening	for	an	individual.
6.	 Abortion	should	not	be	the	method	to	prevent	birth.	Give	your	opinion.

4.6

•	 Communicate	about	the	structure	and	function	of	each	part	of	a	flower.
•	 Justify	the	pollination	process.
•	 Describe	the	process	of	fertilisation	and	explain	the	formation	of	seeds	and	fruits	in	plants.
•	 Describe	the	germination	process	of	a	seed.
•	 Solve	problems	if	germination	does	not	occur.

Let’s learn

4.7 Plant Reproduction

J ust like any other living things, plants also need to reproduce to ensure their
 survival. All living things will undergo growth and finally die. They have to be
replaced with new organisms.

I bear fruits to prevent
my species from going

extinct.

If I fail to bear fruits, I
don’t know what will

happen to my next
generation.

119Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
Structure and Function of Each Part of a Flower

Have you ever observed a flower? If you remove the petals, what are the other parts of
the flower that you can observe? What are their names and functions? Figure 4.26 shows
a longitudinal section of a flower and its function.

Aim:	To	examine	different	types	of	flowers	to	identify	their	structures	and	functions.

Instruction
1.	 Find	a	few	types	of	flowers	in	your	school	compound.
2.	 Dissect	your	specimens.	Identify	the	following	parts:
	 (a)	 flower	petal	and	sepal.
	 (b)	 male	reproductive	organ.
	 (c)	 female	reproductive	organ.
3.	 Draw	and	label	the	structures	of	the	flowers	that	you	have	observed.
4.	 Display	your	drawing	with	labels	on	the	notice	board	in	your	class.

4.74.7

Petal:	Usually
colourful	to	attract
insects	and	animals. Pistil:	Female

reproductive
organ.

Stamen:	Male
reproductive	organ.

Sepal:	Usually	green	in
colour	and	it	protects	the
flower	during	the	bud	stage.

Figure 4.26 Longitudinal section of a flower and its functions

Anther

Filament
Stamen

Style

Stigma

Petal

Ovary

Pistil

Ovule
Sepal

120 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

Pollination

There are two types of flowers, bisexual and unisexual flowers. Most flowers are bisexual
because they have both male (stamen) and female (pistil) reproductive organs in the same
flower. Unisexual flowers are incomplete because they only have stamen or pistil.

Table 4.5 Types of flower

Unisexual Bisexual

Stamen Anther
Filament Petal

Stigma

Ovary

Sepal
Ovule

Style Pistil

Male	flower Female	flower

Pistil

Stamen Stigma
Style

Ovary
Ovule

Anther
Filament

Sepal

Petal

Some examples of unisexual flowers are corn flower and papaya flower, in which
only female flowers can produce fruits and seeds. Can you state another example of a
unisexual flower?

Photograph 4.10 Examples of unisexual flowers

Female	flowerMale	flower

Female	flowerMale	flower

Papaya	plant

Corn plant

121Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
The pollination is the process of transferring matured pollen grains from anther
to stigma. The matured anther will burst and spread the pollen grains. Some pollen
grains might fall on soil and some are brought by pollinating agents to the stigma of a
flower. Pollination is divided into two, self-pollination and cross-pollination as shown in
Figure 4.27.

Pollen	grains	are
transferred	to	the	stigma
of	another	flower	on	the
same	plant

Pollen	grains
are transferred
to	the	stigma	of
the	same	flower

Pollen	grains	are	transferred
to	the	stigma	of	another
flower	on	a	different	plant	of
the	same species

Pollen
grains

Pollen
grains

Types	of	pollination

Cross-pollinationSelf-pollination

122 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

Figure 4.27 Types of pollination

Aim: To	gather	and	interpret	data	on	pollination

Instruction
1.	 Surf	the	Internet	and	watch	an	animation	on	pollination	of	a	flowering	plant.
2.	 Gather	the	information	obtained	from	websites	and	other	references.
3.	 Discuss	the	following	matter:
	 (a)	 definition	of	pollination	and	types	of	pollination.
	 (b)	 comparison	between	self-pollination	and	cross-pollination.
	 (c)	 advantages	of	cross-pollination.
					 (d)	 application	of	cross-pollination	in	agriculture.
4.	 Present	your	discussion	in	your	class.

4.8

Pollinating Agents

How do pollen grains from a plant get transferred from the anther to the stigma of
the flower? Figure 4.28 shows the transferring process carried out by a
pollinating agent.

Figure 4.28 The transferring process of pollen grains by a pollinating agent

Wind, animals, and insects are pollinating agents that help in the transferring
process (Figure 4.29). What are the characteristics of the flower that determine its
pollinating agent?

Stigma

Anther

Pollen	grains	from	the
anther	of	flower	A sticks
on	the	body	or	legs	of	the
insect.

The	pollen	grains
carried	by	the	insect
are	transferred	to	the
stigma	of	flower	B.

Flower	B

Flower	A

1

2

123Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
Figure 4.29 Pollinating agents and the characteristics of the flowers they pollinate

Wind

•	 Light	pollen	grains	are	blown	by	the	wind	and	reaches	the	stigma	of
another	flower.

•	 The	characteristics	of	wind-pollinated	flowers:
	 	 ◆	 have	white	or	pale	petals
	 	 ◆	 have	a	long	and	furry	stigma
	 	 ◆	 have	plenty	of	small,	smooth	and	light	pollen	grains
	 	 ◆	 have	a	long	filament	and	style
	 •	 Examples	of	wind-pollinated	flowers	are	corn,	grass	and	paddy.

2

1

•	 Pollen	grains	usually	stick	on	the	beak	or	body	of	the	animal.
	 •	 When	an	insect	lands	on	a	flower	to	suck	its	nectar,	pollen	grains	will	stick	to	its

furry	feet	and	body.
	 •	 The	characteristics	of	animal-pollinated	and	insect-pollinated	flowers:
	 	 ◆	 have	big	and	colourful	petals
	 	 ◆		 have	nectar	and	smell	nice
	 	 ◆		 produce	rough	and	sticky	pollen	grains
	 •	 Examples	of	animal-pollinated	flowers	and	insect-pollinated	flowers	are	durian,

rambutan,	papaya,	hibiscus,	sunflower	and	rose.

Animals and insects

124 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

The Advantages of Cross-Pollination

Cross-pollination combines genetic materials
from two parent plants of the same species.
Cross-pollination has many advantages.

New	varieties	of
plants

Healthier	plants	which
can	adapt	better
to	changes	in	the

environment

New	plants
that	are	more

resistant to pests
and diseases

Good	quality	seeds

The advantages of
cross-pollination

Figure 4.30 The advantages of cross-pollination

The Innovation of Cross-Pollination in Agriculture

In Malaysia, the application of cross-pollination in agriculture is not something new. This
technique has been widely used to produce better crops with higher quality. Examples of
innovation of cross pollination in agriculture are summarised in Table 4.6.

My MalaysiaMy Malaysia

Agencies involved in
research to improve the
quality and quantity of
Malaysian agriculture
products are:
• Malaysia Agriculture

Research and
Development Institute
(MARDI)

• Malaysia Palm Oil
Board (MPOB)

Photograph 4.10 Cross-pollination ensures
cross products inherit
good characteristics from
both parents.

125Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
After the pollen tube
 penetrates the ovule,
 the male gamete fuses
 with the female
 gamete (fertilisation).

Pollen tube
    carrying male
    gamete grows
    towards the ovary. Pollen

tube

Pollen
tube

Pollen grains fall
    onto stigma.

Pollen
tube

Male
gamete

Pollen
grain

Ovary

Ovule

Ovary

Ovule

Ovary
Male gameteOvule

1

2

3

Table 4.6 Innovation of cross-pollination in agriculture

Plant Parent plants Hybrid plant Characteristics of hybrid plant

Palm
oil

Pisifera and Dura Tenera More	fruits	and	flesh,	thinner	shell

Papaya Subang	6	and
Sunrise Solo

Eksotika Sweeter	fruits	and	more	flesh

Corn Sweet	corns	from
Taiwan	and	Mexico

Masmadu Sweeter	and	bigger	fruits	and	higher
resistance	towards	diseases	and	drought

Paddy	 Siam-29	and
Pebifun

Malinja More	harvest	and	ripe	faster

Fertilisation Process

After pollination, fertilisation will occur. The male gamete carried by the pollen fuses
with the female gamete in the ovule. How does this process occur? Figure 4.31 shows the
process of fertilisation between male and female gametes in plants.

Figure 4.31 Fertilisation of male and female gametes in plants

126 Chapter 4
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Structures of a Seed and Their Functions

After fertilisation, the ovule grows inside the ovary and then
develops into seeds. A seed is made up of an embryo wrapped
in a seed coat or testa. The other parts of the flower will wither
and fall.

Seeds are divided into two which are monocotyledonous
and dicotyledonous. Figure 4.32 and Figure 4.33 show the
structure of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous seeds.

Table 4.7 shows the structure and function of a seed.

Table 4.7 The structure and functions of a seed

Part Structure Function

External Testa Protects	the	seed

Hilum Place	where	the	seed	sticks	to	the	fruit

Micropyle Small	hole	to	allow	air	and	water	to	enter	the	seed

Embryo Plumule Part	of	the	embryo	which	develops	into	a	new
shoot

Radicle Part	of	the	embryo	which	develops	into	the	root

Cotyledon	/	Endosperm Stores	and	provides	food	for	the	seed

(a)	 Front	view (b)	 Longitudinal
	 section

(a)	 Front	view(b)	 Longitudinal
	 section

Figure 4.32 The structure of a green
 bean (dicotyledonous)

Figure 4.33 The structure of a maize
 grain (monocotyledonous)

Plumule

Endosperm
Cotyledon

Seed coat

Radicle

B
Nowadays, many
seedless fruits are
produced. Justify this
action.

Photograph 4.11 Sprouting seeds

Testa
Micropyle
Hilum

Testa

Plumule
Radicle Embryo
Cotyledon

Seed coat

Radicle

127Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
Germination of Seeds

How does the shape of a germinating seed change in terms of the growth of the radicle,
plumule and the condition of the cotyledon?

During germination, the testa bursts and the radicle starts to appear and grow
downwards into the soil to form root. Meanwhile, the plumule grows upwards to form
a new shoot. Certain cotyledons are carried out of the soil and this is known as epigeal
germination (Figure 4.34). There are also cotyledons that remain in the soil during
germination. This germination is known as hypogeal germination (Figure 4.35).

Figure 4.34 Epigeal germination

Figure 4.35 Hypogeal germination

Cotyledon

Leaf and stem
from plumule

Root

Plumule

Soil
surface

Cotyledon

Radicle

Shoot

Cotyledon

Root

Soil surface
Cotyledon

Plumule

Radicle

Plumule

128 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

The Conditions Required for Germination of Seeds

What are the conditions required by seed to germinate? Let us carry out Experiment 4.1 to
determine the required conditions for seed germination. Seeds will germinate if conditions
are suitable as in Figure 4.39.

Problem statement:	Are	air,	water	and	suitable	temperature	necessary	for	seeds	to
germinate?

Hypothesis:	Seed	needs	air,	water	and	suitable	temperature	to	germinate

Aim: To	determine	the	required	conditions	for	the	germination	of	seeds

Variables
Manipulated	variable:	Germination	conditions
Responding	variable:	Seed	germination
Constant	variable:	Type	of	seed

Materials and apparatus:	Boiling	tube,	cotton	wool,	water,	cooking	oil,	sugar	paper,	green
beans,	refrigerator

Procedure
1.	 Prepare	four	boiling	tubes	labelled	A,	B,	C and D	as	shown	in	Figure	4.37	(a)	and
	 4.37	(b).

Figure 4.37 (a)

ExperimentExperiment 4.1

A B

Wet
cotton
wool

Sugar paper

(a) Room temperature (b) Room temperature

Seeds

Dry
cotton
wool

Figure 4.39 The required conditions for germination of seeds

I need these conditions to
germinate!

Water
Air
Suitable	temperature

129Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
Figure 4.37 (b)

2.	 Test	tube	A,	B and C	are	put	in	the	laboratory	while	test	tube	D is put inside a
refrigerator.

3.	 Observe	all	the	seeds	after	five	days	for	each	of	the	boiling	tube.
4.	 Record	your	observation	in	a	table.

Result

Test
tube

Presence of
Seed germination

(Germinate/ Does not germinate)Water Air Suitable
temperature

A

B

C

D

Conclusion
Is	the	hypothesis	accepted?

Questions
1.	 How	do	you	set	up	a	control	experiment?
2.	 What	is	the	purpose	of	using	cooking	oil	in	this	experiment?

C D

Wet cotton
wool

Sugar paper
Cooking oil

Cooled boiled
water

(c) Room temperature (d) Temperature: 10°C
Seeds

1.	 What	is	the	function	of	flower	petal	in	plant	reproduction?
2.	 Why	is	sepal	different	from	petals?
3.	 Why	do	some	papayas	bloom	but	not	bear	fruits?

4.	 Explain	the	function	of	the	following	parts	of	a	flower	in	plant	reproduction.
	 (a)	 Stigma
	 (b)	 Style
	 (c)	 Anther
5. State	the	differences	between	a	wind-pollinated	flower	and	an	insect-pollinated	flower.

4.7

130 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

Re
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131Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
After	learning	this	chapter,	you	are	able	to:

4.1 Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

Compare	and	contrast	sexual	and	asexual	reproduction	in	animals	and	plants.

Reason	the	importance	of	reproduction.

Be	grateful	for	the	ability	to	reproduce	and	the	continuation	of	life	as	a	gift	from	God.

4.2 Human Reproductive System

Identify	the	structures	and	function	of	the	male	and	female	reproductive	systems.

Communicate	about	the	physical	changes	that	occur	during	puberty.

Compare	and	contrast	male	gamete	with	the	female	gamete	in	the	reproductive	system.

4.3 Menstrual Cycle
	 Communicate	about	the	menstrual	cycle	and	the	sequence	of	changes	in	the	uterus	lining	during

menstruation.

Relate	the	fertile	phase	of	the	menstrual	cycle	to	the	process	of	fertilisation.

Justify	the	importance	of	personal	hygiene	during	menstruation.

4.4 Fertilisation and Pregnancy

Communicate	about	the	process	of	fertilisation	and	the	implantation	of	embryo.

Justify	the	importance	and	functions	of	placenta	and	umbilical	cord.

Describe	the	development	of	a	zygote	into	an	embryo	and	subsequently	into	foetus	during	pregnancy
until	birth.

4.5 Factors Affecting the Development of a Foetus and Baby
	 Relate	the	importance	of	taking	nutritious	food	during	pregnancy	to	the	health	of	both	mother	and

foetus.

Justify	the	importance	of	avoiding	the	intake	of	harmful	substances	to	the	foetus.

Justify	the	benefits	of	breastfeeding	compared	to	formula	milk	on	the	infant’s	development.

Realise	that	every	living	creature	has	a	right	to	live	even	if	its	in	the	womb.

4.6 Infertility and Contraception

Communicate	the	meaning	of	infertility	and	how	to	overcome	them.

Differentiate	methods	of	contraception.

Realise	the	importance	of	practising	frequent	health	screening	and	to	get	immediate	treatment	for
problems	related	to	the	reproductive	system.

4.7 Plants Reproduction

Communicate	about	the	structure	and	function	of	each	part	of	a	flower.

Justify	the	pollination	process.

Describe	the	process	of	fertilisation	and	explain	the	formation	of	seeds	and	fruits	in	plants.

Describe	the	germination	process	of	a	seed.
	 Solve	problems	if	germination	does	not	occur.

132 Chapter 4
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPembiakan

Summative Practice 4

1.	 The	image	of	a	foetus	can	be	seen	through	ultrasound
imaging.	Ultrasound	is	considered	safe	for	the	mother	and
the	foetus.	Figure	1	shows	the	foetus	image	formed	after	12
weeks	of	pregnancy.

(a)	 Based	on	Figure	1,	the	foetus	is	in	a	fluid.	What	is	the	name	of	the	fluid?
	 	 (b)	 What	is	the	function	of	the	fluid	you	mentioned	in	1(a)?
	 	 (c)	 Which	part	connects	the	foetus	and	the	mother’s	uterus	and	how	does	the	foetus

obtain	its	food	and	oxygen?
	 	 (d)	 When	the	features	of	the	foetus	is	completely	formed,	a	baby	will	be	born.	Explain	the

birth	process.

2.	 Figure	2	shows	the	changes	in	the	thickness	of	the	uterine	lining	during	the	menstrual	cycle.

(a)	 Based	on	Figure	2,	predict
						 		 (i)	 when	menstruation	phase	occurs;
						 		 (ii)	 when	ovulation	occurs	for	the	woman?
	 	 (b)	 If	 the	 woman	 has	 sexual	 intercourse	 on	 the	 13th	 day	 of	 her	 menstrual	 cycle,

is	there	any	possibility	of	her	getting	pregnant?

3.	 Development	in	science	and	technology	has	helped	married	couples	to	plan	their	family	and
overcome	sterility	problems.

(a)	 Explain	any	two	temporary	contraceptive	methods.

(b)	 Selling	condoms	openly	has	been	said	to	contribute	to	social	problems	in	a	society.	Do
	 you	agree	with	this	statement?	Give	your	opinion.

Figure 1

Figure 2

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Day5 14 18 28 5

133Chapter 4

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 4: Reproduction
4.	 An	experiment	was	done	by	a	group	of	researchers	to	study	the	effect	of	nicotine	on	sperm
production.	Sixty	rats	were	divided	into	three	groups.	The	first	group	was	not	given	any
nicotine,	the	second	group	was	given	a	low	dose	of	nicotine	every	day	and	the	third	group
was	given	a	high	dose	of	nicotine	every	day.	This	research	was	done	for	30	days.	Then,	the
number	of	abnormal	sperms	produced	by	each	rat	was	recorded	in	Table	1.

Table 1

Nicotine dose None Low High
Percentage of abnormal sperm 7 20 33

(a)	 Based	on	Table	1,	draw	a	bar	chart.

(b)	 What	are	the	two	variables	that	must	be	kept	constant	in	this	experiment?

(c)	 What	is	the	conclusion	that	can	be	made	by	the	researchers	from	this	experiment?

(d)	 Suggest	one	reason	why	the	first	group	of	rats	were	not	given	any	nicotine.

(e)	 State	 one	 effect	 of	 nicotine	 on	 a	 baby	 who	 is	 born	 to	 a	mother	 who	 smokes	 during
	 pregnancy.	What	is	the	best	solution	for	a	mother	who	is	addicted	to	nicotine?

5.	 Figure	3	shows	the	general	structure	of	a	flower.

(a)	 State	the	structure	that	forms
						 		 (i)	 the	female	reproductive	organ.
						 		 (ii)	 the	male	reproductive	organ.
	 	 (b)	 If	we	go	to	a	flower	park,	a	lot	of	insects	are	seen	flying

around	flowers.
	 	 	 (i)	 What	are	the	characteristics	of	the	flowers	that	attract	the	insects?

(ii)	 How	do	insects	help	in	the	plant	reproduction	process?

6.	 Sterility	 is	always	 the	main	problem	for	newly	married	couples	and	 it	 is	 caused	by	various
factors.	Is	it	true	that	sterility	only	happens	to	women?	Give	your	opinion.

7.	 A	married	couple	has	been	married	for	12	years,	but	they	still	do	not	have	a	child.
	 	 (a)	 From	a	medical	perspective,	what	is	your	assumption	on	why	they	still	do	not	have

a	child?

(b)	 Based	on	your	answer	in	7(a),	suggest	one	method	to	overcome	their	problem.	Explain	the
	 benefits	of	the	method.

Figure 3

134 Chapter 4
135Bab 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJirim

135Chapter 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 5: Matter

135Chapter 5

What causes ice cream to melt, water

vapour to form from hot water and

balloon to float in the air?

What differentiates atom from molecule,

and element from compound?

How can we prevent and control air

pollution?

3
Exploration of
Elements in Nature3
136 Chapter 5

Chapter

5
Matter

Matter in Nature
 Three States of Matter

Let’s Study:

Why do solids, liquids and gases have
different physical properties?

How does smell spread in the air?
What are the examples of changes in the

state of matter in our life?

136 Chapter 5
137Bab 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJirim

[Gas, Liquid, Solid]

137Chapter 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 5: Matter

Matter
 Particle
 Extraction
 Melting
 Boiling
 Solubility
 Solid

Liquid
 Gas
 Diffusion
 Evaporation
 Condensation
 Freezing
 Sublimation

Solid

H ave you ever been attacked by a swarm

of bees? Do you realise that when one

bee starts to attack, a few minutes later, a

swarm of bees will start to attack too? The

first bee that attacks you will release a kind

of chemical substance which produces a

smell to alert other bees.

How does the smell of the chemical

substance spread in the air and get detected

by other bees? The smell spreads through diffusion. The odour particles

of the chemical substance move in the air randomly in various directions.

Therefore, other bees can smell the chemical substance from various

directions.

BEE ATTACKS
SCIENCE BULLETIN

137Chapter 5

Gas

Liquid
138 Chapter 5

•	 State	that	almost	everything	that	exists	in	nature	is	matter.
•	 Prove	that	living	things	and	non-living	things	have	mass	and	occupy	space.
•	 Differentiate	the	physical	properties	and	chemical	properties	of	matter.
•	 Classify	materials	by	the	different	characteristics.

Let’s learn

5.1 Matter in Nature

Can you list all the things that you can see in Photograph 5.1? Do they have mass and
 occupy space? Do you know that all the things you have listed are matter? Matter can
be defined as a substance that has mass and occupies space.

Photograph 5.1 Matter

All living things including humans, plants and animals
are classified as matter. Non-living things such as water, soil,
rocks and air are also matter.

Can you state examples of non-matter? Let us do Activity
5.1 to show that almost every living and non-living thing in
nature is a matter.

1. Is there any object that
has mass but does not
occupy space?

2. Is there any object that
occupies space but
does not have mass?

B

138 Chapter 5
139Bab 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJirim

A  Aim: To show that living and non-living things have mass and occupy space

Materials and apparatus: Lever balance, beaker, soil, water, bean sprouts

Instruction
1. Weigh an empty beaker with a lever balance. Record its mass.
2. Fill half of the beaker with soil. Does the soil occupy space inside the beaker?
3. Weigh the beaker with the soil by using the lever balance as shown in Figure 5.1. Does

soil have mass?
4. Repeat steps 1 – 3 by replacing soil with water and bean sprouts.

Figure 5.1 Set-up of apparatus
5. Complete the table below.

Material Living/ non-living things Mass (g) Occupy
space

Soil

Water

Bean
sprouts

Questions
1. Classify the materials in this activity into living and non-living things.
2. Are soil, water and bean sprouts matter? Explain your answer.
3. Give five other examples of things that are matter.

Beaker

Soil

Lever
balance

Pointer

5.1

139Chapter 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 5: Matter
140 Chapter 5

B   Aim: To show that air has mass and occupies space

Materials and apparatus: Balloons, pin, rope, cellophane tape, wooden rod.

Instruction
1. Blow up two balloons and make

sure they are of the same size.
2. Stick a piece of cellophane tape on one

of the balloons.
3. Attach the balloons to a wooden rod.

Balance both balloons (Figure 5.2).
4. Use a pin to prick the balloon through

the cellophane tape. Observe any changes.

Questions
1. Did the balloons expand when you blew them up? Why?
2. What happened to the wooden rod when one of the balloons was pricked with the pin?
3. Why do we stick a cellophane tape to the balloon that we want to prick?

Conclusion
What conclusion can you make from these activities?

Figure 5.2

Balloon

Cellophane
tape

Rope
Wooden
rod

Physical Properties of Matter

Every matter has its own physical properties. What is meant by physical properties?
Physical properties are the properties that can be identified by using our five senses
or measuring tools. Physical properties of matter depend on the type of material it is
made of. Look at Photograph 5.2. What is the main material to make a kayak? Can you
state the physical properties of the kayak? Figure 5.3 shows some examples of physical
properties of matter.

Photograph 5.2 Kayak

140 Chapter 5
141Bab 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJirim

Figure 5.3 Physical properties of matter

Figure 5.4 Chemical properties of matter

Chemical Properties of Matter

Besides physical properties, each matter has its own chemical properties. What is meant
by chemical properties? Chemical properties are the properties of a substance that
become evident when it changes to a new substance. Chemical properties depend on the
reaction that occurs upon the substances. Figure 5.4 shows some examples of chemical
properties of matter. The new substance produced from the chemical reaction has a
different composition from its original substance.

The melting
point of ice is the
temperature at
which ice changes
into liquid at a
certain pressure.

Different liquids have different
boiling points. The boiling point
of water is 100°C.

The pan is
made of heat
conductor such
as steel.

The handle is made
of heat insulator
such as plastic.

Sugar can dissolve
in coffee.

Rusting occurs on iron
when it is exposed to
water and air.

Petrol is a
flammable matter.

141Chapter 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 5: Matter
142 Chapter 5

Let us carry out Activity 5.2 to differentiate between physical properties and chemical
properties of matter.

Aim: To differentiate physical and chemical properties of matter

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Identify each of the situation below whether it is a chemical or physical property of

matter. Then, state the process involved.

3. Present your discussion in front of your friends and teacher.

Water	boils	at	100°C

Ice	cream
melts	when
exposed	to
a	certain
temperature Paper	burns

when	it	is	lit

Iron	spoon
becomes	hot
when	it	is	put
in	a	cup	of	hot
coffee Iron	key	rusts	when	it	is

exposed	to	air	and	water

Medicine
tablet
dissolves	in
water

5.2

How Can We Classify Materials by their Different
Characteristics?

Seawater is salty because of the salt content in it. What are the differences between the
properties of salt and seawater? Salt and seawater have different boiling points. Water
evaporates into water vapour as its boiling point is lower than salt. Eventually, only the salt
crystals are left behind. We can classify various materials by the following characteristics:

Photograph 5.3 Salt is separated from seawater through evaporation

Density Boiling pointMelting point Solubility

142 Chapter 5
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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJirim

Density
The density of a material is the mass per unit volume of that
material. Density determines the ability of a material to float or
sink in water. A material that has a lower density will float, while
a material that has a higher density will sink. For example, oil
has a lower density which causes it to float on water. Table 5.1
shows some examples of classification of substances by density.

Table 5.1 Classification of substances by density

Substance Higher density Lower density
Mixture of glycerol and water Glycerol Water
Mixture of petrol and mercury Mercury Petrol
Mixture of sand and water Sand Water
Mixture of oil and cork Oil Cork

Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point is the temperature at which a substance changes from solid to liquid.
Boiling point is the temperature at which a substance changes from liquid to gas. Matter
can also be classified by its melting and boiling point.

Photograph 5.5 Melting and boiling point of various substances

Melting and boiling points of some substances are listed in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2 Melting and boiling points of various substances

Substance Melting point (°C) Boiling point (°C)
Water 0 100

Alcohol -117 78
Copper 1085 2562
Oxygen -218 -183

Oil

Water

Iron	melts	at
1536°C

Ice	melts	at
0°C

Water	boils
at	100°C

Photograph 5.4 The layers of oil
 and water

143Chapter 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 5: Matter
144 Chapter 5

Solubility

Solubility is the ability of a substance to dissolve in a
given amount of solvent to form a solution. The solubility
of a substance depends on the physical and chemical
properties of its solute and solvent. As different substances
have different solubility, matter can also be classified by its
solubility. For example, we dissolve sugar (solute) in a cup
of coffee (solvent) to drink.

Aim: To classify materials by the different characteristics from various physical properties

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Classify each of the following materials according to its density compared to water and

solubility in water.

Material Density compared
to water

Solubility in
water

(a) Salt
(b) Twig
(c) Cooking oil
(d) Cork
(e) Glass marble
(f) Sand
(g) Sugar crystals
(h) Cocoa powder

3. Record your findings in your practical book.

5.3

1. List five examples of matter around you.
2. What are two characteristics of matter?
3. Are all living things matter? Explain your opinion.
4. Sarah turns over an empty beaker into a basin of water.

She finds that the water cannot flow into the beaker. What
can you conclude from her observation?

5. State the difference between physical and chemical
properties.

Basin
Water
Beaker

5.1

Sugar

Coffee

Photograph 5.6 Examples of solute
 and solvent

144 Chapter 5
145Bab 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJirim

•	 Generalise	that	matter	consists	of	particles.
•	 Compare	and	contrast	three	states	of	matter	based	on	the	kinetic	theory	in	terms	of	the	arrangement
and	movement	of	particles.

•	 Use	space-time	relationships	to	compare	rate	of	diffusion	in	three	states	of	matter.
•	 Describe	the	change	in	state	of	matter,	in	terms	of	movement	of	particles	caused	by	the	absorption
and	the	release	of	heat,	based	on	kinetic	theory.

•	 Conclude	that	temperature	remains	constant	during	melting/	freezing	and	boiling.
•	 Conclude	that	mass	remains	constant	during	physical	changes.
•	 Explain	with	examples	the	changes	of	the	state	of	matter	in	daily	life.

Let’s learn

5.2 Three States of Matter

M atter is made up of discrete particles. These particles are so tiny and cannot be seen
 with our naked eye or even by using a light microscope. It can only be seen through
an electron microscope. Let’s do Activity 5.4 to understand the concept of matter which is
made up of small and discrete particles.

Aim: To show that matter is made up of small and discrete particles

Materials and apparatus: Copper(II) sulphate crystal, water, beaker
Instruction
1. Pour 50 ml of water into a beaker.
2. Put a few crystals of copper(II) sulphate into the beaker of

water. Observe the changes in colour of the solution.
3. Add another 50 ml of water into the beaker and record

your observation.

Questions
1. What can you observe when more water is added into the

beaker? Explain your observation.
2. What conclusion can be made from this activity?

Figure 5.5

5.4

Water

Copper(II) sulphate
crystals

Kinetic theory of matter states that
matter is made up of constantly

moving small and discrete particles.

Figure 5.6 Kinetic theory of matter

Material scientist is a
person who studies
the composition and
characteristics of
matter that is used in
agricultural, industrial
and medical fields.

Science
        Career

145Chapter 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 5: Matter
146 Chapter 5

Particles of matter always collide with one another.
When heat is supplied, the particles will move faster. On the
other hand, the particles will move slower when it is cooled.

Matter exists in three different states, solid, liquid and
gas. Examples of the three states of matter are shown in
Figure 5.7.

Figure 5.7 The three states of matter

Water is the only substance in this nature that exists in all three states naturally. Water
is in a liquid state at room temperature. When it is frozen, water changes to ice. Meanwhile,
water that is heated at 100°C will change to steam.

Ice	is	water	in	solid	state Water	exists	as	a	liquid	at
room	temperature

Steam	is	water	in	gas
state

Ceramic	cup	is	solid Vapour	produced	from
hot	tea	is	gas

Honey	is	liquid

Solid Liquid Gas

Three states of
matter
idahoptv.org/
sciencetrek/topics/
matter/facts.cfm

Video on
substances and
their states

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The Sun is not categorised
as a solid nor gas. The Sun
is in a state called plasma.

GAS

Space between particles: Large
Particles arrangement: Very loose
Particles movement: Move randomly and collide
with one another

LIQUID

Space between particles: Moderate
Particles arrangement: Close
Particles movement: Move freely
and collide with one another

SOLID

Space between particles: Small
Particles arrangement: Very close
Particles movement: Vibrate in a
fixed position

Wood or iron are used to build bridges because it
has a compact arrangement and a fixed shape.

Science Exploration

Table 5.3 Comparison of characteristics of three states of the matter

State of matter

Characteristic Solid Liquid Gas

Shape Fixed shape Takes the shape of the
container

Takes the shape of the
container

Mass Fixed mass Fixed mass No fixed mass

Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume Follows the volume
of the container

Compressibility Incompressible Difficult to compress Compressible

Figure 5.8 Comparison of characteristics of the three states of matter

147Chapter 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 5: Matter
148 Chapter 5

Air	particle

What is the purpose of
heating aromatic oil as
shown in the photograph
below?

B

Aim: To prepare a visual presentation on the three states of matter

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Each group has to choose one state of matter that represents their group.
3. Prepare a PowerPoint presentation to explain about the matter that you have chosen.

Your presentation must include the following aspects:
 (a) physical properties of the matter
 (b) arrangement and movement of particles in the matter
 (c) relationship between the arrangement and movement of the particles in the matter

to the physical properties of the matter.

Question
1. List other examples of matter.

5.5

Diffusion Rate in Three States of Matter

Have you ever wondered why a spray of perfume can be
detected from afar? The smell spreads because its small
discrete particles travel with the air particles. These particles
move randomly in various directions which cause the smell
of perfume to spread. We could say that diffusion has just
occurred. Diffusion is a process in which the particles of
substances diffuse from a high concentration area to a low
concentration area.

Figure 5.9 Diffusion of perfume

Perfume	particle

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Is there a difference in the rate of diffusion in solids, liquids and gases? Let us carry out
Experiment 5.1 to compare the rate of diffusion between the different states of matter.

Problem statement: What is the difference in the rate of diffusion between solids and
liquids?

Hypothesis: The rate of diffusion is low in a solid, but high in a liquid.

Aim: To determine the rate of diffusion of copper(II) sulphate in two states of matter.

Variables
(a) Constant variable: Temperature
(b) Manipulated variable: Diffusion medium
(c) Responding variable: Rate of diffusion

Materials and apparatus: Copper(II) sulphate crystals, colourless gel, distilled water, test
tube, rubber stopper, measuring cylinder, stopwatch.

Procedure

A   Diffusion in a solid

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 5.10.
2. Observe the changes after two days.
3. Record your observation.

B   Diffusion in a liquid

1.  Put in one spatula of copper(II) sulphate crystals into a measuring cylinder filled
with 50 ml of distilled water (Figure 5.11).

2.  Observe the changes after 15 minutes.
3. Record your observation.

ExperimentExperiment 5.1

Figure 5.11

Figure 5.10

Colourless
gel

Copper(II)
sulphate
crystals

Distilled
water

Copper(II)
sulphate crystals

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150 Chapter 5

Result

Activity Observation

A

B

Conclusion
Is the hypothesis accepted?

Questions
1. State the observation for Activity A and B.
2. Compare the rate of diffusion of copper(II) sulphate in a solid and a liquid.

Figure 5.12 shows the difference between the rate of diffusion in the three states of matter.

The rate of diffusion of particles in a solid, liquid and gas

•	 Water	turns	blue	after	two
hours.

•	 The	rate	of	diffusion	of
particles	in	a	liquid	is
higher	than	in	solid.

•	 Bromine	gas	fills	both	gas
jars	after	15	minutes.

•	 The	rate	of	diffusion	of
particles	in	a	gas	is	the
highest.

In a solid In a liquid In a gas

Mixture of
bromine gas
and air

Air

Bromine gas

Lid

Before After

•	 The	gel	turns	blue	after	a
few	days.

•	 The	rate	of	diffusion	of
particles	in	a	solid	is	low.

Gel
(colourless)

Gel turns
blue

Copper(II)
sulphate
crystals (blue)

Before After

Water

Before After

Water turns
blue

Copper(II)
sulphate (blue)

Figure 5.12 The rate of diffusion of particles in a solid, liquid and gas

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LiquidSolid Gas

Cooled (Heat is released)

Heated (Heat is absorbed)

Changes in the State of Matter Caused by the Absorption and
the Release of Heat Based on Kinetic Theory of Matter

Matter can change from one state
to another when heat is absorbed

or released.

There are many substances that undergo changes of matter due to absorption or release
of heat in our life. What happens to the matter when heat is absorbed or released?
Heating or cooling can cause changes in the state of matter. For example, when a liquid
is cooled, it will release heat. The particles in the liquid will lose kinetic energy and
move slower. The particles will attract one another and change into solid. The liquid
undergoes the freezing process.
 When a solid is heated, the substance will change to liquid and lastly change to gas
during the boiling process. Some substances will change directly from solid to gas. This
process is called sublimation. During sublimation, the kinetic energy of the particles
increases as they absorb heat until it can change directly from solid to gas.

Figure 5.13 The changes in the arrangement of particles when heated or cooled

Video of effect on
heat on matterPhotograph 5.8 Heat is released when

water is cooled
Photograph 5.7 Heat is absorbed
 when water is heated

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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 5: Matter
152 Chapter 5

Solid

Sublimation

Sublimation

Liquid

Figure 5.14 The effect of heat on matter

Gas

Heat is released

Heat is absorbed

M
elting

Freezing

Heat is released

Heat is absorbed

Co
nd

en
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at

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 re

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as

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He

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 /

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Sublimation

•	 Sublimation is a process in which a solid directly turns
into gas or a gas directly turns into solid.

Freezing

•	 Liquid	releases heat when it is cooled.
•	 Particles	lose	energy	and	move	slower.
•	 Particles	start	to	vibrate	at	a	fixed	position	when	they	reach

freezing point.
•	 Liquid turns into solid.

Boiling

•	 Boiling	occurs	when	the	temperature	of	the	liquid	is	equal	to	the
boiling point of the liquid.

•	 Liquid	absorbs heat when heated.
•	 The	particles	obtain	energy	and	move	faster.
•	 Heat	is	used	to	break	the	bond	between	the	liquid	particles.
•	 When	the	temperature	reaches	the	boiling	point,	the	particles	move

freely and randomly.
•	 Liquid turns into gas.

Condensation

•	 Heat	is	released when gas is cooled.
•	 The	particles	lose	energy	and	move	slower	and	closer

to one another.
•	 When	the	temperature	is	equal	to	or	below	the	boiling	point,

gas will turn into liquid.

Melting

•	 Solid	absorbs heat when heated.
•	 The	particles	obtain	energy	and	vibrate	faster.
•	 Heat	is	used	to	overcome	the	force	of	attraction	between

the particles.
•	 Particles	move	freely	when	the	temperature	reaches	melting	point.
•	 Solid turns into liquid.

Evaporation

•	 Evaporation	occurs	at	any	temperature.
•	 Liquid	absorbs heat from the surroundings.
•	 The	particles	obtain	energy	and	move	faster.
•	 Liquid is evaporated slowly and turns into gas.

153Chapter 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 5: Matter
154 Chapter 5

Science in Life
The bubbles are actually

a thin layer of liquid
containing gas.

Look at the bubbles in
the soup! Is it gas or

liquid?

A Temperature remains constant during boiling of water

Aim: To investigate whether temperature remains constant during boiling of water

Materials and apparatus: Bunsen burner, tripod stand, wire gauze,
beaker, thermometer, 100 ml of water, retort stand with clamp.

Instruction
1. Pour 100 ml of water into a beaker. Record the initial

temperature of water.
2.	 Heat	the	water.	Record	the	temperature	of	water	at

10 minutes interval until the temperature remains
constant (Figure 5.15).

Questions
1. Why does the temperature of water remain constant when boiling?
2. Plot a graph of temperature against time for the boiling of water.

B  Mass remains unchanged during physical change

Aim: To investigate whether mass remains unchanged during physical change

(I)  Change in mass when ice melts into water

Materials and apparatus: Ice cubes, beaker, lever balance

Instruction
1. Weigh an empty beaker. Record the mass of the

empty beaker.
2. Put ice cubes into the beaker. Record the mass of

the beaker filled with ice cubes.
3. Then, let the ice cubes melt. Weigh the beaker filled

with water.
4. Record the mass (Figure 5.16).

5.6

Lever
balance

Pointer

Beaker

Ice cubes

Figure 5.16

Figure 5.15

Thermometer

100 ml water

Heat

Retort stand
with clamp

154 Chapter 5
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When a substance is heated, the temperature will increase and when a substance is
cooled, the temperature will decrease. However, the temperature will not change when it
reaches freezing point, melting point and boiling point during the freezing, melting and
boiling processes. Heat is absorbed or released to overcome or form the force of attraction
between the particles. During these physical changes, the mass remains constant because
the quantity of particles does not change when heated or cooled. The only change that
occurs is the kinetic energy of the particles.

Question
1. Is there any difference between the mass of the ice cubes and water?

(II)  Change in mass when salt dissolves

Materials and apparatus: Ten spatulas of fine salt, 100 ml of water, glass rod, beaker,
lever balance.

Instruction
1. Weigh a beaker filled with 100 ml of

water. Record the mass.
2. Put ten spatulas of fine salt into the

beaker. Weigh it and record its mass.
3. Stir the water until the salt dissolves.

After that, weigh the solution and record
the mass (Figure 5.17).

Question
1. Is there any difference in mass before and

after the salt dissolves?

(III)  Change in mass during the expansion of solid

Materials and apparatus: Metal ball and ring, Bunsen burner, triple beam balance.

Instruction
1. Weigh a metal ball together with its

ring. Record the mass.
2. Heat	the	metal	ball	for	5	minutes.

Weigh the hot metal ball with its
ring. Record the mass. (Figure 5.18)

Question
1. Is there any difference in the mass of the metal

ball before and after heating? Figure 5.18

Figure 5.17

Lever balance

Pointer

Beaker

100 ml of water +
10 spatulas of
fine salt

Heat

Ring

155Chapter 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 5: Matter
156 Chapter 5

Water	from	wet	items	evaporates	and	becomes	vapour	through	the	process	of	evaporation.

Figure 5.19 Examples of change of state of matter

Dry	ice	is	used	by	ice-cream	vendors
to	prevent	their	ice-cream	from	melting

Dew	is	formed	when	water	vapour
in	the	air	condenses	and	becomes
water	droplets

Moth	balls	becoming	smaller	is	an
example	of	direct	change	from	solid
to	gas	through	sublimation

Examples of change of
state of matter

Freezing	allows	sweet	creams	to
freeze	and	become	ice-cream

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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJirim

Aim: To search for information and do a presentation

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Find information on two examples of change of matter for the following processes.
 (a) Freezing
 (b) Melting
 (c) Boiling
 (d) Evaporation
 (e) Condensation
 (f) Sublimation
3. Present your discussion using various forms of multimedia presentations.

5.7

1. (a) State whether the matter is a solid, liquid or gas.

(b) Give three other examples for each state of matter.
 (c) Draw a table to show the arrangement and movement of particles for each state

of matter.
2.	 How	does	the	smell	of	cooking	spread	all	over	the	house?
3. State the kinetic theory of matter.
4. Why is the temperature constant during the boiling of water?
5. In four season countries, the temperature may drop till below 0ºC during the peak of winter.

Why does the surface of the river or lake freeze?

(i)

(ii)

(iii) (v)

(iv)

5.2

21 ICS

157Chapter 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 5: Matter
158 Chapter 5

M
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158 Chapter 5
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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJirim

After	learning	this	chapter,	you	are	able	to:

5.1 Matter in Nature

State	that	almost	everything	that	exists	in	nature	is	matter.

Prove	that	living	things	and	non-living	things	have	mass	and	occupy	space.

Differentiate	the	physical	properties	and	chemical	properties	of	matter.

Classify	materials	by	their	different	characteristics.

5.2 Three States of Matter

Generalise	that	matter	consists	of	particles.

Compare	and	contrast	three	states	of	matter	based	on	the	kinetic	theory	in	terms	of	the	arrangement
and	movement	of	particles.

Use	space-time	relationship	to	compare	rate	of	diffusion	in	three	states	of	matter.

Describe	the	change	in	state	of	matter	in	terms	of	movement	of	particles	caused	by	the	absorption	and
the	release	of	heat	based	on	kinetic	theory.

Conclude	that	temperature	remains	constant	during	melting	/	freezing	and	boiling.

Conclude	that	mass	remains	constant	during	physical	changes.

Explain	with	examples	the	changes	of	the	state	of	matter	in	daily	life.

Summative Practice 5

1. Figure 1 shows three examples of matter.

Figure 1

(a) Identify the states of matter in Figure 1.
  (b) Of the three state of matter, which one has a fixed volume?
  (c) What is the difference between the movement of particles in the stones and the air in
   the balloon?

Stones Air	inside	balloonCoffee

159Chapter 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 5: Matter
160 Chapter 5

2. Umar builds a wooden tray with three partitions to separate some marbles into three sections,
P, Q and R as shown in Figure 2.

(a) Use the kinetic theory of matter to describe the movement of marbles in P, Q and R
when Umar shakes the tray. Explain your answer.

(b) Based on the properties of matter that you have learned, explain how gas is
   (i) compressed into liquid in a gas barrel.
   (ii) changed back into gas when it exits the barrel.

3. Figure 3 shows Elisya blowing soap water.

Figure 3

(a) Determine the state of matter for the
   (i) air inside the soap bubbles
   (ii) soap bubble blower
   (iii) soap water
  (b) What happens to the soap water when Elisya blows it harder? Give your reason.

Soap	bubble	blower

Soap	bubble

Soap	water

Figure 2

P Q R

Marble

Wooden tray

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4. Tan wants to ride his bicycle to school but he finds that the tyre is flat. Tan pumps air into
the tyre.

Figure 4

(a) Explain the state of the air particles inside the pumped tyre.
  (b) Justify Tan’s action of not pumping the tyre until it is too tight.
  (c) Bicycle tyres become flat when the weather is cold. Explain.

5. Ariana accidentally mixed salt and tea leaves. Suggest
one way to separate the salt and tea leaves based on your
knowledge of physical properties of matter.

6.	 A	sailor	runs	out	of	drinking	water	in	the	middle	of	the	sea.	He	cannot	drink	seawater
directly to avoid dehydration.

(a)	 How	can	you	help	the	sailor	to	obtain	pure	water	from	seawater?	Based	on	your
knowledge on condensation, create an experiment that can be done using only
the items in Figure 6.

(b)	 How	can	you	prove	that	your	experiment	is	a	success?	Suggest	one	simple	way.

Figure 5

Container Plastic Stone Glass

Figure 6

161Chapter 5

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 5: Matter
162 Chapter 5162 Chapter 5

Chapter

6

Classification of Elements
 Mixture
 Compound

Let’s Study:

The smallest particle of an element is called
an atom. What is the structure of an atom?

Why is an atom neutral?
How are the elements that exist around us

arranged in the Periodic Table?

Periodic Table

162 Chapter 6
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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJadual Berkala

163Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table

Atom
 Molecule
 Proton
 Electron
 Neutron
 Element
 Compound
 Periodic Table

Non-metal
 Appearance
 Ductility
 Malleability
 Mixture
 Filtration
 Sedimentation
 Distillation
 Chromatography

H ave you ever seen the Periodic Table which is used by a chemist? Periodic Table is a

compilation of chemical elements arranged in the form of a table. The elements in this table

have a few common characteristics. The evolution of this table into the latest form is a great

achievement by chemists and scientists.

Do you know that this table was introduced by Dimitri Mendeleev, a chemist from Russia?

In 1869, Mendeleev wrote the characteristics for 63 found elements, together with the mass of

the atom on a small piece of card and arranged in the form of a table. He left blank spaces to be

filled with yet to be found elements. He had predicted the characteristics of the elements that

have not been found yet. However, his prediction was doubted by other scientists.

In 1886, germanium was found. This new element fulfilled Mendeleev’s

prediction. Scientists finally accepted Mendeleev’s idea. The Periodic Table has

improved over time, in line with new findings of elements and theories.

THE HISTORY OF PERIODIC TABLE
SCIENCE BULLETIN

163Chapter 6
•	 Conclude	that	all	matter	consists	of	atoms.
•	 Differentiate	between	atoms	and	molecules	as	well	as	elements	and	compounds.
•	 Identify	the	position	of	metal,	non-metal	and	inert	gases	in	the	periodic	table.
•	 Differentiate	the	characteristics	of	metals	and	non-metals.
•	 Appreciate	the	order	of	elements	that	exist	in	nature	that	has	allowed	people	to	organise	them	in	the
form	of	a	table.

Let’s learn

6.1 Classification of Elements

Y ou have learned in Chapter 5 that all things that have mass and
 occupy space are matter. Matter consists of small and discrete
particles which are known as atoms.

An atom cannot be seen with our naked eyes because its
size is too small. An atom can only be seen using an electron
microscope by enlarging the atom to a million times. Imagine
if an orange were an atom, it would be enlarged as big as the
size of the Earth using an electron microscope (Figure 6.2).

Enlarged to 10
million times

Figure 6.2

Figure 6.1 Arrangement of atoms in a bracelet and in a hot air balloon

Metals and some
non-metals like carbon
and helium exist as
atoms.

Bracelet
Hot	air	balloon

Science Exploration

164 Chapter 6
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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJadual Berkala

Atom and Molecule

An atom consists of three subatomic particles, which are protons, neutrons and electrons.
Protons and neutrons are inside the nucleus of an atom, while the electrons circle around
the nucleus.

The nucleus has an overall positive charge due to the positively-charged protons in
it. The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons. Thus, an atom
is neutral.

Molecules are neutral particles made up of two or more atoms.

O O O

Oxygen atom Oxygen molecule

Figure 6.4 Oxygen atom and oxygen molecule

Figure 6.3 The structure of an atom

Nucleus

You can easily remember
the subatomic particles
in an atom by using the
acronym

PEN

Proton
Electron
Neutron

•	 Johnstone	Stoney
created the word
electron in 1891.

•	 The	word	nucleus is
derived from a Greek
word which means
little nut.

Electron
Particle with
negative charge

Neutron
Neutral particle
with no charge

Proton
Particle with
positive charge

165Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table
Carbon

Oxygen	tank

Hydrogen	tank

Zinc	bucket

H H H H

H H H H

H H

Zn Zn
Zn Zn Zn

ZnZnZn

Zn

Zn Zn

Zn
Zn Zn Zn

Zn

ZnZn

Zn Zn

ZnZn

Zn
Zn

Zn Zn

Zn Zn

Zn

Zn

Zn

Zn Zn
Zn

Zn
ZnZnZn

Zn

Zn

O O

O O
O

O
O
O

O O

O
O

O
O

O
O

What is an Element?

An element is the simplest form of substance. It cannot be divided to two or more
simpler substances. There is only one type of atom in an element.
 Iron, oxygen, hydrogen, aluminium, carbon and copper are elements. Oxygen is the
most abundant element that exists on Earth.

Figure 6.5 An element consists of atoms of the same type

What is a Compound?

A compound consists of two or more elements combined chemically. It is produced
from a chemical reaction. Compounds can be produced in the laboratory or in a natural
environment. Examples of compounds are aluminium oxide, zinc sulphide, iron
chloride, sugar, water and salt.

How can the components of a compound be separated? The components in a
compound cannot be separated physically but it can be done chemically, for example by
using electrical energy (electrolysis). Photograph 6.1 shows examples of compounds.

Fe

Fe

Fe
Fe

Fe Fe Fe
Fe

Fe

Fe

Fe

Fe
Fe

FeFeFe
Fe

Fe

Fe

Fe

Fe Fe Fe
Fe

Fe
FeFe

Fe Fe

Fe Fe Fe
Fe

Fe

Fe
Fe

FeFe
Fe

Fe

C
C C C

C
C

C

C

C

C
C

CC
C

C

C

C

C C
C

C
C

C
C

C

C C

C
C

C

C

C
CC

C
C

C

Iron
nails

166 Chapter 6
167Bab 6

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1

H
Hydrogen

1

6

C
Carbon

12

3

Li
Lithium

7

4

Be
Beryllium

9
 11

Na
Sodium

23

12

Mg
Magnesium

24
 19

K
Potassium

39

20

Ca
Calcium

40
 37

Rb
Rubidium

85.5

38

Sr
Strontium

88
  55

Cs
Caesium

133

56

Ba
Barium

137
  87

Fr
Francium

88

Ra
Radium

105

Db
Dubnium

106

Sg
Seaborgium

107

Bh
Bohrium

108

Hs
Hassium

109

Mt
Meitnerium

110

Ds
Darmstadtium

111

Rg
Roentgenium

112

Cn
Copernicium

21

Sc
Scandium

45
   39

Y
Yttrium

89

22

Ti
Titanium

48
   40

Zr
Zirconium

91
72

Hf
Hafnium

178.5

23

V
Vanadium

51
   41

Nb
Niobium

93
73

Ta
Tantalum

181

24

Cr
Chromium

52
 42

Mo
Moybdenum

96
74

W
Tungsten

184

25

Mn
Manganese

55
 43

Tc
Technetium

98
75

Re
Rhenium

186

26

Fe
Iron
56

44

Ru
Ruthenium

101
76

Os
Osmium

190

27

Co
Cobalt

59
 45

Rh
Rhodium

103
 77

Ir
Iridium

192

28

Ni
Nickle

59
 46

Pd
Paladium

106
  78

Pt
Platinum

195

29

Cu
Copper

64
47

Ag
Silver
108

79

Au
Gold
197

30

Zn
Zinc
65

48

Cd
Cadmium

112
80

Hg
Mercury

201

31

Ga
Gallium

70
 49

In
Indium

115
  81

Tl
Thallium

204
    113

Uut
Ununtrium

114

Fl
Flerovium

115

Uup
Ununpentium

116

Lv
Livermorium

117

Uus
Ununseptium

118

Uuo
Ununoctium

32

Ge
Germanium

73
  50

Sn
Tin
119

82

Pb
Lead
207

33

As
Arsenic

75
 51

Sb
Antimony

122
  83

Bi
Bismuth

209

34

Se
Selenium

79
  52

Te
Tellurium

128
  84

Po
Polonium

210

35

Br
Bromine

80
  53

I
Iodine
127

85

At
Astatine

210

36

Kr
Krypton

84
  54

Xe
Xenon

131
  86

Rn
Radon

222

5

B
Boron

11
  13

Al
Aluminium

27

6

C
Carbon

12
  14

Si
Silicon

28

7

N
Nitrogen

14
 15

P
Phospharos

31

8

O
Oxygen

16
  16

S
Sulphur

32

9

F
Fluorine

19
  17

Cl
Chlorine

35.5

2

He
Helium

4
 10

Ne
Neon

20
 18

Ar
Argon

40

58

Ce
Cerium

140
  90

Th
Thorium

232

57

La
Lanthanum

139
  89

Ac
Actinium

59

Pr
Praseodymium

141
  91

Pa
Protactinum

231

60

Nd
Neodymium

144
  92

U
Uranium

238

61

Pm
Promethium

93

Np
Neptunium

62

Sm
Samarium

150
  94

Pu
Plutonium

63

Eu
Europium

152
  95

Am
Americium

64

Gd
Gadolinium

157
  96

Cm
Curium

65

Tb
Terbium

159
  97

Bk
Berkelium

66

Dy
Dysprosium

162
  98

Cf
Californium

67

Ho
Holmium

165
  99

Es
Einsteinium

68

Er
Erbium

167
  100

Fm
Fermium

69

Tm
Thulium

169
  101

Md
Mendelevium

70

Yb
Ytterbium

173
  102

No
Nobelium

71

Lu
Lutetium

175
  103

Lr
Lawrencium

1

2

Proton number
Key:

Metal

Inert
gases

Non-metal

Semi-metal
Symbol of element

Lanthanoids

Actinoids

Name of element
Relative atomic mass

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16 17

18

104

Rf
Rutherfordium

57 – 71

Lanthanoids

89 – 103

Actinoids

Photograph 6.1 Examples of compounds

Periodic Table

During the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists discovered a lot of elements. They produced
the Periodic Table which has been arranged in an orderly and in a systematic manner and
is still being used today.

Figure 6.6 The Periodic Table

Salt

Elements in the compound:
calcium, carbon and oxygen

Elements in the compound:
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

Elements in the compound:
sodium and chlorine

As of 2016, 118 elements have
been discovered.

Shell
Sugar

167Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table
Figure 6.7 Research of elements

Element Name/ Symbol Year of
discovery Named after

104 Rutherfordium (Rf) 1969 Ernest Rutherford, nuclear physicist
106 Seaborgium (Sg) 1974 Glenn Seaborg, chemist
107 Bohrium (Bh) 1976 Niels Bohr, physicist
109 Meitnerium (Mt) 1982 Lise Meitner, physicist
110 Darmstadtium (Ds) 1994 Darmstadt, Germany (place of discovery)
111 Roentgenium (Rg) 1994 Wilhelm Roentgen, physicist

112 Copernicium (Cn) 1996 Named after Nicolaus Copernicus, physicist,
but discovered by Sigurd Hofmann

113 Ununtrium (Uut) 2003

Not officially named yet
115 Ununpentium (Uup) 2004
117 Ununseptium (Uus) 2010
118 Ununoctium (Uuo) 2006

Table 6.1 The new elements discovered by scientists

In the past, some elements were named according to the
substances they produced. The names end with ‘gen’
(abbreviated from ‘generator’). Hence, hydrogen
means ‘water generator’ and nitrogen means
‘nitric acid generator’.

Today, the names of new elements have
to be approved by the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Most of
the elements were named after the person who
discovered them, the place of discovery and
the name of well-known scientists (Table 6.1).
However, elements 113, 115, 117 and 118 have not
been officially named yet.

168 Chapter 6
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Aim: To identify the position of metals, non-metals and inert gases in the Periodic Table.

Instruction
1. Based on the Periodic Table, identify the position of metals, non-metals and inert gases.
2. State five examples of the elements in the following table.

Metal Non-metal Inert gas

6.1

Differences between Metals and Non-metals

Some elements have the same characteristics that allow these elements to be classified into
two main categories, metal and non-metal. What are the differences between metals and
non-metals?

Figure 6.8  The differences between metals and non-metals

Melting point and boiling
point

Differences

•  Both are elements

Metals Non-metalsSimilarity

Shiny DullAppearance

Ductile BrittleDuctility

Malleable Non-malleableMalleability

High Low (break easily)Tensile strength

Good Poor (except carbon)Electrical conductivity

Good PoorHeat conductivity

High LowDensity

LowHigh

169Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table
Aluminium
• Malleable
• Strong and light
•  Grey and shiny

Iron
• Strong
• Malleable
• Magnetic substance
• A good electric conductor
• Grey

Zinc
• Strong
• Grey
• A good electric conductor

Figure 6.9 Examples of metals and their characteristics

Hoe	is	made
of	iron

Copper
• Strong
• Rustproof
• Ductile (bends easily)
• A good electric conductor
• Brown

Metals
There	are	elements	that
cannot	be	classified	into
metals and non-metals
such as germanium and
silicon.	These	elements	are
semi-metals because
both of them possess the
characteristics of metals
and non-metals.

Zinc	roof

Science Exploration

Copper
wire

170 Chapter 6
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Iodine	is	used	as	an
antiseptic	substance

Pencil	lead	is
made	of	carbon

Sulphur	can	harden	rubber	tyres

Bleaching
agent	is	made
from	chlorine

Carbon
• Black
• Smooth
• Light
• The only non-metal

element that can
conduct electricity

Sulphur
• Yellow powder
• Poisonous

171Bab 6

Figure 6.10 Examples of non-metals and their characteristics

Iodine

Chlorine
• Greenish yellow gas
• Bleaching agent
• Poisonous

Chlorine

Chlorine

Iodine
• Black crystal
• Poisonous
• Antiseptic (prevent

injuries from bacterial
infection)

Iodine

Iodine

Carbon	is	used	to
make	racquets

Non-metals

171Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table
Figure 6.11

Copper
rod

Carbon
rod

Sandpaper

(a)

(b)

Copper
wire

Figure 6.12

Pencil lead

Figure 6.13

ExperimentExperiment 6.2

Problem statement: What are the differences between metals and non-metals?
Aim: To study the characteristics of metals and non-metals
(I) Appearance of metals and non-metals
Hypothesis: Metals have a shiny surface
Variables
Manipulated variable: Type of material
Responding variable: The appearance of the material
Constant variable: Size of material
Materials and apparatus: Copper rod, carbon
rod, sandpaper.

Procedure
1. Rub the surface of a copper rod and carbon rod with sandpaper (Figure 6.11).
2. Observe the appearance of the copper rod and carbon rod surface.
3. Record your observation.

(II) Ductility

Hypothesis: Metals are ductile.

Variables
Manipulated variable: Type of material

Responding variable: The ductility of material

Constant variable: Size of material

Materials and apparatus: Copper wire, pencil lead.

Procedure
1. Bend a copper wire to form a circle (Figure 6.12).
2. Repeat step 1 with a pencil lead (Figure 6.13).
3. Record your observation.

(III) Malleability

Hypothesis: Metals are malleable.

Variables
Manipulated variable: Type of material
Responding variable: The malleability of material
Constant variable: Size of material

Materials and apparatus : Iron piece, copper piece, sulphur
piece, hammer, wooden block.

Figure 6.14

Wooden
block

Iron
piece

Hammer

172 Chapter 6
173Bab 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJadual Berkala

Figure 6.15

Dry cell

Iron rod

X Y

Crocodile
clip

Crocodile
clip

Ammeter SwitchA

Procedure
1. Knock an iron piece on a wooden block using a hammer several times (Figure 6.14).
2. Observe the changes in the shape of the iron piece.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 using the copper and sulphur piece.
4. Record your observation.

(IV) Electrical conductivity
Hypothesis: Metals conduct electricity.

Variables
Manipulated variable: Type of material

Responding variable: The deflection of the
 ammeter's needle

Constant variable: Size of material

Materials and apparatus: Dry cell, ammeter,
crocodile clips, iron rod, carbon rod, sulphur rod.

Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 6.15.
2. Connect the ends of an iron rod with

crocodile clips.
3. Observe the deflection of the ammeter's needle.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 by replacing the iron rod with

carbon rod and sulphur rod.
5. Record your observation.

(V) Heat conductivity

Hypothesis: Metals conduct heat.

Variables
Manipulated variable: Type of material

Responding variable: Time taken for the
 thumbtack  to drop

Constant variable: Size of material

Materials and apparatus: Carbon rod, iron rod, copper rod,
candle, stopwatch, thumbtack, wax, retort stand with clamp.

Procedure
1. Clamp a carbon rod to the retort stand.
2. Put the thumbtack at the end of the carbon rod.
3. Heat the other end of the carbon rod (Figure 6.16).
4. Observe and record the time taken for the thumbtack to drop.
5. Repeat steps 1-4 by using an iron rod and copper rod.

Figure 6.16

Candle

Wax
Thumbtack

Carbon rod

Retort
stand
with
clamp

173Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table
These	activities	might
produce poisonous
gases. Do these activities
in a fume chamber.

(VI) Melting point

Hypothesis: The melting point of metals are higher.

Variables
Manipulated variable: Type of materials

Responding variable: Melting point of material

Constant variable: Quantity of materials

Materials and apparatus: Thermometer (0-360°C),
crucible, Bunsen burner, pipeclay triangle, tripod
stand, tin powder, sulphur powder.

Procedure
1. Heat tin powder in a crucible (Figure 6.17).
2. Observe and record the melting point of the
 tin powder.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 with sulphur powder.
4. Record your observation.

Results

Physical characteristic Metal Non-metal
Appearance
Ductility
Malleability
Electrical conductivity
Heat conductivity
Melting point

Conclusion:
Are the hypotheses accepted?

Questions
1. What is the difference between the appearance of copper rod and carbon rod surface?
2. Between copper wire and pencil lead, which one can be bent?
3. Between iron and sulphur pieces, which one is malleable?
4. Which one can conduct electricity - iron, carbon or sulphur?
5. Between iron and carbon rod, which one can conduct heat?
6. Between tin and sulphur powder, which one has a higher melting point?

Crucible
Tin powder

Pipeclay
triangle

Thermometer

Tripod stand

Figure 6.17

Heat

174 Chapter 6
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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJadual Berkala

Appreciate the Order of Elements that Exist
in Nature

There are numerous natural elements found on Earth that
benefit humans. Examples of the usage of these elements are:

We must also appreciate the scientists who have found and arranged the elements
systematically in the Periodic Table. A lot of time was spent on researching the
characteristics of these elements.

Aim: To present the order of elements that exist in nature

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Do an Internet research on the reasons why scientists are still searching for a new

way to present the Periodic Table.
3. Type the word “Periodic Table” on your search engine and click on “Images”. You will

find various versions of the Periodic Table including the table arranged by Stowe and
Tarantola. Study how the elements were arranged by them.

4. Make a creative presentation of your findings from the Internet.

6.3 21 ISS

1. State the subatomic particles.
2. Why is an atom neutral?
3. What is meant by element and compound?
4. Explain briefly the difference between atom and molecule.
5. How are the elements arranged in the Periodic Table?
6. Classify the elements below to metals and non-metals.

carbon, magnesium, iodine, chlorine, neon,
argon, aluminium, copper, iron, gold, mercury

7. You are given element X. What should you do to identify the element?

6.1

jewellery made of gold, silver and platinum.

in construction, transportation, health, medicine,
agriculture and industries.

Antoine Lavoisier was the
first	scientist	who	classified
elements as metals and
non-metals.

Photograph 6.2 Antoine
Lavoisier

175Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table
•	 Communicate	about	examples	of	mixtures	in	daily	life.
•	 Solve	problem	of	separating	mixtures	through	activities	based	on	the	different	characteristics	of
material	and	physical	methods.

Let’s learn

6.2 Mixtures

A  mixture consists of two or more elements or compounds mixed physically. Let
 us see some examples of mixtures (Figure 6.18). Can you list a few more examples of
a mixtures that you always use?

Figure 6.18 Example of mixtures

Methods to Separate Mixtures

How can a mixture be separated? As the mixture
is formed physically, it can be separated
physically too. For example, a sandwich

is made of bread, vegetables and
meat. Therefore, we can separate the

ingredients easily through a
physical method.

Photograph 6.3 Salad and sandwich are examples of mixtures
 that can be separated easily through a physical method.

̕Air batu
campur ̕

Mixture of solid and liquid

Some drinks like cocktail and 'air batu
campur' are made from a combination of

solid and liquid

Cocktail

176 Chapter 6
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Photograph 6.5 Harmful substances in food
 colouring can be detected by
 the chromatography method.

Photograph 6.4
Impurities can be
removed from flour by
the sieving method.

Figure 6.19 shows a few methods to separate mixtures.

Filtration

Distillation

Separation by
using magnet

Separation method

Sedimentation

Floatation Sieving

Chromatography

Figure 6.19 Methods to separate mixtures

The separation method depends on:

Why are you using this
strainer, dad?

I want to separate the
coffee	powder	from	the
coffee	drink.	You	might

choke if you drink
unfiltered	coffee.

•	 Physical	properties	of	the	substances	present	in

the mixture
•	 Substance(s)	to	be	obtained

from the mixture

Science in Life

177Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table
(a) Filtration

Filtration is a method used to separate an insoluble solid from a mixture of solid
and liquid.

Photograph 6.6 Example of filtration

Let us do Activity 6.4 to learn how to separate a mixture using filtration method.

Filter paper separates coffee
powder from a coffee drink.

Aim: To separate a mixture using filtration method

Materials and apparatus: Sand, distilled water, filter paper, filter funnel, two 50 ml
beakers, spatula, glass rod, retort stand with clamp.

Instruction

Filter paper

Mixture of sand and
water

Residue
Filter funnel

Glass rod

Retort stand
with clamp

Filtrate

Figure 6.20

1. Add two spatulas of sand to 30 ml of water in a beaker.
2. Stir the mixture of sand and water for two minutes.
3. Filter the mixture (Figure 6.20).
4. Record your observation.

Questions
1. What are the states of matter of sand and water?
2. Can the sand be separated physically from water?
3. Name the residue and filtrate in this activity.

6.4

178 Chapter 6
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(b) Distillation

Distillation is the method used to separate a completely miscible liquid-liquid mixture
that have different boiling points. How does distillation work? Do Activity 6.5 to find
out how distillation is carried out.

Aim: To separate a mixture using distillation method.

Apparatus and Materials: Mixture of water and alcohol, porcelain chips, thermometer,
tripod stand, Bunsen burner, wire gauze, Liebig condenser, retort stand with clamp,
round-bottom flask, beaker.

Instruction

Heat Beaker

Retort stand
with clamp

Round-bottom flask

Water + alcohol

Wire gauze

Porcelain chips

Water
out

Thermometer

Liebig
condenser

Water
in

Figure 6.21

1. Pour the mixture of water and alcohol into the round-bottom flask until it is half full
and add in some porcelain chips.

2. Flow the water through the Liebig condenser (Figure 6.21).
3. Heat the mixture of water and alcohol and collect the liquid that flows out of the

Liebig condenser using a beaker.
4. Record the temperature of the liquid. Determine the boiling point of the liquid.

Questions
1. At what temperature does the liquid start to flow out of the condenser?
2. What is the use of porcelain chips in this experiment?

6.5

Distillation
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179Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table
(c) Separation Using Magnet

If you hold a magnet close to a box of iron nails mixed with sand, what would happen?
Iron nails are metals and magnetic substance. Hence, they will be attracted to the magnet.
But, sand is not a magnetic substance. Therefore, it will remain inside the box.

Magnetic attraction can be used to separate two solid mixtures
in which one of the substances is magnetic and the other is

not. Iron, nickel and cobalt are examples of magnetic metals.
Meanwhile, gold, bronze and aluminium are examples
of non-magnetic metals.

180 Chapter 6

Photograph 6.9 A strong magnet is used to
salvage iron and steel from a junkyard

Most food industries use
a magnet separator to
ensure that iron particles
are not mixed with the
food products.

Science Exploration

Figure 6.22 Perfume is produced through distillation

Magnet

Photograph 6.7 Perfume

Photograph 6.8 Iron nails
are attracted to a magnet

Fragrant
water
collected

Condenser

Boiled rose
petals with
water

180 Chapter 6
181Bab 6

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Aim: To separate a mixture using magnet.

Materials  and apparatus: Mixture of iron and sulphur powder, spatula, Petri dish, magnet
bar, paper.

Instruction
1. Put one spatula of iron powder and sulphur powder into a Petri dish.
2. Hold a magnet bar near the mixture (Figure 6.23).

Petri dish

Mixture of iron powder
and sulphur powder

Magnet bar

Paper

Figure 6.23
Questions
1. Which powder will be attracted to the magnet?
2. Is the powder that you answered in question 1, a metal or non-metal?

6.6

(d) Sedimentation method

What can you observe when sand is poured into a beaker filled with water? Look at
Photograph 6.10. Two layers are formed in which the water is at the upper layer and
the sand is deposited at the base of the beaker. This is because the sand is not soluble in
water and has a higher density. Therefore, the sedimentation method is used to separate
a liquid and insoluble solid mixture. Let us carry out the sedimentation method in
Activity 6.7.

Photograph 6.10 Sand deposited at the base of the beaker filled with water

Water Mixture of water and sandSand

+ =

Water

Sand

181Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table
Aim: To separate a mixture using sedimentation method

Materials and apparatus: Silty solution, two 100 ml beakers, glass rod

Instruction

Figure 6.24 (b)

Sand

Glass	rod

Clear	water

Figure 6.24 (a)

Glass	rod

Distilled	water
Sand

1. Pour 50 ml of silty solution into a 100 ml beaker.
2. Stir the silty solution by using a glass rod. (Figure 6.24 (a)).
3. Observe the water and silt after a while.
4. Slowly, pour the clear water from the beaker into an empty beaker (Figure 6.24(b)).
5. Observe the sediment left inside the beaker.

Questions
1. Which substance is left inside the beaker?
2. Can water and sand be separated physically?

6.7

(e) Floatation Method

Floatation method can be used to separate soluble and insoluble materials in water. For
example, oil has a lower density than water. Therefore, oil will float on the water surface. A
separating funnel can be used to separate the oil and water. Do Activity 6.8 to understand
this method further.

Photograph 6.11 Oil floats on the water surface

182 Chapter 6
183Bab 6

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Aim: To separate a mixture using the floatation method.

Materials and apparatus: Mixture of water and oil, beakers, separating funnel, 100 ml
measuring cylinder, retort stand with clamp.

Instruction

Separating
funnel

Oil
Water

Beaker
Water

Tap
Retort
stand
with
clamp

Figure 6.25

1. Pour 100 ml water and oil mixture into a beaker. Record your observation.
2. Pour the mixture into a separating funnel (Figure 6.25).
3. Separate the water and oil using different beakers.

Questions
1. Between water and oil, which one floats? Why?
2. Can oil and water be separated physically?

6.8

(f)  Chromatography Method

Separation methods like filtration and distillation need a large
amount of mixture to separate the substances. How is a small
amount of mixture separated? One of the methods is by using
chromatography. This method is usually used to check document
fraud by separating the colours from the ink used. Besides

that, the chromatography method also allows
us to identify if there are any harmful food

colourings present in our food.

Photograph 6.12 Various types of food with food colourings

There	are	athletes	who
use illegal drugs to
increase their energy and
stamina. Urine samples are
tested to detect the drug
content inside the body by
using the chromatography
method.

Science Exploration

Food	colourings

183Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table
Aim: To separate a mixture by using chromatography method.

Materials and apparatus: 250 ml beaker, distilled water, filter paper, ruler, whiteboard
marker pen (red, green and blue ink), skewer.

Instruction

Figure 6.26

Filter
paper

Figure 6.27

Filter
paper

Distilled
water

Beaker

Skewer

1. Prepare a piece of filter paper with the measurement of 5 cm × 12 cm.
2. Draw a line 1.5 cm from the edge of the paper with a pencil (Figure 6.26).
3. Draw three dots along the line using different whiteboard marker pens. Hang the

filter paper in the beaker using a skewer and dip the end of the paper into the distilled
water. Make sure the water does not touch the dots (Figure 6.27).

4. Observe for 30 minutes.
5. Record your observation.

Questions
1. What are the colours produced on the filter paper?
2. Is the colour produced the same as the ink of the whiteboard marker pen?

6.9

1. Define mixture.
2. Match the following mixtures according to its suitable separation method.

Type of mixture
Paper clips and glass fragments •
Water and ethanol •
Three types of water-soluble ink •
Soil and water •
Oil and water •
Coffee powder and water •

Separation method
• Filtration
• Distillation
• Chromatography
• Using magnet
• Sedimentation
• Floatation

3. If you were given a mixture that contains rice and sand, can you separate them using
filtration method? Why?

6.2

Chromatography method
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184 Chapter 6
185Bab 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJadual Berkala

•	 Communicate	about	compounds	in	daily	life.
•	 Demonstrate	the	formation	of	compounds	between	metals	and	non-metals.
•	 Conclude	that	mass	is	conserved	during	a	chemical	change.
•	 Separate	compounds	using	chemical	methods.
•	 Differentiate	between	chemical	change	and	physical	change.
•	 Differentiate	between	mixtures	and	compounds.

Let’s learn

6.3 Compounds

Acompound consists of two or more elements that are mixed
 chemically. This newly formed product has its own
characteristics. There are a lot of compounds that we use
such as salt, sugar, chalk, marble, polythene
(a type of plastic) and water.

Photograph 6.14 Examples of compounds

Aim: To show the usage of compounds in daily life.

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Prepare a creative multimedia presentation on the examples of compounds that exist

around you.
3. Present to your class.

6.10

Water consists of
hydrogen and oxygen

Building blocks are made
of polythene, which is a
combination of carbon
and hydrogen

Tiles are made from
marble which is
a combination of
calcium, carbon and
oxygen

Rusting is an example of
a compound formed by a
chemical reaction between
iron and oxygen.

Photograph 6.13 A rusty
  padlock

Science Exploration

185Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table
How do metal and non-metal elements combine chemically to form a compound?
Magnesium, zinc, iron and copper react with oxygen to form the metal oxide.

magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
aluminium + oxygen aluminium oxide
zinc + oxygen zinc oxide
iron + oxygen iron oxide
copper + oxygen copper oxide

There are some metals that react with water to form alkali compounds and release
hydrogen gas. These elements are known as alkali metals. Examples of alkali metals are
lithium, sodium and potassium.

lithium + water lithium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
sodium + water sodium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
potassium + water potassium hydroxide + hydrogen gas

Iron and sulphur powder will form iron sulphide when heated.

iron + sulphur iron sulphide

Aim: To produce a compound

Materials and apparatus: Sulphur powder, iron powder, Bunsen burner, crucible with
lid, tripod stand, pipeclay triangle, weighing balance

Procedure

Lid
Crucible

Heat

Sulphur powder + iron powder
Pipeclay triangle

Figure 6.28

6.11

186 Chapter 6
187Bab 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJadual Berkala

1. Put one spatula of sulphur powder and one spatula of iron powder into the crucible. Stir
well. Record the colour of the mixture.

2. Weigh the mixture. Record the initial mass.
3. Heat the mixture until the colour changes (Figure 6.28).
4. Let the product cool. Weigh and record the final mass of the product.

Questions
1. What is the colour of the mixture when it is heated?
2. Write the word equation of the chemical reaction that occurred.
3. What is the product of this reaction?
4. Is there any change in the mass of the compound before and after heating?

After carrying out Activity 6.11, you can see that a metal and a non-metal form a
compound when heated together and the total mass before and after heating is the same
and does not change. This phenomenon always occurs in our daily life. All mineral salts
that are found in nature exist in the form of compounds due to the chemical reaction that
occurs, except for gold, silver and platinum.

Methods to Separate Compounds

Compounds cannot be separated physically like mixtures because the elements in
a compound are bonded chemically. Therefore, a compound can only be separated
chemically by electrolysis. What is electrolysis?

Electrolysis is a chemical decomposition of a compound to its

elements by passing an electric current through the compound.

Let us see how oxygen and hydrogen are separated from water through electrolysis
in Figure 6.29.

Figure 6.29 Electrolysis of water

•	 Water	consists	of	hydrogen	and	oxygen.
•	 Therefore,	to	separate	the	hydrogen

and	oxygen	from	water,	the	water	must
undergo	the	electrolysis	process.

•	 Figure	6.29	shows	how	electrolysis	is
done.	This	process	produces	hydrogen
gas	at	the	negative	electrode	(cathode)
and oxygen gas at the positive electrode
(anode).

Hydrogen

Cathode

AmmeterA

Dry cells

Anode

Oxygen

Water + sulphuric
acid

187Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table
Physical Change and Chemical Change

All substances undergo changes. These changes can be divided into two; physical
change and chemical change. What is meant by physical change and chemical change?

The differences between physical and chemical changes

Physical change does not form a new
substance.

Examples: Ice melting, water freezing,
water boiling

Chemical change forms a new
substance that is different from the
original substances.

Examples: Rusting of iron, photosynthesis,
decaying of leaf and cell respiration

Figure 6.30  The differences between physical and chemical changes

Comparison between physical change and chemical change is shown in Figure 6.31

The
substances

and products
have different

chemical
composition

The properties
of the

substances and
products are
not the same

Forms new
substance

Needs more
energy

Does not form
new substance

The properties
of the substances
remain the same

The
chemical

composition of the
substances remain

the same
Needs less

energy

Occurs to
matter

Needs energy

Physical
change

Chemical
change

Figure 6.31 Comparison between physical change and chemical change

188 Chapter 6
189Bab 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJadual Berkala

Differences between Mixtures and Compounds

After learning about mixtures and compounds, can you differentiate both of them?
Table 6.2 shows the differences between mixtures and compounds.

Table 6.2 The differences between mixtures and compounds

Mixtures Characteristic Compounds
No Formation of new substances Yes
No Chemical bond Yes

Physical Separation method Chemical

Same Properties of new substances
compared to the original Different

Aim: To prepare a multimedia presentation on the similarities and differences between
mixtures and compounds

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Compare and contrast between mixtures and compounds.
3. You must include pictures and graphics to show your understanding of this topic.
4. Prepare a multimedia presentation of your discussion.
5. Present your discussion in class.

6.12

1. Define compound.
2. List five examples of compounds.
3. How can you separate a compound?
4. State the differences between a mixture and a compound.

6.3

189Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table
Pe
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190 Chapter 6
191Bab 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJadual Berkala

After	studying	this	chapter,	you	can:

6.1 Classification of Elements

Conclude	that	all	matter	consists	of	atoms.

Differentiate	between	atoms	and	molecules	as	well	as	elements	and	compounds.

Identify	the	position	of	metals,	non-metals	and	inert	gases	in	the	Periodic	Table.

Differentiate	the	characteristics	of	metals	and	non-metals.

6.2 Mixtures

Communicate	about	examples	of	mixtures	in	daily	life.

Solve	problems	of	separating	mixtures.

6.3 Compounds

Communicate	about	compounds	in	daily	life.

Demonstrate	the	formation	of	compounds	from	metals	and	non-metals.

Conclude	that	mass	is	conserved	during	chemical	change.

Separate	compounds	through	chemical	methods.

Differentiate	between	chemical	change	and	physical	change.

Differentiate	between	mixtures	and	compounds.

Summative Practice 6

1. Figure 1 shows three shapes - circle, square and pentagon which represent atoms from
  different elements.

Based on Figure 1, identify the combination of atoms that represent
  (a) molecule of a compound.
  (b) molecule of an element that consists of two atoms.
  (c) molecule of an element that consists of three atoms.

Figure 1

(a) (b)
(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)
(g) (h)

(i) (j)

(k)
(l) (m)

(n)
(o)

(p)

191Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table
P
R

Figure 2

2. Figure 2 shows part of the Periodic Table.

(a) State the type of element for P and R.
  (b) What are the differences in physical characteristics of P and R?
  (c) Iron is a type of metal that has a shiny surface. However, iron can rust easily.
   Explain.
  (d) Graphite is an example of carbon. What are the characteristics of graphite that make it

suitable to be used as pencil lead?

3. Noraini wants to make pineapple jam using the recipe given by her mother as shown
   in Figure 3.

Figure 3

(a) Name the separation method used in the recipe.
  (b) Which step involves the separation method that you stated in 3(a)?

4. Kumutha is given a mixture of sand, iron filings, sawdust and salt. She separates the mixture
by following the four steps in Figure 4. The letters A, B, C and D represent the substances in
the mixture.

Pineapple Jam

1. Remove pineapple skin and grate the pineapple.

2. Blend the pineapple using a blender.

3. Remove the excess juice.

4. Cook the blended pineapple on medium heat. Add some sugar, salt
and yellow food colouring.

5. Stir the mixture until it thickens and is sticky.

6. Then, cool the jam and keep it in the refrigerator.

192 Chapter 6
193Bab 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikJadual Berkala

Step 1:
Magnetic	attraction

A,	B,	C,	D

D	+	water

C +	D	+	water

B,	C,	D

B,	C,	D A

C +	D	+	water B

D	+	water C

water D

Step 2:
Dissolve	in	water	and
remove	substance
that	float

Step 4:
Evaporation	of
water

Step 3:
Filtration

Figure 4

(a) Identify substance A, B, C and D whether they are sand, iron filings, sawdust or salt.
  (b) Differentiate the density of B and C. Why can B be separated from the mixture in Step 2?

Explain.
  (c) If D is replaced with sugar, can it still be separated from the water by applying

Step 4?
  (d) Is there another way that Kumutha could do to separate the mixture in Step 4? Explain

your answer.

5. A few students set up the apparatus as shown
in Figure 5 to separate sand and salt. They
found out that the mixture took a longer time
to be filtered. Therefore, they decided to stir the
mixture on the filter paper using a glass rod. Is
it a good idea? Give your reason (s).

6. Athirah accidentaly spills sand into a salt container. How can she separate the salt and sand
from the mixture? State the separation method that she needs to use. Explain the steps in the
separation method.

Figure 5

Retort stand
with clamp

Mixture of sand
and salt solution
Filter funnel
Sand

Salt solution

Glass rod
Beaker

Filter paper

193Chapter 6

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 6: Periodic Table
194 Chapter 6

Chapter

7

Composition of Air
 Combustion
 Air Pollution

Let’s Study:

Why must we take care of the air
around us?

What is the composition of the air?
How can we maintain the quality

of the air?

Air

194 Bab 7194 Chapter 7
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikUdara

195Chapter 7

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 7: Air

Oxygen
 Carbon dioxide
 Nitrogen
 Inert gases
 Helium
 Neon
 Argon
 Krypton

Xenon
 Carbon cycle
 Oxygen cycle
 Global warming
 Greenhouse effect
 Combustion
 Fire extinguisher
 Air pollution

For the last several decades,

Malaysia and a few other countries

in East Asia have been experiencing

haze caused by open burning in nearby

countries. Prolonged haze affects the

health of the people, especially those

with respiratory problems. People are

advised to monitor the Air Pollutant

Index (API) at their respective areas

in accordance to the advice given by

the local health authority. What is Air

Pollutant Index?

AIR POLLUTANT INDEX (API) IN MALAYSIA

This index is used as a guide for us to

know the level of air quality and its impact

towards our health. Table 1 shows the

classification of Air Pollutant Index.

SCIENCE BULLETIN

API Level of Pollution

0-50 Good

51-100 Moderate

101-200 Unhealthy

201-300 Very Unhealthy

>300 Hazardous

Table 1 Air Pollutant Index (API) level

195Chapter 7
•	 Plan	ways	to	determine	and	record	the	composition	of	air.
•	 Synthesise	the	composition	of	air	from	a	pie	chart.
•	 Justify	the	importance	of	oxygen,	nitrogen,	carbon	dioxide	and	inert	gases	in	daily	life.
•	 Appreciate	the	carbon	cycle	and	the	oxygen	cycle	in	maintaining	the	composition	of	gases	in	the	air.
•	 Solve	problems	when	there	is/are	interferences	to	the	oxygen	and	the	carbon	cycle.

Let’s learn

7.1 Composition of Air

Y ou have learned that air has mass and occupies space in
 Chapter 5. All living things need air to survive. Clean
air does not have colour or smell. Therefore, we cannot
see the air even though it has a lot of substances in it.
(Photograph 7.1).

What are the contents of air? Air is a mixture
of several gases which are nitrogen (78%), oxygen
(21%), carbon dioxide (0.03%) and inert gases
(0.97%) such as helium, argon, neon, xenon and
krypton.

Other components that exist in the air are
microorganisms, water vapour and dust. The quantity of
these components is low and varies according to place and
time. For example, there is more water vapour in forests or
after the rain than during a hot day.

Figure 7.1 Composition of air represented in a pie chart

Photograph 7.1 Air cannot be seen

Nitrogen
78%

Oxygen
21%

Inert gases
and other
substances
0.97%

Carbon
dioxide
0.03%

What is the relationship
between the water vapour
content in the air and
formation of cloud and rain?

Some sicknesses such
as fever are caused by
microorganisms in the air.

B

Science Exploration

196 Chapter 7
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikUdara

Carry out Activity 7.1 to determine the percentage of oxygen in the air.

Aim: To determine the percentage of oxygen in the air

Materials and apparatus: Candle, plasticine, matches, glass basin, permanent marker pen,
gas jar, gas jar stand, water.

Instruction

(b)

The gas jar is
divided into
five equal parts
and marked
with marker
pen

Water
level
indicator

Gas
jar

(a)

Candle

Gas jar

Water level
indicator

Gas jar
stand

Glass
basin
Water
Plasticine

Figure 7.2 Set-up of apparatus before the candle is lit

1. Prepare the apparatus as shown in Figure 7.2 (a).
2. Divide the gas jar into five equal parts
 (Figure 7.2 (b)).
3. Light the candle and invert the gas jar over the

candle (Figure 7.3).
4. Observe and record the changes in the water level

when the flame extinguishes.
5. Make a conclusion on the percentage of oxygen

in the air.

Questions
1. What happened to the flame of the candle after a period of time? Why?
2. What happened to the water level at the end of this activity? Give reason(s) to the

changes.
3. What is the percentage of oxygen in the air based on this activity?

Figure 7.3 Set-up of apparatus after
 the candle is lit

Candle

7.1

At	the	end	of	Activity	7.1,	the	water	rose	to	one	fifth	of	the	gas	jar.	This	shows	that	one
fifth	of	the	air	contains	oxygen.	Therefore,	the	air	consists	of	20%	oxygen.

197Chapter 7

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 7: Air
Is Air a Mixture?

Figure 7.4 Air is a mixture

Do you still remember the differences between mixtures and compounds which you have
learned	in	Chapter	6?	Why	is	air	classified	as	a	mixture	and	not	a	compound?

Air is a mixture because the components can be separated by a physical method,
which  is fractional distillation.

The Importance of Gases

Have you ever imagined life without air? What is the
importance of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and
inert gases?

Photograph 7.2 One of the importance of oxygen is
 for combustion

Is air a
compound or a

mixture?
Air is a mixture.

Fractional distillation is
separation of a liquid
mixture into fractions
with different boiling
points through boiling
and condensation.

Science Exploration

198 Chapter 7
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikUdara

Oxygen Carbon dioxide Nitrogen Inert gas

Importance of
gases

•	 Respiration
•	 Combustion	of

rocket	engine	at
high	altitudes

•	 Welding	and
steel	cutting

•	 Preparation
of	various
compounds

•	 Photosynthesis
•	 Production

of	carbonated
drinks

•	 Fire	extinguisher
•	 Carbon	cycle

•	 Production	of
nitric	acid	and
ammonia

•	 Nitrogen	cycle
•	 Liquid	nitrogen

as	cooling	agent

•	 Helium	is	used
to	fill	hot	air
balloons	and
weather	balloons

•	 Neon	gas	is	used
in	advertising
lights

•	 Argon	gas	is	used
in	light	bulbs

Oxygen

Carbon
dioxide

Helium

Figure 7.5 Importance of gases

Rocket Fire
extinguisher

Nitrogen	fertiliser

Light	bulb

199Chapter 7

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 7: Air
Carbon cycle is the cycle
that maintains the content of
carbon dioxide in the air by
continuously taking carbon
dioxide from the air and
returning it to the air.

How does the carbon cycle maintain the content of carbon dioxide in the air?

Figure 7.6 The carbon cycle

Carbon cycle

•	 Carbon	cycle	begins	when	green	plants	absorb
carbon dioxide through photosynthesis.

•	 Animals	that	eat	the	plants	obtain	carbon	elements
from them.

•	 When	the	plants	and	animals	die,	they	decompose.
•	 Decomposition	caused	by	bacteria	and	fungi	in	the

soil releases carbon dioxide.
•	 Burning	of	fossil	fuels	that	contain	carbon	like	coal

and petrol also releases carbon dioxide.
•	 During	respiration,	all	plants	and	animals	release

carbon dioxide.
•	 These	processes	such	as	decomposition,	combustion

and respiration are balanced by photosynthesis.

decomposition

Carbon dioxide in atmosphere

is eaten

respiration

form

respiration

Green plants

photosynthesis

burning of
fossil fuels

fossil fuels
(petroleum, natural gas and coal)

Release carbon dioxide
Use carbon dioxide

Animal

dead organisms

200 Chapter 7
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikUdara

Oxygen Cycle

How does the oxygen cycle maintain the content of oxygen in the air?

Oxygen cycle is a continuous cycle that
takes oxygen from the air and returns it
to the air.

We must always appreciate the carbon and oxygen cycles that maintain the gas content in the air.
All	activities	that	harm	the	air	must	be	reduced.

•	 Oxygen	needed	in	respiration,	rusting,
combustion and decomposition is
obtained from photosynthesis.

Video on oxygen
cycle

Oxygen in atmosphere

Carbon dioxide in atmosphere

Photosynthesis

Decomposition
of waste

materials and
dead organisms

Rusting

Respiration

Combustion

Respiration

Decomposition
of waste

materials and
dead organisms

Use oxygen
Release oxygen

Green plants
Animals

Figure 7.7 The oxygen cycle

201Chapter 7

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 7: Air
Aim: To gather information regarding the importance of gases, the oxygen cycle and
carbon cycle

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Find information on the importance of the following gases:
 (a) oxygen
 (b) carbon dioxide
 (c) nitrogen
 (d) inert gases
3. Record the information gathered using a suitable thinking map.
4. Find the information on oxygen and carbon cycles and how they maintain the

percentage of gases in the atmosphere.
5. Present it in class.

7.2

Ways to Prevent Interferences in the Oxygen and Carbon Cycles

Our environment is being destroyed by human activities such as logging and the
uncontrolled usage of pesticides in agriculture. This will increase the amount of carbon
dioxide which interferes with natural cycles including the oxygen and carbon cycles.
Global warming and the greenhouse effect are among the consequences of
this interference.

Photograph 7.3 Fertile lands can become dry because of global warming

202 Chapter 7
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikUdara

Photograph 7.4 shows some ways to reduce the problem of interferences to the
oxygen and carbon cycles on Earth.

Photograph 7.4 Ways to reduce problems of interferences to the oxygen and carbon cycle

1. List the composition of air.
2. How can you identify oxygen and carbon dioxide?
3. What is the importance of carbon dioxide to plants?
4. What are the effects of the increase of carbon dioxide in the air to humans?
5.	 As	a	student	who	appreciates	the	importance	of	the	carbon	and	oxygen	cycles,	suggest	ways

to ensure a balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen content in the air.

7.1

P
ro

hib
it i

lle
ga

l lo
gg

ing

Do not burn forests

Prevent excessive release of smoke fro
m ve

hicle
s

Avoid using excessive pesticides

R
eforestation

203Chapter 7

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 7: Air
•	 Conclude	about	the	conditions	needed	for	combustion.
•	 Relate	the	conditions	of	combustion	with	the	principles	used	in	the	manufacture	of	fire	extinguishers.
•	 Practise	safety	measures	to	prevent	the	occurrence	of	fire	which	can	lead	to	the	destruction	of	life
	 and	property.

Let’s learn

7.2 Combustion

C ombustion is the reaction that occurs when a substance is
 heated in the presence of oxygen which produces heat
energy and light energy.

Photograph 7.6 How can firefighters put out this fire?

Why do we use water to
extinguish fire?

Figure 7.8 Three conditions needed
 for combustion

Photograph 7.5 The candle flame is
extinguished when oxygen is removed
by blowing it

We can prevent
combustion if we
remove one of the

conditions needed for
combustion.

Heat

Fuel

B
O
xy
ge
n

204 Chapter 7
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikUdara

Carry out Activity 7.3 to prove that fuel, oxygen and heat are needed for combustion.

Aim: To prove that fuel, oxygen and heat are needed for combustion

I Fuel is needed for combustion

Materials and apparatus:	Bunsen	burner,	tongs,	lighter,	glass	rod,	wood,	candle,	stone

Instruction
1.	 Light	a	Bunsen	burner.
2. Hold a glass rod over the fire by using tongs.
3. Observe whether or not the glass rod burns.
4. Record your observation in a table.
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 by using wood, candle and stone.

Questions
1.	 Based	on	your	observation,	classify	the	materials	into	fuel	and	non-fuel.
2. What is the conclusion that you can make from this activity?

II Oxygen is needed for combustion

Materials and apparatus: Gas jar, two white tiles, two candles of the same size,
plasticine, lighter

Instruction
1. Hold two candles of the same size on white

tiles by using plasticine (Figure 7.9).
2. Light candles X and Y.
3. Turn a gas jar over candle X.
4. Observe which candle extinguishes first.

Questions
1. Which candle burns longer? Why?
2. What is the gas used during the burning
 of candle?
3. What is the conclusion that you can make from this activity?

Material Observation
(a)  Glass rod
(b)  Wood
(c)  Candle
(d)  Stone

Figure 7.9
Candle X

White
tile

White
tile

Plasticine

Gas jar

Candle Y

7.3

205Chapter 7

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 7: Air
III Heat is needed for combustion

Materials and apparatus: Match stick, match stick which has been stored inside the
refrigerator, matchbox

Instruction
1. Label the match stick which has been stored inside the refrigerator as P and the other

match stick as Q.
2. Light match sticks P and Q. Observe the changes that occur.

Question:
1. Do both match sticks ignite? Why?
2. What is the conclusion that you can make from this activity?

Fire Extinguisher

Have	you	gone	through	a	fire	drill	at	your	school?	The
firefighters	would	have	shown	the	correct	way	to	use	the	fire
extinguisher.	The	fire	extinguisher	is	a	protective	tool	that	is
used	to	put	out	a	fire	or	handle	a	small	fire,	usually	during	an
emergency.	The	substance	used	in	a	fire	extinguisher	differs	based
on	the	type	of	materials	on	fire	as	shown	in	Table	7.1.

Table 7.1 Types of fire extinguisher for different sources of fire

Material on fire Example of material Type of fire extinguisher
Solid Wood, cloth, paper Water, dry powder

Liquid Oil, varnish, paint Foam, dry powder, carbon dioxide
Gas Propane, acetylene, methane Foam, dry powder, carbon dioxide

Metal Potassium, sodium, magnesium,
calcium

Dry powder, dry sand

Kamal, hurry up!
Pour a pail of

water before the
fire spreads!

No! Water is denser than oil and
it will sink below the oil. The fire

will not be extinguished. We
must use foam!

Science in Life

Figure 7.10 A fire extinguisher

206 Chapter 7
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikUdara

As you have learned in subtopic 7.1, combustion needs oxygen, heat and fuel.
Therefore,	fire	can	be	extinguished	by	removing	one	of	the	conditions	needed	for
combustion using the following techniques.
(a) Covering: cutting off the contact of the fuel with

oxygen or air. For example, covering the surface of fuel
with	fire	blanket,	wet	sack,	mud,	sand,	soil	or	foam.

(b) Cooling: cooling the surface of burning materials by
spraying water or a layer of carbon dioxide.

(c) Reducing the amount of burning materials/cutting
off the source of fuel: this technique can be used
by separating the burning materials, keeping away
materials that have not burnt yet and cutting off the
supply of gas or oil.

Safety Measures to Prevent the Occurrence of Fire

Figure 7.11 Safety measures to prevent the occurrence of fire

Always	be	aware	of	your
electrical	appliances

Do	not	throw	away
cigarette	butts	when
they	are	still	burning

Keep	matches	and
lighters	in	a	safe	place

Do	not	plug	in	too	many
electrical	appliances	to	a
single	electrical	source

Keep	away
flammable
substances
from	fire

Install	fire	alarm	and	smoke
detector	at	home

Safety
measures to
prevent the

occurrence of
fire

Fire blanket is a special
blanket made of fire
resistant substances. This
blanket covers the fire
and prevents oxygen from
seeping below the blanket
which will eventually
extinguish the fire.

Photograph 7.7
A fire blanket

Science Exploration

207Chapter 7

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 7: Air
1. Define combustion.
2. What are the conditions needed for combustion?
3. Luqman uses a fire blanket to put out a small fire at his house. How does the fire

blanket work?
4. Give four ways to prevent fire.
5. Metals like potassium and sodium are kept in paraffin oil. Why?

7.2

Aim: To make a poster on causes of fire and ways to prevent it
Instruction
1. Prepare a poster entitled ‘Causes of Fire and Ways to Prevent it’ in a group.
2. Present the best three posters on the science board of your class.

7.4 21 ISS

•	 Define	air	pollution	and	air	pollutants.
•	 Communicate	about	air	pollutants	and	the	causes.
•	 Justify	steps	to	prevent	and	control	air	pollution.
•	 Solve	problems	on	the	adverse	effects	of	air	pollution.

Let’s learn

7.3 Air Pollution

Air pollution is a situation which involves the presence of any pollutants in the air.
 This brings harm and discomfort to living things and destroys the environment.
Air pollutants come from various sources. The sources of air pollutants are shown
in Figure 7.12.

Photograph 7.8 Air pollution from a
 factory

208 Chapter 7
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikUdara

Aim: To discuss air pollution problems
in Malaysia

Instruction
Photograph 7.9 shows the hazy condition in Kuala
Lumpur in 2015. Discuss in groups the definition
of air pollution and sources of air pollutants
which	cause	haze.	Then,	present	your	discussion
in class.

Photograph 7.9 Haze in Kuala Lumpur

7.5

Polluted air can cause illness and discomfort to humans. There are various steps
that can be taken to prevent and control air pollution. Figures 7.13(a) and (b) show the
effects of air pollution and ways to prevent and control it.

Pollutants
Dust,	soot,
smoke

Pollutants
Aerosol	spray,
chemical
fertilisers

Pollutants
Smoke,	soot,	dust,
carbon	monoxide,
sulphur	dioxide,	nitrogen
dioxide,	plumbum

Sources
•		Exhaust	of	vehicles
•		Factories

Sources
Agriculture	and
plantation	activities

Sources
•		Open	burning
•		Cigarettes
•		Forest	fires

Sources
•		Air-conditioners
•		Refrigerators
•		Aerosol	sprays
•		Electronic	factories

Sources
Nuclear
power	plants

Sources
•		Construction	sites
•		Asbestos	factories
•		Limestone	quarries

Pollutants
Chlorofluorocarbon	(CFC)

Pollutants
•		Dust,	soot

Pollutants
Radioactive
materials

Figure 7.12 Sources of air pollutants

209Chapter 7

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 7: Air
•	 Dust	and	soot	stain	buildings
•	 Acid	rain	corrodes	concrete

and	limestone	buildings
•	 Acid	rain	speeds	up	iron

rusting

Climate
•	 Smoke	from	factories,	vehicles	and	open	burning	lead	to	haze
•	 Excessive	carbon	dioxide	contributes	to	greenhouse	effect
•	 Excessive	chlorofluorocarbons	(CFC)	causes	the	thinning	of	the

ozone	layer
•	 Sulphur	dioxide	and	nitrogen	dioxide	cause	acid	rain

Health

•	 Smoke	and	dust	can	cause	breathing	problems
•	 Sulphur	dioxide	can	cause	respiratory	problems
•	 Carbon	monoxide	can	cause	headache,	mental

retardation	and	death
•	 Asbestos	particles	can	cause	lung	cancer
•	 Lead	particles	can	cause	intellectual	disability	among

children	and	babies

Buildings and infrastructures

Plants and animals
•	 Acid	rain	makes	the	soil	acidic	and	less	fertile
•	 Acid	rain	makes	the	source	of	water	acidic	and

not	suitable	for	aquatic	life
•	 Smoke	and	haze	decrease	the	amount	of	sunlight

reaching	the	Earth	and	decrease	the	rate
	 of	photosynthesis.

Figure 7.13 (a) Causes and effects of air pollution

Causes and effects
of air pollution

210 Chapter 7
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikUdara

Figure 7.13 (b) Ways to prevent and control air pollution

Law Enforcement
•	 Fine	smokers	who	smoke	at	restricted	areas
•	 Fine	individuals	who	conduct	open

burning
•	 Fine	drivers	whose	vehicles	emit	excessive

smoke
•	 Prohibit	factories	from	being	built	at

housing	areas

Science and Technology
•	 Implement	hybrid	technology	in	vehicles
•	 Choose	refrigerators	which	use	hydrochlorofluorocarbons

(HCFC)	instead	of	chlorofluorocarbons	(CFC)
•	 Install	filters	in	smoke	chimneys	at	factories
•	 Use	catalytic	converters	on	vehicles
•	 Replace	the	use	of	pesticide	with	biological	control	to

control	pest

Education
•	 Educate	students	about	the	effects	of

air	pollution	and	ways	to	prevent	it
•	 Organise	anti-smoking	campaigns
•	 Encourage	the	public	to	walk	or

ride	bicycles
•	 Encourage	the	usage	of	public

transport	or	car	pooling

Ways to prevent and
control air pollution

211Chapter 7

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 7: Air
Aim: To gather information on effects of air pollution on living things and the
environment, and the steps taken by authorities in controlling air pollution.

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Each group has to choose an area in Malaysia which has a high rate of air pollution.
3. Gather the information below from your chosen area:
 (a) the effects of air pollution towards the health of the community, animals, plants,

buildings and infrastructures.
 (b) efforts taken by the authority, for instance Jabatan Alam Sekitar, to overcome the air

pollution problem.
4. Present your findings in class.

7.6

1. What are the pollutants that can cause haze?
2.	 As	a	student,	how	can	you	increase	the	awareness	of	air	pollution	in	the	community?
3. Give three reasons why it is important to keep the air clean.
4. Littering can also cause air pollution. Explain how littering causes air pollution.
5. Match each pollutant to its effect.

Pollutant
Carbon dioxide

Nitrogen dioxide
Chlorofluorocarbons

Effect
Acid	rain

Greenhouse effect
Thinning	of	the	ozone	layer

6. Tick (✓) the correct statement on how to control and reduce air pollution.

(a) Use materials free of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC).

(b) Use public transport.

(c) Conduct open burning.

(d) Practise reusing and recycling items.

(e) Use petrol and diesel that contain lead.

7.3

212 Chapter 7
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikUdara

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213Chapter 7

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 7: Air
After	learning	this	chapter,	you	are	able	to:

7.1 Composition of Air

Plan	ways	to	determine	and	record	the	composition	of	air

Synthesise	the	composition	of	air	from	a	pie	chart

Justify	the	importance	of	oxygen,	nitrogen,	carbon	dioxide	and	inert	gases	in	daily	life

Appreciate	the	carbon	cycle	and	the	oxygen	cycle	in	maintaining	the	composition	of	gases	in	the	air

Solve	problems	when	there	is/are	interference	to	the	oxygen	and	carbon	cycles

7.2 Combustion

Conclude	about	the	conditions	needed	for	combustion

Relate	the	conditions	of	combustion	with	the	principles	used	in	the	manufacture	of	fire	extinguishers

Practice	 safety	 measures	 to	 prevent	 the	 occurrence	 of	 fire	 which	 can	 lead	 to	 the	 destruction	 of	 life

and	property

7.3 Air Pollution

Define	air	pollution	and	air	pollutants

Communicate	about	air	pollutants	and	the	causes

Justify	steps	to	prevent	and	control	air	pollution

Solve	problems	on	the	adverse	effects	of	air	pollution

Summative Practice 7

1.	 The	pie	chart	in	Figure	1	shows	the	percentage	of	gas	P, Q, R and S in the atmosphere.

Figure 1

S = 0.03%

R = 0.97%

Q = 21%

P = 78%

214 Chapter 7
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikUdara

(a) Determine gas
   (i) P (iii)   R
   (ii) Q (iv)   S
  (b) State the importance of gas P.
  (c) What would happen to the temperature of Earth if the percentage of gas S increases?

Give a reason for your answer.
  (d) Give one reason why air is considered a mixture.

2. Solve the crossword puzzle below with the correct answer.

Horizontal:
  (a) Carbon cycle maintains this gas in the air.
	 	 (b)	 This	gas	is	used	to	fill	up	light	bulbs.

Vertical:
	 	 (c)	 A	layer	that	surrounds	the	Earth.
	 	 (d)	 This	gas	is	needed	in	combustion.

(c)

T (d)

(a)

B O D

(b)

G N

N

E

215Chapter 7

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 7: Air
3. Figure 2 shows the percentage of carbon dioxide in a period of time.

(a) Logging activities increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. How does it
contribute to the increase of carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere? Explain.

(b) Other than logging, give one activity that contributes to the increase of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere.

(c) State two effects if the rate of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases continuously.

4.	 	 Ammar	witnessed	a	fire	at	a	workshop	on	his	way	home	from	school.	The	fire	was	caused	by	a
short circuit.

(a) What is combustion?
  (b) State the conditions of combustion.
	 	 (c)	 Based	on	the	situation,
   (i) how does one prevent such a fire from happening?
   (ii) what fire extinguisher is suitable?
 (d) State three precautions that should be practised to prevent fire from happening.

Figure 2

1875
Year

Carbon dioxide in atmosphere (%)

0.027

0.028

0.029
0.030
0.031

0.032
0.033
0.034

0.035

0.036

1880 1885 1990 1995 2000 2005

216 Chapter 7
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikUdara

5.  Figure 3 shows a situation that occurs in Kuala Lumpur.

(a) What is the environmental problem shown in Figure 3?
  (b) State two effects of the problem you mentioned in 5(a) towards health.
	 	 (c)	 The	road	accident	rate	increases	when	this	environmental	problem	occurs.	Why?

6.	 The	oxygen	level	in	a	cave	would	eventually	decrease	as	we	walk	further	into	the	cave.

(a) List a few reasons why the oxygen level decreases in the cave.

(b) If we want to go into a deep cave, we are encouraged to bring torches with us in addition
to torchlights as an indicator to show the presence of oxygen. How does the torch
function? Explain.

(c) Do you think it is good to bring torches into the cave?
  (d) Suggest one way to detect the oxygen level in a safer way. Give one reason for

your suggestion.

Figure 4

Figure 3

217Chapter 7

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 7: Air
7.	 A	company	wants	to	do	a	limestone	quarry	project	near	Kampung	Permai.	The	village	headman
has	conducted	a	meeting	with	the	villagers.	The	result	from	the	meeting	is	as	follows:

Percentage of villagers supporting the quarry project (%) 20

Percentage of villagers opposing the quarry project (%) 80

(a) Why do you think a majority of the Kampung Permai villagers oppose the quarry project?
Give a cause for their concern.

(b) Villagers who support the quarry project have a common reason, which gives them one
advantage. What is the advantage?

(c)	 The	village	headman	has	decided	to	go	against	the	quarry	project.
   Is it a rational decision?

8.	 	 Assume	that	you	are	a	scientist.	The	amount	of	sunlight	received	in	East	Asia	has	decreased	due
to dust produced from natural disasters such as volcano eruptions and development activities.
Consequently, many plants planted by farmers die. How does this happen? Suggest ways how
the farmers can solve this problem.

Table 1

218 Chapter 7
219Bab 8

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikCahaya dan Optik

219Chapter 8

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 8: Light and Optics

4 Energy and
Sustainability of Life4

Light is a form of energy that helps
us see scenery and objects around
us. Without light, the world will be

dark and our life will become dull. We
should be grateful for the presence of

light in our life.

219Chapter 8
220 Bab 8

Chapter

8

The Use of Mirrors
 Characteristics of Light
 Reflection of Light
 Refraction of Light

Let’s study:

Why do the sky and the sea look
blue when the sun is shining?

Why does the seabed look shallow?
How is the shadow of a coconut

tree formed?
What causes these phenomena

to occur?

Dispersion of Light
 Scattering of Light
 Addition and Subtraction

of Light

Light and Optics

220 Chapter 8
221Bab 8

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikCahaya dan Optik

221Chapter 8

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 8: Light and Optics

Angle of reflection
 Real
 Virtual
 Reflection

Refraction
 Dispersion
 Object distance
 Image distance

O ur understanding of light and colours began

with a series of experiments conducted

by Sir Isaac Newton in the year 1672. He was

the first person who managed to understand the

phenomenon of the formation of rainbow. Newton

used a prism to separate white light into its

component colours.

PHENOMENON OF RAINBOW FORMATION
SCIENCE BULLETIN

221Chapter 8
222 Bab 8

•	 Differentiate	between	a	real	image	and	a	virtual	image.
•	 Communicate	about	the	characteristics	of	image	formed	by	a	plane	mirror,	concave	mirror	and
convex	mirror.

•	 State	that	the	object	distance	is	equal	to	the	image	distance	in	a	plane	mirror.
•	 Use	the	plane	mirror	to	apply	the	concept	of	reflection	of	light.
•	 Justify	the	application	of	concave	mirrors	and	convex	mirrors	in	daily	life.
•	 Construct	an	optical	instrument	to	appreciate	the	use	of	these	optical	instruments	to	enhance	the	ability
of	the	human	senses.

•	 Solve	problems	in	daily	life	involving	the	application	of	plane	mirrors,	concave	mirrors	and	convex	mirrors.

Let’s learn

8.1 The Use of Mirrors

We see our image in the mirror every day. Do you know what
type of mirror we use?

This type of mirror is a plane mirror. What image is
formed in the plane mirror? Real image or virtual image?

A real image is an image that forms on a screen, while a virtual image is an image
that cannot be formed on a screen. Our image forms behind the mirror, not on the
mirror screen. Therefore, the image formed by a plane mirror is a virtual image.

Photograph 8.1 An image seen in a mirror

Aim: To study the difference between real image and virtual image

Materials and apparatus: A piece of black A4 cardboard, a piece of white A4 cardboard, a
candle, pin, mirror.

Instruction
1. Use a pin to pierce a hole in a
 black A4 cardboard.
2. Arrange the materials and apparatus as

in Figure 8.1. Use a white A4 cardboard
as a screen where the image will be
formed.

3. Observe the image formed on the
second cardboard which is used as a
screen.

4. Choose a student to stand in front
of a mirror as shown in Figure 8.2.
Observe the image formed.

Questions
1. Is the image formed in Figure 8.1 real or virtual?
2. Compare the characteristics of the image formed in Figure 8.1 with Figure 8.2.

8.1

Figure 8.2

Mirror
Image

Figure 8.1

Pinhole
Candle

Image of
candle
White
cardboard
as screen

Black
cardboard

222 Chapter 8
223Bab 8

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikCahaya dan Optik

Aim: To determine the characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror, concave
mirror and convex mirror

Materials and apparatus: Plane mirror, concave mirror, convex mirror, candle, graph paper.

Instruction
1. Place a candle on a piece of graph paper in front

of a plane mirror as shown in Figure 8.4.
2. Observe the image formed. Is the image the

same size, smaller or bigger than the object?
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 by replacing the plane mirror
 with a concave mirror and a convex mirror.
4. Record the results in a table.

Type of mirror Image formed (same size / smaller / bigger) than object
Plane mirror
Concave mirror
Convex mirror

5. Then, measure the distance of the image from the plane mirror.
 Distance of image from the plane mirror =  squares on graph paper.

Questions
1. Compare the size of the image formed in the mirrors with the size of the object.
2. Compare the distance of the image formed in the plane mirror with the distance
 of the object.

8.28.2

Figure 8.4

Candle

Plane
mirror

Location
of image

Graph
paper

P Q RPlane	mirrorP Q RConcave	mirrorP Q RConvex	mirror

What are the characteristics of the image
formed by a plane mirror, a concave mirror and
a convex mirror (Figure 8.3)?

Figure 8.3 Types of mirrors

Figure 8.5 Reflection of light

Light ra
ys

Surface of mirror

A plane mirror applies the concept of light reflection
as in Figure 8.5. Light rays that shine on the mirror
will be reflected.

223Chapter 8

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 8: Light and Optics
224 Bab 8

Usage of Plane Mirror, Concave Mirror and Convex Mirror

Do you know that the plane mirror, concave mirror and convex mirror are widely used?

A	plane	mirror	helps	a	dancer	to
correct	his	movement.

A	plane	mirror	makes	a	living
room	look	spacious.

A	concave	mirror	helps	to
magnify	the	image	to	make
it	easier	for	someone	to
apply	make	up.

A	concave	mirror	is	used	by	a	dentist	to	see
the	patient's	teeth	so	that	the	image	formed
looks	bigger	and	closer.

Plane
mirror

Concave
mirror

Photograph 8.2(a) Usage of plane mirrors

Photograph 8.2(b) Usage of concave mirrors

224 Chapter 8
225Bab 8

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikCahaya dan Optik

Aim: To discuss the usage of plane mirrors, concave mirrors and convex mirrors

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Discuss the usage of plane mirrors, concave mirrors and convex mirrors.
3. Present your discussion using multimedia presentation.

21 ICS8.3

A	convex	mirror	is	used	as	a	safety	feature	at
dangerous	corner	of	a	road.

Convex	mirrors	at	the	supermarket	can
help	a	shopkeeper	to	see	every	corner
of	the	supermarket	to	prevent	theft.

Convex mirrors and concave
mirrors
http://www.animations.
physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/light/
mirrors-and-images.htm

Convex
mirror

Photograph 8.2(c) Usage of convex mirrors

225Chapter 8

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 8: Light and Optics
226 Bab 8

Optical Instruments that Apply the Concept of Reflection
of Light

Optical instruments are invented by scientists based on the
concept of light reflection to enhance the ability of human
senses. We should be grateful for these inventions and
appreciate them.

Periscope

Periscope is an instrument used in submarines to observe
the sea surface. Periscope works by using the concept of
reflection of light. Light from the sea surface is hit through the
top mirror and is reflected. The light is then reflected again
at the second mirror, right into the eye of the observer in the
submarine. Let us create a simple periscope in Activity 8.4.

Aim: To create a simple periscope

Materials and apparatus: Two plane mirrors,
box, knife.

Instruction

Figure 8.7 Steps to create a periscope

Be careful when using
knives to prevent injuries.

1

Cut	the	side	of	the	upper
and	lower	box	to	fit	the
width	of	the	mirror.

3

2

Place	the	mirrors	facing
each	other.

4

Make	two	holes	exactly
opposite	each	mirror.

Place	the	object	to	be
viewed	in	front	of	Hole	1.

8.4

10 cm 15 cm

15 cm
14 cm

30 cm
Two pieces of
plane mirror

Box

Cut
with a
knife

Mirrors facing
each other

Hole 2

Hole 1

See the objects
through the Hole 2.

MirrorObject

Submarine

Figure 8.6 A periscope

Periscope

Mirror

Mirror

45°

45°

226 Chapter 8
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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikCahaya dan Optik

Kaleidoscope

Kaleidoscope is a toy made using plane mirrors. With this toy, you can create various
amazing patterns. These patterns are obtained due to the repeated reflection of the image
of the objects inside the kaleidoscope. Therefore, the number of images seen is more than
the number of objects. Let's carry out Activity 8.5 to build a kaleidoscope.

Aim: To build a kaleidoscope

Materials and apparatus: One kitchen
towel roll, three pieces of mirror cards,
colourful beads, two pieces of plastic
discs, scissors, glue, cellophane tape,
colourful paper for decoration, round
black cardboard.

Instruction
1. Prepare the materials and

apparatus as shown in Figure 8.8.
2. Prepare three pieces of mirror cards. Each one is
 4.3 cm in width and 21 cm in length.
3. Stick the three pieces of the mirror cards with

cellophane tape to make a triangle prism. Make sure
the shiny surface is facing inward.

4. Push the triangle prism into the empty roll (Figure 8.9(a)).
5. Cut two pieces of round plastic discs with a diameter of 5.3 cm respectively.
6. Attach the first plastic disc on one end of the roll, A (Figure 8.9(b)). Push the first plastic

disc into the roll until it touches the triangle prism.

Figure 8.9

7. Add colourful beads on the surface of the first plastic disc (Figure 8.10(a)). Attach the
second plastic disc to cover the colourful beads (Figure 8.10(b)).

Figure 8.10

8.5

Figure 8.8

Scissors

Kitchen
towel roll

Mirror
card

Glue

A

B
Cellophane
tape

Colourful
beads

Round black
cardboard

2 pieces of
plastic discs

Empty kitchen
towel roll

A

B

Triangle
prism

Plastic
disc

B

A

B

A Plastic disc

B

A

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

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8. At the other end of the kitchen towel roll, B, attach a
round black cardboard which has a diameter of 5.3 cm
and make a hole on it (Figure 8.11).

9. Decorate the kitchen towel roll with colourful
papers according to your creativity.

10. Look at the pattern of the colourful beads formed
through the hole.

Figure 8.11

Round black
cardboard

B

A

Science in Life

Situation 1

Situation 2

Situation 3

It is good if I can see
things behind me to

avoid accidents.

You can fix a
convex mirror on

the bike to see
things behind you.

Convex	mirror

Well, a periscope can
help me.

How do I see the scenery
behind this wall?

Convex
mirror

It is dangerous to
walk on this path

because we cannot
see anything around

the corner.

We can fix convex mirrors at
dangerous corners.

21 CPS

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1. The picture shows a man standing in front of a mirror. What type of
mirror is it? State the characteristic of the image formed.

2. What is the function of plane mirrors in a periscope?
3. Why do we need plane mirrors in a lift?

8.1

•	 Communicate	about	the	properties	of	light.

Let’s learn

8.2 Properties of Light

W hat are the properties of light? Why do we see
 lightning before we hear thunder?

Light travels in straight lines. We can see the
movement of light in a light show (Photograph 8.4).

Have you ever wondered how shadows
are formed?

Photograph 8.5 Formation of shadows

Photograph 8.4 A light show

Albert Einstein
Photograph 8.3 A lightning

2. Umbrella is an opaque
object, therefore the
sunlight cannot pass
through it.

1. Sunlight travels
in straight lines.

3. When light is blocked
by an opaque object, a
shadow is formed behind
the opaque object.

The speed of light is 3.0 × 108 m s–1.
Light travels much faster than
sound, so we see the lightning
before we hear the thunder.

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Do you know that your shadow will become short in
the afternoon and long in the evening?

Another property of light is that it can be dispersed
by water droplets in the sky to form a rainbow as in
Photograph 8.6.

1. Hisyam’s shadow is the shortest in the  when the Sun is  his head.
2. The diagram shows two opaque objects blocking the light

from a torchlight.
 Draw the shape of the shadow that will be formed on the screen.

Wooden
blocks

Screen

8.2

•	 State	the	characteristics	of	the	image	formed	by	a	plane	mirror.
•	 Communicate	about	the	Law	of	Reflection.
•	 Draw	ray	diagrams	to	show	the	reflection	of	light
•	 Solve	problems	in	daily	life	with	the	application	of	reflection	of	light.

Let’s learn

8.3 Reflection of Light

Y ou have learned how an image is formed in a plane mirror using the concept
 of reflection. Do you still remember the characteristics of the image? What are the
other characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror?

Photograph 8.6 A rainbow

Photograph 8.7 The Sundial

The Sundial was used in ancient
times to determine the time
during the day. The sundial used
the concept that shadows are
formed when the sunlight is
blocked by objects.

Did you know that shadow puppets use the
concept that shadows are formed when light
is blocked?

Photograph 8.8 Shadow puppets

Science Exploration

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Table 8.1 shows the characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror.
Table 8.1 Characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror

(a) Upright (b) Object size, H = Image size, h
(c) Object distance, = image distance,

Boy

OA OB

Image

H h

(d)  Laterally inverted (e)  Virtual

OA OB

Object

B B
Image

Object

Virtual
image

Law of Reflection
When a beam of light is directed onto a piece of a plane mirror at a certain angle (angle
of incidence, i), the light ray will be reflected to a certain angle (angle of reflection, r).
What is the relationship between the angle of incidence and angle of reflection? Carry out
Experiment 8.1.

Problem statement: What is the relationship between the angle of incidence, i and angle
of reflection, r?

Hypothesis: The angle of incidence, i is the same as the angle of reflection, r.

Aim: To determine the relationship between the angle of incidence, i and angle of
reflection, r

Variables
Manipulated variable: Angle of incidence, i
Responding variable: Angle of reflection, r
Constant variable: The size of slit

Materials and Apparatus: Plane mirror, ray box,
power supply, white paper, protractor.

Procedure
1. Carry out this activity in the dark.
2. Arrange a ray box and a plane mirror on a sheet of white paper.
3. Direct the light beam towards the plane mirror at an angle i = 10°.
4. Measure the angle of reflection, r.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 with angle of incidence, i = 20°, 30°, 40° and 50°.

ExperimentExperiment 8.1

Figure 8.12

Plane mirror

Normal line

Slit
White paper

i r

Ray box

The image formed by a
plane mirror is:
•  upright
• laterally inverted
• same size as the object
• virtual
• of the same distance as

the object distance

OA OB

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6. Record your results in a table.

Results

Angle of incidence, i (°) Angle of reflection, r (°)
10
20

Conclusion
Is the hypothesis accepted?
What is the relationship between the angle of incidence, i and angle of reflection, r?

Light reflected obeys the Law of Reflection:

a. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal line all lie on the same plane.
b. The angle of incidence, i is equal to the angle of reflection, r.

Figure 8.13 Reflection of light

Applications of Reflection of Light

1. Explain the Law of Reflection with the help of a light reflection ray diagram.
2. Complete the statement below.
 The image formed by a plane mirror is , ,  and the

image distance is  with the object distance.

8.3

Photograph 8.10 Applications of reflection of light

Science Exploration

Photograph 8.9
An ambulance

Have you ever wondered
why the word “ambulance”
is written in an inverted
manner? How is the image
formed when the drivers
of other vehicles look into
their rear view mirror?
Think about it.

The angle of incidence,
i is equal to the angle of

reflection, r.
i = r

Plane mirror

i r

Normal line
Incident ray Reflected ray

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•	 Generalise	that	refraction	occurs	when	light	moves	through	medium	of	different	densities.
•	 Draw	ray	diagrams	to	show	refraction	of	light	when	light	propagate	from	one	medium	to	another
medium	of	a	different	density.

•	 Generalise	the	relationship	between	the	angle	of	incidence,	i	and	angle	of	refraction,	r,	when	light
travels	from	a	medium	of	low	density	to	a	medium	of	high	density.

•	 Justify	the	applications	of	refraction	of	light	in	daily	life.

Let’s learn

8.4 Refraction of Light

Photograph 8.11 Fish in the pond

Photograph 8.12 A pencil looks bent

The illusions above occur as a result of the change in the direction of movement of
light when light travels through two mediums of different densities. This phenomenon is
known as refraction of light. Can you give examples of other refraction of light?

Why does a deep pond appear to
be shallower and the fish in the

pond appears to be much closer to
the water surface?

Why does a pencil
look bent in a glass

of water?

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Figure 8.15 shows the refraction of light when light rays pass through mediums of
different densities.

The	light	ray	is	refracted	towards	the	normal
when	the	incident	ray	moves	from	a	less
dense	medium	to	a	more	dense	medium.

Normal

Incident ray

Refracted
ray

Air
(less dense)

Water (more dense)

The	light	ray	is	refracted	away	from	the
normal	when	the	incident	ray	moves	from
a	more	dense	medium	to	a	less	dense
medium.

Normal

Incident ray

Refracted
ray

Air
(less dense)

Water
(more dense)

The	light	ray	is	not	refracted	when
the	incident	ray	is	parallel	to	the
normal	and	moves	from	a	less
dense	medium	to	a	more	dense
medium.

Normal

Incident
ray

Refracted
ray

Water
(more dense)

Air
(less dense)

The	light	ray	is	not	refracted	when
the	incident	ray	is	parallel	to	the
normal	and	moves	from	a	more
dense	medium	to	a	less	dense
medium.

Normal

Incident
ray

Refracted
ray

Water
(more dense)

Air
(less dense)

Figure 8.15 Ray diagrams to show refraction of light

Figure 8.14 Fish in an aquarium

Observer

Actual location
of fish

Light
Image
seen

Fish appears to be much
shallower than its real

location due to the
refraction of light.

Due to the refraction of
light phenomenon, how
do you catch fish in a
river?

B
21 CPS

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Problem statement
What is the relationship between the angle of incidence, i and angle of refraction, r when
light travels from a less dense medium to a more dense medium?
Hypothesis: The greater the angle of incidence, i, the bigger the angle of refraction, r.
Aim: To determine the relationship between angle of incidence, i and angle of refraction, r
when light travels from a less dense medium (air) to a more dense medium (glass block)
Variables
Manipulated variable: The angle of incidence, i
Responding variable: The angle of refraction, r
Constant variable: The size of the slit, the shape of glass block
Materials and apparatus: Glass block, ray box with single slit plate, plastic ruler, power
supply, white paper, protractor.
Procedure
1. Carry out this experiment in the dark.
2. Place a glass block on a white paper and trace its

outline.
3. Direct a single incident ray onto the block, mark its

path and draw its incident ray with a ruler.
4. Mark the path of the ray emerging from the block and

draw the ray with a ruler.
5. Remove te block, connect the entry and exit points to

show the path of the ray inside the block.
6. Draw a normal line at the entry point.
7. Measure the angle of incidence, i and the angle of

refraction, r using a protractor.
8. Repeat steps 3 to 7 for different angles of incidence.
9. Record your results in a table.
Results

Angle of incidence, i (°) Angle of refraction, r (°)

Discussion
1. Plot a graph of i against r.
2. Based on the graph of the angle of incidence, i against the angle of refraction, r, what is
 the relationship between the angle i with the angle r?
Conclusion
Can the hypothesis be accepted?

Figure 8.16

ExperimentExperiment 8.2

Ray box

r

i

White paper

Glass
block

Slit

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Question
What happen to the light ray when it travels from a
(a) less dense medium to a more dense medium?
(b) more dense medium to a less dense medium?

We can see many examples of the effects of light refraction in our daily life. Let us
carry out Activity 8.6 to discover even more light refraction phenomena.

Aim: To investigate the phenomenon of refraction of light
Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Use resources such as the library, Internet, and others to collect information

regarding the following phenomena.
	 •		A	spoon	looks	bent	in	water
	 •		The	bottom	of	a	pool	appears	to	be	shallower
3. Present the outcomes of your research in class.

8.6

1. Why does the bottom of a deep swimming pool appear shallower?
2. Light rays refract at a certain angle in two different cases as below. Differentiate the density

of the two mediums for both the cases below.

D

C

B

A
Case	1: Case	2:

8.4

•	 Communicate	about	the	dispersion	of	light.
•	 Explain	the	dispersion	of	light	in	daily	life	with	examples.

Let’s learn

8.5 Dispersion of Light

D o you know why the components of colour in a rainbow can be seen when light
 passes through a glass prism (Figure 8.17)?

White light consists of seven components of colour. Each component of colour travels
at a different speed in a medium. For example, red light has the highest speed, so red light
is refracted the least. However, violet light has the lowest speed, so violet light is refracted
the most.

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Figure 8.17 Dispersion of white light by a glass prism

Figure 8.18 The formation of rainbow

When sunlight enters rain droplets in the
sky, the white light will be refracted and
dispersed into seven different colours to
form a rainbow.

What will happen if a
second inverted prism is
placed behind the first
prism?

B

21 CPS

When a white light ray is directed to a prism, the white
light will be separated into its components of colour.
This is because the different colours in the white light
bend towards the normal at different angles when
entering the prism.

1

When the different colours leave
the glass prism, they are refracted
away from the normal. The
different colours are dispersed
in an order that is known as a
spectrum. The spectrum of white
light consists of red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo and violet
colour.

2

Glass prismWhite
light

Normal

S
P
E
C
T
R
U
M

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Aim: To study the dispersion of light passing through a glass prism and the formation
of rainbow

Materials and Apparatus: Glass prism, white screen, ray box, a plane mirror, water,
torch light, a piece of white paper, a basin, cellophane tape, a round black cardboard.

Instruction

I   Dispersion of light by a glass prism

Figure 8.19
1. Carry out this activity in the dark.
2. Direct a narrow light ray from a ray box towards a glass prism (Figure 8.19). Adjust

the glass prism slowly until a sharp colour spectrum is formed on a white screen.
3. Identify the colours formed on the white screen.
4. Observe the order of colours on the white screen.
5. Record your observation.

II   Formation of a Rainbow

1. Fill a basin half-full with water.
2. Place a piece of mirror in the water with

an incline on the side of the basin. Secure
the mirror using a cellophane tape.

3. Make a small hole on a piece of round black
cardboard. Then, attach the cardboard

to the front of a torch light.
4. Shine the torch light towards the mirror (Figure 8.20).
5. Hold a white paper beside the mirror. Adjust the direction of the torch light until you

see a rainbow on the paper.

Figure 8.20

Black
cardboard White

paper

Mirror

Cellophane
tape

Torch
light

White light

White screenRay box
Glass prism

8.7

1. List the seven colours formed on the screen below in the correct order.
2. State the colour component that is refracted the most

and refracted the least in the phenomenon above.
Relate the phenomenon with the speed of each
colour component.

8.5

White light

White screenRay box
Glass prism

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•	 Communicate	about	scattering	of	light.
•	 Explain	scattering	of	light	in	daily	life	with	examples.

Let’s learn

8.6 Scattering of Light

W hy does the sky appear blue at midday and reddish in the evening?

Photograph 8.13 The phenomena of scattering of light

The two natural phenomena are caused by the scattering of light. Scattering of light
occurs when light is reflected in all directions by clouds or particles in the air.

Figure 8.21 Scattering of light during midday

During midday, blue light
is scattered the most in all
directions by the tiny particles
in the atmosphere. Therefore,
the sky looks blue during
midday.

During midday

239Bab 8

Air particles
and dust

Earth

Blue light is scattered
by particles in the air

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Aim: To study the scattering of light
Materials and apparatus: Milk powder, 1000 ml glass beaker, ray box, white screen.
Instruction
1. Carry out this activity in the dark.
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 8.23.
3. Turn on the ray box.
4. Add a few tablespoons of milk powder into the water. Stir the water until you can see

a beam of light that shines through the mixture.
5. See the light beam from the side of the beaker. Then, look at the white screen as

shown in Figure 8.23.
6. Add more milk powder and observe the colour change of the white light beam at the

side of the beaker and on the white screen.
7. Record your observation.

Water

Milk
powder

Ray box

White
screen

Figure 8.23
Questions:
1. What is the function of adding milk powder into the water?
2. What is the difference between the beam of light as seen from the side of the beaker

and the beam of light on the screen? Explain your answer.

8.8

During sunset, the sun is at
the horizon. Red and orange
light are less scattered and will
go through the atmosphere
to reach your eyes. Other
coloured lights such as blue
light are scattered away.
Therefore, the sky looks reddish
during sunset.

During sunset

Figure 8.22 Scattering of light during sunset

Air particles and dust

Earth

Blue light scattered
by the air particles

Light directly from the
Sun appears red

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Observer during
the day

Sun

1. Why does scattering of light occur?
2. Fill the blanks with the correct words.

Blue colour is scattered
compared to red colour.

Red colour is scattered
compared to blue colour.

(a) (b)

8.6

Observer during
sunset

Sun

Atmosphere

•	 Identify	primary	colours.
•	 Identify	the	addition	of	primary	colours	to	produce	secondary	colours.
•	 Communicate	about	subtraction	of	light.
•	 Record	the	colours	formed	on	the	screen	when	light	passes	through	colour	filters.
•	 Differentiate	the	addition	and	subtraction	of	light.
•	 Explain	addition	and	subtraction	of	light	in	daily	life	with	examples.

Let’s learn

8.7 Addition and Subtraction of Light

C oloured lights can be categorised into two types, namely
 primary colour and secondary colour. The primary colour
is the basic colour that cannot be produced through colour
mixing. Red, blue and green are primary colours.

The Addition of Light

What is the colour produced when two primary colours are
mixed? Colours produced from the mixing of two colours
are known as secondary colours. Cyan, yellow and magenta
are secondary colours. White colour is produced when all
the three primary colours are mixed together (Figure 8.24).

What is the method to produce secondary colours?
Let us carry out Activity 8.9 to produce secondary colours
using colour filters.

Figure 8.24 The addition of light

Putih

BlueGreen Cyan

White

Red

MagentaYellow

Formula for colour addition

Primary
colour

+ Primary
colour

= Secondary
colour

Red (R) Blue (B) Magenta
(Mag)

Red (R) Green (G) Yellow (Y)
Blue (B) Green (G) Cyan (C)

Red + Blue + Green = White
The addition of light
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/light/
Lesson-2/Color-Addition

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Aim: To study the addition of primary colours to produce secondary colours

Materials and apparatus: Primary colour filters, three ray boxes, white screen.

Instruction
1. Carry out this activity in a dark room.
2. Prepare three ray boxes with red, blue and green filters each fixed in front of them.
3. Direct the red ray and green ray to overlap on a white screen as shown in Figure 8.25.

What is the colour that you observe where the rays overlap?

Red filter

White screen

Ray box

Power supply

Green filter

4. Repeat step 3 using green and blue rays, followed by red and blue rays. Observe the
colours formed.

Figure 8.25

8.9

The Subtraction of Light

How do we see the colour of opaque objects? Why do
we see banana as yellow, strawberry as red and leaf as
green? The light which has the same colour as the colour
of the opaque objects will be reflected directly into our
eyes, while the light of other colours will be absorbed by
the objects. This phenomenon is known as subtraction
of light.

Photograph 8.14 Colour of fruits

Yellow

Green

Red

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The Principle of Light Subtraction

The colour of opaque objects depends on the colour of the light reflected into our eyes.

White light

Green object

A green object only reflects green light. Other
coloured lights will be absorbed. Therefore, the
object appears green.

A yellow object reflects yellow, red and green
colours. The overlap of red and green lights
causes the object to appear yellow.

White objects reflect all colours in white light.
All coloured lights overlap to produce white
light again.

Black objects absorb all colours in white light.
No coloured lights are reflected. Therefore, the
objects appear black.

Objects with primary colours (red, blue or green) will only reflect the light which has the
same colours as them.

Objects with secondary colours (yellow, magenta or cyan) reflect the light of the same colour
and also the light of primary colours which form the secondary colour.

White objects appear white in white light because the white objects reflect all colours in
white light.

Black objects appear black because they absorb all colours in white light.

White light

Yellow object

White light

White object

White light

Black object

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Usually, colour filters are used to understand the principle of subtraction. There are
two types of colour filters:

•	 Allow	only	the	light	of	the	same
colour	to	pass	through,	light	of	other
colours	are	absorbed.

Primary colour filters

•	 Allow	only	the	light	of	the	same	colour
and	the	light	of	primary	colours	which
form	the	secondary	colour	to	pass	through.
Light	of	other	colours	are	absorbed.

Secondary colour filters

Red filter

White light

White light

White light

Red
light

Green
light

Blue
light

Green filter

Blue filter

Yellow filter

White light
Red light

Green light
Yellow light

Magenta filter

White light
Red light
Blue light

Magenta light

Cyan filter

White light
Blue light

Green light
Cyan light

Let us study the subtraction of light when light is absorbed
or subtracted by colour filters in Activity 8.10.

Aim: To study subtraction of light
Materials and apparatus: Primary colour filters, secondary colour filters, ray box, white
screen.

Instruction

Figure 8.26

8.10

White screen

Ray box

Primary colour filter
Secondary colour filter

What will happen if a
second colour filter is
placed at the back of the
first colour filter?

B

21 ICS

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1. Carry out this activity in a dark room.
2. Direct a white light beam towards a white screen.
3. Place a primary colour filter of red and secondary colour filter of yellow in front of the

ray box (Figure 8.26). What can you observe on the white screen?
4. Repeat step 3 by replacing the secondary colour filter of yellow with a magenta and

cyan filter.
5. Record your results in the table below.
6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 by replacing the primary colour filter of red with green and blue

filters.

Primary colour filter Secondary colour filter Colour of light on
the screen

Red

Yellow

Magenta

Cyan

Green

Yellow

Magenta

Cyan

Blue

Yellow

Magenta

Cyan

Difference between Addition and Subtraction of Light

After learning about addition and subtraction of light, what is the difference
between them?

Addition and subtraction of light are two different principles of light. The
addition of light is the mixing of primary colour lights to produce secondary colour
lights. However, subtraction of light occurs when an opaque object reflects the light of
same colour and absorbs the light of other colours.

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Examples of Addition and Subtraction of Light

Colour televisionExample 1

Coloured lights on stage

Coloured lights in a stadium

Photograph 8.17 Coloured lights in a stadium

Photograph 8.18 Coloured lights in the fountain in
 front of KLCC

Example 2

Example 3

Coloured lights at KLCCExample 4

Photograph 8.16 Coloured lights play a role on the stage during a performance

Photograph 8.15 A colour television

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Aim: To gather the information regarding examples of addition and subtraction of light

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Each group has to find information regarding examples of addition and subtraction

of light.
3. Present your findings using multimedia presentation.

21 ICS8.11

White
light

Magenta filter Screen

Colour:

White
light

Green filter Screen

Colour:

White
light

Red filter Screen

Colour:

8.7

1. Three torchlights are switched on as in the diagram below. What are the colours formed in
A, B, C and D?

2. State the colours of the light formed on the screen in the diagrams below.

A

Blue

Green

Red

C
D

B

(a)

(b)

(c)

247Chapter 8

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 8: Light and Optics
248 Bab 8

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248 Chapter 8
249Bab 8

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikCahaya dan Optik

After	learning	the	chapter,	you	are	able	to:

8.1 The Use of Mirrors
	 Differentiate	between	a	real	image	and	a	virtual	image.

Communicate	about	the	characteristics	of	image	formed	by	a	plane	mirror,	concave	mirror	and	convex
mirror.

State	that	the	object	distance	is	equal	to	the	image	distance	in	a	plane	mirror.

Use	the	plane	mirror	to	apply	the	concept	of	reflection	of	light.

Justify	the	application	of	concave	mirrors	and	convex	mirrors	in	daily	life.

Construct	an	optical	instrument	to	appreciate	the	use	of	these	optical	instruments	to	enhance	the	ability
of	the	human	senses.

Solve	 problems	 in	 daily	 life	 involving	 the	 application	 of	 plane	 mirrors,	 concave	 mirrors	 and	 convex
mirrors.

8.2 Properties of Light

Communicate	about	the	properties	of	light.

8.3 Reflection of Light

State	the	characteristics	of	the	image	formed	by	a	plane	mirror.

Communicate	about	the	Law	of	Reflection.

Draw	ray	diagrams	to	show	the	reflection	of	light.

Solve	problems	in	daily	life	with	the	application	of	reflection	of	light.

8.4 Refraction of Light

Generalise	that	refraction	occurs	when	light	moves	through	medium	of	different	densities.

Draw	 ray	 diagrams	 to	 show	 refraction	 of	 light	 when	 light	 propagate	 from	 one	 medium	 to	 another
medium	of	a	different	density.

Generalise	the	relationship	between	the	angle	of	incidence,	i	and	angle	of	refraction,	r,	when	light	travels
from	a	medium	of	low	density	to	a	medium	of	high	density.

Justify	the	applications	of	refraction	of	light	in	daily	life.

8.5 Dispersion of Light

Communicate	about	the	dispersion	of	light.

Explain	the	dispersion	of	light	in	daily	life	with	examples.

8.6 Scattering of Light

Communicate	about	scattering	of	light.

Explain	scattering	of	light	in	daily	life	with	examples.

8.7 Addition and Subtraction of Light

Identify	primary	colours.

Identify	the	addition	of	primary	colours	to	produce	secondary	colours.

Communicate	about	subtraction	of	light.

249Chapter 8

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 8: Light and Optics
250 Bab 8

Record	the	colours	formed	on	the	screen	when	light	passes	through	colour	filters.

Differentiate	the	addition	and	subtraction	of	light.

Explain	addition	and	subtraction	of	light	in	daily	life	with	examples.

Summative Practice 8

1. What are the differences between a real image and a virtual image?

2. Circle the correct refracted light ray.

Air

Source
of light

Glass

Normal line

A
B

C
D

Figure 1

3. Which observer will see the sunlight as reddish?

Figure 2

 4. Write the colour produced when the following colour lights are mixed.
  (a)  Red light + Blue light →
  (b)  Red light + Green light →
  (c)  Blue light + Green light →
  (d)  Red light + Blue light + Green light →

5. A periscope is built using two plane mirrors.
State the characteristics of the image that
can be seen by the observer.

     Mirror

Mirror

45°

45°

Figure 3

X

Y

Z

Earth

Sun

250 Chapter 8
251Bab 8

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikCahaya dan Optik

6. The following statement explains the side mirror of a car:

Objects in the mirror appear closer than the actual distance.

What is the type and function of the side mirror of the
car as shown in Photograph 1?

7. Draw a ray diagram to show why the feet of the boy appears short in Figure 4.

Figure 4

8. Kavita saw a rainbow at a fountain in a park. What is the
phenomenon that has occurred?

9. Akmal wants to fix mirrors in every corner of his shop so that he can view every corner to
ensure that his things are not stolen. He is given three mirrors as below. Which mirror should
Akmal choose? Give a reason.

Photograph 1

Photograph 2

Figure 5
P Q R

251Chapter 8

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 8: Light and Optics
252 Bab 8

10. A man wants to see what is behind a wall as in Figure 6. Suggest an instrument to help the
man to see what is behind the wall. Draw the instrument.

Figure 6

11. Khairul is learning how to spear a fish in a river. Even though he has tried many times, he is
still unable to do so. Based on the diagram below, what phenomenon has occurred? How can
you help Khairul to spear the fish? Explain.

Figure 7

12. An adventurer has lost his way in a jungle. He lost his watch. Suggest an instrument that
can help him to estimate time accurately. Explain the property of light used in creating the
instrument. Draw the instrument.

Wall

Image of fish

Fish

252 Chapter 8
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikBumiPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 9: Earth

253Bab 9 253Chapter 9

5
Exploration of Earth

and Space5
LATEST

DEVELOPMENTS

IN SCIENCE

The Earth supplies us with useful
fossil materials. For example, fossil
fuel is very useful in transportation
and in our everyday life. What are

fossil materials?

253Chapter 9
Chapter

9

The System and Structure of
Earth

Composition of Earth
 Main Processes of Earth

Let’s study:

What is the shape of Earth? What are
the layers of atmosphere? What are the

processes that cause changes of shapes on
the Earth’s surface? What are the geohazard

phenomena that occur as a result of the
internal changes of the Earth? What are the

Earth's resources and applied geology?

Geohazard Phenomena
 Age of Earth
 Earth's Resources and Applied
Geology

Earth

254 Bab 9254 Chapter 9
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikBumiPengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 9: Earth

255Bab 9 255Chapter 9

IS EARTH SPHERICAL OR FLAT?
SCIENCE BULLETIN

E	arth	is	spherical	thou
gh	it	looks	flat	when	w

e	look	at	the	horizon.
	The

hypothesis	that	states
	that	Earth	is	spherica

l	in	shape	was	proven
	by	Ferdinand

Magellan	who	set	sail	f
rom	Spain	in	Septemb

er	1519.	He	appointed
	a	Malay	man

from	Malacca	named	Panglim
a	Awang	or	“Henry	th

e	Black”	as	his	transl
ator.	Even

though	Magellan	was	killed	in
the	Philippines	in	152

1,	his	and	his	crew's	v
oyage

had	proved	that	Earth
	is	spherical	in	shape.

255Chapter 9

Atmosphere
 Hydrosphere
 Biosphere
 Geosphere
 Ozone

depletion

Igneous rock
 Metamorphic rock
 Sedimentary rock
 Exogenic process
 Endogenic process
 Geohazards

Geological time
 scale
 Fossil
 Surface water
 Underground water
 Minerals
 Hydrothermal
•	 Communicate	about	the	system	of	the	Earth.
•	 Explain	the	differences	of	the	Earth's	layers	based	on	its	composition	and	physical	characteristics.
•	 Realise	that	Earth	is	the	only	place	that	can	sustain	life	based	on	its	physical	characteristics.

Let’s learn

9.1
The System and Structure of
the Earth

H ave you ever thought about the structure of the Earth? What are the layers of air
 above the Earth? How is water on Earth such as oceans, rivers, clouds and lakes
distributed? What are the Earth’s layers and its composition? Why is Earth suitable for
living things?

The Earth system consists of four main components
which are interconnected, namely atmosphere, biosphere,
hydrosphere and geosphere.

Photograph 9.1 The Earth system consists of four main components

Life zone consists of a variety
of life such as humans, animals,
plants and microorganisms.

Air zone covering
the Earth’s surface.

Water zone that includes
rivers, lakes, seas and
also water trapped as
ice, underground water
and water vapour in the
atmosphere.

Geosphere Biosphere

Hydrosphere

Atmosphere

Video on
atmosphere's
structure and
composition of air

Rock and soil zone on the
Earth’s surface.

256 Bab 9256 Chapter 9
257Bab 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikBumi

Atmospheric Stratification
Earth’s atmosphere consists of five layers, each with its respective roles.

Figure 9.1 Atmospheric stratification

Exosphere

Thermosphere

Mesosphere

Stratosphere

Troposphere

Exosphere layer (480 km and above)
•	 Contains	light	gases	such	as	helium	and	hydrogen.
•	 Air	becomes	thinner	towards	space.
•	 Communication	satellites	orbiting	Earth	in	this	layer
allow	phone	calls	and	television	broadcasts.

Thermosphere layer (80 – 480 km)
•	 Also	known	as	the	ionosphere	because	it	contains	ions
that	can	reflect	radio	waves.

•	 Aurora,	a	stream	of	colourful	lights	resulting	from
reactions	of	charged	particles	with	Earth’s	magnetic	field
and	atmospheric	gases	occurs	here.

Stratosphere layer (13 – 50 km)
•	 This	layer	is	suitable	and	stable	for	aircraft	flights.
•	 The	ozone	layer	that	contains	ozone	gas	which
absorb	harmful	ultraviolet	rays	from	sunlight	is
found	here.

•	 The	ozone	layer	depletes	when
chlorofluorocarbons	(CFCs)	released	from
pesticides,	refrigerators	and	air-conditioners	break
down	ozone	molecules	in	the	ozone	layer.

Troposphere layer (0 – 13 km)
The	layer	where	living	organism
breathes,	wind	blows	and	where
clouds,	rain	and	snow	form.

Mesosphere layer (50 – 80 km)
Burning	and	destruction	of
meteorites	occur	in	this	layer.

Ozone	layer

257Chapter 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 9: Earth
What do you feel when a
climbing mountain? Will you
feel cold and have difficulties
in breathing?

Ocean Stratification

The ocean can also be divided into different zones, from a zone where light can penetrate
to a zone where light cannot penetrate (dark zone) (Figure 9.3).

Figure 9.3 Ocean stratification

Figure 9.2 Relationship between air pressure and altitude

From	troposphere	to
stratosphere,	the	altitude
increases.	The	higher	the
altitude,	the	lower	the	air
pressure.	The	temperature
also	becomes	lower	when

altitude	increases.

Surface zone
In this zone, the water is very
shallow and light can penetrate.
This makes the zone suitable as a
habitat for plants.

10

20

30

A
lti

tu
de

(k
m

)

40

50

0 20,000 40,000

Aeroplane

60,000
Air pressure (Pa)

80,000 100,000 120,000

Troposphere
(0 – 13 km)

Stratosphere
(13 – 50 km)

Standard pressure
at sea level

(101,325 Pa)

Dark zone
This zone is very deep and no
light can reach it. Therefore,
most animals in this zone have
shimmering bodies or are able
to glow in the dark.

Midnight zone
This zone has little or no light.
It is difficult for plants to live
at this depth but this level of
depth becomes the habitat for
large marine animals, such
as giant squids and various
species of whales.

Depth (m)

Sea level

Dark zone

Midnight
zone

Surface
zone

0

50

100

200

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

10,000

Sun

258 Bab 9258 Chapter 9
259Bab 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikBumi

Distribution of Water on Earth

The ocean contains a lot of water. Where does this water come from? Seawater is
evaporated by sunlight and is taken to the mainland by clouds before it falls back as
rain water. The water in the rivers then flow into the ocean. The water cycle process is
continuous. Therefore, it is said that the total amount of water contained in Earth, on
Earth’s surface and in Earth’s atmosphere is always constant.

Figure 9.4 The water cycle

Aim: To prepare a multimedia presentation on atmospheric stratification and ocean
stratification

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Each group is required to do a presentation regarding one of the topics below:
	 •	 Atmospheric	stratification	and	its	role
	 •	 Ocean	stratification	and	the	distribution	of	animals	in	it
	 •	 Ozone	depletion
	 •	 Distribution	of	water	on	Earth

21 ICS9.1

Cloud

Rain

Evaporation

Evaporation

Evaporation

Condensation

Water	flows
into	the	river

Water	flowing
on	the	surface

Spring

River
flow

Fresh	water
storage

Water	in	ice	and
snow

Discharge	of	groundwater

Water	storage	underground

Water	seep	into
the	ground

The Water Cycle

Water	in	the	atmosphere

Water	in	the	ocean

259Chapter 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 9: Earth
Crust

Mantle Mesosphere

Asthenosphere

Lithosphere

Outer core

Inner core

Earth's Layers
Earth can be divided into three main layers according to its physical properties, namely
crust, mantle and core. The mantle consists of the lithosphere, asthenosphere and
mesosphere. Lithosphere covers the crust and the top part of the mantle.

Figure 9.5 The Earth's main layers

Aim: To create a model of Earth

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2.	 Design	a	model	of	Earth	containing	four	layers	using	clay.
3. Present your model in class.

9.2

Aim: To discuss the differences in Earth's layers based on its composition and physical
characteristics

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Gather information about the composition and physical characteristics of each of the

Earth's layers.
3. Present your findings using a multimedia presentation.

9.3

260 Bab 9260 Chapter 9
261Bab 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikBumi

Earth is the Only Home for Living Organisms

Recall the topic of Solar System that you have
learned in primary school. Earth is the
third planet from the Sun and is the
only planet suitable for life in our
Solar System (Photograph 9.2).

One of the unique
characteristics of Earth that makes
it suitable for all life is the Earth’s
temperature, which is not too hot
or too cold compared to other
planets. This is due to the Earth’s
position, which is not too near or
too far from the Sun. Besides, the
presence of water and oxygen on
Earth also allows Earth to host all life.
Therefore, love our Earth by taking good care
of the environment!

1. Earth consist of four main spheres which are , ,
and .

2. A fish catches its prey using light. In which zone of the ocean can this fish be found?
Why?

9.1

•	 Explain	the	type	and	characteristic	of	rocks.
•	 Communicate	on	how	to	differentiate	the	process	of	rock	formation.

Let’s learn

9.2 Composition of the Earth

Earth’s crust is formed from various types of rocks, which differ in colour,
 structure, texture and the way it is formed. Generally, the rocks can be categorised
into three groups, namely igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.
Each type of rock forms differently and takes thousands of years to form. All rocks
contain materials known as minerals.

Photograph 9.2

Scientists	are	searching	for
another	habitable	planet	for
all	life	so	that	we	can	move
to	that	planet	in	future.

261Chapter 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 9: Earth
Types and Characteristics of Rocks

Table 9.1 shows the types of rocks and their characteristics.

Table 9.1 Types of rocks and their characteristics

Igneous rock Sedimentary rock Metamorphic rock

Formed from the process
of cooling and freezing of
magma or lava that flows
out of the mantle.

Formed by compression of
deposited materials carried by
the rivers, glaciers and wind.

Formed when igneous rocks
or sedimentary rocks are
exposed to very high pressure
and temperature.

Contains various minerals. Consists of many layers which
are sometimes hollow and
contain fossils.

Usually harder than the
original rocks that formed
them.

The Process of Rock Formation

How are igneous rocks,
sedimentary rocks and
metamorphic rocks
formed? The process of
rock formation can be
explained using the rock
cycle as shown in
Figure 9.6.

1. How are sedimentary rocks, igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks formed? Explain.
2. Why are fossils not found in igneous rocks?
3. Why are metamorphic rocks harder than igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks?

9.2

Video on classification of
rocks H

ea
t a

nd
 p

re
ss

ur
e

in
cr

ea
se

s

Igneous
rocks

Heat and

pressure

Erosion

Metamorphic
rocks

Sedimentary
rocks

Melting
Magma

Co
oli

ng
 an

d

fre
ez

ing
 of

m
ag

ma

U
pl

ift
to

s
ur

fa
ce

Weathering

Compression

Sedimentation of
eroded materials

Heat and pressure

Figure 9.6 The rock cycle

262 Bab 9262 Chapter 9
263Bab 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikBumi

•	 Explain	the	different	Earth	processes	that	affect	the	changes	on	Earth.
•	 Communicate	about	exogenic	and	endogenic	processes.

Let’s learn

9.3 Main Processes of the Earth

W hat are Earth’s processes that cause changes on Earth’s surface? How do
 the changes take place? Earth’s surface is formed by two processes, namely
exogenic process and endogenic process.

Figure  9.7 Exogenic processes

Transport and sedimentation
Weathered or corroded materials are

moved by agents such as running water,
wind, waves and glaciers. The materials
will be sedimented when the velocity of

the agents decreases.

Erosion
It is a process of eroding

of the Earth’s surface by
moving agents such as

water, wind
and waves.

Mass and land
depletion

They involve soil
movement from the top of
a slope to below as a result

of gravitational force.

Weathering
It is a process of rock

fragmentation and decomposition
or decay due to changes in

temperature, rainwater, frosting
and microorganisms.

•	 Process	that	occurs	on	Earth’s	surface.
•	 Examples:	Weathering,	erosion,	mass	and	land	depletion,

transport	and	sedimentation.

Exogenic Process

Exogenic
processes

263Chapter 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 9: Earth
•	 Process	that	is	caused	by	forces	from	within	the	Earth.
•	 Forms	and	changes	the	Earth’s	surface.
•	 Examples:	Mantle	convection	process,	magma	activity

and	Earth's	crust	movement	(Plate	Tectonics).

Endogenic Process

Magma activity
Volcano is a vent on the Earth’s crust that allows molten
and hot magma to flow out through it in a strong
eruption. The erupted materials accumulate around the
slope of the vent and form volcanic cones.

Divergence	of	Earth's	crust

Earth's crust movement (Plate Tectonics)
According to the theory of Plate Tectonics, the Earth’s
crust is divided into several pieces of plates. These plates
constantly move resulting in collision and divergence
which produce various landforms on Earth and
continental drifts.

Mantle convection process
The high temperature in the
mantle and the core of Earth
produces convection currents in
the asthenosphere layer. These
currents are able to move Earth’s
crust.

Figure 9.8 Endogenic processes

Endogenic
processes

Inner
core

Outer	core

Mantle

Lithosphere

264 Bab 9264 Chapter 9
265Bab 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikBumi

1. What are exogenic and endogenic processes?
2. What are the agents causing erosion?
3. What is Plate Tectonics theory?
4. Explain mantle convection process.

9.3

•	 Communicate	about	geohazards.
•	 Generate	ideas	on	the	importance	of	science	and	technology	to	prepare	for	geohazards.
•	 Realise	that	environmental	disasters	affect	human	livelihood.

Let’s learn

9.4 Geohazard Phenomena

A fter learning the exogenic and endogenic processes in subtopic 9.3, do you know the
 consequences of the endogenic process? The consequences of the endogenic process
are occurrence of geohazards such as earthquake, landslide, tsunami and volcanism. Can
you identify each of these geohazards?

Photograph 9.3 Geohazards

Volcanism

Landslide Sinkhole

Global warming

Tsunami

Earthquake

Video on
preparing for
earthquakes

265Chapter 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 9: Earth
Quicksand is a geohazard that usually occurs in wetlands while acid rain is a
geohazard that usually occurs in the industrial area.

Science and Technology Used to Prepare for Geohazards

Advances in science and technology allow the invention of devices that could provide
early warnings on occurrence of landslide and tsunami.

Can you think of other inventions used to predict or provide early warnings of geohazards?

Steel
waveguide Gravel backfill

Acoustic
sensor

Transducer

Deforming slope
generates acoustic
emission from gravel

Figure 9.10 The device to
detect landslides

Photograph 9.4 The device to detect
tsunami in Malaysia

I	am	placed	at	the	shoreline
to	give	early	warnings	of
tsunami	via	satellite.

Quicksand Acid rain
Figure 9.9 Quicksand and acid rain

Aim: To gather information about geohazards

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. Gather information on how these geohazards happen.
 (a) Earthquake (d) Tsunami  (g) Quicksand
 (b) Landslide (e) Global warming (h) Sinkhole
 (c) Volcanism (f) Acid rain
3. Present your findings using a multimedia presentation.

9.4

I	am	placed	on	the
slope	of	hills	to	give
early	warnings	of

landslides.

266 Bab 9266 Chapter 9
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Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikBumi

The Impact of Geohazards

Geohazards such as tsunami and earthquake can cause loss of life, diseases, starvation and
damage to properties. We should sympathise with and assist victims of environmental
disasters.

Visit the following websites to get more information about tsunami, volcano eruption,
mud flood and the collapse of Highland Towers.

1. List three examples of geohazards.
2. What are the impacts of geohazards to humans?
3. State two devices invented by scientists to predict occurrences of geohazards.

9.4

(Extracted and adapted from Kosmo, March 4, 2016)

CAMERON HIGHLANDS – The
installation method of plastic protective rain
structure by farmers is one of the factors
which trigger the occurence of mudslide.

Occurrence of mudslide

(Extracted and adapted from Mstar, June 23, 2015)

Earthquake on Mount Kinabalu
KOTA KINABALU: As a result of the earthquake,
19 people were killed.

43 Malaysians killed by tsunami waves

KUALA LUMPUR 26 December - Many people were killed, including 43 Malaysians who were hit by

huge waves by the earthquake in northern Sumatra today; the most powerful in the world in the last 40

years. Many homes and possessions have been destroyed by the tsunami.

(Extracted and adapted from Utusan Melayu, December 27, 2004)

A mud flood in Cameron
Highlands
http://www.beritasemasa.com.
my/gambar-banjir-lumpur-di-
cameron-highland

Tsunami
http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/

Collapse of Highland Towers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Highland_Towers_collapse

Volcano eruption
http://www.euronews/tag/
volcano-eruption

21 ICS

267Chapter 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 9: Earth
•	 Communicate	about	geological	time	scale	of	the	Earth.
•	 Explain	the	method	to	determine	the	age	of	the	Earth.
•	 Communicate	about	fossils.
•	 Reason	about	the	importance	of	fossils	in	the	advancement	of	contemporary	science.

Let’s learn

9.5 Age of Earth

The age of Earth is estimated to be 4.5 billion years based on meteorites obtained. Earth
has gone through various stages of periods, which have changed or shaped the Earth’s
landscape. Geologists define a long period of time as an era. Each era is divided into
several periods.

Figure 9.11 Geological time scale

Period Era

Note
M.Y.	refers	to	million

years.

What	era	are	we	living
in?

B

268 Bab 9268 Chapter 9
269Bab 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikBumi

Fossil

Fossils are Earth's materials such as plants, animals and insects which have been
submerged and buried for a very long period of time.

1. When did fish first appear on Earth?
2. Between insects and flowering plants, which appeared on Earth first?
3. When did seaweeds first appear on Earth?

9.5

The importance of fossils
to current scientific
development:

•	 Fossil	records	can
provide	information
about	how	animals
and	plants	species	on
Earth	have	evolved	over
millions	of	years.

•	 Fossil	records	can	also
provide	information
about	species	that	have
gone	extinct.

Figure 9.13 Various organisms on Earth since 5000 million
years ago

Figure 9.12 Examples of fossils

The	word	'fossil'
originates	from	the
Latin	word	‘fossilis’,
which	means	‘obtained
from	digging'.

Flowering plants

Human

Origin of
Earth

Origin of
life

Bacteria

Million years

Protozoa

Seaweed

Fish

Jellyfish

Dinosaur

Insect

4000

2000

5000

3000

1000

500

269Chapter 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 9: Earth
Do	you	know	that
there	is	water	under
the	ground	known	as
underground	water?

•	 Explain	surface	water	and	its	risks.
•	 Explain	the	importance	of	underground	water	and	its	risks.
•	 Communicate	about	economic	minerals.
•	 Explain	the	formation	of	petroleum	and	coal.
•	 Communicate	about	the	hydrothermal	process.
•	 Solve	problems	about	the	negative	effects	of	unplanned	human	activities	on	all	living	things	on	Earth.

Let’s learn

9.6

Earth's Resources and Applied
Geology

Surface Water and Underground Water

Photograph 9.5 Surface water

Photograph 9.6 Underground water

Leaching	of	chemical	fertilisers
and	pesticides	in	agriculture

exposes	underground	water	to	the
risk	of	pollution.	Chemicals	from
industrial	and	domestic	waste	in
landfills	carry	the	risk	of	polluting

underground	water.

Surface	water	can	be	polluted	by
waste	materials	from	industrial	and
housing	areas.	Excessive	fertilisers

and	pesticides	from	agricultural	areas
also	pollute	river	water.

Surface	water	is	found
on	the	surface	of	Earth.
Examples	of	surface

water	include	seas,	ponds
and	rivers.

What	is	surface
water?

Yes,	I	do.	Underground	water
or	aquifer	fills	up	the	empty
spaces	between	soil	particles
and	the	layers	of	permeable

rocks.

Do	surface	water	and
underground	water
interconnect?

21 ICS

B

270 Bab 9270 Chapter 9
271Bab 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikBumi

Economic Minerals

Economic minerals in the Earth consist of metallic minerals, non-metallic minerals and rare
earth minerals. Examples of metallic minerals are iron ore, tin and gold while examples of
non-metallic minerals are coal and petroleum.

Rare earth minerals consist of one or more than one of 17 rare earth elements
found inside Earth's crust. Even though almost all rare earth minerals can be found in
abundance, it is however not easy to separate them as they exist together with other rare
earth elements. Because of the rare minerals' unique properties, they are very important in
modern technology. They are used in computers, DVDs, communication devices, television
and others. Therefore, technology based on rare earth minerals is very important to the
development of the economy of the country and world in general.

Petroleum and coal are used as fuel. How are they formed?

Figure 9.14 The formation of coal

Figure 9.15  The formation of petroleum and natural gas

Coal

Millions of years ago,
plants died naturally.

The remains were buried
under layers of sediment

and mud.

Under high pressure and
heat, fossil of plants

turned slowly into coal.

Mud and
rocks

Dead marine organisms
sank into the seabed.

Dead land organisms were
buried underground.

After millions of years,
the dead organisms became

more embedded into the
earth below thick layers

of stone and mud.

Seabed

Sea

Petroleum

Fossils
trapped

Natural
gas

Through the action of
bacteria, partial decomposition
occured in a state of oxygen

shortage. The continuous
decomposition by bacteria

under high temperature
and pressure finally produced

petroleum and natural gas.

271Chapter 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 9: Earth
Hydrothermal Process

Have you even been to a hot spring? Do you know why the water is hot? The water is
heated naturally by the heat from the Earth. This is known as hydrothermal process. What
are the advantages of the hydrothermal process in economic prospects?

The Negative Effects of Unplanned Human Activities

Human activities that are not well-planned may cause negative effects to all living things.
Think of ways to solve them.

Figure 9.17 Human activities that are not well-planned

Deforestation

Industrialisation

Agriculture

Open	burning

Erosion

Global warming

Flash flood

Water, air, thermal and
sound pollution

Extinction of flora and
fauna

Human activities that
are not well-planned

Photograph 9.7 Hot spring in
Sungai Klah, Perak

Figure 9.16 Formation of a hot spring and
generation of electricity through the hydrothermal

process

Electricity
generators

Hot steam is used to drive a turbine and
generate electricity

Steam

Hot waterWell Metamorphic rocks

Heated aquifer

Metamorphic rocks
Heat source

(magma)

272 Bab 9272 Chapter 9
273Bab 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikBumi

Aim: To debate how exploitation of Earth’s resources may cause adverse effects on living
things

Instruction
1. Work in groups.
2. The motion of the debate is 'Exploitation of Earth’s resources may cause adverse effects

on living things'.
3. Each group is required to present their arguments.

9.5

1. What are the effects of deforestation?
2. Minerals mined from Earth are required for continuous economical development of a

country. However, mineral supply is limited. Suggest ways to ensure the continuous supply
of minerals.

9.6 21 ICS

The	discovery	of	dinosaur	fossils	for	the	first	time	in	Malaysia	by	a	geologist	from	the	University	of	Malaya
shook	our	nation.	The	fossils	were	found	in	the	Endau	Rompin	Forest,	Pahang	which	is	among	the	oldest
jungles	in	the	world.	Can	you	identify	the	type	of	dinosaur	shown	below?
Do	you	want	to	be	a	geologist	to	find	more	fossils?

Visit	the	following	website	for	more	information.

The discovery of dinosaur fossils in Malaysia
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/02/140224204737.htm

My MalaysiaMy Malaysia

273Chapter 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 9: Earth
At
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274 Bab 9274 Chapter 9
275Bab 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikBumi

After	learning	this	chapter,	you	are	able	to:

9.1 The System and Structure of the Earth

Communicate	about	the	system	of	the	Earth.

Explain	differences	of	the	Earth's	layers	based	on	its	composition	and	physical	characteristics.

Realise	that	Earth	is	the	only	place	that	can	sustain	life	based	on	its	physical	characteristics.

9.2 Composition of the Earth

Explain	type	and	characteristic	of	rocks.

Communicate	on	how	to	differentiate	the	process	of	rock	formation.

9.3 Main Processes of the Earth

Explain	the	different	Earth	processes	that	affect	the	changes	on	Earth

Communicate	about	exogenic	and	endogenic	processes.

9.4 Geohazard Phenomena

Communicate	about	geohazards.

Generate	ideas	on	the	importance	of	science	and	technology	to	prepare	for	geohazards.

Realise	that	environmental	disasters	affect	human	livelihood.

9.5 Age of the Earth

Communicate	about	geological	time	scale	of	the	Earth.

Explain	the	method	to	determine	the	age	of	the	Earth.

Communicate	about	fossils.

Reason	about	the	importance	of	fossils	in	the	advancement	of	contemporary	science.

9.6 Earth's Resources and Applied Geology

Explain	surface	water	and	its	risks.

Explain	the	importance	of	underground	water	and	its	risks.

Communicate	about	economic	minerals.

Explain	the	formation	of	petroleum	and	coal.

Communicate	about	the	hydrothermal	process.

Summative Practice 9

1. Figure 1 shows the various layers of the
Earth. Label each layer with the correct
name.

P:

Q:

R:

S:Figure 1

275Chapter 9

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 9: Earth
2. Weather phenomena such as rain, cloud, earthquake and storm form inside the Earth’s
atmosphere. In which atmospheric layer do the phenomena occur?

3. Figure 2 shows the atmospheric layers.
  (a) In which layer does aurora occur?
  (b) State two living organisms that can be found in layer P.

 4. What are the factors that influence the formation of metamorphic
  rocks?

 5. Figure 3 shows flow of lava from a volcano. What rocks could

form in P?

6. Salina found a type of rock by the mouth of a river. The
characteristics of the rock were recorded as below.

•		Hollow
•		Layered
•		Contains	dry	fossil

What type of rock is it?

7. Uncle Yatim is a farmer. His son always advises him not to spray pesticides excessively.
  Why?

Figure 4

8. The statement below shows a human activity.

Deforestation	of	mangrove	forests	for	timber	creates	negative	consequences.

In your opinion, what negative consequences may arise due to the deforestation of mangrove
forests?

Figure 2

Figure 3

Volcano
Lava flow

Magma

P

S
T

R
Q
P

276 Bab 9276 Chapter 9
Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikBumi

9. The statement below refers to one of the characteristics on the surface of Earth.

Water distribution on Earth is constant.

In	your	opinion,	is	the	statement	true?	Discuss.

10. Earthquakes are recorded using sensitive seismographs that detect movements or vibrations.
Invent a simple seismograph device for detecting vibration on Earth’s surface using marker,
metal	rod,	spring,	weight,	cardboard	paper	and	other	easily	obtainable	objects.	Drop	heavy
objects close to the device built to create your own “quake”.

11. The statement below shows a newspaper cutting regarding an issue that happened in Malaysia.

In your opinion, what are the negative consequences due to uncontrolled bauxite mining in
Kuantan?

12. Cameron Highlands always faces landslides. Suggest a suitable device that could detect the
possibilities of a landslide.

Bauxite

Bauxite pollution in Kuantan
KUANTAN – Kuantan residents complain about
the bauxite pollution in the vicinity of Bukit Goh,
Gebeng and Kuantan Port which can cause health risks.
Uncontrolled bauxite mining activity has dirtied the
main road. The air is polluted by bauxite dust. The river
is also polluted by bauxite mining. Bauxite is red soil
rich in aluminum.

(Extracted and adapted from Astro Awani, 5 July 2015)

Pengenalan kepada Penyiasatan SaintifikChapter 9: Earth

277Bab 9 277Chapter 9
278 Answers

Chapter 1
Formative Practice 1.1
 1. Growth of a baby, the occurrence of day and

night
 2. (a) observation, experiments
  (b) biology
 3. Biology- Botanist, Chemistry- Pharmacist,

Physics- Astronaut
Formative Practice 1.2
 1. (a) (b)  (c)  (d)

 2.  (a)  (i) Poisonous/toxic
        (ii) Irritant
        (iii) Flammable
        (iv) Explosive
       (v) Corrosive
  (b) Mercury and chlorine
 3.  Inform his teacher. If possible, turn off the

electrical supply. With the teacher’s help, use a
suitable fire extinguisher to extinguish the fire.
If he is not sure, he should leave the laboratory
immediately.

Formative Practice 1.3
 1. Length – metre, m; Mass – kilogram, kg; Time –
  second, s; Temperature – kelvin, K; Electric
  current – ampere, A
 2. (a) 13 cm  (b) 0.018 kg  (c) 4000000 µm
  (d) 24 kg  (e) 6 mA
 Formative Practice 1.4
 1. (a) 6.28 mm (b) 4.56 mm
 2. 24 cm2

3. Value shows the mass of Chong
Formative Practice 1.5
 1. A = 2 g cm-3, B = 2 g cm-3,
  C = 2 g cm-3

2. Liquid R, the most dense liquid will sink to the
bottom

Formative Practice 1.6
 1. Inference is the reason or cause for the

observation of a phenomenon.
 2. Manipulated variable = surface area of the

container
  Constant variable = the initial volume of water

in the container, surrounding temperature and

period of the experiment
Responding variable = The quantity of water after
30 minutes

Formative Practice 1.7
 1. Be honest and precise in recording and

approving data and have a positive attitude
 2. Be responsible towards health, safety and

environment
Summative Practice 1
 1. Corrosive material
 2. V → R → P →T → Q → W → U→ S
 3. 0.1 kg
 4. (a) Lever balance
  (b) Vernier calipers
  6. 34 squares x 1 cm2 = 34 cm2. Area of both wings

= 34 cm2

Chapter 2
Formative Practice 2.1
 1. (a) platelets, blood circulatory
  (b) Lungs, kidneys and skin
 2. Palisade cell - Absorbs sunlight for

photosynthesis
  Epidermis cell - Reduces water loss
  Root hair cell - Absorbs water from soil
  Guard cell - Controls the opening and

closing of stoma
 3. Cell wall
Formative Practice 2.2
 1. Photosynthesis. To produce glucose and oxygen
 2. Glucose, cell respiration
Summative Practice 2
 1. P = cytoplasm, Q = nucleus, R = mitochondria
 2. Kidney, lung
 3. (a) ovum (b) red blood cell
  (c) nerve cell
 4. Plant cells have cell wall, chloroplast, vacuole

and fixed shape.

Chapter 3
Formative Practice 3.1
 1. Homeostasis is the process of maintenance of

the internal environment in an organism.
 2. Temperature regulation and water regulation
Summative Practice 3
 1. Through transpiration that helps plants to absorb

and transport water and minerals from the soil to
all parts of the plant to replace water loss to the
surroundings from the leaves. Water lost to the

ONLY SELECTED ANSWERS ARE PROVIDED HERE
279Answers

surroundings through evaporation is able to help
the plant cool itself down during hot weather.

2. Blood vessels constrict to reduce heat released
to the surroundings. Hair stands erect to trap
heat from being lost to the surroundings.
Less sweating to reduce heat loss through
evaporation. Skeletal muscles contract and relax
actively causing our body to shiver and increase
the body temperature. At the same time, certain
hormones are secreted to increase the body’s
metabolism.

3. Blood vessels dilate to enable more blood to flow
near the surface of the skin to release more heat
to the surroundings.

4. Enables enzymes to function optimally at 37ºC to
regulate all chemical reactions inside living cells.

Chapter 4
Formative Practice 4.1
 1. Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction

• Involves
reproductive cells

• Does not involve
reproductive cells

• Occurs in humans,
animals (high level)
and flowering plants

• Occurs in simple
organisms (Amoeba,
Paramecium, Hydra)
and plants (onion,
ginger, potato)

• Involves two
parents

• Involves one parent

2. (a) Onion; bulb
  (b) Yam; stem
  (c) Ginger; stem
  (d) Lallang; stem
  (e) Potato; stem
  (f) Bryophyllum; leaf.
 3. Reproduction is important to ensure the survival

of species.
Formative Practice 4.2
 1. To produce offsprings.
 2. Function of urethra:  To discharge sperms (and

urine) from the body
  Penis: Transfers sperms into the vagina during

copulation
  Scrotum: Holds and protects the testes
 3. Function of Fallopian tube: The place where

fertilisation between sperm and ovum occurs
  Function of vagina: Receives sperms and it is the

birth channel through which a baby is born
  Function of uterus: Place where the embryo

develops and grows
 4. The early stage in which the reproductive system

becomes mature and produces reproductive
cells.

Formative Practice 4.3
 1. (i) Menstruation phase (Day 1-5)
   The uterine lining breaks down as menstruation

begins and is discharged together with blood,
unfertilised ovum and mucus.

(ii) Repair phase (Day 6-11)
   Uterine lining starts to rebuild and thickens.

Blood vessels in uterine lining are formed and
ready to receive the implantation of fertilised
ovum.

(iii) Ovulation phase (Day 12-17)
   An ovum is released from the ovary on the 14th

day of the menstrual cycle (ovulation). The
uterine lining continues to thicken. Fertilisation
is likely to occur if sperms are present.

(iv) Premenstrual phase (Day 18-28)
   The uterine lining continues to thicken and

becomes richly supplied with blood vessels.
Implantation of an embryo is ready if fertilisation
occurs. The menstrual cycle will repeat if
fertilisation does not occur.

2. A woman begins to get menstruation between
10-12 years old, for 5-7 days.

3. Ovulation is the process of matured ovum being
released from the ovary and it occurs in the
ovary.

Formative Practice 4.4
 1. No.
 2. After fertilisation, zygote divides itself into a ball

of cells called embryo. Embryo that is implanted
on the uterine lining continues to develop into
foetus and eventually becomes a baby.

3. Zygote → Embryo → Foetus → Baby
 4. Function of amnion: A sac-like membrane

which contains fluid
  Function of placenta: Place where exchange of

oxygen and carbon dioxide, supply of nutrients
and removal of waste materials through the
mother’s blood and the foetus occur.

Function of umbilical cord: Tube which
connects the foetus to the placenta.

Formative Practice 4.5
 1. A pregnant woman needs more nutrients

because the baby inside her uterus needs
nutrients to grow healthily.

2. Baby absorbs calcium from the mother for the
growth of its own teeth and bones.

Formative Practice 4.6
 1. Factors of male sterility:
  (i) Low quality of sperm
  (ii) Low sperm count
  (iii) Testes cannot produce sperm
  (iv) Impotent
  Factors of female sterility:
  (i) Ovaries cannot produce ovum
  (ii) Blockage in the Fallopian tubes
  (iii) Abnormal uterus
  (iv) Tumour in the uterus
 2. (a) Hormone injection and surgery
  (b) Treatment using IVF method
 3. (a) Vasectomy: Sperm ducts are cut and the two

ends are then tied to prevent the sperms from
being transported to the urethra.
280 Answers

(b) Ligation: Both Fallopian tubes are cut and the
two ends are then tied to prevent the ovum
from meeting the sperms.

4. Test tube baby is a baby that is formed using the
IVF method. The sperm and ovum are fertilised
in a glass dish. Then, the fertilised embryo is put
inside the uterus to develop.

Formative Practice 4.7
 1. Attracts insects for pollination
 2. Sepal: usually green in colour and protects flower

during the bud stage.
  Petal: usually colourful to attract insects and

animals.
 4.  (a) Function of stigma: receives pollen grains

(male gametes)
  (b) Function of style: connects stigma to ovary
  (c) Function of anther: produces male gametes
 5.

Wind Insects
• Light pollen grains • Sticky pollen grains
• White and dull • Bright coloured
• Number of pollen

grains is high
• Number of pollen

grains is low

Summative Practice 4
 1. (a) Amniotic fluid
  (b) Acts as a cushion to absorb concussion and

prevents foetus from injuries.
  (c) Placenta. The foetus obtains food and oxygen

from the placenta through the umbilical cord.
  (d) When foetus is completely formed, the body

will rotate until the head is engaged to the
cervix. The cervix expands to enable the
baby’s head to go through the vagina. The
uterine muscle wall contracts strongly, bursts
the amnion and amniotic fluid is released.
Strong contraction of the uterus pushes out
the baby.

Chapter 5
Formative Practice 5.1
 1. Matter: Book, pencil, pen, glass and beaker (Any

other answers are accepted)
 2. Has mass and occupies space
 3. Yes, because all living things have mass and

occupy space
 5. Physical properties Chemical Properties

• Depend on the type
of material it is
made of.

• Depend on the
reaction that
occurs upon the
substances.

Formative Practice 5.2
 1. (a)  (i) Bubble: Gas
   (ii) Water: Liquid
   (iii) Water weed: Solid
   (iv) Aquarium: Solid

(v) Fish: Solid
  (b)  Solid: book, glass, cloth
   Liquid: oil, petrol, milk
   Gas: air, carbon dioxide and oxygen
   (Any answers are accepted)
  (c)

State of
matter Arrangement Movement

Solid Close and
packed

Vibrate and
rotate at its
position

Liquid Close but
not in orderly
manner

Move freely, glide
and collide with
each other

Gas Far apart from
each other

Move randomly,
freely and collide
with each other
very fast

2. Food smell spreads through diffusion of the smell
particles into the air particles.

3. Particles in matter always move and collide with
one another

4. Temperature does not change because heat is
used to overcome the force of attraction between
the particles and thus, no change in temperature.

Summative Practice 5
 1. (a) Coffee: liquid
     Stones: solid
     Air in the balloon: gas
    (b) Coffee and stones
    (c) The particles only vibrate in the stone and

rotate at its position while air particles move
randomly and collide with one another with
high kinetic energy.

4. (a) The air particles are compressed nearer to
each other.

(b) Tan’s action is correct as it can cause the tyre
to expand during hot weather and explode it.

(c) The air inside the tyre contracts when it is
cold because heat is released and this will
cause the particles of the gas to move nearer
to one another and flatten the tyre.

Chapter 6
Formative Practice 6.1
 1. Proton, electron and neutron
 2. The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the

number of protons. Thus, an atom is neutral.
 3. An element is made of only one type of atom while

a compound consists of two or more elements
that are combined chemically.

4. An atom is the smallest particle of an element
while a molecule is a combination of two or more
atoms.

5. Elements are arranged according to the proton
number.
281Answers

6. Metal Non-metal

Magnesium Carbon

Aluminium Iodine

Copper Chlorine

Gold Neon

Iron Argon

Mercury -

Formative Practice 6.2
 1. Mixture is a substance that consists of two or more

elements or compounds combined physically.
 2.
Type of mixture Separation method
Paper clips and
glass fragments Filtration

Water and ethanol Distillation
Three types of
water soluble ink Chromatography

Soil and water Using magnet
Oil and water Sedimentation
Coffee powder and
water Floatation

Formative Practice 6.3
 1. Compound is a substance consisting of two or

more elements combined chemically
 2. Sugar, salt, water, marble, building blocks
 3. Electrolysis
 4. Mixture Characteristics Compound

No Formation of
new substance

Yes

No Chemical bond Yes
No heat
changes

Heat changes
during formation

Yes

Physical
method

Separation
method

Chemical
method

Same Properties
compared to
its original
properties

Different

Summative Practice 6
 1. (a)  (a), (b), (e), (f), (g), (h), (m), (n), (p)
  (b) (c), (i), (j), (o)
  (c) (d), (k), (l)

Chapter 7
Formative Practice 7.1
 1. Nitrogen 78%, oxygen 21%, carbon dioxide

0.03%, inert gases and others 0.97%
  3. Carbon dioxide is used by plants for

photosynthesis.
  4.  Greenhouse effect and global warming

Formative Practice 7.2
 1. Combustion is the reaction when a substance is

heated with oxygen and releases heat and light
energy

2. The presence of oxygen, heat and fuel
 3. Fire blanket is a special blanket made of

fire-resistant substances. This blanket covers the
fire and prevents oxygen from seeping below the
blanket which will eventually extinguish the fire.

4. (a) Always be aware of electrical appliances
used.

(b) keep matches and lighters in a safe place.
  (c) Keep away flammable substances from fire.
  (d) Do not throw cigarette butts when they are

still burning.
  (e) Do not plug in too many appliances to a

single electrical source.
  (f) Install fire alarm at home.
 5. Potassium and sodium metals are flammable

when exposed to the air

Formative Practice 7.3
 1. Smoke and dust
  3. (a) Humans can stay healthy.
    (b) Reduce the cost of repairing damaged

buildings by acid rain.
    (c) Earth’s climate will be better.

4. Rubbish can cause the increase of
microorganisms in the air.

6. (a) ✓

(b) ✓

(c)
	  (d) ✓

(e)

Summative Practice 7
 1. (a) P: Nitrogen
   Q: Oxygen
   R: Inert gases
   S: Carbon dioxide
  (b) (i) Needed to produce nitric acid and ammonia
   (ii) Helps in animal and plant growth
  (c)  The temperature increases as gas S traps

heat.
  (d) (i) Air components can be separated

physically.
   (ii) Each gas still shows its original properties

when separated.
 2. (a) Carbon dioxide
  (b) Argon
  (c) Atmosphere
  (d) Oxygen
 3. (a) Green plants are the only living things that

can absorb and reduce carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
When a lot of trees are cut down, carbon
282 Answers

dioxide which is released through respiration,
combustion and decomposition will increase
the percentage of carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere.
  (b)  Fossil fuel burning/ burning of forests
  (c)  Greenhouse effect and global warming
 4. (a) Combustion is the reaction when a substance

reacts with oxygen chemically and produces
heat and light energy.

(b)  Heat, oxygen and fuel
  (c) (i) Ensure the electrical wiring is according

to the right specification
   (ii) Use dry powder fire extinguisher
  (d) (i) Install smoke detectors and fire alarm at

home
   (ii) Do not plug too many appliances on a

single electrical source.
   (iii) Always be aware of the electrical

appliances used.
 5. (a) Haze
  (b) Causes breathing difficulties and cough

Chapter 8
Formative Practice 8.1
 1. Convex mirror, the man looks slim
 2. To reflect light so that the image can be formed in

the eyes
 3. To make the small space look spacious and

comfortable. The mirrors are security measures
too as a person could see all around him.

Formative Practice 8.2
 1. afternoon, above
 2.

Formative Practice 8.3
 1. According to the law of reflection, angle of

incidence, i, is equal to angle of reflection, r.

Plane mirror

i r

Normal
Incident
ray

Reflected
ray

2. Upright, same size with the object, virtual, same,
(also laterally inverted)

Formative Practice 8.4
 1. When light rays from the bottom of the swimming

pool leave the water, they are refracted. This

makes the image of the bottom of the swimming
pool to look shallower compared to its real depth.

2. A: Less dense
  B: More dense
  C: More dense
  D: Less dense

Formative Practice 8.5
 1. Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet
 2. Red light is refracted the least because it is the

fastest. Meanwhile, violet light is refracted the
most because it is the slowest.

Formative Practice 8.6
 1. Scattering of light occurs because light rays are

blocked and reflected to all directions by the
clouds or particles in the air.

2. more, less

Formative Practice 8.7
 1. A = Magenta, B= Cyan, C= Yellow, D = White
 2. (a) red
  (b) green
  (c) magenta

Summative Practice 8
 1. A real image can be formed on a screen while a

virtual image cannot be formed on a screen.
 2. B
 3. X and Z
 4. (a) Magenta, (b) Yellow, (c) Cyan , (d) White

Chapter 9
Formative Practice 9.1
 1. hydrosphere, biosphere, geosphere, and

atmosphere.
Formative Practice 9.2
 1. Igneous rocks are formed when magma from

volcano eruptions cools when it rises to the
surface. Sedimentary rocks are formed from
various rock fragmentation processes such
as weathering and erosion. It is then carried
by the river to the sea and deposited there.
Metamorphic rocks are the rocks formed
when pressure and heat acts on igneous and
sedimentary rocks.

2. Igneous rocks are formed from cooled magma.
Magma has a high temperature and no living
things can live in it. Therefore, there are no
fossils found in igneous rocks.

3. Metamorphic rocks are harder than other rocks
because they are formed from high pressure and
temperature.
283Answers

Formative Practice 9.3
 1. Exogenic process – a process that occurs on

Earth’s surface
  Endogenic process – a process that is caused

from within the Earth
 2. Water, wind and waves
 3. Earth’s crust is divided into several plates.

These plates always move due to collision and
divergence that produce various landforms and
continental drifts.

4. Mantle convection process happens when
the high temperature inside the mantle and
Earth’s core produce convection flow in the
asthenosphere that is able to move Earth’s crust.

Formative Practice 9.4
 1. Landslide, tsunami, earthquake
 2. Destruction of properties, loss of life, diseases,

famine.
 3. Seismograph to detect earthquake, radar to

detect tsunami.
Formative Practice 9.5
 1. 500 million years ago
 2. Insects
 3. 1000 million years ago

Formative Practice 9.6
 1. Deforestation can cause lack of oxygen

production and carbon dioxide content in the
air to increase. This will cause global warming
as carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that
can trap the heat from the Sun. Lack of oxygen
content will also reduce oxygen for respiration.
Deforestation can also cause soil erosion.

2. Recycle, use mineral materials wisely.

Summative Practice 9
 1. P: Crust , Q: Mantle, R: Outer core, S: Inner core
 2. Troposphere
 3. (a) S
  (b) Birds and insects
 4. Mineral composition of original rocks, pressure

and temperature, tectonic process and hot
chemical fluid

Full answers for teacher, please scan QR
code.
284 Bab 8284 Glossary

Atom The smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical
reaction

Accuracy The closest degree of a measured value to an actual value

Area The size of a surface

Air pollution The situation involving the introduction of any chemicals, particulate
matter, or biological materials that can cause harm, discomfort to
humans or other living organisms and damage to the environment
when released into the atmosphere

Binary fission The division of a parent cell into two daughter cells

Budding The process of forming buds in an organism

Consistency The ability to give the same reading when the measurement is
repeated

Carbon cycle A cycle that maintains the carbon dioxide content in the air by
taking carbon dioxide from the air and returns it back into the air
continuously

Cell The basic unit of living things

Cell respiration Process of oxidising glucose in the cells of organisms to produce
energy.

Combustion Reaction that occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen chemically
and releases heat energy

Cross-pollination Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma involving two parent
plants of the same species

Compound A substance consisting two or more elements joined chemically

Density The mass per unit volume

Diffusion Process in which particles of a matter move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration

Electrolysis The decomposition of a compound to its elements when an electric
current flows through it

Erosion A diminution process on the earth’s surface due to the action of
moving agents such as flowing water, wind and waves
285Bab 8 285Glossary

External fertilisation Process where the nucleus of a male gamete fuses with the female
gamete outside the body of the female

Exogenic process The process that occurs on the Earth’s surface

Endogenic process The process that is caused by forces from within the Earth

Element A substance that consists of one type of particle only

Fire extinguisher Fire protection device used to extinguish fire or control small fires,
often used in emergency situations

Homeostasis The regulation of internal environment in an organism, such as
temperature level, water, pH, blood pressure and so on, so that it
remains at a balanced and stable condition

Igneous rock Rock formed from the cooling and freezing process of magma or
lava that flows out from the mantle

Infertility Inability to produce offspring/ conceive baby

Internal fertilisation Process where the nucleus of a male gamete fuses with the nucleus
of a female gamete in the body of the female

Light subtraction Coloured light which is the same as the colour of an opaque object
will be reflected to our eyes while the other colours are absorbed

Light scattering Rays of light reflected in all directions by clouds or particles in the
air

Metamorphic rock Rock formed when igneous or sedimentary rocks are exposed to
very high pressure and temperature

Mixture A substance consisting of two or more elements or compounds
combined physically

Menstruation The breakdown of the lining of the uterine wall and discharge of
blood through the vagina

Matter Any substance that has mass and occupies space

Mass The quantity of matter contained in an object

Menstrual cycle A series of changes that occurs in the lining of the uterine wall and
ovaries

Multicellular organism An organism that consist of more than one cell

Oxygen cycle A cycle that involves taking oxygen from the air and returning it to
the air continuously

Organ A group of different tissues joined together to perform a specific
function
286 Bab 8286 Glossary

Puberty The period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and
become capable of reproduction

Physical quantities The physical properties that can be calculated and measured

Parallax error The error due to the position of the eyes which are not perpendicular
to the scale reading when taking measurements

Primary colours Basic colours that cannot be produced by mixing colours

Real image The image formed on a screen

Reproduction Process to produce new individuals by living organisms

Refraction of light The change of light direction or the bending of light when it passes
through two mediums of different densities

Regenerative The ability of specific fragment of organisms to grow and develop
into a new complete individual

Respiration Gas exchange that occurs between the organism and its environment

Science A discipline that involves the observation and the systematic
experiment towards the nature of a phenomenon

Scientific method Systematic method used to solve a problem in science

Sedimentary rock Rock formed by compression of sedimented materials carried by
rivers, glaciers and wind

Sensitivity The ability to detect small changes of the quantity to be measured

Spore formation Process of producing spores in the sporangium

Systematic errors The error caused by measuring instruments that are less accurate or
zero error that occurs in the measuring instrument

System A group of organs joined together to perform a specific function

Stoma Tiny pore on a leaf that controls the entry of air into the leaf

Secondary colours Colours produced when two primary colours are mixed together

Tissue A group of cells joined together to perform a specific function

Unicellular organism An organism that consists of only one cell

Virtual image An image that cannot be formed on a screen

Vegetative reproduction Production of new plants from vegetative parts of a parent plant and
does not the flower

Weathering A process of fragmentation and decomposition or decay of rocks due
to changes in temperature, rain, frost action and microorganisms
287Reference

Clarke, J., Levesley, M., Pimbert, M., Johnson, P., Baggley, S., & Gray, S. (2002). Exploring Science 7,
Edinburgh Gate: Pearson Longman.

Chen, L. K., Clare, E., Sadler, J., Tan, Y. T. (2007). G.C.E.’O’ Level, Chemistry Matters, Singapore:
Marshall Cavendish Education.

Garton, A., & Williamson, K. (2005). Science for Life 7, Australia: MacMillan Education Australia
Pty Ltd.

Fellowes-Freeman, D., Sang, D., & Jones, M. (2012). Cambridge Checkpoint Science Coursebook 7,
United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Fellowes-Freeman, D., Sang, D., & Jones, M. (2012). Cambridge Checkpoint Science Coursebook 8,
United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Goh, H. C., Gui, E. H., & Tan, K.S. (2014). Science Around Us, Module 1 Gadgets Work Wonders (I),
Singapore: Star Publishing Pte Ltd.

Goh, H. C., Gui, E. H., & Tan, K.S. (2014). Science Around Us, Module 2 Gadgets Work Wonders (I),
Singapore: Star Publishing Pte Ltd.

Goh, H. C., Gui, E. H., & Tan, K.S. (2014). Science Around Us, Module 3 Gadgets Work Wonders (I),
Singapore: Star Publishing Pte Ltd.

Ho, P.L. (2009). International Lower Secondary Science 1, Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Education.

Ho, P.L. (2009). International Lower Secondary Science 2, Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Education.

Johnson, P. (2006). 21st Century Science, Science GCSE Foundation, Edinburgh Gate: Peason
Longman.

Lee, C., Lam, E., Fong, J., Lam, P. K., & Loo, P.L. (2014). Lower Secondary Science: Volume A : Matters
(2nd ed.). Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Education.

Lee, C., Lam, E., Fong, J., Lam, P. K., & Loo, P.L. (2014). Lower Secondary Science: Volume B : Matters
(2nd ed.). Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Education.

Lofts, G., & Evergreen, M. J. (2000). Science Quest 1, Australia: John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.

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Yip, P. (2003). Biology for Tomorrow, Hong Kong: Manhattan Press (H.K.), Ltd.
288 Index

Air pollution  208
Amniotic fluid  109, 110
Anther  120, 121, 122, 123
Asexual reproduction  91, 95
Atmosphere  256, 257, 259
Atom  164, 165
Biosphere  256
Bisexual flower  121
Boiling  151, 153
Carbon cycle  200
Cell  46, 47
Cervix  99, 109
Chloroplast  50, 52
Condensation  152, 153
Combustion  204
Compound  166, 167
Cross-pollination  122
Cytoplasm  50, 51, 52
Dicotyledonous  127
Ductility,  169, 172
Diffusion  148, 149
Distillation  177, 179
Electrical conductivity 169, 173
Electron  164, 165
Element  166
Embryo  99, 105, 109
Endogenic process  264
Exogenic process  263
Evaporation  153
Fertilisation  93, 105, 107, 108
Filtration  177, 178
Floatation  177, 181
Foetus  109, 111, 113
Fossils  262, 268, 269
Freezing  151, 152, 156
Gamete  92, 93, 98, 102
Geohazards  265, 266
Geological time scale  268

Geosphere  256
Heat conductivity  169, 173
Homeostasis  72, 73, 78, 79, 80,
83
Hydrosphere  256
Hydrothermal  272
Hypothesis  33, 34, 35
Igneous rocks  261, 262
Implant  117
Inert gases  196, 199
Infertility  107, 115
In vitro fertilisation  116
Liquid  141, 146, 147, 150
Malleability  169, 172
Matter  138, 140, 141
Melting  152, 153
Menstrual cycle  104
Metal  167, 169, 170
Metamorphic rocks  261, 262
Mixture  176
Micropyle  127
Monocotyledonous  127
Multicellular  53, 54, 55
Neutron  165
Nitrogen  196, 199
Nucleus  50, 51, 52
Organ  55, 56, 57
Oxygen cycle  201
Oxygen  196, 197, 199
Ovary  92, 99, 101, 105, 120
Ovulation  105
Ovules  120, 121
Ovum  92, 93
Periodic Table  167, 168
Penis  98
Petal  120, 121
Pistil  120
Plumule  127, 128

Placenta  110
Puberty  100, 101, 102
Refraction  233, 234, 235
Reflection 223, 226, 227, 230,
231, 232
Radicle  127, 128
Random error  20, 26
Sedimentary rocks  261, 262
Sexual reproduction  90, 91, 92
Self-pollination  122
Shiny surfaces  169, 172
S.I. unit  15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 27
Sperm duct  98, 116
Sepals  120, 121
Seminal vesicle  98
Scattering of light  239, 240, 241
Solubility  143
Solid  146, 147, 149
Sperm  92, 102, 103
Sublimation  151, 152, 153
Stoma  80, 81
Stamen  121
Style  120, 121
Stigma  120, 121
Surface water  270
Tensile strength  169
Testa  127
Testis  92, 98, 101
Tissue  55, 56
Underground water  270
Unicellular  53
Unisexual flower  121
Urethra  98
Uterus  99, 104, 105
Vagina  98, 99
Virtual  222, 231
Zygote  108
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BUKU INI TIDAK BOLEH DIJUAL
001 COVER SCIENCE TEXTBOOK FORM 1 (F)

002 IFC-RUKUN NEGARA

003 i-viii

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