war growing globalization world economy new waves immigration led several efforts expand study world literature change illustrated expansion ''the norton anthology world masterpieces'' whose first edition featured western european north american works new expanded edition non western selections major survey anthologies today including published longman bedford norton showcase several hundred authors dozens countries contemporary understandings explosive growth range cultures studied rubric world literature inspired


variety theoretical attempts define field propose effective modes research teaching book ''what world literature'' david damrosch understands world literature less vast collection works matter circulation reception proposed works thrive world literature ones work well even gain meaning translation whereas damrosch 's approach remains tied close reading individual works different view taken stanford critic franco moretti pair articles offering conjectures world literature

Humanities
Languages and literature
World literature


pavi remained primarily print based writer korean american duo known young hae chang heavy industries created works entirely internet distribution often several languages publishers american publishers neglect publish work world literature surveys national endowment arts literature program showed translated books published united states works fiction poetry published united states ref name altalangcom ref books published united states works translation compared italy translations represent


world literature'' new york bedford st martin 's vols http cesardominguezgal dom nguez c sar https wwwacademiaedu gualterio escoto writer across world literaturespdf gualterio escoto writer across world literatures ''translation world literature'' ed susan bassnett london routledge go ens peter ''weltliteratur modelle transnationaler literaturwahrnehmung im jahrhundert'' stuttgart jb metzler hashmi alamgir ''the commonwealth comparative literature world'' islamabad indus books juvan marko ed https docslibpurdueedu clcweb vol iss world literatures nineteenth twenty first century special issue ''clcweb comparative literature culture'' juvan marko '' https linkspringercom book worlding peripheral literature '' singapore palgrave macmillan lawall sarah ed ''reading world literature theory history


sudan sudani black brown arabic terms utilized identifiers darker skinned maghrebians modern period ref name mohamed haratin considered offensive term darker skinned maghrebians intended identify example people southern region eg wad noun draa morocco consider offensive term ref name mohamed despite historicity etymology questionable european colonialists european africanists used term haratin identifiers groups black apparently mixed people found algeria mauritania morocco ref name mohamed saadian invasion songhai

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
African studies


africa guide sources'' nordic africa institute uppsala rd ed http wwwilissafricade en howto openaccessguidehtml open access guide researchers based africa ilissafrica african studies area studies


controversial association social anthropologists discourages use asserting blockquote describe living group 'primitive' 'stone age' inevitably implies living representatives earlier stage human development majority humankind left behind blockquote three stage system south african archaeologists organizing stone tool collections country observed fit newly detailed three age system words j desmond clark blockquote early realized threefold division culture stone bronze iron ages adopted nineteenth century europe

Humanities
History
Ancient history
The Stone Age


boundary highly glaciated climate paleolithic period archaeology geologic pleistocene holocene boundary modern climate mesolithic epipaleolithic period archaeology neolithic period archaeology succession phases varies enormously one region culture another three age chronology paleolithic palaeolithic greek ''palaios'' old ''lithos'' stone lit old stone coined archaeologist john lubbock published earliest division stone age covers greatest portion humanity 's time roughly human technological history ref name thoth schick ref human humanity interpreted mean genus ''homo''


southern europe northern begin open areas italy spain earliest dated mya pirro nord italy mountains italy rising rapid rate framework geologic time mya lower covered grassland much highlands still europe otherwise mountainous covered dense forest formidable terrain warm weather savanna dwellers similarly evidence mediterranean passable gibraltar anywhere else ''h erectus'' earlier hominans might


ago earliest anatomically modern human remains found australia outside africa mungo man dated years old ref name pmid ref ref name doisjquascirev ref americas colonised via bering land bridge exposed period lower sea levels people called paleo indians earliest accepted dates clovis culture sites years ago globally societies hunter gatherers evidence regional identities begins appear wide variety stone tool types developed suit different


bubbonia''' dolmen single chambered tomb sicily modern studies depth analysis finds dating stone age indicate certain rituals beliefs people prehistoric times believed activities stone age humans went beyond immediate requirements procuring food body coverings shelters specific rites relating death burial practiced though certainly differing style execution cultures megalithic tombs multichambered dolmens single chambered graves huge stone slab stacked similarly large stone slabs discovered across europe asia


non avian dinosaurs co existing supported scientific evidence depictions stone age include best selling ''earth 's children'' series books jean auel set paleolithic loosely based archaeological anthropological findings film ''quest fire'' jean jacques annaud tells story group early homo sapiens searching lost fire st century series ''chronicles ancient darkness'' michelle paver tells two new stone age children fighting fulfil prophecy save clan see also ''homo'' ice age list


studies formed largely response emerging men 's rights movement taught academic settings since ref name contrast discipline masculine psychology men 's studies programs courses often include contemporary discussions men 's rights feminist theory queer theory matriarchy patriarchy generally proponents describe social historical cultural influences constructions men often discuss issues surrounding male privilege seen evolving subtle covert forms rather disappearing modern era important distinguish

Social science
Sociology
Gender studies
Men's studies


historical cultural contexts implicate process collecting analyzing data relativize findings ref name lindtaylor kant marx version critical theory derives use term ''critique'' immanuel kant ''critique pure reason'' marx premise ''das kapital'' critique political economy kant 's transcendental idealism ''critique'' means examining establishing limits validity faculty type body knowledge especially accounting limitations knowledge system 's fundamental irreducible

Social science
Sociology
Critical sociology


concepts kant 's notion ''critique'' associated overturning false unprovable dogmatic philosophical social political beliefs critique reason involved critique dogmatic theological metaphysical ideas intertwined enhancement ethical autonomy enlightenment critique superstition irrational authority ignored many critical realist circles kant 's immediate impetus writing ''critique pure reason'' address problems raised david hume 's skeptical empiricism attacking metaphysics employed reason logic argue knowability world common notions


''a theory argumentation'' university alabama press '' https booksgooglecom booksid ou aafuhvcc printsec frontcover v onepage q f false liberalism problem knowledge new rhetoric modern democracy '' chicago university chicago press external links http wwwblackwellreferencecom subscriber tocnodehtmlid g chunk g gerhardt christina frankfurt school international encyclopedia revolution protest ness immanuel ed blackwell publishing blackwell reference online https nplusonemagcom issue intellectual situation death end theory death end n magazine 's short history academic critical theory http wwwcriticallegalthinkingcom critical legal thinking critical legal studies website uses critical theory analysis law politics l corchia https booksgooglecom id aqaaqbaj ''j rgen habermas bibliography works studies '' pisa


personal value celebrate birthdays one one enforcing cultural value uniqueness individualism everyday institutional practices classroom birthday celebrations propagate prominent cultural themes ref name ref name '''ideas''' final cycle houses highest abstract ''idea'' level cycle focuses big ideas culture answers big questions life come going culture around ideas gives structure answers allows greater

Social science
Psychology
Cultural psychology


end thus members individualistic cultures may hold collectivistic values collectivistic individual may hold individualist values concepts collectivism individualism show general idea values specific ethnic culture juxtaposed competition empathy across cultures differences values across cultures suggests understanding expressing empathy may manifested differently throughout varying cultures duan hill ref name duan hill ref first discussed empathy subcategories intellectual empathy taking someone 's thoughts perspective also known cognitive empathy ref name soto levenson ref emotional empathy


direct correlation types dispositional empathy possibly suggesting less focus self capacity towards noticing needs others individualism predicted experienced intellectual empathy collectivism predicted experienced empathic emotion results congruent values collectivistic individualistic societies self centered identity egoistic motives prevalent individualistic cultures perhaps acts hindrance open fully experiencing empathy ref name kitayama markus ref intercultural ethnocultural empathy cultural empathy became broadly understood concurrent understanding acceptance


empathy often power dynamic different cultures bridging oppressed culture upper echelon oppressor goal intercultural empathy one approach barrier attempt acknowledge one 's personal oppression ref name deturk ref may minimal comparison people 's oppression still help realizing people oppressed ref name deturk goal bridging gap focus building alliance finding core commonalities human experience shows empathy relational experience independent


method fact teachers taught remains popular spite certain limitations compared methods little develop critical thinking scientific attitude among students method teacher centric '''recitation ''' also known socratic method method student plays greater role would lecture teacher asks questions aim prompting thoughts students method effective developing higher order thinking pupils apply strategy students partially informed

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Physics education


electricity electrical circuit optics particle model thermal physics heat temp energy astronomy earth space quantum physics nonlinear systems chaos sound magnetism relativity colspan predominant concept brackets br adapted duit r h niedderer h schecker see ref physics education research sub division within physics study


limerick dublin city university queen 's university belfast ulster university dublin institute advanced studies dias school celtic studies research institution award degrees dias royal irish academy leading publishers celtic studies research including journals ''celtica'' '' riu'' celtic studies uk isle man celtic studies taught universities england wales scotland northern ireland studies cover language history archaeology art addition celtic languages taught greater lesser extent schools wales scotland

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Celtic studies


others including programs student may minor like college charleston north america celtic scholars students represented professionally celtic studies association north america celtic studies france acad mie celtique founded goal unearthing gallic past french people france also produced first academic journal devoted celtic studies ''revue celtique'' ''revue celtique'' first published paris continued death last editor joseph loth point continued name


shown availability natural environments eg parks woodlands inland waters coasts increases leisure time physical activity walking cycling reported meteorological conditions found predict physical activity differently different types environment example large population based study england higher air temperatures lower wind speeds associated increased physical activity globally according pooled analysis population based surveys around students aged years insufficiently physically active ref name ref region highest prevalence insufficient activity high income asia

Human physical performance and recreation


name erowid http wwwerowidorg plants mushrooms mushrooms health pdf report dutch government stating psilocybin 's relative harmlessness ref history initial attempts change punitive drug laws introduced world late onwards primarily based around recreational use timothy leary one prominent campaigners legal recreational use lsd legalise pot rally held britain ref name transformtimeline ref however death toll drug war rose organisations began form campaign political humanitarian basis drug policy foundation formed america release charity gives

Applied science
Public administration
Drug policy
Drug policy reform


non medical use drugs europe beckley foundation european coalition effective drug policies encod branches austria germany norway transform drug policy foundation drug equality alliance dea release agency united kingdom vision drug policy network united kingdom students sensible drug policy uk united kingdom regulaci n responsable spain australia drug policy australia network prohibition new zealand helen clark foundation star trust united states american civil liberties union americans safe access drug policy alliance high times high times freedom fighters law enforcement prohibition lindesmith center marijuana policy project mass cann norml multidisciplinary


prohibition cannabis social club cognitive liberty decriminalization drug liberalization drug prohibition law gateway drug theory harm reduction legalization psilocybin decriminalization united states responsible drug use school district drug policies students sensible drug policy supervised injection site transform drug policy foundation war drugs references external links http wwwdruglibraryorg schaffer schaffer library drug policy drug control law


underlying deterioration process failure behavior component relationships maintained components product breakdown system sub system assembly sub assembly optimal maintenance strategies often constructed using stochastic models focus finding optimal inspection time optimal acceptable degree system degradation maintenance replacement cost considerations asset scale may also lead select run failure approach specific components four main survey papers available accomplished cover spectrum optimal maintenance optimal maintenance models systems subject failure review ys sherif

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Optimal maintenance


'''asian psychology''' branch cultural psychology studies psychological concepts relate asian culture psychologists studying issue often aligned cross cultural psychology asian behavior pointed shinobu kitayama professor psychology director culture cognition program university michigan culture profound impact way people think perceive world around east asians may think differently westerners see also cultural differences self concept self construal kitayama proposed unlike traditional american point view accentuates importance one 's

Social science
Psychology
Cultural psychology
Asian psychology


methodological practice oriented articles book reviews covering topics relevant asian american individuals communities including prevention intervention training social justice particular consideration given empirical articles using quantitative qualitative mixed methodology ''asian journal social psychology'' ''asian journal social psychology'' stimulates research encourages academic exchanges advancement social psychology asia publishes theoretical empirical papers asian scholars interested asian cultures societies ''asian journal social psychology'' partly funded grant aid publication scientific research results japan


forced marry victors war desired anymore let go wherever want requires treated slaves sold money ref early th century first muslim caliph abu bakr whilst instructing muslim army laid rules mutilation corpses killing children females elderly also laid rules environmental harm trees slaying enemy 's animals ref furthermore sura al baqara https webarchiveorg web http wwwuscedu org cmje religious texts quran verses qmtphp quran requires combat muslims allowed strike

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Laws of war


prisoners war lieber code promulgated union american civil war critical development laws land warfare historian geoffrey best called period law war 's epoch highest repute defining aspect period establishment states positive legal legislative foundation ie written superseding regime based primarily religion chivalry customs modern era international conference became forum debate agreement states multilateral treaty served


prosecutor international criminal tribunal former yugoslavia pointed although specific treaty ban use depleted uranium projectiles developing scientific debate concern expressed regarding effect use projectiles possible future may consensus view international legal circles use projectiles violates general principles law applicable use weapons armed conflict future may consensus view depleted uranium projectiles breach


early dynamic approach projects attempted replicate protective characteristics natural beach dune systems resultant use artificial beaches stabilized dunes engineering approach economically viable environmentally friendly limited knowledge coastal sediment transport processes often resulted inappropriate measures coastal erosion mitigation many cases measures worked locally exacerbated problems locations tens kilometers away generated environmental problems european code conduct essential source coastal engineering ''european code conduct coastal zones''

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Environmental management
Coastal management


earliest managed retreat uk area ha northey island flooded followed tollesbury orplands essex sea walls breached ebro delta spain coastal authorities planned managed retreat main cost generally purchase land abandoned relocation compensation may needed human made structures engulfed sea may need removed cases armouring used protect land beyond area flooded costs may lowest existing defences


left fail naturally realignment project may actively managed example creating artificial breach existing defences allow sea particular place controlled fashion pre forming drainage channels created salt marsh managed retreat become necessary strategy due climate change adaptation strategies much stop sea level rise hold line holding line typically involves shoreline hardening techniques eg using permanent concrete rock constructions techniques seawalls groynes detached breakwaters revetments represent protected


retreat landwards encounter solid structures migrate wetlands salt marshes mangroves adjacent fresh water wetlands particularly vulnerable squeeze upside strategy moving seaward upward create land high value bring investment limited intervention limited intervention action taken whereby management addresses problem certain extent usually areas low economic significance limited intervention often includes succession haloseres including salt marshes sand dunes normally results protecting land behind halosere wave energy


subject limitations conventional surveying techniques shoreline data derived beach profiling often spatially temporally limited due high cost associated labour intensive activity shorelines generally derived interpolating series discrete beach profiles distance profiles usually quite large limiting accuracy interpolating survey data limited smaller lengths shoreline generally less ten kilometres beach profiling data commonly available regional councils new zealand remote sensing range airborne satellite land based remote sensing techniques provide


showed application video based depth estimations extreme storms see also beach erosion accretion beach evolution beach nourishment modern recession beaches raised beach integrated coastal zone management coastal oceanic landforms coastal development hazards coastal erosion coastal geography cuspate foreland detention basin coastal engineering hard engineering accropode xbloc soft engineering coastal morphodynamics coastal estuarine research federation cerf human impacts coasts sea level rise mangrove restoration natural hazard restoration saltwater swamps restoration salt marshes list countries length coastline erosion bioerosion blowhole natural arch wave cut platform longshore drift deposition sediment


university rhode island videos https webarchiveorg web http wwwpubliciastateedu sws cp coastalpolicyvideoshtml free educational videos coastal policy zone management images remote sensing image nd retrieved april http wwwamesremotecom images nasa longbeachjpg coastal construction coastal engineering coastal geography civil engineering


executed certain platform hence creating model computation overview field formal semantics encompasses following definition semantic models relations different semantic models relations different approaches meaning relation computation underlying mathematical structures fields logic set theory model theory category theory etc close links areas computer science programming language design type theory compilers interpreters program verification model checking approaches many approaches formal semantics belong three major classes

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Program semantics


meaning phrases describing ''axioms'' apply axiomatic semantics makes distinction phrase 's meaning logical formulas describe meaning ''is'' exactly proven logic canonical example axiomatic semantics hoare logic apart choice denotational operational axiomatic approaches variations formal semantic systems arise choice supporting mathematical formalism variations variations formal semantics include following '''action semantics''' approach tries modularize denotational semantics splitting formalization process


important question formalist structuralist thinkers meaning sentence emerge parts example syntactic tree many aspects problem composition sentences addressed field linguistics syntax philosophical semantics tends focus principle compositionality explain relationship meaningful parts whole sentences principle compositionality asserts sentence understood basis meaning ''parts'' sentence ie words morphemes along understanding ' 'structure'' ie

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of language


perspectives issue language learning first behaviorist perspective dictates solid bulk language learned learned via conditioning second ''hypothesis testing perspective'' understands child 's learning syntactic rules meanings involve postulation testing hypotheses use general faculty intelligence final candidate explanation innatist perspective states least syntactic settings innate hardwired based certain modules mind ref name fodor ref ref name sp pinker ''l'istinto


response told correct helping learn subtle cues distinguished friend foe quarter participants told advance friendly aliens called leebish hostile ones grecious another quarter told opposite rest aliens remained nameless found participants given names aliens learned categorize aliens far quickly reaching per cent accuracy less half time taken told names end test


describing speech acts linguistics revolutionary discovery physics discovery act measurement change measured reality speech act theory developed j l austin although previous thinkers similar ideas '' 'reference theory meaning''' also known collectively ' 'semantic externalism'' views meaning equivalent things world actually connected signs two broad subspecies externalism social environmental first closely associated tyler burge second


''comprehension'' hence meaning sentence consists hearer 's ability recognize demonstration mathematical empirical truth sentence ref name dummett dummett ''the logical basis metaphysics'' cambridge massachusetts harvard university press ref pragmatic theory meaning theory meaning understanding sentence determined consequences application dummett attributes theory meaning charles sanders peirce early th century american pragmatists ref name dummett contrast theory meaning suggests knowledge attributions ternary structure


eds eva picardi carlo penco bari editori laterza ref bertrand russell later writings reasons related theory acquaintance epistemology held directly referential expressions called logically proper names logically proper names terms ''i'' ''now'' ''here'' indexicals viewed proper names sort described abbreviated definite descriptions see ''theory descriptions'' hence ''joseph r biden'' may abbreviation current president united states husband jill biden definite descriptions denoting phrases see


meanings consequence explanation social structure like institution would need account shared meanings create sustain structure rhetoric study particular words people use achieve proper emotional rational effect listener persuade provoke endear teach relevant applications field include examination propaganda didacticism examination purposes swearing pejoratives especially influences behavior others defines relationships effects gendered language also used


reduced individual acts human psychology supports autonomy study language sciences humanistic views challenged biological theories language consider languages natural phenomena charles darwin considered languages species th century evolutionary linguistics furthest developed august schleicher compared languages plants animals crystals neo darwinism richard dawkins proponents cultural replicator theories consider languages populations mind viruses noam chomsky hand holds view language organism organ linguistic structures


must attempt make sense utterances gestures members make situation radical translation ref name wvq quine wv ''word object'' mit press ref claimed situation impossible ''in principle'' absolutely certain meaning reference speaker indigenous peoples language attaches utterance example speaker sees rabbit says gavagai referring whole rabbit rabbit 's tail temporal part rabbit done


language chapter language introduction linguistics cognitive science http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg london philosophy study guide offers many suggestions read depending student 's familiarity subject http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg languagehtm philosophy language carnap r meaning necessity study semantics modal logic university chicago press collins john truth conditions without interpretation http wwwsoritesorg issue collinshtm devitt michael hanley richard eds blackwell guide philosophy language oxford blackwell greenberg mark harman gilbert conceptual role semantics http wwwprincetonedu harman papers crspdf hale b crispin wright


contracts dating late th century state master expected clothe feed apprentice called upon faithful servant return apprentice often paid master early years education assuming apprenticeship productive student would compensated later training northern european workshops featured similar terms initially learning draw priority system michelangelo recommended young painter spend year drawing alone six years grinding colors preparing panels using gold leaf time

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Art education


appreciation crafts different cultures technique appreciated production african native american mask making projects students emulate technique explore new material use construction methods esteem practices different cultures country argentina leading country development arts latin america created national society stimulus arts founded painters eduardo schiaffino eduardo vori artists guild rechartered national academy fine arts initiative painter academic


joint diseases including osteoarthritis rheumatoid arthritis joint replacement surgery becoming common knees hips replaced often americans hip knee replaced ref name niams joint replacement surgery april ''arthritis musculoskeletal skin disease online'' retrieved http wwwniamsnihgov ref uses shoulder shoulder replacement major approaches access shoulder joint first deltopectoral approach saves deltoid requires supraspinatus cut ref name nerot ref second transdeltoid approach provides straight approach

Applied science
Medicine and health
Joint Replacement


motion key feature favor ankle replacement respect arthrodesis however clinical evidence superiority former demonstrated particular isolated implant designs ref name pmid ref finger finger joint replacement finger joint replacement relatively quick procedure minutes requires several months subsequent therapy post operative therapy may consist wearing hand splint performing exercises improve function pain risks complications medical risks stress operation may result medical problems varying incidence severity heart attack stroke venous thromboembolism pneumonia increased


replacement joint joint surface prosthesis example hip joint affected osteoarthritis may replaced entirely total hip arthroplasty prosthetic hip procedure involves replacing acetabulum hip socket head neck femur purpose surgery relieve pain restore range motion improve walking ability leading improvement muscle strength see also rheumasurgery arthroplasty orthopedic surgery joint replacement registry related treatments autologous chondrocyte implantation microfracture surgery references external links http orthoinfoaaosorg patient information


work also done reasoning analogy using induction abduction important topics include reasoning uncertainty non monotonic reasoning important part uncertainty field argumentation constraints minimality consistency applied top standard automated deduction john pollock 's oscar system example automated argumentation system specific automated theorem prover tools techniques automated reasoning include classical logics calculi fuzzy logic bayesian inference reasoning maximal entropy many less formal ''ad hoc''

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Automated reasoning


growing number problems formal logic mathematics computer science logic programming software hardware verification circuit design many others tptp sutcliffe suttner library problems updated regular basis also competition among automated theorem provers held regularly cade conference pelletier sutcliffe suttner problems competition selected tptp library ref name stanford encyclopedia '' http platostanfordedu entries reasoning automated automated reasoning '' stanford encyclopedia retrieved ref see also automated machine learning automl automated theorem proving reasoning system semantic reasoner program analysis computer science applications artificial


intelligence outline artificial intelligence casuistry case based reasoning abductive reasoning inference engine commonsense reasoning conferences workshops international joint conference automated reasoning ijcar conference automated deduction cade international conference automated reasoning analytic tableaux related methods journals ''journal automated reasoning'' communities association automated reasoning aar references references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwcsclivacuk konev iwil international workshop implementation logics https webarchiveorg web http wwweproverorg events es serieshtml workshop series empirically successful topics automated reasoning theoretical computer science automated theorem proving artificial intelligence logic computer science


punishment god israelites certain books tenakh old testament tenakh certain books sees war ineluctable act god tolstoy especially emphasizes war something befalls man way influence man 's free instead result irresistible global forces ''on war'' rapoport 's introduction '''eschatological''' school thought sees wars major wars leading goal asserts final conflict someday resolve path followed wars result

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
Philosophy of war


connection two parts proposal instance machine learning beginning turing 's infamous child machine proposal essentially achieves desired feature intelligence without precise design time description would exactly work account robot tacit knowledge eliminates need precise description together first step answering question clearly define intelligence intelligence turing test alan turing reduced problem defining intelligence simple question conversation suggests machine answer ''any'' question put using

Humanities
Philosophy
Metaphysics
Philosophy of artificial intelligence


characters pass room slot outside appear chinese room contains fully intelligent person speaks chinese question anyone anything room understands chinese anything mental state understanding conscious awareness discussed chinese man clearly aware room cannot aware ''cards'' certainly n't aware searle concludes chinese room ''any'' physical symbol system cannot


simulating actual brain variation systems reply appears plausible system clearly operates like human brain strengthens intuition something besides man room could understand chinese '''other minds reply''' '''epiphenomena reply''' several people noted searle 's argument version problem minds applied machines since difficult decide people actually thinking surprised difficult answer question machines related


robot called adam believe first machine independently come new scientific findings also researchers cornell developed eureqa computer program extrapolates formulas fit data inputted finding laws motion pendulum 's motion machine benevolent hostile question like many others philosophy artificial intelligence presented two forms hostility defined terms function behavior case hostile becomes synonymous dangerous defined terms intent


dangerous quickly vernor vinge suggested years computers suddenly become thousands millions times intelligent humans calls singularity ref name nytimes july suggests may somewhat possibly dangerous humans discussed philosophy called singularitarianism academics technical experts attended conference discuss potential impact robots computers impact hypothetical possibility could become self sufficient able make decisions discussed possibility


ai pt ai run http wwwsophiade vincent c ller main bibliography subject several sub sections https philpapersorg browse philosophy artificial intelligence philpapers see also ai takeover artificial brain artificial consciousness artificial intelligence artificial neural network chatterbot chinese room computational theory mind computing machinery intelligence dreyfus' critique artificial intelligence existential risk advanced artificial intelligence functionalism multi agent system philosophy computer science philosophy information philosophy mind physical symbol system simulated reality ''superintelligence paths dangers strategies'' synthetic intelligence notes references references adam alison artificial knowing gender thinking machine ''routledge crc press''


may partially weakly bind sites nonspecific proteins also called reactive sites similar cognate binding sites target antigen great amount non specific binding causes high background staining mask detection target antigen reduce background staining ihc icc immunostaining methods samples incubated buffer blocks reactive sites primary secondary antibodies may otherwise bind common blocking buffers include normal serum non fat dry milk bsa gelatin commercial blocking buffers proprietary formulations available

Natural science
Chemistry
Histochemistry


leica biosystems oracle ventana pathway similarly egfr overexpressed variety cancers including head neck colon immunohistochemistry used determine patients may benefit therapeutic antibodies erbitux cetuximab commercial systems detect egfr immunohistochemistry include dako pharmdx mapping protein expression immunohistochemistry also used general protein profiling provided availability antibodies validated immunohistochemistry human protein atlas displays map protein expression normal human organs tissues combination immunohistochemistry tissue microarrays provides protein expression


percent higher five largest exporters united states russia france germany china whilst five biggest importers saudi arabia india egypt australia algeria many industrialized countries domestic arms industry supply military forces countries also substantial legal illegal domestic trade weapons use citizens primarily self defense hunting sporting purposes illegal trade small arms occurs many countries regions affected political instability small arms survey estimates million small arms circulate worldwide

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Defense industry


cattle handling systems said one reason easily figure cow would react autistic people easily think way animals think ref name georgeanimals according grandin animals complex emotions shame guilt think language says although everything animals like autistic person similarity think visually without language says people make connection study autism study animal behavior parallel disciplines involving different individuals ref

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of autism


outside looking may difficulty finding life partner getting married due poor social skills ref name tsatsanis complexity inconsistency social world pose extreme challenge individuals uk asperger 's covered disability discrimination act get treated badly may redress first case ''hewett v motorola '' sometimes referred hewitt second ''isles v ealing council'' applies united states americans disabilities act amended


different bookbits radio recent increases autism recognition new approaches educating socializing autistics autistic culture begun develop autistic culture based belief autism unique way disorder cured ref name harmon ''aspie world'' sometimes called contains people asperger syndrome high functioning autism hfa linked three historical trends emergence hfa labels emergence disability rights movement rise internet autistic


communities exist online offline many people use support communication others like social limitations autism sometimes make difficult make friends establish support within general society construct identity within society many autistics find easier communicate online person large number online resources available ref name nprautism ref autistic individuals learn sign language participate online chat rooms discussion boards websites use communication devices autism community social events autreat internet helps bypass non verbal cues emotional sharing


huge scale autism awareness year helped raise awareness serious issues concerning autism asperger 's syndrome across united kingdom major conference autism held king 's fund london debates house commons house lords westminster autism awareness ribbons worn mark year british autism advocates want autistic people acknowledged minority rather disabled say disability discrimination laws n't protect disabled 'still something makes look act differently


comes climate change interview presenter nick robinson bbc radio 's ''today'' year old activist said autism helps see things black white went say ref name thunberg ref scottish singer susan boyle diagnosed aspergers age ref name ref boyle originally believed suffered slight brain damage birth boyle rose fame appearing talent show britain 's got talent debut album ''i dreamed dream'' released became fastest selling debut uk artist time ref


''the wood whispering'' j molloy film sculptor scenic painting scenographer scenography set construction stage machinery theatrical scenery references reading ''making scene history stage design technology europe united states'' oscar g brockett margaret mitchell linda hardberger tobin theatre arts fund distributed university texas press pages traces history scene design since ancient greeks ''designing painting theater'' lynn pecktal mcgraw hill performing arts pages detailing production design theater opera ballet designing

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Stage design


textbooks passing reference concept entrepreneurship entrepreneur equilibrium models central mainstream economics exclude entrepreneurship coase believed economics become theory driven subject moved paradigm conclusions take precedence problems look page scientific journal like nature said every weeks statements 'we think results n't going way thought would' well economics results always go way thought would

Social science
Economics
Entrepreneurial economics


new innovations order satisfy unfulfilled market demand baumol baumol argued entrepreneurship either productive unproductive unproductive entrepreneurs may pursue economic rents crime societies differ significantly allocate entrepreneurial activities two forms entrepreneurship depending 'rules game' laws society david audretsch audretsch defines entrepreneur missing link investment knowledge growth entrepreneur adds value scientific discovery entrepreneurship capital capital labor macroeconomic model essential


archival practice presented disciplines appraisal description accessibility education ref name critical archival theory examined eurocentrism within archival practice ref name ref described mainstream archival institutions tend preserve privilege mostly white archives homogeneous portrayal significant lack diversity ref name standards universal set laws standards governs form mission archival institutions ref name cunningham adrian cunningham archival institutions ''archives recordkeeping society'' ed sue mckemmish et al wagga wagga new south wales charles sturt university centre information studies

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Archival science


preserved materials digital archives accessed usually specifying metadata content based search full text search using dedicated information retrieval approaches usually return results ranked terms relevance user queries novel retrieval methods document archives also use ranking factors contemporary relevance temporal analogy interestingness measure determine utility relevance results professional associations professional archivist associations seek foster study professional development regional professional associations smaller professional regional associations also provide local professional development


prevented year assuming universal healthcare coverage ref name leading class wikitable leading preventive interventions reducing deaths children years old worldwide ref name leading intervention percent child deaths preventable breastfeeding insecticide treated materials complementary feeding zinc clean delivery hib vaccine water sanitation hygiene antenatal steroids newborn temperature management vitamin tetanus toxoid nevirapine replacement feeding antibiotics premature rupture membranes measles vaccine antimalarial intermittent

Applied science
Medicine and health
Preventive medicine


makes prevention efforts difficult fund particularly strained financial contexts prevention potentially creates costs well due extending lifespan thereby increasing opportunities illness order assess cost effectiveness prevention cost preventive measure savings avoiding morbidity cost extending lifespan need considered life extension costs become smaller accounting savings postponing last year life makes large fraction lifetime medical expenditures becomes cheaper age prevention leads savings cost preventive


charge patients section affordable care act specifies private marketplace employer sponsored private plans except grandfathered required cover preventive care services ranked b us preventive services task force free charge patients unitedhealthcare insurance company published patient guidelines beginning year explaining preventive care coverage evaluating incremental benefits evaluating incremental benefits preventive care requires longer period time compared acutely ill patients inputs model discounting rate time


name sa ref specifically yoga sutra patanjali presents analytical approach nature mind western philosophy earliest discussions dualist ideas writings plato suggested humans' ''intelligence'' faculty mind soul could identified explained terms physical body ref name plato ref ref name rob robinson h aristotelian dualism oxford studies ancient philosophy ref however best known version dualism due ren descartes holds mind non extended non physical substance res cogitans ref name de descartes

Humanities
Philosophy
Metaphysics
Philosophy of mind


contemporary readings'' oxford university press ref mental events subjective quality whereas physical events example one reasonably ask burnt finger feels like blue sky looks like nice music sounds like person meaningless least odd ask surge uptake glutamate dorsolateral portion prefrontal cortex feels like philosophers mind call subjective aspects mental events qualia raw feels ref name ja qualia involved mental events seem particularly


events seem influence ref name dusep ref view prominently defended gottfried leibniz although leibniz ontological monist believed one type substance monad exists universe everything reducible nonetheless maintained important distinction mental physical terms causation held god arranged things advance minds bodies would harmony known doctrine pre established harmony occasionalism occasionalism view espoused


theory suggests mental physical manifestations aspects underlying substance entity process neither mental physical normally understood various formulations dual aspect monism also require mental physical complementary mutually irreducible perhaps inseparable though distinct experiential dualism philosophy mind regards degrees freedom mental physical well synonymous thus implying experiential dualism body mind example disparate degrees freedom given allan wallace notes


reality ref name blockquote indeed physicalism idea matter fundamental substance reality explicitly rejected buddhism blockquote madhyamaka view mental events less real physical events terms common sense experience differences kind exist physical mental phenomena former commonly mass location velocity shape size numerous physical attributes generally characteristic mental phenomena example commonly conceive feeling affection another person mass location physical attributes


token identity theories fact certain brain state connected one mental state person mean absolute correlation types mental state types brain state type token distinction illustrated simple example word green contains four types letters g r e n two tokens occurrences letter ''e'' along one others idea token identity particular occurrences mental events identical particular occurrences tokenings


slightly dm armstrong david kellogg lewis formulated version functionalism analyzed mental concepts folk psychology terms functional roles finally wittgenstein 's idea meaning use led version functionalism theory meaning developed wilfrid sellars gilbert harman another one psychofunctionalism approach adopted naturalistic philosophy mind associated jerry fodor zenon pylyshyn mental states characterized causal relations mental states sensory inputs behavioral outputs functionalism abstracts away details physical


illusion one individual walked class morning fact one individual personal identity time one exist one individual entered class morning non reductive physicalist view self dismissed ref name waning materialism non reductive physicalist theories attempt retain ontological distinction mind body try solve surfeit explanations puzzle way critics often see paradox point


composite object emergent metaphysically impossible another object lack property p object composed parts intrinsic properties identical parts identical configuration sometimes emergentists use example water new property hydrogen h oxygen combine form h sub sub water example emerges new property transparent liquid would predicted understanding hydrogen oxygen gases analogous physical properties brain giving rise


underlying conceptual confusion ref name hacker ref philosophers ludwig wittgenstein followers tradition linguistic criticism therefore reject problem illusory ref name witt ref argue error ask mental biological states fit together rather simply accepted human experience described different ways instance mental biological vocabulary illusory problems arise one tries describe one terms 's vocabulary mental vocabulary used wrong contexts ref


name witt case instance one searches mental states brain brain simply wrong context use mental vocabulary search mental states brain therefore category error sort fallacy reasoning ref name witt today position often adopted interpreters wittgenstein peter hacker ref name hacker however hilary putnam originator functionalism also adopted position mind body problem illusory problem dissolved according manner wittgenstein naturalism


considered foundations mental activity behavior ref name bear bear f et al eds ''neuroscience exploring brain'' baltimore maryland williams wilkins ref increasing success biology explanation mental phenomena seen absence empirical refutation fundamental presupposition change mental states person without change brain states ref name pinker within field neurobiology many subdisciplines concerned relations mental physical states processes ref name bear sensory neurophysiology investigates


selection allow giant leaps development neural complexity neural software incremental steps long time periods since sophisticated neuroimaging procedures fmri furnished increasing knowledge workings human brain shedding light ancient philosophical problems methodological breakthroughs neurosciences particular introduction high tech neuroimaging procedures propelled scientists toward elaboration increasingly ambitious research programs one main goals describe comprehend neural processes correspond mental functions see neural correlate ref name bear several


brain falls state unconsciousness ref name pmid j luce ''chronic disorders consciousness following coma part one medical issues'' ''chest'' band nummer oktober nbsp doi chest review ref philosophy mind continental tradition discussion article focused one style tradition philosophy modern western culture usually called analytic philosophy sometimes described anglo american philosophy ref name dummett ref many schools thought exist however sometimes subsumed broad vague label continental philosophy ref name dummett case though topics methods


nap mabaquiao jr https webarchiveorg web http wwwvibebookstorecom mind science computationhtml mind science computation foreword tim crane manila de la salle university publishing house celia green ''the lost cause causation mind body problem'' oxford oxford forum applies sceptical view causality problems interactionism gyatso geshe kelsang gyatso ''understanding mind'' nature power mind tharpa publications nd ed https webarchiveorg web https wwwuibkacat psychologie humanethologie einfuehrung die humanethologie dateien medicus engl coverpdf gerhard medicus human bridging gap sciences body mind berlin vwb scott robert sehon https webarchiveorg web http mitpressmitedu catalog item defaultaspttype tid teleological realism mind agency explanation cambridge mit university press external


plastic surgery transplanting organs reproductive aids even change unborn baby 's genetic structure historical physical practices france lot researchers working topic first one probably jean marie brohm writing book titled body politics delarge followed numerous authors georges vigarello wrote ''le corps redress '' christian pociello ''sports et soci '' en andr rauch ''le souci du corps'' jacques gleyse fr ''arch ologie de l'education physique au xxe si cle en france'' ''l'instrumentalisation du corps''

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of the body


excessive exercise one disorder led large increase overly thin individuals along anorexia bulimia disorder defined episodes secretive excessive eating binge eating followed inappropriate methods weight control self induced vomiting purging abuse laxatives diuretics excessive exercise also increased method used individuals world fight remain sometimes deadly thin definition bulimia disorders rooted feelings shame desire control one 's body giddens duneier appelbaum


god usually refers activity world also implies care universe thus attribute distinction usually made general providence refers god 's continuous upholding existence natural order universe special providence refers god 's extraordinary intervention life people see also sovereignty righteousness god greatest measure human conduct righteousness god may refer holiness justice saving activity christ transcendence god exists beyond natural realm physical


human one sinless person time ref name grudem ref death resurrection jesus sinful humans reconciled god thereby offered salvation promise eternal life via new covenant theological disputes nature jesus christians believe jesus god incarnate true god true man fully divine fully human jesus become fully human respects suffered pains temptations mortal man yet sin fully god defeated death


head persons godhead relationship one another christology fundamental concern first council nicaea third council constantinople time period christological views various groups within broader christian community led accusations heresy infrequently subsequent religious persecution cases sect 's unique christology chief distinctive feature cases common sect known name given christology decisions made first council nicaea ratified


holy spirit personal part godhead fully god co equal co eternal god father son god ref name erickson ref ref name hammond ref ref name cathhs ref different father son ''proceeds'' father father son described nicene creed ref name hammond sacredness reflected new testament gospels proclaim blasphemy holy spirit unforgivable english word comes two greek words ''pneuma'' spirit ''logos'' teaching pneumatology would normally include study


person holy spirit works holy spirit latter category would normally include christian teachings new birth spiritual gifts charismata spirit baptism sanctification inspiration prophets indwelling holy trinity covers many different aspects different christian denominations different theological approaches christians believe holy spirit leads people faith jesus gives ability live christian lifestyle holy spirit dwells inside every christian one 's body temple jesus described holy spirit ''paracletus'' latin derived greek


clearly world around use mind body ways exceed previous capacity list gifts may bestowed include charismatic gifts prophecy tongues healing knowledge christians holding view known cessationism believe gifts given new testament times christians almost universally agree certain spiritual gifts still effect today including gifts ministry teaching giving leadership mercy experience holy spirit sometimes referred anointed resurrection christ


believe must involved miraculous creative act others comfortable idea god worked evolutionary process book genesis also teaches human beings male female created image god exact meaning debated throughout church history death afterlife christian anthropology implications beliefs death afterlife christian church traditionally taught soul individual separates body death reunited resurrection closely related doctrine


immortality soul example westminster confession chapter xxxii states bodies men death return dust see corruption souls neither die sleep immortal subsistence immediately return god gave intermediate state question arises exactly disembodied soul go death theologians refer subject intermediate state old testament speaks place called ' 'sheol'' spirits dead reside new testament ''hades'' classical greek realm dead takes place


upon highest heavens gustave dor 's illustrations ''divine comedy'' christianity taught heaven place eternal life shared plane attained elect rather abstract experience related individual concepts ideal christian church divided people gain eternal life th late th century christendom divided catholic view eastern orthodox view coptic view jacobite view abyssinian view protestant views see also christian denominations heaven english


revival strong tradition early church dismissed saint augustine hippo roman catholic church believers spend eternity god also spend john 's vision recorded revelation describes new jerusalem comes heaven new earth seen symbolic reference people god living community one another 'heaven' place life lived full way designer planned believer


dead traditionally majority protestants held hell place unending conscious torment physical spiritual ref name acute ref although recent writers c lewis jp moreland cast hell terms eternal separation god certain biblical texts led theologians conclusion punishment hell though eternal irrevocable proportional deeds soul eg another area debate fate unevangelized ie never opportunity hear christian gospel


teaching paul apostle scriptural base ref name odcc doctrine see perhaps implied old testament passages augustine hippo wrote original sin transmitted concupiscence enfeebles freedom without destroying ref name odcc doctrine apostolic fathers apologists mostly dealt topics original sin ref name odcc doctrine doctrine original sin first developed nd century bishop lyon irenaeus 's struggle gnosticism ref name odcc doctrine greek fathers emphasized cosmic dimension fall namely


absence holiness affecting humans even children christian groups denying altogether notion original sin interpreted augustine hippo affirmed protestant reformer john calvin calvin believed humans inherit adamic guilt state sin moment conception inherently sinful nature basis calvinistic doctrine total depravity results complete alienation god total inability humans achieve reconciliation god based abilities individuals inherit sinful nature due


london bensley controversial term ''liberum arbitrium'' translated free cole however ernest gordon rupp philip saville watson ''luther erasmus free salvation'' westminister chose free choice translation ref arminius depravity humanity possesses freedom necessity freedom sin unless enabled prevenient grace ref name keith keith stanglin thomas h mccall ''jacob arminius theologian grace'' oxford university ref soteriology salvation christian soteriology branch christian theology deals one 's salvation derived greek ' 's rion'' salvation


people due sin reconciling http wwwbiblegatewaycom passage search romans version rom many christians believe receive forgiveness sins http wwwbiblegatewaycom passage book id chapter verse version context verse acts life http wwwbiblegatewaycom passage book id chapter verse version context verse rom salvation http wwwbiblegatewaycom passage book id chapter verse version context verse thess bought jesus innocent suffering death resurrection dead three days later http wwwbiblegatewaycom passage book id chapter version context chapter matt christ 's death resurrection ascension sending holy spirit called ''the paschal mystery'' christ 's human birth called ''incarnation'' either considered different versions soteriology neglecting ''paschal mystery'' many christians believe salvation brought


saviour lord one 's life distinct schools protestant teaching originating martin luther teaches salvation received grace alone one 's sole necessary response grace faith alone older christian teaching found catholic orthodox theology salvation received grace alone one 's necessary response grace comprises faith works james rom gal catholic soteriology human beings exists god wanted share life sense every human god 's child fuller sense


lake fire creation new heaven earth millenarianists seventh day adventists jehovah 's witnesses recently founded sects influential modern development doctrines though roots biblical eschatology ancient branch study christian theology study last things second coming christ first touched ignatius antioch c ad given consideration christian apologist rome justin martyr c treatment eschatology continued west teachings influential theologian


''idealist'' model also known ''spiritualist'' ''symbolic'' model approaches images ''revelation'' symbols representing larger themes concepts rather actual people events sees revelation allegorical representation ongoing struggle forces light darkness ultimate triumph good evil see also biblical law christianity eastern orthodox roman catholic theological differences outline theology references bibliography volume ''the living god'' volume ''the word life'' volume ''life spirit'' see http wwwtyndaleca seminary mtsmodular reading rooms theology christian theology reading room tyndale


often act behavioral change agents even medical roles behavioral medicine uses biopsychosocial model illness instead medical model ref name engel engel g l need new medical model challenge biomedicine ''science '' ref model incorporates biological psychological social elements approach disease instead relying biological deviation standard normal functioning origins history writings earliest civilizations alluded relationship mind body fundamental concept underlying behavioral medicine ref name matarazzo field

Applied science
Medicine and health
Behavioral Medicine


examples telemonitoring telephone video conference patient case management using range medical professionals consistently follow patient doctor patient relationship important doctors make meaningful connections relationships patients instead simply interactions often occurs system relies heavily specialist care reason behavioral medicine emphasizes honest clear communication doctor patient successful treatment illness also maintenance optimal level physical mental health obstacles


theory th century classification twentieth century shifted toward focus evolutionary relationships morphological description development phylogenetics systematics based study credited willi hennig german entomologist ''phylogenetic systematics'' published inside hennig redefined goals systematic schemes classifying living things proposed focus evolutionary relationships similar morphological features also defined monophyly included ideas hierarchical classification though hennig include information outgroup comparison apparently

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Invertebrate zoology


hantzsch ester synthesis aqueous micelles using ultrasound water pollutants especially chlorinated organic compounds destroyed sonochemically sonochemistry performed using bath usually used ultrasonic cleaning high power probe called ultrasonic horn funnels couples piezoelectric element 's energy water concentrated one typically small point sonochemistry also used weld metals normally feasible join form novel alloys metal surface distantly related method calibrating ultrasonic cleaners using sheet aluminium foil


people motivated material ideal interests include things preventing one going hell weber also explains people use symbols express spirituality symbols used express spiritual side real events ideal interests derived symbols georg simmel simmel culture refers cultivation individuals agency external forms objectified course history simmel presented analyses within context form content sociological concept analysis viewed elements

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of culture


institutionalised focus institutional settings leads investigation activities cultural sector conceived historically evolved societal forms organising conception production distribution propagation interpretation reception conservation maintenance specific cultural goods cultural institutions studies therefore specific approach within sociology culture key figures key figures today 's cultural sociology include julia adams jeffrey alexander john carroll diane crane paul dimaggio henning eichberg ron eyerman sarah gatson andreas glaeser wendy griswold eva illouz karin knorr cetina michele lamont annette lareau stjepan mestrovic philip smith margaret somers yasemin soysal dan sperber lynette spillman


yokohama men ernest satow frederick victor dickins important event development japanese studies academic discipline koreanology sub field dedicated korea korean culture korean history korean literature korean language term korean studies first began used attain widespread currency south korea rose economic prominence south korean government established korea foundation promote korean studies mongolian studies sub field dedicated mongolia mongolian culture mongolian literature

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
East Asian studies


william belsham wrote libertarianism context metaphysics early libertarian came mean advocate defender liberty especially political social spheres london packet printed february following lately marched prison bristol french libertarians used political sense short piece critiquing poem author gebir since used meaning use term ''libertarian'' describe new set political positions

Humanities
Philosophy
Social philosophy
Libertarianism


logical implications founding axioms ref name block block walter https misesorg journals jls pdf libertarianism unique belongs neither right left critique views long holcombe baden left hoppe feser paul right ''journal libertarian studies'' ''' ''' pp ref although several modern american libertarians reject political spectrum especially left right political spectrum ref name rothbard ref name read read leonard e january http wwwfeeorg freeman detail neither left right axzz vgjo jj neither left right ''the freeman'' ''' ''' ref ref name browne browne harry december http wwwharrybrowneorg articles abortionhtm libertarian stand abortion harrybrowneorg retrieved january ref ref name raimondo raimondo justin ''an


''liberal'' become associated version supports extensive government spending social policies ref name fee ''libertarian'' may also refer anarchist ideology developed th century liberal version developed united states avowedly pro capitalist ref name kymlicka ref name goodway ref name newman according polls approximately one four americans self identify ''libertarian'' ref name gallup https newsgallupcom poll gallup database survey resultsaspx gallup database survey results gallup retrieved december ref ref name pew kiley jocelyn august http wwwpewresearchorg fact tank search libertarians search libertarians pew research center say term libertarian describes well know definition


text established basis liberal political theory ie people 's rights existed government purpose government protect personal property rights people may dissolve governments representative government best form protect rights united states declaration independence inspired locke statement secure rights governments instituted among men deriving powers consent governed whenever form government becomes destructive ends right


governors governed ref name graham ref libertarian socialism ''libertarian communism'' ''libertarian marxism'' ''libertarian socialism'' terms activists variety perspectives applied views anarchist communist philosopher joseph jacque first person describe ''libertarian'' ref name dejacque joseph jacque http josephdejacquefreefr ecrits lettreapjphtm de l' tre humain le et femelle lettre pj proudhon par joseph jacque french ref unlike mutualist anarchist philosopher pierre joseph proudhon argued product labor worker right satisfaction needs whatever


free thought anti clerical activists ref name misesorg ref well young anarchist outlaws became known illegalism individual reclamation ref name illegalists http recollectionbookscom siml library illegalistsdougimriehtm illegalists doug imrie published anarchy journal desire armed ref ref name parry richard p parry richard ''the bonnot gang'' rebel press p ref european individualist anarchism individualist anarchism france authors activists included mile armand han ryner henri zisly renzo novatore miguel gim nez igualada adolf brand lev chernyi bastien faure prominent french theorist libertarian communism well atheist freethought militant follower translator


province c diz one main propagators anarchist thought area late th century considered perhaps beloved figure spanish anarchist movement th century ref name bookchin bookchin murray ''the spanish anarchists'' pp ref ideologically influenced bradlaugh owen paine whose works studied stay england kropotkin read later ref name bookchin revolutionary wave saw active participation anarchists russia europe russian anarchists participated alongside bolsheviks february


systematic form ref name againstallauthorityorg schuster eunice minette http wwwagainstallauthorityorg nativeamericananarchismhtml ''native american anarchism study left wing american individualism'' ref william batchelder greene th century mutualist individualist anarchist unitarian minister soldier promoter free banking united states greene best known works ''mutual banking'' proposed interest free banking system ''transcendentalism'' critique new england philosophical school became active labor reform ref name againstallauthorityorg elected vice president new england labor reform league majority members holding proudhon 's scheme mutual banking president


massachusetts labor union ref name againstallauthorityorg greene published ''socialistic mutualistic financial fragments'' ref name againstallauthorityorg saw mutualism synthesis liberty order ref name againstallauthorityorg associationism checked individualism 'mind business' 'judge ye judged' matters purely personal example moral conduct individual sovereign well produces reason demands 'mutuality' marriage equal right woman personal freedom property ref name againstallauthorityorg poet naturalist transcendentalist henry


considered christian communist extremely early libertarian communism modern libertarianism united states around start th century heyday individualist anarchism passed h l mencken albert jay nock first prominent figures united states describe ''libertarian'' synonym ''liberal'' believed franklin roosevelt co opted word ''liberal'' new deal policies opposed used ''libertarian'' signify allegiance classical liberalism individualism limited government ref name burns ref nock joined staff ''the nation''


asking 'what happened blacks n't militant anymore' rothbard ultimately broke left allying burgeoning paleoconservative movement criticized tendency libertarians appeal 'free spirits' people n't want push people around n't want pushed around contrast bulk americans might well tight assed conformists want stamp drugs vicinity kick people strange dress habits etc rothbard emphasized relevant matter strategy


republicans small group americans led david nolan formed libertarian party run presidential candidate every election year since libertarian organizations center libertarian studies cato institute also formed philosopher john hospers one time member rand 's inner circle proposed non initiation force principle unite groups statement later became required pledge candidates libertarian party hospers became first presidential candidate hess joined libertarian party served


successful americans identify libertarian seem hold libertarian views since resurgence neoliberalism modern american libertarianism spread beyond north america via think tanks political parties ref name teles diffusion teles steven kenney daniel spreading word diffusion american conservatism europe beyond steinmo sven https booksgooglecom booksid mfy k bwbnac ''growing apart america europe twenty first century'' cambridge university press pp ref ref name lewrockwellcom gregory anthony april http archivelewrockwellcom gregory gregory html real world politics radical libertarianism lewrockwellcom ref chicago school economics economist milton friedman made


anarchist federations founded carrara italy international anarchist conference held three existing european federations france italian iberian anarchist federation well bulgarian anarchist federation french exile ref name short history iaf ifa uprisings may also led small resurgence interest left communist ideas various small left communist groups emerged around world predominantly leading capitalist countries series conferences communist left began aim promoting international cross tendency discussion


new hampshire influence state policy active student organizations include students liberty young americans liberty number countries libertarian parties run candidates political office united states libertarian party formed third largest american political party voters total electorate registered libertarian states report libertarian registration statistics washington dc criticism criticism libertarianism includes ethical economic environmental pragmatic philosophical concerns especially relation right libertarianism including view explicit


'''peace education''' process acquiring values knowledge attitudes skills behaviors live harmony oneself others natural environment numerous united nations declarations resolutions importance peace ban ki moon un secretary general dedicated international day peace peace education effort focus minds financing preeminence peace education means bring culture peace koichiro matsuura immediate past director general unesco written peace education fundamental importance mission unesco

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Peace education


systems analysis methods tools developed largely engineering studying characterizing making predictions complex entities systems ''in study ecological system essential early procedure draw diagram system interest diagrams indicate system 's '''boundaries''' solid line within boundaries series components isolated chosen represent portion world systems analyst interested connections across systems' boundaries surrounding '' 'systems environments''' systems described

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems ecology


''closed'' ecological work however deals almost exclusively ''open'' systems'' mode scientific enquiry central feature systems ecology general application principles energetics systems scale perhaps notable proponent view howard odum sometimes considered father ecosystems ecology approach principles energetics constitute ecosystem principles reasoning formal analogy one system another enables systems ecologist see principles functioning analogous manner across system scale boundaries ht odum commonly used energy systems language


study flow energy ecological systems aims uncover principles describe propensity energy flows trophic 'energy availing' levels ecological networks systems ecology principles ecosystem energy flows ecosystem laws ie principles ecological energetics considered formally analogous principles energetics ecological humanities ecological humanities aims bridge divides sciences humanities western eastern indigenous ways knowing nature like ecocentric political theory ecological humanities characterised connectivity ontology commitment


much systems ecology considered subset ecosystem ecology ecosystem ecology also utilizes methods little holistic approach systems ecology however systems ecology actively considers external influences economics usually fall outside bounds ecosystem ecology whereas ecosystem ecology defined scientific study ecosystems systems ecology particular approach study ecological systems phenomena interact systems industrial ecology industrial ecology study industrial processes linear open loop


'''history computer science''' began long modern discipline computer science usually appearing forms like mathematics physics developments previous centuries alluded discipline know computer science ref name tedre b ref progression mechanical inventions mathematical theories towards modern computer concepts machines led development major academic field massive technological advancement across western world basis massive worldwide trade culture prehistory '''john napier''' inventor logarithms earliest known tool use computation abacus

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
History of computer science


developed period bce sumer sumerians' abacus consisted table successive columns delimited successive orders magnitude sexagesimal number system ref name ifrah ref original style usage lines drawn sand pebbles abaci modern design still used calculation tools today chinese abacus th century bc ancient india grammarian p ini formulated grammar sanskrit rules known ashtadhyayi highly systematized technical panini used metarules transformations recursions


''one'' unpunched spot indicated binary ''zero'' jacquard 's loom far computer illustrate machines could driven binary systems ref name tedre emergence discipline '''charles babbage''' one first pioneers computing charles babbage ada lovelace charles babbage often regarded one first pioneers computing beginning babbage vision mechanically computing numbers tables putting reality babbage designed calculator compute numbers decimal points long continuing


gates work unpublished first published proof henry sheffer nand logical operation sometimes called sheffer stroke logical sometimes called ''peirce 's arrow'' ref name b ninglettmann ref consequently gates sometimes called ''universal logic gates'' ref name bird ref eventually vacuum tubes replaced relays logic operations lee de forest 's modification fleming valve used logic gate ludwig wittgenstein introduced version row truth table proposition ''tractatus logico philosophicus'' walther bothe inventor coincidence circuit got


became common computers able perform calculations performed previous human clerks since values stored digital machines bound physical properties like analog devices logical computer based digital equipment able anything could described purely mechanical theoretical turing machine created alan turing hypothetical device theorized order study properties hardware mathematical foundations modern computer science began laid kurt g del incompleteness theorem theorem showed


transmit work one theoretical foundations many areas study including data compression cryptography '''norbert wiener''' created term cybernetics wiener cybernetics experiments anti aircraft systems interpreted radar images detect enemy planes norbert wiener coined term cybernetics greek word steersman published cybernetics influenced artificial intelligence wiener also compared computation computing machinery memory devices cognitive similarities analysis brain waves '''john von neumann''' introduced computer architecture known von neumann architecture john


von neumann von neumann architecture model computer architecture introduced became known ''von neumann architecture'' since von neumann model provided uniformity subsequent computer designs von neumann architecture considered innovative introduced idea allowing machine instructions data share memory space von neumann model composed three major parts arithmetic logic unit alu memory instruction processing unit ipu von neumann machine design ipu passes addresses memory memory turn routed either


data instructions registers include ir instruction register ibr instruction buffer register mq multiplier quotient register mar memory address register mdr memory data register ref name von neumann architecture also uses program counter pc keep track program machine ref name von neumann john mccarthy''' seen one founding fathers artificial intelligence john mccarthy marvin minsky artificial intelligence term artificial intelligence credited john mccarthy explain research proposal dartmouth summer


indet'' hopeful future work would discover new anthropoid china eleven years later swedish geologist johan gunnar andersson sent china mining advisor soon developed interest dragon bones discovered sites around zhoukoudian village kilometers southwest beijing however sparse nature initial finds site abandoned work resume austrian paleontologist otto zdansky fresh doctoral degree vienna came beijing work andersson zdansky conducted

Social science
Archaeology
Palaeoanthropology


short term excavations locality recovered two teeth significance one premolar one molar subsequently described cautiously ''homo sp'' zdansky done zdansky returned austria suspended fieldwork news fossil hominin teeth delighted scientific community beijing plans developing larger systematic project zhoukoudian soon formulated epicenter excitement davidson black canadian born anatomist working peking union medical college black shared andersson interest well view central asia promising


partial mandibles isolated teeth postcranial elements estimated represent least individuals evidence fire marked ash lenses burned bones stones apparently also present although recent studies challenged view franz weidenreich came beijing soon black untimely death took charge study hominin specimens following loss peking man materials late scientific endeavors zhoukoudian slowed primarily lack funding frantic search missing fossils took place continued well establishment


poem ancient indian poet vallana ce side wall building haagweg leiden netherlands sanskrit studied western scholars since late th century th century '''sanskrit studies''' played crucial role development field comparative linguistics indo european languages british raj western scholars edited many sanskrit texts survived manuscript form study sanskrit grammar philology remains important field indology indo european studies history

Humanities
Theology
Hindu theology
Sanskrit Studies


death destroyer worlds reference trinity test well known nineteenth century golden age western sanskrit scholarship many giants field whitney macdonnell monier williams grassmann knew personally perhaps commonly known example sanskrit west also last gasp vogue eliot student indian philosophy sanskrit lanman ended ''the waste land'' sanskrit shantih shantih shantih current usage study sanskrit taught many south asia studies linguistics departments western universities


addition also used worship hindu temples west hindu liturgical language sanskrit revival attempts underway amongst expatriate hindu populations similarly sanskrit study also popular amongst many western practitioners yoga find language useful understanding yoga sutra see also sanskrit grammarians hinduism west international alphabet sanskrit transliteration sacred books east hindu american foundation hindu denominations hindu temple society north america ganesh temple queens hindu university america sanskrit prosody ''invading sacred'' list hindu temples


phenomena eg marriage patterns foraging behaviors etc breaking sets components involving decisions constraints better position create models make predictions involving human behavior example would examining marriage systems examining ecological context mate preferences distribution particular characteristics within population forth conditional strategies human behavioral ecologists assume might adaptive strategy one environment might adaptive strategy another environment conditional strategies therefore represented following statement environmental

Social science
Anthropology
Human Behavioral Ecology


context x engage adaptive strategy environmental context engage adaptive strategy b phenotypic gambit phenotypic gambit refers simplifying assumption complex traits behavioural traits modelled controlled single distinct alleles representing alternate strategies words phenotypic gambit assumes selection favour traits high fitness irrespective particulars inheritance modeling theoretical models human behavioral ecologists employ include limited optimal foraging theory states organisms focus consuming energy expending


cross mathilde ''crux gemmata'' made mathilde abbess essen shown kneeling virgin child enamel plaque figure christ slightly later probably made cologne essen cross demonstrates several medieval techniques cast figurative sculpture filigree enamelling gem polishing setting reuse classical cameos engraved gems history europe '''middle ages''' '''medieval period''' lasted approximately th late th centuries similarly post classical period global history began fall

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history
Medieval


th century north africa middle east recently part eastern roman byzantine empire came rule umayyad caliphate islamic empire conquest muhammad 's successors although substantial changes society political structures break classical antiquity complete still sizeable byzantine empire rome 's direct continuation survived eastern mediterranean remained major power secular law advanced greatly ''code justinian'' west kingdoms incorporated extant roman institutions new bishoprics monasteries founded christianity expanded europe


calamities including famine plague war significantly diminished population europe black death killed third europeans controversy heresy western schism within catholic church paralleled interstate conflict civil strife peasant revolts occurred kingdoms cultural technological developments transformed european society concluding late middle ages beginning early modern period terminology periodisation middle ages one three major periods enduring scheme analysing european history classical civilisation antiquity middle ages


writers divided history periods six ages four empires considered time last end world ref name mommsen mommsen petrarch 's conception 'dark ages' ''speculum'' pp ref referring times spoke modern ref name dailyx singman ''daily life'' p x ref italian humanist poet petrarch referred pre christian times ''antiqua'' ancient christian period ''nova'' new ref name idea knox https webarchiveorg web http wwwboisestateedu courses latemiddleages renaissance historyrenshtml history idea renaissance ref petrarch regarded post roman centuries dark compared


class decreasing numbers willing shoulder burdens holding office native towns ref name heather heather ''fall roman empire'' p ref bureaucrats needed central administration deal needs army led complaints civilians tax collectors empire tax payers ref name brown emperor diocletian r split empire separately administered eastern western halves empire considered divided inhabitants rulers legal administrative promulgations one division considered valid


empire especially within christian church caused problems ref name bauer bauer ''history medieval world'' pp ref visigoths invaded western roman empire although briefly forced back italy sacked city rome ref name bauer bauer ''history medieval world'' pp ref alans vandals suevi crossed gaul next three years spread across gaul crossed pyrenees mountains modern day spain ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' pp ref migration period began various peoples initially largely germanic peoples moved across europe franks alemanni


roman italy late fifth century theoderic great set kingdom marked co operation italians ostrogoths least last years theodoric 's reign ref name james james ''europe 's barbarians'' pp ref burgundians settled gaul earlier realm destroyed huns formed new kingdom today 's geneva lyon grew become realm burgundy late th early th centuries ref name james james ''europe 's barbarians'' pp ref elsewhere gaul franks celtic


plague led rest justinian 's reign concentrating defensive measures rather conquests ref name bauer bauer ''history medieval world'' pp ref emperor 's death byzantines control italy north africa small foothold southern spain justinian 's reconquests criticised historians overextending realm setting stage early muslim conquests many difficulties faced justinian 's successors due taxation pay wars essentially civilian nature empire made raising


emperors pay tribute remained strong power ref name james james ''europe 's barbarians'' pp ref ref name curta curta ''southeastern europe'' pp nbsp ref additional problem face empire came result involvement emperor maurice r persian politics intervened succession dispute led period peace maurice overthrown persians invaded reign emperor heraclius r controlled large chunks empire including egypt syria anatolia heraclius' successful counterattack empire secured peace treaty recovered


much less documented nobility surviving information available historians comes archaeology detailed written records documenting peasant life remain th century descriptions lower classes come either law codes writers upper classes ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' p ref landholding patterns west uniform areas greatly fragmented landholding patterns areas large contiguous blocks land norm differences allowed wide variety peasant societies dominated aristocratic landholders others


popes prior concerned byzantine affairs eastern theological controversies register archived copies letters pope gregory great pope survived letters vast majority concerned affairs italy constantinople part western europe papacy influence britain gregory sent gregorian mission convert anglo saxons christianity ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref irish missionaries active western europe th th centuries going


th century monastic ideals spread egypt western europe th th centuries hagiographical literature ''life anthony'' ref name lawrence lawrence ''medieval monasticism'' pp ref benedict nursia wrote benedictine rule western monasticism th century detailing administrative spiritual responsibilities community monks led abbot ref name lawrence lawrence ''medieval monasticism'' pp ref monks monasteries deep effect religious political life early middle ages various cases acting land trusts powerful families centres propaganda royal


support newly conquered regions bases missions proselytisation ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref main sometimes outposts education literacy region many surviving manuscripts latin classics copied monasteries early middle ages ref name hamilton hamilton ''religion medieval west'' pp ref monks also authors new works including history theology subjects written authors bede native northern england wrote late th early th centuries ref name colish colish ''medieval foundations'' pp ref


kingdom hands two sons charles r carloman r carloman died natural causes charles blocked succession carloman 's young son installed king united austrasia neustria charles often known charles great charlemagne embarked upon programme systematic expansion unified large portion europe eventually controlling modern day france northern italy saxony wars lasted beyond rewarded allies war booty command parcels land ref name bauer bauer ''history medieval world''


medieval europe'' p ref also marks change charlemagne 's relationship byzantine empire assumption imperial title carolingians asserted equivalence byzantine state ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref several differences newly established carolingian empire older western roman empire concurrent byzantine empire frankish lands rural character small cities people peasants settled small farms little trade existed much british isles scandinavia


contrast older roman empire trading networks centred mediterranean ref name backman empire administered itinerant court travelled emperor well approximately imperial officials called counts administered counties empire divided clergy local bishops served officials well imperial officials called ''missi dominici'' served roving inspectors troubleshooters ref name davies davies ''europe'' p ref carolingian renaissance charlemagne 's court aachen centre cultural revival sometimes referred carolingian renaissance literacy increased development


field work ref name daily singman ''daily life'' pp ref townswomen like peasant women responsible household could also engage trade trades open women varied country period ref name daily singman ''daily life'' pp ref noblewomen responsible running household could occasionally expected handle estates absence male relatives usually restricted participation military government affairs role open women church nuns unable become priests ref name daily central northern italy flanders


late th century medicine also studied especially southern italy islamic medicine influenced school salerno ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref technology military portrait cardinal hugh saint cher tommaso da modena first known depiction spectacles th th centuries europe experienced economic growth innovations methods production major technological advances included invention windmill first mechanical clocks manufacture distilled spirits use astrolabe ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' p ref concave spectacles invented around


fields problems lower rents lower demand food cut agricultural income urban workers also felt right greater earnings popular uprisings broke across europe ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref among uprisings ''jacquerie'' france peasants' revolt england revolts cities florence italy ghent bruges flanders trauma plague led increased piety throughout europe manifested foundation new charities self mortification flagellants scapegoating


around baltic sea hanseatic league commercial confederation city states traded western europe russia ref name davies davies ''europe'' p ref scotland emerged english domination robert bruce r secured papal recognition kingship ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp ref collapse byzantium although palaeologi emperors recaptured constantinople western europeans never able regain control much former imperial lands usually controlled small section balkan peninsula near constantinople city coastal lands black


period development printing press led establishment publishing houses throughout europe ref name davies davies ''europe'' p ref early th century countries iberian peninsula began sponsor exploration beyond boundaries europe prince henry navigator portugal sent expeditions discovered canary islands azores cape verde lifetime death exploration continued bartolomeu dias went around cape good hope vasco da gama sailed around africa india


natural sciences follow reason observation wherever led ref name qpeters quoted peters science religion ''encyclopedia religion'' p ref caricature period also reflected specific notions one misconception first propagated th century ref name flat russell ''inventing flat earth'' pp ref still common people middle ages believed earth flat ref name flat untrue lecturers medieval universities commonly argued evidence showed earth sphere lindberg ronald numbers another scholar period state


buying selling cyber capabilities highest bidder without regard consequences denial service attack computing denial service attack dos attack distributed denial service attack ddos attack attempt make machine network resource unavailable intended users perpetrators dos attacks typically target sites services hosted high profile web servers banks credit card payment gateways even root nameservers dos attacks often leverage internet connected devices vulnerable security measures carry large scale attacks dos attacks may limited computer based methods strategic physical attacks

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Cyberwarfare


state security services lead hacking attacks nato computers studying computer sciences ''department defense information'' tuition paid fsb sweden january sweden 's armed forces subjected cyber attack caused shutdown called caxcis system used military exercises ukraine according crowdstrike russian apt fancy bear used android malware target ukrainian army 's rocket forces artillery distributed infected version android app whose original purpose


statement falsely reported normal business resumed august however middle eastern journalist leaked photographs taken september showing kilometers petrol trucks unable loaded due backed business systems still inoperable tanker trucks unable loaded gasoline due shamoon attacks august attackers behind shamoon posted another pastie pastebincom taunting saudi aramco proof still retained access company network post contained username password security network equipment new password ceo khalid


attempted break systems us rest world north america united states cyberwarfare united states part american military strategy proactive cyber defence use cyberwarfare platform attack new united states military strategy makes explicit cyberattack ''casus belli'' traditional act war mike j rogers member united states house representatives cyberwarfare first time considered larger threat al qaeda terrorism many


militarization cyberspace development stockpiling offensive exploits malware ref name fiff ref measures cyberpeace include policymakers developing new rules norms warfare individuals organizations building new tools secure infrastructures promoting open source establishment cyber security centers auditing critical infrastructure cybersecurity obligations disclose vulnerabilities disarmament defensive security strategies decentralization education widely applying relevant tools infrastructures encryption cyberdefenses ref name fiff topics cyber peacekeeping cyber peacemaking also studied researchers way restore strengthen peace aftermath


sue drums cyberwar review andy greenberg ''sandworm new era cyberwar hunt kremlin 's dangerous hackers'' doubleday pp ''the new york review books'' vol lxvi december pp nbsp woltag johann christoph 'cyber warfare' '' http wwwmpepilcom r diger wolfrum ed max planck encyclopedia public international law oxford university press '' external links https ccdcoeorg nato cooperative cyber defence centre excellence ccdcoe https twittercom cyberwar cyberwar twitter feed richard stiennon http cyberwarzonecom cyberwar news community reza rafati '''videos''' https wwwcbsnewscom news cyber war sabotaging system sabotaging system video minutes


reduces refuse increases effectiveness resources esem looks minimize impact industrial processes environment therefore notion recycling industrial products important esem case study florida everglades florida everglades system prime example complex ecological system underwent esem analysis background florida everglades located southern florida ecosystem essentially subtropical fresh water marsh composed variety flora fauna ref name everglades everglades comprehensive everglades restoration plan april ref particular note saw grass

Earth systems engineering and management