artificial light sources however light pollution growing problem viewing night sky special filters modifications light fixtures help alleviate problem best views professional amateur optical astronomers seek viewing sites located far major urban areas order avoid light pollution earth 's sky among reasons many telescopes put outside earth 's atmosphere light pollution also atmospheric distortion obscuration minimized commonly observed objects commonly observed objects tend ones

Natural science
Space science
Astronomy
Optical astronomy


require telescope view moon meteors planets constellations stars moon commonly observed astronomical object especially amateur astronomers skygazers due several reasons moon brightest object night sky moon largest object night sky moon long significant many cultures basis many calendars moon also require kind telescope binoculars see effectively making extremely convenient common people observe meteors often


viet cong base camp burned vietnam war american private first class pfc stands '''asymmetric warfare''' '''asymmetric engagement''' term given describe type war belligerents whose relative military power differs significantly whose strategy tactics differ significantly typically war standing professional army insurgency resistance movement militias often status unlawful combatants ''asymmetric warfare'' describe conflict two belligerents' resources differ essence struggle interact attempt exploit 's characteristic

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Asymmetric warfare


expected rather correlation forces academic authors tend focus explaining two puzzles asymmetric conflict first power determines victory conflict would weaker actors decide fight stronger actors key explanations include weaker actors may secret weapons ref name paul ref weaker actors may powerful allies ref name paul stronger actors unable make threats credible ref name allen ref demands stronger actor extreme ref name allen weaker actor must consider regional rivals responding threats powerful actors second


component fourth generation warfare practiced outside laws war often defined terrorism though rarely practitioners supporters view asymmetric warfare coincide terrorism use terrain terrain limits mobility forests mountains used force multiplier smaller force force inhibitor larger force especially one operating far logistical base terrain called ' 'difficult terrain'' urban areas though generally good transport access provide innumerable ready made defensible positions easy


encouraged spread fire throughout largely loyalist town spread propaganda blaming british shortly afterwards destroyed remaining houses grounds might provide cover british soldiers rebels also adopted form asymmetric sea warfare using small fast vessels avoid royal navy capturing sinking large numbers merchant ships however crown responded issuing letters marque permitting private armed vessels undertake similar attacks patriot shipping john paul jones became notorious britain expedition france little


first philippine republic sovereign independent socially stable philippines led ''ilustrado'' intellectual oligarchy ref name deady p ref local chieftains landowners businessmen ''principales'' controlled local politics war strongest ''illustrados'' ''principales'' peasants unified opposition annexation ref name deady p peasants provided bulk guerrilla manpower interests different ''illustrado'' leaders ''principales'' villages ref name deady p coupled ethnic geographic fragmentation unity daunting task challenge aguinaldo generals sustain unified filipino public opposition


revolutionaries' strategic center gravity ref name deady p filipino operational center gravity ability sustain force irregulars field ref name deady p ref filipino general francisco macabulos described filipinos' war aim vanquish us army inflict constant losses initially sought use conventional tactics increasing toll us casualties contribute mckinley 's defeat presidential election ref name deady p hope president avowedly anti imperialist future secretary state william jennings bryan would withdraw philippines ref name deady p


considered cost effective politically successful caused drain resources manpower ussr turned contributing factor collapse polity post cold war nato bombing yugoslavia kosovo war pitted nato airpower yugoslav armed forces exemplifies international conflict asymmetry weapons strategy tactics st century israel palestine ongoing conflict israel palestinian organizations hamas islamic jihad classic case asymmetric warfare israel powerful army air force


conflict resolution'' jonathan b tucker '' https webarchiveorg web http forumrautkedu summer asymmetrichtm asymmetric warfare '' page analysis summer https archivetoday http jdwjanescom subscribe jdw doc view printjspk dockey content janesdata mags jdw history jdw jdw htm current prod name jdw showupdate false asymmetry fables jane 's defence weekly august david buffaloe 'defining asymmetric warfare' '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwausaorg pdfdocs lwpapers lwp pdf '' september http washingtonpostcom wp dyn content article ar html gates assails pentagon resources battlefields ''the washington post'' april mandel robert reassessing victory warfare ''armed forces society'' jul vol pp nbsp mandel robert wartime utility precision versus brute force weaponry ''armed forces society'' jan vol pp nbsp warfare type military strategy warfare


high cost total abatement system comprises expensive inexpensive efforts consequently modern command control regulations oftentimes designed way addresses issues incorporating utility parameters instance co sub sub emission standards specific manufacturers automotive industry either linked average vehicle footprint us system average vehicle weight eu system entire vehicle fleet environmental economic regulations find cheapest emission abatement efforts first move expensive methods eg said earlier trading

Social science
Economics
Environmental economics


environmental economists trained economists apply tools economics address environmental problems many related called market failures circumstances wherein invisible hand economics unreliable ecological economists trained ecologists expanded scope work consider impacts humans economic activity ecological systems services vice versa field takes premise economics strict subfield ecology ecological economics sometimes described taking pluralistic approach environmental problems focuses


economic activity outside soviet bloc acquisition vital resources noneconomic means military outside soviet bloc third world withholding minerals west important way getting around cobalt situation resource war situation use substitutes material end uses criteria satisfactory substitute ready availability domestically adequate quantities availability contiguous nations possibly overseas allies possessing physical chemical properties performance longevity comparable material first choice well established known behavior

Social science
Economics
Resource economics


dissipated available longer usable durable product reclamation durable product depends resistance chemical physical breakdown quantities available price availability ease extraction original product example bismuth stomach medicine hopelessly scattered dissipated therefore impossible recover bismuth alloys easily recovered recycled good example recycling makes big difference resource availability situation graphite flake graphite recovered renewable resource called kish steelmaking waste created carbon


obtained pyrites gypsum anhydrite metals copper zinc nickel lead obtained manganese nodules phosphoria formation sic changes could occur irregularly different parts world europe north america might use anorthosite clay raw material aluminum parts world might use bauxite north america might use taconite brazil might use iron ore new materials appear note result technological advances acting substitutes new properties recycling


zinc billion tonnes aluminum billion tonnes iron diverse authors contributions think number substitutes almost infinite particularly flow new materials chemical industry identical end products made different materials starting points plastics good electrical conductors since materials times weaker theoretically ought possible eliminate areas dislocations greatly strengthen enabling lesser quantities used summarize mining companies


also use fewer workers technology reduces costs offsets declines metal content ore reserves thus variety minerals metals obtainable unconventional sources resources available huge quantities finally perpetual resource astm definition perpetual resource one virtually inexhaustible human time scale examples given include solar energy tidal energy wind energy added salt stone magnesium diamonds materials mentioned study biogeophysical aspects sustainability came rule


stochastic process math x colon omega rightarrow math defined probability space math omega mathcal f p math '''law''' stochastic process math x math defined image measure center math mu p circ x math center math p math probability measure symbol math circ math denotes function composition math x math pre image measurable function equivalently math math valued random variable math x math math math space possible math math valued functions math math law stochastic process probability measure ref name kallenberg page ref name rogerswilliams page ref name frizvictoir page ref name resnick page ref measurable subset math b math math math pre image math x math gives center math

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Probability theory
Stochastic process


fair game ref name steele page used many areas probability one main reasons studying ref name williams page ref name steele page ref ref name kallenberg page ref many problems probability solved finding martingale problem studying ref name steele page ref martingales converge given conditions moments often used derive convergence results due largely martingale convergence theorems ref name hallheyde page ref name steele page ref ref name grimmettstirzaker page ref martingales many applications statistics remarked use application widespread could field


interpretations point process random counting measure random set ref name chiustoyan page ref ref name haenggi page ref authors regard point process stochastic process two different objects point process random object arises associated stochastic process ref name daleyvere jones page ref ref name coxisham page ref though remarked difference point processes stochastic processes clear ref name coxisham page authors consider point process stochastic process process indexed sets underlying space ref ref name mollerwaagepetersen page ref corresponds index set stochastic process terminology


kolmogorov used measure theory develop axiomatic framework probability theory publication book widely considered birth modern probability theory theories probability stochastic processes became parts mathematics ref name bingham ref name cramer publication kolmogorov 's book fundamental work probability theory stochastic processes done khinchin kolmogorov well mathematicians joseph doob william feller maurice fr chet paul l vy wolfgang doeblin harald cram r ref name bingham ref name cramer decades later cram r referred heroic period mathematical probability


bachelier 's thesis translated english work never forgotten mathematical community bachelier published book detailing ideas ref name jovanovic cited mathematicians including doob feller ref name jovanovic kolmogorov ref name jarrowprotter book continued cited starting original thesis bachelier began cited book economists started citing bachelier 's work ref name jovanovic albert einstein published paper studied physical observation brownian motion movement explain seemingly random movements particles


approach used separability assumption ref name asmussen page ref name getoor ref stochastic process based approach automatically separable ref name borovkov page ref although less used separability assumption considered general every stochastic process separable version ref name getoor also used possible construct stochastic process skorokhod space ref name borovkov page example separability assumed constructing studying random fields collection random variables indexed sets real line math n math dimensional euclidean space ref name adlertaylor page ref name yakir page ref see also


environmental determinism often also support behavioral determinism key proponents notion included ellen churchill semple ellsworth huntington thomas griffith taylor possibly jared diamond although status environmental determinist debated determinism prediction technological determinist might suggest technology like mobile phone greatest factor shaping human civilization 'deterministic' theories actually seek highlight importance particular factor predicting future theories often use factor sort guide constraint future need suppose complete knowledge

Humanities Philosophy Metaphysics Determinism


internal state existing physical mental capacities determine responses triggers much broader societal level structural determinists believe larger issues society especially pertaining minorities subjugated communities predominantly assessed existing structural conditions making change prevailing conditions difficult sometimes outright impossible example concept applied politics race united states america western countries united kingdom australia structural determinists lamenting structural factors prevalence racism countries additionally marxists


human agency ability people act critics argue politicians academics social activists capability bring significant change despite stringent structural conditions free philosophers debated truth determinism truth free creates four possible positions figure compatibilism refers view free sense compatible determinism three incompatibilist positions deny possibility hard incompatibilists hold free incompatible determinism indeterminism libertarianists determinism


else done instead something else done instead implies something else something else implies something else could done something else could done implies free free done ''x'' cannot make moral judgment ''x'' done history determinism developed greek philosophers th th centuries bce pre socratic philosophers


fatalism steps connect initial cause results would make impossible observational data correct false hypotheses often combined argument brain fixed views arguments mere constructs causal effect conclusions science would impossible use arguments would meaningless waste energy persuasive effect brains fixed views mathematical models many mathematical models physical systems deterministic true models involving


''absolutely'' order photons reach detector screen argue course universe absolutely determined humans screened knowledge determinative factors say ''appears'' things proceed merely probabilistically determinative way actuality proceed absolutely deterministic way john bell criticized einstein 's work famous bell 's theorem proved quantum mechanics make statistical predictions would violated local hidden variables really existed number experiments tried verify predictions far


appear violated current experiments continue verify result including loophole free test plugged known sources error cosmic bell test experiment used cosmic data streaming different directions toward earth precluding possibility sources data could prior interactions however possible augment quantum mechanics non local hidden variables achieve deterministic theory agreement experiment example bohm interpretation quantum mechanics bohm 's interpretation though violates special relativity highly controversial whether


english translation g temmer ''m canique quantique'' john wiley sons vol chapter iv section iii online version http wwwdrabruzzicom nagel determinism historypdf found nowak vallacher rr tesser borkowski w society self emergence collective properties self structure ''psychological review'' reading george musser cosmos random einstein 's assertion god play dice universe misinterpreted ''scientific american'' vol september pp nbsp external links http platostanfordedu entries determinism causal stanford encyclopedia philosophy entry causal determinism https webarchiveorg web http etextlibvirginiaedu cgi local dhi dhicgiid dv determinism history ''dictionary


scherzo flat russian romantic era composer alexander borodin jazz rock pop songwriters typically write newly composed songs lead sheet notates melody chord progression tempo style song eg slow blues jazz rock genre musicians may memorize melodies new song means need provide chord chart guide improvising musicians '''musical composition''' refer original '''piece''' work music either vocal instrumental structure musical piece

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Musical composition


write one instrument case called solo solos may unaccompanied works solo piano solo cello solos may accompanied another instrument ensemble composers limited writing instruments may also decide write voice including choral works symphonies operas musicals composers also write percussion instruments electronic instruments alternatively case musique concr te composer work many sounds often associated creation music typewriters


sirens forth elizabeth swados' ''listening loud'' explains composer must know full capabilities instrument must complement compete gives example earlier composition tuba playing piccolo would clearly drown piccolo instrument chosen piece must reason adds composer trying convey within work arranging arranging composition employs prior material


'''atomic molecular optical physics''' '''amo''' study matter matter light matter interactions scale one atoms ref name nap ref energy scales around several electron volts ref name drake ref ref name chen ref three areas closely interrelated amo theory includes classical semi classical quantum treatments typically theory applications emission absorption scattering electromagnetic radiation light excited atoms molecules analysis spectroscopy generation lasers masers optical properties matter general fall categories atomic molecular physics '''atomic physics''' subfield

Natural science
Physics
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics


scales result believed electrons revolved around proton niels bohr combined rutherford model atom quantisation ideas planck specific well defined orbits electron could exist also radiate light jumping orbit electron would emit absorb light corresponding difference energy orbits prediction energy levels consistent observation ref name haken results based ' 'discrete'' set specific standing waves inconsistent ''continuous'' classical oscillator model ref name haken work


problem treated quantum mechanically treated classically dependent specific problem hand semi classical approach ubiquitous computational work within amo largely due large decrease computational cost complexity associated matter action laser fully quantum mechanical treatment atomic molecular system combined system action classical electromagnetic field ref name haken since field treated classically deal spontaneous emission ref name haken semi classical treatment valid systems ref


name drake particular action high intensity laser fields ref name drake distinction optical physics quantum optics use semi classical fully quantum treatments respectively ref name drake within collision dynamics using semi classical treatment internal degrees freedom may treated quantum mechanically whilst relative motion quantum systems consideration treated classically ref name drake considering medium high speed collisions nuclei treated classically electron treated quantum mechanically low speed collisions approximation fails ref name drake classical monte carlo methods


'''pathology''' study causes effects disease injury word ''pathology'' also refers study disease general incorporating wide range biology research fields medical practices however used context modern medical treatment term often used narrower fashion refer processes tests fall within contemporary medical field general pathology area includes number distinct inter related medical specialties diagnose disease mostly analysis tissue cell body fluid samples idiomatically


integumentary system organ unique two paths physician take obtain specialization general pathologists general dermatologists train pathology skin term dermatopathologist denotes either reached certainly level accreditation experience us either general pathologist dermatologist undergo year fellowship field dermatopathology completion fellowship allows one take subspecialty board examination becomes board certified dermatopathologist dermatologists


high magnification micrograph section cardiac tissue reveals advanced cardiac amyloidosis sample attained autopsy histopathology refers microscopic examination various forms human tissue specifically clinical medicine histopathology refers examination biopsy surgical specimen pathologist specimen processed histological sections placed onto glass slides ref name carson ref contrasts methods cytopathology uses free cells tissue fragments histopathological examination tissues starts surgery biopsy autopsy tissue removed


glomerulus tubules interstitium vessels combination compartments surgical pathology brain biopsy stereotaxy small part tumor taken via needle vacuum system surgical pathology one primary areas practice anatomical pathologists surgical pathology involves gross microscopic examination surgical specimens well biopsies submitted surgeons non surgeons general internists medical subspecialists dermatologists interventional radiologists often excised tissue sample best definitive evidence disease lack thereof cases tissue


sometimes considered specialty dentistry pathology ref name neville ref oral pathologists must complete three years post doctoral training accredited program subsequently obtain diplomate status american board oral maxillofacial pathology specialty focuses diagnosis clinical management investigation diseases affect oral cavity surrounding maxillofacial structures including limited odontogenic infectious epithelial salivary gland bone soft tissue pathologies also significantly intersects field dental pathology although concerned broad variety diseases


pathology laboratory medicine pathologists may pursue specialised fellowship training within one subspecialties either anatomical clinical pathology subspecialties permit additional board certification others united kingdom pathologists physicians licensed uk general medical council training become pathologist oversight royal college pathologists four six years undergraduate medical study trainees proceed two year foundation program full time training histopathology currently lasts five five half years includes specialist training surgical


vast majority lab work research pathology concerns development disease humans pathology significance throughout biological sciences two main catch fields exist represent complex organisms capable serving host pathogen form disease veterinary pathology concerned non human species kingdom animalia phytopathology studies disease plants veterinary pathology veterinary pathology covers vast array species significantly smaller number practitioners understanding disease non human animals especially regards veterinary practice varies considerably


noun genitive genitive noun order adjective standard comparison adjective standard standard adjective order verb adpositional phrase verb adpositional phrase adpositional phrase verb order verb manner adverb verb manner adverb manner adverb verb order copula predicative copula predicate predicate copula order auxiliary verb content verb auxiliary content verb content verb auxiliary place adverbial subordinator clause clause initial subordinators

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Linguistic typology


avoidance word orderings cause processing difficulty languages however exhibit regular inefficient patterning include vo languages chinese adpositional phrase verb finnish postpositions profoundly exceptional languages ref name processing ref morphosyntactic alignment another common classification distinguishes nominative accusative alignment patterns ergative absolutive ones language cases classification depends whether subject intransitive verb case agent patient p transitive verb language cases word order avp


form plosive languages fricatives chart showing breakdown voicing properties among languages aforementioned sample class wikitable yes total yes style text align center style text align center style text align center style text align center total style text align center ref name song languages worldwide also vary number sounds use languages go


consonants contain member set average languages contain least one member large consonant inventories greater consonants contain member set seen complex consonants proportion size inventory vowels contain modest number phonemes average languages survey third languages larger average vowel inventories interesting though lack relationship consonant inventory size vowel inventory size


statistical unrestricted meaning apply languages without additional conditions conversely absolute statistical universals restricted implicational meaning characteristic true condition something else characteristic true x characteristic true see also grammaticalization sources references bibliography bisang w aspects typology universals berlin akademie verlag comrie b language universals linguistic typology syntax morphology oxford blackwell nd edn croft w typology universals cambridge cambridge nd ed


k k lysines tail histone h histone acetyltransferase enzymes hats generally related transcriptional competence one mode thinking tendency acetylation associated active transcription biophysical nature normally positively charged nitrogen end lysine bind negatively charged phosphates dna backbone acetylation event converts positively charged amine group side chain neutral amide linkage removes positive charge thus loosening dna histone occurs complexes like


x inactivation ref name li ref name li ref emphasize difference molecular mechanism inheritance canonical watson crick base pairing mechanism transmission genetic information term 'epigenetic templating' introduced furthermore addition maintenance transmission methylated dna states principle could work maintenance transmission histone modifications even cytoplasmic structural heritable states ref name pmid ref histones h h also manipulated demethylation using histone lysine demethylase kdm recently identified enzyme catalytically active site called jumonji domain jmjc demethylation occurs jmjc utilizes multiple cofactors


dietary supplementation genistein nbsp mg kg epigenetic changes affecting expression agouti gene affects fur color weight propensity develop cancer ref name pmid ref ref name waterland ref ongoing research focused exploring impact known teratogens diabetic embryopathy methylation signatures controversial results one study suggested traumatic experiences might produce epigenetic signal capable passed future generations mice trained using foot shocks fear cherry blossom odor investigators reported mouse offspring increased aversion specific odor suggested epigenetic changes


disorders angelman syndrome prader willi syndrome produced genetic mutation chromosome q partial deletion particular syndrome develop depends whether mutation inherited child 's mother father ref name pmid ref due presence genomic imprinting region beckwith wiedemann syndrome also associated genomic imprinting often caused abnormalities maternal genomic imprinting region chromosome methyl cpg binding protein mecp transcriptional regulator must phosphorylated releasing bdnf promoter allowing


fuzzy logic analyzed thing underlying logic neural networks fuzzy neural network take variety valued inputs give different weights relation arrive decision normally also value nowhere process anything like sequences either decisions characterize non fuzzy mathematics almost computer programming digital electronics witnessed debate ai would eventually look like researchers tried model 'common sense' huge bivalent decision trees

Formal science
Computer science
Logic in computer science
Fuzzy logic


question start notion find extension g del 's theorems fuzzy logic fuzzy databases fuzzy relations defined possible develop fuzzy relational databases first fuzzy relational database frdb appeared maria zemankova 's dissertation later models arose like buckles petry model prade testemale model umano fukami model gefred model jm medina vila et al fuzzy querying languages defined sqlf p bosc et al fsql j galindo et al languages define structures order


often constructed general purpose grid middleware software libraries grid sizes quite large grids form distributed computing whereby super virtual computer composed many networked loosely coupled computers acting together perform large tasks certain applications distributed grid computing seen special type parallel computing relies complete computers onboard cpus storage power supplies network interfaces etc connected computer network private public conventional network interface ethernet contrast traditional notion supercomputer

Formal science
Computer science
Distributed computing
Grid computing


many processors connected local high speed computer bus technology applied computationally intensive scientific mathematical academic problems volunteer computing used commercial enterprises diverse applications drug discovery economic forecasting seismic analysis back office data processing support e commerce web services grid computing combines computers multiple administrative domains reach common goal ref name autogenerated ref solve single task may disappear quickly size grid may vary small confined network computer workstations within corporation


sla management trust security virtual organization management license management portals data management technical areas may taken care commercial solution though cutting edge area often found within specific research projects examining field market segmentation grid computing market segmentation grid computing market two perspectives need considered provider side user side provider side overall grid market comprises several specific markets grid middleware market market grid enabled applications utility computing market software service


workstations like full featured batch systems htcondor provides job queueing mechanism scheduling policy priority scheme resource monitoring resource management used manage workload dedicated cluster computers well seamlessly integrate dedicated resources rack mounted clusters non dedicated desktop machines cycle scavenging one computing environment history term ''grid computing'' originated early metaphor making computer power easy access electric power grid power grid metaphor accessible computing quickly became canonical ian foster carl kesselman published


distributed system enables sharing selection aggregation geographically distributed autonomous resources dynamically runtime depending availability capability performance cost users' quality service requirements cern one largest users grid technology talk '''the grid''' service sharing computer power data storage capacity internet see also related concepts cloud computing code mobility jungle computing sensor grid utility computing alliances organizations open grid forum formerly global grid forum object management group production grids european grid infrastructure enabling grids e science infn production grid nordugrid ourgrid sun grid techila xgrid univa


services nbsp vol pp nbsp nbsp http wwwindersciencecom search indexphpaction record rec id prevquery ps electronic edition


treaty nations violated terms treaty suffer great consequences actions within little decade treaty abandoned geneva protocol lasted longer successful respected still nations violated felt need enforcement haphazard measures matter politics adherence terms meant sanctions measures tended advocated violators primarily natural political enemies violations ignored

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Arms control


one remains agreement competitors also participatory may held limitations terms withdrawal releases opponents make developments making limiting advantage development theory arms control scholars practitioners john steinbruner jonathan dean stuart croft worked extensively theoretical backing arms control arms control meant break security dilemma aims mutual security partners overall stability crisis situation grand strategy stability put end


arms control treaty considered modern industrial era leading demilitarization great lakes lake champlain region north america followed treaty washington led total demilitarization industrial revolution led increasing mechanization warfare well rapid advances development firearms increased potential devastation later seen battlefields world war led tsar nicholas ii russia calling together leaders nations first hague conference


nuclear material peaceful uses nuclear weapons auspices united nations partial test ban treaty aimed end nuclear weapons testing atmosphere underwater outer space established nuclear non proliferation treaty npt signed prevent spread nuclear weapons technology countries outside five already possessed united states soviet union united kingdom france china three main goals establishing nonproliferation inspections nuclear arms reduction right use nuclear energy peacefully treaty initially met


kenneth w ed ''presidents arms control process procedures problems'' university press america us arms control disarmament agency ''arms control disarmament agreements texts histories negotiations'' wheeler bennett sir john ''disarmament security since locarno political technical background general disarmament conference '' new york howard fertig external links https archiveorg searchphpquery title arms control b collection cuny ol sort date online books arms control https fasorg sgp crs nuke rl pdf arms control nonproliferation catalog treaties agreements congressional research service may https webarchiveorg web http wwwcounterwmdgov national counterproliferation center office director national intelligence http disarmamentunorg un


minutes south equator quito ecuador ''astronomy'' greek ''astron'' star '' nomia'' ''nomos'' law culture means law stars culture stars depending translation astronomy confused astrology belief system claims human affairs correlated positions celestial objects although two fields share common origin entirely distinct ref name new cosmos ref use terms astronomy astrophysics astronomy astrophysics synonyms ref name scharrinhausen ref ref name odenwald ref ref name pennstateerie ref based strict dictionary definitions astronomy refers


approximately nbsp nbsp nm ref name cox light wavelengths absorbed earth 's atmosphere requiring observations wavelengths performed upper atmosphere space ultraviolet astronomy best suited study thermal radiation spectral emission lines hot blue stars ob stars bright wave band includes blue stars galaxies targets several ultraviolet surveys objects commonly observed ultraviolet light include planetary nebulae supernova remnants active galactic nuclei ref name cox however ultraviolet


astrophysical relativity serves tool gauge properties large scale structures gravitation plays significant role physical phenomena investigated basis black hole ''astro'' physics study gravitational waves widely accepted studied theories models astronomy included lambda cdm model big bang dark matter fundamental theories physics examples process class wikitable '''physical process''' '''experimental tool''' '''theoretical model''' '''explains predicts''' gravitation radio telescopes self gravitating system


understanding large scale structure cosmos galaxies organized distinct shapes allow classification schemes commonly divided spiral elliptical irregular galaxies name suggests elliptical galaxy cross sectional shape ellipse stars move along random orbits preferred direction galaxies contain little interstellar dust star forming regions older stars elliptical galaxies commonly found core galactic clusters may formed mergers large galaxies spiral galaxy organized flat


found within solar system including origins elements variations isotope ratios fields represent overlap disciplines astronomy chemistry forensic astronomy finally methods astronomy used solve problems law history amateur astronomy amateur astronomers build equipment hold star parties gatherings stellafane astronomy one sciences amateurs contribute collectively amateur astronomers observe variety celestial objects phenomena sometimes equipment build common targets


amateur astronomers include sun moon planets stars comets meteor showers variety deep sky objects star clusters galaxies nebulae astronomy clubs located throughout world many programs help members set complete observational programs including observe objects messier objects herschel catalogues points interest night sky one branch amateur astronomy amateur astrophotography involves taking photos night sky many amateurs like specialize observation particular objects types objects


nitrogen oxygen cycle ipcc emissions scenarios oceanic changes ocean acidification effects global warming oceans changes stratosphere see physical impacts climate change solid waste management resource recovery life cycle assessment source reduction collection transfer operations recycling waste energy conversion landfill mass balance consider man made chemical wish find fate relation time position phase matter flow liquid represent measured change concentration function rates change effect clump

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Environmental engineering


phosphorus disinfect water discharge surface water stream ocean outfall air pollution management scientists developed air pollution dispersion models evaluate concentration pollutant receptor impact overall air quality vehicle exhausts industrial flue gas stack emissions extent field overlaps desire decrease carbon dioxide greenhouse gas emissions combustion processes environmental impact assessment mitigation water pollution environmental engineers apply scientific engineering principles evaluate likely adverse impacts water


picture illustrates variety transportation systems public transportation private vehicle road use rail '''transport economics''' branch economics founded american economist john r meyer deals allocation resources within transport sector strong links civil engineering transport economics differs branches economics assumption spaceless instantaneous economy hold people goods flow networks certain speeds demands peak advance ticket purchase often induced lower fares networks may

Social science
Economics
Transport economics


excluded education work places public transport car viable option creates unnecessary strain roads environment since automobile use tends greater public transportation use also becomes norm people work towards car ownership private car ownership led large allocation resources towards road bridge maintenance underfunding public transportation prevents everyone needs transportation access choose public transportation private transportation choose private transportation rather face


religious tradition marxist derives thought body critical social economic thought post structuralist 's work emerges twentieth century continental philosophy language darwinian modern evolutionary synthesis late canadian literary critic northrop frye attempted establish approach reconciling historical criticism new criticism addressing concerns early reader response numerous psychological social approaches approach laid ''anatomy criticism'' explicitly structuralist relying assumption intertextual order words universality certain structural types approach

Humanities
Languages and literature
Literary theory


held sway english literature programs several decades lost favor ascendance post structuralism theories literature especially certain kinds formalism distinction literary sorts texts paramount importance schools particularly post structuralism various forms new historicism deconstruction strains marxism feminism sought break distinctions two applied tools textual interpretation wide range texts including film non fiction historical writing even cultural events mikhail bakhtin argued utter inadequacy literary theory


burke paul b nichou barbara johnson blanca de lizaur see also communication theory list literary terms list literary movements dramatic theory critical theory literary criticism text literary theory school resentment notes references peter barry ''beginning theory introduction literary cultural theory'' jonathan culler ''literary theory short introduction'' oxford oxford university press terry eagleton ''literary theory introduction'' terry eagleton ''after theory'' jean michel rabat ''the future theory'' ''the johns hopkins guide literary theory criticism'' ''modern criticism theory reader'' ed david lodge


'''literary criticism''' '''literary studies''' study evaluation interpretation literature modern literary criticism often influenced literary theory philosophical discussion literature 's goals methods though two activities closely related literary critics always always theorists whether literary criticism considered separate field inquiry literary theory conversely book reviewing matter controversy example ''johns hopkins guide literary theory criticism'' draws distinction literary theory literary criticism almost

Humanities
Languages and literature
Literary theory
Literary criticism


pulp genre fiction ecocritics drawn connections literature natural sciences darwinian literary studies studies literature context evolutionary influences human nature postcritique sought develop new ways reading responding literary texts go beyond interpretive methods critique many literary critics also work film criticism media studies write intellectual history others bring results methods social history bear reading literature value academic criticism value extensive literary analysis questioned several prominent artists vladimir nabokov wrote


doctrine'' boethius ''the consolation philosophy'' aquinas ''the nature domain sacred doctrine'' dante ''the banquet'' ''letter grande della scala'' boccaccio ''life dante'' ''genealogy gentile gods'' christine de pizan ''the book city ladies'' bharata muni ''natya shastra'' rajashekhara ''inquiry literature'' valmiki ''the invention poetry'' ''ramayana'' anandavardhana ''light suggestion'' cao pi ''a discourse literature'' lu ji ''rhymeprose literature'' liu xie ''the literary mind'' wang changling ''a discussion literature meaning'' sikong tu ''the twenty four classes poetry'' renaissance period lodovico castelvetro ''the


knowledge concept ''the intellectual'' political citizen public society dates th century identifies man woman professionally engaged critical thinking applicable improving society nonetheless anyone explored thoughts paper subject intellectual history instance ''the cheese worms'' carlo ginzburg study th century italian miller menocchio cosmology falls within genre intellectual history well cultural history history mentalities microhistory history


latter term often used refer western history ancient mediterranean beginning recorded greek history bc year first olympiad roughly coincides traditional date founding rome bc beginning history ancient rome beginning archaic period ancient greece academic term history fundamentally study past either scientific archaeology examination physical evidence humanistic study history texts poetry linguistics although


ending date ancient history disputed western scholars use fall western roman empire ad used closure platonic academy ad death emperor justinian ad coming islam rise charlemagne end ancient classical european history outside europe difficulties time frame transition ancient post classical times time period ancient history starting roughly bc world population already exponentially increasing


world areas civilisation bronze smelting became foundation advanced societies contrast new world societies often still preferred stone metal utilitarian purposes modern historians identified five original civilisations emerged time period ref name haviland ref sumer fertile crescent indus valley ancient south asia erlitou north china plain norte chico andes olmec mesoamerica first civilisation emerged sumer southern region mesopotamia part modern day iraq bc sumerian city states collectively formed civilisation


separate civilisations trade networks smaller due lack draft animals wheel empires immense military strength remained fragile civil wars economic decline changing political environment internationally ad han china collapsed warring states european roman empire began suffer turmoil rd century crisis persia regime change took place parthian empire centralized sassanian empire land based silk road continued deliver profits trade came continual assault nomads northern frontiers


practiced inhabitants among fields science technology pursued india metallurgy astronomy mathematics ayurveda ancient inventions include plastic surgery cataract surgery hindu arabic numeral system wootz steel history science technology china shows significant advances science technology mathematics astronomy first recorded observations comets supernovae made china traditional chinese medicine acupuncture herbal medicine also practiced ancient greek technology developed unprecedented speed th century bc continuing including roman period beyond inventions


ancient china egypt greece india persia mesopotamia rome timelines comparative timeline timeline imagesize width height plotarea left right top bottom alignbars justify colors id time value rgb id period value rgb id age value rgb id era value rgb id eon value rgb id filler value gray background bar id black value black period till timeaxis orientation horizontal scalemajor unit year increment start scaleminor unit year increment start bardata bar ages text historical ages bar time text age bar blank bar sw asia text south west asia bar mes text mes bar elam text elam bar ach text ach bar blank bar africa text africa bar egypt text egypt


elamite till text middle elamite till text neo elamite bar ach color era till text achaemenid empire bar rrt color era till text kura araxes culture till text hayasa azzi till text nairi till text urartu till text kingdom armenia antiquity timeline ancient near east considered cradle civilisation first practice intensive year round agriculture created first coherent writing system invented potter 's wheel vehicular mill wheel created first centralized governments law codes empires well


persian empires preceded followed parthian empire led arsacid dynasty reunited ruled significant portions near east beyond defeating disposing hellenistic seleucid empire beginning late rd century nbsp bc third native dynasty ancient iran median achaemenid dynasties parthia many wars roman republic subsequently roman empire marked start would years frequent roman persian wars sassanid empire lasting length late antiquity period


bc region became desiccated settlements began decline likely relocating koumbi saleh type architecture pottery believed tichit related subsequent ghana empire old jenne djenne began settled around bc producing iron sizeable population evidenced crowded cemeteries inhabitants creators settlements periods thought ancestors soninke people south asia timeline imagesize width height plotarea width height left bottom alignbars justify colors id time value rgb id period value rgb


ashoka 's empire friendly terms maurya empire strong alliance existed devanampiya tissa ashoka india sent arahat mahinda four monks novice sent sri lanka encountered devanampiya tissa mihintale meeting devanampiya tissa embraced buddhism order monks established country devanampiya tissa guided arahat mahinda took steps firmly establish buddhism country period ad known classical age north india reunited gupta empire c ad


sangam age traded graeco roman world contact phoenicians romans greeks arabs syrians jews chinese ref name blandstrom bjorn landstrom miller j innes thomas puthiakunnel koder leslie brown ref regions south asia primarily present day india pakistan estimated largest economy world st th centuries ad controlling one third one quarter world 's wealth time mughals whence rapidly declined british rule east asia timeline imagesize


first continuous great wall use forced labour invasions launched southward annex vietnam emperor 's death rebels rose qin 's brutal reign new civil wars ultimately han dynasty arose ruled china four centuries accounted long period prosperity brief interruption xin dynasty han dynasty played great role developing silk road would transfer wealth ideas millennia also invented paper though han enjoyed great military economic success strained


adjacent china profoundly influenced interactions chinese civilisation mongolia korea vietnam often war paid tribute annexed imperial chinese states yayoi japan though occupied interactions imperial china shaped cultural development mongolia ancient times nomadic ethnicities cultures languages modern mongolian territory fluid changed frequently use horses herd migrate started iron age tengriist horse riding pastoral kingdoms close contact sedentary agrarian chinese appease aggressive nomads local


japan nanyue century political maneuvers annexed han dynasty bc originally han lenient governors attempted integrate vietnamese upper class chinese patriarchy chinese abuse certain vassals led famous futile revolt trung sisters afterwards chinese authorities ruled vietnam directly attempted push chinese culture upon populace though peasants continued speak vietnamese vietnam would chinese domination millennium meanwhile south vietnam held completely different identity populated mainly cham people northern vietnam came chinese domination


age peoples huns left practically written records record happened time left mongolian plateau arrived europe years later last mention northern xiongnu defeat chinese lake barkol fled western steppe kangju centered city turkistan kazakhstan chinese records rd th centuries suggest small tribe called yueban remnants northern xiongnu distributed steppe kazakhstan hun xiongnu connection controversial best


wide range lands far west ireland iberian peninsula far east galatia central anatolia far north scotland early centuries ad following expansion roman empire great migrations germanic peoples celtic culture become restricted british isles insular celtic continental celtic languages extinct mid st millennium ad migration germanic peoples britain northern germany southern scandinavia attested th century eg undley bracteate based bede 's ''historia ecclesiastica gentis anglorum''


descendants three germanic tribes angles saxons jutes jutland peninsula lower saxony germany angles may come angeln bede wrote nation came britain leaving land empty spoke closely related germanic dialects anglo saxons knew englisc word english derives term 'viking' refers member norse scandinavian peoples famous explorers warriors merchants pirates raided colonized wide areas europe beginning late th century norsemen used famed longships travel viking


refer proposed training logistics schedules problems dantzig studied time dantzig published simplex algorithm john von neumann developed theory duality year notable researchers mathematical optimization include following richard bellman roger fletcher ronald howard fritz john narendra karmarkar william karush leonid khachiyan bernard koopman harold kuhn l szl lov sz arkadi nemirovski yurii nesterov lev pontryagin r tyrrell rockafellar naum z shor albert tucker major subfields convex programming studies case objective function convex minimization concave maximization

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Mathematical optimization


jokes likely existed thousands years one earliest recorded hoaxes western history drummer tedworth communication hoaxes accomplished almost manner fictional story communicated person via word mouth via words printed paper communications technology advanced speed hoaxes spread also advanced rumor ghostly drummer spread word mouth impact relatively small area first grow gradually however hoaxes could

Journalism, media studies and communication


deliberate hoaxes examples politics related hoaxes belgium country flemish speaking region french speaking region french speaking television channel rtbf interrupted programming spoof report claiming country split two royal family fled march imedi television station georgia broadcast false announcement russia invaded georgia psychologist peter hancock identified six steps characterise truly successful hoax ref name hancock ref identify constituencya person group people reasons piety patriotism greed truly care


creation identify particular dream make hoax appeal constituency create appealing specified hoax ambiguities creation discovered find least one champion actively support hoax make people care either positively negativelythe ambiguities encourage interest debate types graphic showing differences misinformation disinformation hoax presented wikimedia research hoaxes vary widely processes creation propagation entrenchment time examples include academic hoaxes sokal affair grievance studies affair art world hoaxes bruno hat art hoax arranged london july


'''obstetrics''' field study concentrated pregnancy childbirth postpartum period medical specialty obstetrics combined gynecology discipline known obstetrics gynecology ob gyn surgical field main areas prenatal care prenatal care important screening various complications pregnancy includes routine office visits physical exams routine lab tests gallery class center image ultrasound image fetusjpg ultrasound fetus weeks gestational age image sucking thumb wavingjpg fetus weeks image dultrasound weeksjpg fetus weeks gallery first trimester

Applied science
Medicine and health
Obstetrics


routine tests first trimester pregnancy generally include complete blood count blood type rh negative antenatal patients receive rhogam weeks prevent rh disease indirect coombs test agt assess risk hemolytic disease newborn rapid plasma reagin test screen syphilis rubella antibody screen hbsag test screen hepatitis b testing chlamydia gonorrhea indicated mantoux test tuberculosis urinalysis culture hiv screen genetic screening syndrome trisomy edwards syndrome trisomy national standard united states rapidly evolving away


standard country women reach mid pregnancy increased risk family history prior birth history third trimester hematocrit low mother receives iron supplements group b streptococcus screen positive woman receives iv penicillin ampicillin labor allergic penicillin alternative therapy iv clindamycin iv vancomycin glucose loading test glt screens gestational diabetes nbsp mg dl glucose tolerance test gtt administered fasting glucose nbsp mg dl suggests gestational diabetes


trace produced foetal monitoring device cardiotocograph provide pain relief either nitrous oxide opiates epidural anaesthesia done anaesthestists anaesthesiologist nurse anaesthetist caesarean section associated risk vaginal delivery foetal maternal compromise complications emergencies main emergencies include ectopic pregnancy embryo implants uterine fallopian tube rarely ovary inside peritoneal cavity may cause massive internal bleeding pre eclampsia disease defined combination signs symptoms related


placenta previa uterine rupture tears uterine atony retained placenta placental fragments bleeding disorders puerperal sepsis ascending infection genital tract may happen labour signs look include signs infection pyrexia hypothermia raised heart rate respiratory rate reduced blood pressure abdominal pain offensive lochia blood loss increased lochia clots diarrhea vomiting postpartum period world health organization makes distinction use ''postpartum care'' concerns care mother giving birth ''postnatal care'' care


babies delivered opposed practice since time immemorial midwife attending home woman labour institution provided male midwives endless patients practice techniques way men demonstrate knowledge ref name martell ref many midwives time bitterly opposed involvement men childbirth male practitioners also opposed involvement medical men like midwifery even went far say male midwives undertook midwifery solely perverse erotic satisfaction accoucheurs argued involvement midwifery


doctor many european royals th president united states james garfield shot sims controversial medical past beliefs time pain prejudice towards african people practiced surgical skills developed skills slaves women first patients modern gynecology one women operated named anarcha westcott woman first treated fistula historical role gender women men inhabited different roles natal care


diagnose treat sources pelvic abdominal pain perhaps famously used provide definitive diagnosis endometriosis exploratory laparotomy nbsp may used investigate level progression benign malignant disease assess repair damage pelvic organs various surgical treatments urinary incontinence including cystoscopy sub urethral slings surgical treatment pelvic organ prolapse including correction cystocele rectocele appendectomy nbsp often performed remove site painful endometriosis implantation prophylactically future acute appendicitis time hysterectomy caesarean section may also

Applied science
Medicine and health
Gynaecology


practitioner 's skin color gender may legally viewed refusing care turkey due patient preference seen another female male gynaecologists working field number legal challenges us healthcare providers started hiring based gender physicians dr mircea veleanu argued part former employers discriminated accommodating wishes female patients requested female doctors intimate exams ref name nytimescom ref male nurse complained advert female obstetrics


minor injuries exacerbations chronic disease small proportion critically ill injured ref name flipside ref therefore emergency physician requires broad knowledge procedural skills often including surgical procedures trauma resuscitation advanced cardiac life support advanced airway management must core skills many medical specialities ability resuscitate patient intensive care medicine manage difficult airway anesthesiology suture complex laceration plastic surgery set fractured bone dislocated joint orthopaedic surgery treat heart attack cardiology manage strokes neurology work pregnant patient vaginal bleeding obstetrics

Applied science
Medicine and health
Emergency medicine


many emergency physicians work urgent care settings emergency medicine also includes many aspects acute primary care shares family medicine uniqueness seeing patients regardless age gender organ system emergency physician workforce also includes many competent physicians medical skills specialities physicians specializing emergency medicine enter fellowships receive credentials subspecialties palliative care critical care medicine medical toxicology wilderness medicine pediatric emergency medicine sports medicine disaster medicine tactical medicine ultrasound pain medicine pre hospital emergency medicine undersea hyperbaric medicine practice


rescue transport services well private hospitals emergency departments may supplemented backed non specialist medical officers visiting general practitioners rural emergency departments sometimes run general practitioners alone sometimes non specialist qualifications emergency medicine history french revolution seeing speed carriages french flying artillery maneuvered across battlefields french military surgeon dominique jean larrey applied idea ambulances flying carriages rapid transport wounded soldiers central place medical care accessible


british association accident emergency medicine subsequently became british association emergency medicine baem intercollegiate faculty accident emergency medicine faem became daughter college six royal medical colleges england scotland arrange professional examinations training baem faem became single unit form college emergency medicine royal college emergency medicine conducts membership fellowship examinations publishes guidelines standards practice emergency medicine financing practice organization reimbursement many hospitals


critical care medicine alternative attending physician one following specialities anesthesiology internal medicine cardiology gastro enterology pneumology rheumatology urology general surgery plastic reconstructive surgery orthopedic surgery neurology neurosurgery pediatrics follow supra speciality program years become emergency medicine specialist chile chile emergency medicine begins journey chile first speciality program beginning university chile university santiago chile currently primary speciality legally recognised ministry health since multiple training


hours per year emergency medicine challenge examination special competence emergency medicine thus become specialized ref name cfpc ccfp em emergency physicians outnumber frcp em physicians ratio tend work primarily clinicians minor focus academic activities teaching research frcp em emergency medicine board specialists tend congregate academic centres academically oriented careers emphasize administration research critical care disaster medicine teaching also tend sub specialize toxicology critical care pediatric emergency medicine sports medicine furthermore


'''community''' since humans social animals '''rituals''' used bound community together social animals require rules '''ethics''' requirement society requirement religion shinto daoism folk natural religions ethical codes '' 'supernatural''' may may include deities since religions deities theravada buddhism daoism religion may '''belief''' religions belief system belief systems imply logical model religions display internal contradictions lack evidence falsehoods '''magical thinking''' creates explanations


incomes obtain advanced professional degrees united states humanities indicators humanities indicators unveiled american academy arts sciences first comprehensive compilation data humanities united states providing scholars policymakers public detailed information humanities education primary higher education humanities workforce humanities funding research public humanities activities modeled national science board 's science engineering indicators humanities indicators source reliable benchmarks guide analysis state humanities


suited multicultural world live ref name autogenerated nussbaum martha ''cultivating humanity'' ref conscience might take form passive one allows effective self reflection extend active empathy facilitates dispensation civic duties responsible world citizen must engage ref name autogenerated disagreement however level influence humanities study individual whether understanding produced humanistic enterprise guarantee identifiable positive effect people humanistic theories practices three major branches knowledge natural sciences social sciences humanities


vietnamese people also developed specific sensibilities styles calligraphy incorporating chinese influences japan example japanese calligraphy go set cjk strokes also include local alphabets hiragana katakana specific problematics new curves moves specific materials japanese paper '''' japanese ink korea case korean calligraphy hangeul existence circle required creation new technique usually confuses chinese calligraphers vietnam page ''the tale ki u''

Humanities
Visual arts
Applied arts
Calligraphy


calligraphy considered suyat calligraphy south asia india religious texts frequent purpose indian calligraphy monastic buddhist communities members trained calligraphy shared responsibility duplicating sacred scriptures jaina traders incorporated illustrated manuscripts celebrating jaina saints manuscripts produced using inexpensive material like palm leave birch fine calligraphy nepal nepalese calligraphy primarily created using ranjana script script along derivatives like lantsa phagpa kutila used nepal tibet bhutan leh mongolia coastal japan korea write om mani padme hum sacred


means script alphabet epigraphic south arabian letters used inscriptions th century though south arabian language since mt early inscriptions ge'ez ge'ez script dated early th century bce sort proto ge'ez written esa since th century bce ge'ez literature begins christianization ethiopia civilization axum th century reign ezana axum ge'ez script read left right adapted write


medieval times decorative carpet page may precede literature filled ornate geometrical depictions bold hued animals lindisfarne gospels ce early example chinese islamic calligraphy western calligraphic script employed use strict rules shapes quality writing rhythm regularity letters geometrical order lines page character often still precise stroke order unlike typeface irregularity characters' size style colors increases aesthetic value though content may illegible many themes


business community associations modern mayan brotherhoods use mayan hieroglyphs symbols groups archaeological sites mexico chichen itza labna uxmal edzna calakmul etc glyphs structures carved stone monuments known stele common sources ancient mayan calligraphy persia bowl kufic calligraphy th century brooklyn museum example showing nastaliq 's proportional rules '''persian calligraphy''' present persian region islamisation zoroastrianism beautiful clear writings always praised believed ancient persian script invented bce provide


monument inscriptions achaemenid kings scripts consisted horizontal vertical diagonal nail shape letters called script nails cuneiform script '''' persian centuries later scripts pahlavi avestan scripts used ancient persia pahlavi middle persian script developed aramaic script became official script sassanian empire ce persian avestan alphabet alefb p rsi avest yi created louren menezes d'almeida alternative script writing persian avestan languages contemporary scripts nasta'liq style


popular contemporary style among classical persian calligraphy scripts persian calligraphers call bride calligraphy scripts calligraphy style based strong structure changed little since mir ali tabrizi found optimum composition letters graphical rules fine tuned past seven centuries strict rules graphical shape letters combination letters words composition whole calligraphy piece modern calligraphy revival edward johnston founder modern western calligraphy work


audio video graphics transmitted internet viewing listening internet digital media platforms youtube vimeo twitch accounted viewership rates billion hours digital media examples digital media include software digital images digital video video games web pages websites social media digital data databases digital audio mp electronic documents electronic books digital media often contrasts print media printed books newspapers magazines traditional analog media photographic film audio tapes


print media bankruptcy many major newspapers rise digital journalism also created thousands new jobs specializations e books self publishing changing book industry digital textbooks media inclusive curricula changing primary secondary education ref name policy ref academia digital media led new form scholarship also called digital scholarship making open access open science possible thanks low cost distribution new fields study grown digital humanities digital history changed way libraries used role


music unlicensed tiktok several music licensing agreements various artists labels creating library fair legal use music however cover bases users user could still commit copyright violation example accidentally music playing stereo background recording laptop screen playing song online magazines digital magazines one first largest targets copyright issues according audit bureau circulations report march definition medium


digital magazine involves distribution magazine content electronic means may replica ref name referencea location guimar es portugal url http elpubscixnet data works att elpub contentpdf title future digital magazine publishing access date november display editors etal archive url https webarchiveorg web http elpubscixnet data works att elpub contentpdf archive date november url status dead ref definition considered outdated pdf replicas print magazines longer common practice days digital magazines refer magazines specifically created interactive digital platform internet mobile phones private networks ipad device ref name referencea barriers digital magazine distribution thus decreasing however platforms also broadening scope digital magazines


industry piracy directly breaks laws morals copyright ref name along piracy digital media contributed ability spread false information fake news due widespread use digital media fake news able receive notoriety notoriety enhances negative effects fake news creates result peoples' health well directly affected see also electronic media media psychology virtual artifact digital continuity content creation references reading ram n reichert annika richterich pablo abend mathias fuchs karin wenz eds ''digital culture society'' information science library science mass media


reforestation trees planted tended given area trees provide numerous environmental social economic benefits people many regions forest industry major ecological economic social importance united states producing timber country world third party certification systems provide independent verification sound forest stewardship sustainable forestry become commonplace many areas since certification systems developed response criticism forestry practices particularly deforestation less developed regions along concerns resource management developed


world topographically severe forested terrain proper forestry important prevention minimization serious soil erosion even landslides areas high potential landslides forests stabilize soils prevent property damage loss human injury loss life foresters foresters austral university chile valdivian forests san pablo de tregua chile foresters work timber industry government agencies conservation groups local authorities urban parks boards citizens' associations private landowners forestry profession includes wide diversity jobs educational requirements ranging


building forest engineering operations required agriculture forest leaders also trying understand climate change legislation affect information gathered provide data determine role agriculture forestry new climate change regulatory system ref name galegroup forestry science past centuries forestry regarded separate science rise ecology environmental science reordering applied sciences line view forestry primary land use science comparable agriculture headings


fundamentals behind management natural forests comes way natural ecology forests tree plantations whose primary purpose extraction forest products planned managed utilizing mix ecological agroecological principles many regions world considerable conflict forest practices societal priorities water quality watershed preservation sustainable fishing conservation species preservation genetic diversity forestry provenance forest reproductive material used plant forests great influence trees develop hence important use forest reproductive


severe weather events damaged million hectares forests mainly temperate boreal domains furthermore marginal populations many tree species facing new threats due climate change ref name vries countries europe recommendations guidelines selecting species provenances used given site zone ref name konnert education history forestry education first dedicated forestry school established georg ludwig hartig hungen wetterau hesse though forestry taught earlier central europe including


able get truth many reasons believe god sufficient agnostic become theist enough believe ancient holy book even though accurately analyzed without bias proves trustworthy admirable taught school neither enough realize probable personal god would show human beings live considering much trouble enough believe


texts dates nbsp bce millennium earlier surviving evidence culture comparable musical thought mesopotamian texts music united use terminology music according approximate dating texts use years china much chinese music history theory remains unclear ref name lam ref chinese theory starts numbers main musical numbers twelve five eight twelve refers number pitches scales constructed l shi chunqiu nbsp bce recalls

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Music theory


subsequently led sui tang theory musical modes ref name lam arabic countries persian countries medieval arabic music theorists include group n ab suf ya'q b al kindi bagdad nbsp ce uses first twelve letters alphabet describe twelve frets five strings oud producing chromatic scale degrees ya ibn al munajjim baghdad author ''ris la f al q '' treatise music ms gb lbl oriental describes pythagorean tuning oud system eight modes perhaps inspired ishaq al mawsili ab n na r mu ammad al f r bi persia


based work read translated later europeans th century treatise carefully maintains distance actual practice music focusing mostly mathematical proportions involved tuning systems moral character particular modes several centuries later treatises began appear dealt actual composition pieces music plainchant tradition end ninth century hucbald worked towards precise pitch notation neumes used record plainchant guido d'arezzo' wrote letter michael pomposa


music progresses pitches used may change introduce different scale music transposed one scale another various purposes often accommodate range vocalist transposition raises lowers overall pitch range preserves intervallic relationships original scale example transposition key c major major raises pitches scale c major equally whole tone since interval relationships remain unchanged transposition may unnoticed listener however qualities may change noticeably transposition changes


london melody pop goes weasel melody file pop goes weaselogg melody series tones ''perceived entity'' sounding succession typically move toward climax tension resolve state rest melody prominent aspect much music construction qualities primary interest music theory basic elements melody pitch duration rhythm tempo tones melody usually drawn pitch systems scales modes melody may consist increasing degree figure motive semi phrase


conventional staff notation include roman numerals figured bass much used baroque era chord letters sometimes used modern musicology various systems chord charts typically found lead sheets used popular music lay sequence chords musician may play accompaniment chords improvise solo harmony barbershop quartets us navy group sing part pieces made melody line normally second highest voice called lead harmony parts music harmony use simultaneous pitches tones notes chords


music yet standardized nomenclature called psychoacoustician 's multidimensional waste basket category everything cannot labeled pitch loudness accurately described analyzed fourier analysis methods results combination sound frequencies attack release envelopes qualities tone comprises timbre principally determined two things relative balance overtones produced given instrument due construction eg shape material envelope sound including changes overtone structure time


amount reduce notated duration violin players use variety techniques perform different qualities ' 'staccato'' manner performer decides execute given articulation usually based context piece phrase many articulation symbols verbal instructions depend instrument musical period eg viol wind classical baroque etc set articulations instruments voices perform common long short ''legato'' smooth connected ''tenuto'' pressed played full notated duration ''marcato'' accented detached ' 'staccato'' separated


comprise expression include dynamic indications forte piano phrasing differing qualities timbre articulation color intensity energy excitement devices incorporated performer performer aims elicit responses sympathetic feeling audience excite calm otherwise sway audience 's physical emotional responses musical expression sometimes thought produced combination parameters sometimes described transcendent quality sum measurable quantities pitch duration expression instruments closely related


minor major chromatic scales minor major triads dominant diminished sevenths formula patterns arpeggios example triads sevenths teach play chords accuracy speed scales teach move quickly gracefully one note another usually step arpeggios teach play broken chords larger intervals many components music found compositions example scale common element classical romantic era compositions heinrich schenker argued musical technique 's striking distinctive characteristic repetition works known tudes meaning


press reference malm william p ''music cultures pacific near east asia'' third edition reference manik liberty ''das arabische tonsystem im mittelalter'' leiden e j brill reference mee nicolas pist mologie une musicologie analytique ''musurgia'' nos reference mee nicolas schenker 's ''inhalt'' schenkerian semiotics preliminary study ''the dawn music semiology essays honor jean jacques nattiez'' j dunsby j goldman ed rochester rochester university press reference middleton richard ''studying popular music'' milton keynes philadelphia open university press cloth pbk reference middleton richard form '' https booksgooglecom booksid gy w ziqwqc key terms popular music


universit berlin reference read gardner ''music notation manual modern practice'' second edition boston allyn bacon reprinted london gollancz reprinted london gollancz reprinted new york taplinger publishing reference samson jim http wwwoxfordmusiconlinecom subscriber article grove music genre ''grove music online'' edited deane root oxford music online accessed march reference schenker heinrich nd ''free composition'' translated edited ernst oster new york london longman reference schoenberg arnold ''structural functions harmony'' revised edition corrections edited leonard stein london boston faber faber reference scholes percy form ''the oxford companion


press brill mark music ancient maya new venues research paper presented ams sw conference fall texas state university brown james murray ''a handbook musical knowledge'' vols london trinity college music accessed may cheong kong f description ceramic musical instruments excavated north group pacbitun belize ''pacbitun regional archaeological project report field season'' edited terry g powis belmopan belize institute archaeology chernoff john ''african rhythm african sensibility aesthetics social action african musical


chicago chinese music society north america press lerdahl fred ''tonal pitch space'' oxford oxford university press lloyd llewellyn hugh boyle ''intervals scales temperaments'' new york st martin 's press lu liancheng eastern zhou growth regionalism ''the formation chinese civilization'' edited sarah allan new london yale university press mann alfred j kenneth wilson peter urquhart nd canon ''grove music online'' oxford music online accessed january https archiveorg stream natyashastra natya shastra translation volume bharat muni page n mode text archiveorg miguel roig francoli ''harmony context'' second edition


summarize complex patterns hereby enhancing design process ref name boco manual instrument drafting table old fashioned technical drawing instruments stencils lettering technical drawings din standards basic drafting procedure place piece paper material smooth surface right angle corners straight sides typically drawing board sliding straightedge known square placed one sides allowing slid across side table surface paper parallel lines drawn simply moving square

Humanities
Visual arts
Applied arts
Technical drawing


running pencil technical pen along square 's edge square used hold devices set squares triangles case drafter places one triangles known angles square right angles edge table draw lines chosen angle others page modern drafting tables come equipped drafting machine supported sides table slide large piece paper secured sides lines drawn along


produces geometry part technical drawing comes user defined views geometry orthographic projected sectioned view created software scope error production views main scope error comes setting parameter first third angle projection displaying relevant symbol technical drawing cad allows individual parts assembled together represent final product buildings aircraft ships cars modeled assembled checked technical drawings released manufacture


technical illustration describe explain items less nontechnical audience visual image accurate terms dimensions proportions provide overall impression object enhance viewer 's interest understanding according viola illustrative techniques often designed way even person technical understanding clearly understands piece art use varying line widths emphasize mass proximity scale helped make simple line drawing understandable lay person cross


object sides based example looking front side rotate object nbsp degrees right seen actually left side object drawn left front side section multiview relates external surfaces object section views show imaginary plane cut object often useful show voids object auxiliary auxiliary views utilize additional projection plane common planes multiview since features object need show true shape


drawing made type paper margins details relating making drawing reason specifying standards detail drawings printed published uniform style patent issues drawings must also readily understood persons using patent descriptions ref name us pto sets technical drawings working drawings production working drawings set technical drawings used manufacturing phase product architecture include civil drawings architectural drawings structural drawings


heat primordial heat radioactivity although also contributions phase transitions heat mostly carried surface thermal convection although two thermal boundary layers core mantle boundary lithosphere heat transported conduction ref name fowler ref heat carried bottom mantle mantle plumes heat flow earth 's surface potential source geothermal energy ref name pollack ref vibrations illustration deformations block body waves surface waves see seismic

Natural science
Earth science
Geophysics


size form earth earth roughly spherical bulges towards equator roughly shape ellipsoid see earth ellipsoid bulge due rotation nearly consistent earth hydrostatic equilibrium detailed shape earth however also affected distribution continents ocean basins extent dynamics plates ref name lowrie structure interior seismic velocities boundaries interior earth sampled seismic waves alt diagram


pressures inside earth effect pressure calculated using adams williamson equation conclusion pressure alone cannot account increase density instead know earth 's core composed alloy iron minerals ref name poirier reconstructions seismic waves deep interior earth show waves outer core indicates outer core liquid liquids cannot support shear outer core liquid motion highly conductive fluid generates earth 's field earth 's inner core


gravity fields planets mapped example gravity field disturbances lunar maria measured lunar orbiters led discovery concentrations mass mascons beneath imbrium serenitatis crisium nectaris humorum basins history geophysics emerged separate discipline th century intersection physical geography geology astronomy meteorology physics ref name history resources ref however many geophysical phenomena earth 's magnetic field earthquakes investigated since ancient era ancient classical eras replica


periods political unity peace periods war failed statehood recent chinese civil war china occasionally dominated steppe peoples eventually assimilated han chinese culture population eras multiple kingdoms warlordism chinese dynasties ruled parts china eras control stretched far xinjiang tibet inner mongolia present traditional culture influences parts asia western world carried waves immigration cultural assimilation expansion foreign contact form basis

Humanities
History
Asian history
Chinese history


ancient kingdom shu linking artifacts found site early legendary kings ferrous metallurgy begins appear late th century yangzi valley ref name higham higham charles ''the bronze age southeast asia'' ref bronze tomahawk blade meteoric iron excavated near city gaocheng shijiazhuang hebei province dated th century bc reason authors liana chua mark elliott used term iron age convention transitional period c bc bc roughly corresponding


chinese history spring autumn period bc th century bc power became decentralized spring autumn period named influential ''spring autumn annals'' period local military leaders used zhou began assert power vie hegemony situation aggravated invasion peoples northwest qin forcing zhou move capital east luoyang marks second major phase zhou dynasty eastern zhou spring autumn period marked


feuding consort clans eunuchs yellow turban rebellion broke ad ushering era warlords ensuing turmoil three states tried gain predominance period three kingdoms since greatly romanticized works ''romance three kingdoms'' cao cao reunified north son proclaimed wei dynasty soon wei 's rivals shu wu proclaimed independence leading china three kingdoms period period characterized gradual decentralization state existed qin


inhabitants especially large foreign merchant enclaves capitals luoyang chang'an fell successively reliance ethnic han turkic warlords suppressing rebellion increased power influence consequently fall dynasty following zhu wen 's usurpation led era division five dynasties ten kingdoms ad period political disunity tang song known five dynasties ten kingdoms period lasted half century china respects multi state system five regimes


namely later liang tang jin han zhou rapidly succeeded one another control traditional imperial heartland northern china among regimes rulers later tang jin han sinicized shatuo turks ruled ethnic majority han chinese stable smaller regimes mostly ethnic han rulers coexisted south western china period cumulatively constituted ten kingdoms amidst political chaos north strategic sixteen prefectures region along today 's great wall ceded emerging khitan liao dynasty drastically weakened defense china


campaign liao meanwhile cross border trade contact induced sinicization within liao empire expense military might derived primitive nomadic lifestyle similar treaties social economical consequences occurred song 's relations jin dynasty within liao empire jurchen tribes revolted overlords establish jin dynasty devastating jin cataphract annihilated liao dynasty remnants liao court members fled central asia found qara khitai empire western liao dynasty jin 's invasion song dynasty followed swiftly


ming dynasty founded zhu yuanzhang proclaimed hongwu emperor capital initially set nanjing later moved beijing yongle emperor 's reign onward urbanization increased population grew division labor grew complex large urban centers nanjing beijing also contributed growth private industry particular small scale industries grew often specializing paper silk cotton porcelain goods part however relatively small urban centers markets proliferated around country town


flourished previous song yuan dynasties less emphasized neo feudal landholdings song mongol periods expropriated ming rulers land estates confiscated government fragmented rented private slavery forbidden consequently death yongle emperor independent peasant landholders predominated chinese agriculture laws might paved way removing worst poverty previous regimes towards later era ming dynasty declining government control commerce trade private industries revived dynasty strong complex central government


unified controlled empire emperor 's role became autocratic although hongwu emperor necessarily continued use called grand secretariat assist immense paperwork bureaucracy including memorials petitions recommendations throne imperial edicts reply reports various kinds tax records bureaucracy later prevented ming government able adapt changes society eventually led decline yongle emperor strenuously tried extend china 's influence beyond borders demanding rulers send ambassadors china present


rebellions ultimately put enormous cost millions dead seriously weakening central imperial authority china never rebuilt strong central army many local officials used military power effectively rule independently provinces yet dynasty appeared recover tongzhi restoration led manchu royal family reformers han chinese officials zeng guofan proteges li hongzhang zuo zongtang self strengthening movement made effective institutional reforms imported western factories communications technology prime emphasis strengthening military however reform undermined


culture movement beijing college students rallied may fourth movement dissatisfied article treaty versailles china shandong problem may fourth movement began response pro japanese terms imposed china treaty versailles following world war quickly became nationwide protest movement protests moral success cabinet fell china refused sign treaty versailles awarded german holdings shandong japan memory mistreatment versailles fuels resentment st century political


liberation army enters beijing pingjin campaign major combat chinese civil war ended kuomintang kmt pulling mainland government relocating taipei maintaining control islands ccp left control mainland china october mao zedong proclaimed people 's republic china ref name ref c http wwwisopuclaedu eas documents mao htm chinese people stood ucla center east asian studies retrieved april ref communist china red china two common names prc ref name ref ref chairman mao zedong proclaiming establishment


nickname staffordshire bull terrier see also ''celastrus'' shrub genus commonly known staff vine staff tree ''staphylococcus'' often shortened staph bacteria cause infection

Applied science
Military sciences
Organization
Staff


'''linguistics''' scientific study language involving analysis language form language meaning language context ref name martinet ref language first studied systematically indian scholar p ini th century bce ref name bod ref ref name fpencyclo fran ois ponsonnet ref beginning around th century bce warring states period china also developed grammatical traditions aristotle laid foundation western linguistics part study rhetoric ''poetics'' ca bc ref name swiggers wouters ref traditions arabic grammar hebrew grammar developed middle ages religious context like p nini 's sanskrit grammar modern approaches began

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
History of linguistics


verb roots form objects rules applied list sounds called ''shiva sutras'' list words derivable rules extremely succinct specification rules complex interactions led considerable commentary extrapolation following centuries phonological structure includes defining notion sound universals similar modern phoneme systematization consonants based oral cavity constriction vowels based height duration however ambition mapping morpheme semantics truly remarkable


notions noun verb etc also discussion role analogy language discussion grammatici alexandria supported view language especially morphology based analogy paradigm whereas grammatic schools asia minor consider language based analogical bases rather exceptions alexandrians like predecessors interested meter role poetry metrical feet greek based length time taken pronounce syllable syllables categorized according weight


well lost texts remmius palaemon others diomedes focusing prosody popular rome pedagogic material teaching greek native latin speakers one prominent scholars alexandria antiquity apollonius dyscolus apollonius wrote thirty treatises questions syntax semantics morphology prosody orthography dialectology happily four preserved still ''syntax'' four books three one book monographs pronouns adverbs connectives respectively lexicography become important domain study many grammarians compiled dictionaries thesauri lists


american linguistics hundreds indigenous languages never recorded many languages spoken written inaccessible circumstances linguistics franz boas tried prescribed sound methodical principles analysis unfamiliar languages boas influential linguist followed edward sapir leonard bloomfield historical linguistics th century conjectural history based mix linguistics anthropology topic origin progress language society fashionable thinkers contributed construction academic


percent per year followed apple 's ios percent per year decrease market share percent operating systems amount percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems special purpose operating systems ref name auto embedded real time systems exist many applications security focused operating systems also exist operating systems low system requirements eg light weight linux distribution others may higher system requirements operating systems require installation may come pre installed purchased computers oem installation whereas others may run directly

Formal science
Computer science
Operating systems


popular operating systems made similar concept used larger computers earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plugboards special purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits punched paper tape


graphical user interface many features windows icons would later become commonplace guis first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known ''monitors'' one notable early disk operating system cp supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft 's ms dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm 's version called ibm dos pc


variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp 's hp ux ibm 's aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor 's hardware contrast sun microsystems 's solaris run multiple types hardware including x sparc servers pcs apple 's macos replacement apple 's earlier non unix mac os hybrid kernel based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing


started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode


status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command line interface computer commands typed line line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present graphical user interfaces screenshot kde plasma graphical user interface programs take form images screen files folders directories applications take form icons symbols mouse used navigate computer modern


give context content set conditions parameters economy functions words economic domain social domain interrelated human practices transactions stand alone economic agents individuals businesses organizations governments economic transactions occur two groups parties agree value price transacted good service commonly expressed certain currency however monetary transactions account small part economic domain economic activity spurred production uses natural resources labor capital changed

Applied science
Military sciences
Military weapons
Economic


accountant would workers tertiary degree '''quaternary stage degree economy ''' involves research development needed produce products natural resources subsequent products logging company might research ways use partially burnt wood processed undamaged portions made pulp paper note '''education''' sometimes included sector sectors developed community include public sector state sector usually includes parliament law courts government centers various emergency services public health shelters impoverished threatened people


surgery needed ophthalmologists may participate academic research diagnosis treatment eye disorders diseases partial list common diseases treated ophthalmologists include cataract excessive tearing tear duct obstruction proptosis bulged eyes eye tumors diabetic retinopathy dry eye syndrome glaucoma macular degeneration refractive errors strabismus misalignment deviation eyes uveitis diagnosis retinal camera fundoscopy using diopter lens slit lamp eye examination following examples examination methods performed eye examination enables diagnosis ocular tonometry determine intraocular pressure refraction assessment retina examination slit lamp examination

Applied science
Medicine and health
Ophthalmology


visual acuity specialized tests optical coherence tomography oct medical technological platform used assess ocular structures information used physicians assess staging pathological processes confirm clinical diagnoses subsequent oct scans used assess efficacy managing diabetic retinopathy age related macular degeneration glaucoma ultrasonography eyes may performed ophthalmologist ophthalmic surgery ophthalmologist performing lasik eye surgery also known ocular surgery surgery performed eye adnexa ophthalmologist eye fragile organ requires extreme care


bc section devoted eye diseases ref name mrcophth prior hippocrates physicians largely based anatomical conceptions eye speculation rather empiricism ref name mrcophth recognized sclera transparent cornea running flushly outer coating eye inner layer pupil fluid centre believed alcamaeon fifth century bc others fluid medium vision flowed eye brain tube aristotle advanced ideas empiricism dissected eyes animals


chamber cornea lens filled water lens retina filled substance resembling egg whites celsus greek philosopher second century ad gave detailed description cataract surgery couching method greek physician galen second century ad remedied mistaken descriptions including curvature cornea lens nature optic nerve existence posterior chamber although model roughly correct modern model eye contained errors still advanced upon vesalius