century gregorian chant introit ''gaudeamus omnes'' scripted square notation th th century ''graduale nbsp aboense'' honours henry patron saint finland gregorian chant main tradition western plainchant form monophonic liturgical chant western christianity accompanied celebration mass ritual services musical form originated monastic life singing 'divine service' nine times day proper hours upheld according rule saint benedict singing psalms made large part life monastic community smaller group


''saint patrick 's breastplate'' traced th th centuries catholic hymnody western church introduced four part vocal harmony norm adopting major minor keys came led organ choir protestant reformation resulted two conflicting attitudes hymns one approach regulative principle worship favored many zwinglians calvinists among others considered anything directly authorized bible novel catholic introduction worship rejected hymns direct quotations bible fell

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Church music


grace hymn refrain great thou art gospel song th century gospel song genre spread rapidly protestantism lesser still definite extent catholicism gospel song genre unknown worship ''per se'' eastern orthodox churches rely exclusively traditional chants disallow instrumental accompaniment along classical sacred music composers ranging mozart monteverdi catholic church continued produce many popular hymns lead kindly light silent night sacrament divine faith fathers modern


name ref men middle east went china would marry asian women led spreading faith traditions islam multiplicities ref name crusades th th centuries encouraged spread islam invasions latin christian soldiers muslim soldiers 's lands whole conflict began premises holy land group people owned lands led foes invading respective lands religion spread implications ritual

Applied science
Divinity
Field ministry
Sacred music


instrument ''rabab'' ref name shacklemandairxxiii ref sikh gurus sang prevalent classical folk music styles accompanied stringed percussion instruments gurus specified raag hymn sikh sacred scripture guru granth sahib ref name shacklemandairxxiii gurus also created numerous musical instruments including dilruba sarangi esraj modification pakhawaj creating early form tabla sinism korean shamanism music muak musok eumak traditional korean shamanistic music performed shamanistic ritual gut taoist music taoist music


pedagogical activity teachers transmit knowledge students research activity researchers create new knowledge sources conflict peace conflict studies entails understanding concept peace defined political condition ensures justice social stability formal informal institutions practices norms pedagogical activity academics students world 's oldest universities long motivated interest peace american student interest today think peace studies first appeared form campus clubs united states colleges

Social science
Political science
Peace and conflict studies


emergence post liberal framework unesco chair peace studies university innsbruck austria proposed culture based classification peace interpretations energetic moral modern post modern trans rational approaches trans rational approach unites existing spiritual interpretations society relation mechanistic methods modern peace hence school prefers strictly relational systemic method elicitive conflict transformation lederach prescriptive approaches modern conflict resolution criticism controversy serious number well established criticisms aimed peace conflict studies often necessarily outside realms


university system including peace studies produce practical prescriptions managing resolving global conflicts ideology always trumps objectivity pragmatism focused putting respectable face western self loathing hypocritical tacitly openly support terrorism permissible strategy 'disempowered' redress real perceived grievances powerful ie ideological anti western concepts developed social scientists johan galtung arguably add sense unjustified acceptability used support radicalism curricula according human rights activist caroline cox philosopher roger


built taking stock post conflict peacebuilding charting future directions paper presented th anniversary agenda peace international development research centre ottawa canada january markwell donald ''john maynard keynes international relations economic paths war peace'' oxford university press miall hugh oliver ramsbotham tom woodhouse ''contemporary conflict resolution'' polity press mitrany da ''the functional theory politics'' london martin robertson richmond op ''maintaining order making peace'' macmillan richmond op ''the transformation peace'' palgrave macmillan richmond op franks j ''liberal peace transitions statebuilding peacebuilding''


chicago new connecticut ref name jarolmen ref inception school social workers known among things advocates new immigrants welfare workers equity fairness people lower socioeconomic class' well home visitors unheralded extensive process' led expansion school social work services encouragement community two thirds states compulsory attendance laws state passed compulsory school attendance laws based philosophy inclusion making school attendance obligatory rights privilege

Applied science
Social work 2
School social work


school social workers employ ''community organization'' methods social interaction model de emphasized specific methodology required worker intervene systems interacting target system known traditional models students disabilities defined exceptional children federal state legislation including individuals disability education act pl rehabilitation act section united states america clinical model school social workers work primarily casework methods supplemented group methods students family members greater emphasis placed


grounded social learning theory systems theory clinical environmental interaction model model grounded ecological systems theory developed frey dupper germain model promotes view person environment unitary interacting system constantly affects shapes model attends complexities person well environment engaging progressive forces people situational assets impinging removal environmental obstacles growth adaptive functioning model leads effecting dynamic change


separate philosophy biology theoretical biology biological species natural selection operate nature distinguish disease states non disease states life ref name maturana ref makes humans uniquely human basis moral thinking rationality possible given biological origins evolution compatible christianity religious systems increasingly ideas drawn philosophical ontology logic used biologists domain bioinformatics ontologies gene ontology used annotate results biological

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of biology


nature gene modulation including epigenetic changes area reductionist view inadequate full explanatory power see also holism science processes organisms obey physical laws argue difference inanimate biological processes organisation biological properties subject control coded information led biologists philosophers example ernst mayr david hull return strictly philosophical reflections charles darwin resolve problems confronted tried employ philosophy science derived


krakauer et al put machine learning powerful means preprocessing data preparation mechanistic theory building considered final goal scientific inquiry ref name krakauer ref regard cancer biology raspe et al state better understanding tumor biology fundamental extracting relevant information high throughput data ref name raspe ref journal science chose cancer immunotherapy breakthrough according explanation lesson learned successes cancer immunotherapy emerged decoding basic biology ref name couzin ref theory biology


theory circuit topology describe topology folded linear molecules proteins nucleic acids history approach may traced back th century georg helm published treatise titled principles mathematical chemistry energetics chemical phenomena contemporary periodical publications specializing field match communications mathematical computer chemistry first published journal mathematical chemistry first published series annual conferences math chem comp taking place dubrovnik initiated late

Natural science
Chemistry
Mathematical chemistry


organic chemistry gutman e polansky springer verlag berlin chemical applications topology graph theory ed r b king elsevier topological approach chemistry conjugated molecules graovac gutman n trinajstic lecture notes chemistry springer verlag berlin notes references references n trinajsti gutman mathematical chemistry croatica chemica acta pp nbsp balaban reflections mathematical chemistry foundations chemistry pp nbsp g restrepo j l villaveces mathematical thinking chemistry hyle pp nbsp https webarchiveorg web http ebooksbenthamsciencepublisherorg book advances mathematical chemistry applications volume


processing essential effective group learning achievement higher order social personal cognitive skills eg problem solving reasoning decision making planning organizing reflecting ref name johnson johnson johnson r learning together alone cooperative competitive individualistic learning needham heights prentice hall ref theoretical base social interdependence theory social interdependence exists outcomes individuals affected others' actions two types social interdependence positive actions individuals promote achievement joint goals negative actions individuals obstruct achievement 's goals social

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Cooperative learning


new group students learn material together returning home group back home group student accountable teaching assigned topic ref name schul je jigsaw ii jigsaw ii robert slavin 's variation jigsaw members home group assigned material focus separate portions material member must become expert assigned portion teach members home group reverse jigsaw variation created timothy hedeen


currently practiced pertains form guided cooperative learning features collaborative learning setting learning leaders listeners expert scaffolding adult teacher direct instruction modeling practice use simple strategies facilitate dialogue structure model allows student pairs participate dialogue text partners take turns reading asking questions receiving immediate feedback approach enables students use important metacognitive techniques clarifying questioning predicting summarizing embraces idea students effectively learn


students divided groups done encourage group learning team building cooperative learning written version robin table tgt team game tournament students placed small groups study prepare trivia game gives students incentive learn fun learning material group exercise one student blame introduction team game tournament effective technique cooperative learning wherein groups created function class period time technique


name ref group cohesion conflict management another aspect cooperative learning leads group members developing group hate fact groups unable achieve sufficient cohesion fail manage conflict effectively students usually group long enough develop good group cohesion establish effective ways resolve conflict problem students negative experience groups consequently apprehensive get situation nbsp one answer dilemma demonstrate groups trump individuals terms


taxonomy developed ranked system known linnaean taxonomy categorizing organisms binominal nomenclature naming organisms advances theory data analytical technology biological systematics linnaean system transformed system modern biological classification intended reflect evolutionary relationships among organisms living extinct definition exact definition taxonomy varies source source core discipline remains conception naming classification groups organisms ref name wilkins ref points reference recent definitions taxonomy presented theory practice

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Classification
Taxonomic classification


living things regard natural relationships study variation evolution taxa whole set terms including taxonomy systematic biology systematics biosystematics scientific classification biological classification phylogenetics times overlapping meanings sometimes sometimes slightly different always related intersecting ref name wilkins ref name small ref broadest meaning taxonomy used term introduced de candolle ''th orie l mentaire de la botanique'' monograph taxonomic revision '''taxonomic revision''' '''taxonomic review''' novel analysis variation


described plant species two large plant families first recognized still use today asteraceae brassicaceae th century john ray england wrote many important taxonomic works ref name britannica taxonomy biology url status live archive url https webarchiveorg web https wwwbritannicacom science taxonomy archive date april encyclopedia encyclopedia britannica ref arguably greatest accomplishment ''methodus plantarum nova'' published details plant species time classifications perhaps complex yet produced taxonomist based taxa many combined characters next major taxonomic works produced


qualitative comparisons striking features elaborate computer analyses large amounts dna sequence data author citation authority may placed scientific name ref name aje aje american journal experts website wwwajecom url status live archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwajecom en arc editing tip scientific names species archive date april ref authority name scientist scientists first validly published name ref name aje example linnaeus gave asian elephant scientific name ''elephas maximus'' name sometimes written ''elephas maximus'' linnaeus names authors frequently abbreviated abbreviation ''l'' ''linnaeus'' commonly used botany


information'' https wwwuniprotorg taxonomy taxonomy https wwwuniprotorg uniprot ''universal protein resource'' https wwwitisgov itis ''integrated taxonomic information system'' http wwwcetaforg cetaf ''consortium european taxonomic facilities'' http specieswikimediaorg wikispecies ''free species directory'' https wwwthescienceclassonline biological classificationhtml biological classification biological nomenclature


statistics '''classification''' problem identifying set categories sub populations observation observations belongs examples assigning given email spam non spam class assigning diagnosis given patient based observed characteristics patient sex blood pressure presence absence certain symptoms etc often individual observations analyzed set quantifiable properties known variously explanatory variables ''features'' properties may variously categorical eg b ab blood type ordinal eg large medium

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Classification
Statistical classification


linear function assigns score possible category ''k'' combining feature vector instance vector weights using dot product predicted category one highest score type score function known linear predictor function following general form math operatorname score mathbf x ik boldsymbol beta k cdot mathbf x math '''x''' sub ''i'' sub feature vector instance ''i'' ''' beta ''' sub ''k'' sub vector weights corresponding category ''k'' score '''x''' sub ''i'' sub ''k'' score associated assigning instance ''i'' category ''k''


labour world economy rooted capitalist economy time certain countries become world hegemon last centuries world system extended geographically intensified economically status passed netherlands united kingdom recently united states ref name glob components world systems analysis ''longue dur e'' ferdinand braudel development underdevelopment gunder frank single society assumption ref name ref ''longue dur e'' concept gradual change day day activities social systems continually reproduced ref name development underdevelopment

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems theory
World-systems theory


described economic processes periphery opposite development core poorer countries impoverished enable countries get richer ref name lastly single society assumption opposes multiple society assumption includes looking world whole ref name world systems theory examined many political theorists sociologists explain reasons rise fall states income inequality social unrest imperialism background immanuel wallerstein developed best known version world systems analysis beginning ref name ph paul halsall http wwwfordhamedu halsall mod wallersteinhtml modern history sourcebook summary


name tb sociology primary alternative perspective world polity theory formulated john w meyer dependency theory world systems analysis builds upon also differs fundamentally dependency theory accepting world inequality world market imperialism fundamental features historical capitalism wallerstein broke orthodox dependency theory 's central proposition wallerstein core countries exploit poor countries two basic reasons firstly core capitalists exploit workers zones capitalist world economy periphery therefore crucial redistribution core periphery surplus value wealth resources


developed sum state actions existed reinforce certain rules preconditions statehood rules included maintaining consistent relations production regulating flow capital commodities labor across borders maintain price structures global market weak states attempt rewrite rules prefer strong states typically intervene rectify situation ideology interstate system sovereign equality system generally presents set constraints power individual states within system states neither sovereign


lasting less one hundred years initial centuries rise european dominance northwestern europe constituted core mediterranean europe semiperiphery eastern europe western hemisphere parts asia periphery ref name glob ref name ph around spain portugal took early lead conditions became right capitalist world economy led way establishing overseas colonies however portugal spain lost lead primarily becoming overextended empire building became expensive dominate protect many colonial territories around world ref name kennedy ref name chirot


world economy feudal systems one world system world economy definition capitalist form ref name pieterse robert brenner pointed prioritization world market means neglect local class structures class struggles fail take account either way class structures emerge outcome class struggles whose results incomprehensible terms merely market forces ref name pieterse another criticism reductionism made theda skocpol believes interstate system


altogether special positive almost scientific form study roman law farfa marsicano scholars translated aristotle precepts school salerno travels marco polo linking classics renaissance time epic poetry written mixed language dialect italian based french hybrid words exhibited treatment sounds according rules languages french roots italian endings pronounced according italian latin rules short language epic poetry belonged tongues examples

Humanities
Languages and literature
Italian Literature


frederick ii poetry differs french equivalent treatment woman less erotic platonic vein developed ''dolce stil novo'' later th century bologna florence customary repertoire chivalry terms adapted italian phonotactics creating new italian vocabulary french suffixes '' re'' '' ce'' generated hundreds new italian words '' iera'' '' za'' example ''riv iera'' ''costan za'' adopted dante contemporaries handed future generations italian writers sicilian school belonged enzio king sardinia pietro della vigna inghilfredi


religious movement umbria followed another literary phenomenon religious drama hermit raniero fasani left cavern lived many years suddenly appeared perugia fasani represented sent god disclose mysterious visions announce world terrible visitations turbulent period political faction guelphs ghibellines interdicts excommunications issued popes reprisals imperial party environment fasani 's pronouncements stimulated formation compagnie di disciplinanti penance scourged


began political reform movement led appointment priori delle arti establishment arti minori later copied siena magistrato dei nove lucca pistoia guelph cities tuscany similar popular institutions guilds took government hands time social political prosperity tuscany popular love poetry existed school imitators sicilians led dante da majano literary originality took another line humorous satirical


parodies folgore 's sonnets sonnets rustico di filippo half fun half satire work cecco angiolieri siena oldest humorist know far precursor rabelais montaigne another kind poetry also began tuscany guittone d'arezzo made art quit chivalry proven al forms national motives latin forms attempted political poetry although work often obscure prepared way bolognese school bologna city science philosophical poetry appeared guido guinizelli poet new fashion


especially close connection dante 's lyric poetry th century several major allegorical poems one brunetto latini close friend dante ''tesoretto'' short poem seven syllable verses rhyming couplets author lost wilderness meets lady represents nature gives much instruction see vision allegory instruction moral object three elements find ''divine comedy'' francesco da barberino learned lawyer secretary bishops judge


society deprived two guides emperor pope mountain illuminated sun universal monarchy three beasts three vices three powers offered greatest obstacles dante 's designs envy florence light fickle divided black guelphs white guelphs pride house france avarice papal court virgil represents reason empire beatrice symbol supernatural aid mankind must attain supreme end god merit poem lie


name fiammetta boccaccio became famous principally italian work ''decamerone'' collection hundred novels related party men women retired villa near florence escape plague novel writing abundant preceding centuries especially france first time assumed artistic shape style boccaccio tends imitation latin prose first took form elaborated art rudeness old ''fabliaux'' gives place careful conscientious work mind feeling


chronicler historian relates events journeys made italy france information thus acquired mean chronicle ''historie fiorentine'' covers events europe speaks length events politics war stipends public officials sums money used pay soldiers public festivals many things knowledge valuable villani 's narrative often encumbered fables errors particularly speaks things happened


time matteo brother giovanni villani continued chronicle continued filippo villani ascetics ''divine commedia'' ascetic conception good many points execution petrarch 's work similar qualities yet neither petrarch dante could classified among pure ascetics time many writers come head st catherine siena 's mysticism political extraordinary woman aspired bring back church rome evangelical virtue left collection letters written high


category ascetic works th century bianco da siena wrote several religiously inspired poems lauda popular middle ages jacopo passavanti ''specchio della vera penitenza'' attached instruction narrative domenico cavalca translated latin ''vite de' santi padri'' rivalta left behind many sermons franco sacchetti famous novelist many discourses whole doubt one important productions italian spirit th century religious literature popular works humorous poetry largely developed th century carried


humanities grammar rhetoric history poetry moral philosophy early humanists petrarch coluccio salutati leonardo bruni great collectors antique manuscripts many worked organized church holy orders like petrarch others lawyers chancellors italian cities like petrarch 's disciple salutati chancellor florence thus access book copying workshops italy humanist educational program rapid acceptance mid th century many upper classes received humanist educations highest officials church humanists resources


baldassare castiglione niccol machiavelli pietro bembo michelangelo buonarroti ariosto jacopo nardi gian giorgio trissino francesco guicciardini literary activity appeared end th century middle th century product political social conditions earlier age science history machiavelli guicciardini portrait niccol machiavelli santi di tito machiavelli guicciardini chief originators science history machiavelli 's principal works ''istorie fiorentine''


interest recent prevent poet embellishing invented circumstances would treat rigorously according rules unity action observed greek latin poems far greater variety splendour episodes point fall short romantic poem finally would write lofty ornate style tasso done ''gerusalemme liberata'' subject liberation sepulchre jesus christ th century godfrey


specially point view historians placed tasso literary period generally known name ''secentismo'' others moderate criticism said prepared way minor writers meanwhile attempt historical epic gian giorgio trissino vicenza composed poem called ''italia liberata dai goti'' full learning rules ancients formed latter order sing campaigns belisarius said forced


antonio cammelli surnamed pistoian specially deserving notice pungent ''bonhomie'' sainte beuve called francesco berni satire carried kind literature perfection th century style called bernesque poetry berneschi find nearly phenomenon already noticed regard ''orlando furioso'' art arts sake inspired moved berni write well antonio francesco grazzini called il lasca lesser writers may said nothing


imagines discussion palace dukes urbino knights ladies gifts perfect courtier requires book valuable illustration intellectual moral state highest italian society first half th century novelists th century two important grazzini matteo bandello former playful bizarre latter grave solemn bandello dominican friar bishop notwithstanding novels loose subject


independent criticism directed particularly arcadians pedants born giambattista niccolini literature classicist politics ghibelline rare exception guelph florence birthplace imitating aeschylus well writing ''discorsi sulla tragedia greca'' ''sublime michelangelo'' niccolini displayed passionate devotion ancient literature tragedies set free excessive rigidity alfieri partly approached english german tragic authors nearly always chose political subjects striving keep alive compatriots love


knowing little greek succeeded translating ''iliad'' way remarkable homeric feeling ''bassvilliana'' level dante classical poetry seemed revive florid grandeur ugo foscolo ugo foscolo ugo foscolo eager patriot inspired classical models ''lettere di jacopo ortis'' inspired goethe 's ''werther'' love story mixture patriotism contain violent protest treaty campo formio outburst foscolo 's heart unhappy love affair passions sudden


wrote english readers ''essays petrarch'' texts ''decamerone'' dante remarkable written may initiated new kind literary criticism italy foscolo still greatly admired without reason men made revolution brought work th century romanticism ''risorgimento'' alessandro manzoni romantic school organ ''conciliatore'' established milan staff silvio pellico ludovico di breme giovile scalvini tommaso grossi


''decadentism'' based mainly decadent style artists authors france england end th century main authors italian version antonio fogazzaro giovanni pascoli best known ''myricae'' ''poemetti'' gabriele d'annunzio although differing stylistically championed idiosyncrasy irrationality scientific rationalism gabriele d'annunzio produced original work poetry drama fiction extraordinary quality began lyrics distinguished less exquisite beauty form licence characteristics reappeared long series poems plays


first novel una donna woman pen name today novel widely acknowledged italy 's premier feminist novel writing mixes together autobiographical fictional elements maria messina sicilian writer focused heavily sicilian culture dominant theme isolation oppression young sicilian women achieved modest recognition life including receiving medaglia oro prize la rica anna banti born florence well known short story il ''coraggio delle donne'' ''the courage women''


account modern society especially italian one 's also well known refined translator english german ancient italian children 's literature italy long history children 's literature ''pentamerone'' italy became first major published collection european folk tales ref name reynolds ref ''pentamerone'' contained first literary european version story cinderella author giambattista basile created collections fairy tales include oldest recorded forms many well known european fairy tales giovanni francesco straparola released ''the facetious nights straparola'' called first european


storybook contain fairy tales eventually separate stories albeit intended adult audience giulio cesare croce also borrowed stories children enjoyed books ref name silvey ref carlo collodi wrote ''the adventures pinocchio'' also first italian fantasy novel year emilio salgari man would become adventure writer par excellence young italy published first time famous ''sandokan'' th century italian children 's literature represented writers gianni rodari author ''il romanzo di cipollino'' nicoletta costa creator


feminist journals began increased readers' accessibility awareness work work italian women writers progressive penetrating explorations feminine psyche critiques women 's social economic position italy depiction persistent struggle achieve equality man 's world shattered traditional representations women literature page played important role rise italian feminism provided women space express opinions freely portray lives accurately reading


''a general view positivism'' published english first three volumes ''course'' dealt chiefly natural sciences already existence geoscience astronomy physics chemistry biology whereas latter two emphasised inevitable coming social science observing circular dependence theory observation science classifying sciences way comte may regarded first philosopher science modern sense term physical sciences necessarily arrive first humanity could adequately channel efforts challenging complex queen

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of social science


phenomena ultimately reducible physical entities physical laws opponents naturalism including advocates ' 'verstehen'' method contended need interpretive approach study human action technique radically different natural science fundamental task philosophy social science thus question extent positivism may characterized 'scientific' relation fundamental epistemological foundations debates also rage ''within'' contemporary social sciences regard subjectivity objectivity intersubjectivity practicality conduct theory research philosophers social science examine


science development particularly britain critical realism critical realists roy bhaskar traditional positivism commits 'epistemic fallacy' failing address ontological conditions make science possible structure agency see also hard soft science intercultural philosophy philosophy economics philosophy history philosophy psychology political philosophy social constructionism social fact social philosophy references bibliography bunge mario ''finding philosophy social science'' new ct yale university press kaldis byron ed ''encyclopedia philosophy social sciences'' sage journals ''philosophy social sciences''


relation society former society object study whereas latter language object study words sociolinguistics studies language varies based user 's sociological background gender ethnicity socioeconomic class hand sociology language also known macrosociolinguistics studies society impacted language trent university professor global politics andreas pickel states religion symbolic systems strongly shaping social practices shaping political orientations examples social significance languages basic

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of language


people receiving information normally transmission messages many recipients time called mass communication complete sense mass communication understood process extensive circulation information within regions across globe mass communication information transmitted quickly many people generally stay far away sources information mass communication practiced multiple mediums radio television social networking billboards newspapers magazines books film internet modern era mass communication used disperse information accelerated

Journalism, media studies and communication


communication commonly associated media studies united states study mass communication often associated practical applications journalism television radio broadcasting film public relations corporate advertising diversification media forms study mass communication extended include social media new media stronger feedback models traditional media sources history communication stretches prehistoric forms art writing modern communication methods internet mass communication began humans could transmit messages single source multiple receivers mass


properties piece communication newspaper article book television program film broadcast news script process allows researchers see content communication looks like qualitative method known ethnography allows researcher immerse culture observe record qualities communication exist professional organizations association education journalism mass communication major membership organization academics field offering regional ''national conferences refereed publications'' international communication association national communication association formerly speech communication


christianity references reading noble historical theology edited martin davie tim grass stephen r holmes john mcdowell noble new dictionary theology historical systematic london downers grove il inter varsity press intervarsity press external links http wwwhistoricaltheologyorg historicaltheologyorg site dedicated study historical theology https webarchiveorg web http wwwsluedu x xml doctoral study historical theology saint louis university


define ecological engineering designing societal services benefit society nature later noted ref name mj wj mitsch se j rgensen ecological engineering field whose time come ''ecological engineering'' ref ref name mj wj mitsch se jorgensen ecological engineering ecosystem restoration john wiley sons new york ref design systems based sustainable integrate society natural environment bergen et al ref name sd bergen et al design principles ecological engineering ''ecological engineering'' ref defined ecological engineering

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Ecological engineering


traced romantic poets wordsworth coleridge drew attention power nature significance human interaction darwin pointed role environment shaping evolution idea quickly applied human interactions surroundings extreme victorian acceptance 'environmental determinists' insisted physical environment climate influenced evolution racial characteristics willy hellpach said first mention environmental psychology one books ''geopsyche'' discusses topics sun moon affect human

Social science
Psychology
Environmental psychology


studied certain specifications must ongoing occurring real life laboratory second notions problems must derive directly source meaning must come directly specific environment problem occurring ref name referencea solutions understanding problems cannot come environment constructed modeled look like real life environmental psychology needs reflect actual society society built laboratory setting difficult task environmental psychologist study problems occurring


public spaces throughout united states pps co founded new york city streets renaissance campaign worked develop new campaign model transportation reform initiative implemented transformation excess sidewalk space meatpacking district manhattan public space also new york city reclaimed traffic lanes parking spots away cars gave back public bike lanes public plazas '''center human environments''' cuny graduate center research organization examines relationship people physical


based approaches housing design specialized environments museums zoos gardens hospitals changing relationships home family work environmental experiences gay men lesbians access parks urban 'green spaces' see also center human environments cornell university 's department design environmental analysis offers undergraduate graduate master science human environment relations master arts design phd human behavior design studies environmental psychology interior design sustainable design studies human factors ergonomics facility planning management drexel university offers


environmental psychology aps ''wwwpsychologyorgau'' retrieved whitburn julie children 's environmental psychology behaviour education wellbeing role connection nature zube eh g moore eds ''advances environment behavior design volume '' new york plenum press external links environmental social science


novel negro life'' focused intraracial prejudice lighter skinned darker skinned african americans harlem renaissance marked turning point african american literature prior time books african americans primarily read black people renaissance though african american literature well black fine art performance art began absorbed mainstream american culture civil rights movement era large migration african americans began world war hitting high point world war ii great migration black people left racism lack

Humanities
Languages and literature
World literature
African-American literature


strategic craft matter fact literature industry united states including publishing translation always described predominantly white definitely principal works written black authors narrative life frederick douglass frederick douglass twelve years slave solomon northrup souls black folk w e b du bois translated many languages however literary works dozens novels short stories poems written white authors gained


leave readers decide book pushes harder boundaries convention inhabits confidently space fiction philosophy meet walker responded essays ''the river twice honoring difficult'' robert hayden first african american poet laureate consultant poetry library congress critiqued idea african american literature saying paraphrasing comment black composer duke ellington jazz music thing black literature 's good literature bad 's kenneth warren 's ''what african american literature'' ref name warrenwhat kenneth


warren http wwwhupharvardedu catalogphpisbn ''what african american literature'' harvard university press ref argues black american writing literature began institution jim crow legislation ended desegregation order substantiate claim cites societal pressures create distinctly black american literature uplift lack well formulated essential notion literary blackness scholar late th early th centuries de jure racism crystallized canon african american literature black writers conscripted literature means counter notions inferiority


ce sura academy jewish kalam emerged many centuries later founded abba arika next five centuries talmudic academies focused upon reconstituting judaism little philosophic investigation pursued influences rabbinic judaism limited philosophical activity challenged islam karaite judaism christianity tanach mishnah talmud need philosophic framework economic viewpoint radhanite trade dominance usurped coordinated christian islamic forced conversions torture compelling jewish scholars understand nascent economic threats investigations


legends islamic scholarship stories went become representative islamic mystical ideas piety sufism hai gaon pumbedita academy begins new phase jewish scholarship investigation ''hakirah'' hai gaon augments talmudic scholarship non jewish studies hai gaon savant exact knowledge theological movements time much moses ibn ezra called mutakallim hai competent argue followers qadariyyah mutazilites sometimes adopting polemic methods correspondence talmudic academies kairouan cordoba lucena hai gaon


faith doctrines dogma saadia declares rationality jewish religion caveat reason must capitulate wherever contradicts tradition dogma takes precedence reason saadia closely followed rules mu tazila school abu ali al jubba'i composing works saadia laid foundations jewish rationalist theology built upon work mu tazila thereby shifting rabbinic judaism mythical explanations rabbis reasoned explanations intellect saadia advanced criticisms mu tazila ibn al rawandi david ibn merwan al mukkamas david ibn merwan


non jewish branches learning anatoli men truth formed image god although jews stand particular obligation true cognition god simply reason election greeks chosen wisdom pursuit romans power jews religiousness hillel ben samuel firstly hillel ben samuel 's importance history medieval jewish philosophy lies attempt deal systematically question immortality soul secondly hillel played major role controversies concerning


philosophical works maimonides thirdly hillel first devotee jewish learning philosophy italy bringing close period relative ignorance hakira verona italy finally hillel one early latin translators wise men nations non jewish scholars defending maimonides hillel addressed letter friend maestro gaio asking use influence jews rome maimonides' opponents solomon petit also advanced bold idea gathering together maimonides' defenders opponents alexandria order bring controversy


albo monreal student hasdai crescas wrote ''sefer ha ikkarim'' book principles classic work fundamentals judaism albo narrows fundamental jewish principles faith thirteen three belief existence god belief revelation belief divine justice related idea immortality albo rejects assumption creation ex nihilo essential belief god albo freely criticizes maimonides' thirteen principles belief crescas' six principles according albo belief messiah 'twig'


found two yemenite philosophical midrashim written ''midrash ha hefez'' glad learning zerahyah ha rof k yahya al tabib ''siraj al 'uqul'' lamp intellects hoter ben solomon isaac abravanel isaac abravanel statesman philosopher bible commentator financier commented maimonides' thirteen principles ''rosh amanah'' isaac abravanel steeped rationalism ibn yahya family residence immediately adjacent ''great synagogue lisbon'' also built ibn yahya family important work ''rosh amanah'' pinnacle faith defends maimonides' thirteen articles


writes documents produced inquisitors present conversos ambivalent christianity sometimes even ironic expressions regarding new religion crypto jews leone ebreo judah leon abravanel portuguese physician poet philosopher work ''dialoghi d'amore'' dialogues love written italian one important philosophical works time attempt circumvent plot hatched local catholic bishops kidnap son judah sent son castile portugal nurse order king son seized


maimonides' principles faith dor daim rambamists two groups reject mysticism superstitious innovation otherwise clear succinct set laws rules according rationalists shame disgrace attached failure investigate matters religious principle using fullest powers human reason intellect one cannot considered wise perceptive one attempt understand origins establish correctness one 's beliefs holocaust theology judaism traditionally taught god omnipotent omniscient omnibenevolent yet


's work acad mie des sciences created institution government france meeting king 's library akademie der wissenschaften began berlin early scientific societies provided valuable functions including community open interested empirical inquiry also familiar educated subject aid pupils lagrange established society subsequently incorporated turin academy much considered modern institution science formed professionalization th century time

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of the history of science


component air priestly actually thought ''missing'' hypothetical component air known phlogiston air supposed absorb materials burned several years later antoine lavoisier first conceived modern notion oxygen mdash substance consumed air processes burning respiration late th century scientific research become large scale effort largely accomplished institutional teams amount frequency inter team collaboration continued increase especially rise


variable output system behavioral actions input sensed transformed function state environment control system 's output affect sensed transformed inputs may appear consciously perceived aspects environment powers labelled controlled variable perception theory came known perceptual control theory pct rather control theory applied psychology control theorists often assert assume system 's output controlled ref name astrom ref pct internal representation

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Control theory
Perceptual control theory


state variable environment perception everyday language controlled basic principles pct first published powers clark macfarland general feedback theory behavior ref name pcm reprinted pages partial reprint ref credits cybernetic authors wiener ashby systematically developed since research community gathered around initially overshadowed promises 'cognitive revolution' become better known ref name marken rev ref name mansell ref ref name mansellcareyrevolution ref powers


modeling pct model principal datum pct methodology controlled variable fundamental step pct research test controlled variables begins slow gentle application disturbing influences state variable environment researcher surmises already control observed organism essential overwhelm organism 's ability control since investigated organism changes actions prevent disturbing influence expected effect variable


''p'' given perception equation representing model ''e'' ''r ndash p'' error signal ''e'' must transformed output quantity ''q sub sub '' representing participant 's muscular efforts affecting mouse position experiments shown best model output function mouse velocity ''v sub cursor sub '' proportional error signal ''e'' gain factor ''g'' ''v sub cursor sub '' ''g''''e'' thus perceptual signal ''p'' smaller reference signal ''r'' error signal ''e'' positive sign model computes upward


theoretical constructs russian physiologist nicolas bernstein independently came conclusion behavior multiordinal organized hierarchically layers simple problem led conclusion time pct bernstein 's work spinal reflexes act stabilize limbs disturbances prevent centers higher brain using limbs carry behavior since brain obviously use spinal systems producing behavior must principle allows higher systems operate incorporating reflexes overcoming


turning answer reference value setpoint spinal reflex static rather varied higher level systems means moving limbs principle applies higher feedback loops loop presents problem subsystems whereas engineered control system reference value setpoint adjusted external agency reference value biological control system cannot set way setpoint must come internal process way behavior affect


perception may brought state momentarily specified higher levels maintained state unpredictable disturbances hierarchy control systems higher levels adjust goals lower levels means approaching goals set still higher systems important consequences proposed external control autonomous living control system organism highest level reference values goals set heredity adaptive processes reorganization evolution development learning organism controls inappropriate perceptions controls perceptions inappropriate values


structure human behavior despite decades research however computational mechanisms underlying hierarchically organized behavior still fully understood bedre hoffman cooney d'esposito propose fundamental goal cognitive neuroscience characterize functional organization frontal cortex supports control action recent neuroimaging data supported hypothesis frontal lobes organized hierarchically control supported progressively caudal regions control moves concrete specification action however still clear whether lower order control processors differentially affected impairments higher order


sociotechnical theory distinct sociotechnical systems proposes number different ways achieving joint optimization usually based designing different kinds organization ones relationships socio technical elements lead emergence productivity wellbeing rather often case new technology failing meet expectations designers users alike scientific literature shows terms like ' 'sociotechnical'' one word ' 'socio technical'' hyphen ' 'sociotechnical theory'' ' 'sociotechnical system'' ' 'sociotechnical systems theory'' terms appear ubiquitously actual meanings often

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems theory
Sociotechnical systems theory


carvalho states operators use verbal exchanges produce continuous redundant recursive interactions successfully construct maintain individual mutual awareness immediacy proximity trusted team members makes possible occur coevolution technology organizations brings expanding array new possibilities novel interaction responsible autonomy could become distributed along team key responsible autonomy seems design organization possessing characteristics small groups whilst preventing silo thinking stovepipe neologisms contemporary management theory


complex moving figure production sequence since possible maintain ground comparatively passive constant state ref name trist bamforth hand many activities constantly faced possibility untoward activity 'ground' 'figure ground' relationship ref name trist bamforth central problem one appears nub many problems classic organisations complexity instability 'ground' limits applicability methods derived factory ref name trist bamforth classic organisations problems


task manager significantly less arduous meaningfulness tasks effects based operations notion whole task combined adaptability responsible autonomy additional advantages work organization participant task total significance dynamic closure ref name trist bamforth well requirement deploy multiplicity skills responsible autonomy order select clearly hinting relaxation myriad control mechanisms found classically


use democratically selected user design group key information collectors decision makers design group backed committee senior staff lay foundations subsequently oversee project ref name mumford alter describes sociotechnical analysis design methods strong point information systems practice aim socio technical designs optimise join social technical systems however problem technical social system along work system joint optimisation defined ref name alter future


analysis flexibility speed two main pillars future analysis survival transform business organization mindset must first changed companies future find balance four extremes hierarchies versus networks profit versus meaningfulness control versus empowerment planning versus experiments future socio technical design continue interest researchers therefore adapt overtime meet ever changing climate new socio technical approaches information systems endeavoured overcome shortcomings old approaches relying theories social sciences ref


job enlargement job enlargement means increasing scope job extending range job duties responsibilities contradicts principles specialisation division labour whereby work divided small units performed repetitively individual worker motivational theories suggest boredom alienation caused division labour actually cause efficiency fall job rotation job rotation approach management development individual moved schedule assignments designed give breadth exposure


cambridge irm press london university press ref mumford ref name mumford ref states although technology organizational structures may change industry employee rights needs must given high priority future commercial success requires motivated work forces committed employers interests requires companies managers dedicated creating motivation recognize required achieved returning socio technical values objectives principals may provide answer mumford reflects leadership within organisations lack leadership proven downfall companies competition increases


employers lost valued qualified employees competitors opportunities better job roles opportunity work way motivated employees join rivals mumford suggests delegation responsibility could help employees stay motivated would feel appreciated belonging thus keeping current organization leadership key employees would prefer following structure knowing opportunity improve mumford analysed role user participation two es projects drawback found users found difficult


sociotechnical systems work system perspective eliminates artificial distinction social system technical system also eliminates idea joint optimization using work system lens bring many benefits viewing work system whole making easier discuss analyse organised approach even outlining basic understanding work system readily usable analysis method making adaptable performing analysis work system require guidance experts researchers reinforces idea work system exists


implementation computer systems process used successfully mumford variety projects since idea conception turners asbestos cement project forgetting vital request customer discuss potentially fix issues found current organisation gave advice making system system received well mumford told already using similar system realised participative based approach would benefit many future projects enid mumfords ethics development push remind


metabolic engineering systems interest enrichment techniques proteomics chemical biologists work improve proteomics development enrichment strategies chemical affinity tags new probes samples proteomics often contain many peptide sequences sequence interest may highly represented low abundance creates barrier detection chemical biology methods reduce sample complexity selective enrichment using affinity chromatography involves targeting peptide distinguishing feature like biotin label post translational modification ref name pmid ref methods developed include use antibodies lectins

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical biology


n terminal cysteine residue ultimately resulting formation native amide bond strategies used ligation peptide fragments using acyl transfer chemistry first introduced native chemical ligation include expressed protein ligation ref name pmid ref sulfurization desulfurization techniques ref name pmid ref use removable thiol auxiliaries ref name pmid ref expressed protein ligation allows biotechnological installation c terminal thioester using inteins thereby allowing appendage synthetic n terminal peptide recombinantly produced c terminal portion sulfurization desulfurization techniques use removable thiol auxiliaries involve installation synthetic thiol moiety carry


successful techniques synthetically producing proteins contain phosphomimetic molecules either terminus ref name pmid addition researchers used unnatural amino acid mutagenesis targeted sites within peptide sequence ref name pmid ref advances chemical biology also improved upon classical techniques imaging kinase action example development peptide biosensors peptides containing incorporated fluorophores improved temporal resolution vitro binding assays ref name pmid ref one useful techniques study kinase action fluorescence resonance energy transfer fret utilize fret phosphorylation studies fluorescent proteins coupled phosphoamino acid binding domain


fluorescent protein gfp roger tsien others hybrid systems quantum dots enabled assessing protein location function precisely ref name giepmans b n g ref three main types fluorophores used small organic dyes green fluorescent proteins quantum dots small organic dyes usually less kda modified increase photostability brightness reduce self quenching quantum dots sharp wavelengths high molar absorptivity quantum yield organic dyes quantum dyes ability recognize protein interest without aid antibodies hence


'''international economics''' concerned effects upon economic activity international differences productive resources consumer preferences international institutions affect seeks explain patterns consequences transactions interactions inhabitants different countries including trade investment transaction '''international trade''' studies goods services flows across international boundaries supply demand factors economic integration international factor movements policy variables tariff rates trade quotas '''international finance''' studies flow capital across international financial markets effects movements

Social science
Economics
International economics


trade would result various postulated sources comparative advantage however extremely restrictive often unrealistic assumptions adopted order make problem amenable theoretical analysis best known resulting models heckscher ohlin theorem h depends upon assumptions international differences technology productivity consumer preferences obstacles pure competition free trade scale economies assumptions derives model trade patterns would arise solely international differences relative abundance labour


net gain would tend depress wages skilled workers recipient country many econometric studies intended quantify gains copenhagen consensus study suggests share foreign workers grew labour force rich countries would global benefits billion year however survey evidence led house lords committee conclude benefits immigration united kingdom relatively small evidence united states also suggests


authorize organization operation council thus council set institution provides visibility various organizations social economy ref name cepes http wwwcepes es spanish law social economy ref furthermore due decentralization powers characterizes spain 's territorial system different substantive rules regarding various entities social economy whose regulation falls within scope regional governments giving rise existence similar institutions within autonomous community industry participants different forms cooperatives among ones associated workers consumers


membership provide platform institutional dialogues public authorities organization matured political integration today cepes confederation national scope cross sector membership recognized institution highest level spain 's economy year organization collects data publishes several reports state social economy sector spain mediterranean comparative data spanish social economy relative similar sectors parts world also reported latin america spanish speaking latin american countries argentina venezuela


social sector within social entrepreneurship venture philanthropy ref name india cooperative movement india made remarkable progress working cooperatives million members making largest cooperative movement world cooperatives huge network unparalleled reach coverage villages cooperatives play pivotal role mainstream indian economy particularly fields agriculture rural credit distribution agricultural inputs storage fertilizer marketing labour micro finance housing cooperatives working towards inclusive growth cooperative ideals cooperative organization


social life social geometry social life refers instance human behavior law suicide gossip art social geometry behavior also called social structure refers social characteristics involved degree past interaction level wealth extent approach draws aspects earlier sociological work ranging durkheim 's emphasis social explanations individual behavior later work variation police legal behavior differences virtually sociology explains behavior people whether

Social science
Sociology
Social control
Pure sociology


new direction study justice law social control prepared school justice studies arizona state university new york plenum press relative justice litigation social control self pages virginia review sociology law conflict management edited james tucker greenwich jai press inc la mobilisation du droit autobiographie un concept mobilization law autobiography concept pages dictionnaire encyclop dique de th orie et de sociologie de droit direction andr jean arnaud paris


symposium donald black behavior law contemporary sociology november editor toward new science social life retrospective examination behavior law contemporary sociology creating mental illness chicago university chicago press '''jacques scott richard wright''' intimacy outlaws role relational distance recruiting paying interviewing underworld research participants journal research crime delinquency relevance peace studies drug market violence criminology drug law violent retaliation 'criminology public policy putting


discipline one aims revitalize discipline sociology leveraging empirical methods theoretical insights contribute debates ''what is'' ''what been'' society society ''might yet be'' thus many versions public sociology undeniably normative political character fact led significant number sociologists oppose approach ref name tittle history term public sociology first introduced herbert gans asa presidential address sociology america discipline public gans primary examples

Social science
Sociology
Applied sociology
Public sociology


agendas attention immediate needs long term capacities calhoun also entered debate public sociology critically evaluating project public sociology acknowledging specific promise arguing sociology matters public sphere vital future field future following annual meeting american sociological association asa michael burawoy 's vision public sociology introduced presidential address ref name ref continued interest topic recent years numerous books special issues addressed public sociology including ''public


sociology fifteen eminent sociologists debate politics profession twenty first century'' edited dan clawson robert zussman joya misra naomi gerstel randall stokes douglas l anderton ref name ref ''public sociologies reader'' edited judith blau keri iyall smith ''public sociology contemporary debate'' edited larry nichols ''public sociology civil society governance politics power'' patricia mooney nickel ''public sociology social facts literary acts new social formations '' nd edition ben agger building conversation sparked burawoy asa meeting new


sociology claim larger role public life providing useful accurate scientifically rigorous information policy makers community leaders similarly department sociology anthropology george mason university began offering doctoral degree sociology fall grounding two specializations institutions inequalities sociology globalization within context public sociological praxis united kingdom institutions provide undergraduate sociology degrees advertise public applied nature curriculum various key modules form part curriculum examples


grounds logic goals critics claim based false premise consensus sociological community arguing greatly overestimates uniformity moral political agenda sociologists ref name nielsen francois nielsen vacant 'we' remarks public sociology social forces vol jun pp ref question possibility desirability moral agreement pointing almost every social issue involves moral dilemmas moral clarity 'just' almost never unambiguous ref


model cannot used interchangeably nursing theory components nursing modeling three main key components nursing model ref name nursing theories overview statement goal nurse trying achieve set beliefs values awareness skills knowledge nurse needs practice first important step development ideas nursing establish body approach essential nursing analyse beliefs values around common concepts nursing modeling metaparadigm metaparadigm contains philosophical worldviews concepts unique discipline defines

Applied science
Medicine and health
Nursing Theory


premises environment sensed ''uiaw'' posits structure three domains ''physical domain'' events take place perceived sensors individuals data emerging physical domain transmitted ''information domain'' data subsequently received processed ''cognitive domain'' assessed acted upon process replicates observe orient decide act loop first described col john boyd usaf ''power edge'' last publication dealing developing theory network centric warfare appeared

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Network-centric warfare


network centric warfare criticized proponents fourth generation warfare gw doctrine also since network centric warfare focuses much distributing information one wary effect false misleading misinterpreted information entering system enemy deception simple error usefulness correct information amplified repercussions incorrect data entering system achieve much greater non positive outcomes one way happen errors initial conditions uncorrected closed system subsequently skew result sets result sets


classification systemaccording system viruses classified seven classes based replication strategy ref name class double stranded dna depending location genome replication class subdivided two groups viruses replication happens exclusively nucleus thus relatively dependent cellular factors b viruses replicating cytoplasm mostly independent cellular machinery due fact acquired needed factors genome 's transcription replication ref name class ii single stranded dna viruses replicate nucleus double stranded

Natural science
Biology
Virology
Molecular virology


administration practicing athletic trainers required state credentials every state except california according national athletic trainers association athletic trainers around world us department labor statistics projects employment athletic trainers estimated grow roles responsibilities scope board certification serves national certifying body athletic trainers standards professional practice outline roles responsibilities certified athletic trainers practice standards include practice expectations athletic

Human physical performance and recreation


another example voting individual preferences candidates collected elect person best represents group 's preferences ref name ref social choice blends elements welfare economics public choice theory methodologically individualistic aggregates preferences behaviors individual members society using elements formal logic generality analysis proceeds set seemingly reasonable axioms social choice form ' 'social welfare function'' ''constitution'' results uncovered logical incompatibility various axioms arrow 's theorem revealing aggregation problem suggesting reformulation theoretical triage

Social science
Economics
Social choice theory


social welfare functions social choice functions several famous theorems concerning social choice functions gibbard satterthwaite theorem states non dictatorial voting rules resolute always returns single winner matter ballots non imposed every alternative could chosen three alternatives candidates manipulable voter cast ballot misrepresents preferences obtain result favorable sincere preferences campbell kelley theorem states exists condorcet winner selecting winner unique


schools within region references external links http wwwoswegoedu waite techhistoryhtml history philosophy technology education historical reader suny oswego applied learning educational technology

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Technology education


jukun people also wrote poem praising sultan katsina muhammad uban yari muhammad ibn masani student muhammad ibn al sabbagh also celebrated scholar katsina also produced works hausa language th century wrote many works one documentary yoruba people work mentioned muhammad bello lived years later ''infaq'l maysuur azhar al ruba fi akhbar yuruba'' one earliest written accounts transatlantic slave trade indigenous african also

Humanities
Languages and literature
Nigerian Literature


overall capacity plants capture sunlight directly correlated plant leaf area n content net primary productivity npp primary measure biomass accumulation within ecosystem net primary productivity calculated simple formula total amount productivity adjusted total productivity losses maintenance biological processes npp gpp r sub producer sub figure seasonal annual changes ambient carbon dioxide co sub sub concentration mauna loa hawaii atmosphere canopy deciduous forest massachusetts forest data show clear seasonal trends associated

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems ecology
Ecosystem ecology


rates decomposition nutrient cycling chapin et al simple carbon c containing compounds preferentially metabolized decomposer microorganisms results rapid initial rates decomposition see figure models depend constant rates decay called k values see figure b addition litter quality climate activity soil fauna important however models reflect simultaneous linear non linear decay processes likely occur decomposition instance proteins sugars lipids decompose exponentially lignin decays linear rate ref name thus litter


winter quarters 'cantonments' get coldest months warmth protection example ancient romans easily movable ''castra aestiva'' 'summer quarters' leather tents stationary ''castra hibera'' 'winter quarters' wooden barracks favourable weather proper equipment supplies however military campaigns could extended 'campaigning season' winter attempt catch enemy guard example flanders campaign french general jean charles pichegru unexpectedly crossed frozen great rivers harsh winter conquered dutch republic ill prepared winter campaigns

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Military campaign


notable australian professor griffith taylor espoused geopacifics ''an attempt base teachings freedom humanity upon real geographical deductions humanized geopolitics'' later observed ' 'so geographers prepared explore public problems touch geography much disciplines certainly case problem world peace'' urbanistics russian colonel n olesik terms field analyzing complex urban environment particular military geo urbanistics open country units deal terrain weather enemy urban

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Military geography


terrain several types terrain associated climate prevalent affecting combatants differently desert warfare arid climate many desert areas across globe sand main concern sand hamper army 's attempts remain hydrated sapping moisture skin sand also jams machinery including firing mechanisms firearms terrain usually fairly flat though regions vast rolling sand dunes desert environment also contain mountains afghanistan certain areas around israel due ongoing conflicts middle


many nations even navy either deployed nonexistent best ways defend harbor military airfields close vicinity naval units based harbor permanent basis ready make harbor unusable enemy overcome defenses beaches beaches always favourable place landings beaches naturally shallow inclines often used deploying troops armoured vehicles often however blocked mines anti tank defences makes


would love control vast wealth mines order fund lucrative endeavors base construction closings united states department defense maintains larger number domestic foreign military bases countries combined closing redundant military bases united states often negative economic impact local communities analysts pentagon respond budget limitations identifying installations become obsolete various reasons sometimes needs location longer prevalent defense strategies


woodward 's text ''military geographies'' however given postmodern bias critical geographical studies well critical geography academics' tendency proudly claim politically radical anti authoritarian slant research form revival military geography seems unlikely provide sound recommendations detailed analyses major geopolitical events shift focus would also make military geography less likely fruitfully inform governmental policy military strategy well potentially limit ability academics provide expertise members general public interested studying reading


differential ring ' 'differential ring'' ring ''r'' equipped one ' 'derivations'' homomorphisms additive groups math partial colon r r math derivation satisfies leibniz product rule math partial r r partial r r r partial r math every math r r r math note ring could noncommutative somewhat standard ''xy'' ''x' 'd''y'' ''y' 'd''x'' form product rule commutative settings may false math r times r r math multiplication ring product rule identity math partial circ

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Differential algebra


partial u math solving respect math partial u v math obtain sought identity ''k'' differential field ''the field constants'' ''k'' math k u k partial u math differential algebra field ''k'' ''k'' algebra ''a'' wherein derivation commutes scalar multiplication math k k math math x math one math partial kx k partial x math math eta colon k z math ring homomorphism center defining scalar multiplication algebra one math partial circ circ eta


appear natural algebraic geometric objects differential fields bounded cardinality embed large differentially closed field differential fields objects study differential galois theory naturally occurring examples derivations partial derivatives lie derivatives pincherle derivative commutator respect element algebra ring pseudo differential operators confusing section reason unclear whether xi represents differential integral operator notation sum n infty defined fixed correctness edit must checked date may differential


environmental history'' definition universally accepted definition environmental history general terms history tries explain environment like humanity influenced current condition well commenting problems opportunities tomorrow donald worster 's widely quoted definition states environmental history interaction human cultures environment past j donald hughes defined subject study human relationships time natural communities part order

Humanities
History
Environmental history


topics netherlands belgium although also interest european environmental history issue contains abstracts english french german journal converted yearbook environmental history canada network canadian history environment facilitates growth environmental history numerous workshops significant digital infrastructure including website podcast communication european nations restricted language difficulties april meeting held germany overcome problems co ordinate environmental history europe meeting resulted


creation european society environmental history two years establishment eseh held first international conference st andrews scotland around scholars attended meeting papers presented topics covering whole spectrum environmental history conference showed environmental history viable lively field europe since eseh expanded members continues grow attracted international conferences ''centre environmental history'' established university stirling history departments


stimulate development human culture even determine extent direction development claim path history forged environmental rather cultural forces referred environmental determinism extreme may called cultural determinism example cultural determinism would view human influence pervasive idea pristine nature little validity way relating nature without culture methodology recording historical events useful guidance process environmental


press funes monzote reinaldo ''from rainforest cane field cuba environmental history since '' matthews andrew ''instituting nature authority expertise power mexican forests'' cambridge massachusetts institute technology press melville elinor ''a plague sheep environmental consequences conquest mexico'' cambridge cambridge university press miller shawn william ''an environmental history latin america'' miller shawn william ''fruitless trees portuguese conservation brazil 's colonial timber'' stanford stanford university press noss andrew imke oetting hunter self monitoring izoce guarani bolivian chaco ''biodiversity conservation''


raffles hugh et al reflections amazonian environmental history transformations rivers streams ''latin american research review'' vol number santiago myrna ''the ecology oil environment labor mexican revolution '' cambridge cambridge university press simonian lane ''defending land jaguar history conservation mexico'' austin university texas press wakild emily ''revolutionary parks conservation social justice mexico 's national parks '' tucson university arizona press south south east asia banaue rice terraces philippines


press maohong bao environmental history china ''environment history'' volume number november pp nbsp marks r b ''tigers rice silk silt environment economy late imperial south china'' cambridge cambridge university press perdue peter c lakes empire man water chinese history ''modern china'' january shapiro judith ''mao 's war nature politics environment revolutionary china'' new york cambridge university press middle east north africa mcneill j r eccentricity middle east north africa environmental history water sand


international journal middle east studies http repositoriescdliborg ucwhw ep burke iii edmund coming environmental crisis middle east historical perspective ce april uc world history workshop essays positions world history workshop paper tal alon pollution promised land environmental history israel berkeley university california press europe roman aqueduct plaza segovia spain brimblecombe peter christian pfister silent countdown essays european environmental history berlin springer verlag crosby alfred w ecological imperialism biological expansion europe cambridge cambridge university


zealand forest histories short overviews australian forest history society inc occasional publications kingston australian forest history society dovers stephen ed essays australian environmental history essays cases oxford oup dovers stephen ed environmental history policy still settling australia south melbourne oxford university press flannery tim ''the future eaters ecological history australian lands people'' sydney reed books garden australia new zealand pacific environmental history santa barbara abc clio hughes j donald nature culture pacific islands leidschrift hughes j donald


outlines health medical science engages social constructs way knowing illness wellbeing interactions socially interpreted ref name conrad ref health sociology uses insight critique long established ideas around human body mechanical entity alongside disrupting idea mind body treated distinct spaces biomedical model viewed holistically placing humans within wider social cultural economic political environmental contexts play large part health wellbeing deprived maintained

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of health and illness


consisting interactions among individuals hence focus individuals organization patterns found everyday activities seeks deal problems like identity problems found symbolic interactionism inadequate analysis social structure led fork road social science school sociology influenced humanistic model developed znaniecki thomas led development ethnomethodology branch led post modernism via poststructuralism ethnomethodology ethnomethodology social anthropology pierre bourdieu probably best representation initial work znaniecki

Social science
Sociology
Humanistic sociology


could fact phoenix areas study brandenburg gate berlin wall late onwards political geography undergone renaissance could fairly described one dynamic sub disciplines today revival underpinned launch journal ''political geography quarterly'' expansion bi monthly production ''political geography'' part growth associated adoption political geographers approaches taken earlier areas human geography example ron j johnston 's work

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Political geography


s' ''progress human geography'' pp claval p ''espace et pouvoir'' paris presses universitaires de france cox kr low robinson j ''handbook political geography'' london sage okunev ''political geography'' brussels peter lang sanguin l prevelakis g 'jean gottmann un pionnier de la g ographie politique' ''annales de g ographie'' pp short jr ''an introduction political geography nd edn'' london routledge spykman nj ''the geography peace'' new york harcourt brace co sutton 'the political geography indian country'


hubble extreme deep field xdf completed september shows farthest galaxies ever photographed except stars foreground bright easily recognizable diffraction spikes every speck light photo individual galaxy old billion years observable universe estimated contain trillion galaxies '''cosmology''' greek ''kosmos'' world '' logia'' study branch astronomy concerned study chronology universe physical cosmology


study universe 's origin large scale structures dynamics ultimate fate universe including laws science govern areas term ''cosmology'' first used english thomas blount 's ''glossographia'' taken latin german philosopher christian wolff ''cosmologia generalis'' religious mythological cosmology body beliefs based mythological religious esoteric literature traditions creation myths eschatology physical cosmology studied scientists astronomers physicists well philosophers metaphysicians philosophers physics


name nasa ref ref name nyt ref however june lowered confidence confirming cosmic inflation findings reported ref name nyt ref ref name bbc ref ref name prl ref december ''planck '' meeting ferrara italy astronomers reported universe billion years old composed atomic matter dark matter dark energy ref name nyt ref religious mythological cosmology religious mythological cosmology body beliefs based mythological religious esoteric literature traditions creation eschatology philosophical cosmology representation observable universe logarithmic scale cosmology deals world


year stars immobile earth motion maintains hidden face towards central fire hence never seen first known non geocentric model universe de mundo pseudo aristotle bc bc universe system made heaven earth elements contained five elements situated spheres five regions less case surrounded greater namely earth surrounded water water air air fire


annihilations keep bubbles separated moving apart preventing interacting brans dicke theory carl h brans robert h dicke expanding based mach 's principle ''g'' varies time universe expands nobody quite sure mach 's principle actually means cosmic inflation alan guth big bang modified solve horizon flatness problems based concept hot inflation universe viewed multiple quantum flux hence bubble like nature universes formed bubbles ongoing cosmic expansion kept bubbles


elitism social inequality particularly management education michael loughlin manchester metropolitan university discussed aspects management theory pseudo science wider impatience market managerial forms organization occur commonly enough outside business school anti corporate protests popular media presentations managers cms attempts articulate voices within business school provide ways thinking beyond current dominant theories practices organizations references external links http wwwcriticalmanagementorg http wwwcriticalmanagementorg single point access resources critical study aspects management portal provides links sites

Social science
Sociology
Critical management studies


eventual socialist revolution controversial debate among many different marxist schools thought marxists believe socialism necessity marxists argue socialist society far better majority populace capitalist counterpart prior russian revolution vladimir lenin wrote socialization production bound lead conversion means production property society conversion directly result immense increase productivity labour reduction working hours replacement remnants ruins small scale primitive

Humanities
Philosophy
Social philosophy
Marxism


marxist' american marxist scholar hal draper responded comment saying thinkers modern history whose thought badly misrepresented marxists anti marxists alike libertarian libertarian marxism emphasizes anti authoritarian libertarian aspects marxism early currents libertarian marxism left communism emerged opposition marxism leninism libertarian marxism often critical reformist positions held social democrats libertarian marxist currents often draw karl marx friedrich engels' later works specifically ''grundrisse'' ''the civil war france'' emphasizing


necessary grasp marx 's philosophical foundations understand later works properly contrary official dialectical materialism soviet union interpretations marx rooted structural marxism louis althusser marxist humanists argue marx 's work extension transcendence enlightenment humanism marxist philosophies see marxism natural science marxist humanism reaffirms doctrine man measure things nbsp humans essentially different rest natural order treated marxist theory academic v gordon childe


england '' salient creating socialist impetus british politics marx 's important works social political history include ''the eighteenth brumaire louis napoleon'' ''the communist manifesto'' ''the german ideology'' chapters ''das kapital'' dealing historical emergence capitalists proletarians pre industrial english society marxist historiography suffered soviet union government requested overdetermined historical writing notable histories include ''history communist party soviet union bolsheviks '' published justify nature bolshevik party life joseph stalin circle


towards soviet union leninist allies meanwhile reformist mikhael gorbachev became general secretary communist party soviet union march sought abandon leninist models development towards social democracy ultimately gorbachev 's reforms coupled rising levels popular ethnic nationalism led dissolution soviet union late series constituent nations abandoned marxist leninist models socialism converting capitalist economies st century hugo chavez casting vote turn st century china cuba


fundamentally undermined british cost theories value restoration subjectivism praxeological methodology previously used classical economists including richard cantillon anne robert jacques turgot jean baptiste say fr ric bastiat led menger criticise historicist methodology general second generation austrian economist eugen b hm von bawerk used praxeological subjectivist methodology attack law value fundamentally gottfried haberler regarded criticism definitive arguing b hm bawerk 's critique marx 's economics thorough devastating believes marxian scholar conclusively refuted third generation austrian ludwig von mises rekindled debate


said palestinian american professor comparative literature columbia university published book ''orientalism'' accused earlier scholars subtle persistent eurocentric prejudice arab islamic peoples culture claiming bias amounted justification imperialism western academics irwin challenged said 's conclusions ref name rose flemming rose ''forsvar en profession'' defence profession interview prof robert irwin ''jyllands posten'' april section page accessed via http infomediadk infomediadk http wwwjyllands postendk protected premium kultur ece forsvar en profession newspaper 's website ref however book became standard text literary theory cultural studies following september

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Middle Eastern studies


http wwwuni marburgde cnms index html enset language en center near middle eastern studies marburg university department african middle eastern south asian languages literatures rutgers state university new jersey institut fran ais du proche orient ifpo french institute near east damascus beirut amman institute middle east studies george washington university institute arab islamic studies university exeter institute middle east marmara university london middle east institute school oriental african studies middle east center university pennsylvania middle east center university washington


'natural disturbance' similar flooding windstorms landslides driven evolution species controls characteristics ecosystems fire suppression combination human caused environmental changes may resulted unforeseen consequences natural ecosystems large wildfires united states blamed years fire suppression continuing expansion people fire adapted ecosystems climate change likely responsible land managers faced tough questions regarding restore natural fire regime allowing wildfires burn least expensive likely effective

Applied science
Public administration
Fire ecology


temperatures soil day due increased solar radiation soil surface greater cooling due loss radiative heat night fewer leaves intercept rain also cause rain reach soil surface fewer plants absorb water amount water content soils might increase however might seen ash water repellent dry therefore water content availability might actually increase biotic responses adaptations plants lodgepole pine cones plants evolved many adaptations cope fire


adaptations one best known likely ''pyriscence'' maturation release seeds triggered whole part fire smoke behaviour often erroneously called ' 'serotiny'' although term truly denotes much broader category seed release activated stimulus pyriscent plants serotinous serotinous plants pyriscent necriscent hygriscent xeriscent soliscent combination thereof hand germination seed activated trigger confused pyriscence known ''physiological dormancy'' chaparral


vegetation canopy let light allowing seedlings compete shade tolerant seedlings species establish ref name usnps us national park service ref stationary nature precludes fire avoidance plant species may fire intolerant fire tolerant fire resistant ref name kramp kramp ''et al'' ref fire intolerance fire intolerant plant species tend highly flammable destroyed completely fire plants seeds may simply fade community fire return others adapted ensure offspring survives next generation obligate seeders


heat smoke may actually attract peril ref name debano debano ''et al'' ref microbial organisms soil vary heat tolerance likely able survive fire deeper soil low fire intensity quick passing flames dry soil also help increase available nutrients fire passed may result larger microbial communities fire ref name hart hart ''et al'' ref generally greater heat tolerance bacteria relative fungi makes possible


different types patches fire allows greater number species exist within landscape soil characteristics factor determining specific nature fire adapted ecosystem climate topography examples fire different ecosystems forests mild moderate fires burn forest understory removing small trees herbaceous groundcover high severity fires burn crowns trees kill dominant vegetation crown fires may require support ground fuels maintain fire forest canopy passive crown fires fire may burn


drought years severe upper slopes influenced type vegetation growing forests british columbia canada forests cover land area yet harbor country bird terrestrial mammal species natural fire regimes important maintaining diverse assemblage vertebrate species twelve different forest types british columbia ref name bunnell bunnell ref different species adapted exploit different stages succession regrowth habitat change occurs following episode burning downed trees debris characteristics


generally higher forest fires centers combustion lie closer ground although vary greatly ref name debano common plants shrubland chaparral include manzanita chamise coyote brush california shrublands california shrubland commonly known chaparral widespread plant community low growing species typically arid sloping areas california coast ranges western foothills sierra nevada number common shrubs tree shrub forms association including salal toyon coffeeberry western poison oak regeneration following fire usually major


produce many seeds die next fire investing lot energy roots survive next fire roots able extract little extra benefit nutrient poor soil would less efficient possible rapid generation time obligate seeders display led rapid evolution speciation ecosystem resulting highly diverse plant community ref name wisheu grasslands grasslands burn readily forest shrub ecosystems fire moving stems leaves herbaceous plants lightly heating


indigo snakes also depend upon open grasslands flatwoods hence restoration fire priority maintain species composition biological diversity fire wetlands many kinds wetlands also influenced fire usually occurs periods drought landscapes peat soils bogs peat substrate may burn leaving holes refill water new ponds fires less intense remove accumulated litter allow wetland plants regenerate buried seeds rhizomes wetlands influenced fire include coastal marshes wet


great plains shortgrass prairie combination heavy livestock grazing fire suppression drastically altered structure composition diversity shortgrass prairie ecosystem great plains allowing woody species dominate many areas promoting fire intolerant invasive species semi arid ecosystems decomposition woody material slow fire crucial returning nutrients soil allowing grasslands maintain high productivity although fire occur growing dormant seasons managed fire dormant season effective increasing grass forb cover biodiversity


wildland fire management policy program review fwfmp http wwwfsfedus land wdfirehtm united states national park service usnps wwwnpsgov sequoia king canyon national parks february giant sequoias fire https wwwnpsgov seki learn nature fic segihtm vitt dh la halsey bj nicholson mackenzie river basin pp nbsp lh fraser pa keddy eds world largest wetlands ecology conservation cambridge university press cambridge uk p whitlock c higuera p e mcwethy b briles c e paleoecological perspectives fire ecology revisiting fire regime concept open ecology journal wisheu ic ml rosenzweig l olsvig whittaker shmida


roles believed women pretended live certain life avoid achieving full potential living role housewife example neurological theory developed sigmund freud cultivated using psychoanalysis process called conscious subconscious state mind specific example given would considered falling false consciousness instead consciousness helps control daily lives leading belief women viewed property husbands economically women still dependent husbands provide financial support family gilman

Social science
Sociology
Feminist sociology


organization gender ref name ferree feminism queer theory modern queer theory attempts unmake social contextual elements reinforcing heteronormativity challenging oppressive institutions traditional binary distinctions male female among many criticisms regard feminism queer theory address ways social structures violently categorize erase women lgbtqia social narrative however sociological feminism often reinforces gender binary research process gendered subject made object study mccann queer theory comparison challenges traditional ideas gender


deconstruction lack acceptance dichotomy male female traits ref name recent work epistemology subject queer theory 's challenge feminist sociology mccann confronts theoretical perspective methodology feminist sociology subject rarely reflects fluid unstable dynamic realities bodies experiences settle subject category reinscribe fixity excludes often violent ways example literally erased bodies conform discrete binary mccann refashioning field


daphne patai argues term anti feminist used way push away feminism academic debates anti feminism anti feminism opposition feminism forms anti feminism around since th century primarily focused opposition women 's suffrage woman encouraged assigned proper places public realm avoiding realms political spheres altogether later discussed antifeminists women place institutions higher education high physical burden


popularity reach students across united states canada disadvantages form educational technology readily apparent image sound quality often grainy pixelated videoconferencing requires setting type mini television studio within museum broadcast space becomes issue specialised equipment required provider participant open university britain ref name mason r university british columbia web ct incorporated blackboard inc first developed began revolution using internet deliver learning making heavy

Applied science
Education
Educational Technology


defined structures units educational material educational content delivered units independent format meaning although unit may delivered various ways pedagogical structures '''not''' textbook web page video conference podcast lesson assignment multiple choice question quiz discussion group case study possible methods delivery learning objects standards much effort put technical reuse electronically based teaching materials particular creating using learning objects self contained units properly


ai share workload recommend best course actions eg pointing students require help operate pre specified domain cannot handle tasks providing emotional support remedial lessons students need ref name ref however existing systems designed assumption students progress pace understanding support teachers realistic highly differentiated self paced classroom remains open research problem ref name settings sectors preschool preschool class various forms electronic media feature preschool life ref name rideout ref


computers tablets audio video resources classrooms additionally many resources available parents educators introduce technology young children use technology augment lessons enhance learning options age appropriate video audio recording creations introducing use internet browsing age appropriate websites providing assistive technology allow differently abled children participate rest peers educational apps electronic books educational videos ref name earlychildhoodteacherorg ref many free paid educational website apps directly targeting educational needs


public well summarized form public health providers providers indicated need automatic notification latest research single searchable portal information access grey literature maternal child health mch library funded us maternal child health bureau screen latest research develop automatic notifications providers mch alert another application public health development mhealth use mobile telecommunication multimedia global public health mhealth used promote prenatal newborn services positive


vocabulary shows slipping due educational baby dvds published ''journal pediatrics'' university washington study vocabulary babies surveyed parents washington minnesota study found every one hour babies months age watched dvds videos knew fewer common baby words babies watch andrew meltzoff surveyor study states result makes sense baby 's alert time spent front dvds tv instead


''sermon beatitudes'' depicts jesus' sermon mount summarized ethical teachings james tissot c '''christian ethics''' also known '''moral theology''' multi faceted ethical system virtue ethic focuses building moral character deontological ethic emphasizes duty also incorporates natural law ethics built belief nature humans created image god capable morality cooperation rationality discernment informs life lived awareness