evolution anatomy physiology molecular biology neuroscience genetics paleoanthropology study fossil evidence human evolution mainly using remains extinct hominin primate species determine morphological behavioral changes human lineage well environment human evolution occurred paleopathology study disease antiquity study focuses pathogenic conditions observable bones mummified soft tissue also nutritional disorders variation stature morphology bones time evidence physical trauma evidence occupationally derived biomechanic stress primatology

Social science
Anthropology
Biological anthropology


promoting theories racial superiority european origin modern humans new physical anthropology sherwood washburn former student hooton introduced new physical anthropology changed focus racial typology concentrate upon study human evolution moving away classification towards evolutionary process anthropology expanded include paleoanthropology primatology th century also saw modern synthesis biology reconciling charles darwin theory evolution gregor mendel research heredity advances understanding molecular structure dna development chronological dating


''homo neanderthalensis'' reconstructions electronic articles published division anthropology american museum natural history http wwwisita orgcom isita indexhtm istituto italiano di antropologia http wwwisita orgcom jass journal anthropological sciences free full text review articles available http homepageuibkacat c humanethologie ws medicus block mappingisbn pdf mapping transdisciplinarity anthropology pdf http homepageuibkacat c humanethologie ws medicus block theoryhumanscippt fundamental theory human sciences ppt http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn american journal human biology http wwwhumbiolcom human biology international journal population genetics anthropology http wwwelseviercom wps find journaleditorialboardcws home editorialboard economics human biology http groupsanthropologynorthwesternedu lhbr laboratory human biology research northwestern university https webarchiveorg web https humbiostanfordedu program human biology stanford http wwwphysanthphylogenyorg tree academic genealogical tree physical anthropologists anthropology


applied principles scientific experimentation therapeutic contexts ref name rang ref advancement research techniques propelled pharmacological research understanding development organ bath preparation tissue samples connected recording devices myograph physiological responses recorded drug application allowed analysis drugs' effects tissues development ligand binding assay allowed quantification binding affinity drugs chemical targets ref name mwp ref modern pharmacologists use techniques genetics molecular biology biochemistry advanced tools transform information molecular mechanisms targets therapies directed


ref name daouk weinshilboum refers direct measurement metabolites individual 's bodily fluids order predict evaluate metabolism pharmaceutical compounds better understand pharmacokinetic profile drug ref name daouk weinshilboum ref name daouk weinshilboum pharmacometabolomics applied measure metabolite levels following administration drug order monitor effects drug metabolic pathways pharmacomicrobiomics studies effect microbiome variations drug disposition action toxicity pharmacomicrobiomics concerned interaction drugs gut microbiome pharmacogenomics application genomic technologies


open market expensive way things often costing billion dollars recoup outlay pharmaceutical companies may number things ref name revisealchem carefully research demand potential new product spending outlay company funds ref name revisealchem obtain patent new medicine preventing companies producing medicine certain allocation time ref name revisealchem inverse benefit law describes relationship drugs therapeutic benefits marketing designing drugs placebo effect must considered assess drug 's true therapeutic


drug produces therapeutic effect desired outcome ref name nagle ref safety effectiveness prescription drugs us regulated federal prescription drug marketing act medicines healthcare products regulatory agency mhra similar role uk medicare part prescription drug plan us prescription drug marketing act pdma act related drug policy prescription drugs drugs regulated legislation societies education societies administration international union basic clinical pharmacology federation european pharmacological


world health organization generic product identifier gpi hierarchical classification number published medispan snomed c axis ingredients drugs categorised unique ingredient identifier education study pharmacology overlaps biomedical sciences study effects drugs living organisms pharmacological research lead new drug discoveries promote better understanding human physiology students pharmacology must detailed working knowledge aspects physiology pathology chemistry may also require knowledge plants sources pharmacologically active compounds ref name int soc ethnopharm modern


use deductive game theoretic formal modelling techniques aimed generating analytical corpus knowledge discipline period saw surge research borrowed theory methods economics study political institutions united states congress well political behavior voting william h riker colleagues students university rochester main proponents shift despite considerable research progress discipline based kinds scholarship discussed observed progress toward systematic theory modest


hayek f constitution liberty chicago university chicago press hochschild jennifer l race class political science michigan journal race law inglehart ronald f religion 's sudden decline 's causing comes next oxford university press usa inglehart ronald pippa norris inglehart ronald rising tide gender equality cultural change around world cambridge university press katznelson ira et al political science state discipline ww norton kellstedt paul guy whitten fundamentals political science research third edition


defined field blockquote art social science analyzing trends predicting consequences counselling organizational leaders implementing planned programs action serve organization public interest blockquote public relations society america professional trade association defined public relations blockquote public relations helps organization publics adapt mutually blockquote prsa solicited crowd supplied definitions term allowed public vote one three finalists winning definition stated blockquote public relations strategic communication process builds

Journalism, media studies and communication


time evidence shows continued evolve settling new world movement abolish slavery england basil clarke considered founder public relations united kingdom establishment editorial services united states united kingdom germany others used concept propaganda later evolved public relations rally domestic support demonize enemies world wars compare journalism world war affected military whole populations considered modern propaganda 's launching pad


private agency setting profit corporation ref name prwss ref bureau labor statistics meanwhile reports median annual public relations specialists public relations managers according study made us bureau labor statistics found public relations practitioners united states private sector working pr agencies median salary individuals work within federal sector reported making median income information collected shows work professional labour


political similar organizations average year c level position chief communications officer cco used private companies usually earned annually ccos fortune companies meanwhile average compensation package million annually according survey ''fortune'' amount included base salary bonus stock options within us federal government public affairs workers ref average salary approximately us forest service employing professionals ref name fp ref federal government agencies employing one public affairs


crisis internal communications communicating within company government relations engaging government departments influence public policy media relations public relations function involves building maintaining close relationships news media sell promote business social media community marketing today 's climate public relations professionals leverage social media marketing distribute messages clients desired target markets house public relations public relations professional hired manage press publicity campaigns company hired 'black hat pr' manipulating public profiles


guise neutral commentators voices engaging actively damage undermine reputations rival targeted individuals organizations building managing relationships influence organization individual 's audiences central role public relations public relations practitioner working field accumulate list relationships become asset especially media relations within discipline typical activities include publicity events speaking opportunities press releases newsletters blogs social media press kits outbound communication members press video audio


recognition constraint recognition involvement addressing issue theory posited publics develop following stages '''''non publics''' '' share issue organization '''''latent publics''' '' face issue recognize '''''apathetic publics''' '' face issue care address '''''aware publics''' '' face issue unorganized mobilize '''''active publics''' '' face issue organized respond '''''' messaging messaging process creating consistent story around product person company service messaging aims avoid readers receive


contradictory confusing information instill doubt purchasing choices decisions affect company brands aim problem statement industry viewpoint brand perception shared across sources media social media marketing digital marketing use internet tools technologies search engines web social bookmarking new media relations blogging social media marketing interactive pr allows companies organizations disseminate information without relying solely mainstream publications communicate directly public customers prospects pr practitioners always relied media


haggerty ethics public relations professionals serve public 's interest private interests businesses associations non profit organizations governments dual obligation gave rise heated debates among scholars discipline practitioners fundamental values conflict represents main ethical predicament public relations ref name carolyn bronstein kathy fitzpatrick carolyn bronstein introduction towards definitional framework responsible advocacy ethics public relations responsible advocacy ed kathy fitzpatrick carolyn bronstein usa sage publications inc ix ref public relations society america prsa responded controversy


advocates clientele occur displaying marketplace ideas facts viewpoints aid informed public debate '''''honesty''''' standing truth accuracy facts case advancing statements public '''''expertise''''' become stay informed specialized knowledge needed field public relations taking knowledge improving field development research education meanwhile professionals also build understanding credibility relationships understand various audiences industries '''''independence''''' provide unbiased work represented accountable actions


communications 's diversion whose primary effect ultimately undermine central goal building trust nurturing good relationship techniques spin include selectively presenting facts quotes support ideal positions cherry picking called non denial denial phrasing way presumes unproven truths euphemisms drawing attention away items considered distasteful ambiguity public statements another spin technique involves careful choice timing release certain news take advantage prominent events news negative negative public relations also called dark public relations


von formellem und materiellem recht'' edition duncker humblot berlin ''schriften zur rechtsgeschichte'' cardozo benjamin n ''the nature judicial process'' new yale university press frank jerome ''law modern mind'' birmingham al legal classics library levi edward h ''an introduction legal reasoning'' chicago university chicago press marshall thurgood ''thurgood marshall speeches writings arguments opinions reminiscences'' chicago lawrence hill books miller arthur ''politics democracy supreme court essays future constitutional theory'' westport ct greenwood press tribe laurence


'''property law''' area law governs various forms ownership real property land personal property property refers legally protected claims resources land personal property including intellectual property ref name ref property exchanged contract law property violated one could sue tort law protect ref name concept idea philosophy property underlies property law jurisdictions historically property owned monarch devolved feudal land tenure feudal systems loyalty fealty


relationship person object relationship number people relation object object regarded within prevailing political system broadly concisely property legal sense refers rights people certain objects things non legally recognized documented property rights known informal property rights informal property rights non codified documented recognized among local residents varying degrees justifications drawbacks property rights capitalist societies market economies much property


preferred others simply matter policy ref name therefore government prevent building factory piece land zoning law criminal law without damaging concept property ref name bundle rights view prominent academia th century remains influential today american law ref name american property rights united states fifth amendment protects right private property two ways first states person may deprived property government without due process


bureau land management blm fish wildlife service fws national park service nps department interior doi forest service fs department agriculture fifth agency department defense excluding us army corps engineers administers million acres united states september consisting military bases training ranges together five agencies manage million acres us land base many agencies administer remaining federal acreage see also claim club conversion


case positivism began inclusivist theory influential exclusive legal positivists including joseph raz john gardner leslie green later rejected idea second important debate often called hart dworkin debate ref name ref concerns battle two dominant schools late th early st century legal interpretivism legal positivism normative jurisprudence addition analytic jurisprudence legal philosophy also concerned normative theories law normative jurisprudence involves normative evaluative otherwise prescriptive questions law ref name ref example goal purpose

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of law


cambridge massachusetts harvard university press jeffrie g murphy jules l coleman'' philosophy law introduction jurisprudence'' boulder co westview press external links http wwwieputmedu l law philhtm internet encyclopedia philosophy philosophy law legal ethics social philosophy law


different charge vastly different masses behave differently many circumstances various types plasma specific waves instabilities emerging result velocity distribution '''maxwellian''' collisions usually lead maxwellian velocity distribution gas particles '''often non maxwellian''' collisional interactions relatively weak hot plasmas external forces drive plasma far local equilibrium ideal plasma three factors define ideal plasma ref name hazeltine ref '''the plasma approximation''' plasma approximation applies plasma parameter representing number charge carriers within debye sphere much


extend tens debye lengths magnitude potentials electric fields must determined means simply finding net charge density common example assume electrons satisfy boltzmann relation math display block n e propto e e phi k bt e math differentiating relation provides means calculate electric field density math display block vec e k bt e e nabla n e n e math possible produce plasma quasineutral electron beam example negative charges density non neutral plasma must generally low must


astrophysical jets observed accreting black holes active galaxies like 's jet possibly extends light years artificial plasmas artificial plasmas generated application electric magnetic fields gas plasma generated laboratory setting industrial use generally categorized type power source used generate plasma dc ac typically radio frequency rf microwave pressure operate vacuum pressure nbsp mtorr pa moderate pressure nbsp torr pa atmospheric pressure nbsp torr kpa


degree ionization within plasma fully partially weakly ionized temperature relationships within plasma thermal plasma math e gas math non thermal cold plasma math e gg gas math electrode configuration used generate plasma magnetization particles within plasma magnetized ion electrons trapped larmor orbits magnetic field partially magnetized electrons ions trapped magnetic field non magnetized magnetic field weak trap particles orbits may generate lorentz forces generation artificial plasma thumb jacob 's ladder


molecules ionizes resulting atoms degree ionization determined temperature per sequence solid liquid gas plasma gas gradually turned thermal plasma thermal plasma thermal equilibrium say temperature relatively homogeneous throughout heavy particles ie atoms molecules ions electrons thermal plasmas generated electrical energy given electrons due great mobility large numbers able disperse rapidly elastic collision without energy loss heavy particles ref name gomez ref


plasma actuator vehicle drag reduction also widely used web treatment fabrics application discharge synthetic fabrics plastics functionalizes surface allows paints glues similar materials adhere dielectric barrier discharge used mid show low temperature atmospheric pressure plasma effective inactivating bacterial cells work later experiments using mammalian cells led establishment new field research known plasma medicine dielectric barrier discharge configuration also used design low temperature plasma


theodore simon another major focus psychometrics personality testing range theoretical approaches conceptualizing measuring personality though widely agreed upon theory better known instruments include minnesota multiphasic personality inventory five factor model big tools personality preference inventory myers briggs type indicator attitudes also studied extensively using psychometric approaches alternative method involves application unfolding measurement models general hyperbolic cosine model andrich luo theoretical approaches psychometricians


essential topics testing including validity reliability errors measurement fairness testing book also establishes standards related testing operations including test design development scores scales norms score linking cut scores test administration scoring reporting score interpretation test documentation rights responsibilities test takers test users finally ''standards'' cover topics related testing applications including psychological testing assessment workplace testing credentialing educational testing assessment testing program evaluation public policy evaluation standards field evaluation particular educational evaluation joint committee


standards educational evaluation published three sets standards evaluations ''the personnel evaluation standards'' published ''the program evaluation standards'' nd edition published ''the student evaluation standards'' published publication presents elaborates set standards use variety educational settings standards provide guidelines designing implementing assessing improving identified form evaluation standards placed one four fundamental categories promote educational evaluations proper useful feasible accurate sets standards


theory physical measurement measurement psychological magnitudes three experimental examples ''psychological monographs '' thurstone measurement psychological value tv smith wk wright eds ''essays philosophy seventeen doctors philosophy university chicago'' chicago open court thurstone ''the measurement values'' chicago university chicago press reading external links https wwwapaorg science programs testing standards apa standards educational psychological testing http ipiporiorg international personality item pool https webarchiveorg web http wwwwmichedu evalctr jc joint committee standards educational evaluation http wwwpsychometricscamacuk psychometrics centre university cambridge https wwwpsychometricsocietyorg


thought experiment arabic philosophical novel ''hayy ibn yaqzan'' depicted development mind feral child tabula rasa adult complete isolation society desert island experience alone scholars argued latin translation philosophical novel ''philosophus autodidactus'' published edward pococke younger influence john locke 's formulation tabula rasa essay concerning human understanding ref name russell g russell ''the 'arabick' interest natural philosophers seventeenth century england'' pp brill publishers

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of education


activity blockquote business education think make perfect one sciences open dispose minds may best make capable shall apply blockquote blockquote men long time accustomed one sort method thoughts minds grow stiff readily turn another therefore give freedom think made look sorts knowledge exercise understandings


ignorance kept housework nature means think love cultivate minds well persons puts weapons hands make lack strength enable direct strength men learn many things things suitable' everyman edn http wwwinfedorg thinkers et roushtmin mile mortimer jerome adler '''date ''' mortimer jerome adler american philosopher educator popular author philosopher worked within aristotelian thomistic traditions lived longest stretches new york


healthy environment steiner believed young children meet goodness elementary education strongly arts based centered teacher 's creative authority elementary school age child meet beauty secondary education seeks develop judgment intellect practical idealism adolescent meet truth learning interdisciplinary integrating practical artistic conceptual elements approach emphasizes role imagination learning developing thinking includes creative well analytic component educational philosophy 's overarching goals provide young people basis develop free morally responsible integrated


books define much contemporary democratic education philosophy neill believed happiness child paramount consideration decisions child 's upbringing happiness grew sense personal freedom felt deprivation sense freedom childhood consequent unhappiness experienced repressed child responsible many psychological disorders adulthood progressivism educational progressivism belief education must based principle humans social animals learn best real life activities


''how children learn'' published holt tried elucidate learning process children believed school short circuits process contemplative education contemplative education focuses bringing introspective practices mindfulness yoga curricular pedagogical processes diverse aims grounded secular spiritual religious post secular perspectives contemplative approaches may used classroom especially tertiary often modified form secondary education parker palmer recent pioneer contemplative methods center contemplative mind society founded branch focusing education association contemplative mind


details journal philosophy education impact society philosophical study education usa society professional association philosophers education holds annual meetings midwest region united states america sponsors discussion forum graduate student competition affiliate american philosophical association center dewey studies usa southern illinois university center dewey studies southern illinois university carbondale established dewey project international society philosophy


attempt understand unique aspects particular individual study personality broad varied history psychology abundance theoretical traditions major theories include dispositional trait perspective psychodynamic humanistic biological behaviorist evolutionary social learning perspective nothwithstanding many researchers psychologists explicitly identify certain perspective instead take eclectic approach research area empirically driven dimensional models based multivariate statistics factor analysis emphasizes theory development psychodynamic theory also

Social science
Psychology
Personality psychology


name engler ref '''freedom versus determinism''' question whether humans control behavior understand motives behind behavior causally determined forces beyond control behavior categorized either unconscious environmental biological various theories ref name engler '''heredity nature versus environment nurture ''' personality thought determined largely either genetics biology environment experiences contemporary research suggests personality traits based joint influence genetics environment one forerunners arena c


theoretical work carl jung specifically book ''psychologische typen'' ''psychological types'' william marston building writings observations jung world war ii isabel briggs myers mother katharine c briggs delineated personality types constructing myers briggs type indicator ref name myers ref ref name stein ref model later used david keirsey different understanding jung briggs myers ref name k ref former soviet union lithuanian au ra augustinavi independently derived model personality type jung 's called socionics later many tests developed model eg golden


book ''types men'' ''lebensformen'' halle saale niemeyer english translation p j w pigors new york g e stechert company enneagram personality model human personality principally used typology nine interconnected personality types criticized subject interpretation making difficult test validate scientifically perhaps ancient attempt personality psychology personality typology outlined indian buddhist abhidharma schools typology mostly focuses negative personal traits greed hatred delusion corresponding positive meditation


organism environment skinner believed children bad things behavior obtains attention serves reinforcer example child cries child 's crying past led attention ' 'response'' ''consequences'' response child crying attention child gets reinforcing consequence according theory people 's behavior formed processes operant conditioning skinner put forward three term contingency model helped promote analysis behavior based stimulus response consequence


consistent preference number categories used categorise heterogeneous objects block petersen 's work confidence line discrimination judgments baron relates early development cognitive approaches personality ego psychology central field attributional style theory dealing different ways people explain events lives approach builds upon locus control extends stating also need consider whether people attribute stable causes variable causes global causes specific causes various scales developed assess


seems feeling anxious upcoming marriage response type seeks clarify therapist 's understanding also encouraging client think deeply seek fully understand feelings expressed biopsychological theories false color representtations cerebral fiber pathways affected phineas gage 's accident per van horn etal biology plays important role development personality study biological level personality psychology focuses primarily identifying role genetic determinants mold individual personalities earliest thinking possible biological


general abilities personality similarities found less related self concepts goals interests ref name loehlin loehlin jc nichols rc ''hereditary environment personality study sets twins'' austin university texas press ref twin studies also important creation five factor personality model neuroticism extraversion openness agreeableness conscientiousness neuroticism extraversion two widely studied traits individuals scoring high trait extraversion often display characteristics impulsiveness sociability activeness individuals scoring high trait neuroticism likely moody anxious irritable identical


adaptation selection traits developed certain genes come expression based organism 's environment traits aid organism 's survival reproduction polymorphisms gender blood type forms diversity evolve benefit species whole ref name ford unk ford eb ''genetic polymorphism'' faber faber london ref theory evolution wide ranging implications personality psychology personality viewed lens evolutionary psychology places great deal emphasis specific traits likely aid survival reproduction conscientiousness


find environment similar cues begin act anticipation similar stimulus ref name dollard smith thus likely experience anxiety environment cues similar one experienced pain fear dentist 's office secondary drives built primary drives biologically driven motivate us act prior learning process hunger thirst need sexual activity however secondary drives thought represent specific elaborations primary drives behind


asked articulate thoughts occur reaction playing scenario method useful studying emotional experience given scenarios used influence specific emotions importantly method contributed study personality study conducted rayburn davison subjects' thoughts empathy toward anti gay hate crimes evaluated researchers found participants showed aggressive intentions towards offender scenarios mimicked hate crimes ref name mihelic '''experimental method''' method experimental paradigm used study human experiences involved studies


amplitude applying born rule amplitudes gives probability density function position electron found experiment performed measure best theory cannot say certain electron found schr dinger equation relates collection probability amplitudes pertain one moment time collection probability amplitudes pertain another one consequence mathematical rules quantum mechanics tradeoff predictability different measurable quantities famous form

Natural science
Physics
Mathematical physics
Quantum mechanics


slits observed screen behind plate ref name lederman ref ref name feynman wave nature light causes light waves passing two slits interfere producing bright dark bands screen result would expected light consisted classical particles ref name lederman however light always found absorbed screen discrete points individual particles rather waves interference pattern appears via varying density particle hits screen furthermore versions experiment include detectors slits find


value observable eigenstate generally quantum state linear combination eigenstates known quantum superposition observable measured result one eigenvalues probability given born rule simplest case eigenvalue math lambda math non degenerate probability given math langle vec lambda psi rangle math math vec lambda math associated eigenvector generally eigenvalue degenerate probability given math langle psip lambda psi rangle math math p lambda math projector onto associated eigenspace continuous case formulas


crucial property unitary time evolution deterministic sense nbsp given initial quantum state math psi math nbsp makes definite prediction quantum state math psi math later time probability densities corresponding wave functions electron hydrogen atom possessing definite energy levels increasing top image bottom ''n'' angular momenta increasing across left right ' 's'' ''p'' ' 'd'' denser areas correspond higher probability density position measurement wave


quantum equations position space momentum math p math replaced math hbar frac partial partial x math particular non relativistic schr dinger equation position space momentum squared term replaced laplacian times math hbar math ref name cohen tannoudji composite systems entanglement two different quantum systems considered together hilbert space combined system tensor product hilbert spaces two components example let two quantum systems hilbert spaces math mathcal h math math mathcal h b math respectively hilbert space


math b math end state math bpb psi l ie delta phi begin pmatrix sin delta phi cos delta phi end pmatrix math probabilities detected right top given respectively math p u langle psi u bpb psi l rangle cos frac delta phi math math p l langle psi l bpb psi l rangle sin frac delta phi math one therefore use mach zehnder interferometer estimate phase shift estimating probabilities interesting consider would happen photon definitely either lower upper paths beam splitters


charged particles quantum field theories strong nuclear force weak nuclear force also developed quantum field theory strong nuclear force called quantum chromodynamics describes interactions subnuclear particles quarks gluons weak nuclear force electromagnetic force unified quantized forms single quantum field theory known electroweak theory physicists abdus salam sheldon glashow steven weinberg relation general relativity even though predictions quantum theory general relativity supported rigorous


textbooks classical quantum mechanics macroscopic quantum phenomena phase space formulation regularization physics two state quantum system explanatory notes references reading following titles working physicists attempt communicate quantum theory lay people using minimum technical apparatus chester marvin ''primer quantum mechanics'' john wiley richard feynman ''qed strange theory light matter'' princeton university press four elementary lectures quantum electrodynamics quantum field theory yet containing many insights expert ghirardi giancarlo ''sneaking look god 's cards'' gerald malsbary trans princeton univ


ramamurti shankar yale opencourseware http wwwlightandmattercom lm modern revolution physics online textbook mit opencourseware https ocwmitedu courses chemistry chemistry https ocwmitedu courses physics physics see https ocwmitedu courses physics quantum physics spring https ocwmitedu courses physics quantum physics ii fall indexhtm https ocwmitedu courses physics quantum physics iii spring indexhtm http wwwphysicscsbsjuedu qm examples quantum mechanics http wwwimperialacuk quantuminformation qi tutorials imperial college quantum mechanics course philosophy


end pmatrix quad rangle begin pmatrix end pmatrix quad rangle begin pmatrix end pmatrix math cnot gate represented using following matrix math display block operatorname cnot begin pmatrix end pmatrix math mathematical consequence definition math display inline operatorname cnot rangle rangle math math display inline operatorname cnot rangle rangle math math display inline operatorname cnot rangle rangle math math display inline operatorname cnot rangle rangle math

Formal science
Computer science
Quantum computing


quantum computers finding polynomial time algorithm solving dihedral hidden subgroup problem would break many lattice based cryptosystems well studied open problem proven applying grover 's algorithm break symmetric secret key algorithm brute force requires time equal roughly sup ''n'' sup invocations underlying cryptographic algorithm compared roughly sup ''n'' sup classical case ref name bennett ref meaning symmetric key lengths effectively halved aes would security attack using grover 's algorithm aes classical brute force search see ''key size'' quantum cryptography could potentially


fulfill functions public key cryptography quantum based cryptographic systems could therefore secure traditional systems quantum hacking search problems well known example problem admitting polynomial quantum speedup ''unstructured search'' finding marked item list math n math items database solved grover 's algorithm using math sqrt n math queries database quadratically fewer math omega n math queries required classical algorithms case advantage provable also optimal shown grover 's algorithm gives


quasi particles used threads relying braid theory form stable logic gates quantum supremacy ''quantum supremacy'' term coined john preskill referring engineering feat demonstrating programmable quantum device solve problem beyond capabilities state art classical computers problem need useful view quantum supremacy test potential future benchmark october google ai quantum help nasa became first claim achieved quantum supremacy performing calculations sycamore quantum computer


via space filling lines force description fields remains day ref name hobson ref ref name heilbron ref ref name thomson ref theory classical electromagnetism completed maxwell 's equations described relationship electric field magnetic field electric current electric charge maxwell 's equations implied existence electromagnetic waves phenomenon whereby electric magnetic fields propagate one spatial point another finite speed turns speed light action distance thus conclusively refuted ref name hobson despite enormous success classical electromagnetism unable account discrete

Natural science
Physics
Mathematical physics
Quantum field theory


uniting scattered ideas coherent discipline quantum mechanics formulated important contributions max planck louis de broglie werner heisenberg max born erwin schr dinger paul dirac wolfgang pauli year paper photoelectric effect einstein published theory special relativity built maxwell 's electromagnetism new rules called lorentz transformation given way time space coordinates event change changes observer 's velocity distinction time space blurred proposed physical laws must


oscillator also promoted quantum field operator math hat phi math annihilation operator math hat mathbf p math creation operator math hat mathbf p dagger math angular frequency math w mathbf p math particular math hat phi mathbf x int frac p pi frac sqrt omega mathbf p left hat mathbf p e omega mathbf p mathbf p cdot mathbf x hat mathbf p dagger e omega mathbf p mathbf p cdot mathbf x right math commutation relations math left hat mathbf p hat mathbf q dagger right pi delta mathbf p mathbf q quad left hat mathbf p hat mathbf q right left hat mathbf p dagger hat mathbf q dagger right math dirac delta function vacuum state math rang math defined math hat mathbf p rang quad text mathbf


phi f math words overall amplitude sum amplitude every possible path initial final states amplitude path given exponential integrand two point correlation function calculations one often encounters expression like math display block lang phi x phi rang quad text quad lang omega phi x phi omega rang math free interacting theory respectively math x math math math position four vectors math math time ordering operator shuffles operands time components math x math math math increase right left math omega rang math ground state vacuum state


math phi z phi r math bare field renormalised field constant determined lagrangian density becomes math mathcal l frac partial mu phi r partial mu phi r frac r phi r frac lambda r phi r frac delta z partial mu phi r partial mu phi r frac delta phi r frac delta lambda phi r math experimentally measurable renormalised mass coupling constant respectively math delta z z quad delta z r quad delta lambda lambda z lambda r math constants determined first three terms lagrangian density written terms renormalised quantities


number dimensions geometry spacetime condensed matter physics qft used describe dimensional electron gases high energy physics string theory type dimensional qft ref name polchinski kaluza klein theory uses gravity extra dimensions produce gauge theories lower dimensions minkowski space flat metric used raise lower spacetime indices lagrangian ''eg'' math mu mu eta mu nu mu nu quad partial mu phi partial mu phi eta mu nu partial mu phi partial nu phi math inverse satisfying '' sup sup sub sub '' qfts curved spacetime hand general metric


'''quantum gravity''' '''qg''' field theoretical physics seeks describe gravity according principles quantum mechanics quantum effects cannot ignored ref name scholarpedia ref vicinity black holes similar compact astrophysical objects effects gravity strong neutron stars three four fundamental forces physics described within framework quantum mechanics quantum field theory current understanding fourth force gravity based albert einstein 's general theory relativity formulated within entirely different framework

Natural science
Physics
Mathematical physics
Quantum gravity


way string theory promises unified description particles interactions theory successful one mode always correspond graviton messenger particle gravity however price success unusual features six extra dimensions space addition usual three space one time called second superstring revolution conjectured string theory unification general relativity supersymmetry known supergravity form part hypothesized eleven dimensional model known theory


states field spacetime represent directly quantum states spacetime theory based reformulation general relativity known ashtekar variables represent geometric gravity using mathematical analogues electric magnetic fields quantum theory space represented network structure called spin network evolving time discrete steps dynamics theory today constructed several versions one version starts canonical quantization general relativity analogue schr dinger equation wheeler dewitt equation defined within theory


covariant spinfoam formulation theory quantum dynamics obtained via sum discrete versions spacetime called spinfoams represent histories spin networks theories number approaches quantum gravity theories differ depending features general relativity quantum theory accepted unchanged features modified examples include asymptotic safety quantum gravity euclidean quantum gravity causal dynamical triangulation causal fermion systems causal set theory covariant feynman path integral approach dilatonic quantum gravity double copy theory group field theory wheeler dewitt equation


calling ability identify appropriate means persuasion given situation thereby making rhetoric applicable fields politics one considers rhetoric included torture sense practice torture form persuasion coercion clear rhetoric cannot viewed academic terms however enthymeme based upon logic especially based upon syllogism viewed basis rhetoric however since time aristotle logic changed example modal logic undergone major development also modifies rhetoric

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Rhetoric


court law adjudicating prudent course action taken deliberative assembly core features dialectic include absence determined subject matter elaboration earlier empirical practice explication aims type utility definition proper function plato aristotle dialectic involves persuasion aristotle says rhetoric antistrophe dialectic means rhetoric uses term domain scope application parallel different domain scope application


rhetorical logic contrary nyaya views situational rhetoric new way offers context practical arguments india 's famous rhetors include kabir das rahim das chanakya chandragupt maurya canons five canons rhetoric serve guide creating persuasive messages arguments invention process developing arguments arrangement organizing arguments extreme effect style determining present arguments memory process learning memorizing speech persuasive messages delivery gestures pronunciation tone pace used presenting


set forth ramus followers preceding decades greater importance century saw development modern vernacular style looked english rather greek latin french models francis bacon although rhetorician contributed field writings one concerns age find suitable style discussion scientific topics needed clear exposition facts arguments rather ornate style favored time bacon ''the advancement learning'' criticized


belles lettres saw international success various editions translations another notable figure th century rhetoric maria edgeworth novelist children 's author whose work often parodied male centric rhetorical strategies time essay noble science self justification edgeworth presents satire enlightenment rhetoric 's science centrism belletristic movement called great maria sir walter scott corresponded contemporary scholars noted transgressive ironic reader th century rhetorical norms nineteenth century william g allen became first american


rhetorical cultural critic well known contributions new conservatism focused ethical implications rhetoric ideas seen language sermonic ethics rhetoric according weaver four types argument argument person habitually uses critic see rhetorician 's worldview prefer argument genus definition idealists argue similitude poets religious people see connectedness things argument consequence sees cause effect relationship finally argument


according rhetorical critic jim kuypers use rhetoric art lend well scientific methods analysis criticism art well particularly well suited examining rhetorical creations ref name jim jim kuypers rhetorical criticism art rhetorical criticism perspectives action jim kuypers ed lanham md lexington books ref asserts criticism method generating knowledge scientific method method generating knowledge ref name jim edwin black rhetorician wrote point


short criticism art science scientific method uses subjective methods argument exists conjunction methods generating knowledge ie social scientific scientific nsight imagination top statistical applications studying rhetorical action observation analytic method exist analytic method widely recognized rhetorical method partly many rhetorical study see rhetoric merely produced reality see dissent view important note object rhetorical


relationship audience purpose ethics argument evidence arrangement delivery style ''rhetorical criticism study method'' scholar edwin black states task criticism measure nbsp discourses dogmatically parochial standard rationality allowing immeasurable wide range human experience see really language really debatable rhetorical critics explain texts speeches investigating rhetorical situation typically placing framework speaker audience exchange antithetical view places rhetor center creating


suggests beliefs values assumptions interpretations held rhetor larger culture ideological criticism also treats ideology artifact discourse one embedded key terms called ideographs well material resources discursive embodiment ''cluster criticism'' nbsp method developed kenneth burke seeks help critic understand rhetor 's worldview means identifying terms 'clustered' around key symbols rhetorical artifact patterns appear ''frame analysis'' nbsp used rhetorical criticism theoretical perspective allows critics look rhetors construct


becoming aware overcoming dualistic conceptions including one humans animals human knowledge world expected become complete holistic relationship humans animals well rest natural world often defined human rhetorical act naming categorizing animals scientific folk labeling act naming partially defines rhetorical relationships humans animals though may understood engage rhetoric beyond human naming categorizing contrary binary assumptions deriving anthropocentrism regarded


der barmherzigkeit der kunst des jahrhunderts zum wandel eines bildmotivs vor dem hintergrund neuzeitlicher rhetorikrezeption'' studien zur kunstgeschichte vol hildesheim z rich new york verlag georg olms bernard k duffy martin jacobi ''the politics rhetoric richard weaver conservative tradition'' westport ct greenwood press eugene garver ''aristotle 's rhetoric art character'' university chicago press lisa jardine ''francis bacon discovery art discourse'' cambridge university press charles u larson ''persuasion reception responsibility'' twelfth edition wadsworth cengage learning jacqueline de romilly


example risk assessment nasa model showing areas high risk impact international space station '''risk management''' identification evaluation prioritization risks defined iso ''the effect uncertainty objectives'' followed coordinated economical application resources minimize monitor control probability impact unfortunate events ref name risk management pg ref maximize realization opportunities risks come various sources including uncertainty international markets threats project failures phase design development production sustaining life cycles legal liabilities

Applied science
Business
Risk management


event occur adversely affects achievement objective uncertainty therefore key aspect risk systems like committee sponsoring organizations treadway commission enterprise risk management coso erm assist managers mitigating risk factors company may different internal control components leads different outcomes example framework erm components includes internal environment objective setting event identification risk assessment risk response control activities information communication monitoring risks vs opportunities opportunities first appear academic research management books


valid reliable according mandelbrot process according standard iso risk management principles guidelines implementation ref name iso process risk management consists several steps follows establishing context involves observing context social scope risk management identity objectives stakeholders basis upon risks evaluated constraints defining framework activity agenda identification developing analysis risks involved process mitigation solution risks using available technological human organizational resources identification


establishing context next step process managing risk identify potential risks risks events triggered cause problems benefits hence risk identification start source problems competitors benefit problem 's consequences source analysis risk sources may internal external system target risk management use mitigation instead management since definition risk deals factors decision making cannot managed examples risk sources stakeholders project employees


would involved bring assessment risks identified must assessed potential severity impact generally negative impact damage loss probability occurrence quantities either simple measure case value lost building impossible know sure case unlikely event probability occurrence unknown therefore assessment process critical make best educated decisions order properly prioritize implementation


difficulty risk assessment determining rate occurrence since statistical information available kinds past incidents particularly scanty case catastrophic events simply infrequency furthermore evaluating severity consequences impact often quite difficult intangible assets asset valuation another question needs addressed thus best educated opinions available statistics primary sources information nevertheless risk assessment produce information senior executives organization primary risks easy understand risk


trade offs acceptable organization person making risk management decisions another source us department defense see link defense acquisition university calls categories acat avoid control accept transfer use acat acronym reminiscent another acat acquisition category used us defense industry procurements risk management figures prominently decision making planning similarly risks opportunities specific mitigation strategies exploit share enhance ignore risk avoidance includes performing activity could present risk refusing purchase property


standard available via iso tr european version risk management standard updated refer medical devices directive mdd active implantable medical device directive aimdd revision well vitro medical device directive ivdd requirements en nearly identical iso differences include three informative z annexes refer new mdd aimdd ivdd annexes indicate content deviations include requirement risks reduced ''as far possible'' requirement


perspective recognizing value national outdoor safety legislation devoting considerable attention roles judgment decision making processes wilderness risk management one popular models risk assessment risk assessment safety management rasm model developed rick curtis author backpacker 's field manual ref name formula rasm model risk probability accident severity consequences rasm model weighs negative risk potential loss positive risk potential growth information technology risk risk related information technology relatively new term


known '''bow tie diagrams''' see network theory risk assessment technique also used organisations regulators mining aviation health defence industrial finance pharmaceutical sector principles tools quality risk management increasingly applied different aspects pharmaceutical quality systems aspects include development manufacturing distribution inspection submission review processes throughout lifecycle drug substances drug products biological biotechnological products including use raw materials solvents excipients packaging labeling materials drug products biological biotechnological products risk management also applied assessment http wwwpharmamanufacturingcom articles html microbiological


opportunity management guide defense acquisition programs http acqnotescom wp content uploads dod risk mgt guide v interim dec pdf dod risk management guide defense acquisition programs actuarial science project management risk analysis security systems engineering communication studies ieee standards iso iec standards


dots math sequence tends limit ie math display inline lim n infty n math exists said '''convergent''' otherwise '' 'divergent''' ''see section limits convergence details'' real valued sequence math n math '''''bounded''''' exists math r math math n math math n mathbb n math real valued sequence math n math '''''monotonically increasing''''' '''' 'decreasing''''' math display block leq leq leq cdots math math display block geq geq geq cdots math holds respectively either holds sequence said '''''monotonic''''' monotonicity '''' 'strict'''''

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Real analysis


several equivalent definitions compactness '''definition''' set math e subset mathbb r math compact closed bounded definition also holds euclidean space finite dimension math mathbb r n math valid metric spaces general equivalence definition definition compactness based subcovers given later section known heine borel theorem general definition applies metric spaces uses notion subsequence see '''definition''' set math e math metric space compact every sequence math e math


possible discuss existence higher order derivatives well finding derivative derivative function one classify functions '''' 'differentiability class''''' class math c math sometimes math c ab math indicate interval applicability consists continuous functions class math c math consists differentiable functions whose derivative continuous functions called '''''continuously differentiable''''' thus math c math function exactly function whose derivative exists class math c math general classes '' math c k math '' defined recursively declaring math c math


cdots math written compact sigma notation math sum n infty frac f n n x n math ''n'' denotes factorial ''n'' '' '' sup nbsp ''n'' sup ''a'' denotes ''n''th derivative '' '' evaluated point ''a'' derivative order zero '' '' defined '' '' defined nbsp case series also called maclaurin series taylor series ''f'' point ''a'' may diverge converge point ''a'' converge ''x'' math x r math


venues reaching wider audiences broadcasting sport betting cases severely regulated cases central sport according kearney consultancy global sporting industry worth billion world 's accessible practised sport running association football popular spectator sport ref name wa meaning usage etymology word sport comes old french ' 'desport'' meaning leisure oldest definition english around anything humans find amusing entertaining meanings include gambling events staged

Human physical performance and recreation


rely luck element specifically designed sport also recognise sport primarily physical rugby athletics primarily mind chess go predominantly motorised formula powerboating primarily co ordination billiard sports primarily animal supported equestrian sport ref name sportaccord inclusion mind sports within sport definitions universally accepted leading legal challenges governing bodies regards denied funding available sports whilst sportaccord recognises small number mind sports open admitting


held every four years small village peloponnesus called olympia sports increasingly organised regulated time ancient olympics present century industrialisation brought increased leisure time letting people attend follow spectator sports participate athletic activities trends continued advent mass media global communication professionalism became prevalent adding increase sport 's popularity sports fans followed exploits professional athletes nbsp enjoying exercise competition associated amateur participation sports since turn


head coach issue challenge review play using replays final decision rests referee video referee commonly known television match official tmo also use replays help decision making rugby league union international cricket umpire ask third umpire decision third umpire makes final decision ref name bbc umpire ref ref name top end ref since decision review system players review decisions introduced used icc run tournaments optionally matches ref name bbc umpire depending host


increase share vote nbsp percent loss opposite effect effect greater higher profile teams unexpected wins losses also washington redskins win final game election incumbent president likely win redskins lose opposition candidate likely win become known redskins rule means controlling subduing populations tienne de la bo tie essay ''discourse voluntary servitude'' describes athletic spectacles means tyrants control subjects


idolized expense divine worship ref name watson tertullian condemns athletic performances day insisting entire apparatus shows based upon idolatry shows says tertullian excite passions foreign calm temperament cultivated christian blockquote god enjoined us deal calmly gently quietly peacefully holy spirit things alone keeping goodness nature tenderness sensitiveness well shall made accord shows show always leads spiritual agitation since


sports olympic games paralympic games physical education physical fitness spalding athletic library sponsorship sport film sport psychology sports club sports coaching sports commentator sports entertainment sports equipment sports fan sports governing body sports injuries sports league attendances sports marketing sports nutrition sports terms named people sports trainer sportsperson sportswear sunday sporting events team sport underwater sports women 's sports water sports winter sport sources references european commission ''the white paper sport'' council europe ''the european sport charter'' reading ''the meaning sports'' michael mandel publicaffairs http journalshumankineticscom jps journal philosophy


extent members distribution depart center inferences mathematical statistics made framework probability theory deals analysis random phenomena standard statistical procedure involves collection data leading test relationship two statistical data sets data set synthetic data drawn idealized model hypothesis proposed statistical relationship two data sets compared alternative idealized null hypothesis relationship two data sets rejecting

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics


biology fisherian runaway ref name fisher fisher ra evolution sexual preference eugenics review ref ref name fisher fisher ra genetical theory natural selection ref ref name pers edwards awf perspectives anecdotal historial critical commentaries genetics genetics society america ref ref name ander ref ref name ander andersson simmons lw sexual selection mate choice trends ecology evolution ref ref name gayon gayon j sexual selection another darwinian process comptes rendus biologies ref concept sexual selection positive feedback runaway effect found evolution final wave mainly saw refinement


ref inferential statistical analysis infers properties population example testing hypotheses deriving estimates assumed observed data set sampled larger population inferential statistics contrasted descriptive statistics descriptive statistics solely concerned properties observed data rest assumption data come larger population terminology theory inferential statistics statistics estimators pivotal quantities consider independent identically distributed iid random variables given probability distribution standard statistical inference estimation theory defines random sample


statistical data also subject error many errors classified random noise systematic bias types errors eg blunder analyst reports incorrect units also important presence missing data censoring may result biased estimates specific techniques developed address problems interval estimation confidence intervals red line true value mean example blue lines random confidence intervals realizations studies sample part population results n't fully represent


rarely give simple yes type answer question analysis interpretation often comes level statistical significance applied numbers often refers probability value accurately rejecting null hypothesis sometimes referred p value graph black line probability distribution test statistic critical region set values right observed data point observed value test statistic p value represented green area standard approach ref name piazza test null hypothesis


shorter lives affluent people two variables said correlated however may may cause one another correlation phenomena could caused third previously unconsidered phenomenon called lurking variable confounding variable reason way immediately infer existence causal relationship two variables applications applied statistics theoretical statistics mathematical statistics ''applied statistics'' comprises descriptive statistics application inferential statistics ''theoretical statistics'' concerns logical arguments underlying justification approaches statistical inference


focus correct test selection results interpretation use free statistics software ref name statistical computing gretl example open source statistical package rapid sustained increases computing power starting second half th century substantial impact practice statistical science early statistical models almost always class linear models powerful computers coupled suitable numerical algorithms caused increased interest nonlinear models neural networks well creation new types generalized linear models multilevel


systems variability control processes statistical process control spc summarizing data make data driven decisions roles key tool perhaps reliable tool see also foundations major areas statistics references reading lydia denworth significant problem standard scientific methods fire anything change ''scientific american'' vol october pp nbsp use ''p'' values nearly century since determine statistical significance experimental results contributed illusion certainty reproducibility crises


steles upright slabs usually stone often also containing inscriptions another basic distinction subtractive carving techniques remove material existing block lump example stone wood modelling techniques shape build work material techniques casting stamping moulding use intermediate matrix containing design produce work many allow production several copies open air buddhist rock reliefs longmen grottoes china term sculpture often used mainly describe large works sometimes called monumental sculpture

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Sculpture


used part sculptures ethnographic ancient works much modern ones sculptures often painted commonly lose paint time restorers many different painting techniques used making sculpture including tempera oil painting gilding house paint aerosol enamel sandblasting ref name artmuseumsharvardedu many sculptors seek new ways materials make art one pablo picasso 's famous sculptures included bicycle parts alexander calder modernists made spectacular use painted steel since acrylics plastics used well andy goldsworthy makes unusually ephemeral sculptures


mesopotamian frog bce ref name mco ref specific techniques include lost wax casting plaster mould casting sand casting welding process different pieces metal fused together create different shapes designs many different forms welding oxy fuel welding stick welding mig welding tig welding oxy fuel probably common method welding comes creating steel sculptures easiest use shaping steel well making clean less noticeable joins steel key oxy fuel welding heating


gilded dark gallery ancient near east cylinder seal impression clay serpopards eagles uruk period bce protoliterate period mesopotamia dominated uruk saw production sophisticated works like warka vase cylinder seals guennol lioness outstanding small limestone figure elam bce part human part lioness little later number figures large eyed priests worshippers mostly alabaster foot high attended temple cult images deity


resting place ''ka'' portion soul good number less conventionalized statues well administrators wives many wood egypt one places world climate allows wood survive millennia called reserve heads plain hairless heads especially naturalistic early tombs also contained small models slaves animals buildings objects boats necessary deceased continue lifestyle afterworld later ''ushabti'' figures gallery width px height px file narmer palette egypt c bc


royal ontario museum dsc jpg facsimile narmer palette c bce already shows canonical egyptian profile view proportions figure file king menkaura mycerinus queenjpg menkaura mycerinus queen old kingdom dynasty bce formality pose reduced queen 's arm round husband file gd eg caire mus e jpg wooden tomb models dynasty xi high administrator counts cattle file tuthankhamun egyptian museumjpg tutankhamun 's mask c late eighteenth dynasty egyptian museum file bm aes egyptian sulpture colossal bust ramesses ii 'younger memnon' bc room jpg ''the younger memnon'' c bce british museum file egypte louvre


jpg osiris lapis lazuli pillar middle flanked horus left isis right nd dynasty louvre file ka statue horawibrajpg ka statue provided physical place ka manifest egyptian museum cairo file block statue pa akh ra cdmjpg block statue pa ankh ra ship master bearing statue ptah late period c bce cabinet des dailles gallery europe ancient greece charioteer delphi ancient greek bronze sculpture th century bce close head detail first distinctive style ancient greek sculpture developed early bronze age cycladic period rd millennium bce


oblique views became common deliberately sought combined better understanding anatomy harmonious structure sculpted figures pursuit naturalistic representation aim present excavations temple zeus olympia since revealed largest group remains many louvre high classical period lasted decades momentous influence art retains special prestige despite restricted number original survivals


bronze statues known later copies whose identification controversial including ''ludovisi hermes'' high classical style continued develop realism sophistication human figure improved depiction drapery clothes using add impact active poses facial expressions usually restrained even combat scenes composition groups figures reliefs pediments combined complexity harmony way permanent influence western art relief could high indeed parthenon illustration leg


constantinople file saint remigius binding medieval picardie museumjpg late carolingian ivory panel probably meant book cover file triptych harbaville louvre oa rectojpg harbaville triptych byzantine ivory mid th century gallery romanesque brunswick lion first large hollow casting figure since antiquity metres tall metres long general rebirth artistic production europe led general economic growth production commerce new style romanesque art first medieval style used whole western europe new cathedrals pilgrim 's churches


trouv ' 'readymade'' pieces ''fountain'' similarly work constantin br ncu beginning century paved way later abstract sculpture revolt naturalism rodin late th century contemporaries br ncu distilled subjects essences illustrated elegantly refined forms ''bird space'' series br ncu 's impact vocabulary reduction abstraction seen throughout exemplified artists gaston lachaise sir jacob epstein henry moore alberto giacometti joan mir julio gonz lez pablo serrano jacques lipchitz


inner model fail satisfy axiom choice example existence sufficiently large cardinals implies inner model satisfying axiom determinacy thus satisfying axiom choice large cardinals ''large cardinal'' cardinal number extra property many properties studied including inaccessible cardinals measurable cardinals many properties typically imply cardinal number must large existence cardinal specified property unprovable zermelo fraenkel set theory determinacy ''determinacy'' refers fact appropriate

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Mathematical logic
Set theory


introducing basics naive set theory early mathematics education us new math experiment aimed teach basic set theory among abstract concepts primary school students met much criticism math syllabus european schools followed trend currently includes subject different levels grades venn diagrams widely employed explain basic set theoretic relationships primary school students even though john venn originally devised part procedure assess validity inferences term logic set theory used


space created viewed managed humans well influence humans space occupy may involve cultural geography transportation health military operations cities latter examines natural environment climate vegetation life soil oceans water landforms produced interact ref name geography physical geography examines phenomena related measurement earth result two subfields using different approaches third field emerged environmental geography environmental geography combines physical human geography looks interactions environment


women sociologists began question sociological paradigms invisibility women sociological studies analysis courses feminist sociologists challenged discipline 's androcentrism american sociological association 's annual conference led founding organization sociologists women society eventually new sociology journal gender society today sociology gender considered one prominent sub fields discipline new sociological sub fields continue appear nbsp community studies computational sociology environmental sociology network analysis actor network theory gender studies growing list many


https booksgooglecom booksid dcl jqfkuvqc ''an introduction models social sciences'' lanham md university press america perry john erna perry ''contemporary society introduction social science'' th edition college textbook potter https booksgooglecom booksid essoaaaaqaaj ''society social sciences introduction'' london routledge ua david l sills robert k merton ''international encyclopedia social sciences'' seligman edwin ra alvin johnson ''encyclopedia social sciences'' vol ward lf https booksgooglecom booksid qvutaaaaiaaj ''dynamic sociology applied social science based upon statical sociology less complex sciences'' new york appleton leavitt


fm brown e https booksgooglecom booksid pz faaaaiaaj ''elementary social science'' new york macmillan bogardus es https booksgooglecom booksid nohdaaaaiaaj ''introduction social sciences textbook outline'' los angeles ralston press small aw https booksgooglecom booksid ueywaaaayaaj ''the meaning social science'' chicago university chicago press th century sources andrews sp https booksgooglecom booksid daaaaiaaj ''the science society'' boston mass sarah e holmes denslow vb https archiveorg details modernthinkerspr densuoft ''modern thinkers principally upon social science think why'' chicago belford clarke co harris william torrey https booksgooglecom booksid muuwaaaayaaj ''method study social science'' lecture delivered st louis social science association


critical theory critical perspectives'' albany state university new york press external links http icrhstsukubaacjp en institute comparative research human social sciences icr japan https webarchiveorg web http wwwuelacuk cswr indexhtm centre social work research http wwwuel ftsrcorg family therapy systemic research centre https webarchiveorg web http wwwsobiadorg icss conference icss mainhtm international conference social sciences http wwwunescoorg ngo issc international social science council http wwwashgatecom pdf samplepages thing social science intropdf introduction hutchinson et al ''there 's thing social science'' http wwwintuteacuk socialsciences intute social sciences uk http wwwsobiadorg englishhtml social science research society http wwwvl siteorg indexhtml social science virtual library http wwwcanaktanorg social science virtual library canaktanweb turkish http social sciences humanitiescom social sciences humanities http xlabberkeleyedu uc berkeley experimental social science laboratory http monthlyrevieworg baranphp


linguistics '' 'syntax''' study words morphemes combine form larger units phrases sentences central concerns syntax include word order grammatical relations hierarchical sentence structure constituency agreement nature crosslinguistic variation relationship form meaning numerous approaches syntax differ central assumptions goals etymology word ' 'syntax'' comes ancient greek coordination consists ' 'syn'' together ''t xis'' ordering topics field syntax contains number various topics syntactic

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Syntax


head dependent marking agreement languages different criteria grammatical relations eg subjecthood criteria implications subject referred relative clause coreferential element infinite clause constituency constituency feature constituent words work together form constituent ''phrase'' constituents often moved units constituent domain agreement languages discontinuous phrases words belonging constituent immediately adjacent broken constituents constituents recursive


structure language port royal grammar modeled study syntax upon logic indeed large parts port royal logic copied adapted ''grammaire g n rale'' syntactic categories identified logical ones sentences analyzed terms subject copula predicate initially view adopted even early comparative linguists franz bopp central role syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear th century could reasonably called century syntactic theory far linguistics concerned detailed


critical survey history syntax last two centuries see monumental work giorgio graffi theories syntax number theoretical approaches discipline syntax one school thought founded works derek bickerton sees syntax branch biology since conceives syntax study linguistic knowledge embodied human mind linguists eg gerald gazdar take platonistic view since regard syntax study abstract formal system yet others eg joseph greenberg


theories theoretical approaches syntax based upon probability theory known stochastic grammars one common implementation approach makes use neural network connectionism functional grammars functionalist models grammar study form function interaction performing structural functional analysis functional discourse grammar dik prague linguistic circle role reference grammar rrg systemic functional grammar generative syntax generative syntax study syntax within overarching framework generative grammar generative theories syntax typically propose analyses grammatical patterns using formal tools


hans bl theodor reik alfred kinsey wilhelm reich mary calderone wardell pomeroy albert ellis kurt freund ernest borneman william masters gershon legman harold lief paul h gebhard john money robert stoller ira reiss present virginia johnson preben hertoft oswalt kolle vern bullough ruth westheimer present john gagnon fritz klein milton diamond present erwin j haeberle marco aurelio denegri gunter schmidt present rolf gindorf volkmar sigusch present beverly whipple present martin dannecker present shere hite


even aware threat william de forz captured fotheringhay castle ref name oxford ref common practice siege warfare lay siege wait surrender enemies inside quite commonly coerce someone inside betray fortification medieval period negotiations would frequently take place early part siege attacker aware prolonged siege 's great cost time money lives might offer generous terms defender surrendered quickly defending troops would allowed

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Siege


th century bc ended queen mother came city begged mercy behalf people hittite campaign kingdom mitanni th century bc bypassed fortified city carchemish main objective campaign conquest particular city could simply passed main objective campaign fulfilled hittite army returned carchemish city fell eight day siege disease another effective siege weapon although attackers often vulnerable


defenders instances catapults similar weapons used fling diseased animals city walls early example biological warfare else failed besieger could claim booty conquest undamaged retain men equipment intact price well placed bribe disgruntled gatekeeper assyrian siege jerusalem th century bc came end israelites bought gifts tribute according assyrian account assyrian camp struck mass death according


europe 's population first night laying siege city leader mongol forces would lead white tent city surrendered would spared second day would use red tent city surrendered men would killed rest would spared third day would use black tent quarter would given chinese korean troops assault japanese forces hideyoshi siege ulsan castle imjin war however chinese


enfiladed defending fire within artillery range would dig another parallel second parallel trench fortify gun emplacements technique commonly called entrenchment necessary using first artillery fire cover forces conducting siege would repeat process placed guns close enough laid aimed accurately make breach fortifications order allow forlorn hope support troops get close enough exploit breach zigzag trenches could dug even closer walls parallel


horse drawn siege train result could defeat virtually city state matter well defended panic military strategy completely rethought throughout italian states time strong emphasis new fortifications could withstand modern siege new fortresses siege candia regarded one longest sieges history effective way protect walls cannonfire proved depth increasing width defences angles ensuring attackers could fire walls oblique angle square initially


strong points one 's territory enemy expeditionary force local enemy rising would find difficult consolidate territorial gains inevitable counterattack sir john meldrum put forward argument parliamentary committee kingdoms justify slighting gainsborough lincolnshire sixty years later war spanish succession duke marlborough preferred engage enemy pitched battles rather engage siege warfare although proficient types warfare april day battle culloden


dunrobin castle party william sutherland 's militia conducted last siege fought mainland great britain jacobite members clan macleod strategic concepts french revolutionary napoleonic wars new techniques stressed division armies arms corps would march separately come together battlefield less concentrated army could live country move rapidly larger number roads fortresses commanding lines communication could bypassed would longer stop invasion since armies could live land indefinitely napoleon


delayed months siege metz siege paris due greatly increased firepower defending infantry principle detached semi detached forts heavy caliber artillery resulted later construction fortress works across europe massive fortifications verdun also led introduction tactics sought induce surrender bombarding civilian population within fortress rather defending works siege sevastopol crimean war siege petersburg american civil war showed


scale european eastern front however several notable critical sieges island malta population george cross tobruk south east asian theatre siege singapore burma campaign sieges myitkyina admin box imphal kohima high water mark japanese advance india siege sevastopol saw use heaviest powerful individual siege engines ever used german mm railway gun mm siege mortar though


aircraft india china hump resupply chinese war effort chiang kai shek usaaf xx bomber command operation matterhorn tactical airbridge methods developed planned used extensively supplying chindits operation thursday february may chindits specially trained division british indian armies flown deep behind japanese front lines south east asian theatre jungle clearings burma set fortified airheads sailed attack japanese lines communications defending bases


power overcome siege defeated however khe sanh mere years later advances air power reduction vietnamese anti aircraft capability allowed united states withstand siege resistance us forces assisted pavn plaf forces' decision use khe sanh siege strategic distraction allow mobile warfare offensive first tet offensive unfold securely siege khe sanh displays typical features modern sieges defender greater capacity withstand siege attacker 's main aim bottle operational


''palaiokommatismos'' old partyism ''ellas ellinon christianon'' greece christian greeks ''ethnosotirios epanastasis'' nation saving revolution meaning ''coup d' tat'' tanzania government pursued policy enforced villagisation operation vijiji order promote collective farming romanian rural systematization program especially promoted agro industrial centres expense traditional village social structures egypt social engineering practiced current authoritarian regime media controlled egyptian intelligence military since coup d' tat overthrow first democratically elected president mohamed morsi since

Social science
Sociology
Applied sociology
Social engineering


problems open society respect made crucial distinction principles ' 'democratic'' social engineering called piecemeal social engineering ''utopian'' social engineering popper wrote according popper difference piecemeal social engineering utopian social engineering see also demographic engineering engineers human soul eugenics media manipulation nudge theory paternalism political engineering social control total institution references reading '' https booksgooglecom booksid koeq yp lxkc printsec frontcover v onepage q social engineering f false best money buy beyond politics poverty war jacque fresco peter swirski ''american utopia social engineering literature social thought political history'' new


'''social psychology''' scientific study thoughts feelings behaviors individuals influenced actual imagined implied presence others 'imagined' 'implied presences' referring internalized social norms humans influenced even alone social psychologists typically explain human behavior result relationship mental state social situation studying conditions thoughts feelings behaviors occur variables influence social interactions social psychology bridged gap psychology sociology extent divide still

Social science
Psychology
Social psychology


good predictors specific behavior example person may value environment may recycle plastic bottle particular day research attitudes examined distinction traditional self reported attitudes implicit unconscious attitudes experiments using ''implicit association test'' instance found people often demonstrate implicit bias races even explicit responses profess equal mindedness likewise one study found interracial interactions explicit attitudes correlate verbal behavior implicit attitudes correlate nonverbal behavior one hypothesis attitudes formed first proposed abraham


informational content audience includes variety demographics personality traits preferences channel medium includes printed word radio television internet face face interactions includes environment group dynamics preliminary information message category dual process theories persuasion elaboration likelihood model maintain persuasion mediated two separate routes central peripheral central route persuasion fact based results longer lasting change requires motivation process peripheral route superficial results shorter lasting change require much motivation process example


important exception reinforcement theory interpersonal phenomena social influence social influence overarching term denotes persuasive effects people seen fundamental value social psychology study overlaps considerably research attitudes persuasion three main areas social influence include conformity compliance obedience social influence also closely related study group dynamics effects influence strongest take place social groups first major area social influence conformity conformity defined tendency


cause crash similarly people may expect hostility others induce hostility behavior ref name aaronson psychologists spent decades studying power social influence way manipulates people 's opinions behavior specifically social influence refers way individuals change ideas actions meet demands social group received authority social role minority within group wielding influence majority group dynamics group defined two individuals connected another social relationships ref name ref


features qualify true social groups people waiting line get bus example constitute group groups important offer social support resources feeling belonging supplement individual 's self concept large extent humans define group memberships form social identity shared social identity individuals within group influences intergroup behavior denotes way groups behave towards perceive perceptions behaviors turn define social identity


cases fall love several general principles attraction discovered social psychologists one important factors interpersonal attraction similar two particular people similar two people general attitudes backgrounds environments worldviews traits likely attracted ref group lower roman thus interpersonal attraction attitude similarity direct correlation dissimilar attitudes views tend successful attraction department byrne ref physical attractiveness important element romantic relationships particularly


mainstream academia notably admitted data fabrication diederik stapel well allegations others fraudulent research main contributor replication crisis several effects social psychology found difficult replicate even current replication crisis example scientific journal ''judgment decision making'' published several studies years fail provide support unconscious thought theory replications appear particularly difficult research trials pre registered conducted research groups highly invested theory questioning three elements together


never even completed nato held first software engineering conference issues related software addressed guidelines best practices development software established origins term software engineering attributed various sources term software engineering appeared list services offered companies june issue http wwwbitsaversorg magazines computers automation pdf computers automation used formally august issue communications acm volume number letter acm membership acm president anthony oettinger

Formal science
Computer science
Software engineering


order economically obtain software reliable works efficiently real machines fritz bauer ref name bauer ref branch computer science deals design implementation maintenance complex computer programs merriam webster 'software engineering' encompasses act writing code tools processes organization uses build maintain code time software engineering thought 'programming integrated time' software engineering google term also used less formally informal contemporary term broad range activities formerly called computer


define ' 'software engineering'' legitimacy engineering discipline david parnas said software engineering fact form engineering steve mcconnell said donald knuth said programming art science edsger w dijkstra claimed terms ' 'software engineering'' ' 'software engineer'' misused considered harmful particularly united states tasks large scale projects software requirements requirements engineering elicitation analysis specification validation


non functional requirements domain requirements characteristic certain category domain projects software design software design process defining architecture components interfaces characteristics system component also called software architecture software design divided three different levels design three levels interface design architectural design detailed design interface design interaction system environment happens high level abstraction along inner workings system architectural design


software professionals certified software development professional csdp ref name ieee ref added entry level certification known certified software development associate csda acm professional certification program early discontinued due lack interest acm examined possibility professional certification software engineers late eventually decided certification inappropriate professional industrial practice software engineering ref name acm ref uk british computer society developed legally recognized professional certification called ''chartered professional citp '' available fully qualified


sleep patterns global outsourcing several advantages global generally distributed development run serious difficulties resulting distance developers due key elements type distance identified geographical temporal cultural communication includes use different languages dialects english different locations research carried area global software development last years extensive body relevant work published highlights benefits problems associated complex activity


result non inertial motion relative space several centuries bucket argument considered decisive showing space must exist independently matter kant immanuel kant eighteenth century german philosopher immanuel kant developed theory knowledge knowledge space ''a priori'' ' 'synthetic'' according kant knowledge space ' 'synthetic'' statements space simply true virtue meaning words statement work kant rejected view space must either substance

Applied science
Military sciences
Battlespace
Space


identified including agoraphobia fear open spaces astrophobia fear celestial space claustrophobia fear enclosed spaces understanding three dimensional space humans thought learned infancy using unconscious inference closely related hand eye coordination visual ability perceive world three dimensions called depth perception social sciences space studied social sciences perspectives marxism feminism postmodernism postcolonialism urban theory critical geography theories account effect history colonialism transatlantic slavery


theorem basic knowledge obtained applying non equilibrium statistical mechanics study simplest non equilibrium situation steady state current flow system many particles principles mechanics ensembles physics two types mechanics usually examined classical mechanics quantum mechanics types mechanics standard mathematical approach consider two concepts complete state mechanical system given time mathematically encoded phase point classical mechanics pure quantum state vector quantum mechanics equation motion carries state forward

Natural science
Physics
Statistical mechanics


div div class plainlist center math mathcal z sum k e e k mu n k k b math div macroscopic function div class plainlist div div class plainlist div div class plainlist div calculation methods characteristic state function ensemble calculated given system system 'solved' macroscopic observables extracted characteristic state function calculating characteristic state function thermodynamic ensemble necessarily simple task however since involves considering every possible state system hypothetical systems


property allowing exact derivations maxwell boltzmann statistics fermi dirac statistics bose einstein statistics ref name tolman large systems interaction solved use subtle mathematical techniques exact solutions found toy models examples include bethe ansatz square lattice ising model zero field hard hexagon model monte carlo one approximate approach particularly well suited computers monte carlo method examines possible states system states chosen randomly fair weight long states form


becomes converted time subtle correlations within system correlations system environment correlations appear chaotic pseudorandom influences variables interest replacing correlations randomness proper calculations made much easier near equilibrium methods another important class non equilibrium statistical mechanical models deals systems slightly perturbed equilibrium small perturbations response analysed linear response theory remarkable result formalized fluctuation dissipation theorem response system near equilibrium


surface causes gas pressure feel experience heat simply kinetic energy motion ref name uffink reading paper diffusion molecules rudolf clausius scottish physicist james clerk maxwell formulated maxwell distribution molecular velocities gave proportion molecules certain velocity specific range first ever statistical law physics maxwell also gave first mechanical argument molecular collisions entail equalization temperatures hence tendency towards equilibrium five years later


integrative discipline combines contributions balances tradeoffs among cost schedule performance maintaining acceptable level risk covering entire life cycle item perspective often replicated educational programs systems engineering courses taught faculty engineering departments helps create interdisciplinary environment managing complexity need systems engineering arose increase complexity systems projects turn exponentially increasing possibility component friction therefore unreliability design speaking context complexity incorporates engineering systems also

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems engineering


field engineering patterns strive educate systems engineer able oversee interdisciplinary projects depth required core engineer systems engineering topics systems engineering tools strategies procedures techniques aid performing systems engineering project product purpose tools vary database management graphical browsing simulation reasoning document production neutral import export system many definitions system field systems engineering authoritative definitions ansi eia aggregation end products enabling


combination elements function together produce capability meet need elements include hardware software equipment facilities personnel processes procedures needed purpose end product performs operational functions enabling products provide life cycle support services operational end products make system systems engineering processes systems engineering processes encompass creative manual technical activities necessary define product need carried convert system definition sufficiently detailed system design specification product manufacture deployment design


emerging designs may assist techniques mitigate effects potentially hazardous conditions cannot designed systems scheduling scheduling one systems engineering support tools practice item assessing interdisciplinary concerns configuration management particular direct relationship resources performance features risk duration task dependency links among tasks impacts across system lifecycle systems engineering concerns security engineering security engineering viewed interdisciplinary field integrates community practice control systems design reliability


scientific names organisms species descriptions overviews taxonomic orders classifications evolutionary organism histories explaining biodiversity planet organisms systematic study conservation manipulating controlling natural world includes practice 'biological control' intentional introduction natural predators disease ref name definition relation taxonomy john lindley provided early definition systematics although wrote systematic botany rather using term systematics michener ''et al'' defined systematic biology taxonomy terms often confused


work terms originated c respectively claim systematics alone deals specifically relationships time synonymous phylogenetics broadly dealing inferred hierarchy organisms means would subset taxonomy sometimes regarded inverse claimed others europeans tend use terms systematics biosystematics study biodiversity whole whereas north americans tend use taxonomy frequently however taxonomy particular alpha taxonomy specifically identification


th th centuries ideas posited sociologists continue examined today durkheim marx weber complex developed theories nature effects religion durkheim weber often difficult understand especially light lack context examples primary texts religion considered extremely important social variable work three karl marx according kevin j christiano et al marx product enlightenment embracing call replace faith reason religion

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of religion


changes characteristics religiosity sociologists religion explore theoretical analysis sociological dimensions religiosity example charles glock best known five dimensional scheme nature religious commitment list consist following variables belief knowledge experience practice sometimes subdivided private public ritual consequences glock 's first four dimensions proved widely useful research generally simple measure survey research ref name hartsemedu ref similarly mervin f verbit 's contribution twenty four dimensional religiosity measure includes measuring religiosity six different components religiosity ritual doctrine


emotion knowledge ethics community along four dimensions content frequency intensity centrality secularization civil religion secularism general movement away religiosity spiritual belief towards rational scientific orientation trend observed muslim christian industrialized nations alike united states america many politicians court systems schools businesses embrace secularism ref name conley ref relation processes rationalization associated development modernity predicted works many classical sociologists religion would decline ref name davie ref claimed would separation religion


scientific knowledge order begin develop afford sit back luxury well appointed world ponder upon questions take granted kind world science constructed us michel foucault michel foucault post structuralist saw human existence dependent forms knowledge discourses work like languages languages discourses define reality us order think obliged use definitions knowledge world provided us languages