order direct activities catholics toward mission church ref name ramstein p ref first modern western legal system oldest continuously functioning legal system west ref name clinfomain dr edward n peters http canonlawinfo canonlawinfo home page accessed june ref latin church positive ecclesiastical laws based directly indirectly upon immutable divine law natural law derive formal authority case universal laws supreme legislator ie supreme pontiff possesses totality legislative executive judicial power person particular laws derive formal authority


th century charles ernest beul alfred louis delattre carthage national museum founded cardinal charles lavigerie excavations performed french archaeologists first attracted extraordinary amount attention evidence produced child sacrifice considerable disagreement among scholars concerning whether child sacrifice practiced ancient carthage open air carthage paleo christian museum exhibits excavated auspices unesco site ruins unesco world heritage site reconstruction carthage capital phoenicians name

Humanities
History
Ancient history
Carthage


cities alexandria antioch numbered hundred thousand less ref name charlesworthedwards ref according history herodian carthage rivaled alexandria second place roman empire ref name grant ref layout layout punic city state carthage fall bc punic carthage divided four equally sized residential areas layout religious areas market places council house towers theater huge necropolis roughly middle city stood high citadel called byrsa surrounding carthage walls great strength said places


public squares plazas people might formally assemble gather festivals site religious shrines location whatever major municipal buildings carthage beat heart civic life district carthage probably ruling suffets presided council elders convened tribunal met justice dispensed trials open air early residential districts wrapped around byrsa south north east houses usually whitewashed blank street within courtyards open


sky neighborhoods multistory construction later became common six stories tall according ancient greek author several architectural floorplans homes revealed recent excavations well general layout several city blocks stone stairs set streets drainage planned eg form soakways leaching sandy soil along byrsa 's southern slope located fine old homes also many earliest grave sites juxtaposed small areas interspersed daily life artisan workshops located city


destruction carthage third punic war carthaginians phoenician settlers originating mediterranean coast near east spoke canaanite semitic language followed local variety ancient canaanite religion punic religion ruins carthage fall carthage came end third punic war bc battle carthage despite initial devastating roman naval losses rome 's recovery brink defeat terror year occupation much italy hannibal end series wars resulted


bishop rome first archbishop chief metropolitan whole africa bishop carthage later archbishop carthage named cyriacus imprisoned arab rulers accusation christians pope gregory vii wrote letter consolation repeating hopeful assurances primacy church carthage whether church carthage still lie desolate rise glory cyriacus set free one bishop province last


mention period history see fortress carthage used muslims hafsid era captured crusaders eighth crusade inhabitants carthage slaughtered crusaders took used base operations hafsids repelling muhammad al mustansir decided destroy cathage 's defenses completely prevent repeat ref name mustansir ref modern history first published sketch artefacts carthage mostly carthaginian tombstones published jean emile humbert 's ''notice sur quatre cippes pulcraux


carthage encore et toujours ''le courrier de l'unesco'' september ref leaving tunis economic administrative roles carthage palace tunisian presidential palace located coast suburb six train stations tgm line le kram sidi bou said carthage salammbo named salambo fictional daughter hamilcar carthage byrsa named byrsa hill carthage dermech ''derm che'' carthage hannibal named hannibal carthage pr sidence named presidential palace carthage amilcar named hamilcar trade business map mediterranean bc merchants carthage


ancient north africa summarized major principles guiding civic rulers carthage regard policies trade commerce open maintain markets merchants whether entering direct contact foreign peoples using either treaty negotiations naval power providing security isolated trading stations reservation markets exclusively merchants carthage competition could eliminated regulate trade state sponsored agreements commercial rivals suppression piracy promotion carthage 's ability freely navigate seas phoenicians cathaginians


voice ironically phoenicians invented least perfected transmitted form writing alphabet influenced dozens cultures including noted celebrated ancient books agriculture written mago carthage survives via quotations latin several later roman works literature scant remains great city reflected upon letitia elizabeth landon 's poem ''carthage'' published quotes sir grenville temple 's journal references sources location cambridge title la vie quotidienne carthage


research groups scientific journals conferences companies present market belonging specifically one fields hence various characterizations distinguish fields others presented image processing input image output image well whereas computer vision image video taken input output could enhanced image understanding content image even behaviour computer system based understanding computer graphics produces image data

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Computer vision


models computer vision often produces models image data ref name dvae ref also trend towards combination two disciplines ''eg'' explored augmented reality following characterizations appear relevant taken universally accepted image processing image analysis tend focus images transform one image another ''eg'' pixel wise operations contrast enhancement local operations edge extraction noise removal geometrical transformations rotating image characterization implies image processing analysis neither require assumptions produce interpretations


vision based inspection measurement picking bin picking implies image sensor technologies control theory often integrated processing image data control robot real time processing emphasised means efficient implementations hardware software also implies external conditions lighting often controlled machine vision general computer vision enable use different algorithms also field called imaging primarily focuses process producing images sometimes also


battlefield awareness imply various sensors including image sensors provide rich set information combat scene used support strategic decisions case automatic processing data used reduce complexity fuse information multiple sensors increase reliability autonomous vehicles curiosity'' example uncrewed land based vehicle notice stereo camera mounted top rover alt one newer application areas autonomous vehicles include submersibles land based vehicles small robots wheels cars trucks aerial vehicles unmanned aerial


technology still reached level put market ample examples military autonomous vehicles ranging advanced missiles uavs recon missions missile guidance space exploration already made autonomous vehicles using computer vision ''eg'' nasa 's ''curiosity'' cnsa 's ''yutu '' rover tactile feedback rubber artificial skin layer flexible structure shape estimation micro undulation surfaces silicon mold camera inside containing many different point markers sensor pressed surface silicon deforms position


image poses scene blippar google goggles likethat provide stand alone programs illustrate functionality '''identification'''an individual instance object recognized examples include identification specific person 's face fingerprint identification handwritten digits identification specific vehicle '''detection'''the image data scanned specific condition examples include detection possible abnormal cells tissues medical images detection vehicle automatic road toll system detection based relatively simple fast computations sometimes used finding smaller regions interesting image data


information databases man machine interfaces etc specific implementation computer vision system also depends whether functionality pre specified part learned modified operation many functions unique application however typical functions found many computer vision systems '''image acquisition''' digital image produced one several image sensors besides various types light sensitive cameras include range sensors tomography devices radar ultra sonic cameras etc depending type sensor resulting image data ordinary image


uhlan mamluk cuirassier lancer dragoon horse archer designation ''cavalry'' usually given military forces used animals mounts camels elephants infantry moved horseback dismounted fight foot known early th early th century ' 'dragoons'' class mounted infantry armies later evolved standard cavalry retaining historic designation cavalry advantage improved mobility soldier fighting horseback also advantages greater height speed inertial mass

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Cavalry


troops cavalry tank cruiser tank one designed speed purpose beyond infantry tanks would subsequently develop main battle tank cavalry units horse mounted modern armies serve purely ceremonial roles mounted infantry difficult terrain mountains heavily forested areas modern usage term generally refers units performing role reconnaissance surveillance target acquisition analogous historical light cavalry main battle tank units analogous historical heavy cavalry role polish winged hussar historically cavalry divided


light cavalry heavy cavalry differences roles combat size mounts much armor worn mount rider heavy cavalry byzantine cataphracts knights early middle ages europe used shock troops charging main body enemy height battle many cases actions decided outcome battle hence later term ''battle cavalry'' light cavalry horse archers hussars cossack cavalry assigned numerous roles ill suited narrowly focused


undertaken order fill strategic roles scouts raiders mongols war th century best known instance continued employment mounted tribal auxiliaries cossack cavalry regiments russian empire eastern europe onto steppes cavalry remained important much longer dominated scene warfare early th century even beyond strategic mobility cavalry crucial semi nomadic pastoralist lives many steppe cultures led tibetans also tradition cavalry warfare several military engagements chinese tang dynasty


medieval chroniclers tended pay undue attention knights expense common soldiers led early students military history suppose heavy cavalry force mattered medieval european battlefields well trained disciplined infantry could defeat knights massed english longbowmen triumphed french cavalry cr cy poitiers agincourt gisors bannockburn laupen foot soldiers proved could resist cavalry charges long held formation swiss developed pike squares offensive well defensive use infantry started become


important blenheim rossbach marengo eylau friedland remaining significant throughout napoleonic wars even increasing prominence infantry cavalry still irreplaceable role armies due greater mobility non battle duties often included patrolling fringes army encampments standing orders intercept suspected shirkers deserters well ref name mattwhite serving outpost pickets advance main body battle lighter cavalry hussars uhlans might skirmish cavalry attack light infantry charge either capture enemy artillery render


battlefield countered use infantry squares notable examples battle quatre bras later battle waterloo latter repeated charges french cavalrymen ordered michel ney failed break british allied army formed squares massed infantry especially formed squares deadly cavalry offered excellent target artillery bombardment disordered infantry formation cavalry able rout pursue scattered foot soldiers individual firearms gained accuracy


redesignated permanent training units six still mounted regiments linked process mechanization began conversion full cavalry brigade two indian regiments one british armoured car tank units end indian cavalry mechanized initially majority cases motorized infantry transported cwt trucks last horsed regiment british indian army viceregal bodyguard indian states forces regiments th king george 's lancers final mounted


poland another myth describes polish cavalry armed sabres lances lances used peacetime ceremonial purposes primary weapon polish cavalryman rifle individual equipment include sabre probably well established tradition case melee combat secondary weapon would probably effective rifle bayonet moreover polish cavalry brigade order battle included apart mounted soldiers light heavy machine guns wheeled anti tank rifle model anti aircraft weapons anti tank artillery


forward slope hill overlooking wetlands germans taken cavalry consideration fortifying position combined warsaw swift assault overran german anti tank guns consolidated attack village supported infantry tanks greek italian invasion greece october saw mounted cavalry used effectively greek defenders along mountainous frontier albania three greek cavalry regiments two mounted one partially mechanized played important role italian defeat difficult terrain soviet contribution soviet


country served buffer japanese forces soviet union addition keeping around population arms mongolia provided half million trained horses use soviet army partially mounted soviet mongolian cavalry mechanized group played supporting role western flank soviet invasion manchuria last active service seen cavalry units mongolian army occurred border clashes mongolia republic china post world war ii present day us special forces combat controllers horseback


designations cuirassiers hussars chasseurs dragoons spahis cavalry republican guard ceremonial ''fanfare'' detachment trumpeters cavalry armoured branch whole mounted canadian army number regular reserve units cavalry roots including royal canadian hussars montreal governor general 's horse guards lord strathcona 's horse british columbia dragoons royal canadian dragoons south alberta light horse lord strathcona 's horse governor general 's horse guards maintain official ceremonial horse mounted cavalry troop squadron modern pakistan army maintains


equipped helicopters horse cavalry detachment us army 's st cavalry division made active duty soldiers still functions active unit trained approximate weapons tools equipment techniques used united states cavalry non combat support roles first troop philadelphia city cavalry volunteer unit within pennsylvania army national guard serves combat force federal service acts mounted disaster relief role state service addition parsons' mounted cavalry reserve officer training corps unit forms


battle line formation smaller scale cavalry charge seen ''the lord rings return king'' although finished scene substantial computer generated imagery raw footage reactions riders shown extended version dvd appendices films show cavalry actions include ''the charge light brigade'' battle balaclava crimean war '' horsemen'' australian light horse sinai palestine campaign world war ''the lighthorsemen'' battle beersheba ''war horse'' british cavalry europe


jpg turkmenistan ceremonial cavalry independence day parade file mongolian soldier performs opening ceremony exercise khaan quest five hills training area mongolia aug mg jpg mongolian military horseman file warsaw cavalry parade jpg representative cavalry squadron polish army military parade warsaw gallery see also cavalry tactics elephantry cavalry unit containing elephant mounted troops moose cavalry cavalry mounted moose european elk heavy cavalry horses warfare horses world war horses world war ii light cavalry mounted police royal canadian mounted police accorded status


included developments optimal control followed progress stochastic robust adaptive nonlinear control methods applications control methodology helped make possible space travel communication satellites safer efficient aircraft cleaner automobile engines cleaner efficient chemical processes emerged unique discipline control engineering practiced part mechanical engineering control theory studied part electrical engineering since electrical circuits often easily described using control theory techniques first control relationships

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Control theory
Control engineering


effect process outputs eg speed torque motor measured sensors processed controller result control signal fed back input process closing loop closed loop controllers following advantages open loop controllers disturbance rejection hills cruise control example guaranteed performance even model uncertainties model structure match perfectly real process model parameters exact unstable processes stabilized reduced sensitivity parameter variations improved reference tracking performance systems

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Control theory


approx math ''y'' ' 's'' approximately equal ''r'' ' 's'' output closely tracks reference input pid feedback control block diagram pid controller feedback loop desired process value set point measured process value proportional integral derivative controller pid controller control loop feedback mechanism control technique widely used control systems pid controller continuously calculates ''error value'' difference desired setpoint measured process variable applies correction based proportional integral derivative terms ''pid''


mathematical techniques developed handle difficult much less general often applying narrow categories systems include limit cycle theory poincar maps lyapunov stability theorem describing functions nonlinear systems often analyzed using numerical methods computers example simulating operation using simulation language solutions near stable point interest nonlinear systems often linearized approximating linear system using perturbation theory linear techniques used analysis techniques frequency domain time domain


mimo active optics control system using input multiple sensors focal plane compensate changes mirror shape due thermal expansion contraction stresses rotated distortion wavefront due turbulence atmosphere complicated systems nuclear reactors human cells simulated computer large mimo control systems topics control theory stability ' 'stability'' general dynamical system input described lyapunov stability criteria linear system called bounded input bounded output bibo stable output


input single output control system performed frequency domain considering system 's transfer function using nyquist bode diagrams topics include gain phase margin amplitude margin mimo multi input multi output general complicated control systems one must consider theoretical results devised control technique see next section ie particular robustness qualities needed engineer must shift attention control technique including qualities properties constraints particular robustness issue requirement control system perform properly presence


input state constraints physical world every signal limited could happen controller send control signals cannot followed physical system example trying rotate valve excessive speed produce undesired behavior closed loop system even damage break actuators subsystems specific control techniques available solve problem model predictive control see later anti wind systems latter consists additional control block ensures control signal never exceeds given threshold system classifications linear systems


many cases necessary devise scratch theories permitting control nonlinear systems eg feedback linearization backstepping sliding mode control trajectory linearization control normally take advantage results based lyapunov 's theory differential geometry widely used tool generalizing well known linear control concepts nonlinear case well showing subtleties make challenging problem control theory also used decipher neural mechanism directs cognitive states ref name shi gu et al ref decentralized systems control system controlled multiple controllers problem


amplifiers managed develop stable negative feedback amplifiers harry nyquist developed nyquist stability criterion feedback systems richard bellman developed dynamic programming since warren e dixon control theorist professor andrey kolmogorov co developed wiener kolmogorov filter norbert wiener co developed wiener kolmogorov filter coined term cybernetics john r ragazzini introduced digital control use z transform control theory invented laplace lev pontryagin introduced maximum principle bang bang principle pierre louis lions developed viscosity


special government department civil defence service established home office remit included pre existing arp well wardens firemen initially auxiliary fire service afs latterly national fire service nfs fire watchers rescue first aid post stretcher party industry million people served within cd nearly lost lives enemy action air raid warden testing equipment brisbane october organization civil defense responsibility local authority volunteers ascribed different units depending experience training

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Civil defense


stars defense combined hit music civil defense advice government institutes created public service announcements including children 's songs distributed radio stations educate public case nuclear attack united states soviet union russia nuclear stockpiles total number nuclear bombs warheads existence throughout cold war post cold war era however total ' 'deployed'' us russian strategic weapons ready use far less reaching maximum apiece us president kennedy launched ambitious effort install fallout shelters throughout


set implement training programs intervention coordination teams well assessment experts including joint courses exchange systems enhance coherence actions undertaken international level field civil protection especially context cooperation preparing also includes sharing information contribute informing public view increasing citizens' level self protection collect disseminate validated emergency information pool information national civil protection capabilities military medical resources ensure efficient information sharing different authorities response response consists first warning


rockets built soviet space program sergei korolev russian aircraft manufacturer tupolev developed version popular design tu cryogenic fuel system known tu plane uses fuel referred liquefied natural gas lng made first flight applications astronomical instruments large telescope equipped continuous flow cooling systems applications cryogenics nuclear magnetic resonance nmr one common methods determine physical chemical properties atoms detecting radio frequency absorbed


material usually achieved via use liquid nitrogen liquid helium mechanical cryocooler uses high pressure helium lines gifford mcmahon cryocoolers pulse tube cryocoolers stirling cryocoolers wide use selection based required base temperature cooling capacity recent development cryogenics use magnets regenerators well refrigerators devices work principle known magnetocaloric effect detectors various cryogenic detectors used detect particles cryogenic temperature measurement k pt sensors resistance temperature detector


plate within paper depressed compared margins ref name ref copper metals expensive time plate often reused new maps melted purposes ref name whether woodcut intaglio printed map hung dry dry usually placed another press flatten paper type paper available time could used print map thicker paper durable relief intaglio used equally end


created chinese cartographer historians put date creation around debate regard map 's significance draws historical misconceptions east asian cartography main one east asians n't cartography europeans arrived map 's depiction trading routes compass rose scale bar points culmination many map making techniques incorporated chinese mercantile cartography representatives russian tsar qing dynasty met near border town nerchinsk near disputed border two powers eastern siberia


first cartographers use printing press make maps widely available optical technology telescope sextant devices use telescopes allowed accurate land surveys allowed mapmakers navigators find latitude measuring angles north star night sun noon advances photochemical technology lithographic photochemical processes make possible maps fine details distort shape resist moisture wear also eliminated need engraving speeded map production th


programs visualization image processing spatial analysis database management democratized greatly expanded making maps ability superimpose spatially located variables onto existing maps created new uses maps new industries explore exploit potentials see also digital raster graphic early years new millennium three key technological advances transformed cartography removal selective availability global positioning system gps may improved locational accuracy consumer grade gps receivers within metres invention openstreetmap global digital counter map


tools lead increasingly dynamic interactive maps manipulated digitally field rugged computers gps laser rangefinders make possible create maps directly measurements made site deconstruction technical cultural aspects producing maps sense maps sometimes said biased study bias influence agenda making map comprise map 's deconstruction central tenet deconstructionism maps power assertions maps inherently biased search metaphor rhetoric maps ref name harley


design considerations integration largely follows principles graphic design map type specific design different kinds maps especially thematic maps design needs best practices cartographic errors maps contain deliberate errors distortions either propaganda watermark help copyright owner identify infringement error appears competitors' maps latter often come form nonexistent misnamed misspelled trap streets names forms paper towns fictitious entries copyright easter eggs another motive deliberate errors cartographic vandalism


possible attack comes large number points defending much difficult attacks originate zombie computers botnet range possible techniques including reflection amplification attacks innocent systems fooled sending traffic victim direct access attacks unauthorized user gaining physical access computer likely able directly copy data may also compromise security making operating system modifications installing software worms keyloggers covert listening devices using wireless microphone even system

Formal science
Computer science
Computer security


computers smart watches mobile devices quantified self devices like activity trackers sensors cameras microphones gps receivers compasses accelerometers could exploited may collect personal information including sensitive health information wifi bluetooth cell phone networks devices could used attack vectors sensors might remotely activated successful breach ref name nestwatch ref increasing number home automation devices nest thermostat also potential targets ref name nestwatch large corporations large corporations common targets many cases attacks aimed financial


thrill seekers vandals activists others criminals looking financial gain state sponsored attackers common well resourced started amateurs markus hess hacked kgb recounted clifford stoll ''the cuckoo 's egg'' additionally recent attacker motivations traced back extremist organizations seeking gain political advantage disrupt social agendas growth internet mobile technologies inexpensive computing devices led rise capabilities also risk environments deemed vital operations critical targeted


bluetooth newer bluetooth low energy le near field communication nfc non ios devices biometric validation thumb print readers well qr code reader software designed mobile devices offer new secure ways mobile phones connect access control systems control systems provide computer security also used controlling access secure buildings secure operating systems one use term computer security refers technology used implement secure operating systems united states department defense dod used orange book standards


disrupt iranian 's nuclear program ref name us ref although neither publicly admitted global surveillance disclosures early documents provided edward snowden published ''the washington post'' ''the guardian'' ref name ardinterview ref exposing massive scale nsa global surveillance also indications nsa may inserted backdoor nist standard encryption standard later withdrawn due widespread criticism ref name nist abandonment ref nsa additionally revealed tapped links google 's data centers target home depot breaches ukrainian hacker known rescator broke


data unless website taken permanently avid life media take site offline group released two compressed files one gb second gb second data dump avid life media ceo noel biderman resigned website remained functioning colonial pipeline ransomware attack june cyber attack took largest fuel pipeline us led shortages across east coast legal issues global regulation international legal issues cyber attacks complicated nature global base common rules


maawg ref name maawgroster ref enisa european network information security agency enisa agency european union objective improve network information security european union europe april european parliament council european union adopted general data protection regulation gdpr eu gdpr became enforceable beginning may provides data protection privacy individuals within european union eu european economic area eea gdpr requires business processes handle personal data built data protection design


task force internet crime complaint center also known ic ref name ic ref addition specific duties fbi participates alongside non profit organizations infragard ref name infragard site ref ref name mueller video ref computer crime intellectual property section ccips operates united states department justice criminal division ccips charge investigating computer crime intellectual property crime specialized search seizure digital evidence computers networks ref name ccips ref ccips published framework vulnerability disclosure program online systems help organizations clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure


creation implementation management security solutions security engineer performs security monitoring security data logs analysis forensic analysis detect security incidents mounts incident response investigates utilizes new technologies processes enhance security capabilities implement improvements may also review code perform security engineering methodologies security architect designs security system major components security system may head security design team building new security system security administrator installs manages organization wide security systems position may also include taking


roles titles tasked protecting computers networks software data information systems viruses worms spyware malware intrusion detection unauthorized access denial service attacks ever increasing list attacks hackers acting individuals part organized crime foreign governments student programs also available people interested beginning career cybersecurity meanwhile flexible effective option information security professionals experience levels keep studying online security training including webcasts wide range certified courses also available united kingdom nationwide set cybersecurity forums


former devoted analyzing amount resources needed particular algorithm solve problem whereas latter asks general question possible algorithms could used solve problem precisely computational complexity theory tries classify problems cannot solved appropriately restricted resources turn imposing restrictions available resources distinguishes computational complexity computability theory latter theory asks kinds problems principle solved algorithmically computational problems traveling salesman tour german

Formal science
Computer science
Theory of computation
Computational complexity theory


model computation turing machine commonly used model complexity theory many types turing machines used define complexity classes deterministic turing machines probabilistic turing machines non deterministic turing machines quantum turing machines symmetric turing machines alternating turing machines equally powerful principle resources time space bounded may powerful others deterministic turing machine basic turing machine uses fixed set rules determine future actions probabilistic


since complexity theory interested classifying problems based difficulty one defines sets problems based criteria instance set problems solvable within time ''f'' ''n'' deterministic turing machine denoted dtime ''f'' ''n'' analogous definitions made space requirements although time space well known complexity resources complexity measure viewed computational resource complexity measures generally defined blum complexity axioms complexity measures used complexity theory include communication complexity circuit complexity decision tree complexity complexity


since algorithm ''x'' allows us solve problem ''c'' notion hard problems depends type reduction used complexity classes larger p polynomial time reductions commonly used particular set problems hard np set np hard problems problem ''x'' ''c'' hard ''c'' ''x'' said ''complete'' ''c'' means ''x'' hardest problem ''c'' since many problems could equally hard one might say ''x'' one


'''np''' problems believed '''np''' equal '''co np''' however yet proven clear two complexity classes equal '''p''' equal '''np''' since '''p''' '''co p''' thus '''p''' '''np''' would '''co p''' '''co np''' whence '''np''' '''p''' '''co p''' '''co np''' similarly known '''l''' set problems solved logarithmic space strictly contained '''p''' equal '''p''' many complexity classes two '''nl''' '''nc''' known


distribution atomic nuclei electrons sample neutrons scattered atomic nuclei strong nuclear forces addition magnetic moment neutrons non zero therefore also scattered magnetic fields neutrons scattered hydrogen containing materials produce diffraction patterns high noise levels however material sometimes treated substitute deuterium hydrogen different forms interaction three types radiation suitable different crystallographic studies theory conventional imaging techniques optical microscopy obtaining image

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Materials Science and Engineering
Crystallography


spatial arrangement atoms crystal would need radiation much shorter wavelengths x ray neutron beams unfortunately focusing x rays conventional optical lens challenge scientists success focusing x rays microscopic fresnel zone plates made gold critical angle reflection inside long tapered capillaries diffracted x ray neutron beams cannot focused produce images sample structure must reconstructed diffraction pattern diffraction patterns arise constructive interference incident radiation x rays electrons neutrons scattered periodic repeating


engage crystallographic research x ray producing equipment synchrotrons often used x ray sources purer complete patterns sources generate synchrotron sources also much higher intensity x ray beams data collection takes fraction time normally necessary weaker sources complementary neutron crystallography techniques used identify positions hydrogen atoms since x rays interact weakly light elements hydrogen producing image diffraction pattern requires sophisticated mathematics often iterative process '''modelling refinement'''


'the san trance dance ritual revitalization among farm bushmen ghanzi district republic botswana' journal south west africa scientific society v ref references dance found early recorded history greek dance ''horos'' referred plato aristotle plutarch lucian bible talmud refer many events related dance contain different dance terms chinese pottery early neolithic period groups people depicted dancing line holding hands earliest chinese word dance found written


equally naturally triple metre occasionally folk dances balkans dance traditions depend heavily complex rhythms complex dances composed fixed sequence steps always require phrases melodies certain fixed length accompany sequence ''lululaund dancing girl'' painting silk cloth al baldry p inscription reads dancing form rhythm rhythm form music music form thought thought form divinity act dancing steps generate initial


skeleton rhythmic beats must preceded separate musical accompaniment dance much music requires time keeping utilitarian repetitive movements walking hauling digging take become refined something quality dance ref name kirstein musical accompaniment therefore arose earliest dance ancient egyptians attributed origin dance divine athotus said observed music accompanying religious rituals caused participants move rhythmically brought movements proportional measure idea dance arises


name kabuki mit global shakespeares ref somewhat similarly noh distinguishes ''geki noh'' based around advancement plot narration action ''fury noh'' dance pieces involving acrobatics stage properties multiple characters elaborate stage action ref name ortolani ref participatory social contra dance form participatory social folk dance mixed european roots social dances intended participation rather audience may include various forms mime narrative typically set much closely rhythmic pattern music terms like waltz polka refer much musical pieces


two classical ballet dancers perform sequence ''the nutcracker'' one best known works classical dance buffalo dance'' ballet developed first italy france lavish court spectacles combined music drama poetry song costumes dance members court nobility took part performers reign louis xiv dancer dance became codified professional dancers began take place court amateurs ballet masters licensed french government first ballet dance academy acad mie royale de danse royal dance academy opened


samba routine dancesport event file polonezkoy nevitjpg '''folk dance''' dance traditions travel immigrant communities festival dance performed polish community turkey file fuori asse alla secondajpg ballet dancer performs standing side split file breakdancer faneuil hall croppedjpg '''street dance''' breakdancer performs handstand trick file odissi performance dsjpg indian classical dancer file ballet class jpeg ballet class young girls wearing leotards skirts file tari kebagh jpg ''kebagh'' dance pagar alam indonesia file tahun lkb saraswati jakartajpg balinese dance gallery see also art outline performing arts outline dance index dance


dentist healthcare professional qualified practice dentistry graduating degree either doctor dental surgery dds doctor dental medicine dmd equivalent bachelor dental surgery baccalaureus dentalis chirurgiae bds bdent bchd bdsc awarded uk british commonwealth countries western countries become qualified dentist one must usually complete least four years postgraduate study within european union education least five years dentists usually complete five eight years post secondary education practising though

Applied science
Medicine and health
Dentistry


dental craniofacial biology oral implantology art science replacing extracted teeth dental implants oral medicine clinical evaluation diagnosis oral mucosal diseases orthodontics dentofacial orthopedics straightening teeth modification midface mandibular growth pediatric dentistry also called ''pedodontics'' dentistry children periodontology also called ''periodontics'' study treatment diseases periodontium non surgical surgical well placement maintenance dental implants prosthodontics also called ''prosthetic dentistry'' dentures bridges restoration implants prosthodontists super specialize


legend worm also found ''homeric hymns'' late th century ad surgeon guy de chauliac still promoted belief worms cause tooth decay ref name suddickhistorical ref recipes treatment toothache infections loose teeth spread throughout ebers papyrus kahun papyri brugsch papyrus hearst papyrus ancient egypt ref name blomstedt ref edwin smith papyrus written th century bc may reflect previous manuscripts early bc discusses treatment dislocated fractured jaws ref name blomstedt th century bc


modern dentistry science modern dentistry developed english physician thomas browne ''a letter friend'' pub made early dental observation characteristic humour french surgeon pierre fauchard became known father modern dentistry despite limitations primitive surgical instruments late th early th century fauchard highly skilled surgeon made remarkable improvisations dental instruments often adapting tools watchmakers jewelers even barbers thought could used


capitalized nbsp may used adjective refer manifestations divinity powers eg basking divine presence terms ' 'divinity'' ' 'divine'' nbsp uncapitalized lacking definite article nbsp sometimes used denote 'god certain beings entities fall short absolute godhood lie outside human realm include means exhaustive list divine force power previously noted divinities closely related transcendent force power credited much cases powers


religion 's main pantheon even christian faith generally holds christ identical god distinguishes god father christ begotten son however certain esoteric mystical schools thought present many faiths nbsp sufis islam gnostics christianity advaitan hindus zen buddhists well several non specific perspectives developed new age philosophy nbsp hold humans essence divine unified divine non trivial way divinity faiths would express naturally obscured social physical worlds


sperm cell point begins divide form plant embryo process embryogenesis happens resulting cells organize one end becomes first root end forms tip shoot seed plants embryo develop one seed leaves cotyledons end embryogenesis young plant parts necessary begin life embryo germinates seed parent plant begins produce additional organs leaves stems

Natural science
Biology
Developmental biology


higher level necessary interconnect processes running cpus sort communication system ref name ohl dalevo ref distributed programming typically falls one several basic architectures client server three tier ''n'' tier peer peer categories loose coupling tight coupling client server architectures smart clients contact server data format display users input client committed back server represents permanent change three tier architectures move client intelligence middle tier stateless clients used simplifies application deployment web

Formal science
Computer science
Distributed computing


information processing systems banking systems airline reservation systems real time process control aircraft control systems industrial control systems parallel computation scientific computing including cluster computing grid computing cloud computing various volunteer computing projects see list distributed computing projects distributed rendering computer graphics theoretical foundations models many tasks would like automate using computer question answer type would like ask question computer produce answer theoretical computer science tasks called computational problems formally computational problem consists ''instances'' together


' 'solution'' instance instances questions ask solutions desired answers questions theoretical computer science seeks understand computational problems solved using computer computability theory efficiently computational complexity theory traditionally said problem solved using computer design algorithm produces correct solution given instance algorithm implemented computer program runs general purpose computer program reads problem instance input performs computation


produces solution output formalisms random access machines universal turing machines used abstract models sequential general purpose computer executing algorithm ref name toomarianneural ref ref name savagemodels ref field concurrent distributed computing studies similar questions case either multiple computers computer executes network interacting processes computational problems solved network efficiently however obvious meant solving problem case concurrent distributed system example


density breaks achieves gradation tone stippling uses dots produce tone texture shade different textures achieved depending method used build tone drawings dry media often use similar techniques though pencils drawing sticks achieve continuous variations tone typically drawing filled based hand artist favors right handed artist draws left right avoid smearing image erasers remove unwanted lines lighten tones clean stray marks sketch outline drawing lines drawn often follow contour

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Drawing


finger placed point along drawing implement used compare dimension parts image ruler used straightedge device compute proportions variation proportion age attempting draw complicated shape human figure helpful first represent form set primitive volumes almost form represented combination cube sphere cylinder cone basic volumes assembled likeness drawing


manifold deduced changes rank jacobian function list differential topology topics see following reference list differential geometry topics differential topology versus differential geometry differential topology differential geometry first characterized ' 'similarity'' study primarily properties differentiable manifolds sometimes variety structures imposed animation coffee cup transforming donut shape one major difference lies nature problems subject tries address one view ref name hirsch

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Differential topology


already exhibited topology math r n math moreover differential topology restrict necessarily study diffeomorphism example symplectic topology subbranch differential topology studies global properties symplectic manifolds differential geometry concerns problems may local ''or'' global always non trivial local properties thus differential geometry may study differentiable manifolds equipped ''connection'' ''metric'' may riemannian pseudo riemannian finsler special sort ' 'distribution'' cr structure distinction differential geometry differential topology blurred however


triangle immersed saddle shape plane hyperbolic paraboloid well two diverging ultraparallel lines '''differential geometry''' mathematical discipline studies geometry smooth shapes smooth spaces otherwise known smooth manifolds using techniques differential calculus integral calculus linear algebra multilinear algebra field origins study spherical geometry far back antiquity relates astronomy geodesy earth later study hyperbolic geometry lobachevsky simplest examples smooth spaces plane space

Formal science
Mathematics
Differential Geometry


given space differential geometry closely related sometimes taken include differential topology concerns properties differentiable manifolds rely additional geometric structure see article discussion distinction two subjects differential geometry also related geometric aspects theory differential equations otherwise known geometric analysis differential geometry finds applications throughout mathematics natural sciences prominently language differential geometry used albert einstein theory general relativity subsequently


geometry modern differential geometry subject modern differential geometry emerged early response foundational contributions many mathematicians including importantly work henri poincar foundations topology ref name dieudonne dieudonn j history algebraic differential topology springer science business media ref start major movement within mathematics formalise foundational aspects subject avoid crises rigour accuracy known hilbert 's program part broader movement notion


geometry contact geometry deals certain manifolds odd dimension close symplectic geometry like latter originated questions classical mechanics ''contact structure'' dimensional manifold ''m'' given smooth hyperplane field ''h'' tangent bundle far possible associated level sets differentiable function ''m'' technical term completely nonintegrable tangent hyperplane distribution near point ''p'' hyperplane distribution determined nowhere vanishing form math alpha math unique multiplication nowhere vanishing


function math h p ker alpha p subset p math local form ''m'' ''contact form'' restriction exterior derivative ''h'' non degenerate two form thus induces symplectic structure ''h'' sub ''p'' sub point distribution ''h'' defined global one form math alpha math form contact top dimensional form math alpha wedge alpha n math volume form ''m'' ie vanish anywhere contact analogue darboux theorem holds contact structures odd dimensional manifold locally isomorphic brought


particular k hler manifold complex symplectic manifold large class k hler manifolds class hodge manifolds given smooth complex projective varieties cr geometry cr geometry study intrinsic geometry boundaries domains complex manifolds conformal geometry conformal geometry study set angle preserving conformal transformations space differential topology differential topology study global geometric invariants without metric symplectic form differential topology starts natural operations lie derivative natural


effect gaussian curvature intrinsic invariant intrinsic point view flexible example useful relativity space time cannot naturally taken extrinsic however price pay technical complexity intrinsic definitions curvature connections become much less visually intuitive two points view reconciled ie extrinsic geometry considered structure additional intrinsic one see nash embedding theorem formalism geometric calculus extrinsic intrinsic geometry manifold characterized


local language ref name ref university philippines open university established fifth constituent university university philippines system first distance education online university philippines mandate provide education opportunities individuals aspiring higher education improved qualifications unable take advantage traditional modes education personal professional obligations open universities use distance education technologies delivery methods though require attendance local study centres regional summer schools open universities

Applied science
Education
Distance education


would pay low tuition rates receive study materials mail listen radio live classroom discussions held campus physicist daniel q posin also pioneer field distance education hosted televised course depaul university charles wedemeyer university wisconsin madison also promoted new methods carnegie foundation funded wedemeyer 's ''articulated instructional media project'' aim brought variety communications technologies aimed providing learning campus population radio courses faded away many efforts


previous ages humanity james mark baldwin wrote essays topics included ''imitation chapter natural history consciousness'' ''mental development child race methods processes'' heavily involved theory developmental psychology ref name hogan sigmund freud whose concepts developmental significantly affected public perceptions ref name hogan theories psychosexual development sigmund freud believed everyone conscious preconscious unconscious level awareness conscious one aware mental process preconscious involves information though currently thoughts brought

Social science
Psychology
Developmental psychology


person 's personality forms age phallic stage child aware sexual organs fourth ''latency stage'' occurs age five puberty latency stage child 's sexual interests repressed stage five ''genital stage'' takes place puberty adulthood genital stage puberty starts happening theories cognitive development jean piaget swiss theorist posited children learn actively constructing knowledge hands experience ref name woodwoodboyd ref suggested adult 's role helping child learn provide appropriate


proposed four stages ' 'sensorimotor'' ''pre operational'' ''concrete operational'' ''formal operational'' though believe stages occurred given age many studies determined cognitive abilities take place ref name edpsych ref stages moral development piaget claimed logic morality develop constructive stages ref name higheststage ref expanding piaget 's work lawrence kohlberg determined process moral development principally concerned justice continued throughout individual 's lifetime ref name dissertation ref suggested three levels moral reasoning pre conventional moral reasoning conventional moral reasoning post conventional moral reasoning pre conventional moral reasoning typical


model hierarchical complexity michael commons enhanced simplified b rbel inhelder piaget 's developmental theory offers standard method examining universal pattern development model hierarchical complexity mhc based assessment domain specific information divides order hierarchical complexity tasks addressed stage performance tasks stage order hierarchical complexity tasks participant 's successfully addresses expanded piaget 's original eight stage counting half stages fifteen stages stages calculatory sensory motor


generally ref name schlinger ref skinner 's conception verbal behavior died perhaps part generated successful practical applications ref name schlinger continuity vs discontinuity one major discussions developmental psychology includes whether development discontinuous continuous continuous development quantifiable quantitative whereas discontinuous development qualitative quantitative estimations development measuring stature child measuring memory consideration span particularly dramatic examples qualitative changes metamorphoses emergence caterpillar butterfly ref name crain william c ref psychologists bolster continuous view


walking reflexes predominantly adaptations life womb little connection early infant development ref name butterworth primitive reflexes reappear adults certain conditions neurological conditions like dementia traumatic lesions ultrasound shown infants capable range movements womb many appear simple reflexes ref name bremner time born infants recognize preference mother 's voice suggesting prenatal development auditory perception ref name bremner prenatal development birth complications may also connected


complete understanding object permanence months observing infants' failure age look object last seen instead infants continue look object first seen committing b error researchers suggested age eight nine months infants' inability understand object permanence extends people explains infants age cry mothers gone sight mind recent findings infant cognition researchers developed many


moral purpose see william damon intelligence demonstrated logical use symbols related abstract concepts formal reasoning return egocentric thought often occurs early period develop capacity reason formally adolescence adulthood huitt w hummel j january divided three parts namely early adolescence years mid adolescence years late adolescence years adolescent unconsciously explores questions want like toddlers adolescents


overall sense constancy life years living parents phases self discovery experimentation ref name twenge ref middle adulthood middle adulthood generally refers period ages period middle aged adults experience conflict generativity stagnation may either feel sense contributing society next generation immediate community develop sense purposelessness physically middle aged experience decline muscular strength reaction time sensory keenness cardiac output also women experience menopause average age sharp drop


structure parenting styles unsupportive ref name baumrind children category typically least competent categories ref name baumrind mother father factors parenting roles child development typically focused role mother recent literature however looked toward father important role child development affirming role fathers studies shown children young months benefit significantly substantial engagement father ref name aredos ref particular study us new zealand found presence


defined terms methodology theoretical approach terms subject matter ha joon chang finds definition like science studies human behavior relationship ends scarce means alternative uses peculiar sciences define terms area inquiry object inquiry rather methodology biology department say biology studied dna analysis people study living organisms many different ways people dna analysis others might


resource allocation theory competition resource owners labour land capital seek profitable uses resulting equal rate return uses equilibrium adjusted apparent differences arising factors training unemployment argument includes one famous passages economics smith represents every individual trying employ capital might command advantage society sake profit necessary level employing capital domestic industry positively related


many raised serious objections scope method economics emanating definition due lack strong consensus production distribution consumption goods services prime area study economics old definition still stands many quarters body theory later termed neoclassical economics marginalism formed term economics popularized neoclassical economists alfred marshall concise synonym economic science substitute earlier political economy ref name marshallmarshall ref name jevons corresponded influence


economic science decision choice made one resource controlling players attain best possible outcome bounded rational conditions words resource controlling agents maximize value subject constraints imposed information agents cognitive limitations finite amount time make execute decision economic science centres activities economic agents comprise society focus economic analysis approach understanding processes study agent behaviour scarcity may go follows continuous


distinct field book focused determinants national income short run prices relatively inflexible keynes attempted explain broad theoretical detail high labour market unemployment might self correcting due low effective demand even price flexibility monetary policy might unavailing term revolutionary applied book impact economic analysis keynesian economics two successors post keynesian economics also concentrates macroeconomic rigidities adjustment processes research micro foundations models represented based real life practices rather simple optimizing models


use resources engage activities designed increase profits nbsp open free competition without deception fraud schools approaches well known schools trends thought referring particular style economics practised disseminated well defined groups academicians become known worldwide include austrian school freiburg school school lausanne post keynesian economics stockholm school contemporary mainstream economics sometimes separated saltwater approach universities along eastern western coasts us freshwater


example air pollution may generate negative externality education may generate positive externality less crime etc governments often tax otherwise restrict sale goods negative externalities subsidize otherwise promote purchase goods positive externalities effort correct price distortions caused externalities elementary demand supply theory predicts equilibrium speed adjustment changes equilibrium due shift demand supply many areas form price stickiness postulated account quantities rather prices adjusting


analysis market solutions change incentives emission fees redefinition property rights welfare welfare economics uses microeconomics techniques evaluate well allocation productive factors desirability economic efficiency within economy often relative competitive general equilibrium analyzes ' 'social welfare'' however measured terms economic activities individuals compose theoretical society considered accordingly individuals associated economic activities basic units aggregating social welfare whether group community society social welfare apart


economics devised victorian historian thomas carlyle th century often stated carlyle gave economics nickname dismal science response late th century writings reverend thomas robert malthus grimly predicted starvation would result projected population growth exceeded rate increase food supply however actual phrase coined carlyle context debate john stuart mill slavery carlyle argued slavery mill opposed ref name dismal ''the wealth nations'' adam smith addressed


unpaid work exclusion class gender considerations ref name beyond ref related subjects economics one social science among several fields bordering areas including economic geography economic history public choice energy economics cultural economics family economics institutional economics law economics economic analysis law approach legal theory applies methods economics law includes use economic concepts explain effects legal rules assess legal rules economically efficient predict legal rules seminal article


year outstanding intellectual contributions field prominent nobel memorial prize economic sciences though nobel prize contemporary economics uses mathematics economists draw tools calculus linear algebra statistics game theory computer science professional economists expected familiar tools minority specialize econometrics mathematical methods see also critical juncture theory economics terminology differs common usage economic ideology economic policy economic union free trade happiness economics humanistic economics list academic fields economics list economics films list


something might include facts propositional knowledge skills procedural knowledge objects acquaintance knowledge philosophers tend draw important distinction three different senses knowing something knowing knowing truth propositions knowing understanding perform certain actions knowing acquaintance directly perceiving object familiar otherwise coming contact epistemology primarily concerned first forms knowledge propositional knowledge three senses knowing seen ordinary use word mathematics know


also knowing add two numbers knowing eg knowing persons knowing oneself eg one 's hometown eg cars eg addition distinctions explicit english explicitly made languages including french portuguese spanish romanian german dutch although languages related english said retain verbs scots french portuguese spanish romanian german dutch 'to know person ' translated using german dutch


knowledge known experience empirical arrived experience views emphasize importance ''a priori'' knowledge generally classified rationalist views emphasize importance ''a posteriori'' knowledge generally classified empiricist belief one core concepts epistemology ''belief'' belief attitude person holds regarding anything take true ref name sep belief ref instance believe snow white comparable accepting truth proposition snow white beliefs ''occurrent'' eg


throughout history philosophy ref name gettier edmund l gettier http wwwditextcom gettier gettierhtml justified true belief knowledge ''analysis'' vol pp nbsp ref extent true highly contentious since plato disavowed justified true belief view end ''theaetetus'' ref name aok ref name britannica regardless accuracy claim gettier 's paper produced major widespread discussion completely reoriented epistemology second half th century newfound focus trying provide airtight definition knowledge adjusting replacing justified true belief view today still little consensus


debate epistemological externalists one hand epistemological internalists epistemic externalism first arose attempts overcome gettier problem flourished time since alternative way conceiving epistemic justification initial development epistemic externalism often attributed alvin goldman although numerous philosophers worked topic time since ref name aok externalists hold factors deemed external meaning outside psychological states gain knowledge conditions justification example externalist response gettier problem


man ability know omniscience descartes said man must use capacities knowledge correctly carefully methodological doubt ref name meditations first philosophy ref dictum cogito ergo sum think therefore also commonly associated descartes' theory methodological doubt doubting everything previously knew could start blank slate first thing could logically bring doubt existence exist would contradiction terms act saying one exist assumes someone


ascriptions instance cartesian skeptic point perceptual experiences compatible skeptical scenario completely deceived existence external world case beliefs would false ref name meditations first philosophy ref name sep contextualism ref typical conclusion draw possible doubt everyday beliefs meaning indeed justified holding beliefs justification ''not'' infallible justification infallible reasons


daughter guilty would still believe innocence basis faith daughter would violate third condition british philosopher simon blackburn criticized formulation suggesting want accept knowledge beliefs track truth nozick 's account requires held appropriate reasons says want award title knowing something someone meeting conditions defect flaw failure compared someone else meeting


plus extra conditions primary book ''knowledge limits'' williamson argues concept knowledge cannot broken set concepts analysis instead ' 'sui generis'' thus according williamson justification truth belief necessary sufficient knowledge williamson also known one philosophers take knowledge mental state epistemologists assert belief opposed knowledge mental state williamson 's claim seen highly counterintuitive causal theory naturalized epistemology


believe one matters ref name sep priori idea ''a priori'' knowledge based intuition rational insights laurence bonjour says article structure empirical knowledge rational insight immediate non inferential grasp apprehension 'seeing' proposition necessarily true going back crow example laurence bonjour 's definition reason would believe option immediate knowledge crow bird without ever experiencing one evolutionary


foundationalists respond regress problem asserting certain foundations basic beliefs support beliefs require justification beliefs beliefs might justified self evident infallible derive reliable cognitive mechanisms perception memory priori intuition often considered possible examples basic beliefs chief criticism foundationalism belief supported beliefs accepting may arbitrary unjustified coherentism another response regress problem coherentism rejection assumption regress proceeds according


considered virtual knowledge regard justified beliefs unmitigated skepticism rejects claims virtual strong knowledge ref name skepticism characterizing knowledge strong weak virtual genuine determined differently depending person 's viewpoint well characterization knowledge ref name skepticism notable attempts respond unmitigated skepticism include direct realism disjunctivism common sense philosophy pragmatism fideism fictionalism schools thought epistemology empiricism david hume one staunch defenders empiricism empiricism view theory knowledge focuses


human practices foundation language ref name pragmatismsep pragmatism 's origins often attributed charles sanders peirce william james john dewey ref name pragmatismsep peirce formulated maxim consider effects might conceivably practical bearings conceive object conception conception effects whole conception object william james suggested pragmatist epistemology theories become instruments answers enigmas rest ref name pragmatismjames ref james 's pragmatic method adapted peirce metaphysical disputes settled tracing


idealism shares great deal empiricism rationalism famous empiricists classified idealists particularly berkeley yet subjectivism inherent idealism also resembles descartes many respects many idealists believe knowledge primarily least areas acquired ''a priori'' processes innate example form concepts derived experience relevant theoretical concepts may purportedly part structure human mind kant 's theory transcendental idealism may said exist independently


nbsp years people receive formal education human history thus far formal formal education occurs structured environment whose explicit purpose teaching students usually formal education takes place school environment classrooms multiple students learning together trained certified teacher subject school systems designed around set values ideals govern educational choices system choices include curriculum organizational models design physical learning spaces eg classrooms student teacher interactions methods assessment class size educational activities international


national economies significant industry right source trained educated personnel rest economy university education includes teaching research social services activities includes undergraduate level sometimes referred tertiary education graduate postgraduate level sometimes referred graduate school universities composed several colleges one type university education liberal arts education defined college university curriculum aimed imparting broad general knowledge developing general intellectual capacities contrast


post education adult education education involve continued study level different found upper secondary grouped together isced post secondary non tertiary education ref name isced special past disabled often eligible public education children disabilities repeatedly denied education physicians special tutors early physicians people like itard seguin howe gallaudet set foundation special education today focused individualized instruction functional skills early years special education provided people severe


school ref name organisation economic co operation development found schools tend perform best principals full authority responsibility ensuring students proficient core subjects upon graduation must also seek feedback students quality assurance improvement governments limit monitoring student proficiency education sector fully integrated society interactions numerous stakeholders sectors include parents local communities religious leaders ngos stakeholders involved health child protection justice law enforcement police media political leadership ref name


prospective donors one particularly persistent problem researchers overseas development institute indicated main obstacles funding education include conflicting donor priorities immature aid architecture lack evidence advocacy issue ref name autogenerated additionally transparency international identified corruption education sector major stumbling block achieving universal primary education africa furthermore demand developing world improved educational access high foreigners expected indigenous governments reluctant take ongoing costs involved also economic pressure


employ effective possible ref name wrs ref passing nclb united states child left behind teachers must highly qualified economics argued high rates education essential countries able achieve high levels economic growth empirical analyses tend support theoretical prediction poor countries grow faster rich countries adopt cutting edge technologies already tried tested rich countries however technology transfer requires knowledgeable managers engineers able operate new machines production practices borrowed


morally obligatory etc true even b never know moral claim true however method arrives b different routes moral error theory holds know moral claim true moral claims false ii reason believe moral claims false iii since justified believing claim reason deny justified believing moral claims epistemological moral skepticism subclass theory members


include pyrrhonian moral skepticism dogmatic moral skepticism members epistemological moral skepticism share two things first acknowledge unjustified believing moral claim second agnostic whether true ie whether moral claims false pyrrhonian moral skepticism holds reason unjustified believing moral claim irrational us believe either moral claim true moral claim false thus addition agnostic whether true pyrrhonian moral skepticism


virtue regarded difficult virtue denotes right thing right way right time right reason valluvar th century ce keeps virtue ''a am'' dharma calls cornerstone throughout writing kural literature religious scriptures generally consider ''a am'' divine nature valluvar describes way life rather spiritual observance way harmonious living leads universal happiness ref name sanjeevi seminarpapers ref contrary contemporary works say valluvar holds ''a am'' common irrespective


whether person bearer palanquin rider valluvar considered justice facet ''a am'' ancient greek philosophers plato aristotle descendants opined justice cannot defined divine mystery valluvar positively suggested divine origin required define concept justice words v r nedunchezhiyan justice according valluvar dwells minds knowledge standard right wrong deceit dwells minds breed fraud ref name sanjeevi seminarpapers


person upset realize thing could break similarly someone die close hold serenity loved one made flesh blood destined death stoic philosophy says accept things cannot changed resigning oneself existence enduring rational fashion death feared people lose life instead return returning god initially gave person person epictetus said difficult problems life


moral beliefs propositional contents implies cognitivism ethical intuitionism contrasted coherentist approaches moral epistemology depend reflective equilibrium ref name shafer landau cuneo foundationalism shafer landau cuneo p ref throughout philosophical literature term ethical intuitionism frequently used significant variation sense article 's focus foundationalism reflects core commitments contemporary self identified ethical intuitionists ref name shafer landau cuneo foundationalism ref name sep stratton lake http platostanfordedu entries intuitionism ethics ref sufficiently broadly defined ethical intuitionism taken encompass cognitivist forms moral sense theory ref name stratton lake sentimentalism stratton lake p


cyrenaics believing pleasures indulgences detrimental human beings epicureans observed indiscriminate indulgence sometimes resulted negative consequences experiences therefore rejected hand unpleasant experiences endured present ensure better life future epicurus ' 'summum bonum'' greatest good prudence exercised moderation caution excessive indulgence destructive pleasure even lead pain example eating one food often makes person lose taste eating much food leads discomfort


absence afterlife ref name sahakiansahakian state consequentialism state consequentialism also known mohist consequentialism ref name readings ref ethical theory evaluates moral worth action based much contributes basic goods state ref name readings ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' describes mohist consequentialism dating back th century bc remarkably sophisticated version based plurality intrinsic goods taken constitutive human welfare unlike utilitarianism views pleasure moral good basic goods mohist consequentialist thinking nbsp order material wealth increase population ref


school thought ''a fragment government'' bentham says 'it greatest happiness greatest number measure right wrong' describes fundamental axiom ''an introduction principles morals legislation'' talks 'the principle utility' later prefers greatest happiness principle ref name john stuart mill http wwwgutenbergorg files h hhtm chapter mill john stuart utilitarianism project gutenberg online edition ref utilitarianism paradigmatic example consequentialist moral theory form utilitarianism holds morally correct action one produces best outcome


rational originate ''xin'' human emotions ref name fraser anarchist ethics anarchist ethics ethical theory based studies anarchist thinkers biggest contributor anarchist ethics russian zoologist geographer economist political activist peter kropotkin starting premise goal ethical philosophy help humans adapt thrive evolutionary terms kropotkin 's ethical framework uses biology anthropology basis order scientifically establish best enable given social order thrive biologically socially advocates certain behavioural


access meaning 'real' always deferred sought demonstrate via recourse linguistic realm outside text non text ''il n'y pas de hors texte'' often mistranslated nothing outside text time jean baudrillard theorised signs symbols simulacra mask reality eventually absence reality particularly consumer world post structuralism postmodernism argue ethics must study complex relational conditions actions simple alignment ideas right particular acts possible


clear fulcrum balance law politics practice arbitration fact common assumptions participants ability formulate questions prior rights balancing questions studied applied ethics concern public policy example making ethical judgments regarding questions lying always wrong permissible prior etiquette people general comfortable dichotomies two opposites however ethics issues often multifaceted best proposed actions address many different areas concurrently ethical decisions


autonomy'' principle decision making allow individuals autonomous able make decisions apply lives means individuals control lives ''justice'' principle decision makers must focus actions fair affected ethical decisions need consistent ethical theory cases management made decisions seem unfair employees shareholders stakeholders solomon pp decisions unethical relational ethics relational ethics related ethics care ref


butchvarov panayot skepticism ethics jadranka skorin kapov ''the intertwining aesthetics ethics exceeding expectations ecstasy sublimity'' lexington books solomon rc ''morality good life introduction ethics classical sources'' new york mcgraw hill book company vendemiati aldo ''in first person outline general ethics'' rome urbaniana university press john paul ii encyclical letter https wwwvaticanva holy father john paul ii encyclicals documents hf jp ii enc veritatis splendor enhtml ''veritatis splendor'' august d'urance michel ''jalons pour une thique rebelle'' al th ia paris john newton phd ''complete conduct principles st century'' guy cools pascal gielen ethics


constituent blood testes removed inhibitory factor blood proven testes released substance engenders male characteristics shown extract testes could replace function castrated animals pure crystalline testosterone isolated graves' disease named irish doctor robert james graves described case goiter exophthalmos german karl adolph von basedow also independently reported constellation symptoms earlier reports disease also published italians


american german ornithologists late th early th century including charles whitman oskar heinroth wallace craig modern discipline ethology generally considered begun work dutch biologist nikolaas tinbergen austrian biologists konrad lorenz karl von frisch three recipients nobel prize physiology medicine ethology combines laboratory field science strong relation disciplines neuroanatomy ecology evolutionary biology ethologists typically show interest behavioural process rather

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Ethology


imitation observed recent research chimpanzees chimps copy actions another individual given choice chimps preferred imitate actions higher ranking elder chimpanzee opposed lower ranking young chimpanzee ref name ferrarihorner ref stimulus local enhancement various ways animals learn using observational learning without process imitation one ' 'stimulus enhancement'' individuals become interested object result observing others interacting object increased interest object result object manipulation allows


'''electromagnetism''' branch physics involving study '''electromagnetic force''' type physical interaction occurs electrically charged particles electromagnetic force carried electromagnetic fields composed electric fields magnetic fields responsible electromagnetic radiation light one four fundamental interactions commonly called forces nature together strong interaction weak interaction gravitation high energy weak force electromagnetic force unified single electroweak force lightning electrostatic discharge travels two charged

Natural science
Physics
Electromagnetism


april hans christian rsted observed electrical current wire caused nearby compass needle move time discovery rsted suggest satisfactory explanation phenomenon try represent phenomenon mathematical framework however three months later began intensive investigations soon thereafter published findings proving electric current produces magnetic field flows wire cgs unit magnetic induction oersted named honor contributions field electromagnetism james clerk maxwell


objects like feathers thales miletus made series observations static electricity around bce believed friction rendered amber magnetic contrast minerals magnetite needed rubbing ref name stewart ref thales incorrect believing attraction due magnetic effect later science would prove link magnetism electricity according controversial theory parthians may knowledge electroplating based discovery baghdad battery resembles galvanic cell though uncertain whether artifact electrical


visibly repel presence charge gives rise electrostatic force charges exert force effect known though understood antiquity ref name uniphysics ref lightweight ball suspended string charged touching glass rod charged rubbing cloth similar ball charged glass rod found repel first charge acts force two balls apart two balls charged rubbed amber rod also repel


flow electrical insulator historical convention positive current defined direction flow positive charge contains flow positive part circuit negative part current defined manner called conventional current motion negatively charged electrons around electric circuit one familiar forms current thus deemed positive ''opposite'' direction electrons however depending conditions electric current consist flow charged


magnetic field existed around sides wire carrying electric current indicated direct relationship electricity magnetism moreover interaction seemed different gravitational electrostatic forces two forces nature known force compass needle direct away current carrying wire acted right angles ref name berkson rsted 's words electric conflict acts revolving manner force also depended direction current flow reversed


solid state physics whereas design construction electronic circuits solve practical problems come electronics engineering electromagnetic wave faraday 's amp 's work showed time varying magnetic field acted source electric field time varying electric field source magnetic field thus either field changing time field necessarily induced ref name uniphysics phenomenon properties wave naturally referred electromagnetic wave electromagnetic waves analysed theoretically james clerk maxwell maxwell


waves long distances production uses generation transmission early th century alternator made budapest hungary power generating hall hydroelectric station photograph prokudin gorsky th century bc greek philosopher thales miletus experimented amber rods experiments first studies production electrical energy method known triboelectric effect lift light objects generate sparks extremely inefficient ref name batteries ref invention voltaic pile eighteenth century viable source


stations certain amount generation must always held reserve cushion electrical grid inevitable disturbances losses demand electricity grows great rapidity nation modernises economy develops united states showed increase demand year first three decades twentieth century rate growth experienced emerging economies india china historically growth rate electricity demand outstripped forms energy ref name nrc ref environmental concerns electricity generation


de coulomb developed law electrostatic attraction outgrowth attempt investigate law electrical repulsions stated joseph priestley england italian physicist alessandro volta showing '' battery '' french emperor napoleon bonaparte early th century late th century italian physician anatomist luigi galvani marked birth electrochemistry establishing bridge chemical reactions electricity essay '' de viribus electricitatis motu musculari commentarius '' latin commentary effect electricity muscular motion proposed '' nerveo electrical substance ''

Natural science
Chemistry
Electrochemistry


state solid form positive oxidation state become ion cathode metal ion solution accept one electrons cathode ion 's oxidation state reduced forms solid metal electrodeposits cathode two electrodes must electrically connected allowing flow electrons leave metal anode flow connection ions surface cathode flow electrons electric current


anode undergo oxidation cell potential calculated sum reduction potential cathode oxidation potential anode ''e'' sub cell sub ''e'' sub red sub cathode ''e'' sub red sub anode ''e'' sub red sub cathode ''e'' sub oxi sub anode example standard electrode potential copper electrode ''cell diagram'' pt h sub sub atm h sup sup cu sup sup cu ''e'' sub cell sub ''e'' sub red sub cathode ''e'' sub red sub anode standard temperature pressure concentration conditions cell 's emf measured multimeter v definition electrode


corrosion iron rust occur metal contact oxygen water although chemical reactions process relatively complex completely understood believed causes following electron transfer reduction oxidation one area surface metal acts anode oxidation corrosion occurs anode metal gives electrons fe fe sup sup e sup sup electrons transferred iron reducing oxygen atmosphere water cathode placed another region


formation non conducting material covers metal contact electrolyte possible corrosion occur coating metals coated paint less conductive metals ''passivation'' prevents metal surface exposed electrolytes scratches exposing metal substrate result corrosion region coating adjacent scratch acts anode reaction see anodizing sacrificial anodes method commonly used protect structural metal attach metal anodic metal protected forces structural


oxidized rusting magnesium anode sacrificed intervals new ingots buried replace lost electrolysis spontaneous redox reactions conventional battery produce electricity different chemical potentials cathode anode electrolyte however electrolysis requires external source electrical energy induce chemical reaction process takes place compartment called electrolytic cell electrolysis molten sodium chloride molten salt sodium chloride electrolyzed yield metallic sodium gaseous chlorine industrially process takes place special cell named 's


reduction chloride ion favored thus cl sup sup ion favored reduction water reaction favored oxidation producing gaseous oxygen however experiments show gaseous chlorine produced oxygen although initial analysis correct another effect happen known overvoltage effect additional voltage sometimes required beyond voltage predicted ''e'' sub cell sub may due kinetic rather thermodynamic considerations fact proven activation energy chloride ion low hence favorable kinetic terms


words although voltage applied thermodynamically sufficient drive electrolysis rate slow make process proceed reasonable time frame voltage external source increased hence overvoltage ref name nacl finally reaction favorable describes proliferation oh sup sup ions thus letting probable reduction h sup sup ions less favorable option overall reaction process according analysis would following ref name nacl anode oxidation cl sup sup cl sub sub e sup sup cathode reduction h sub sub e sup sup h sub sub


kinesiology physiology cognitive psychology industrial organizational psychology space psychology etymology term ''ergonomics'' greek meaning work meaning natural law first entered modern lexicon polish scientist wojciech jastrz bowski used word article outline ergonomics ie science work based truths taken natural science french scholar jean gustave courcelle seneuil apparently without knowledge jastrz bowski 's article used word slightly different meaning introduction term english lexicon widely attributed british psychologist hywel murrell

Human physical performance and recreation


go away overnight rest types jobs often involving activities repetitive forceful exertions frequent heavy overhead lifts awkward work positions use vibrating equipment ref name niosh ref occupational safety health administration osha found substantial evidence ergonomics programs cut workers' compensation costs increase productivity decrease employee turnover mitigation solutions include short term long term solutions short long term solutions involve awareness training positioning body furniture equipment ergonomic exercises sit stand stations computer accessories provide soft surfaces resting


awareness hand eye coordination machine 's operator became key success failure task substantial research conducted determine human capabilities limitations accomplished lot research took aeromedical research wars left example study done fitts jones studied effective configuration control knobs used aircraft cockpits much research transcended equipment aim making controls displays easier


sit ergonomic pioneer computer ergonomics work related upper limb disorder prevention making business case pro active ergonomics rooney et al stephen pheasant ''bodyspace'' classic exploration ergonomics alvin r tilley henry dreyfuss associates ''the measure man woman human factors design '' human factors design manual kim vicente ''the human factor'' full examples statistics illustrating gap existing technology human mind suggestions narrow wickens hollands ''engineering psychology human performance'' discusses memory attention decision making stress human


dramatic cascading effects alters trophic dynamics food web connections cause extinction species ref name fisher ref name libralato sea otters ''enhydra lutris'' commonly cited example keystone species limit density sea urchins feed kelp sea otters removed system urchins graze kelp beds disappear dramatic effect community structure ref name mills hunting sea otters example thought led indirectly extinction steller 's sea cow ''hydrodamalis gigas'' ref name anderson keystone


wave genetic analysis organisms difficult study ecological evolutionary standpoint bacteria fungi nematodes molecular ecology engendered new research paradigm investigating ecological questions considered otherwise intractable molecular investigations revealed previously obscured details tiny intricacies nature improved resolution probing questions behavioural biogeographical ecology ref name avise example molecular ecology revealed promiscuous sexual behaviour multiple male partners tree swallows previously thought socially monogamous ref name obryan biogeographical context marriage genetics ecology evolution resulted new sub discipline called


material parts effective environmental components understood reference causes however conceptually link back together integrated whole ''holocoenotic'' system called known dialectical approach ecology dialectical approach examines parts integrates organism environment dynamic whole umwelt change one ecological environmental factor concurrently affect dynamic state entire ecosystem ref name levins ref name kormondy disturbance resilience ecosystems regularly confronted natural environmental variations disturbances time geographic space


within mixture reducing oxidizing gasses set stage primitive ecosystems evolve turn atmosphere also evolved ref name wills leaf primary site photosynthesis plants throughout history earth 's atmosphere biogeochemical cycles dynamic equilibrium planetary ecosystems history characterized periods significant transformation followed millions years stability ref name goldblatt evolution earliest organisms likely anaerobic methanogen microbes started process converting atmospheric hydrogen methane h sub sub co sub sub ch sub sub h sub sub anoxygenic photosynthesis reduced hydrogen


concentrations increased atmospheric methane converting hydrogen sulfide water sulfur compounds example h sub sub co sub sub h''v'' ch sub sub h sub sub early forms fermentation also increased levels atmospheric methane transition oxygen dominant atmosphere ''great oxidation'' begin approximately nbsp billion years ago photosynthetic processes started nbsp billion years prior ref name goldblatt ref name catling radiation heat temperature light biology life operates within certain range temperatures heat form energy regulates temperature heat affects growth rates activity behaviour


living top layer mineral organic dirt covers surface planet chief organizing centre ecosystem functions critical importance agricultural science ecology decomposition dead organic matter example leaves forest floor results soils containing minerals nutrients feed plant production whole planet 's soil ecosystems called pedosphere large biomass earth 's biodiversity organizes trophic levels invertebrates feed shred larger leaves example create smaller bits smaller organisms


nature traced herodotus died ''c'' bc described one earliest accounts mutualism observation natural dentistry basking nile crocodiles noted would open mouths give sandpipers safe access pluck leeches giving nutrition sandpiper oral hygiene crocodile ref name egerton aristotle early influence philosophical development ecology student theophrastus made extensive observations plant animal migrations biogeography physiology behavior giving early analogue modern concept ecological niche ref name hughes ref name hughes div


life professor comparative anatomy ref name stauffer ref name friederichs opinions differ founder modern ecological theory mark haeckel 's definition beginning ref name hinchman others say eugenius warming writing oecology plants introduction study plant communities ref name goodland carl linnaeus' principles economy nature matured early th century ref name egerton ref name kormandy linnaeus founded early branch ecology called economy nature ref name egerton works influenced charles darwin adopted linnaeus' phrase ''economy polity nature''


''the origin species'' ref name stauffer linnaeus first frame balance nature testable hypothesis haeckel admired darwin 's work defined ecology reference economy nature led question whether ecology economy nature synonymous ref name kormandy layout first ecological experiment carried grass garden woburn abbey noted charles darwin ''the origin species'' experiment studied performance different mixtures species planted different kinds soils ref name hector ref name sinclair


frederic clements published first american ecology book ref name clements ref presenting idea plant communities superorganism publication launched debate ecological holism individualism lasted clements' superorganism concept proposed ecosystems progress regular determined stages seral development analogous developmental stages organism clementsian paradigm challenged henry gleason ref name simberloff stated ecological communities develop unique coincidental association individual organisms perceptual shift placed focus back onto life histories individual organisms


natural selection examples include language acquisition modules incest avoidance mechanisms cheater detection mechanisms intelligence sex specific mating preferences foraging mechanisms alliance tracking mechanisms agent detection mechanisms others mechanisms termed ' 'domain specific'' deal recurrent adaptive problems course human evolutionary history ''domain general'' mechanisms hand proposed deal evolutionary novelty evolutionary psychology roots cognitive psychology evolutionary biology also draws behavioral ecology artificial intelligence genetics ethology anthropology archaeology biology zoology closely linked sociobiology ref name psychology key differences including emphasis ' 'domain specific'' rather ' 'domain general'' mechanisms

Social science
Psychology
Evolutionary psychology


questions'' '''proximate''' br '''''how''''' individual organism 's structures function '''ontogeny''' br developmental explanations changes '''''individuals''''' dna current form '''mechanism''' br mechanistic explanations organism 's structures work '''evolutionary''' br '''''why''''' species evolved structures adaptations '''phylogeny''' br history evolution sequential changes '''' 'species''''' many generations '''adaptation''' br species trait evolved solve reproductive survival problem ancestral environment premises evolutionary psychology founded several core premises brain information processing device


selection relation sex'' ''the expression emotions man animals'' darwin 's work inspired william james 's functionalist approach psychology ref name psychology darwin 's theories evolution adaptation natural selection provided insight brains function way ref name schacter ref content evolutionary psychology derived one hand biological sciences especially evolutionary theory relates ancient human environments study paleoanthropology animal behavior human sciences especially psychology evolutionary biology academic discipline emerged modern


environment behavior core behavioral genetics variants notably studies molecular level examine relationship genes neurotransmitters behavior dual inheritance theory dit developed late early slightly different perspective trying explain human behavior product two different interacting evolutionary processes genetic evolution cultural evolution dit seen middle ground views emphasize human universals versus emphasize cultural variation theoretical foundations theories evolutionary psychology based originated


history theory animals evolve life histories match environments determining details age first reproduction number offspring dual inheritance theory posits genes human culture interacted genes affecting development culture culture turn affecting human evolution genetic level see also baldwin effect evolved psychological mechanisms evolutionary psychology based hypothesis like hearts lungs livers kidneys immune systems cognition functional structure genetic basis therefore evolved natural selection like organs tissues functional


behavior evolutionary perspective infanticide intelligence marriage patterns promiscuity perception beauty bride price altruism allocation parental care explored testing predictions derived idea conscious unconscious behaviours evolved maximize inclusive fitness findings impressive social behaviour animal encyclop dia britannica encyclop dia britannica online encyclop dia britannica web january https wwwbritannicacom topic animal social behaviour proximate mechanisms social behaviour ref ref historical topics proponents evolutionary psychology made explorations historical events response historical experts highly negative little effort continue line