patterns navigation broader sense refer skill study involves determination position direction ref name hofman sense navigation includes orienteering pedestrian navigation ref name hofman history european medieval period navigation considered part set ' 'seven mechanical arts'' none used long voyages across open ocean polynesian navigation probably earliest form open ocean navigation based memory observation recorded scientific instruments like marshall islands stick charts ocean swells early pacific polynesians used motion stars weather

Human physical performance and recreation


south pole ref name bow mariners calculated latitude northern hemisphere sighting pole star polaris sextant using sight reduction tables correct height eye atmospheric refraction height polaris degrees horizon latitude observer within degree longitude similar latitude longitude place earth angular distance east west prime meridian greenwich meridian ref name bow longitude usually expressed degrees marked ranging greenwich


year ref name gps overview jpo http gpslosangelesafmil jpo gpsoverviewhtm gps overview navstar joint program office accessed december ref including replacement aging satellites research development despite fact gps free civilian use public good modern smartphones act personal gps navigators civilians overuse devices whether vehicle foot lead relative inability learn navigated environments resulting sub optimal navigation abilities devices become unavailable typically compass also provided determine direction moving acoustic


line position determine compass error azimuth observation sun computation interval noon watch time local apparent noon constants meridian ex meridian sights noontime meridian ex meridian observation sun noon latitude line running fix cross venus line noon fix noontime determination day 's run day 's set drift least one afternoon sun line case stars visible twilight determine compass error azimuth observation sun take two


appearance blood urine hematuria protein urine proteinuria pus cells urine pyuria cancer cells urine hour urine collection used used quantify daily protein loss see proteinuria urine output creatinine clearance electrolyte handling renal tubules common measure protein loss small random sample urine basic blood tests used check concentration hemoglobin white count platelets sodium potassium chloride bicarbonate urea creatinine albumin calcium magnesium phosphate alkaline phosphatase parathyroid hormone pth blood

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Nephrology


central roles characterizing different ontological theories within ontology lack general consensus concerning different categories defined ref name thomasson different ontologists often disagree whether certain category members whether given category fundamental ref name sandk hler particulars universals particulars individuals usually contrasted universals universals concern features exemplified various different particulars ref name macleod ref example tomato strawberry two particulars exemplify universal redness universals present various distinct locations space

Humanities Philosophy Metaphysics Ontology


actually proposition possibly true least one possible world true necessarily true true possible worlds ''actualists'' ''possibilists'' disagree ''ontological status'' possible worlds ref name sandk hler actualists hold reality core actual possible worlds understood terms actual entities example fictions sets sentences ref name parent ref possibilists hand assign possible worlds ''fundamental ontological status'' actual world form


relation bearer properties ref name sandk hler substratum theorists hold kind substance ' 'substratum'' ''bare particular'' acts bearer ref name benovsky ref bundle theory alternative view away substratum altogether objects taken bundle properties ref name robinson held together substratum called ''compresence relation'' responsible bundling substratum theory bundle theory combined conceptualizing properties universals particulars ref name benovsky important distinction among properties ''categorical'' ' 'dispositional'' properties ref name borchert ref name kriegel categorical


properties concern something like eg qualities dispositional properties hand involve powers something able even actually ref name borchert example shape sugar cube categorical property tendency dissolve water dispositional property many properties lack consensus classified example whether colors categorical dispositional properties ref name choi categoricalism thesis fundamental level categorical properties


way divide ontologies notion ontological hierarchy hierarchical ontologies assert entities exist fundamental level entities depend flat ontologies hand deny privileged status entities jonathan schaffer provides overview positions distinguishing ''flat'' ontologies non hierarchical ' 'sorted'' ontologies polycategorical non hierarchical ''ordered'' ontologies polycategorical hierarchical ref name schaffer ref ''flat'' ontologies interested difference existence non existence ''flat'' flat ontology represented simple set containing entities


independent existence u npropertied particulars uninstantiated universals false abstractions ref name armstrong constituent ontologies vs blob theories ''constituent ontologies'' ''blob theories'' sometimes referred ' 'relational ontologies'' concerned internal structure objects constituent ontologies hold objects internal structure made constituents denied blob theories contend objects structureless blobs ref name bradley ref name inwagen ref bundle theories examples constituent ontologies bundle theorists assert object nothing properties account regular apple could characterized bundle redness roundness


form ceases exist upon change substantial form ref name kerr modern ontology increasingly seen separate domain philosophy ''modern period'' ref name dahlstrom many ontological theories period rationalistic sense saw ontology largely deductive discipline starts small set first principles axioms position best exemplified baruch spinoza christian wolff rationalism metaphysics ontology strongly opposed immanuel kant insisted many claims arrived way dismissed since go


causally interact apparently volition causes arm move light falling retina causes visual impression ref name skirry spinoza baruch spinoza well known ' 'substance monism '' thesis one substance exists ref name dutton ref ref name sandk hler refers substance god nature emphasizing pantheism naturalism substance infinite amount attributes defines intellect perceives substance constituting essence attributes two accessible human mind thought


extension ''modes'' properties substance follow attributes therefore dependent form existence spinoza sees everyday things like rocks cats mere modes thereby opposes traditional aristotelian cartesian conception categorizing substances ref name waller ref modes compose deterministic systems different modes linked cause effect ref name dutton deterministic system corresponds one attribute one extended things one thinking things etc causal relations happen within system different systems run parallel without causally interacting


ref name waller spinoza calls system modes ''natura naturata'' nature natured opposes ''natura naturans'' nature naturing attributes responsible modes everything spinoza 's system necessary contingent entities since attributes necessary since system modes follows ref name dutton wolff christian wolff defines ontology science general sees part metaphysics besides cosmology psychology natural theology ref name craig ref ref name hettche ref according wolff deductive science knowable priori based


actuality non actuality relative modalities possibility impossibility necessity relative modalities ' 'relative'' sense depend absolute modalities something possible impossible necessary something else actual hartmann asserts reality made four levels ''inanimate'' ''biological'' ''psychological'' ' 'spiritual'' form hierarchy ref name poli ref name hartmann carnap rudolf carnap proposed truth value ontological statements existence entities depends linguistic framework statements made internal framework ref name hofweber ref name dahlstrom often


job philosophers discover things exist conceptual engineering create interesting frameworks explore consequences adopting ref name leitgeb ref ref name hofweber ref choice framework guided practical considerations like expedience fruitfulness since framework independent notion truth quine notion ontological commitment plays central role willard van orman quine 's contributions ontology theory ontologically committed entity entity must exist order theory true ref name bricker ref quine proposed best way determine


determinate sense may confusion identity would allow confounded another actual entity sense actual entity completely concrete potential something source potentiality creation actual entities may said part cause likewise concretion realization potentialities actual entities partial causes causation actual entities essential actuality consequently


lanthanides especially transition metals zinc copper palladium nickel cobalt titanium chromium organic compounds form basis earthly life constitute majority known chemicals bonding patterns carbon valence four formal single double triple bonds plus structures delocalized electrons make array organic compounds structurally diverse range applications enormous form basis constituents many commercial products including pharmaceuticals petrochemicals agrichemicals products made including lubricants solvents plastics fuels explosives study organic chemistry overlaps organometallic

Natural science
Chemistry
Organic chemistry


therapies ref name boschrosich ref laboratory made decisive contributions developing antiserum diphtheria standardizing therapeutic serums ref name chf ref example organometallic molecule catalyst called grubbs' catalyst formula often given rucl sub sub pcy sub sub sub sub chph ball stick model based x ray crystallography single metal atom ruthenium ru turquoise center structure two chlorines green bonded ruthenium atom carbon atoms black hydrogens gray white phosphorus orange phosphorus ligand bond tricyclohexyl phosphine pcy center another pcy ligand appears top image


largely displaced spectroscopic computer intensive methods analysis listed approximate order utility chief analytical methods nuclear magnetic resonance nmr spectroscopy commonly used technique often permitting complete assignment atom connectivity even stereochemistry using correlation spectroscopy principal constituent atoms organic chemistry hydrogen carbon exist naturally nmr responsive isotopes respectively sup sup h sup sup c elemental analysis destructive method used determine elemental composition molecule see also mass spectrometry mass spectrometry indicates molecular weight compound


hydrogens added depicted dark wedged bonds indicate hydrogen atoms coming toward reader hashed bonds indicate atoms oriented away reader solid plain ponds indicate bonds plane screen paper middle structure shows four carbon atoms th structure representation showing atoms bonds without dimensions right structure condensed structure representation butane history explosion number chemical compounds discovered occurred assisted new synthetic analytical techniques grignard described situation


cetane number petroleum chemistry saturated alicyclic compounds unsaturated compounds exist cyclic derivatives stable rings contain five six carbon atoms large rings macrocycles smaller rings common smallest cycloalkane family three membered cyclopropane ch sub sub sub sub saturated cyclic compounds contain single bonds whereas aromatic rings alternating conjugated double bond cycloalkanes contain multiple bonds whereas cycloalkenes cycloalkynes aromatic compounds benzene one best known aromatic compounds one simplest stable aromatics aromatic hydrocarbons contain conjugated double


dispersion light '''optics''' branch physics studies behaviour properties light including interactions matter construction instruments use detect ref name mcgrawhill ref optics usually describes behaviour visible ultraviolet infrared light light electromagnetic wave forms electromagnetic radiation x rays microwaves radio waves exhibit similar properties ref name mcgrawhill optical phenomena accounted using classical electromagnetic description light complete electromagnetic descriptions light however often difficult apply practice practical optics usually


mirrors ptolemy treatise ''optics'' held extramission intromission theory vision rays flux eye formed cone vertex within eye base defining visual field rays sensitive conveyed information back observer 's intellect distance orientation surfaces summarized much euclid went describe way measure angle refraction though failed notice empirical relationship angle incidence ref name ptolemy ref plutarch st nd century ad described multiple reflections spherical mirrors discussed


light etiology physics light theology light basing works aristotle platonism grosseteste 's famous disciple roger bacon wrote works citing wide range recently translated optical philosophical works including alhazen aristotle avicenna averroes euclid al kindi ptolemy tideus constantine african bacon able use parts glass spheres magnifying glasses demonstrate light reflects objects rather released first wearable eyeglasses invented italy around start optical industry grinding


appeared spectacle making centres netherlands ref name lzzginzib c page ref first treatise optics johannes kepler ''ad vitellionem paralipomena quibus astronomiae pars optica traditur'' early th century johannes kepler expanded geometric optics writings covering lenses reflection flat curved mirrors principles pinhole cameras inverse square law governing intensity light optical explanations astronomical phenomena lunar solar eclipses astronomical parallax also able correctly deduce role retina actual organ


theory electromagnetic field gain detailed understanding photodetection statistics light classical optics classical optics divided two main branches geometrical ray optics physical wave optics geometrical optics light considered travel straight lines physical optics light considered electromagnetic wave geometrical optics viewed approximation physical optics applies wavelength light used much smaller size optical elements system modelled geometrical


approximated lambert 's cosine law describes surfaces equal luminance viewed angle glossy surfaces give specular diffuse reflection specular reflection direction reflected ray determined angle incident ray makes surface normal line perpendicular surface point ray hits incident reflected rays normal lie single plane angle reflected ray surface normal incident ray normal ref name geoptics ref


image inverted upright image formed reflection mirror always virtual inverted image real projected onto screen ref name geoptics refractions illustration snell 's law case n sub sub n sub sub air water interface refraction occurs light travels area space changing index refraction principle allows lenses focusing light simplest case refraction occurs interface uniform medium index refraction math n math another medium index refraction math n math


effect responsible mirages seen hot days change index refraction air height causes light rays bend creating appearance specular reflections distance surface pool water optical materials varying indexes refraction called gradient index grin materials materials used make gradient index optics light rays travelling material high index refraction material low index refraction snell 's law predicts math theta math math theta math large


parallel rays diverge going lens way seem originated spot one focal length front lens lens 's front focal point rays object finite distance associated virtual image closer lens focal point side lens object closer object lens closer virtual image lens mirrors upright images produced single lens virtual


inverted images real ref name geoptics lenses suffer aberrations distort images ''monochromatic aberrations'' occur geometry lens perfectly direct rays object point single point image chromatic aberration occurs index refraction lens varies wavelength light ref name geoptics images black letters thin convex lens focal length ''f'' nbsp shown red selected rays shown letters '''e''' '''i''' '''k''' blue green orange respectively note '''e''' ''f''


diffraction best images created described diffraction limited optics appear central spot surrounding bright rings separated dark nulls pattern known airy pattern central bright lobe airy disk ref name hecht size disk given math sin theta frac lambda math '' '' angular resolution '' '' wavelength light ''d'' diameter lens aperture angular separation two points significantly less airy disk angular radius


wave 's direction travel oscillations may oriented single direction linear polarization oscillation direction may rotate wave travels circular elliptical polarization circularly polarised waves rotate rightward leftward direction travel two rotations present wave called wave 's chirality ref name light chapter ref typical way consider polarization keep track orientation electric field vector electromagnetic wave propagates electric field vector plane wave may arbitrarily divided two perpendicular


temporal changes light however twenty times rod cells cone cells retina rod cells present across wider area wider distribution rods responsible peripheral vision ref name kandel ref contrast cone cells less sensitive overall intensity light come three varieties sensitive different frequency ranges thus used perception colour photopic vision cone cells highly concentrated fovea high visual acuity meaning better spatial resolution


focal length primary mirror divided focal length eyepiece professional telescopes generally eyepieces instead place instrument often charge coupled device focal point instead ref name instrument photography photograph taken aperture photograph taken aperture optics photography involves lenses medium electromagnetic radiation recorded whether plate film charge coupled device photographers must consider reciprocity camera shot summarized relation exposure aperturearea exposuretime sceneluminance


diameter entrance pupil convention treated single symbol specific values written replacing number sign value two ways increase f stop either decrease diameter entrance pupil change longer focal length case zoom lens done simply adjusting lens higher f numbers also larger depth field due lens approaching limit pinhole camera able focus images perfectly regardless


distance requires long exposure times field view lens provide changes focal length lens three basic classifications based relationship diagonal size film sensor size camera focal length lens ref name bruce warren photography page ref normal lens angle view called ''normal'' angle considered roughly equivalent human vision ref name bruce warren photography page focal length approximately equal diagonal film sensor wide angle lens angle


steepness knee detection local maxima clusterings obtained way usually hierarchical cannot achieved single dbscan run complexity like dbscan optics processes point performs one math varepsilon math neighborhood query processing given spatial index grants neighborhood query math log n math runtime overall runtime math n cdot log n math obtained authors original optics paper report actual constant slowdown factor compared dbscan note value math varepsilon math might heavily influence cost algorithm since value large might


organometallic well related compounds transition metal hydrides metal phosphine complexes often included discussions organometallic compounds though strictly speaking necessarily organometallic related distinct term metalorganic compound refers metal containing compounds lacking direct metal carbon bonds contain organic ligands metal diketonates alkoxides dialkylamides metal phosphine complexes representative members class field organometallic chemistry combines aspects traditional inorganic organic chemistry organometallic compounds widely used stoichiometrically research industrial chemical reactions well

Natural science
Chemistry
Organometallic chemistry


determine kinetics dynamics organometallic compounds studied using dynamic nmr spectroscopy notable techniques include x ray absorption spectroscopy electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy elemental analysis due high reactivity towards oxygen moisture organometallic compounds often must handled using air free techniques air free handling organometallic compounds typically requires use laboratory apparatuses glovebox schlenk line history early developments organometallic chemistry include louis claude cadet 's synthesis methyl arsenic compounds related cacodyl william christopher zeise 's platinum ethylene complex edward frankland 's discovery diethyl dimethylzinc ludwig


soluble homogenous organometallic complexes involve organometallic intermediates ref name rylander ref organometallic complexes allow hydrogenations effected asymmetrically many semiconductors produced trimethylgallium trimethylindium trimethylaluminium trimethylantimony volatile compounds decomposed along ammonia arsine phosphine related hydrides heated substrate via metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy movpe process production light emitting diodes leds organometallic reactions organometallic compounds undergo several important reactions associative dissociative substitution oxidative addition reductive elimination transmetalation migratory insertion hydride elimination electron transfer carbon hydrogen bond activation carbometalation hydrometalation cyclometalation nucleophilic abstraction synthesis many organic


dualism good evil dualistic cosmogony influenced later iranian developments manichaeism mazdakism zurvanism islamic philosophy iranian portrait avicenna silver vase one influential philosophers islamic golden age islamic philosophy philosophical work originating islamic tradition mostly done arabic draws religion islam well greco roman philosophy muslim conquests translation movement mid eighth late tenth century resulted works greek philosophy becoming available


philosophical traditions continued develop tibetan buddhist east asian buddhist theravada buddhist traditions east asian philosophy statue neo confucian scholar zhu xi white deer grotto academy lushan mountain kitaro nishida considered founder kyoto school philosophical thought c east asian philosophical thought began ancient china chinese philosophy begins western zhou dynasty following periods fall hundred schools thought flourished th century bce ref name pe ref period characterized significant intellectual cultural


well buddhism began arriving china han dynasty gradual silk road transmission native influences developed distinct chinese forms chan zen spread throughout east asian cultural sphere chinese culture highly influential traditions east asian states philosophy directly influenced korean philosophy vietnamese philosophy japanese philosophy later chinese dynasties like ming dynasty well korean joseon dynasty resurgent neo confucianism led thinkers wang yangming became dominant school thought promoted


harmonious whole universe process reciprocity mutual exchange called ''ayni'' ref name inca worldview also included belief creator god viracocha reincarnation ref name women philosophy mary wollstonecraft english writer philosopher although men generally dominated philosophical discourse women philosophers engaged discipline throughout history ancient examples include hipparchia maroneia active arete cyrene active th th centuries bce women philosophers accepted medieval modern eras none became part western canon th


regress problem occurs trying offer proof justification belief statement proposition problem whatever source justification may source must either without justification case must treated arbitrary foundation belief must justification case justification must either result circular reasoning coherentism result infinite regress infinitism ref name sep epistemology metaphysics aristotle 's ''metaphysics'' incunabulum decorated hand painted miniatures metaphysics study


directory online philosophical articles books academic philosophers http wwwwadsworthcom philosophy special features timeline timelinehtml philosophy timeline http philosophyreviewblogspotcom philosophy magazines journals http wwwjournalscambridgeorg phi philosophy review http wwwpdcnetorg philosophy documentation center http wwwbritannicacom ebchecked topic believe essays popular philosophy popular philosophy articles containing video clips main topic articles humanities


line number metrical feet line described using greek terminology tetrameter four feet hexameter six feet example thus iambic pentameter meter comprising five feet per line predominant kind foot iamb metric system originated ancient greek poetry used poets pindar sappho great tragedians athens similarly dactylic hexameter comprises six feet per line dominant kind foot dactyl dactylic hexameter traditional meter greek epic poetry

Humanities
Languages and literature
Poetry


combinations long short sounds types feet certain feel whether alone combination feet iamb example natural form rhythm english language generally produces subtle stable verse scanning meter often show basic fundamental pattern underlying verse show varying degrees stress well differing pitches lengths syllables debate useful multiplicity different feet describing meter example robert pinsky argued


word consonance provokes subtle effect alliteration less useful structural element ref name kiparsky rhyming schemes ''divine comedy'' dante beatrice see god point light many languages including modern european languages arabic poets use rhyme set patterns structural element specific poetic forms ballads sonnets rhyming couplets however use structural rhyme universal even within european tradition much modern poetry avoids traditional rhyme schemes classical greek latin poetry use rhyme rhyme entered european poetry


compilations shorter narrative poems related individual episodes much narrative poetry scottish english ballads baltic slavic heroic poems performance poetry roots preliterate oral tradition speculated features distinguish poetry prose meter alliteration kennings served memory aids bards recited traditional tales notable narrative poets included ovid dante juan ruiz william langland chaucer fernando de rojas lu de cam es shakespeare alexander pope robert burns adam mickiewicz alexander pushkin edgar allan poe alfred tennyson anne carson lyric poetry


elegy originally denoted type poetic meter elegiac meter commonly describes poem mourning elegy may also reflect something seems author strange mysterious elegy reflection death sorrow generally something mysterious may classified form lyric poetry notable practitioners elegiac poetry included propertius jorge manrique jan kochanowski chidiock tichborne edmund spenser ben jonson john milton thomas gray charlotte smith william cullen bryant percy bysshe shelley johann wolfgang von goethe evgeny baratynsky alfred tennyson walt whitman antonio


paint usually identified medium pigment suspended embedded determines general working characteristics paint viscosity miscibility solubility drying time etc oil honor daumier ''the painter'' oil panel visible brushstrokes oil painting process painting pigments bound medium drying oil linseed oil widely used early modern europe often oil boiled resin pine resin even frankincense called 'varnishes' prized body

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Painting


frescoes often made renaissance early time periods ''buon fresco'' technique consists painting pigment mixed water thin layer wet fresh lime mortar plaster italian word plaster intonaco used ''a secco'' painting contrast done dry plaster ' 'secco'' dry italian pigments require binding medium egg tempera glue oil attach pigment wall gouache gouache water based paint consisting pigment materials designed used opaque painting method


creating art object painting digitally technique making digital art computer method creating art object adapts traditional painting medium acrylic paint oils ink watercolor etc applies pigment traditional carriers woven canvas cloth paper polyester etc means software driving industrial robotic office machinery printers technique refers computer graphics software program uses virtual canvas virtual painting box brushes colors supplies virtual box contains many instruments exist outside


artist associated stem actual group artist consciously involved category art historians placed painter word 'style' latter sense fallen favor academic discussions contemporary painting though continues used popular contexts movements classifications include following western modernism modernism describes set cultural tendencies array associated cultural movements originally arising wide scale far reaching changes western society late th century


annual outsider art fair taken place new york since term sometimes misapplied catch marketing label art created people outside mainstream art world regardless circumstances content work photorealism photorealism genre painting based using camera photographs gather information information creating painting appears realistic like photograph term primarily applied paintings united states art movement began late early


miniature persian miniature indian pattachitra general term traditional cloth based scroll painting based eastern indian states odisha west bengalthe pattachitra painting tradition closely linked worship lord jagannath odisha subject matter pattachitra limited religious themes patachitra artform known intricate details well mythological narratives folktales inscribed colours used paintings natural paintings made fully old traditional way chitrakaras odiya painter pattachitra style painting one oldest


representation conveying meaning literal allegory communicates message means symbolic figures actions symbolic representation allegory generally treated figure rhetoric allegory expressed language may addressed eye often found realistic painting example simple visual allegory image grim reaper viewers understand image grim reaper symbolic representation death bodeg n francisco de zurbar n ''still life pottery jars'' oil canvas x nbsp cm


many religions clearly put forth metaphysical claims ref name auto several contemporary new atheist writers hostile religion hold related view says religious claims scientific claims opposed therefore religions false protestant theologian karl barth argued religious believers need prove beliefs reason thus rejected project natural theology according barth human reason corrupt god utterly different creatures thus rely god 's revelation religious knowledge barth 's

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of religion


reliable perceptions physical world also interfere reliable perceptions spiritual world beyond physical spiritual world perceived perhaps assumption reasonable certainly obviously true ref name auto rowe pp ref blockquote words argued cd broad one might need slightly 'cracked' least appear mentally physically abnormal order perceive supranormal spiritual world ref name auto william james meanwhile takes middle course accepting mystical experiences veridical seeing delusional argues


wherein krishna reveals universal form arjuna like different religions different forms religious experience one could subject content experiences euphoric meditative state subject consciousness object experiences perception seen god ie theophany experiences theophany described ancient mediterranean religious works myths include story semele died due seeing zeus biblical story burning bush indian texts like bhagavad gita also contain theophanic events diversity sometimes point contradiction religious experiences


relationship god must deal termed euthyphro dilemma famously stated platonic dialogue euthyphro pious ie morally good loved gods pious pious loved gods hold moral ''because'' god commands defending version divine command theory another important topic widely discussed abrahamic monotheistic religious philosophy problem human free god 's omniscience god 's omniscience could presumably


god rewards persons adherence moral law ref name stanfordedu discussions philosophy afterlife deal phenomena near death experiences reincarnation research parapsychological events hinge whether naturalistic explanations phenomena enough explain discussions associated philosophers like william james henry sidgwick cd broad hh price ref name stanfordedu diversity pluralism jain philosophers yashovijaya defended theory anekantavada could interpreted form inclusivism issue one understand religious diversity


symbolic interpretation psychological knowledge often applied assessment treatment mental health problems also directed towards understanding solving problems several spheres human activity many accounts psychology ultimately aims benefit society ref name o'neil o'neil hf cited coon mitterer jo https booksgooglecom booksid vw leaje c printsec frontcover v onepage q f false ''introduction psychology gateways mind behavior'' th ed pp stamford ct cengage learning ref ref name apa mission mission apa american psychological association advance creation communication application psychological knowledge benefit society improve people 's lives apa http wwwapaorg indexaspx ''about apa'' retrieved


scientific experimentation ref name watson folk psychology refers understanding ordinary people contrasted psychology professionals regard mental states behaviors people history ancient civilizations egypt greece china india persia engaged philosophical study psychology ancient egypt ebers papyrus mentioned depression thought disorders historians note greek philosophers including thales plato aristotle especially ''de anima'' treatise addressed workings mind early th century bc greek physician hippocrates theorized mental disorders physical


james wrote influential book ''the principles psychology'' expanded structuralism memorably described stream consciousness james 's ideas interested many american students emerging discipline dewey integrated psychology societal concerns notably promoting progressive education inculcating moral values children assimilating immigrants one dogs used pavlov 's experiment surgically implanted cannula measure salivation preserved pavlov museum ryazan russia different strain experimentalism greater connection physiology emerged south america leadership horacio g pi ero university


buenos aires russia researchers placed greater emphasis biological basis psychology beginning ivan sechenov 's essay develop psychology sechenov advanced idea brain reflexes aggressively promoted deterministic view human behavior ref name sirotkinasmith irina sirotkina roger smith russian federation baker ed ''oxford handbook history psychology'' ref russian soviet physiologist ivan pavlov discovered dogs learning process later termed classical conditioning applied process human beings consolidation funding one earliest psychology societies ''la soci


groups including chinese association psychological testing chinese psychological society chinese psychologists encouraged focus education language learning chinese psychologists drawn idea education would enable modernization john dewey lectured chinese audiences significant influence psychology china chancellor 'sai yuan p'ei introduced peking university greater thinker confucius kuo zing yang received phd university california berkeley became president zhejiang university popularized behaviorism chinese communist party gained control


country stalinist soviet union became major influence marxism leninism leading social doctrine pavlovian conditioning approved means behavior change chinese psychologists elaborated lenin 's model reflective consciousness envisioning active consciousness able transcend material conditions hard work ideological struggle developed concept recognition referred interface individual perceptions socially accepted worldview failure correspond party doctrine incorrect recognition psychology education centralized chinese academy sciences supervised state council academy created


provide psychological services represent psychologist apa defines psychologist someone doctoral degree psychology ref name hallhurley judy e hall george hurley north american perspectives education training licensing credentialing weiner ed ''handbook psychology'' volume ''clinical psychology'' ref boundaries early practitioners experimental psychology distinguished parapsychology late nineteenth century enjoyed popularity including interest scholars william james people considered parapsychology part psychology parapsychology hypnotism psychism major topics early international congresses


students fields eventually ostractized less banished congress ref name benjaminbaker parapsychology persisted time imperial university japan publications ''clairvoyance thoughtography'' tomokichi fukurai mostly shunned ref name takasuna discipline psychology long sought fend accusations soft science philosopher science thomas kuhn 's critique implied psychology overall pre paradigm state lacking agreement type overarching theory found mature sciences chemistry physics areas


understanding speech contemporary field behavioral neuroscience focuses physical basis behavior behaviorial neuroscientists use animal models often relying rats study neural genetic cellular mechanisms underlie behaviors involved learning memory fear responses cognitive neuroscientists using neural imaging tools investigate neural correlates psychological processes humans neuropsychologists conduct psychological assessments determine individual 's behavior cognition related brain biopsychosocial model cross disciplinary holistic model concerns ways interrelationships biological psychological socio environmental factors


first set words easier quicker second div cognitive psychology involves study mental processes including perception attention language comprehension production memory problem solving researchers field cognitive psychology sometimes called cognitivists rely information processing model mental functioning cognitivist research informed functionalism experimental psychology baddeley 's model working memory starting experimental techniques developed wundt james ebbinghaus others emerged experimental psychology became increasingly cognitivist eventually constituted part wider interdisciplinary cognitive science ref name mandler


preschools schools levels including post secondary institutions community organizations learning centers government private research firms independent private consultant nowiki madisonodell sandbox nowiki work developmental psychologists lev vygotsky jean piaget jerome bruner influential creating teaching methods educational practices educational psychology often included teacher education programs places north america australia new zealand school psychology combines principles educational psychology clinical psychology understand treat students learning disabilities foster intellectual growth gifted students facilitate prosocial behaviors


psychology weiner ed ''handbook psychology'' volume ''history psychology'' ref influential early study examined workers western electric 's hawthorne plant cicero illinois western electric experimented factory workers assess responses changes illumination breaks food wages researchers came focus workers' responses observation term hawthorne effect used describe fact people work harder think 're watched although hawthorne research found psychology textbooks research findings however weak


many factors difficult control important variables human subjects pitfalls however generalizing findings animal studies humans animal models comparative psychology refers scientific study behavior mental processes non human animals especially relate phylogenetic history adaptive significance development behavior research area explores behavior many species insects primates closely related disciplines study animal behavior ethology research comparative psychology sometimes appears shed light human behavior


concerns publication bias data dredging conducting large number statistical tests great many variables restricting reporting results statistically significant psychology medical journals adopted result blind peer review studies accepted basis findings studies completed studies conducted upon basis methodological rigor experimental designs theoretical justifications proposed statistical analysis data collection analysis conducted addition large scale collaborations among researchers working multiple labs


''internationalizing history psychology'' new york university press cina carol social science structural history social psychology doctoral dissertation accepted state university new york stony brook cocks geoffrey ''psychotherapy third reich g ring institute'' second edition new brunswick nj transaction publishers forgas joseph p kipling williams simon laham ''social motivation conscious unconscious processes'' cambridge university press guthrie robert ''even rat white historical view psychology'' second edition boston allyn bacon viacon herman ellen psychology politics


department knowledge relates order nature words regular succession events ref physics one fundamental scientific disciplines main goal understand universe behaves ref name youngfreedman p physics one fundamental sciences scientists disciplines use ideas physics including chemists study structure molecules paleontologists try reconstruct dinosaurs walked climatologists study human activities affect atmosphere oceans physics also foundation engineering technology engineer


could design flat screen tv interplanetary spacecraft even better mousetrap without first understanding basic laws physics come see physics towering achievement human intellect quest understand world ref ref name youngfreedman p physics experimental science physicists observe phenomena nature try find patterns relate phenomena ref ref name holzner physics physics study world world universe around ref physics one oldest academic disciplines inclusion astronomy perhaps em em oldest ref name krupp ref


name allen ref discovery new laws thermodynamics chemistry electromagnetics resulted greater research efforts industrial revolution energy needs increased ref name schoolscience industrialrevolution ref laws comprising classical physics remain widely used objects everyday scales travelling non relativistic speeds since provide close approximation situations theories quantum mechanics theory relativity simplify classical equivalents scales however inaccuracies classical mechanics small objects high velocities led development modern physics th century modern max


physical world ref name rosenberg ch ref scientific method employs ''a priori reasoning'' well ''a posteriori'' reasoning use bayesian inference measure validity given theory ref name godfreysmith ch ref development physics answered many questions early philosophers also raised new questions study philosophical issues surrounding physics philosophy physics involves issues nature space time determinism metaphysical outlooks empiricism naturalism realism ref name godfreysmith ch ref many physicists written philosophical implications work instance laplace championed causal determinism ref


name laplace ref schr dinger wrote quantum mechanics ref name schroedinger ref ref name schroedinger ref mathematical physicist roger penrose called platonist stephen hawking ref name hawkingpenrose p think roger platonist heart must answer ref view penrose discusses book ''the road reality'' ref name penrose ref hawking referred unashamed reductionist took issue penrose 's views ref name penroseshimonycartwrighthawking ref core theories though physics deals wide variety systems certain theories used physicists theories experimentally tested numerous times found adequate approximation


known together continuum mechanics latter include branches hydrostatics hydrodynamics aerodynamics pneumatics acoustics study sound produced controlled transmitted received ref name britannica acoustics ref important modern branches acoustics include ultrasonics study sound waves high frequency beyond range human hearing bioacoustics physics animal calls hearing electroacoustics manipulation audible sound waves using electronics optics study light concerned visible light also infrared ultraviolet radiation exhibit phenomena visible light except


accelerator physics might seek build better particle detectors research theoretical physics physics used heavily engineering example statics subfield mechanics used building bridges static structures understanding use acoustics results sound control better concert halls similarly use optics creates better optical devices understanding physics makes realistic flight simulators video games movies often critical forensic investigations standard consensus laws physics universal change time


distinct optics tends focus control classical light fields macroscopic objects fundamental properties optical fields interactions matter microscopic realm condensed matter velocity distribution data gas rubidium atoms confirming discovery new phase matter bose einstein condensate condensed matter physics field physics deals macroscopic physical properties matter ref name taylorheinonen ref particular concerned condensed phases appear whenever number particles system extremely large


stronger attack name created contrast harpsichord musical instrument allow variation volume compared harpsichord first fortepianos quieter sound smaller dynamic range piano usually protective wooden case surrounding soundboard metal strings strung great tension heavy metal frame pressing one keys piano 's keyboard causes wooden plastic hammer typically padded firm felt strike strings hammer rebounds strings strings


builder silbermann 's pianos virtually direct copies cristofori 's one important addition silbermann invented forerunner modern sustain pedal lifts dampers strings simultaneously ref name badura skoda ref innovation allows pianist sustain notes depressed even fingers longer pressing keys holding chord sustain pedal pianists relocate hands different register keyboard preparation subsequent section grand piano louis bas villeneuve l avignon earliest french grand piano known


survive includes inverted wrestplank action derived work bartolomeo cristofori ca ornately decorated soundboard silbermann showed johann sebastian bach one early instruments bach like instrument time saying higher notes soft allow full dynamic range although earned animosity silbermann criticism apparently heeded ref name badura skoda bach approve later instrument saw even served agent selling silbermann 's pianos instrument piano et forte genandt reference


led modern structure instrument revolution response preference composers pianists powerful sustained piano sound made possible ongoing industrial revolution resources high quality piano wire strings precision casting production massive iron frames could withstand tremendous tension strings time tonal range piano also increased five octaves mozart 's day seven octave range found today 's pianos broadwood square action click page


first use pianos consistent material permitting wider dynamic ranges hammer weights string tension increased sostenuto pedal see invented jean louis boisselot copied steinway firm allowed wider range effects one innovation helped create powerful sound modern piano use massive strong cast iron frame also called plate iron frame sits atop soundboard serves primary bulwark force string tension exceed tons


iron frame allowed use thicker tenser numerous strings webster horsfal firm birmingham brought form piano wire made cast steel superior iron wire english firm soon monopoly ref name dolge dolge ref better steel wire soon created viennese firm martin miller ref name dolge period innovation intense competition ensued rival brands piano wire tested one another international competitions leading ultimately modern form


dissipating uselessly case parts inefficient radiators sound estonia grand piano manufacturing process underside facing upward showing thick beams support rim frame hardwood rims commonly made laminating thin hence flexible strips hardwood bending desired shape immediately application glue bent plywood system developed cf theodore steinway reduce manufacturing time costs previously rim constructed several pieces solid wood joined veneered european makers used method well


cast machine flexibility sufficient piano use much resistant deformation steel especially tolerant compression plate casting art since dimensions crucial iron shrinks one percent cooling including extremely large piece metal piano potentially aesthetic handicap piano makers overcome polishing painting decorating plate plates often include manufacturer 's ornamental medallion effort make pianos lighter alcoa worked winter company piano manufacturers make pianos using aluminum plate


create loud high harmonics hard hammer cause hammer must lightweight enough move swiftly key pressed yet time must strong enough hit strings hard player strikes keys forcefully fortissimo playing sforzando accents keyboard keyboard grand piano middle c cyan yellow highlighted stuart sons note piano early years piano construction keys commonly made sugar pine usually made


following centuries th century american musicians playing working class audiences small pubs bars particularly african american composers developed new musical genres based modern piano ragtime music popularized composers scott joplin reached broader audience popularity ragtime music quickly succeeded jazz piano new techniques rhythms invented piano including ostinato boogie woogie shearing voicing george gershwin 's ''rhapsody blue'' broke new musical ground combining american jazz piano symphonic sounds comping technique accompanying jazz vocalists piano exemplified


orchestrated instruments bandleaders choir conductors often learn piano excellent instrument learning new pieces songs lead performance many conductors trained piano allows play parts symphonies conducting using piano reduction reduction full score develop interpretation piano essential tool music education elementary secondary schools universities colleges music classrooms many practice rooms piano pianos used


like aquinas locke would accept aristotle 's dictum man seeks happy state social harmony social animal unlike aquinas 's preponderant view salvation soul original sin locke believes man 's mind comes world tabula rasa locke knowledge neither innate revealed based authority subject uncertainty tempered reason tolerance moderation according locke absolute ruler proposed hobbes unnecessary natural law based reason seeking peace survival man john stuart mill

Social science
Political science
Political philosophy


liberty would peace peaceful nations thomas hobbes main practical conclusion hobbes' political theory state society secure unless disposal absolute sovereign follows view individual hold rights property sovereign sovereign may therefore take goods subjects without consent leviathan hobbes set doctrine foundation states legitimate governments creating objective science morality much book occupied demonstrating


mid th century marxism developed socialism general gained increasing popular support mostly urban working class without breaking entirely past marx established principles would used future revolutionaries th century namely vladimir lenin mao zedong ho chi minh fidel castro though hegel 's philosophy history similar immanuel kant 's karl marx 's theory revolution towards common good partly based kant 's view history marx declared turning hegel 's dialectic standing head right side unlike marx


fetishism realm consumption looked relation consumerism dominant ideology formation another debate developed around distinct criticisms liberal political theory made michael walzer michael sandel charles taylor liberal communitarian debate often considered valuable generating new set philosophical problems rather profound illuminating clash perspective communitarians alasdair macintyre daniel bell argue contra liberalism communities prior individuals therefore center political focus communitarians tend support greater local control well


linguistic forum revolution cannot thought reversal power classes antonio gramsci instigated concept ''hegemony'' argued state ruling class use culture ideology gain consent classes rule thomas hill green modern liberal thinker early supporter positive freedom j rgen habermas contemporary democratic theorist sociologist pioneered concepts public sphere communicative action deliberative democracy early work heavily influenced frankfurt school friedrich hayek argued central planning inefficient


neoconservatism number students later members bush administration henry david thoreau influential american thinker diverse later political positions topics pacifism anarchism environmentalism civil disobedience influenced later important political activists leo tolstoy mahatma gandhi martin luther king jr alexis de tocqueville french political scientist diplomat known works ''democracy america'' ''the old regime revolution'' fran ois marie arouet voltaire french enlightenment writer poet philosopher famous advocacy civil liberties including freedom religion free trade bernard


''contemporary political theory'' ''theory event'' ''constellations'' ''journal political philosophy'' http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg london philosophy study guide offers many suggestions read depending student 's familiarity subject http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg politicalhtm political philosophy alexander f tsvirkun ''history political legal teachings ukraine'' kharkiv bielskis andrius ''towards postmodern understanding political'' basingstoke new york palgrave macmillan eric nelson '' http wwwthemontrealreviewcom hebrew republicphp hebrew republic jewish sources transformation european political thought '' harvard university press external links video lectures require adobe flash http academicearthorg courses introduction political philosophy introduction political philosophy delivered steven b smith


yale university provided academic earth politics philosophy social science social philosophy


use approach historical scientists construct set hypotheses causes look smoking gun ref name cleland methodologicalandepistemicdifferences related sciences paleontology lies biology geology since focuses record past life main source evidence fossils rocks historical reasons paleontology part geology department many universities th early th centuries geology departments found fossil evidence important dating rocks biology departments showed little interest ref name laudan whatspecialp ref paleontology also overlap archaeology primarily works

Natural science
Earth science
Paleontology


life first arose earth ref name brasiermcloughlinetal freshlook ref analyses carbon isotope ratios may help identify climate changes even explain major transitions permian triassic extinction event ref name twitchett ref relatively recent discipline molecular phylogenetics compares dna rna modern organisms construct family trees evolutionary ancestors also used estimate dates important evolutionary developments although approach controversial doubts reliability molecular clock ref name petersonetal ref techniques engineering used analyse bodies ancient organisms might worked


various radioactive elements decay known ratio radioactive element element decays shows long ago radioactive element incorporated rock radioactive elements common rocks volcanic origin fossil bearing rocks dated radiometrically volcanic ash layers ref name martin consequently paleontologists must usually rely stratigraphy date fossils stratigraphy science deciphering layer cake sedimentary record compared jigsaw puzzle rocks normally form relatively


ecosystems thought propelled coevolution pollinating insects ref name crepet ref social insects appeared around time although account small parts insect family tree form total mass insects ref name wilsonh lldobler eusocialityoriginconsequences ref humans evolved lineage upright walking apes whose earliest fossils date although early members lineage chimp sized brains big modern humans' signs steady increase brain size long running debate whether ''modern'' humans descendants


middle french ''philologie'' sense 'love literature' adjective ''phil logos'' meant 'fond discussion argument talkative' hellenistic greek also implying excessive sophistic preference argument love true wisdom ''phil sophos'' allegory literary erudition ''philologia'' appears fifth century postclassical literature martianus capella ''de nuptiis philologiae et mercurii'' idea revived late medieval literature chaucer lydgate meaning love learning literature narrowed study historical development languages historical linguistics th century usage term due

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Philology


cover ''indo european philology historical comparative'' william burley lockwood comparative linguistics branch philology studies relationship languages similarities sanskrit european languages first noted early th century led speculation common ancestor language descended named proto indo european philology 's interest ancient languages led study th century exotic languages light could cast problems understanding deciphering origins older texts textual philology also includes study


variants method applied classical studies medieval texts way reconstruct author 's original work method produced called critical editions provided reconstructed text accompanied critical apparatus ie footnotes listed various manuscript variants available enabling scholars gain insight entire manuscript tradition argue variants ref name gb ref related study method known higher criticism studies authorship date provenance text place text historical context ref name gb philological issues often inseparable issues


driving force behind p ini 's account began focus physical properties speech alone sustained interest phonetics began around ce term phonetics first used present sense new developments medicine development audio visual recording devices phonetic insights able use review new detailed data early period modern phonetics included development influential phonetic alphabet based articulatory positions alexander melville bell known visible speech gained prominence tool

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Phonetics


revision visible speech method melville bell developed description vowels height backness resulting cardinal vowels part training practical phonetics phoneticians expected learn produce cardinal vowels order anchor perception transcription phones fieldwork approach critiqued peter ladefoged based experimental evidence found cardinal vowels auditory rather articulatory targets challenging claim represented articulatory anchors phoneticians could judge articulations production language production consists


laminal dental stop stop usually apical alveolar stop though example temne bulgarian follow pattern language apical laminal stop laminal stop likely affricated like isoko though dahalo show opposite pattern alveolar stops affricated retroflex consonants several different definitions depending whether position tongue position roof mouth given prominence general represent group


consonants made using tongue body rather tip blade typically produced palate velum uvula palatal consonants made using tongue body hard palate roof mouth frequently contrasted velar uvular consonants though rare language contrast three simultaneously jaqaru possible example three way contrast velar consonants made using tongue body velum incredibly common cross linguistically almost languages velar stop velars vowels


glottis superglottal pressure decrease pressure glottis subglottal pressure subglottal pressure maintained respiratory muscles supraglottal pressure constrictions articulations equal atmospheric pressure however articulations especially consonants represent constrictions airflow pressure cavity behind constrictions increase resulting higher supraglottal pressure lexical access according lexical access model two different stages cognition employed thus concept known two stage theory lexical access first stage lexical selection provides information lexical items required


problem may exaggerated however speech highly learned skill using neurological structures evolved purpose equilibrium point model proposes resolution inverse problem arguing movement targets represented position muscle pairs acting joint original proposal importantly muscles modeled springs target equilibrium point modeled spring mass system using springs equilibrium point model easily account compensation response movements disrupted considered coordinate model assume muscle


freedom articulation planning problem especially intrinsic coordinate models allows movement achieves speech goal rather encoding particular movements abstract representation coarticulation well described gestural models articulations faster speech rates explained composites independent gestures slower speech rates acoustics waveform top spectrogram middle transcription bottom woman saying wikipedia displayed using praat software linguistic analysis speech sounds created modification airstream results sound wave modification


voice vocal folds held close together moderate tension vocal folds vibrate single unit periodically efficiently full glottal closure aspiration pulled farther apart vibrate produce voiceless phones held firmly together produce glottal stop vocal folds held slightly apart modal voicing produce phonation types like breathy voice murmur whispery voice tension across vocal ligaments vocal cords less modal voicing allowing air


languages maintain voicing distinction consonants languages use voicing degree example language known phonemic voicing contrast vowels known vowels canonically voiced positions glottis breathy creaky voice used number languages like jalapa mazatec contrast phonemes languages like english exist allophonically several ways determine segment voiced simplest feel larynx speech note vibrations felt


high close close mid open mid low open vowels whose height middle referred mid slightly opened close vowels slightly closed open vowels referred near close near open respectively lowest vowels articulated lowered tongue also lowering jaw ipa implies seven levels vowel height unlikely given language minimally contrast seven levels chomsky halle suggest three levels although four levels vowel height seem needed describe


airstream causes repeating pattern opening closing soft articulator apical trills typically consist two three periods vibration taps flaps single rapid usually apical gestures tongue thrown roof mouth comparable rapid stop terms sometimes used interchangeably phoneticians make distinction tap tongue contacts roof single motion whereas flap tongue moves tangentially roof mouth striking passing glottalic airstream mechanism glottis


gestures able retrieve intended linguistic category findings mcgurk effect case studies patients neurological injuries provided support motor theory experiments supported strong form motor theory though support weaker forms motor theory claim non deterministic relationship production perception successor theories speech perception place focus acoustic cues sound categories grouped two broad categories abstractionist theories episodic theories abstractionist theories speech perception involves identification idealized lexical


term began used also refer ''propaganda'' secular activities ref name diggs brown p term began taking pejorative negative connotation mid th century used political sphere ref name diggs brown p definition propaganda conceptualized form influence designed build social consensus th century term propaganda emerged along rise mass media including newspapers radio researchers began studying effects media used suggestion theory explain people could influenced emotionally resonant persuasive messages harold lasswell provided broad definition

Journalism, media studies and communication


far back reliable recorded evidence exists behistun inscription c bc detailing rise darius persian throne viewed historians early example propaganda another striking example propaganda ancient history last roman civil wars bc octavian mark antony blamed obscure degrading origins cruelty cowardice oratorical literary incompetence debaucheries luxury drunkenness slanders defamation took form ''uituperatio'' roman rhetorical genre invective decisive shaping roman public opinion


part labors also understanding variety peoples worked together axis menace ''stage door canteen'' features one segment meant dispel americans' mistrust soviets another dispel bigotry chinese polish filmmakers great britain created anti nazi color film ''calling mr smith'' nazi crimes german occupied europe lies nazi propaganda west soviet union used propaganda extensively cold war sides used film television radio programming influence


people 's minds approved information preventing people confronted opposing points view sets propaganda apart forms advocacy willingness propagandist change people 's understanding deception confusion rather persuasion understanding leaders organization know information one sided untrue may true rank file members help disseminate propaganda lucas cranach commissioned martin luther ref name edwards https booksgooglecom booksid kybupalp kc pg pa ''luther 's last battles politics polemics '' mark u edwards jr fortress press ref


misleading nature used promote political cause point view within perspective information provided need necessarily false must instead relevant specific goals actor system performs propaganda also one methods used psychological warfare may also involve false flag operations identity operatives depicted enemy nation eg bay pigs invasion used cia planes painted cuban air force markings term propaganda may also refer false information meant


politique internationale'' paris presses universitaires de france pages ellul jacques ''propaganda formation men 's attitudes'' hamilton john ''manipulating masses woodrow wilson birth american propaganda'' louisiana state university press hale oron james ''publicity diplomacy special reference england germany '' https wwwquestiacom library publicity diplomacy special reference online jowett garth victoria o'donnell ''propaganda persuasion'' th edn california sage publications detailed overview history function analyses propaganda lohrey andrew ed ''taking risk democracy corporate propaganda versus freedom liberty'' urbana ill university


illinois press marlin randal ''propaganda ethics persuasion'' orchard park new york broadview press mccombs e l shaw agenda setting function mass media ''public opinion quarterly'' moran propaganda pseudocommunication ''et cetera'' nelson richard alan ''a chronology glossary propaganda united states'' westport conn greenwood press oddo j ''the discourse propaganda case studies persian gulf war war terror '' university park pa pennsylvania state university press pratkanis anthony elliot aronson ''age


sheldon rampton ''toxic sludge good lies damn lies public relations industry'' monroe maine common courage press essays articles brown john h two ways looking propaganda garcia hugo reluctant liars public debates propaganda democracy twentieth century britain ca ''contemporary british history'' vol pp nbsp kosar kevin r public relations propaganda restrictions executive branch activities crs report rl february barriers critical thinking deception political communication public opinion


set universal phonological processes interact one another ones active suppressed language specific rather acting segments phonological processes act distinctive features within prosodic groups prosodic groups small part syllable large entire utterance phonological processes unordered respect apply simultaneously though output one process may input another second prominent natural phonologist patricia donegan stampe 's wife many natural phonologists europe

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Phonology


phoneme language monograph ''language'' external links


name dcl ref name unr predominantly concerned amounts quality water moving accumulating land surface soils rocks near surface typified hydrological cycle thus field encompasses water rivers lakes aquifers extent glaciers field examines process dynamics involved bodies water hydrology historically important connection engineering thus developed largely quantitative method research however earth science side embraces systems approach similar

Social science
Geography
Physical geography


field gathering storing processing delivering geographic information spatially referenced information geomatics includes geodesy scientific discipline deals measurement representation earth gravitational field geodynamic phenomena crustal motion oceanic tides polar motion geographical information science gis remote sensing short large scale acquisition information object phenomenon use either recording real time sensing devices physical intimate contact object '''environmental geography''' branch geography analyzes spatial aspects


paleoclimatology russian geographers made great contributions discipline period nm sibirtsev pyotr semyonov kd glinka neustrayev among others second important process theory evolution darwin mid century decisively influenced work friedrich ratzel academic training zoologist follower darwin 's ideas meant important impetus development biogeography another major event late nineteenth early twentieth centuries took place united states william morris davis made important contributions establishment


direct realist indirect realist theories positing cognition process dynamic interplay organism 's sensory motor capabilities environment brings forth instead seeing perception passive process determined entirely features independently existing world enactivism suggests organism environment structurally coupled co determining theory first formalized francisco varela evan thompson eleanor rosch embodied mind spatial representation aspect perception common realists anti realists idea mental perceptual space david hume concluded things appear

Humanities
Philosophy
Metaphysics
Philosophy of perception


university press mcginn colin consciousness space ''conscious experience'' thomas metzinger ed imprint academic http wwwnyuedu gsas dept philo courses consciousness papers consciousnessspacehtml online text mead george herbert mediate factors perception essay ''the philosophy act'' charles w morris john brewster albert dunham david miller eds chicago university chicago pp nbsp https webarchiveorg web http spartanacbrockuca lward mead pubs philact mead html online text moutoussis k zeki direct demonstration perceptual asynchrony vision ''proceedings royal society london'' series b biological sciences pp nbsp noe alva thompson evan vision mind selected readings philosophy perception cambridge mit


'''probability theory''' branch mathematics concerned probability although several different probability interpretations probability theory treats concept rigorous mathematical manner expressing set axioms typically axioms formalise probability terms probability space assigns measure taking values termed probability measure set outcomes called sample space specified subset sample space called event central subjects probability theory include discrete continuous random variables probability distributions stochastic processes provide mathematical

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Probability theory


statistical mechanics sequential estimation great discovery twentieth century physics probabilistic nature physical phenomena atomic scales described quantum mechanics history probability modern mathematical theory probability roots attempts analyze games chance gerolamo cardano sixteenth century pierre de fermat blaise pascal seventeenth century example problem points christiaan huygens published book subject th century pierre laplace completed today considered classic interpretation initially probability theory mainly considered


probability example event occurrence even number die rolled probability given math tfrac tfrac math since faces even numbers face probability appearing modern definition starts finite countable set called sample space relates set ''possible outcomes'' classical sense denoted math omega math assumed element math x omega math intrinsic probability value math f x math attached satisfies following properties math f x mbox x


distribution followed original random variables formally let math x x dots math independent random variables mean math mu math variance math sigma math sequence random variables math z n frac sum n x mu sigma sqrt n math converges distribution standard normal random variable classes random variables classic central limit theorem works rather fast see berry esseen theorem example distributions finite first second third moment exponential family hand random variables heavy tail fat tail variety works slowly may work


wilkins p ref ref group lower roman psychoanalysis continues important paradigm organizing way many psychiatrists think patients treatment however limitations widely recognized assumed many important advances future come areas particularly biologic psychiatry yet unresolved appropriate role psychoanalytic thinking organizing treatment patients training psychiatrists biologic revolution born fruit treatments aimed biologic defects abnormalities become technical steps program organized psychoanalytic framework psychoanalysis serve explain guide

Social science
Psychology
Psychoanalysis


psychoanalytic sessions typically lasting minutes ref name thompson guy ''the ethic honesty fundamental rule psychoanalysis'' rodopi p ref ideally times week patient may lie couch analyst may sit behind sight patient expresses thoughts including free associations fantasies dreams analyst infers unconscious conflicts causing patient 's symptoms character problems analysis conflicts includes interpreting transference countertransference analyst 's feelings patient analyst confronts patient 's pathological defenses


findings mid provided evidence occurrence unconscious fantasies supposedly cover memories infantile masturbation ref name much later claim findings evidence oedipal desires freud theorised dreams symbolic significance generally specific dreamer freud formulated second psychological theory hypotheses unconscious primary process consisting symbolic condensed thoughts secondary process logical conscious thoughts theory published book ''the interpretation dreams'' chapter vii working


anxiety inhibitions symptoms anxiety freud characterised intrapsychic conflict among drive superego wishes guilt caused anxiety anxiety could lead inhibition mental functions intellect speech ref name freud sigmund inhibitions symptoms anxiety ''standard edition'' edited j strachey london hogarth press ref inhibitions symptoms anxiety written response otto rank published ''das trauma der geburt'' ''the trauma birth'' analysing art myth religion philosophy therapy illuminated separation anxiety phase


importance childhood environmental factors mental health reading ethologist konrad lorenz 's book ''king solomon 's ring'' bowlby saw opportunity refound psychoanalysis principles ethology study animal behaviour bowlby published three papers expounding theories expanded three books entitled attachment separation loss ref name papers introduced idea innate relationship mother child distinct freudian conception oral drive holmes argues similar winnicott 's concept environmental object mother fairbairn 's concept drives


elements conscious also considerable work done consolidating elements conflicting theories field medicine persistent conflicts regarding specific causes certain syndromes disputes regarding ideal treatment techniques st century psychoanalytic ideas embedded western culture especially fields childcare education literary criticism cultural studies mental health particularly psychotherapy though mainstream evolved analytic ideas groups follow precepts one later theoreticians psychoanalytic ideas also play roles types


series papers books late leo bellak later contributor series constructs paralleling later developments cognitive theory includes notions autonomous ego functions mental functions dependent least origin intrapsychic conflict functions include sensory perception motor control symbolic thought logical thought speech abstraction integration synthesis orientation concentration judgment danger reality testing adaptive ability executive decision making hygiene self preservation freud noted inhibition one method mind may utilize interfere functions order


managing conflict processes defenses synthetic functions protect conscious mind awareness forbidden impulses thoughts one purpose ego psychology emphasize mental functions considered basic rather derivatives wishes affects defenses however autonomous ego functions secondarily affected unconscious conflict example patient may hysterical amnesia memory autonomous function intrapsychic conflict wishing remember painful taken together theories present group metapsychological assumptions therefore inclusive group


different classical theories provides cross sectional view human mental processes six points view five described freud sixth added hartmann unconscious processes therefore evaluated six points view topographic dynamic theory conflict economic theory energy flow structural genetic ie propositions concerning origin development psychological functions adaptational ie psychological phenomena relates external world modern conflict theory ''modern conflict theory'' variation ego psychology revised version structural


start neurotic symptom development freud found constellation factors literary reasons termed oedipus complex based play sophocles ''oedipus rex'' protagonist unwittingly kills father marries mother validity ''oedipus complex'' widely disputed rejected ref name miller alice pp miller alice ''thou shalt aware society 's betrayal child'' new york farrar straus giroux pp ref ref name kupfersmid joel kupfersmid joel ''does oedipus complex exist'' american psychological association ref shorthand term ''oedipal'' later explicated joseph j sandler


concept superego modified charles brenner ''the mind conflict'' refers powerful attachments children make parents preschool years attachments involve fantasies sexual relationships either parent therefore competitive fantasies toward either parents humberto nagera particularly helpful clarifying many complexities child years positive negative oedipal conflicts attached heterosexual homosexual aspects respectively seem occur development children eventually developing child 's concessions reality


patients supportive therapy techniques include discussions reality encouragement stay alive including hospitalization psychotropic medicines relieve overwhelming depressive affect overwhelming fantasies hallucinations delusions advice meanings things counter abstraction failures notion silent analyst criticized actually analyst listens using arlow 's approach set genesis interpretation using active intervention interpret resistances defenses creating pathology fantasies silence technique psychoanalysis see also studies opinion papers owen renik analytic neutrality concept mean


use children treatments play therapy art therapy storytelling throughout career anna freud adapted psychoanalysis children play still used today children especially preadolescent ref group lower roman see leon hoffman new york psychoanalytic institute center children ref using toys games children able symbolically demonstrate fears fantasies defenses although identical technique children analogous aim free association adults psychoanalytic play therapy allows child analyst understand children 's conflicts particularly defenses


national health service possibly helpful depression united states psychoanalytic training united states involves personal psychoanalysis trainee approximately hours class instruction standard curriculum four five year period typically psychoanalysis must conducted supervising training analyst institutes within american psychoanalytic association require supervising training analysts become certified american board psychoanalysts certification entails blind review psychoanalyst 's work vetted psychoanalysts outside local community earning certification


american psychological association apa established early several psychologists establishment division psychoanalysis psychologists trained independent institutes national organization division psychoanalysis approximately members approximately local chapters united states division psychoanalysis holds two annual meetings conferences offers continuing education theory research clinical technique affiliated local chapters european psychoanalytical federation epf organization consolidates european psychoanalytic societies organization affiliated ipa


fairbairn anna freud harry guntrip melanie klein donald meltzer joseph j sandler hanna segal j sutherland donald winnicott institute psychoanalysis foremost publisher psychoanalytic literature volume ''standard edition complete psychological works sigmund freud'' conceived translated produced direction british psychoanalytical society society conjunction random house soon publish new revised expanded standard edition new library psychoanalysis institute continues publish books leading theorists practitioners ''the international journal psychoanalysis'' published


pseudoscience violates ontology methodology inherent science ref name bunge ref according bunge psychoanalytic theories either untestable unsupported evidence ref name bunge ref cognitive scientists particular also weighed martin seligman prominent academic positive psychology wrote blockquote thirty years ago cognitive revolution psychology overthrew freud behaviorists least academia imperialistic freudian view claims emotion always drives thought imperialistic cognitive view claims thought always drives emotion evidence however drives times blockquote adolf gr nbaum argues ''validation


clinical theory psychoanalysis'' psychoanalytic based theories falsifiable causal claims psychoanalysis unsupported available clinical evidence ref name gr nbaum adolf ''validation clinical theory psychoanalysis study philosophy psychoanalysis'' madison ct international universities press ref historian henri ellenberger wrote researched history freud jung adler janet ref name ref writing book ''the discovery unconscious history evolution dynamic psychiatry'' ref name argued psychoanalysis scientific grounds methodology social structure ref name


freud accused freud fabrication famously case anna others speculated patients suffered easily identifiable conditions unrelated psychoanalysis instance anna thought suffered organic impairment tuberculous meningitis temporal lobe epilepsy hysteria see modern interpretations ref name webster richard henri ellenberger frank sulloway argue freud followers created inaccurate legend freud work freud popularize psychoanalysis ref name borch jacobson shamdasani argue legend adapted


fellow men pleasure benefit jacques derrida incorporated aspects psychoanalytic theory theory deconstruction order question called 'metaphysics presence' derrida also turns ideas freud reveal tensions contradictions work example although freud defines religion metaphysics displacements identification father resolution oedipal complex derrida insists prominence father freud 's analysis indebted prominence given father western metaphysics


edith ''depression comparative studies normal neurotic psychotic conditions'' international universities press kernberg otto ''severe personality disorders psychotherapeutic strategies'' yale university press kohut heinz ''analysis self systematic approach treatment narcissistic personality disorders'' international universities press kovacevic filip ''liberating oedipus psychoanalysis critical theory'' lexington books kristeva julia ''the kristeva reader'' edited moi columbia university press meltzer donald ''dream life examination psycho analytical theory technique'' karnac books ''the kleinian development'' new ed karnac books reprint mitchell j black


many contributions field received medical training germany later practiced new york city first generally accepted pediatric hospital ''h pital des enfants malades'' opened paris june site previous orphanage ref name ballbriga ref beginning famous hospital accepted patients age fifteen years ref name paris ref continues day pediatric division necker enfants malades hospital created merging physically contiguous ''necker hospital'' founded european countries charit

Applied science
Medicine and health
Pediatrics


team make best possible medical decision pediatrician right intervene child 's welfare seek advice ethics committee however recent studies authors denied complete autonomy present pediatric healthcare moral standards apply children adults support idea concept paternalism negates autonomy patient 's interests concept aims keep child 's best interests mind regarding autonomy pediatricians interact patients help make decisions


ages make reasonable decisions based feelings therefore children teens deemed capable making health decisions reach age recently studies made decision making children challenged age ref name technology made several modern advancements contribute future development child autonomy example unsolicited findings ufs pediatric exome sequencing findings based pediatric exome sequencing explain greater detail intellectual disability child predict extent affect child


created industry man inspired work adam smith milne edwards wrote body living beings whether animal plant resembles factory organs comparable workers work incessantly produce phenomena constitute life individual differentiated organisms functional labor could apportioned different instruments systems called ''appareils'' ref name brain r brain ''the pulse modernism physiological aesthetics fin de si cle europe'' seattle university washington press pp https booksgooglecom booksid l iecgaaqbaj ref joseph lister studied cause blood coagulation


field given birth active domains today 's biological sciences neuroscience endocrinology immunology furthermore physiology still often seen integrative discipline put together coherent framework data coming various different domains ref name notable physiologists women physiology initially women largely excluded official involvement physiological society american physiological society example founded included men ranks american physiological society elected ida hyde first female member society ref


kossoy german newspaper ''vossische zeitung'' february contained article entitled ''photographie'' discussing several priority claims especially henry fox talbot 's regarding daguerre 's claim invention article earliest known occurrence word public print signed jm believed berlin astronomer johann von maedler ref name eder ref astronomer sir john herschel also credited coining word independent talbot inventors nic phore ni pce henry fox talbot louis daguerre seem known used word photography referred

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Photography


direct sunlight even made shadow copies paintings glass reported images formed means camera obscura found faint produce moderate time effect upon nitrate silver shadow images eventually darkened invention earliest known surviving heliographic engraving printed metal plate made nic phore ni pce ref name utexas ref plate exposed ordinary engraving copied photographic means step towards first permanent photograph taken camera ''view


smartphone digital photography dominates st century photographs taken around world digital cameras increasingly smartphones techniques angles vertical horizontal pictured diagonal considered important photographic techniques large variety photographic techniques media used process capturing images photography include camera dualphotography full spectrum ultraviolet infrared media light field photography imaging techniques cameras camera image forming device photographic plate photographic film silicon electronic image sensor capture


cameras used record images trichome ''arabidopsis thaliana'' seen via scanning electron microscope note image edited adding colors clarify structure add aesthetic effect heiti paves tallinn university technology besides camera methods forming images light available instance photocopy xerography machine forms permanent images uses transfer static electrical charges rather photographic medium hence term electrophotography photograms images produced shadows objects cast photographic paper without use


image recorded ccd electronic photographic film wildlife photography wildlife photography involves capturing images various forms wildlife unlike forms photography product food photography successful wildlife photography requires photographer choose right place right time specific wildlife present active often requires great patience considerable skill command right photographic equipment social cultural implications capture reality produce work art photo manipulation often frowned upon first eventually


'''physical chemistry''' study macroscopic particulate phenomena chemical systems terms principles practices concepts physics motion energy force time thermodynamics quantum chemistry statistical mechanics analytical dynamics chemical equilibria physical chemistry contrast chemical physics predominantly always macroscopic supra molecular science majority principles founded relate bulk rather molecular atomic structure alone example chemical equilibrium colloids relationships physical chemistry strives resolve include effects intermolecular

Natural science
Chemistry
Physical chemistry


research center parapsychology research unit stating aims improve human condition creating scientific understanding abilities sensitivities appear transcend ordinary limits space time establishment parapsychological association parapsychological association pa created durham north carolina june formation proposed j b rhine workshop parapsychology held parapsychology laboratory duke university rhine proposed group form nucleus international professional society parapsychology aim

Social science
Psychology
Parapsychology


known background cues affiliation parapsychological association pa american association advancement science along general openness psychic occult phenomena led decade increased parapsychological research period related organizations also formed including academy parapsychology medicine institute parascience academy religion psychical research institute noetic sciences international kirlian research association princeton engineering anomalies research laboratory parapsychological work also conducted


period typically minutes length receiver taken ganzfeld state shown four images videos one true target three non target decoys receiver attempts select true target using perceptions experienced ganzfeld state clues mentally sent image might participant ganzfeld experiment proponents say experiments shown evidence telepathy ref name psychologicalbulletin critics like ray hyman pointed independently replicated ref name psychologicalbulletin ganzfeld experiment studies


science applications international corporation ref name enhancinghuman ref ref name reinventingmedicine ref many contract us government part espionage program stargate project terminated failed document practical intelligence value ref name time ref psychologists david marks richard kammann attempted replicate russell targ harold puthoff remote viewing experiments carried stanford research institute series studies unable replicate results motivating investigate procedure original experiments marks kammann discovered notes given


general scientific community ref name hansen ref physicist robert l park said pear embarrassment science think embarrassment princeton ref name ny times ref psychokinesis random number generators advent powerful inexpensive electronic computer technologies allowed development fully automated experiments studying possible interactions mind matter common experiment type random number generator rng based electronic radioactive noise produces data stream recorded analyzed computer software subject attempts mentally alter distribution


data characteristic psi ref name hyman ray hyman ''evaluating parapsychological claims'' robert j sternberg henry l roediger diane f halpern ''critical thinking psychology'' cambridge university press pp ref ref name alcock parapsychology realm objective inquiry phenomena negatively defined defined terms ruling normal explanations course ruling normal explanations easy task may aware possible normal explanations may deceived subjects may deceive normal explanations actually could ruled


illusionary existence pk taken seriously experiment could relied upon furnish objective results since measurements would become falsified greater lesser degree according pk ability experimenter 's wishes planer concluded concept psychokinesis absurd scientific basis philosopher physicist mario bunge written psychokinesis pk violates principle mind cannot act directly matter experimenter could trust readings measuring instruments also violates principles conservation energy momentum


fraud'' oxford university press pp ref park suggested reason statistical studies popular parapsychology introduce opportunities uncertainty error used support biases experimenter park wrote proof psychic phenomena ever found spite tests devised parapsychologists like jahn radin huge amounts data collected period many years results convincing today began experiments ref name park pseudoscience mario bunge described parapsychology pseudoscience paragon ref name bunge mario


psychical research blackburn confessed fraud ref experiments samuel soal k goldney suggesting precognitive ability single participant long regarded best field relied upon independent checking witnesses prevent fraud however many years later statistical evidence uncovered published parapsychologists field suggested soal cheated altering raw data ref name alcock ref name haskell ref number experiments walter j levy j b rhine 's successor director institute parapsychology


describe assumption significant departure laws chance test psychic ability evidence something anomalous paranormal occurred words assuming proving critics hold concluding existence psychic phenomena based chance deviation inadequately designed experiments ''affirming consequent'' ''begging question'' ref name carrol ref magician debunker james randi engineered hoax referred project alpha encourage tightening standards within parapsychology community randi recruited two young magicians sent undercover


''paranormal transcendental experience psychological examination'' dover publications external links http wwwmedicinevirginiaedu clinical departments psychiatry sections cspp dops division perceptual studies university virginia school medicine http wwwnoeticorg institute noetic sciences nonprofit organization sponsors research parapsychology https webarchiveorg web http wwwparapsychorg indexhtml parapsychological association organization scientists scholars engaged study psychic phenomena affiliated american association advancement science http wwwrhineorg rhine research center historical parapsychological research center featuring first building ever made experimental work parapsychology rhine research center hub research education


prescription assistance specific exercises manual therapy manipulation mechanical devices traction education electrophysical modalities include heat cold electricity sound waves radiation assistive devices prostheses orthoses interventions addition pts work individuals prevent loss mobility occurs developing fitness wellness oriented programs healthier active lifestyles providing services individuals populations develop maintain restore maximum movement functional ability throughout lifespan includes providing treatment circumstances movement function threatened aging injury disease environmental factors functional

Applied science
Medicine and health
Physical therapy


physical therapist practice modern physical therapy established towards end th century due events affected global scale called rapid advances physical therapy soon following american orthopedic surgeons began treating children disabilities began employing women trained physical education remedial exercise treatments applied promoted polio outbreak first world war women recruited work restore physical function injured soldiers field physical therapy institutionalized term reconstruction aide


across canada existing practitioners bscpt credentials required upgrade qualifications province quebec prospective physiotherapists required completed college diploma either health sciences lasts average two years physical rehabilitation technology lasts least three years apply physiotherapy program program university following admission physical therapy students work bachelor science major physical therapy rehabilitation bsc usually requires three years complete students must enter graduate school complete master 's degree physical therapy


program consists levels courses training ongoing mentorship evaluation level orthopedic curriculum examinations take minimum years complete however upon completion level physiotherapists apply unique year course based master 's program advanced orthopedics manipulation university western ontario complete training program accepts physiotherapists annually since successful completion either education streams respective examinations allows physiotherapists opportunity apply canadian academy manipulative physiotherapy campt fellowship fellows


able effectively communicate patients variety levels patients varying levels health literacy physical therapists need take account discussing patient 's ailments well planned treatment research shown using communication tools tailored patient 's health literacy leads improved engagement practitioner clinical care addition patients reported shared decision making yield positive relationship practical skills ability educate patients conditions professional expertise perceived valuable factors inpatient care patients value