parallelization automatic parallelization sequential program compiler holy grail parallel computing especially aforementioned limit processor frequency despite decades work compiler researchers automatic parallelization limited success mainstream parallel programming languages remain either explicitly parallel best partially implicit programmer gives compiler directives parallelization fully implicit parallel programming languages exist sisal parallel haskell sequencel system c fpgas mitrion c vhdl verilog application checkpointing computer system grows complexity mean time failures usually decreases application checkpointing


goldman arthur hasler contributed development center limnology general limnology physical properties physical properties aquatic ecosystems determined combination heat currents waves seasonal distributions environmental conditions ref name limnology book ref morphometry body water depends type feature lake river stream wetland estuary etc structure earth surrounding body water lakes instance classified formation zones lakes defined water depth river stream system morphometry driven underlying


police fire services responding traffic accident ohio emergency telephone new york city '''emergency services''' '' 'rescue services''' organizations ensure public safety health addressing different emergencies agencies exist solely addressing certain types emergencies whilst others deal ad hoc emergencies part normal responsibilities many agencies engage community awareness prevention programs help public avoid detect report emergencies effectively three primary emergency services summoned directly public police mdash law enforcement

Applied science
Public administration
Emergency services


personnel performing intelligence duties may selected analytical abilities personal intelligence receiving formal training levels military intelligence diagram defense positions battle okinawa intelligence operations carried throughout hierarchy political military activity strategic strategic intelligence concerned broad issues economics political assessments military capabilities intentions foreign nations increasingly non state actors intelligence may scientific technical tactical diplomatic sociological changes analyzed combination known facts area question geography demographics

Applied science
Military sciences
Military intelligence


industrial capacities strategic intelligence formally defined intelligence required formation policy military plans national international levels corresponds strategic level warfare formally defined level warfare nation often member group nations determines national multinational alliance coalition strategic security objectives guidance develops uses national resources achieve objectives operational operational intelligence focused support denial intelligence operational tiers operational tier strategic level leadership


parts government historic counterintelligence services especially russia china intentionally banned placed disinformation public maps good intelligence identify disinformation commonplace intelligence services large countries read every published journal nations interested main newspapers journals every nation basic source intelligence also common diplomatic journalistic personnel secondary goal collecting military intelligence western democracies extremely rare journalists paid


origins modern intelligence surveillance reconnaissance military intelligence front ''studies intelligence'' pp nbsp j f c fuller ''a military history western world vol earliest times battle lepanto'' new york da capo press richard gabriel karen metz ''from sumer rome military capabilities ancient armies'' new york greenwood press john keegan ''intelligence war'' new york knopf charles h harris louis r sadler ''the border revolution clandestine activities mexican revolution ''


individual casework second social administration included various forms poverty relief 'relief paupers' statewide poverty relief could said roots english poor laws th century first systematized efforts charity organization society third consisted social action rather engaging resolution immediate individual requirements emphasis placed political action working community group improve social conditions thereby alleviate poverty approach developed originally settlement house movement ref name lymbery ref


developed bombay mumbai followed calcutta kolkata madras chennai need establish hospitals became acute first treat manage englishmen indian 'sepoys' military men employed british east india company first lunacy act also called act came effect later modified committee appointed bengal later indian lunacy act brought legislation rehabilitation programme initiated persons mental illness mysore lunatic asylum


occupational therapy department established period almost lunatic asylums programme asylum called 'work therapy' programme persons mental illness involved field agriculture activities programme considered seed origin psychosocial rehabilitation india berkeley hill superintendent european hospital known central institute psychiatry cip established deeply concerned improvement mental hospitals days sustained efforts berkeley hill helped raise standard treatment care


worker naturally occurring resource six core values identified national association social workers' nasw code ethics service help people need address social problems social justice challenge social injustices dignity worth person importance human relationships integrity behave trustworthy manner competence practice within areas one 's areas expertise develop enhance professional skill historic defining feature social work profession 's focus individual well social context


well society ref name crisp ref social workers promote social justice social change behalf clients ref name stefaroi ref client individual family group organization community broadening scope modern social worker 's role practitioners recent years traveled war torn countries provide psychosocial assistance families survivors newer areas social work practice involve management science growth social work administration transforming social policies services directing activities organization toward achievement goals related field helping clients accessing benefits


family communications medical team members ensure inter professional cordiality team secure patients best possible care active partners care planning depending upon requirement social workers often involved illness education counseling psychotherapy areas pivotal aftercare process facilitate careful transition back family community qualifications education social workers begins bachelor 's degree ba bsc bssw bsw etc diploma social work bachelor social services countries offer postgraduate degrees


social work master 's degree msw mssw mss mssa msc mres mphil doctoral studies phd dsw doctor social work increasingly graduates social work programs pursue post masters post doctoral studies including training psychotherapy united states social work undergraduate master 's programs accredited council social work education cswe accredited degree required one become state licensed social worker cswe even accredits online master 's social work programs traditional advanced standing options new york charity organization society columbia


correctional method seeks transition offenders back community sentences canada criminal code legislated courts could impose form whipping male offenders administered three occasions limit number strokes whipping female offenders allowed whipping could inflicted using strap cat o' nine tails paddle unless specified court move abolish corporal punishment canadian penal system coincided several reforms change ''reform institutions'' label ''corrections'' ''correctional'' intermediate

Applied science
Public administration
Corrections


countries little results economic growth corrupt leaders aligned granting countries geopolitical interests agenda problems fiscal fragility associated receiving important amount government revenues foreign aid governments raise significant amount revenue source less accountable citizens autonomous less pressure legitimately use resources ref name todd moss gunilla pettersson nicolas van de walle aid institutions paradox review essay aid dependency state building sub saharan africa working paper

Social science
Sociology
Social transformation
Economic development


increased women unemployment seguino heintz uses panel dataset states unemployment labor force participation race annual labor market statistics addition contractionary monetary policy utilize federal funds rate short term interest rates charged banks seguino heintz seguino concludes impact one percentage point increase federal funds rate relative white black women unemployment respectively one growing understanding economic development promotion regional clusters thriving metropolitan economy today 's global landscape location vitally


private sector development socioeconomics united nations development program universities world bank group references reading external links development


subfields computational anatomy computational anatomy discipline focusing study anatomical shape form visible gross anatomical math mu math scale morphology involves development application computational mathematical data analytical methods modeling simulation biological structures focuses anatomical structures imaged rather medical imaging devices due availability dense measurements via technologies magnetic resonance imaging mri computational anatomy emerged subfield medical imaging bioengineering extracting anatomical coordinate systems morphome scale

Natural science
Biology
Computational biology


researchers working approaches allow larger networks analyzed modeled majority researchers believe essential developing modern medical approaches creating new drugs gene therapy ref name kitano useful modelling approach use petri nets via tools esyn ref name bean ref computational ecology computational methods ecology seen increasing interest recent decades theoretical ecology largely dealt analytic models largely detached statistical models used empirical ecologists however computational methods aided developing ecological theory via


information processing properties structures make nervous system subset field neuroscience looks analyze brain data create practical applications looks model brain order examine specific aspects neurological system various types models brain include realistic brain models models look represent every aspect brain including much detail cellular level possible realistic models provide information brain also largest margin error variables


mormon background ref name introduction https booksgooglecom booksid oziscvbs cc lpg pr pg pa v onepage q f false alt url ref ref name lesbian mormons ref reported experiencing erotic interest others sex since childhood ref name dynamics exhibited self identity community identity sexual minorities ref name dynamics gay lesbian subcultures beginning become established several larger us cities lesbian gay studies originated publication several seminal works gay history inspired ethnic studies women 's studies similar identity based academic fields influenced critical theory frankfurt school initial emphasis uncovering suppressed history

Social science
Sociology
Sexology
Queer studies


study instruction gay male literature including tenured position establishment gay student center yale ref name nyt gender ethnic race related studies still relatively new yale provost alison richard said gay lesbian studies narrow specialty program perpetuity ref name nyt indicating wish compromise conditions kramer asserted ref name nyt negotiations broke kramer frustrated perceived homophobic resistance condemned university front page story ''the new york times'' ref name nyt ref


emergency th international congress studies sexual diversity gender hosted ufjf universidade federal de juiz de fora june china fudan university located shanghai china opened country 's first course homosexuality acquired immune deficiency syndrome aids prevention entitled homosexual health social sciences article focusing college course gao gu utilize feedback participants detailed interviews professors review course documents discuss china 's first course homosexuality core article analyzes tactics used create course


fudan university led chinese academia develop comprehensive curriculum educate future health care professionals needs chinese citizens south africa african continent south africa setting trend developing queer studies partly due country 's constitutional framework explicitly protects discrimination basis sexual orientation one leading south african queer studies scholars zethu matebeni activist writer documentary film maker academic working professor south africa research chair sexualities genders queer studies


wide spectrum laws prescriptions daily morality based karma dharma societal norms hinduism categorization distinct intellectual philosophical points view rather rigid common set beliefs hinduism one billion followers world 's third largest religion christianity islam hinduism called oldest religion world traditionally called ''san tana dharma '' eternal law eternal way beyond human origins western scholars regard hinduism fusion encounters resulted aryan migration brought together several different peoples cultures

Humanities
Philosophy
Philosophical traditions and schools
Eastern philosophy


philosophy seen arthashastra c th century bce philosophy love seen kama sutra kural literature post sangam period c st century bce th century ce written tamil poet philosopher valluvar believed many scholars based jain philosophies later developments include development tantra iranian islamic influences buddhism mostly disappeared india muslim conquest indian subcontinent surviving himalayan regions south india early modern period saw flourishing navya ny ya 'new reason' philosophers


popularity bhakti movement ved nta came dominant current hinduism post medieval period classical enumeration indian philosophies lists six orthodox schools schools sometimes seen orthodox include ref name cowell pa upata ascetic school shaivism founded lakulisha nd century ce aiva siddh nta school dualistic shaivism strongly influenced samkhya pratyabhij recognition school utpaladeva th century abhinavagupta ce form non dual shaiva tantra rase vara mercurial school p ini dar ana grammarian school clarifies theory


tainted three faults untruth self contradiction tautology ref name page cowell eb gough ae sarva darsana sangraha madhava acharya review different systems hindu philosophy new delhi indian books centre sri satguru publications pp xii ref declared vedas incoherent rhapsodies invented humans whose usefulness provide livelihood priests likewise faulted buddhists jains mocking concept liberation reincarnation accumulation merit demerit karma believed viewpoint relinquishing pleasure avoid pain reasoning fools ref name page c rv ka epistemology holds


basham al history doctrines j vikas nd ed chapter delhi india moltilal banarsidass reprint originally published luzac company ltd london ref j vika school known ''niyati'' doctrine absolute determinism fate premise free everything happened happening happen entirely preordained function cosmic principles ref name basham al ref name james james lochtefeld ajivika illustrated encyclopedia hinduism vol rosen publishing p ref j vika considered karma doctrine fallacy ref name philtarajiv http wwwphiltaracuk encyclopedia hindu ascetic ajivhtml ajivikas world religions


song dynasty ming dynasty well korean joseon dynasty resurgent neo confucianism led thinkers zhu xi wang yangming became dominant school thought promoted imperial state beginning song dynasty confucian classics basis imperial exams became core philosophy scholar official class confucianism suffered setbacks th century recently undergoing revival termed new confucianism traditionally east asian cultures countries cultural sphere strongly influenced


confucianism including mainland china hong kong macau japan korea taiwan vietnam well various overseas territories settled predominantly overseas chinese singapore legalism legalism pinyin ''f ji '' school methods standards philosophical tradition focused laws realpolitik bureaucratic management largely ignoring morality idealized views society focused pragmatic government power autocrat state goal achieve increased order security stability initially influenced mohist ideas key figure school administrator political philosopher


r ji '' new confucianism traditionalist revival confucian thought china beginning th century republican china also associated new conservatism key new confucians first generation xiong shili fung youlan second generation include individuals like tang junyi mou zongsan xu fuguan three students xiong shili together zhang junmai second generation published new confucian manifesto japanese fukuzawa yukichi key civil rights activist liberal thinker modern japanese thought strongly influenced western science philosophy japan 's rapid modernization


partly aided early study western science known rangaku edo period another intellectual movement edo period kokugaku national study sought focus study ancient japanese thought classic texts culture foreign chinese buddhist cultures key figure movement motoori norinaga argued essence classic japanese literature culture sense called mono aware sorrow evanescence meiji period modernist meirokusha meiji formed intellectual society promoted european enlightenment


interpersonal deception theory explores interrelation communicative context sender receiver cognitions behaviors deceptive exchanges forms deception include lies making information giving information opposite different truth equivocations making indirect ambiguous contradictory statement concealments omitting information important relevant given context engaging behavior helps hide relevant information exaggerations overstatement stretching truth degree understatements minimization downplaying aspects truth ref name guerrero andersen afifi untruths misinterpreting truth buller burgoon

Applied science
Military sciences
Strategy
Deception


relationship ref name cole general discovery deception result decrease relationship satisfaction commitment level however instances person successfully deceived relationship satisfaction actually positively impacted person deceived since lies typically used make partner feel positive relationship general deception tends occur less often relationships higher satisfaction commitment levels relationships partners known longer long term relationships marriage ref name cole comparison deception likely occur casual


actions level executive control individual possesses impacted development experience improved training practice individuals show higher level executive control easily influence control thoughts behaviors relation potential threats ongoing relationship result paying less attention threats current relationship potential romantic mates sociosexual orientation concerned freely individuals partake casual sex outside committed relationship beliefs regarding necessary love order


deceptions research use deception online dating shown people generally truthful exception physical attributes appear attractive ref name ref according scientific american nine ten online daters fib height weight age men likely lie height women likely lie weight study conducted toma hancock less attractive people found likely chosen profile picture significantly attractive


true difficult deceive partner long period time deception often occurs day day conversations relational partners ref name guerrero andersen afifi detecting deception difficult known completely reliable indicators deception people often reply truth default state deception however places significant cognitive load deceiver must recall previous statements story remains consistent believable result deceivers often leak important information verbally nonverbally deception detection complex fluid


get sale omitting relevance stating something helpful know example car like new help leave part transmission issue ref name gaspar journalism journalistic deception ranges passive activities ie blending civil rights march active deception ie falsely identifying oneself telephone getting hired worker mental hospital ref name braun ref paul bran says journalist stand apart rest populace use deception ref name braun


doubt wherein one decides doubt everything doubt deus deceptor mainstay called skeptical arguments purport put question knowledge reality punch argument know might wrong since might deceived stanley cavell argued skepticism root fear deception psychological research psychological research often needs deceive subjects actual purpose rationale deception humans sensitive appear others


preventing researchers carrying wide range important studies kimmel p nbsp additionally findings suggest deception harmful subjects christensen 's review literature found research participants perceive harmed seem mind misled p nbsp furthermore participating experiments involving deception reported enjoyed experience perceived educational benefit participated non deceptive experiments p nbsp lastly also suggested unpleasant treatment used deception study unpleasant implications outcome


logarithm relative energy output proton proton pp cno triple fusion processes different temperatures dashed line shows combined energy generation pp cno processes within star sun 's core temperature pp process efficient '''stellar nucleosynthesis''' creation nucleosynthesis chemical elements nuclear fusion reactions within stars stellar nucleosynthesis occurred since original creation hydrogen helium lithium big bang predictive theory yields accurate estimates observed abundances elements explains observed abundances

Natural science
Space science
Stellar astrophysics
Stellar nucleosynthesis


elements change time elements isotopes much abundant others theory initially proposed fred hoyle ref name hoyle later refined ref name hoyle ref advances made especially nucleosynthesis neutron capture elements heavier iron margaret geoffrey burbidge william alfred fowler hoyle famous b sup sup fh paper ref name b fh ref became one heavily cited papers astrophysics history stars evolve changes composition abundance constituent elements lifespans


core largely carbon oxygen massive stars become supergiants leave main sequence quickly start helium fusion become red supergiants helium exhausted core star continue shell around carbon oxygen core ref name jones ref name deloore doom cases helium fused carbon via triple alpha process ie three helium nuclei transformed carbon via sup sup form oxygen neon heavier elements via alpha process way alpha process preferentially produces elements even numbers


developed chemically image appears film film screen radiography replaced phosphor plate radiography recently digital radiography dr eos imaging two latest systems x rays strike sensors converts signals generated digital information transmitted converted image displayed computer screen digital radiography sensors shape plate eos system slot scanning system linear sensor vertically scans patient plain radiography imaging modality available first years radiology

Applied science
Medicine and health
Radiology


multiple pregnancies twins triplets etc color flow doppler ultrasound measures severity peripheral vascular disease used cardiologists dynamic evaluation heart heart valves major vessels stenosis example carotid arteries may warning sign impending stroke clot embedded deep one inner veins legs found via ultrasound dislodges travels lungs resulting potentially fatal pulmonary embolism ultrasound useful guide performing biopsies minimize damage surrounding tissues drainages


certified either diagnostic radiology radiation oncology american college veterinary radiology united kingdom radiology extremely competitive speciality uk attracting applicants broad range backgrounds applicants welcomed directly foundation programme well completed higher training recruitment selection training post clinical radiology posts england scotland wales done annual nationally coordinated process lasting november march process applicants required pass specialty recruitment assessment sra test


example germany parallel interventional society began break free dr society uk interventional radiology approved sub specialty clinical radiology many countries interventional radiology society also european wide cardiovascular interventional radiological society europe whose aim support teaching science research clinical practice field hosting meetings educational workshops promoting patient safety initiatives furthermore society provides examination european board interventional radiology ebir highly valuable qualification interventional radiology based


happen well geochemistry speleothems cave cartography creation accurate detailed map one common technical activities undertaken within cave cave maps called ' 'surveys'' used compare caves length depth volume may reveal clues speleogenesis provide spatial reference scientific study assist visitors route finding cave biology caves provide home many unique biota cave ecologies diverse sharply distinct surface habitats generally however deeper cave becomes rarefied

Natural science
Earth science
Speleology


mid time managers ge perplexed employment appliance plants kentucky exhibited significant three year cycle business cycle judged insufficient explanation employment instability hand simulations calculations stock flow feedback structure ge plants included existing corporate decision making structure hiring layoffs forrester able show instability ge employment due internal structure firm external force business cycle hand simulations start

Applied science
Business
Systems science
System dynamics


represented causal loop diagram causal loop diagram simple map system constituent components interactions capturing interactions consequently feedback loops see figure causal loop diagram reveals structure system understanding structure system becomes possible ascertain system 's behavior certain time period causal loop diagram new product introduction may look follows frame two feedback loops diagram positive reinforcement labeled r loop right indicates


years declining sales later years however general causal loop diagram specify structure system sufficiently permit determination behavior visual representation alone stock flow diagrams causal loop diagrams aid visualizing system 's structure behavior analyzing system qualitatively perform detailed quantitative analysis causal loop diagram transformed stock flow diagram stock flow model helps studying analyzing system quantitative way models usually built simulated using computer


chinese fiction rooted official histories less formal works ''a new account tales world'' ''investigations supernatural'' th th century ''finest flowers world letters'' th century compilation works earlier centuries ''great tang record western regions'' completed pilgrim india xuanzang ''variety dishes youyang'' best known collection classical chinese ''chuanqi'' marvelous tales tang dynasty ''taiping guangji'' preserved corpus tang dynasty tales range

Humanities
Languages and literature
Chinese Literature


writing poets also experimented vernacular new poetic forms free verse sonnet given tradition writing poetry vernacular experiments radical fiction writing also less easily accepted reading public modern poetry flourished especially hands poets like zhu xiang dai wangshu li jinfa wen yiduo ge xiao poets even among may fourth radicals eg yu dafu continued write poetry classical styles may fourth radicalism combined


left wing writers one whose work reflected revolutionary struggle disillusionment late satirist novelist lao ba jin novelist whose work influenced ivan turgenev russian writers ba jin produced trilogy depicted struggle modern youth ageold dominance confucian family system comparison often made ''jia'' family one novels trilogy ''dream red chamber'' many writers became important administrators artistic literary policy


newspaper articles films literary works drew attention problems bureaucratism authoritarianism within ranks party shocked level discontent mao 's anti rightist movement put large numbers intellectuals called thought reform sent labor camps time great leap forward government increased insistence use socialist realism combined called revolutionary realism revolutionary romanticism despite literary control strictures limit subjects contemporary china glories revolution writers produced widely read novels energy


commitment examples new socialist literature include ''the builder'' chuangye shi liu qing ''the song youth'' qing chun zhi ge yang mo ''tracks snowy forest'' lin hai xue yuan qu bo ''keep red flag flying'' hong qi pu liang bin ''the red sun'' hong ri wu qiang ''red crag'' luo guangbin yang yiyan cultural revolution mao 's wife jiang qing led campaign feudal bourgeois culture stage productions allowed


eight model operas combined traditional western forms great fanfare given politically orthodox films heroic novels hao ran period long regarded cultural wasteland suggest leading works energy still interest mao zedong also written several poems ''changsha'' '' '' ''double ninth festival'' '' '' ''long march'' '' '' ''snow'' '' '' ''the people 's liberation army occupied nanjing'' '' '' ''swimming'' '' '' ''ode plum blossom'' '' '' opening reform


''dreams ding village'' deals plight hiv aids victims may fourth movement women writers came fore many chen ran wei hui wang anyi hong ying explore female subjectivity radically changing society neo realism another important current post tiananmen fiction instance writings liu heng chi li fang fang dun zhu wen according martin woesler trends contemporary chinese literature include 'cult literature' guo jingming 's ''cry sad river'' vagabond literature xu zechen 's ''running beijing''


france continuing write primarily chinese gao xingjian became first chinese writer receive nobel prize literature mo yan also received nobel prize literature children 's author cao wenxuan awarded hans christian andersen award first chinese author win top international children 's book prize although several chinese authors previously nominated online literature new millennium online literature china plays much important role united states rest world books


university press https webarchiveorg web http wwwcupcolumbiaedu static cai sound files web page accompanying cai pdf mp files poems cup 's https webarchiveorg web http wwwcupcolumbiaedu static cai sound files wkbk web page accompanying cui includes mp files modern chinese translations dozens history literature chinese philosophy china fiction


''a'' ''b'' ''a'' turing reducible ''b'' many one reducible ''b'' shown every computably enumerable set many one reducible halting problem thus halting problem complicated computably enumerable set respect many one reducibility respect turing reducibility post asked whether ''every'' computably enumerable set either computable turing equivalent halting problem whether computably enumerable set turing degree intermediate two intermediate results post defined natural types computably

Formal science
Computer science
Theory of computation
Computability theory


either halting problem complement many one reducible ''e'' mapped using many one reduction ''e'' see rice 's theorem detail many index sets even complicated halting problem type sets classified using arithmetical hierarchy example index set fin class finite sets level sub sub index set rec class recursive sets level sub sub index set cofin cofinite sets also


called ''priority argument'' method primarily used construct computably enumerable sets particular properties use method desired properties set constructed broken infinite list goals known ' 'requirements'' satisfying requirements cause set constructed desired properties requirement assigned natural number representing priority requirement assigned important priority second important set constructed


every set satisfies property neither turing degree computable sets turing degree halting problem post find property solution problem applied priority methods instead harrington soare found eventually property automorphism problems another important question existence automorphisms computability theoretic structures one structures one computably enumerable sets inclusion modulo finite difference structure ''a'' ''b'' set difference ''b'' nbsp minus nbsp ''a'' finite maximal sets


sets many one equivalent halting problem besides lattice computably enumerable sets automorphisms also studied structure turing degrees sets well structure turing degrees ce sets cases cooper claims constructed nontrivial automorphisms map degrees degrees construction however verified colleagues believe construction contains errors question whether nontrivial automorphism turing degrees still one main unsolved questions


technique play writing'' charlton andrews refers european german traditions dramaturgy understanding dramatic composition foundational work western theatrical tradition ''poetics'' aristotle written c bce analyzes genre tragedy aristotle considers ''oedipus rex'' c bce quintessential dramatic work analyzes relations among character action speech gives examples good plots considers role audience response aspect theatrical form rules referred today aristotelian drama ''poetics'' aristotle discusses many key concepts greek drama

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Dramaturgy


entitled royalties case ultimately settled court thomson receiving undisclosed sum threatened remove material production see also dramatic structure ''writing drama'' whose original title la dramaturgie references reading external links https webarchiveorg web http zakkadk euroscreenwriters articles history dramaturgy htm brief history hollywood dramaturgy modern screenplay structure http www upsedu professionalorgs dramaturgy dramaturgy northwest http wwwlmdaorg literary managers dramaturgs americas http wwwdramaturgycouk dramaturgs' network dramaturgy uk theatre drama


fit interests needs biological ecologists traditionally reluctant study human ecology gravitating instead allure wild nature human ecology history focusing attention humans' impact biotic world ref name young ref name mcdonnell ref paul sears early proponent applying human ecology addressing topics aimed population explosion humanity global resource limits pollution published comprehensive account human ecology discipline saw vast explosion problems humans creating environment reminded us important


linkage field home economics work ellen swallow richards among others however early number universities began rename home economics departments schools colleges human ecology programs part name change response perceived difficulties term home economics modernizing society reflects recognition human ecology one initial choices discipline become home economics ref name cornell ref current human ecology programs include university wisconsin school human ecology cornell university college


systems ecologically interrelated naturally resilient human civilization transitioned planet anthropocene epoch ecological state earth deteriorating rapidly detriment humanity ref name rockstr ref world 's fisheries oceans example facing dire challenges threat global collapse appears imminent serious ramifications well humanity ref name jackson ref anthropocene yet classified official epoch current evidence suggest epoch scale boundary crossed within last two centuries ref name zalasiewicz ecology planet threatened


anthroposphere collective consciousness scale analytical tool ecological civilization references reading cohen j ''how many people earth support'' new york norton co dyball r newell b ''understanding human ecology systems approach sustainability'' london england routledge eisenberg e ''the ecology eden'' new york knopf hansson lo b jungen eds ''human responsibility global change'' g teborg sweden university g teborg hens l rj borden suzuki g caravello eds ''research human ecology interdisciplinary overview'' brussels belgium vrije universiteit brussel vub press marten gg


indus valley civilization archaeologists unearthed one terracotta doll detachable head capable manipulation string dating bc ref name g b ghosh massey banerjee page ref another figure terracotta monkey could manipulated stick achieving minimum animation cases ref name g b puppets described epic ''mahabharata'' tamil literature sangam era various literary works dating late centuries bc early centuries ad including edicts ashoka ref name g b ghosh massey banerjee pp ref works like ''natya shastra'' ''kama sutra'' elaborate

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Puppetry


puppetry detail ref name g b ghosh massey banerjee pages ref china history puppetry dating back years originally ''pi yung xi'' theatre lantern shadows commonly known today chinese shadow theatre song dynasty ad puppets played social classes including courts yet puppeteers europe considered lower social stratum ref name blumenthal taiwan budaixi puppet shows somewhat similar japanese bunraku occur puppeteers working background underground experienced puppeteers manipulate puppets


carved painted costumed wooden puppets gallery mode packed heights file b schattenpuppe zhongkui peking jpg chinese shadow puppet beijing style file b stockpuppen abt wei eschlange schwarzeschlangejpg chinese stick puppets file hanuman ravana tholu bommalata shadow puppet tradition andhra pradesh indiajpg hanuman ravana ''togalu gombeyaata'' shadow puppet tradition southern part india file sanbasopuppetjpg sanbaso bunraku puppet tonda puppet troupe japan file osonowikijpg character osono play ''hade sugata onna maiginu'' gallery korea 's tradition puppetry thought come china oldest historical evidence puppetry korea comes letter written ad choe seung roe king ref


puppeteers support control puppets creating appearance puppets moving water origin form puppetry dates back seven hundred years rice fields would flood villagers would entertain puppet show competitions vietnamese villages eventually led creation secretive exclusive puppet societies philippines first developed art puppetry spanish colonial period oldest known filipino puppetry ''carrillo'' also known ''kikimut'' ''titire'' ''potei'' first recorded involves small carts used puppet plays


figures made cardboard utilized shadow plays ref name wepaunimaorg https wepaunimaorg en philippines ref late another filipino puppetry developed ''higantes'' giant papier ch puppets numbering hundred paraded town higantes festival puppets made devotion san clemente mockery colonial era land owners discriminated filipinos various traditions connected ''higantes'' since th century multiple puppet arts developed philippines ref name wepaunimaorg notable filipino puppeteer amelia lape bonifacio burma today called myanmar elaborate form puppet shows called yoke th evolved based


light screen make silhouettes colourful shadows case may viewers sit front screen tradition shadow puppets survives orissa kerala andhra pradesh karnataka maharashtra tamil nadu ''tholpavakoothu'' ''tolpava koothu'' tradition shadow puppetry unique kerala india shadow theatre karnataka known ''togalu gombeyatta'' togalu gombeyaata andhra pradesh puppets mostly small size puppets however differ size according social status instance large size kings


puppet organisation national marionette theatre prague repertoire mainly features marionette production mozart 's opera ''don giovanni'' production period costumes th century setting numerous companies including buchty loutky cakes puppets founded marek ka ref name dubska puppets used extensively animated films since ref name dubska ji trnka acknowledged leader area ref name dubska miroslav trejtnar master puppeteer teacher traditional czech marionette making skills czech slovak puppetry included unesco intangible cultural heritage lists th century throughout period


knowing whole world closely related opinion relations items ''internal relations'' properties nature items russell along wittgenstein response promulgated logical atomism doctrine ''external relations'' belief world consists ''independent'' facts russell early career along collaborator alfred north whitehead much influenced gottlob frege developed predicate logic allowed much greater range sentences parsed logical form possible using ancient aristotelian logic frege also influential

Humanities
Philosophy
Philosophical traditions and schools
Analytic philosophy


positivism analytic philosophy anglophone countries logical positivists typically considered philosophy minimal function philosophy concerned clarification thoughts rather distinct subject matter positivists adopted verification principle according every meaningful statement either analytic capable verified experience caused logical positivists reject many traditional problems philosophy especially metaphysics ontology meaningless ordinary language world war ii late analytic philosophy became involved ordinary language analysis resulted


subjects social political philosophy aesthetics philosophy history became marginal topics english language philosophy period time utilitarianism non skeptical type ethics remain popular however influence logical positivism began decrease mid century analytic philosophers renewed interest ethics gem anscombe 's modern moral philosophy sparked revival aristotle 's virtue ethical approach john rawls 's ''a theory justice'' restored interest kantian ethical philosophy today contemporary normative ethics dominated three schools consequentialism virtue ethics deontology applied ethics significant


religion'' harris noted pages volume handbook contemporary philosophy religion ref study ethics early analytic philosophy tended avoid study philosophy religion largely dismissing per logical positivists subject part metaphysics therefore meaningless demise logical positivism renewed interest philosophy religion prompting philosophers like william alston john mackie alvin plantinga robert merrihew adams richard swinburne antony flew introduce new problems study classical topics nature miracles theistic arguments problem


history defence'' generally considered represent genesis school book cohen used logical linguistic analysis clarify defend marx 's materialist conception history prominent analytical marxists include economist john roemer social scientist jon elster sociologist erik olin wright work later philosophers furthered cohen 's work bringing bear modern social science methods rational choice theory supplement cohen 's use analytic philosophical techniques interpretation marxian theory cohen would later engage directly rawlsian political philosophy advance


colonial past missions christians often attempted use political economic power evangelism many missiologists disavowing methods attempt construct new paradigm employ imperialistic approaches lead language cultural imposition literature bevans stephen schroeder roger ''constants context theology mission today'' maryknoll new york orbis books wrogemann henning ''theologies mission'' downer grove illinois intervarsity press see also list missiologists doctor missiology references practical theology christian missions

Applied science
Divinity
Field ministry
Missiology


dominance hierarchy ref name strum ref emerging female point view resulted reanalysis aggression reproductive access dominance affect primate societies schiebinger also accused sociobiologists producing corporate primate described female baboons briefcases strategically competitive aggressive contrasts notion men competitive aggressive observations repeatedly demonstrated female apes monkeys also form stable dominance hierarchies alliances male counterparts females display aggression exercise sexual choice compete resources mates territory like male counterparts ref name schiebinger londa six features feminist science

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Primatology


regarding innate versus acquired behaviors biology psychology time concept innate trait something recognized studying psychology individual ref name ref however redefinition innateness time progressed behaviors considered innate could analyzed behaviors interacted psychological aspect individual diminished popularity behaviorist model ethology reemerged leading train thought within psychology allowing subject language innate human behavior examined within scope psychology ref name

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Psycholinguistics


language cannot learned humans possess innate language faculty access called universal grammar innatist perspective began noam chomsky 's highly critical review bf skinner 's ''verbal behavior'' review helped start called ''cognitive revolution'' psychology chomsky posited humans possess special innate ability language complex syntactic features recursion hard wired brain abilities thought beyond grasp even intelligent social non humans chomsky asserted children


acquiring language vast search space explore among possible human grammars evidence children received sufficient input learn rules language hence must innate mechanism endows humans ability learn language according innateness hypothesis language faculty defines human language makes faculty different even sophisticated forms animal communication field linguistics psycholinguistics since defined pro con reactions chomsky view favor chomsky still holds


human ability use language specifically ability use recursion qualitatively different sort animal ability ability may resulted favorable mutation adaptation skills originally evolved purposes view language must learned especially popular well represented mentalistic theories jean piaget empiricist rudolf carnap likewise behaviorist school psychology puts forth point view language behavior shaped conditioned response hence learned view language


learned recent resurgence inspired emergentism view challenges innate view scientifically unfalsifiable say cannot tested increase computer technology since researchers able simulate language acquisition using neural network models language comprehension structures uses language related formation ontological insights see system structured cooperation language users use conceptual semantic deference order exchange meaning knowledge well give meaning language thereby examining describing semantic processes


executive judicial legislative branches government united states except positions uniformed services early th century government jobs held pleasure president person could fired time spoils system meant jobs used support political parties changed slow stages pendleton civil service reform act subsequent laws almost two thirds us federal work force appointed based merit qualifications measured tests certain senior

Applied science
Public administration
Civil service


officers staff also civil servants total employment public sector uk million according uk 's office national statistics class wikitable sortable category central government local government health service total police defence health social total civil servants devolved government northern ireland part home civil service constitute separate northern ireland civil service employees foreign commonwealth office members


software also potentially hardware example formal specification operational semantics observed behavior concrete system compared behavior specification executable simulatable additionally operational commands specification may amenable direct translation executable code formal specification axiomatic semantics preconditions postconditions specification may become assertions executable code verification formal verification use software tools prove properties formal specification prove formal model

Formal science
Computer science
Logic in computer science
Formal methods


formal methods include b method specification languages used automated theorem proving raise z notation functional programming property based testing allowed mathematical specification testing exhaustive testing expected behaviour individual functions object constraint language specializations java modeling language allowed object oriented systems formally specified necessarily formally verified concurrent software systems petri nets process algebra finite state machines based automata theory see also virtual finite state machine event driven finite state machine allow executable software


external forces large groups particles known assemble thermodynamically stable structurally well defined arrays quite reminiscent one seven crystal systems found metallurgy mineralogy eg face centered cubic body centered cubic etc fundamental difference equilibrium structure spatial scale unit cell lattice parameter particular case molecular self assembly found widely biological systems provides basis wide variety complex biological structures includes emerging class mechanically superior biomaterials based microstructural features designs found nature thus

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Materials Science and Engineering
Biomaterials


conduits surgical sutures clips staples wound closure pins screws fracture stabilisation surgical mesh biomaterials must compatible body often issues biocompatibility must resolved product placed market used clinical setting biomaterials usually subjected requirements undergone new drug therapies ref name meyers ref ref name espinosa ref manufacturing companies also required ensure traceability products defective product discovered others batch


ongoing development insights ''' biomaterials interact human body ''' eventually ''' interactions determine clinical success medical device pacemaker hip replacement ''' modern medical devices prostheses often made one material might always sufficient talk biocompatibility specific material surgical implantation biomaterial body triggers organism inflammatory reaction associated healing damaged tissue depending upon composition implanted material surface implant mechanism fatigue chemical


associate possible roles potential voices currently several different systems use within classical music including german ''fach'' system choral music system among many others system universally applied accepted ref name stark ref however classical music systems acknowledge seven different major voice categories women typically divided three groups soprano mezzo soprano contralto men usually divided four groups countertenor tenor baritone bass considering voices pre pubescent children eighth term treble applied within major categories several sub categories identify specific vocal qualities

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Singing


pattern vocal folds certain series pitches certain type sound speech pathologists identify four vocal registers based physiology laryngeal function vocal fry register modal register falsetto register whistle register view also adopted many vocal pedagogues ref name mckinney vocal resonation cross section head neck '''vocal resonation''' process basic product phonation enhanced timbre intensity air filled cavities passes way outside air various terms


coordination individuals develop voices careful systematic practice songs vocal exercises vocal exercises several purposes including ref name mckinney warming voice extending vocal range lining voice horizontally vertically acquiring vocal techniques legato staccato control dynamics rapid figurations learning sing wide intervals comfortably singing trills singing melismas correcting vocal faults vocal pedagogists instruct students exercise voices intelligent manner singers thinking constantly kind sound making kind


sensations feeling singing ref name appelman learning sing activity benefits involvement instructor singer hear sounds inside head others hear outside therefore guide tell student kinds sounds producing guides singer understand internal sounds correspond desired sounds required style singing student aims create health benefits physical works lungs tones intercostals


muscles breathing muscles known breath support mechanism amount breath pressure delivered vocal folds resistance pressure dynamic level sound ' 'space'' factor nbsp space refers size inside mouth position palate larynx generally speaking singer 's mouth opened wider higher sings internal space position soft palate larynx widened relaxing throat vocal pedagogists describe feeling like


forms styles often labeled within particular genre music genres include popular music art music religious music secular music fusions genres within larger genres many subgenres example popular music would encompass blues jazz country music easy listening hip hop rock music several genres may also subgenre within subgenre vocalese scat singing jazz popular traditional music many modern pop musical groups lead singer performs primary vocals melody song opposed


required perform elaborately choreographed dance routines sing headset microphones careers sketches artist marguerite martyn women trying chorus delmar theater st louis may quotations pictured salaries working conditions vocalists vary great deal jobs music fields music education choir conductors tend based full time salaried positions singing jobs tend based contracts individual shows performances sequence shows aspiring singers vocalists must


music jobs composing music producing songwriting singers put videos youtube streaming apps singers market buyers vocal talent auditions front music director depending style vocal music person trained talent buyers seek may record company r representatives music directors choir directors nightclub managers concert promoters cd dvd excerpts vocal performances used demonstrate singer 's skills singers hire agent manager help seek


within confines second broad segment defined gap genes segment polarity genes define another segments dividing pre existing segments anterior posterior halves using gradient hedgehog wnt homeotic hox genes use segments pinpoints specific types cell differentiation histological developments correspond cell type humans humans bilateral animals holoblastic rotational cleavage humans also deuterostomes regard humans term embryo refers ball dividing cells moment

Natural science
Biology
Developmental biology
Embryology


alcmaeon croton says milk produced mammals analogous white fowl egg diogenes apollonia claimed mass flesh forms first followed development bone nerves diogenes able recognize placenta nutritional source growing fetus claimed development males took four months development females took five months think embryo alive alcmaeon also made contributions first person reported practiced


men th day women embryo referred ''embryo informatus'' period reached referred ''embryo formatus'' notion originating greeks male embryo developed faster remained various authors experimentally disproven andreas ottomar goelicke various patristic literature backgrounds ranging nestorian monophysite chalcedonian discuss choose three different conceptions relation soul embryo according one view soul pre exists enters embryo moment conception


''prohyparxis'' according second view soul enters existence moment conception ' 'synhyparxis'' third view soul enters body formed ''methyparxis'' first option proposed origen increasingly rejected fourth century hand two options equally accepted point second position appears proposed response origen 's notion pre existing soul sixth century second position also increasingly seen origenist rejected grounds


still wondered however body united soul moment soul created whether came later syriac author babai argued former basis latter hardly better adoptionism maximus confessor ridiculed aristotelian notion development soul basis would make humans parents plants animals held ' 'synhyparxis'' regarded two positions incorrect extremes th century chalcedonian discussion embryology slight works


part discussions related impurity mother childbirth embryo described ''peri habbetten'' fruit body developed various stages ''golem'' formless rolled ' 'shefir meruqqam'' embroidered foetus ''ubbar'' something carried ''walad'' child ''walad shel qayama'' viable child ''ben kallu khadashaw'' child whose months completed mystical notions regarding embryology appear sefer yetzirah text book job relating fetus forming analogy curdling milk cheese cited babylonian


approach apply evolutionary psychology principles economics argued explain problems inconsistencies biases rational choice theory basic economic concepts utility may better viewed due preferences maximized evolutionary fitness ancestral environment necessarily current one ref name aep paul h rubin c monica capra evolutionary psychology economics ref predecessors mid th century karl marx presented schema stages historical development introducing notion human nature constant determinative nature

Social science
Economics
Evolutionary economics


thus may rational place greater value losses gains ref name aep people sometimes cooperative altruistic predicted economic theory may explained mechanisms reciprocal altruism group selection cooperative behavior evolutionary approach may also explain differences groups males less risk averse females since males variable reproductive success females unsuccessful risk seeking may limit reproductive success sexes males may potentially increase reproductive success much females successful risk seeking frequency dependent selection may explain


due exploitation rather due individual differences productivity may easily cause poor economic policies especially since individual voters incentives make effort studying societal economics instead relying intuitions since individual 's vote counts little since politicians may reluctant take stand intuitive views incorrect widely held ref name aep see also behavioral economics complexity economics creative destruction cultural economics eaepe ecological model competition evolutionary socialism hypergamy institutional economics population dynamics innovation system non equilibrium economics universal darwinism evolutionary


remained germany mackinder feared ninety years ago partnership russia cold war kissinger argues sides atlantic recognized unless america organically involved europe would later obliged involve circumstances would far less favorable sides atlantic even true today germany become strong existing european institutions cannot strike balance germany european partners europe even assistance germany manage russia

Social science
Political science
Geopolitics


later revised mark northern eurasia pivot keeping area marked heartland sir halford mackinder 's heartland theory initially received little attention outside world geography thinkers would claim subsequently influenced foreign policies world powers scholars look mackinder critical lenses accept organic strategist tried build foreign policy vision britain eurocentric analysis historical geography ref name formulation heartland theory set article entitled geographical pivot history published


profit trade would pay merchant marine unlike land power geopolitical theory ratzel criticized sweeping interpretation human history geography simple mechanistic critically also underestimated importance social organization development power ref name ref association german geopolitik nazism world war thoughts rudolf kjell n ratzel picked extended number german authors karl haushofer erich obst hermann lautensach otto maull karl haushofer


bassin reveals popular views important ways misleading incorrect despite numerous similarities affinities two doctrines geopolitics always held suspect national socialist ideologists understandable underlying philosophical orientation geopolitics comply national socialism geopolitics shared ratzel 's scientific materialism geographic determinism held human society determined external influences face qualities held innately individuals groups reduced significance national socialism rejected principle materialism determinism also elevated innate


policy compromise russia frame eurasian alliance ''en vogue'' among european extreme right populists supports idea multi polar world including balanced relationship china us french philosopher michel foucault 's dispositif introduced purpose biopolitical research also adopted field geopolitical thought plays role russia geopolitical stance adopted russia traditionally informed eurasian perspective russia 's location provides degree continuity tsarist soviet geostrategic stance position


central bank influences interest rates expanding contracting monetary base consists currency circulation banks' reserves deposit central bank central banks three main methods monetary policy open market operations discount rate reserve requirements key interest rates refinancing operations far visible obvious power many modern central banks influence market interest rates contrary popular belief rarely set rates fixed number although mechanism differs country country use similar mechanism based

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy
Monetary policy


example central bank might set target rate overnight lending rates equivalent risk five year bonds might cases inverted yield curves even short term rate many central banks one primary headline rate quoted central bank rate practice tools rates used one rigorously targeted enforced meeting federal open market committee eccles building washington dc rate central bank lends money indeed


bank east asia branch hong kong caused malicious rumours historically bank reserves formed small fraction deposits system called fractional reserve banking banks would hold small percentage assets form cash reserves insurance bank runs time process regulated insured central banks legal reserve requirements introduced th century attempt reduce risk banks overextending suffering bank runs could lead knock effects


since march ecb 's president mario draghi said found concept interesting idea also promoted prominent former central bankers stanley fischer philipp hildebrand paper published blackrock france economists philippe martin xavier ragot french council economic analysis think tank attached prime minister 's office envisaged use milton friedman called helicopter money whereby central bank would make direct transfers citizens order lift inflation central bank 's intended target


rate stabilization second another specificity international optimal monetary policy issue strategic interactions competitive devaluations due cross border spillovers quantities prices therein national authorities different countries face incentives manipulate terms trade increase national welfare absence international policy coordination even though gains international policy coordination might small gains may become relevant balanced incentives international noncooperation ref name corsetti g pp third open economies face policy trade offs asset market distortions prevent global efficient allocation even though


consists redressing demand imbalances correcting international relative prices cost inflation corsetti dedola leduc ref name corsettidedolaleduc summarize status quo research international monetary policy prescriptions optimal monetary policy thus target combination inward looking variables output gap inflation currency misalignment cross country demand misallocation leaning wind misaligned exchange rates international imbalances main factor country money status developing countries developing countries may problems establishing effective operating monetary policy primary difficulty developing countries


words central bank may inflation target given year inflation turns central bank typically submit explanation bank england exemplifies trends became independent government bank england act adopted inflation target rpi revised cpi success inflation targeting united kingdom attributed bank england 's focus transparency ref name imf ref bank england leader


circulations basis fundamental principles physics objectives studies incorporate improving weather forecasting developing methods predicting seasonal interannual climate fluctuations understanding implications human induced perturbations eg increased carbon dioxide concentrations depletion ozone layer global climate atmospheric physics atmospheric physics application physics study atmosphere atmospheric physicists attempt model earth 's atmosphere atmospheres planets using fluid flow equations chemical models radiation balancing energy transfer processes atmosphere underlying oceans land

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Atmospheric science


order model weather systems atmospheric physicists employ elements scattering theory wave propagation models cloud physics statistical mechanics spatial statistics incorporate high levels mathematics physics atmospheric physics close links meteorology climatology also covers design construction instruments studying atmosphere interpretation data provide including remote sensing instruments united kingdom atmospheric studies underpinned meteorological office divisions us national oceanic atmospheric administration noaa oversee research projects weather modeling involving atmospheric physics us


art literature japan era literature became centered cultural elite nobility monks imperial court particularly patronized poets courtiers ladies waiting reflecting aristocratic atmosphere poetry elegant sophisticated expressed emotions rhetorical style editing resulting anthologies poetry soon became national pastime poem one two standard orderings japanese syllabary also developed early heian period ''the tale genji'' written early th century female courtier murasaki shikibu

Humanities
Languages and literature
Japanese Literature


considered pre eminent novel heian fiction important writings period include poetry anthology ''the pillow book'' ''the pillow book'' written sei sh nagon murasaki shikibu 's contemporary rival essay life loves pastimes nobles emperor 's court another notable piece fictional japanese literature collection thousand stories volumes volumes cover various tales india china japan th century japanese narrative ''the tale bamboo cutter'' considered early example


subsequently western science technology history philosophy art language based primarily dutch books imported via nagasaki polymath hiraga gennai scholar writer popular fiction sugita genpaku japanese scholar known translation kaitai shinsho new book anatomy dutch language anatomy book full blown translation western language first kind japan although minor western influence trickling country dutch settlement nagasaki importation chinese vernacular


futabatei shimei mid meiji period late early classicism ozaki k yamada bimyo k da rohan gained popularity ichiy higuchi rare female writer era wrote short stories powerless women age simple style literary colloquial ky ka izumi favored disciple ozaki pursued flowing elegant style wrote early novels ''the operating room'' literary style later ones including ''the holy man mount'' colloquial language romanticism brought mori gai anthology


mechanization began industrial revolution great britain mid th century rise industrial manufacture changed way objects made urbanisation changed patterns consumption growth empires broadened tastes diversified markets emergence wider middle class created demand fashionable styles much larger heterogeneous population first use term industrial design often attributed industrial designer joseph claude sinel although denied interviews discipline predates least decade christopher dresser

Applied science
Architecture and design
Industrial design


schools universities worldwide diplomas degrees take two four years study study results bachelor industrial design bid bachelor science bsc bachelor fine arts bfa afterwards bachelor programme extended postgraduate degrees master design master fine arts others master arts master science definition industrial design studies function form connection product user environment generally industrial design professionals work small scale design rather overall design complex systems buildings ships


interest contemporary linguistic anthropology continues research three paradigms described documentation languages study language context study identity linguistic means third paradigm study anthropological issues particularly rich area study current linguistic anthropologists identity intersubjectivity great deal work linguistic anthropology investigates questions sociocultural identity linguistically discursively linguistic anthropologist kulick done relation identity example series settings first village called gapun northern papua new guinea ref name kulick kulick

Social science
Anthropology
Linguistic anthropology


filipino gay experiences america linguistic strategies transnational context beyond lavender lexicon authenticity imagination appropriation lesbian gay language ed william l leap new york gordon breach mendoza denton norma homegirls language cultural practice among latina youth gangs john wiley sons rampton ben crossing language ethnicity among adolescents longman zimman lal jenny l davis joshua raclaw queer excursions retheorizing binaries language gender sexuality oxford university press ethnopoetics ethnopoetics method recording text versions oral poetry narrative performances ie verbal


form aerobic exercise uses low elevated platform step height tailored individual needs inserting risers step aerobics classes offered many gyms step aerobics developed gin miller around knee injury miller consulted orthopedic doctor recommended strengthen muscles supporting knee stepping milk crate developed step regimen aerobics using dumbbells step aerobics also involved dancing games ''dance dance revolution'' ''in groove'' wii fit moves techniques

Human physical performance and recreation


'''new zealand literature''' literature oral written produced people new zealand often deals new zealand themes people places written predominantly new zealand english features ori culture use ori language arrival settlement europeans new zealand th century ori culture strong oral tradition early european settlers wrote experiences travelling exploring new zealand concept new zealand literature distinct english literature originate th century authors began

Humanities
Languages and literature
New Zealand Literature


image distinguishes ornamented verse country previously produced ref name octcl ref edith joan lyttleton wrote gb lancaster new zealand 's commercially successful writer period known epic colonial romances herbert guthrie smith 's ''tutira story new zealand sheep station'' new zealand 's first significant environmentalist publication remains classic ecological writing michael king said still best example genre new zealand writing starting become established assisted growth universities small


anthology ''into world light'' edited ihimaera long collected work ori writers editors observed publishers mid th century reluctant publish books ori writers belief ori n't read books ref name ocnzl ref grace first ori woman writer publish short story collection ''waiariki '' since received international awards acclaim books adults children ref name development keri hulme alan duff best known ori writers follow grace ihimaera duff known


hoe ''encircled lands'' ref name questioning ref historian michael king began career writing biographies notable ori people including biographies te puea h rangi whina cooper mid aware importance allowing ori voices speak wrote meant non ori new zealander ''being p keh '' published biographies frank sargeson janet frame ref name questioning ''penguin history new zealand'' popular new zealand book named ''the new zealand herald'' best book


preceding decade rose lu one emerging asian new zealand writers published series essays growing new zealand called ''all live islands'' received creative nonfiction prize international institute modern letters victoria university wellington ref name ref children 's young adult literature margaret mahy winning book ''the moon farmer mcphee'' new zealand post children 's book awards left upright margaret mahy joy cowley first children 's books published became prolific beloved authors made


zealand explored ori themes disintegration ori identity ''the pohutakawa tree'' ''awatea'' ref name nz history ref name brit ck mervyn thompson controversial playwright wrote plays autobiographical political elements ''o temperance '' ref name brit ck group downstage actors left found circa theatre produced ''glide time'' roger hall one first productions ref name explosion hall became new zealand 's commercially successful playwright ''glide time'' became new zealand icon turned tv sitcom ref name explosion ref name years greg mcgee 's ''foreskin 's lament''


panellists writers chinese heritage rosabel tan gregory kan chen chen clear presence new zealand chinese writers ref name literary events include writers' section hamilton gardens summer festival held february march ref name verb wellington writers readers programme new zealand festival held every two years march ref name aspiring conversations authors festival colour held april w naka new zealand mountain film book festival focusing adventurous sports lifestyles held every two years queenstown


cultural mores customs society within realm codified law generally two forms law courts concerned civil laws rules regulations govern transactions grievances individual citizens criminal law concerned actions dangerous harmful society whole prosecution pursued individual rather state purpose criminal law provide specific definition constitutes crime prescribe punishments committing crime criminal law

Applied science
Public administration
Criminal justice


use juries rely theological military authorities issue verdicts cases disposed without need trial fact vast majority accused confesses guilt shorter process may employed judgment may rendered quickly nations america allow plea bargaining accused pleads guilty nolo contendere guilty may accept diversion program reduced punishment prosecution 's case weak exchange cooperation accused people


destroy court 's credibility people argue often byzantine rules governing courtroom conduct processes restrict layman 's ability participate essentially reducing legal process battle lawyers case criticism decision based less sound justice lawyer 's eloquence charisma particular problem lawyer performs substandard manner jury process another area frequent criticism mechanisms guard poor judgment incompetence part layman jurors judges


offer schooling job training prisoners chance learn vocation thereby earn legitimate living returned society religious institutions also presence many prisons goal teaching ethics instilling sense morality prisoners prisoner released time served released parole means released restrictions greater someone probation numerous forms punishment commonly used conjunction place


study criminal justice distinct criminology involves study crime social phenomenon causes crime criminal behavior aspects crime emerged academic discipline beginning berkeley police chief august vollmer established criminal justice program university california berkeley vollmer 's work carried student ow wilson led efforts professionalize policing reduce corruption programs established united states indiana university michigan state university san jose state university university washington ref


lack respect police community following urban unrest police placed emphasis community relations enacted reforms increased diversity hiring many police agencies adopted community policing strategies compstat developed new york police department information based system tracking mapping crime patterns trends holding police accountable dealing crime problems compstat since replicated police departments across united states around world problem oriented policing intelligence led policing information led policing strategies also adopted


sub problem basic idea replace infinite dimensional linear problem find math u h math math forall v h phi uv int fv math finite dimensional version find math u v math math forall v v phi uv int fv math math v math finite dimensional subspace math h math many possible choices math v math one possibility leads spectral method however finite element method take math v math space piecewise polynomial functions problem p take interval math math choose math n math values math x math math x x cdots x n x n math

Formal science
Mathematics
Finite element analysis


math l mathbf u mathbf b math math mathbf b b dotsb n math math b j int f v j dx math math j dotsn math discussed entries math l math math math zero basis functions math v k math small support solve linear system unknown math mathbf u math entries matrix math l math need invert zero matrices known sparse matrices efficient solvers problems much efficient actually inverting matrix addition math l math symmetric positive definite technique


conjugate gradient method favored problems large sparse lu decompositions cholesky decompositions still work well instance matlab 's backslash operator uses sparse lu sparse cholesky factorization methods sufficient meshes hundred thousand vertices matrix math l math usually referred stiffness matrix matrix math math dubbed mass matrix general form finite element method general finite element method characterized following process one chooses grid math omega math preceding treatment grid


glivenko instead remain unknown truth value either proved disproved statements disproved deducing contradiction consequence point view intuitionistic logic interpretation two valued logic even finite valued logic familiar sense although intuitionistic logic retains trivial propositions math top bot math classical logic ''proof'' propositional formula considered valid propositional value thus heyting 's notion propositions sets propositional formulae potentially non finite sets proofs heyting algebra semantics classical logic

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Mathematical logic
Intuitionistic logic


must valid every model case proof completeness one valid according intuitionistic logic relation logics intuitionistic logic related duality paraconsistent logic known ''brazilian'' ''anti intuitionistic'' ' 'dual intuitionistic logic'' subsystem intuitionistic logic false axiom removed known minimal logic relation many valued logic kurt g del 's work involving many valued logic showed intuitionistic logic finite valued logic see section titled heyting algebra semantics infinite valued logic interpretation


access risk assessment avoidance higher rate participation riskier sports despite athletes still thought ignore attempt overcome pain overcoming pain seen brave heroic capacity athlete make body seem invincible integral part sports professionalism ignoring pain often key part sport subcultures children also often exposed acute pain injuries ie gymnastics emotion sports emotion always huge part sports

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of sport


important part everyday life office home go skills include teamwork leadership creativity individuality see also history sport women 's sport anti jock movement physical cultural studies harry edwards physical culture fitness culture sociology body fitness fashion outsourced self quantified self exercise trends references reading examines social factors exclude participation sports including poverty age ethnicity gender etc external links http issa org international sociology sport association http wwwnasssorg north american society sociology sport http wwwhumankineticscom ssj ''sociology sport journal'' politics


take weeks complete however item rare fragile exceptionally valuable owning library obligation release interlibrary loan collections volumes especially bound journals one kind manuscripts non circulating meaning may borrowed books may delivered mail courier service photocopies may faxed scanned delivered electronically ''urgent requests'' placed item needed right away sometimes additional fees public libraries usually offer urgent service journal articles interlibrary loan provides users access articles

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Interlibrary loan


said chinese made vaccine based reverse genetics made h n antigens using lot criticism done protected chickens death virus chickens still get infected get drift virus mutates response antibodies situation five six 'flavours' h n bovine spongiform encephalopathy bovine spongiform encephalopathy bse commonly known mad cow disease fatal neurodegenerative

Applied science
Public administration
Agricultural policy


become established management options include replacing susceptible citrus cultivars resistant cultivars applying preventive sprays copper based bactericides destroying infected trees surrounding trees within appropriate radius citrus industry largest fresh fruit exporting industry australia ref name auscitrus ref australia three outbreaks citrus canker three successfully eradicated disease found twice northern territory eradicated time first outbreak every citrus tree north latitude south destroyed taking years eradicate disease ref name dpi department primary industries


raise domestic price imported products barriers give preference domestic producers objectives market intervention national security argue nations interest assuring sufficient domestic production capability meet domestic needs event global supply disruption significant dependence foreign food producers makes country strategically vulnerable event war blockade embargo maintaining adequate domestic capability allows food self sufficiency lessens risk supply shocks due geopolitical events agricultural policies may used support domestic producers


majority land countries policies may encourage land uses rather others interest protecting environment instance subsidies may given particular farming methods forestation land clearance pollution abatement rural poverty poverty relief subsidising farming may encourage people remain land obtain income might relevant agrarian country many peasant farmers may also consideration developed countries poland high unemployment rate much farmland retains large rural population


economists argue taxes levied agriculture organic agriculture uses little pesticides experiences relatively little nitrate runoff encouraged subsidies united states approximately billion annual subsidies went top farmers subsidies linked certain commodities hand organic farming received million help certification million research year time period fair trade advocate fair trade rules ensure poor farmers developing nations produce crops


signatories multilateral trade agreements provisions prohibit practice rich countries subsidize domestic production excess output often given developing world foreign aid process eliminates domestic market agricultural products developing world products obtained free western aid agencies developing nations effects severe small farmers could longer afford basic inputs forced sell land consider farmer ghana used able make living growing rice several years ago ghana


able feed export surplus imports rice developed countries 's cheaper even costs rice producer developed world much produce rice n't make profit crop government pays grow sell cheaply ghana farmer ghana farmer ghana ca n't feed family anymore lyle vanclief former canadian minister agriculture according institute agriculture trade policy corn soybeans cotton wheat


subsidies decoupled production lumped single farm payment diminished distortions created common agricultural policy many critics argue greater focus provision public goods biodiversity clean water needed next major reform expected new long term eu budget coming effect environmental programs us conservation reserve program leases land producers take marginal land production convert back near natural state planting native grasses plants


events first earth day environmentalists started urging philosophers consider philosophical aspects environmental problems two papers published ''science'' crucial impact lynn white 's historical roots ecologic crisis march garrett hardin 's tragedy commons december also influential garett hardin 's later essay called exploring new ethics survival well essay aldo leopold ''a sand county almanac'' called land ethic leopold explicitly claimed roots ecological crisis philosophical first

Humanities
Philosophy
Ethics
Environmental ethics


god humankind accountable god use resources entrusted humankind ultimate values seen light valuable god applies breadth scope caring people matthew environmental issues eg environmental health deuteronomy dynamic motivation love christ controlling corinthians f dealing underlying spiritual disease sin shows selfishness thoughtlessness many countries relationship accountability symbolised harvest thanksgiving bt adeney global ethics new dictionary christian


''tartuffe'' ''le misanthrope'' ''dom juan'' ''l'avare'' ''the miser'' ''le bourgeois gentilhomme'' ''l' cole des femmes'' ''the school wives'' ''le malade imaginaire'' ''the imaginary invalid'' jean racine ''ph dre'' ''andromaque'' ''b r nice'' ''athalie'' marivaux ''jeu de l'amour et du hasard'' beaumarchais ''le barbier de ville'' ''the barber seville'' ''la folle journ e ou le mariage de figaro'' marriage figaro'' alfred jarry ''king ubu'' edmond rostand ''cyrano de bergerac'' jean giraudoux ''the trojan war take place'' jean anouilh ''becket'' ''antigone'' jean paul sartre ''no exit'' eug ne ionesco ''la cantatrice chauve''' ''the bald

Humanities
Languages and literature
French Literature


fran ois ren de chateaubriand ''genius christianity'' ''memoirs beyond grave'' alexis de tocqueville ''democracy america'' fr ric bastiat ''the law'' jules michelet ''histoire de france'' ''la sorci re'' henri bergson ''creative evolution'' albert camus ''the myth sisyphus'' jean paul sartre ''existentialism humanism'' ''being nothingness'' simone de beauvoir ''the second sex'' claude l vi strauss ''tristes tropiques'' emil cioran ''a short history decay'' ''the trouble born'' works french paul ric ur ''freedom nature voluntary involuntary'' michel foucault ''discipline punish''


lejeune dirichlet 's work led later study algebraic number fields ideals published lejeune dirichlet 's lectures number theory ''vorlesungen ber zahlentheorie'' lectures number theory written blockquote although book assuredly based dirichlet 's lectures although dedekind referred book throughout life dirichlet 's book entirely written dedekind part dirichlet 's death edwards blockquote editions ''vorlesungen'' included supplements introducing notion ideal fundamental ring

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Number theory
Algebraic number theory


math v nmid infty math mean finite place considering places field together produces adele ring number field adele ring allows one simultaneously track data available using absolute values produces significant advantages situations behavior one place affect behavior places artin reciprocity law places infinity geometrically geometric analogy places infinity holds function fields curves example let math k mathbb f q math math x k math


group algebraic number field ''k'' finite consequence minkowski 's theorem since finitely many integral ideals norm less fixed positive integer sup page sup order class group called class number often denoted letter ''h'' dirichlet 's unit theorem dirichlet 's unit theorem provides description structure multiplicative group units ''o'' sup sup ring integers ''o'' specifically states ''o'' sup sup isomorphic ''g'' '''z''' sup ''r'' sup ''g'' finite cyclic group consisting


intercession kachina magic religion mana mask miracle medicine modern paganism monotheism mother goddess mythology necromancy new age occult omen poles mythology polytheism prayer principle contagion prophecy reincarnation religious ecstasy ritual sacred food offering sacrifice shamanism spell paranormal supernatural supplication sympathetic magic theism totemism veneration dead western esotericism see also ''anthropological perspectives religion'' archaeology religion ritual cognitive science religion evolutionary origin religions magic religion religious symbolism rite passage sacred profane dichotomy sociology religion symbolic anthropology notes references citations sources chapter projection

Social science
Anthropology
Anthropology Of Religion


metaphor search theory editor last philips editor first z editor link dewi zephaniah phillips title religion explained away series claremont studies philosophy religion location london publisher palgrave macmillan pages isbn doi external links homepage https webarchiveorg web http wwwaaanetorg sections sar sar newsite society anthropology religion within american anthropological association http wwwasuaedu ant faculty murphy wwwhtm anthropology religion page md murphy university alabama andrew lang http wwwpsychanalyse pariscom anthropology religionhtml anthropology religion ''the making religion'' chapter ii longmans green c london new york bombay pp nbsp religious studies


sets difference ''n'' sup sup ''n'' log ''n'' may difference days seconds computation main impetus development computational geometry discipline progress computer graphics computer aided design manufacturing cad cam many problems computational geometry classical nature may come mathematical visualization important applications computational geometry include robotics motion planning visibility problems geographic information systems gis geometrical location search route planning integrated circuit design ic geometry design verification computer aided engineering cae mesh generation computer vision reconstruction

Formal science
Computer science
Algorithms
Computational geometry


points partition space according points closest given points linear programming closest pair points given set points find two smallest distance farthest pair points largest empty circle given set points find largest circle center inside convex hull enclosing none euclidean shortest path connect two points euclidean space polyhedral obstacles shortest path polygon triangulation given polygon partition interior triangles mesh generation boolean operations polygons computational


converted dynamic range searching problem providing addition deletion points dynamic convex hull problem keep track convex hull eg dynamically changing set points ie input points inserted deleted computational complexity class problems estimated time space required construct data structure searched time space modify searched data structure incremental change search space time sometimes extra space answer


campaign conquer iberian peninsula fourteenth century ibn khaldun considered one fathers philosophy history discussed philosophy history society detail ''muqaddimah'' work represents culmination earlier works medieval islamic sociologists spheres islamic ethics political science historiography al farabi c c ibn miskawayh al dawani nasir al din al tusi ref name mowlana h mowlana information arab world ''cooperation south journal'' ''' ''' ref ibn khaldun often criticized idle superstition uncritical acceptance historical

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of history


among important formulations conceptions history trusted social progress jean jacques rousseau 's ''emile'' treatise education art training men enlightenment conceived human species perfectible human nature could infinitely developed well thought pedagogy cyclical conceptions continued nineteenth twentieth centuries works authors oswald spengler nikolay danilevsky paul kennedy conceived human past series repetitive rises falls spengler like butterfield writing reaction carnage first


epochal philosophy way whole philosophy subdivision whole whole apprehended specific modality georg wilhelm friedrich hegel georg wilhelm friedrich hegel philosopher absolute idealism developed dialectic conception history g w f hegel developed complex theodicy ''phenomenology spirit'' based conception history dialectics negative conceived hegel motor history hegel argued history constant process dialectic clash thesis encountering opposing idea


biographies great men history marx 's conception materialist history based class struggle raised attention first time importance social factors economics unfolding history herbert spencer wrote must admit genesis great man depends long series complex influences produced race appears social state race slowly grownbefore remake society society must make social evolutionism inspired enlightenment 's ideal


claimed societies start primitive state gradually become civilised time equated culture technology western civilisation progress arthur gobineau 's ''an essay inequality human races'' argued race ''the'' primary force determining world events intellectual differences human races civilizations decline fall races mixed gobineau 's works large popularity called scientific racism theories developed new imperialism period first world war even herbert butterfield harshly criticized


karl marx often thought exponent economic determinism social institutions like religion culture political system merely products underlying economic system however see history completely deterministic essay ''the eighteenth brumaire louis napoleon'' contains famous formulation marx 's view role individual history ref michel foucault historico political discourse analyzed michel foucault ''society must defended'' considers truth fragile product historical struggle first conceptualized race struggle understood


thus sometimes become target propaganda example historical revisionist attempts plato 's insistence importance education relayed rousseau 's ''emile education'' counterpart ''the social contract'' public education seen republican regimes enlightenment prerequisite masses' progressive emancipation conceived kant ''was ist aufkl rung'' ''what enlightenment'' creation modern education systems instrumental construction nation states also passed elaboration common national history history textbooks one many ways


krugman called application spatial thinking international trade theory new economic geography directly competes approach within discipline geography also called new economic geography name geographical economics suggested alternative history coffee trade worldwide industry early approaches economic geography found seven chinese maps state qin date th century bc greek geographer strabo 's ''geographika'' compiled almost years ago cartography developed geographers illuminated many aspects used today field

Social science
Economics
Economic geography


geography'' focuses building theories spatial arrangement distribution economic activities ''regional economic geography'' examines economic conditions particular regions countries world deals economic regionalization well local economic development ''historical economic geography'' examines history development spatial economic structure using historical data examines centers population economic activity shift patterns regional specialization localization evolve time factors explain changes ''evolutionary economic geography'' adopts evolutionary approach economic geography specifically evolutionary economic geography uses concepts ideas


innovative technology industries people rely computers internet within switch manufacturing based economies digital economy sectors competition makes technological changes robust high technology sectors rely heavily interpersonal relationships trust developing things like software different kinds industrial manufacturing requires intense levels cooperation many different people well use tacit knowledge result cooperation becoming necessity clustering high tech new economy many firms social spatial divisions


conversant across disciplines rational engineering methodology based molecular principles contrast widespread trial error approaches common throughout engineering disciplines rather relying well described poorly understood empirical correlations makeup system properties molecular design approach seeks manipulate system properties directly using understanding chemical physical origins often gives rise fundamentally new materials systems required address outstanding needs numerous fields energy healthcare electronics additionally increased sophistication technology trial error approaches often costly

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Molecular engineering


genetic disorders metabolic engineering modifying metabolism organisms optimize production chemicals eg synthetic genomics protein engineering altering structure existing proteins enable specific new functions creation fully artificial proteins dna functionalized materials assemblies dna conjugated nanoparticle lattices techniques instruments used molecular engineers utilize sophisticated tools instruments make analyze interactions molecules surfaces materials molecular nano scale complexity molecules introduced surface increasing techniques used analyze surface characteristics molecular level


'''ecological economics''' '''bioeconomics''' '''ecolonomy''' '''eco economics''' '''ecol econ''' transdisciplinary interdisciplinary field academic research addressing interdependence coevolution human economies natural ecosystems intertemporally spatially treating economy subsystem earth 's larger ecosystem emphasizing preservation natural capital field ecological economics differentiated environmental economics mainstream economic analysis environment one survey german economists found ecological environmental economics different schools economic thought ecological economists emphasizing strong sustainability rejecting proposition

Social science
Economics
Ecological economics


nature diverse pluralculturism coexistence inseparability nature material value attributed material accumulation instead takes spiritual communitarian approach economic activity ecological swaraj originated india evolving world view human interactions within ecosystem train thought respects physical bio limits non human species pursuing equity social justice direct democracy grassroots leadership social well paired spiritual physical material well movements unique region values seen across globe indigenous traditions


ubuntu philosophy south africa differences mainstream economics ecological economics differs mainstream economics heavily reflects ecological footprint human interactions economy footprint measured impact human activities natural resources wastes generated process ecological economists aim minimize ecological footprint taking account scarcity global regional resources accessibility economy ecological economists prioritise adding natural capital typical capital asset analysis land labor financial capital ecological economists