traditions babylonian qumran traditions ref name sdis philippi 's law process original closed stressed syllables shifts eg 'daughter' sometimes tiberian tradition eg 'truth' ref name bphil ref ref group nb note become pause thus patah vowel pause well context ref absent transcriptions secunda evidence law 's onset predates secunda samaritan tradition philippi 's law applied consistently eg


hebrew 'pata stolen letter ' inserted see ref absent secunda samaritan hebrew present transcriptions jerome ref name ssam ref tiberian tradition ultrashort echo vowel sometimes added clusters first element guttural eg 'he listen' 'his work' 'he make glorious' 'its breadth' ref name b ref group nb evident epenthesis must late phenomenon since short vowel preceding guttural preserved even though

Humanities
Theology
Biblical studies
Biblical Hebrew


becomes open syllable see ref ref group nb less common consonant following guttural begadkefat letter eg 'you take pledge' suggests begadkefat spirantization longer automatic time epenthesis occurred see ref following charts summarize common reflexes proto semitic vowels various stages hebrew class wikitable style text align center proto semitic proto hebrew secunda tiberian babylonian palestinian samaritan sup sup rowspan colspan colspan


two main conjugation types suffix conjugation also called perfect prefix conjugation also called imperfect perfect verb form expressed idea verb completed action viewing start finish whole focusing process verb came completed stating simple fact often used past tense however contexts perfect verb translates present future tenses imperfect portrays verb incomplete action along process


form several distinct diagnoses p factor modelled hierarchical taxonomy psychopathology although researchers initially conceived three factor explanation psychopathology generally subsequent study provided evidence single factor sequentially comorbid recurrent chronic exists continuum severity chronicity ref name caspi ref higher scores p factor dimension found correlated higher levels functional impairment greater incidence problems developmental history diminished early life brain function addition higher levels p factor likely inherited

Social science
Psychology
Psychopathology


british columbia started first undergraduate graduate degree programs geological engineering noting students engineering foundation made first class practising geologists karl terzaghi austrian trained engineer geologist published first text soil mechanics german terzaghi known parent soil mechanics also great interest geology terzaghi considered soil mechanics sub discipline engineering geology terzaghi along redlich kampe published engineering geology text also german need geologist engineering works gained worldwide

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Geotechnical engineering
Engineering geology


man made hazards may great impact civil structures human development background geology provides engineering geologist understanding earth works crucial minimizing earth related hazards engineering geologists also graduate degrees gained specialized education training soil mechanics rock mechanics geotechnics groundwater hydrology civil design two aspects engineering geologists' education provide unique ability understand mitigate hazards associated earth structure interactions scope studies engineering geology investigation studies may performed


formations soil units hazards review geologic literature geologic maps geotechnical reports engineering plans environmental reports stereoscopic aerial photographs remote sensing data global positioning system gps data topographic maps satellite imagery excavation sampling logging earth rock materials drilled borings backhoe test pits trenches fault trenching bulldozer pits geophysical surveys seismic refraction traverses resistivity surveys ground penetrating radar gpr surveys magnetometer surveys electromagnetic surveys high resolution sub bottom profiling geophysical methods deformation monitoring systematic measurement tracking alteration shape dimensions object


result application stress manually automatic deformation monitoring system methods fieldwork typically culminated analysis data preparation engineering geologic report geotechnical report design brief fault hazard seismic hazard report geophysical report ground water resource report hydrogeologic report engineering geology report also prepared conjunction geotechnical report commonly provides geotechnical analysis design recommendations would presented geotechnical report engineering geology report describes objectives methodology references cited


pp kiersh heritage engineering geology first hundred years geological society america centennial special volume legget robert f editor geology cities geological society america reviews engineering geology volume v pages contains nine articles separate authors cities washington dc boston chicago edmonton kansas city new orleans new york city toronto twin cities minnesota legget robert f karrow paul f handbook geology civil engineering mcgraw hill book company pages chapters five appendices illustrations price david george ''engineering geology


effective initially made less restrictive january later removed seemed effect curbing inflation ref name pbs ref incomes policies successful united kingdom world war ii less successful post war era theory incomes policies vary voluntary wage price guidelines mandatory controls like price wage freezes one variant tax based incomes policies tips government fee imposed firms raise prices wages controls allow economists agree credible incomes policy would help prevent inflation however

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy
Incomes policy


prevention ill health work recognizing evaluating controlling risks international occupational hygiene association ioha refers occupational hygiene ''the discipline anticipating recognizing evaluating controlling health hazards working environment objective protecting worker health well safeguarding community large'' term occupational hygiene used uk commonwealth countries well much europe synonymous ''industrial hygiene'' used us latin america countries received initial technical support training us sources term industrial hygiene

Applied science
Medicine and health
Occupational hygiene


health hazards anticipation involves identifying potential hazards workplace introduced uncertainty health hazards ranges reasonable expectations mere speculations however implies industrial hygienist must understand nature changes processes products environments workforces workplaces affect workers' well recognition engineering work practice administrative controls primary means reducing workers` exposure occupational hazards timely recognition hazards minimizes workers' exposure hazards removing reducing hazard 's source isolating workers


hazard information easy use graphical format sampling measurements noise levels using sound level meter component occupational hygiene assessmentan occupational hygienist may use one number commercially available electronic measuring devices measure noise vibration ionizing non ionizing radiation dust solvents gases device often specifically designed measure specific particular type contaminant electronic devices need calibrated use ensure accuracy measurements taken often require system certifying precision


lungs '''respirable''' dust sampled using cyclone dust sampler design sample specific fraction dust aed set flow rate respirable dust fraction dust enters 'deep lung' considered less micrometers aed nuisance inhalable respirable dust fractions sampled using constant volumetric pump specific sampling period knowing mass sample collected volume air sampled concentration fraction sampled given milligrams mg per metre cubed sup sup


methods measure noise including sound level meter slm sound level meter app integrating sound level meter islm impulse sound level meter impulse slm noise dosimeter personal sound exposure meter psem sound level meter slm measures sound level single point time consequently requires multiple measurements taken different times day slm primarily used measuring relatively stable sound levels increased difficulty measuring average sound exposure noise levels vary greatly https wwwcdcgov niosh topics noise apphtml sound level meter app program downloaded


common chronic disease us among workers hearing difficulties caused occupational noise affected tinnitus hearing difficulties tinnitus ototoxic chemicals including solvents metals compounds asphyxiants nitriles pharmaceuticals may contribute hearing loss exposure management controls hierarchy control defines approach used reduce exposure risks protecting workers communities methods include elimination substitution engineering controls isolation ventilation administrative controls personal protective equipment occupational hygienists engineers maintenance management employees consulted selecting designing


safety services ihss ''' gujarat india provided industrial hygiene services industrial hygienist current address industrial hygiene safety services nadiad gujarat india mobile number see also references reading https webarchiveorg web http wwwwhoint occupational health publications en world health organization occupational health publications http ihsservicesin http wwwilocisorg en contilohtml international labour organization encyclopaedia occupational health safety http wwwiloorg public english region ampro cinterfor sid servicio encyclo indexhtm nowiki nowiki http wwwhsegovuk infoserv hselinehtm uk hseline http wwwepagov iaq largebldgs beam indexhtml epa indoor air quality line educator http wwwccohsca topics hazards canada hazard information http wwwilpicom msds indexhtml list msds sites partly commercial https wwwcdcgov niosh npg us niosh pocket guide http wwwatsdrcdcgov us agency toxic substances disease registry http wwwtoxnetnlmnihgov us national library


england force infantry heavy cavalry landed english shore island malta invaded ottoman turks great siege malta forcing defenders retreat fortified cities strategic choke point mediterranean sea loss would menacing western european kingdoms forces urgently raised order relieve island took four months train arm move man amphibious force lift siege philip ii king spain decided

Applied science
Military sciences
Amphibious warfare


russia bomarsund finland august american civil war united states made several amphibious assaults along coastlines confederate states actions hatteras inlet august port royal south carolina first many attacks others occurring roanoke island nc galveston tx fort sumter morris island james island sc several largest clash happened january fort fisher largest powerful fort world time protected entrance wilmington north carolina


bulk troops used amphibious landings first amphibious assault war '''battle bita paka''' september fought south kabakaul island new britain part invasion subsequent occupation german new guinea australian naval military expeditionary force mef shortly outbreak first world war first british amphibious assault war ended disaster november large british indian army force directed launch amphibious assault tanga german east


africa british actions prior assault however alerted germans prepare repel invasion indian forces suffered heavy casualties advanced city forcing withdraw back boats leaving much equipment behind russian army navy also grew adept amphibious warfare black sea conducting many raids bombardments ottoman positions ref name halpern ref october german land naval forces launched amphibious assault code named operation albion islands saaremaa sel hiiumaa dag muhu moon controlled


recommend design landing craft ref name maund prototype motor landing craft designed j samuel white cowes built first sailed weighed tons box like appearance square bow stern prevent fouling propellers craft destined spend time surf possibly beached crude waterjet propulsion system devised white 's designers hotchkiss petrol engine drove centrifugal pump produced jet water pushing craft ahead astern steering according jet


drawing feet forward beaching three separate acts dated february may december congress provided authority construction lsts along host auxiliaries destroyer escorts assorted landing craft enormous building program quickly gathered momentum high priority assigned construction lsts previously laid keel aircraft carrier hastily removed make room several lsts built place keel first lst laid june


ii war pacific include '''europe ''' class wikitable location operation date notes norway operation weser bung german ''unternehmen weser bung'' april german attack norway denmark cross english channel operation sea lion german ''unternehmen seel we'' planned september carried germany failed gain air supremacy postponed indefinitely september battle crete operation mercury german ''unternehmen merkur'' may axis invasion crete primarily airborne assault battle lasted days crimea feodosia landing december soviet


august operation dragoon forced german retreat accelerated liberation france see also preliminary effort operation sitka diversion operation span airborne operations st airborne task force '''pacific ''' class wikitable location operation date notes malaya japanese invasion malaya december following failure implement operation matador japanese troops landed beaches kota bharu philippines philippines campaign december preliminary landings batan island camiguin island north luzon vigan aparri gonzaga northern luzon followed main attack


men supported artillery approximately tanks landed three points along east coast lingayen gulf guadalcanal guadalcanal campaign august tarawa battle tarawa november makin atoll battle makin november philippines philippines campaign october capture gilbert islands marshall islands marianas islands landings leyte mindoro allowed men cross broad beachhead participate battle luzon within days iwo jima


coalition forces able push al shabaab city see also list marines naval infantry forces marines navy raid military seaborne notes references reading alexander joseph h merrill l bartlett ''sea soldiers cold war amphibious warfare '' bartlett merrill l ''assault sea essays history amphibious warfare'' dwyer john b ''commandos sea history amphibious special warfare world war ii korean war'' ireland bernard ''the world encyclopedia amphibious warfare vessels illustrated history modern amphibious warfare''


pressures flows technology evolved pneumatic controllers invented mounted field monitored process controlled valves reduced amount time process operators needed monitor process later years actual controllers moved central room signals sent control room monitor process outputs signals sent final control element valve adjust process needed controllers indicators mounted wall called control board operators stood front

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Electrical Engineering
Electronic engineering
Instrumentation engineering


production levels application cases sensor minor element mechanism digital cameras wristwatches might technically meet loose definition instrumentation record display sensed information circumstances neither would called instrumentation used measure elapsed time race document winner finish line would called instrumentation household simple example instrumentation system mechanical thermostat used control household furnace thus control room temperature typical unit senses


order sensor become hot permit flow gas burner safety sensor becomes cold may indicate flame burner become extinguished prevent continuous leak gas flow stopped electric ovens use temperature sensor turn heating elements temperature low advanced ovens actuate fans response temperature sensors distribute heat cool common toilet refills water tank float closes valve float acting


producing piping instrumentation diagram process may design specify installation wiring signal conditioning may responsible commissioning calibration testing maintenance system research environment common subject matter experts substantial instrumentation system expertise astronomer knows structure universe great deal telescopes optics pointing cameras sensing elements often includes hard knowledge operational procedures provide best results example astronomer often knowledgeable techniques minimize temperature


intellectually closely sciences mathematics humanities ref analytic philosophers rudolf carnap gottlob frege george edward moore bertrand russell moritz schlick ludwig wittgenstein modern asian philosophy various philosophical movements asia arose modern period including new confucianism maoism buddhist modernism kyoto school neo vedanta notes external links

Humanities
History
Philosophical history
Modern philosophy


https webarchiveorg web http wwwphilosophicalgourmetcom analyticasp 'analytic' philosophy today names style philosophy philosophical program set substantive views analytic philosophers crudely speaking aim argumentative clarity precision draw freely tools logic often identify professionally intellectually closely sciences mathematics humanities ref characterized precision thoroughness narrow topic resistance imprecise cavalier discussions broad topics ref name autogenerated b http wwwieputmedu analytichtm analytic philosophy ''internet encyclopedia philosophy'' ref analytic philosophers end th century richard rorty called major

Humanities
History
Philosophical history
Contemporary philosophy


philosophy often characterized critics philosophy lacks rigor analytic philosophy nonetheless certain descriptive rather merely pejorative features seen typically characterize continental philosophy first continental philosophers generally reject scientism view natural sciences best accurate way understanding phenomena second continental philosophy usually considers experience determined least partly factors context space time language culture history thus continental philosophy tends toward historicism analytic philosophy tends treat philosophy terms discrete problems capable


ict emerged significant element strategic funding approaches social economic development less developed countries ict initiatives undertaken public ngo private sector agencies concerned development united nations development program world bank swiss agency development cooperation sdc ms swaminathan research foundation emerged key element poverty alleviation component un 's millennium development goals important directions private sector investment market perspective cf bottom pyramid companies concerned finding

Social science
Sociology
Community informatics


pole countries poor access development digital technology including cambodia lao pdr myanmar vietnam effectiveness ict tool development highly contingent capacity countries accommodate maintain information communications technology thus growing interest community informatics approach understanding different icts enable empower marginalized communities achieve collective goals understanding communities crucial know communities formed evolved participation community occurs differs


community may persist time inclusion exclusion may happen consistently people longer distinct life stage ref name source communities practice group people share similar profession may form community work attain goals advance profession ref name source three important concepts considered forming community practice mutual engagement joint enterprise shared repertoire ref name source community practice members mutually engaged establishing collaborative relationships allow


seemingly irrelevant solving complex 'technical' problems ref name orlikowski orlikowski w j r barley technology institutions research information technology research organizations learn mis quarterly management information systems jun ref whose focus upon theoretical practical issues around working communities democratic social change given many actively involved early efforts academics inevitable process sense making respect efforts would follow tool making efforts academics community activists connected globally


economic development environmental management media content production public management e governance among others central concern although one always realized practice enabling empowering communities ict ensuring technology available community implies approach development rather bottom top areas concern range small scale projects particular communities organizations might involve handful people telecentres online community disabled people civic networks large national government sponsored


china becoming increasingly active field june fastest supercomputer top supercomputer list fugaku japan linpack benchmark score nbsp pflops followed summit around nbsp pflops ref name top org ref us four top china italy two switzerland one ref name top org june combined supercomputers top list broke nbsp exaflops mark history circuit board ibm cdc behind system console two arms plus sign shaped cabinet covers

Formal science
Computer science
Parallel computing
High-performance computing


genetic engineering techniques impart new functions living cells u bottom u approach involves creating new biological systems ''in vitro'' bringing together 'non living' biomolecular components often aim constructing artificial cell biological systems thus assembled module module cell free protein expression systems often employed membrane based molecular machinery increasing efforts bridge divide approaches forming hybrid living synthetic cells engineering communication living synthetic cell populations history ''' ''' first identifiable use term synthetic biology st phane leduc 's publication ''th orie physico chimique de

Natural science
Biology
Systems biology
Synthetic biology


nature report synthetic biological circuits genetic toggle switch biological clock combining genes within ''e coli'' cells ref name ref ref name ref ''' ''' widely used standardized dna parts biobrick plasmids invented tom knight ref name auto ref parts become central international genetically engineered machine competition igem founded mit following year synthetic biology open language sbol standard visual symbols use biobricks standard ''' ''' researchers engineer artemisinin precursor pathway ''e coli'' ''' ''' first international conference synthetic biology synthetic biology sb held massachusetts institute technology


adopted across synthetic biology disciplines ref name notable examples refactoring including nitrogen fixation cluster type iii secretion system along bacteriophages ref name x dna important information storage large fraction cell 's activities carried proteins tools send proteins specific regions cell link different proteins together interaction strength protein partners tunable lifetime seconds desirable dynamic signaling events irreversible interaction desirable device stability resilient harsh conditions


scientists encode digital information onto single strand synthetic dna george church encoded one books synthetic biology dna mb data times greater previous largest amount information stored synthesized dna similar project encoded complete sonnets william shakespeare dna generally algorithms nupack viennarna ribosome binding site calculator cello non repetitive parts calculator enables design new genetic systems many technologies developed incorporating unnatural nucleotides amino acids


code nucleosides added sics dnam ref name natj may researchers milestone effort reported creation new synthetic possibly artificial form viable life variant bacteria ''escherichia coli'' reducing natural number codons bacterial genome codons instead order encode amino acids ref name nyt ref name nat international build cell large scale research collaboration construction synthetic living cell started followed national synthetic cell organizations several countries including fabricell maxsynbio basyc european synthetic cell efforts


ref name gujrati ref synthetic adhesin ref name pi ero lambea ref way allow bacteria sense tumor microenvironment example hypoxia building logic gate bacteria bacteria release target therapeutic molecules tumor either lysis bacterial secretion system lysis advantage stimulate immune system control growth multiple types secretion systems used strategies well system inducible external signals inducers include chemicals electromagnetic light waves multiple species strains applied therapeutics


morally right tamper nature one playing god creating new life happens synthetic organism accidentally escapes individual misuses synthetic biology creates harmful entity eg biological weapon control access products synthetic biology gain innovations investors medical patients industrial farmers patent system allow patents living organisms parts organisms like hiv resistance genes humans new creation deserving moral legal status ethical aspects synthetic


often use term museum studies refer field study referring day day operations museums european languages typically use derivatives greek museographia french mus ographie spanish museograf german museographie italian museografia portuguese museografia english speakers typically use term museum practice operational museology ref name ref development field development museology europe coincided emergence early collectors cabinets curiosity th th th centuries particular age enlightenment anthropologists naturalists hobbyist collectors encouraged

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Museology


growth public museums displayed natural history ethnographic objects art north america europe th th centuries european powers colonization overseas lands accompanied development disciplines natural history ethnography rise private institutional collection building many cases museums became holding places collections acquired colonial conquests positioned museums key institutions western european colonial projects ref name ref th century european museology focused framing museums institutions would educate civilize


lacked sustained analysis ref name scholarship concerning operational museology also overlapped critical museology developments field public role museums operational museology shifted late th st century position museum central institution serves public informing culture history art creating space challenging conversations museums thus perceived cultural communicators reconstruct reconnect cultural memory viewing public collecting preserving documenting interpreting material culture example many history museums engage public memory


scholarship lab concordia university http wwwcarmahberlin centre anthropological research museums heritage carmah berlin well courses like https wwwconcordiaca artsci academics summer critical museologyhtml international field school critical museology ref name contexts historians forefront interventions critical museology decolonizing indigenizing museums north america australia new zealand particular critical museology attempts address problematic colonial pasts museums decolonization indigenization museums viewed formal process handing instruments government decolonizing recognized particularly


indigenous peoples museums narratives accompanied representations suggested indigenous people cultures dead objects case included luna 's favorite books music divorce papers university degree photos mementos alongside labels describing scars body acquired work critically acclaimed challenge conventional narratives indigeneity indigenous experience years later two artists guillermo g mez pe coco fusco developed traveling performance art piece called ''couple cage two amerindiens visit


west'' reflected treatment representation indigenous peoples colonial contexts performed many different spaces including covent gardens walker art center smithsonian 's national museum natural history australia museum field museum activist interventions overlap artist activist interventions specific activist groups guerrilla girls long creating exhibitions public advertisements use billboards stickers posters projections critique power dynamics related sexism racism class privilege museums also


social dialogues spaces emerge museum forge links beyond museum walls drastically transform museum relationship social environment https wwwutadeoeduco es articulo crossmedialab las guerreras del centro resiliencia de las trabajadoras sexuales en medellin another example museum presenting critical review messages conveyed institution past found royal ontario museum permanent exhibition specifically canadian history galleries case rom curators repurposed old dioramas way reflect critically past uses dioramas portray indigenous people cultures new ironic diorama questions common practice museums points stereotypes practices


approach human geography britain historically masculinist geographic masculinization includes traditions writing landscapes feminine spaces thus subordinate male geographers subsequent assumptions separation mind body johnston sidaway describe separation cartesian dualism explain influence geography ref name johnston johnston rj j nbsp sidaway ''geography geographers'' london arnold p ref feminist geographers interrogated discipline geography represents reproduces heterosexual male gaze feminist geographers katherine mckittrick asserted see understand space

Social science
Geography
Feminist Geography


applying black feminist criminology paper suggested could provide insight training men sexual violence bigotry paper since retracted hoax criticized unethical mean spirited well race baiting misogynist critics hoax suggested hoaxers misrepresented process peer review list related geographers see also history geography women geographers critical geography cultural geography references reading domosh mona seager joni eds ''putting women place feminist geographers make sense world'' new york guilford publications mckittrick


design scenography http wwwscenoorg articles scenography scenography theatre design website theatre design scenography https webarchiveorg web http wwwexpo cz en malinashtml jaroslav malina biography http wwwtheatrekuedu degrees master 's degree scenography university kansas http wwwpcileedsacuk pg taught postgraduate performance design phd provision university leeds uk stagecraft

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Scenography


control biological control important component integrated pest management programme example mosquitoes often controlled putting ''bt bacillus thuringiensis'' ssp ''israelensis'' bacterium infects kills mosquito larvae local water sources cultural control cultivation ploughing exposes insect pests predators black headed gulls spruce budworm adult pupa shown serious pest forests monitored using pheromone traps mechanical pest control use hands techniques well simple equipment devices provides protective barrier plants insects referred

Applied science
Agriculture
Pest control


also result unpredicted outcomes targeted animal adapting faster reproductive cycles forestry forest pests present significant problem easy access canopy monitor pest populations addition forestry pests bark beetles kept control natural enemies native range may transported large distances cut timber places natural predators enabling cause extensive economic damage pheromone traps used monitor pest populations canopy release volatile chemicals attract males pheromone traps detect


sound financial institutions seemed ring true thorstein veblen wrote article entitled economics evolutionary science became precursor current evolutionary economics john r commons john r commons also came mid western america underlying ideas consolidated ''institutional economics'' concept economy web relationships people diverging interests monopolies large corporations labour disputes fluctuating business cycles however interest resolving disputes commons thought government mediator conflicting groups

Social science
Economics
Institutional economics


preferences actually reflect preferences entrenched corporations dependence effect economy whole geared irrational goals ''the new industrial state'' galbraith argues economic decisions planned private bureaucracy technostructure experts manipulate marketing public relations channels hierarchy self serving profits longer prime motivator even managers control new planners corporations detest risk requiring steady economic stable markets recruit governments serve interests fiscal monetary policy goals affluent


role state'' zed books cheung steven n structure contract theory non exclusive resource ''journal law economics'' pp https wwwjstororg pss commons john r institutional economics ''american economic review'' vol p https wwwjstororg pss pp institutional economics ''american economic review'' vol dec vol https wwwjstororg pss pp ''institutional economics place political economy'' macmillan http wwwtransactionpubcom title institutional economics html description https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id wfhlgu zac oi fnd pg pr ots ejmq ggxf sig cjpmldgk uq rloijcbimfpjqu v onepage q f false preview davis john b nature heterodox economics ''post autistic economics


market towards broader notion transaction ''studi e note di economia'' north douglass c ''institutions institutional change economic performance'' cambridge university press elinor ostrom institutional analysis digging deeper markets hierarchies ''handbook new institutional economics'' c nard shirley eds ''handbook new institutional economics'' pp https doiorg f https booksgooglecom booksid kyrufh ejic pg p lpg bl ots sruo tvx sig zgqzs h wzmwfd en exwqcmfo hl en ei utgtlmtg h aba dub sa x oi book result ct result resnum ved cgeq aewcq v onepage q f false springer rutherford malcolm institutional economics ''journal economic perspectives'' vol summer https wwwjstororg pss pp ''the institutionalist movement american economics science social control'' cambridge university press


communication'' way 'interaction speakers languages equal terms respecting identities' identity culture also studied within discipline communication analyze globalization influences ways thinking beliefs values identity within cultural environments intercultural communication scholars approach theory dynamic outlook believe culture measured cultures share universal attributes scholars acknowledge culture communication shift along societal changes theories consider constant shifting nuances society ref name two woman communicating beyond language

Journalism, media studies and communication


environments intercultural adaptation two way process host culture well individuals outside home culture based whether host culture willing adapt adopt cultural sensitivity adopt aspects incoming individuals culture intercultural adaptation two way process co cultural theory co cultural theory idea pertaining group people someone belongs people different parts world sharing characteristics one another general form co cultural communication refers interactions among underrepresented dominant group members co cultures include


study cultural intercultural communication came three perspectives indigenous approach cultural approach cross cultural approach ref name ref indigenous approach trying understand meaning different cultures ref name process passing preserved indigenous knowledge interpreted cultural approach similar indigenous approach however cultural approach also focuses sociocultural context individual ref name cross cultural approaches focuses two cultures perceive cross cultural validity generalizability ref name indigenous cultural approaches focal point emics cross cultural approaches etics ref name


socially privileged generate distinctive accounts particularly knowledge social relations stranger theory least one persons intercultural encounter stranger strangers 'hyperaware' cultural differences tend overestimate effect cultural identity behavior people alien society blurring individual distinctions feminist genre theory evaluates communication identifying feminist speakers reframing speaking qualities models women 's liberation genderlect theory male female conversation cross cultural communication masculine feminine styles discourse best viewed two distinct cultural


discomfort interaction posture responding others descriptive non judgmental ways ref name lustig koester patience active listening ref name linguasoftechcom ref clarity ref name linguasoftechcom important factors proficiency host culture language understanding grammar vocabulary understanding language pragmatics use politeness strategies making requests avoid giving much information sensitive aware nonverbal communication patterns cultures aware gestures may offensive mean something different host culture rather one 's culture understanding culture 's proximity physical space paralinguistic sounds convey


works guise cultures static homogeneous fact cultures within nations multi ethnic individuals show high variation cultural differences internalized expressed ref name globalization globalization plays central role theorizing mass communication media cultural communication studies intercultural communication scholars emphasize globalization emerged increasing diversity cultures throughout world thrives removal cultural barriers ref name notion nationality construction national space understood emerge dialectically communication globalization intercultural praxis model


humans common also assist understanding diversity underlines languages' methods constructing organizing knowledge understanding profound implications respect developing critical awareness social relationships understanding social relationships way cultures work groundwork successful globalization business affairs language socialization broadly defined investigation language presupposes creates anew social relations cultural context ref name rymes rymes language socialization linguistic anthropology education encyclopedia language education springer ref imperative


ways perfectly match normative characterizations ref name rymes methodology investigating individual uses language semiotic activity create use new models conduct varies cultural norm incorporated study language socialization ref name rymes verbal communication verbal communication consists messages sent received continuously speaker listener focused way messages portrayed verbal communication based language use expression tone sender message relays communication


privacy property constitutional rights torts comprise varied topics automobile accidents false imprisonment defamation product liability copyright infringement environmental pollution toxic torts compared criminal cases tort lawsuits lower burden proof namely preponderance evidence rather beyond reasonable doubt sometimes claimant may prevail tort case even defendant allegedly caused harm acquitted earlier criminal trial example j simpson acquitted criminal court murder later found liable tort wrongful death tort law criminal law


increased damages emotional distress toxic torts class action lawsuits however also reaction terms tort reform cases struck violating state constitutions federal preemption state laws ref name top american association justice http wwwthefreelibrarycom top torts evolution common law top torts evolution common law ref modern torts heavily affected insurance insurance law cases settled claims adjustment rather trial defended insurance lawyers insurance policy deep pocket limit setting ceiling possible payment


may categorized several ways particularly common division negligent intentional torts quasi torts unusual tort actions particularly united states collateral tort used refer torts labour law intentional infliction emotional distress outrage wrongful dismissal evolving causes action debated overlap contract law legal areas degree ref name gergen gergen http scholarshiplawberkeleyedu cgi viewcontentcgiarticle context facpubs grudging defense role collateral torts wrongful termination litigation employment ''texas law review'' ref common action tort '''negligence''' tort negligence


employers respect injuries sustained employment cases legal commentary led development new causes action outside traditional common law torts loosely grouped '''quasi torts''' liability torts ref name atiyah negligence negligence tort arises breach duty care owed one person another perspective reasonable person although credited appearing united states ''brown v kendall'' later scottish case ''donoghue v stevenson'' ac followed england brought england line


person injures old injury example someone bad back injured back car accident years later still pain must prove pain caused car accident natural progression previous problem back superseding intervening cause happens shortly injury example accident doctor works commits malpractice injures defense argue accident incompetent doctor caused injury https webarchiveorg web http wwwjudctgov ji civil part htm


medtronic inc'' actions medical drugs due ''wyeth v levine'' nuisance nuisance traditionally used describe activity harmful annoying others indecent conduct rubbish heap nuisances either affect private individuals private nuisance general public public nuisance claimant sue acts interfere use enjoyment land english law whether activity illegal nuisance depended upon area whether activity benefit commonwealth richer areas subject


interference may based upon restatement second torts federal laws include sherman antitrust act followed clayton antitrust act restrict cartels federal trade commission regulate mergers acquisitions european union articles treaty functioning european union apply allowing private actions enforce antitrust laws discussion negligent misrepresentation tort contractual privity exists disallowed england ''derry v peek'' however position overturned ''hedley byrne v heller''


therefore amended comparative negligence system many states contributory negligence exists states north carolina maryland ref name little comparative negligence victim 's damages reduced according degree fault comparative negligence criticized allowing plaintiff recklessly negligent recover damages defendant economists criticized comparative negligence encouraging precaution calculus negligence response many states rule plaintiff recovers nothing plaintiff


typically least factor nanostructured materials often categorized phases matter contain ''nanocomposite'' solid containing least one physically chemically distinct region collection regions least one dimension nanoscale ''nanofoam'' liquid solid matrix filled gaseous phase one two phases dimensions nanoscale ''nanoporous material'' solid material containing nanopores voids form open closed pores sub micron lengthscales ''nanocrystalline material''

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Materials Science and Engineering
Nanomaterials


fullerenes hot topic field research development likely continue long time april fullerenes study potential medicinal use binding specific antibiotics structure resistant bacteria even target certain types cancer cells melanoma october issue chemistry biology contains article describing use fullerenes light activated antimicrobial agents field nanotechnology heat resistance superconductivity among properties attracting intense research common method used produce fullerenes


send large current two nearby graphite electrodes inert atmosphere resulting carbon plasma arc electrodes cools sooty residue many fullerenes isolated many calculations done using ab initio quantum methods applied fullerenes dft tddft methods one obtain ir raman uv spectra results calculations compared experimental results metal based nanoparticles inorganic nanomaterials eg quantum dots nanowires nanorods interesting optical electrical properties could used optoelectronics furthermore optical electronic


properties nanomaterials depend size shape tuned via synthetic techniques possibilities use materials organic material based optoelectronic devices organic solar cells oleds etc operating principles devices governed photoinduced processes like electron transfer energy transfer performance devices depends efficiency photoinduced process responsible functioning therefore better understanding photoinduced processes organic inorganic nanomaterial composite systems necessary order use optoelectronic devices nanoparticles nanocrystals made metals semiconductors


templates ref name referencea ref name referenceb two dimensional nanostructures materials crystalline materials consisting two dimensional single layer atoms important representative graphene discovered thin films nanoscale thicknesses considered nanostructures sometimes considered nanomaterials exist separately substrate ref name bulk nanostructured materials bulk materials contain features nanoscale including nanocomposites nanocrystalline materials nanostructured films nanotextured surfaces ref name box shaped graphene bsg nanostructure example nanomaterial ref name stm ref bsg nanostructure appeared mechanical cleavage pyrolytic graphite


filters capable removing particulate small virus seen water filter created seldon technologies nanomaterials membrane bioreactor nms mbr next generation conventional mbr recently proposed advanced treatment wastewater air purification field nano technology used combat spread mers saudi arabian hospitals ref name nanovate ref nanomaterials used modern human safe insulation technologies past found asbestos based insulation lubricant additive nano materials ability reduce friction moving parts worn corroded


able locate tumor lesions infected mice also able create tas rs map could used guidance surgery tas rs shows promising able combat ovarian peritoneal cancer allows early detection high accuracy technique administered locally advantage enter bloodstream therefore bypassing toxicity concerns circulating nanoprobes nbsp technique also photostable fluorochromes serrs nanoparticles cannot form biomolecules therefore would false positives


tas rs fluorescence imaging see also nanostructure nanotopography nanozymes list software nanostructures modeling artificial enzyme references external links https euonechaeuropaeu european union observatory nanomaterials euon https webarchiveorg web http wwwnanopartikelinfo cms lang en wissensbasis acquisition evaluation public orientated presentation societal relevant data findings nanomaterials dana http wwwoecdorg department en html safety manufactured nanomaterials oecd environment directorate http copublicationsgreenfactsorg en nanotechnologies indexhtm assessing health risks nanomaterials summary greenfacts european commission scenihr assessment http wwwliposomeorg international liposome society http nanotextileshumancornelledu textiles nanotechnology laboratory cornell university http wwwioporg ej article r pdfrequest id nenuvfk bgh bna wi kg ioporg article https booksgooglecom booksid pbtbjwkj yc pg pa nano structured material https webarchiveorg web https nanohuborg resources online course mse nanomaterials mark c hersam https webarchiveorg web http nanohuborg resources nanomaterials quantum


according consensus modern genetics anatomically modern humans first arrived indian subcontinent africa years ago ref name petragliaallchin quote chromosome mt dna data support colonization south asia modern humans originating africa coalescence dates non european populations average ka ref however earliest known human remains south asia date years ago settled life involves transition foraging farming pastoralism began south asia around bce site mehrgarh presence documented

Humanities
History
Asian history
Indian history


giving rise hinduism indian cultural influence greater india indian subcontinent conquered maurya empire th rd centuries bce rd century bce onwards prakrit pali literature north tamil sangam literature southern india started flourish ref name referenceb ''a social history early india'' brajadulal chattopadhyaya p ref wootz steel originated south india rd century bce exported foreign countries ref name menon rvg p ''technology society'' menon rvg p ref classical period various parts india ruled


early bce communities started investing increased labor preparing land selecting planting tending harvesting particular grain producing plants also domesticated animals including sheep goats pigs oxen humped zebu ''bos indicus'' unhumped ''bos taurus'' castrating oxen instance turned mainly meat sources domesticated draft animals well ref name fisher blockquote bronze age first urbanisation c c bce indus valley civilisation dholavira city indus valley civilisation stepwell steps reach water level artificially constructed reservoirs ref name news ref archaeological remains washroom drainage system


india beginning iron age kingdoms india kuru panchala kosala videha iron age indian subcontinent nbsp bce th century bce defined rise janapadas realms republics kingdoms notably iron age kingdoms kuru panchala kosala videha ref name lanman ref ref name potter ref kuru kingdom first state level society vedic period corresponding beginning iron age northwestern india around nbsp bce well composition atharvaveda first indian text mention iron literally black metal ref name witzel ref


relatively large settlements characterized towns largest fortified ditches moats embankments made piled earth wooden palisades albeit smaller simpler elaborately fortified large cities grew bce northern black polished ware culture central ganges plain magadha gained prominence forming base mauryan empire distinct cultural area new states arising nbsp bce ref name eb beginning historical period ref called second urbanisation influenced vedic culture differed markedly kuru panchala region


hindu puranas mention magadha ruled haryanka dynasty years c nbsp bce king bimbisara haryanka dynasty led active expansive policy conquering anga eastern bihar west bengal king bimbisara overthrown killed son prince ajatashatru continued expansionist policy magadha period gautama buddha founder buddhism lived much life magadha kingdom attained enlightenment bodh gaya gave first sermon sarnath first buddhist council held rajgriha ref name lumbinitrust ref haryanka


ce ce ref name maddisson world gdp ref early classical period c bce c ce shunga empire shungas originated magadha controlled areas central eastern indian subcontinent around nbsp bce dynasty established pushyamitra shunga overthrew last maurya emperor capital pataliputra later emperors bhagabhadra also held court vidisha modern besnagar eastern malwa pushyamitra shunga ruled years succeeded son agnimitra ten shunga rulers however death agnimitra empire rapidly disintegrated


establish tradition royal sponsorship learning art script used empire variant brahmi used write sanskrit language shunga empire played imperative role patronising indian culture time important developments hindu thought taking place helped empire flourish gain power satavahana empire tav hanas based amaravati andhra pradesh well junnar pune prathisthan paithan maharashtra territory empire covered large parts india st century


first millennium sea routes india controlled indians ethiopians became maritime trading power red sea kushan empire kushan empire expanded afghanistan northwest indian subcontinent leadership first emperor kujula kadphises middle st century ce kushans possibly tocharian speaking tribe ref name tchac ref one five branches yuezhi confederation ref name liu ref time grandson kanishka great empire spread encompass much afghanistan northern


guptas north great patronisers sanskrit development south indian subcontinent pallava reign saw first sanskrit inscriptions script called grantha early pallavas different connexions southeast asian countries pallavas used dravidian architecture build important hindu temples academies mamallapuram kanchipuram places rule saw rise great poets practice dedicating temples different deities came vogue followed fine artistic temple architecture sculpture style vastu shastra pallavas reached height power reign


nagabhata ii gurjara pratiharas became powerful dynasty northern india succeeded son ramabhadra ruled briefly succeeded son mihira bhoja bhoja successor mahendrapala pratihara empire reached peak prosperity power time mahendrapala extent territory rivalled gupta empire stretching border sindh west bengal east himalayas north areas past narmada south expansion triggered tripartite power struggle


empire arab merchant suleiman notes enormity pala army memoirs ref name chandrapala cholas chola empire rajendra chola c ce medieval cholas rose prominence middle th century ce established greatest empire south india seen successfully united south india rule naval strength extended influence southeast asian countries srivijaya ref name dancing girl p rajaraja chola successors rajendra chola rajadhiraja chola virarajendra chola kulothunga chola dynasty became military economic


period marked repeated invasions muslim central asian nomadic clans rule delhi sultanate growth dynasties empires built upon military technology sultanate delhi sultanate ref image qutb minar ruinsjpg caption qutub minar unesco world heritage site whose construction begun qutb ud din aybak first sultan delhi delhi sultanate muslim sultanate based delhi ruled several dynasties turkic turko indian ref name whunter william hunter rd edition pp ref pathan origins ruled large parts indian subcontinent


ganges brahmaputra delta network mint towns spread across region sunni muslim monarchy indo turkic arab abyssinian bengali muslim elites sultanate known religious pluralism non muslim communities co existed peacefully bengal sultanate circle vassal states including odisha southwest arakan southeast tripura east early th century bengal sultanate reached peak territorial growth control kamrup kamata northeast jaunpur bihar west reputed thriving trading


transformed maratha empire rule ''peshwas'' prime ministers marathas defeated mughal army capital battle delhi marathas continued military campaigns mughals nizam nawab bengal durrani empire extend boundaries domain marathas stretched across indian subcontinent marathas even discussed abolishing mughal throne placing vishwasrao peshwa mughal imperial throne delhi empire peak stretched tamil nadu south peshawar


tipu sultan later half th century rule mysore fought series wars marathas british combined forces maratha mysore war ended april following finalizing ''treaty gajendragad'' tipu sultan obligated pay tribute marathas concurrently anglo mysore wars took place mysoreans used mysorean rockets fourth anglo mysore war saw death tipu mysore 's alliance french seen threat british east india company mysore attacked four sides


nizam hyderabad marathas launched invasion north british decisive victory siege seringapatam hyderabad founded qutb shahi dynasty golconda following brief mughal rule asif jah mughal official seized control hyderabad declared nizam al mulk hyderabad nizams lost considerable territory paid tribute maratha empire routed multiple battles battle palkhed however nizams maintained sovereignty paying tributes marathas


first anglo sikh war terms treaty amritsar british government sold kashmir maharaja gulab singh princely state jammu kashmir second largest princely state british india created dogra dynasty eastern northeastern india hindu buddhist states cooch behar kingdom twipra kingdom kingdom sikkim annexed british made vassal princely state fall vijayanagara empire polygar states emerged southern india managed weather invasions flourished polygar wars


grew per year population also grew however indian private industry began grow significantly india built modern railway system late th century fourth largest world british raj invested heavily infrastructure including canals irrigation systems addition railways telegraphy roads ports however historians bitterly divided issues economic history nationalist school arguing india poorer end british rule beginning impoverishment occurred


august refusing co operate way government independence granted government ready move immediately arrested national local congress leaders muslim league rejected quit india movement worked closely raj authorities subhas chandra bose also called ''netaji'' broke congress tried form military alliance germany japan gain independence germans assisted bose formation indian legion however japan helped revamp indian national army ina first indian national


intersection social clinical sciences health disparities commonly relate typical categories class race objective sociological research findings quickly become normative political issue early work medical sociology conducted lawrence j henderson whose theoretical interests work vilfredo pareto inspired talcott parsons interests sociological systems theory parsons one founding fathers medical sociology applied social role theory interactional relations sick people others key contributors medical sociology since include howard becker mike bury peter conrad jack douglas david

Social science
Sociology
Medical sociology


structures cause mediating factor disease public health social medicine ref name ref bloom argues development medical sociology linked development sociology within american universities argues creation american social science association assa key event development ref name assa 's initial aim policy reform basis science ref name bloom argues next decades role assa moved advocacy academic discipline noting number academic professional bodies broke away


marxist conflict theory perspective considers ruling classes enact power medicine others propose structural pluralist approaches exemplified eliot freidson look professions secure influence sick role talcott parsons introduced notion sick role book ''the social system'' ref name ref parsons argued sick role social role approved enforced social norm institutional behaviours individual viewed showing certain behaviour need support ref name parsons argues defining properties


satisfaction employees includes work nonwork interface transitioning career retirement work family conflict balance psychologist conducts research employee behaviors attitudes improved hiring practices training programs feedback management systems psychology one recognized professional specialties american psychological association apa united states profession represented division apa formally known society industrial organizational psychology siop similar psychology societies found many countries international

Social science
Psychology
Occupational psychology


development implementation training programs personnel recruitment selection psychologists typically work human resource specialists design recruitment processes b personnel selection systems personnel recruitment process identifying qualified candidates workforce getting apply jobs within organization personnel recruitment processes include developing job announcements placing ads defining key qualifications applicants screening unqualified applicants personnel selection systematic process hiring promoting personnel personnel selection systems employ evidence based practices determine qualified candidates personnel selection involves newly


''industrial organizational psychology'' new york mcgraw hill ref performance appraisal frequently used promotion compensation decisions help design validate personnel selection procedures performance management performance management process providing performance feedback relative expectations information relevant helping worker improve performance eg coaching mentoring performance management may also include documenting tracking performance information organizational evaluation purposes psychologist would typically use information job analysis determine job 's performance dimensions construct rating scale describe level performance


organization emphasizes organizational climate part organizational culture culture concerns far shared perceptions discussed next section organizational culture universal definition organizational culture collective understanding shares following assumptions organizational culture shown affect important organizational outcomes performance attraction recruitment retention employee satisfaction employee well three levels organizational culture artifacts shared values basic beliefs assumptions artifacts comprise physical components organization relay cultural meaning shared values individuals' preferences regarding certain aspects organization 's


work together achieve task goals individuals' opinions attitudes adaptations affect group behavior group behavior turn affecting opinions etc interactions thought fulfill need satisfaction individual part collective ref name jex team effectiveness organizations often organize teams teams accomplish much greater amount work short period time individual accomplish ref name jex research examined harm workplace aggression team performance team composition team composition configuration team member knowledge skills abilities


u sala f mount g eds ''linking emotional intelligence performance work current research evidence individuals groups'' pp mahwah new jersey lawrence erlbaum associates ref ref name goleman goleman ''working emotional intelligence'' new york bantam books ref organizational citizenship behavior organizational citizenship behaviors ocbs another form workplace behavior io psychologists involved ocbs tend beneficial organization workers dennis organ defines ocbs individual behavior discretionary directly explicitly recognized formal reward system aggregate promotes effective functioning


less effective leaders lack recently approach used predict leader emergence following traits identified predict leader emergence formal leader high intelligence high needs dominance high self motivation socially perceptive another leader focused approached ''behavioral approach'' focuses behaviors distinguish effective ineffective leaders two categories leadership behaviors ''consideration initiating structure'' behaviors associated category consideration include showing subordinates valued leader cares example consideration behavior


io research area team leadership leading virtual teams people team geographically distributed across various distances sometimes even countries technological advances enabled leadership process take place virtual contexts present new challenges leaders well need use technology build relationships followers influencing followers faced limited face face interaction organizational development io psychologists also concerned organizational change effort called organizational development od tools used advance organization development include survey feedback


european age age islamic gunpowders included age discovery age enlightenment th century accumulation knowledge technology reached critical mass brought industrial revolution began late modern period started around continued present scheme historical periodization dividing history antiquity post classical early modern late modern periods developed applies best history old world particularly europe mediterranean outside region including ancient


pakistan bce chinese civilization along yellow yangtze rivers bce pyramid text pyramid unas saqqara egypt th century bce societies developed number unifying characteristics including central government complex economy social structure sophisticated language writing systems distinct cultures religions cultures variously invented wheel mathematics bronze working sailing boats potter 's wheel woven cloth construction monumental buildings writing writing facilitated administration cities expression ideas preservation information scholars recognize writing may independently developed


vedic period bce laid foundations hinduism cultural aspects early indian society ended th century bce around bce many independent kingdoms republics known mahajanapadas established across subcontinent complex civilizations arose eastern hemisphere indigenous societies americas remained relatively simple fragmented diverse regional cultures formative stage mesoamerica bce ce complex centralized civilizations began develop mostly mexico central america peru included


greek philosophical tradition represented socrates plato aristotle philosophers along accumulated science technology culture diffused throughout europe egypt middle east northwest india starting th century bce conquests alexander great macedon regional empires millennium bce ce saw series empires unprecedented size develop well trained professional armies unifying ideologies advanced bureaucracies created possibility emperors rule large domains whose populations could attain numbers upwards tens millions subjects great empires depended military annexation


th centuries northern india ruled gupta empire southern india three prominent dravidian kingdoms emerged cheras cholas pandyas ensuing stability contributed heralding golden age hindu culture th th centuries europe roman empire centered present day italy began th century bce rd century bce roman republic began expanding territory conquest alliances time augustus bce ce first roman emperor rome already established dominion mediterranean empire


kingdom poland grand duchy lithuania latter including territories modern belarus ukraine facing depredations teutonic order later also threats muscovy crimean tatars ottoman empire formed personal union marriage poland 's queen jadwiga lithuanian grand duke jogaila became king w adys aw ii jagie poland next four centuries th century partitions polish lithuanian commonwealth prussia russia austria two polities conducted federated condominium long europe 's largest state welcomed diverse ethnicities religions including


world 's jews furthered scientific thought eg nicolaus copernicus 's heliocentric theory last ditch effort preserve sovereignty adopted constitution may world 's second modern written constitution constitution united states went effect sub saharan africa brass benin bronze nigeria medieval sub saharan africa home many different civilizations kingdom aksum declined th century islam cut christian allies people moved ethiopian highlands protection eventually gave way zagwe dynasty


ce ayutthaya ce kingdoms major powers thai people influenced khmer starting th century pagan kingdom rose prominence modern myanmar collapse brought political fragmention ended rise toungoo empire th century notable kingdoms period include srivijayan empire lavo kingdom coming prominence th century champa hariphunchai vi lan na th century majapahit lan xang kingdom


ava period saw spread islam present day indonesia beginning th century emergence malay states including malacca sultanate bruneian empire philippines several polities formed rajahnate maynila rajahnate cebu rajahnate butuan oceania moai rapa nui easter island oceania tu tonga empire founded th century ce expanded tongan culture language hegemony spread widely throughout eastern melanesia micronesia central polynesia period influencing east 'uvea rotuma


zealand ''aotearoa'' tuamotu islands political spiritual economic reasons unexplained collapse regular long distance voyaging eastern pacific centuries europeans began exploring area indigenous written records period virtually nonexistent seems pacific islanders possible exception enigmatic rapa nui currently undecipherable rongorongo script writing systems kind introduction european colonists however indigenous prehistories estimated academically reconstructed careful judicious analysis native oral traditions colonial ethnography archeology physical


wars particular note include thirty years' war war spanish succession seven years' war french revolutionary wars napoleon came power france event foreshadowing napoleonic wars early th century sub saharan africa africa period saw decline many civilizations advancement others swahili coast declined coming portuguese empire later omani empire west africa songhai empire fell moroccans invaded guns bono state gave birth numerous


th century scientific advances begin applied substantially practical invention industrial revolution began great britain used new modes production factory mass production mechanization manufacture wide array goods faster using less labour previously required age enlightenment also led beginnings modern democracy late th century american french revolutions democracy republicanism would grow profound effect world events quality life empires world wright brothers built flew first airplane


hold per capita productivity western europe late middle ages surpassed regions th century world war trench warfare th century opened europe apex wealth power much world direct colonial control indirect domination much rest world influenced heavily europeanized nations united states japan century unfolded however global system dominated rival powers subjected severe strains ultimately yielded fluid structure independent


precipitate world war ii militaristic dictatorships europe japan pursued ultimately doomed course imperialist expansionism course nazi germany adolf hitler orchestrated genocide six million jews holocaust imperial japan murdered millions chinese world war ii defeat axis powers allied powers opened way advance communism east germany poland czechoslovakia hungary yugoslavia albania bulgaria romania china north korea north vietnam lai vietnam suffered greatly th century wars world war ii ended


uralic austronesian etymology word ''etymology'' derives greek word meaning true sense sense truth suffix '' logia'' denoting study term ''etymon'' refers word morpheme eg stem root later word morpheme derives example latin word ''candidus'' means white etymon english ''candid'' relationships often less transparent however english place names winchester gloucester tadcaster share different modern forms suffixed etymon meaningful latin ''castrum'' 'fort'

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Etymology


diagram showing relationships etymologically related words methods etymologists apply number methods study origins words philological research changes form meaning word traced aid older texts available making use dialectological data form meaning word might show variations dialects may yield clues earlier history comparative method systematic comparison related languages etymologists may often able detect words derive common ancestor language


plato much dialogue socrates makes guesses origins many words including names gods odes pindar spins complimentary etymologies flatter patrons plutarch ''life numa pompilius'' spins etymology ''pontifex'' explicitly dismissing obvious actual bridge builder blockquote priests called pontifices name pontifices ''potens'' powerful attend service gods power command overall others make word refer exceptions impossible cases priests perform duties possible


way light blockquote modern era etymology modern sense emerged late th century european academia within context wider age enlightenment although preceded th century pioneers marcus zuerius van boxhorn gerardus vossius stephen skinner elisha coles william wotton first known systematic attempt prove relationship two languages basis similarity grammar lexicon made hungarian j nos sajnovics attempted demonstrate relationship sami hungarian work later extended whole finno ugric


language family fellow countryman samuel gyarmathi ref name ssix szemer nyi ref origin modern historical linguistics often traced sir william jones welsh philologist living india observed genetic relationship sanskrit greek latin jones published ''the sanscrit language'' laying foundation field indo european linguistics study etymology germanic philology introduced rasmus christian rask early th century elevated high standard ''german dictionary'' brothers grimm successes comparative approach culminated


methods linguistics'' rev edn collaboration stephen ullmann trans joyce h reid oxford blackwell external links http wwwezglotcom etymologiesphp list etymologies words languages https wwwetymonlinecom online etymology dictionary


ireland similar legal concept fitness plead expert witness forensic psychiatrists often called expert witnesses criminal civil proceedings expert witnesses give opinions specific issue often psychiatrist prepared detailed report testifying primary duty expert witness provide independent opinion court expert allowed testify court respect matters opinion matters question ordinarily understandable finders fact judge

Applied science
Medicine and health
Psychiatry
Forensic psychiatry


time crime worded differently many states rejected altogether every setting intent criminal act understanding criminal nature act bear final disposition case much forensic psychiatry guided significant court rulings laws bear area include three standards m'naghten rules excuses defendant virtue defect reason disease mind know nature quality act


framework canada certain credentialed medical practitioners may discretion make state sanctioned investigations diagnosis mental illness appropriate use dsm iv tr discussed section entitled use dsm iv tr forensic settings concerns expressed canadian criminal justice system discriminates based dsm iv diagnosis within context part xx criminal code part sets provisions among things court ordered attempts treatment individuals receive trial described section criminal code also provided court ordered psychiatric


unknown variance see student 's test beta distribution single probability real number conjugate bernoulli distribution binomial distribution statistical inference statistical inference process drawing conclusions data subject random variation example observational errors sampling variation ref name oxford upton g cook ''oxford dictionary statistics'' oup ref initial requirements system procedures inference induction system produce reasonable answers applied well defined situations general enough applied across range

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Mathematical statistics


cyber attacks computer hacking terrorist attacks terrorist attack act crime violence directed towards certain group belief system attacks usually provoked political religious reasons events usually include use violence often occur bodily injury even loss life examples boston marathon bomber beheading multiple american reporters isis epidemic epidemic infectious disease could spread worldwide occur could called major disaster due

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of disaster


area whether area people well poor tends determine fast developed helped disaster '''socioeconomic status''' refers individual 's position stratified social order system puts people groups based income wealth groups consist upper class middle class working class lower class poor either classes experiences social disaster differences well fast helped wealthy community experiences disaster flood likely


mean sickness could spread countries surrounding due necessary materials necessary education epidemic presents ebola started democratic republic congo lesser developed country spread liberia sierra leone surrounding countries spread due lack knowledge right materials help treat lack resources could mean multiple different things another example could bad natural disaster happened


invented twentieth century powerful computer software enables artists manipulate images much faster simpler way skills board artists prior quick calculations computers easily recolor scale rotate rearrange images programs known ref name meggs scientific investigations legibility influenced things design street signs new york city process changing street signs bearing capital letters replacement signs bearing upper lower case letters estimate increased legibility

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Graphic arts


manipulation adobe photoshop bitmap graphics software including powerful graphics editing tools provide large variety editing functionality coreldraw similar adobe illustrator another vector graphic manipulation tool photoimpact digital photograph editor quarkxpress similar adobe indesign another computer publishing software tool free software paintnet photograph editing capabilities many plugins expand use gimp similar paintnet photoshop inkscape similar illustrator beside computers software graphic artists also expected creative processing camera work registration crop marks masking ref name mcguire lytle


pharmaceutics include pharmaceutical formulation pharmaceutical manufacturing dispensing pharmacy pharmaceutical technology physical pharmacy pharmaceutical jurisprudence pure drug substances usually white crystalline amorphous powders advent medicine science common pharmacists dispense drugs ''as is'' drugs today administered parts dosage form clinical performance drugs depends form presentation patient see also list pharmaceutical companies pharmacognosy pharmaceutical company nicholas culpeper nbsp th century english physician translated used pharmocological texts references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwipapharmaorg epharmatimes mar excipient selection injectable parenteral formulations life sciences

Applied science
Medicine and health
Pharmaceutical sciences
Pharmaceutics


refers process crafting audio visual story commercially distribution broadcast production stages film production consists five major stages development ideas film created rights existing intellectual properties purchased etc screenplay written financing project sought obtained pre production arrangements preparations made shoot hiring cast film crew selecting locations constructing sets production raw footage elements film recorded film shoot including principal photography post production images sound visual effects

Humanities
Performing arts
Film
Filmmaking


studio sound stage outdoor sequences call filming location production designer one creates visual conception film working art director manages art department makes production sets ref name vincent lobrutto costume designer creates clothing characters film working closely actors well departments makeup hair designer works closely costume designer order create certain look character casting director finds actors fill parts script normally requires actors partake


call time actors usually separate call times since set construction dressing lighting take many hours even days often set advance grip electric production design crews typically step ahead camera sound departments efficiency 's sake scene filmed already preparing next one crew prepares equipment actors costumes attend hair make departments actors rehearse script blocking director camera sound crews rehearse


principles green chemistry example nobel prize chemistry awarded yves chauvin robert h grubbs richard r schrock development metathesis method organic synthesis explicit reference contribution green chemistry smarter production review identified three key developments green chemistry field organic synthesis use supercritical carbon dioxide green solvent aqueous hydrogen peroxide clean oxidations use hydrogen asymmetric synthesis examples applied green chemistry supercritical water oxidation water reactions

Natural science
Chemistry
Green chemistry


chemists reimagine pollution research ways limit toxins atmosphere epa office pollution prevention toxics created research grant program encouraging research recreation chemical products processes limit impact environment human health epa hosts green chemistry challenge year incentivize economic environmental benefits developing utilizing green chemistry state california approved two laws aiming encourage green chemistry launching california green chemistry initiative one statutes required california 's department toxic


therapeutic use includes synthetic computational aspects study existing drugs agents development relation bioactivities biological activities properties ie understanding structure activity relationships sar pharmaceutical chemistry focused quality aspects medicines aims assure fitness purpose medicinal products ref name jmc ref biological interface medicinal chemistry combines form set highly interdisciplinary sciences setting organic physical computational emphases alongside biological areas biochemistry molecular biology pharmacognosy pharmacology toxicology veterinary human medicine project management statistics pharmaceutical business

Natural science
Chemistry
Medicinal chemistry


broad understanding biological concepts related cellular drug targets scientists medicinal chemistry work principally industrial scientists see following working part interdisciplinary team uses chemistry abilities especially synthetic abilities use chemical principles design effective therapeutic agents length training intense practitioners often required attain year bachelor 's degree followed year phd organic chemistry training regimens also include postdoctoral fellowship period years receiving phd chemistry making total length


artificial neural network interconnected group nodes inspired simplification neurons brain circular node represents artificial neuron arrow represents connection output one artificial neuron input another '''artificial neural networks''' '''anns''' usually simply called '''neural networks''' '''nns''' computing systems inspired biological neural networks constitute animal brains ann based collection connected units nodes called artificial neurons loosely model neurons biological brain connection like synapses

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Artificial neural networks


prediction target output difference error network adjusts weighted associations according learning rule using error value successive adjustments cause neural network produce output increasingly similar target output sufficient number adjustments training terminated based upon certain criteria known supervised learning systems learn perform tasks considering examples generally without programmed task specific rules example image recognition might learn identify images contain cats analyzing


restricted boltzmann machine ref name smolensky ref model layer ng dean created network learned recognize higher level concepts cats watching unlabeled images ref name ng ref unsupervised pre training increased computing power gpus distributed computing allowed use larger networks particularly image visual recognition problems became known deep learning ciresan colleagues ref name ref showed despite vanishing gradient problem gpus make backpropagation feasible many layered feedforward neural networks ref name scherer dominik scherer andreas c ller sven behnke https wwwaisuni bonnde papers icann maxpoolpdf evaluation pooling operations convolutional architectures


iteration performs following computation situation perform action receive consequence situation s' compute emotion consequence situation v s' update crossbar memory w' w v s' backpropagated value secondary reinforcement emotion toward consequence situation caa exists two environments one behavioral environment behaves genetic environment initially receives initial emotions encountered situations behavioral environment received genome vector species vector genetic environment caa learn goal seeking


years paleoclimatologists employ wide variety techniques deduce ancient climates techniques used depend variable reconstructed temperature precipitation something else long ago climate interest occurred instance deep marine record source isotopic data exists oceanic plates eventually subducted oldest remaining material old older sediments also prone corruption diagenesis resolution confidence data decrease time proxies climate ice mountain glaciers polar ice caps ice sheets provide much data

Social science
Geography
Palaeoclimatology


one approach study relict landforms infer ancient climates ref name gutix ref often concerned past climates climatic geomorphology considered sometimes theme historical geology climatic geomorphology limited use study recent quaternary holocene large climate changes since seldom discernible geomorphological record ref name goudie ref timing proxies field geochronology scientists working determining old certain proxies recent proxy archives tree rings corals individual year rings counted exact year determined radiometric dating uses properties


concepts film studies pertain artistic academia success first half twentieth century prominent persons film industry could become endowment source schools focusing primarily film creating location film studies discipline form example george lucas' us million donation usc school cinematic arts ref name la ref approaches film studies analytic cognitive film theory historical poetics linguistic film theory neoformalism classical formalist film theory continental feminist film theory film semiotics marxist film theory psychoanalytic film theory screen theory structuralist


villarejo amy ''film studies basics'' london routledge external links http filmdrippinkcom filmdrippinkcom database providing academic journalist texts film tv http filmstudiesberkeleyedu main website berkeley film studies http cinemauscedu main website usc school cinematic arts http wwwlafilmcom main website los angeles film school http wwwnyfaedu main website nyfa film school http wwwfilm tvstudiescom film studies new delhi india http wwwfilmconnectioncom metro washingtondchtml film connections washington dc http wwwfilmsiteorg film html website dedicated introduction film art http education portalcom top ranked film universities united stateshtml list top us film schools https screensiteorg data data collegesphp screensite listing college film programs film media studies


homiletics retain critical distance rhetoric homiletics rhetoric relationship major issue homiletic theory since mid th century first form preaching largely homily ref name ce christian tradition preaching jesus ''sermon mount'' carl heinrich bloch danish painter jesus preached commissioned apostles preaching included two forms sermon missionary ministerial correspond ''magisterium'' ''ministerium'' church former outsiders latter already part movement jesus' sermon

Applied science
Divinity
Field ministry
Homiletics


assistants elected consecrated purpose example timothy titus also favored charismata homily referred justin martyr 's ''apology'' gives example ministerial distinct missionary preaching ref name ce missionary preaching st paul preaching ''areopagus sermon'' athens raphael missionary preaching apostles also assisted informal way laity explained christian doctrine acquaintances amongst unbelievers visits christian assemblies must heard something eg


medieval pulpit commonly said non catholic writers little preaching time popular preaching deep interest taken preachers commonly found necessary travel night lest departure prevented treatise history preaching justice could done period style simple majestic possessing little perhaps called eloquence present understood much religious power artless simplicity sweetness persuasiveness


best known bossuet bourdaloue massillon f nelon burnt sermons first considered majestic second logical intellectually compelling third greatest searcher hearts like chrysostom taken greatest three told voltaire kept copy ''grand car me'' table side side athalie racine age chrysostom great model imitation chrysostom orator chrysostom homilist style grand exordium


conf rences notre dame next important era called ''conf rences'' notre dame paris following revolution prominent name identified new style preaching dominican lacordaire time montalembert associate editor de lamennais l'avenir new style preaching discarded form division analysis scholastic method power lacordaire orator beyond question ''conf rences'' come us possessing much merit additional proof oratory


must impress second dialogue ref name ce st augustine 's work de rudibus catechizandis st gregory great 's liber regul pastoralis still extant inferior st augustine 's rather treatise pastoral theology homiletics ref name ce hincmar says copy used given bishops consecration ref name ce ninth century rabanus maurus died archbishop mainz wrote treatise ''de institutione clericorum'' depends much st augustine ref name ce twelfth century guibert abbot nogent died wrote famous work preaching entitled quo ordine sermo


albertus magnus de arte pr dicandi lost st bonaventure wrote de arte concionandi treats ' 'divisio distinctio dilatatio'' deals extensively first ref name ce thomas aquinas thomas aquinas 's claim rests chiefly summa course principally influenced preaching since matter form insists strongly importance preaching says belongs principally bishops baptizing priests latter regards holding place seventy disciples treatise entitled ''de arte et vero modo pr dicandi''


populum sacra seu de modo pr dicandi'' treats subject three points preacher sermon listeners lays stress scripture book preacher ulrich surgant wrote manuale curatorum also recommends scripture first book gives material preaching usual order ''credenda facienda fugienda timenda appetenda'' ends saying congrua materia pr dicationis est sacra scriptura uses figure tree laying stress necessity organic structure ref name ce humanist writings works two


reunified independent state safavid dynasty set shia islam empire 's official religion ref name savoryeiref rm savory ''safavids'' encyclopedia islam nd edition ref marking one important turning points history islam ref name islamic https wwwucalgaryca applied history tutor islam empires safavid abbashtml islamic world applied history research group university calgary retrieved october ref functioning leading world power time amongst neighbouring ottoman empire arch rival centuries iran monarchy ruled emperor almost without interruption iranian revolution

Humanities
History
Asian history
Iranian history


east archaeological excavations jiroft led discovery several objects belonging th millennium bc large quantity objects decorated highly distinctive engravings animals mythological figures architectural motifs objects iconography unlike anything ever seen archaeologists many made chlorite grey green soft stone others copper bronze terracotta even lapis lazuli recent excavations sites produced world 's earliest inscription pre dates mesopotamian inscriptions ref name iranian history ref records numerous ancient civilizations iranian plateau


sacking sardis led achaemenid campaign mainland greece known greco persian wars lasted first half th century bc known one important wars european history first persian invasion greece persian general mardonius subjugated thrace made macedon full part persia ref name companion ancient macedonia war eventually turned defeat however darius' successor xerxes launched second persian invasion greece crucial moment war half mainland greece overrun


empire ''er nshahr'' dominion aryans ie iranians chapter iran 's history followed roughly six hundred years conflict roman empire time sassanian romano byzantine armies clashed influence anatolia western caucasus mainly lazica kingdom iberia modern day georgia abkhazia mesopotamia armenia levant justinian war came uneasy peace payment tribute sassanians however sasanians used deposition byzantine emperor maurice ''casus belli'' attack empire many gains sassanians


conquered lands replaced arabic sometimes force al biruni 's ''from remaining signs past centuries'' example written number historians see rule umayyads setting dhimmah increase taxes ' 'dhimmis'' benefit muslim arab community financially discouraging conversion ref name astren fred astren pg ref governors lodged complaints caliph enacted laws made conversion easier depriving provinces revenues th century many non arabs persians entered islam recognized mawali clients


london routledge ref one first changes abbasids made taking power umayyads move empire 's capital damascus levant iraq latter region influenced persian history culture moving capital part persian mawali demand arab influence empire city baghdad constructed tigris river serve new abbasid capital ref name ahgc ref abbasids established position vizier like barmakids administration equivalent vice caliph second command eventually


sistan samanids originally bukhara samanids eventually ruled area central iran pakistan ref name islamic conquest early th century abbasids almost lost control growing persian faction known buyid dynasty since much abbasid administration persian anyway buyids quietly able assume real power baghdad buyids defeated mid th century seljuq turks continued exert influence abbasids publicly pledging allegiance balance power baghdad remained


called turkey course india ottoman turks brought form iranian civilization walls vienna blockquote islamization iran yield deep transformations within cultural scientific political structure iran 's society blossoming persian literature philosophy medicine art became major elements newly forming muslim civilization inheriting heritage thousands years civilization crossroads major cultural highways contributed persia emerging culminated islamic golden age period hundreds scholars scientists vastly


rumi abdul qadir gilani persianate states dynasties kharaghan twin towers built persia contain tombs seljuq princes turkic governor samanids sabuktigin conquered ghazna present day afghanistan established dynasty ghaznavids lasted ref name islamic conquest ghaznavid empire grew taking samanid territories south amu darya last decade th century eventually occupied parts eastern iran afghanistan pakistan north west india ref name ahgc ghaznavids generally credited launching islam mainly hindu india invasion india


came nizari ismailis secret sect headquarters alamut castle rasht tehran controlled immediate area years sporadically sent adherents strengthen rule murdering important officials several various theories etymology word ''assassin'' derive killers ref name islamic conquest parts northwestern iran conquered early th century ad kingdom georgia led tamar great ref name lordkipanidze lordkipanidze mariam ''georgia xi xii centuries'' tbilisi ganatleba p ref mongol conquest rule mongol invasion


timurid dynasty like predecessors timurid empire also part persianate world establishing power base transoxiana timur invaded iran eventually conquered timur 's campaigns known brutality many people slaughtered several cities destroyed ref name lcweb locgov section incorporates test public domain library congress country studies http lcweb locgov frd cs irtochtml ref regime characterized tyranny bloodshed also inclusion iranians administrative roles promotion architecture poetry successors timurids maintained hold


ottomans iran 's neighboring rival recognized latter 's rights kartli kakheti first time four centuries ref name donald rayfield p donald rayfield https booksgooglecom booksid pxqpmg jipwc pg pa ''edge empires history georgia'' reaktion books february p ref heraclius appealed theoretical protector empress catherine ii russia pleading least russian troops ref name donald rayfield p ignored leaving georgia fend persian threat alone ref name lang lang david marshall ''a modern history georgia'' p london weidenfeld nicolson ref nevertheless heraclius ii still rejected khan 's ultimatum ref


allow cession transcaucasia dagestan integral part iran centuries would lead directly wars several years later namely russo persian wars outcome two wars treaty gulistan treaty turkmenchay respectively proved irrevocable forced cession loss eastern georgia dagestan armenia azerbaijan imperial russia ref name booksgooglenl area north river aras among territory contemporary republic azerbaijan eastern georgia dagestan armenia


settled migrated solduz modern day iran 's west azerbaijan province ref name mansoori ref ''cambridge history iran'' states steady encroachment russian troops along frontier caucasus general yermolov 's brutal punitive expeditions misgovernment drove large numbers muslims even georgian christians exile iran early th century another mass expulsion took place caucasian muslims result russian victory caucasian war others simply voluntarily refused live christian russian rule thus departed turkey iran migrations


official rights russian empire encourage settling armenians iran newly conquered russian territories mid fourteenth century armenians constituted majority eastern armenia close fourteenth century timur 's campaigns timurid renaissance flourished islam become dominant faith armenians became minority eastern armenia centuries constant warfare armenian plateau many armenians chose emigrate settle elsewhere following shah abbas 's massive relocation armenians muslims numbers dwindled even time


tatars alphabet used perso arabic script ref name bournoutiantatarmuslim establishment azerbaijan democratic republic especially soviet era tatar group identified azerbaijani ref name bournoutiantatarmuslim prior word azerbaijan exclusively referred iranian province azarbayjan ie azeris persians early fath ali shah 's reign saw increased diplomatic contacts west beginning intense european diplomatic rivalries iran grandson mohammad shah succeeded fell russian influence made two unsuccessful attempts


oil prices hampered endeavor sought restore confidence government among general population privatizing companies nationalized first years islamic republic well bringing qualified technocrats manage economy state economy also influenced government move towards ending diplomatic isolation achieved reestablishment normalized relations neighbors saudi arabia attempt improve reputation region assertions revolution exportable states


commentator former us defense secretary william cohen stated iran 's growing power eclipsed anti zionism major foreign policy issue middle east claims united states israel planning attack iran cited reason iran 's civilian nuclear energy program united states states fear could lead nuclear weapons program china russia opposed military action sort opposed economic sanctions supreme leader ali khamenei issued fatwa forbidding production stockpiling


iran indo iranica vol vladimir minorsky turks iran caucasus middle ages variorum reprints external links http wwwpersiansarenotarabscom persian history persian history persian history http wwwiranicaonlineorg articles iran iran article encyclop dia iranica http p wwwbritannicacom oscar printarticleid fullarticle true tocid iran article encyclop dia britannica online janet afary http wwwbritannicacom eb article ancient iran ancient iran article encyclop dia britannica online adrian david hugh bivar mark j dresden http wwwparstimescom history iran history http wwwiranchambercom history historic periodsphp iran chamber http wwwparstimescom history vl middle east iranhtml www vl history index iran http wwwwdlorg en item history persia http wwwiranicaonlineorg articles russia relations russia russo iranian relations bolshevik revolution history western asia articles containing video