nile god inscriptions fragments text featuring name ptolemy iv may egyptian spanish archaeological mission head esther ponce uncovered unique cemetery dating back th dynasty called el sawi era site ancient oxyrhynchus archaeologists found tombstones bronze coins small crosses clay seals inside eight roman era tombs domed unmarked roofs october khalid el anany egypt 's tourism antiquities minister announced discovery least sealed sarcophagi mummies years old saqqara archaeologists also revealed statues


ptah soker carved centimeter tall bronze statue god nefertem october ministry tourism antiquities announced discovery years colorful sealed sarcophagi saqqara archaeological team unearthed gilded wooden statues coffins november archaeologists unearthed delicately painted wooden coffins funeral statues sealed wooden coffins containing mummies date far back years artifacts discovered include funeral masks canopic jars amulets according khaled el anany tourism antiquities minister items date back

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Egyptology


announced discovery year old ancient tombs golden tongues dating greek roman periods taposiris magna team also unearthed gold leaf amulets form tongues placed speaking god osiris afterlife mummies depicted different forms one wearing crown decorated horns cobra snake forehead depicted gilded decorations representing wide necklace team archaeologists led zahi hawass also found funerary temple naert narat warehouses made bricks saqqara researchers


foundations funerary equipment cylindrical pear shaped vessels bowl geometric designs september archaeologists announce discovery ritualistic tools used religious rituals ancient site tel al fara kafr el sheikh governorate remains included limestone pillar depicting goddess hathor incense burners head god horus dr hossam ghanim said ''the mission also discovered huge building polished limestone inside representing well holy water used daily rituals'' academic discipline section papyrus ani showing cursive hieroglyphs egyptology established


united states topographic maps elevation contours made ''topography'' synonymous ' 'relief'' topography narrow sense involves recording relief terrain three dimensional quality surface identification specific landforms also known geomorphometry modern usage involves generation elevation data digital form dem often considered include graphic representation landform map variety cartographic relief depiction techniques including contour lines hypsometric tints relief shading etymology term ''topography'' originated ancient greece continued

Social science
Geography
Cartography
Topography


spectra imaging also help determine lie land delineating vegetation land use information clearly images visible colours spectrum photogrammetry photogrammetry measurement technique co ordinates points object determined measurements made two photographic images taken starting different positions usually different passes aerial photography flight technique common points identified image line sight ray built camera location


elevation exaggeration geographic information system gis recognize analyze spatial relationships exist within digitally stored spatial data topological relationships allow complex spatial modelling analysis performed topological relationships geometric entities traditionally include adjacency adjoins containment encloses proximity close something something else reconstitute sight synthesized images ground determine trajectory overflight ground calculate surfaces volumes trace topographic profiles topography fields topography applied different science fields neuroscience neuroimaging discipline uses


frances densmore recording blackfoot chief mountain chief bureau american ethnology '''ethnomusicology''' study music cultural social aspects people make encompasses distinct theoretical methodical approaches emphasize cultural social material cognitive biological dimensions contexts musical behavior addition sound component folklorists began preserving studying folklore music europe us th century considered precursors field prior second world war term ''ethnomusicology'' said

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Ethnomusicology


laws exist music making possible construct analytical framework set categories applicable across cultures proponents native analysis argue analytical approaches inherently incorporate value judgments understand music crucial construct analysis within cultural context debate well exemplified series articles mieczyslaw kolinski marcia herndon mid authors differed strongly style nature implementation advantages analytical synthetic models including ref name ref name kolinski mieczyslaw final reply herndon ''ethnomusicology'' ref herndon backing native


much neglected similarities saw markers basic similarities psycho physical constitution mankind ref name kolinski mieczyslaw kolinski also employed method test disprove erich von hornbostel 's hypothesis european music generally ascending melodic lines non european music featured descending melodic lines adopting anthropological analytical approach steven feld conducted descriptive ethnographic studies regarding sound cultural system ref name feld steven sound structure social structure ethnomusicology ref specifically studies kaluli people papua new guinea use sociomusical methods draw conclusions culture fieldwork bruno


came recorded printed format form majority bart k 's source material journal american anthropologist published article titled plains ghost dance great basin music authored george herzog herzog assistant hornbostel stumpf herzog draws material available literature including transcriptions james mooney bureau american ethnology natalie curtis alice c fletcher herzog analyzes structure melodic contour ghost dance songs notes ghost dance music 's paired patterns occur many native american tribes' music may


biological cultural basis belief universal traits music characteristic nineteenth century scholarship musicologists like longfellow written music universal language mankind search musical universalities remained topic amongst ethnomusicologists since wilhelm wundt tried prove 'primitive' peoples monophonic singing use intervals musicians even teachers wundt 's time believed music universal language resulting development scholarship dealt one kind music treated kinds true relatives distant western


musics thoughts universals world music ref name mcallester mcallester claims absolute universals music plenty near universals music tonal center establishes tendency emits feeling performers music influences way tendency felt realized music transforms experience person feels something hear music actualization mystical experience everybody universality music exists ability effect human mind mcallester believer near universals


produced around whatever music communicates communicated members group whoever may true groups society list however list deviates mcallister however saying weakness idea regarding music producer heightened experience applies equally well arts music therefore cannot universality music since defined sole characteristic music list takes thinking mcallister notion music possessing


number western non western tunings occur within valid tuning range syntonic temperament one aspect music tuning recent work shown many musical traditions' tuning 's notes align dominant instrument 's timbre 's partials fall tuning continuum syntonic temperament suggesting tunings syntonic temperament closely related temperaments may potential universal thus explaining variation among musical cultures specifically exclusively regard tuning timbre possible limits variation linguistics semiotics often case


others indian music example linked directly language music traditions ref name referencec critics musical semiotics linguistic based analytical systems steven feld argue music bears significant similarity language certain cultures linguistic analysis may frequently ignore cultural context comparison since ethnomusicology evolved comparative musicology ethnomusicologists' research features analytical comparison problems arising using comparisons stem fact different kinds comparative studies varying degree understanding ref name beginning late ethnomusicologists desired


outsider rice notes understanding passed language verbal cognitive categories whereas bulgarian instrumental tradition lacked verbal markers descriptors melodic form new student generalize learn abstract conceptions governing melodies without verbal visual aids two different methods learning music outsider searching verbal descriptions versus insider learning imitating represent essential differences rice 's culture bulgarian culture inherent musical differences blocked reaching role insider question


specific applies ethnomusicologist must consider ethics comes culture different culture wants conduct research ethnomusicologist conducts research culture may weigh ethics example music scholar kofi agawu writes african music significant aspects mentions dynamics music among generations significance music effects music society agawu highlights scholars glaze spirit african music


consequence fieldwork according clint bracknell studies aboriginal song traditions nyungar happens grown well indigenous researchers use ethnomusicology platform engage learn invigorate regional music traditions particularly presently endangered researched order contribute diversity music studied supported sustained worldwide however also risk expos ing vital organs culture well outsider misinterpreting culture native fieldworker community want reveal record cultural practices


analyzing musical data ethnomusicological researchers ellen koskoff believe may able fully understand musical culture society ellen koskoff quotes rayna reiter saying bridging gap would explain seeming contradiction internal workings system half pieces ref name ellen koskoff p women contributed extensively ethnomusicological fieldwork onward women 's gender studies ethnomusicology took ref name nettl bruno p nettl bruno study ethnomusicology thirty one issues concepts urbana chicago university


like feminist ethnomusicology late derived momentum third wave feminism women within ethnomusicology limited serve interpreters content created recorded men ref name ellen koskoff p ellen koskoff introduction women music culture women music cross cultural perspective ed ellen koskoff westport ct greenwood press p ref despite historical trend overlooking gender modern ethnomusicologists believe studying gender provide useful lens understand musical practices society considering divisions gender roles society ethnomusicologist ellen koskoff writes many societies


similarly divide musical activity two spheres consistent symbolic dualisms including culture specific gender based dualisms private public feelings actions sordid provocative holy ref name ellen koskoff p ellen koskoff introduction women music culture women music cross cultural perspective ed ellen koskoff westport ct greenwood press p ref cultures music comes reflect divisions way women 's music instrumentation viewed non music opposed men 's music ref name ellen koskoff p ellen koskoff introduction women music culture women music


introduction women music culture women music cross cultural perspective ed ellen koskoff westport ct greenwood press p ref thus insinuating potential class hierarchy differentiating society subcultures surrounding private vs public female musical performance tendency public music performed single women child bearing age associated sex performances older married women tends downplay even deny sexuality ref name koskoff ellen p koskoff ellen introduction women music culture ''women music cross cultural perspective'' ed ellen koskoff p westport ct


female musician takes priority technique female gender expression music performance may confined upholds traditional notions female beauty objectification doubleday relates distinction suitable instruments women require physical exertions may disrupt graceful portrait woman instruments take accompaniment role performer singing exploring modern musical traditions ethnomusicologist gibb schreffler recounts role punjabi women music context migration migration shaping media punjabi popular music global historical perspective women


music connections identity debated throughout history ethnomusicology thomas turino defines self identity culture patterns habits tendencies respond stimuli particular ways repeat reinscribe musical habits responses lead cultural formations identity identity groups martin stokes function music exercise collective power creating barriers among groups thus identity categories ethnicity nationality used indicate oppositional content music reinforces categories self identification identity shape musical innovation george lipsitz 's


world latter half th century song collectors motivated legacy folkloric studies musical nationalism southern eastern europe collected folk songs use construction pan slavic identity ref name oxfordmusiconlinecom pegg carol bohlman p v myers h stokes october ethnomusicology https wwwoxfordmusiconlinecom grovemusic view gmo omo e omo e bibliography ref collector composers became national composers composed songs became emblematic national identity namely frederic chopin gained international recognition composer emblematic polish music despite ancestral ties polish peasantry composers b la bart k jean sibelius edvard


enlightened liberal subject ref name referencef colonists reorganized economic global order also created system tied social mobility ability assimilate european schooling forming meritocracy sorts ref name referencef many barriers keep postcolonial voices academic sphere inability recognize intellectual depth local practices knowledge production transmission ethnomusicologists start rethink ways communicate one another sphere academia could opened include written word allowing new voices participate ref name referencef another topic discussion decolonizing


ethnomusicology existence archives legacy colonial ethnomusicology model digital democracy comparative musicologists used archives berlin phonogramm archiv compare musics world current functions public archives within institutions internet analyzed ethnomusicologists ref name fenn john b fenn john b engaging data questions access methodology use ethnomusicological field video ''society ethnomusicology abstracts'' ref activists ethnomusicologists working archives recorded sound like aaron fox associate professor columbia university undertaken recovery repatriation projects


able deal control foreign world musical terms ref name stokes martin p indeed integration musical difference integral aspect creation musical identity seen seeger 's description brazilian suya took music outside culture made assertion identity multi ethnic social situation ref name stokes martin p addition consider development east indian culture many trademarks east indian society caste system


geographical heritage one cannot change one 's ancestors come contributed concept immutability constructed hierarchy white settlers enforced ranks hierarchy definition civilized ethnic group whites civilized ref name turino thomas p however one cannot simply match class single musical style musical styles reflect complex often contradictory aspects society whole ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity music musical construction place''


edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref marxist subcultural theory proposes subcultures borrow alter traits dominant culture create newly diverse range available traits signs dominant culture remain part new simultaneously subversive whole ref name stokes martin p fact ethnicities similar classes many ways often either defined excluded based rules dominant classificatory system society ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity


european ethnomusicological ethnochoreological studies done home folk music dance name nationalism organizations beginning folk dance commission giving current name early seventies objectives promoting research documentation interdisciplinary study dance providing forum cooperation among scholars students ethnochoreology means international meetings publications correspondence contributing cultural societal understandings humanity lens dance study group meets biennially conference cord short currently known


flouts marxist theory considering labor one many man 's 'pains' consideration positioned labor violation original epicurean assumption man 's manifest hedonistic pursuit postulates critical distinction https wikimisesorg wiki introversive labor introversive labor https wikimisesorg wiki extroversive labor extroversive labor divaricating basic marxist theory marx hails labor man 's species essence species activity postmodern philosophy teleological based grand narratives renounced postmodern tradition teleology may viewed reductive exclusionary harmful whose stories diminished overlooked postmodern position alasdair macintyre

Humanities Philosophy Metaphysics Teleology


say anything simply winks existence without going process selection functions decide whether appendage function analysing process selection led therefore talk functions must posterior natural selection function cannot defined manner advocated reiss dawkins ernst mayr states adaptedness ''a posteriori'' result rather ''a priori'' goal seeking various commentators view teleological phrases used modern evolutionary biology type shorthand example h p madrell writes


security intelligence foreign intelligence security intelligence pertains domestic threats eg terrorism espionage foreign intelligence involves information collection relating political economic activities foreign states agencies involved assassination arms trafficking coups d' tat placement misinformation propaganda well covert clandestine operations order support governments' interests see also intelligence officer list intelligence agencies list defunct intelligence agencies list intelligence gathering disciplines security agency secret police secret service counter intelligence counter terrorism organizations reading '''books''' ''encyclopedia espionage intelligence

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Intelligence agency


oral epics lord however discovered across many story traditions fully oral epic assembled lines repeated verbatim use one one word substitutions words oral stories built set phrases stockpiled lifetime hearing telling stories type story vocabulary theme set sequence story actions structure tale teller tales proceeds line line using formulas proceeds event event using themes one near universal theme repetition evidenced western folklore


informal learning tool indigenous american communities act alternative method reprimanding children 's bad behavior way stories non confrontational allows child discover wrong adjust behavior parents arizona tewa community example teach morals children traditional narratives lessons focus several topics including historical sacred stories domestic disputes storytelling tewa community emphasizes traditional wisdom ancestors importance collective well individual identities indigenous


identity development effort evince ''becoming'' character community festivals storytelling festivals typically feature work several storytellers may include workshops tellers others interested art form targeted applications storytelling elements oral storytelling art form often include tellers encouragement participants co create experience connecting relatable elements story using techniques visualization seeing images mind 's eye use vocal bodily gestures support understanding many ways art storytelling


professional organization helps organize resources tellers festival planners isc runs national storytelling festival jonesborough tn australia followed american counterparts establishment storytelling guilds late australian storytelling today individuals groups across country meet share stories uk 's society storytelling founded bringing together tellers listeners year since run national storytelling week first week february currently dozens storytelling festivals hundreds professional storytellers around world


loyalty according giles lury marketing trend echoes deeply rooted human need entertained ref name plainlanguageatwork mar plain language work http wwwimpact informationcom impactinfo newsletter plwork htm best story wins mar retrieved dec ref stories illustrative easily memorable allow companies create stronger emotional bonds customers ref name plainlanguageatwork mar nielsen study shows consumers want personal connection way gather information since human brains engaged storytelling presentation facts alone reading pure data language parts brain work decode meaning reading


signs warning prohibited activities example social control '''social control''' concept within disciplines social sciences ref name innes ref social control described certain set rules standards society keep individuals bound conventional standards well use formalized mechanisms disciplinary model forerunner control model ref name jstor ref history term term social control first introduced sociology albion woodbury small george edgar vincent however time sociologists showed sporadic


european models judicial procedures legal education likewise brought line european practice constitutions muslim majority states contain references sharia classical rules largely retained personal status family laws legislators codified laws sought modernize without abandoning foundations traditional jurisprudence islamic revival late th century brought along calls islamism movements full implementation sharia including ''hudud'' corporal punishments stoning cases resulted traditionalist legal reform countries witnessed juridical reinterpretation sharia advocated


compatible democracy human rights freedom thought women 's rights lgbt rights banking ref name naim title religious human rights global perspective religious perspectives pages editor first john editor last witte editor first johan editor last van der vyver year isbn ref ref name hajjar ref etymology usage contemporary usage word ' 'shar ah'' used arabic speaking peoples middle east designate prophetic religion totality example ' 'shar '' means law religion moses ' 'shar atu n '' mean religion reference monotheistic faith within islamic discourse '' ar ah'' refers religious regulations governing lives muslims


first centuries islam ''historical sharia '' body rules interpretations developed throughout islamic history ranging personal beliefs state legislation varying across ideological spectrum classical sharia often served point reference variants also reflected influences time place ''contemporary sharia '' full spectrum rules interpretations developed practiced present related term '''' islamic law borrowed european usage late th century used muslim world refer legal system


schacht mid th century schacht scholars argued conquered much populous agricultural urban societies already existing laws legal needs initial muslim efforts formulate legal norms ref regarded quran muhammad 's hadiths one source law ref another example early major works fiqh muwatta imam malik edited shaibani contains ahadith muhammad companions successors others ref name schacht oomj ref contrast later works al bukhari muslim etc contain ahadith muhammad jurist personal opinions legal practice conquered peoples


example quranic prohibition drinking wine extended intoxicating substances basis cause '' illa'' shared situations case identified intoxication since cause rule may apparent selection commonly occasioned controversy extensive debate majority sunni muslims view ''qiyas'' central pillar ''ijtihad'' ref name overview ref hand zahirites ahmad ibn hanbal al bukhari early hanbalites etc rejected ''qiyas'' amongst sunnis twelver shia jurisprudence also recognize use ''qiyas'' relies reason '' aql''


' 'diya'' witness testimony cases woman 's value effectively treated half man various financial obligations imposed husband acted deterrent unilateral divorce commonly gave wife financial leverage divorce proceedings women active sharia courts plaintiffs defendants wide variety cases though opted represented male relative sharia intended regulate affairs muslim community non muslims residing islamic rule legal status dhimmi entailed number protections restrictions


muftis heed rulings real life role ''hisba'' classical doctrine ''hisba'' associated quranic injunction ''enjoining good forbidding wrong'' refers duty muslims promote moral rectitude intervene another muslim acting wrongly historically legal implementation entrusted public official called ''muhtasib'' market inspector charged preventing fraud disturbance public order infractions public morality office disappeared modern era everywhere muslim world revived arabia first saudi state later instituted


well certain congregations donating money terrorist organizations within muslim community reportedly spread mainstream conservative republicans united states ref name tpm ref former house speaker newt gingrich ovations calling federal ban sharia law ref name tpm issue liberty versus sharia called momentous civilisational debate right wing pundit diana west britain future prime minister david cameron declared opposition expansion sharia law uk ref name bbc ref germany interior minister thomas de maizi told newspaper ''bild'' sharia law tolerated


modern muslim world laws pertaining blasphemy vary country countries prescribe punishments consisting fines imprisonment flogging hanging beheading ref name psns p smith speak evil apostasy blasphemy heresy malaysian syariah law ''uc davis journal int'l law policy'' pp n swazo case hamza kashgari examining apostasy heresy blasphemy sharia ''the review faith international affairs'' ''' ''' pp nbsp ref blasphemy laws rarely enforced pre modern islamic societies modern era states radical groups used charges blasphemy effort


man made rule enacted early islamic community prevent punish equivalent desertion treason enforced apostasy becomes mechanism public disobedience disorder ''fitna'' ref name autogenerated ahmet albayrak writes ''the qur'an encyclopedia'' regarding apostasy wrongdoing sign intolerance religions aimed one 's freedom choose religion leave islam embrace another faith contrary correct say punishment enforced safety precaution warranted


research center poll public support capital punishment apostasy among muslims ranged afghanistan less kazakhstan reaching countries surveyed lgbt rights death penalty homosexual intercourse illegal classical sharia different penalties including capital punishment stipulated depending situation legal school pre modern islam penalties prescribed homosexual acts large extent theoretical owing part stringent procedural requirements harsher ''hudud'' forms part prevailing social tolerance toward sex relationships ref name ei ref historical instances prosecution


justification terms islamic theology law tradition modern era notion jihad lost jurisprudential relevance instead gave rise ideological political discourse ref name hallaq ref modernist islamic scholars emphasized defensive non military aspects jihad radical islamists advanced aggressive interpretations go beyond classical theory ref name hallaq al qaeda ideologues jihad means legitimate including targeting muslim non combatants mass killing non muslim civilians ref name aenexeter according interpretations islam discriminate military civilian targets rather muslims nonbelievers


right hand owns refer women slaves seized captives war ref name blbr islamic law muslim men could sexual relations female captives slaves ref name alik ali k marriage slavery early islam harvard university press ref slave women sharia right property move freely sharia islam 's history provided religious foundation enslaving non muslim women men allowed manumission slaves however manumission required non muslim slave first convert islam ref name pl ref slave woman bore child muslim master


w adys aw iv dressed according french spanish polish fashion reflects complex politics polish lithuanian commonwealth thirty years' war handful states moved beyond insistence full sovereignty considered post modern ability contemporary ir discourse explain relations different types states disputed levels analysis way looking international system includes individual level domestic state unit international level transnational intergovernmental affairs global level explicitly recognized international relations

Social science
Political science
International relations


study began britain ir emerged formal academic discipline founding first ir professorship woodrow wilson chair aberystwyth university wales aberystwyth university ref name held alfred eckhard zimmern ref name aaa ref endowed david davies georgetown university 's edmund walsh school foreign service oldest international relations faculty united states founded early london school economics' department international relations founded behest nobel peace prize winner philip noel baker first institute


cooperation states fundamental part international system states seen unitary actors pluralistic arenas interest groups non governmental organisations economic actors also shapes creation foreign policy ref name ref ref name mingst karen mingst karen arregu n toft ivan essentials international relations th ed new york w w norton company ref liberal framework associated analysis globalised world emerged aftermath world war ii increased political cooperation organisations un well economic cooperation institutions


called ''critical theories'' due inherently critical traditional ir frameworks developed postmodernist studies political science post structuralism explores deconstruction concepts traditionally problematic ir power agency examines construction concepts shapes international relations examination narratives plays important part poststructuralist analysis example feminist poststructuralist work examined role women play global society constructed war innocent civilians rosenberg 's article international historical sociology key text


economics diplomacy cultural influence however clear dividing line two forms power national interest perhaps significant concept behind power sovereignty national interest state 's action relation states seeks gain advantage benefits national interest whether aspirational operational divided core vital peripheral non vital interests core vital interests constitute things country willing defend expand conflict territory ideology religious political economic citizens peripheral non vital interests


hegemon certain period resulting major war suggests hegemony control occurrence wars also results creation one main proponent f k organski argued based occurrence previous wars british portuguese dutch hegemony interdependence many advocate current international system characterized growing interdependence mutual responsibility dependency others advocates point growing globalization particularly international economic interaction role international institutions widespread acceptance number operating principles


possible pre eminent vlbi arrays operating today long baseline array telescopes located across north america european vlbi network telescopes europe china south africa puerto rico array usually operates separately occasional projects observed together producing increased sensitivity referred global vlbi also vlbi networks operating australia new zealand called lba long baseline array arrays japan china south korea observe together form east asian vlbi network eavn since inception recording data onto hard media

Natural science
Space science
Astronomy
Radio astronomy


gro e fuge late quartets absolutely contemporary piece music contemporary forever string quartets op written classical style year haydn wrote op string quartets even beethoven stretched formal structures pioneered haydn mozart quartet op f major example long lyrical solo cello second movement giving cello new type voice quartet conversation last movement op

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Chamber music


succession henceforth free used musical continuity debussy wrote ref name ref pierre boulez said debussy freed chamber music rigid structure frozen rhetoric rigid aesthetics ref name first movement played cypress string quartet debussy 's quartet like string quartets maurice ravel gabriel faur created new tone color chamber music color texture associated impressionist movement violist james dunham cleveland sequoia quartets writes ravel quartet simply overwhelmed sweep sonority sensation colors


vc important among brahms 's op op sextets schoenberg 's ''verkl rte nacht'' op original version wind sextet ob bsn hrn cl hrn bsn mozart two types beethoven used one cl piano wind quintet fl ob cl bsn hrn pno poulenc sextet another ludwig thuille rowspan piano sextet vln vla vc cb pno eg mendelssohn 's op also one leslie bassett https webarchiveorg web http dramnyuedu dram objid


name th century decet dixtuor op enescu written well known example frequently additional bass instrument added standard double wind quintet works written instruments related ones colspan border references group instr ref name instrfn key vln violin vla viola vc cello cb double bass pno piano fl flute ob oboe eng hrn english horn cl clarinet sax soprano saxophone sax alto saxophone sax tenor saxophone b sax


originated houdini straitjacket escape hanging high earth houdini hung cranes buildings upside strait jacket falling would mean certain death uk escape artist alan alan took hanging burning rope hundreds feet air type escapology fail failures resulted escape artists getting hurt losing lives others done type escape include dorothy dietrich antony britton jonathon bryce mark nelson markini worlds youngest professional escape artist highlighted '' 'death

Human physical performance and recreation


escape artist film ''the linguini incident'' rosanna arquette plays aspiring escape artist novels ''specific gravity'' ''ontario lacus'' j matthew neal features scientist also master escape artist paul adam 's ''escape shadow island'' first published features young escapologist max cassidy two books series ''jaws death'' ''dead man 's bay'' released april respectively houdini rather ghost appeared episode ''the real ghostbusters'' lost touch


course rd century ad performance supported patron 's standing among elite popular large holder hellenic ''leitourgia'' taxed specific sum entrusted particular ritual could performed greater lesser magnificence chief sphere remained civic religion embodied festivals mi finley notes demosthenes' day least liturgical appointments athens festivals rising quadrennial panathenaic year however groups rich citizens assigned pay expenses

Applied science
Divinity
Field ministry
Liturgy


pre ov slovakia wedding ceremony inside kiuruvesi church kiuruvesi finland frequently christianity distinction made liturgical non liturgical churches based elaborate formal worship usage churches whose services unscripted improvised called non liturgical others object distinction arguing terminology obscures universality public worship religious phenomenon thus even ''open'' ''waiting'' worship quakers liturgical since waiting holy spirit moves individuals speak prescribed form quaker worship sometimes referred


five pillars islam salat preceded ritual ablution usually performed five times day consists repetition unit called ''rak ah'' pl ''raka t'' consisting prescribed actions words number obligatory ''fard'' ''raka t'' varies two four according time day circumstances friday congregational worship two rakats prayer obligatory muslims except prepubescent menstruating puerperium stage childbirth judaism jewish liturgy prayer recitations form part observance rabbinic judaism


veritable arcana building fortifications seemed average individual early th century one observer british veteran napoleonic wars major john mitchell thought seemed nothing much changed application force battlefield since days greeks ref name gat ref suggested primarily clausewitz suggested unlike science art war object reacts ref name gat time even franco prussian war military science continued divided formal

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
Military science


used defense science research activities united states force structure guided table organization equipment toe e toe document published us department defense prescribes organization manning equipage units divisional size also including headquarters corps armies force structuring also provides information mission capabilities specific units well unit 's current status terms posture readiness general toe applicable type unit instance infantry rather


indoctrination armed forces military concepts methods much capability development depends concepts guide use armed forces weapons equipment methods employed given theatre war combat environment military history military activity constant process thousands years essential tactics strategy goals military operations unchanging throughout history example one notable maneuver double envelopment considered consummate military maneuver first executed hannibal battle cannae bce


name sciences shields pm dynamic intersection military society sookermany eds ''handbook military sciences'' springer cham https linkspringercom referenceworkentry ref field study linked works clausewitz war continuation politics means sun tzu interest state act contemporary multi interdisciplinary field traces origin world war ii works sociologists political scientists ref name sciences field study includes aspects relations armed forces political social economic institution


point sources specific visible stars stellar systems discovery gamma ray astronomy came late early constellation military defense satellites detectors board vela satellite series designed detect flashes gamma rays nuclear bomb blasts began record bursts gamma rays deep space rather vicinity earth later detectors determined gamma ray bursts seen last fractions second minutes appearing suddenly unexpected directions flickering fading briefly dominating gamma ray sky

Natural science
Space science
Astronomy
Gamma ray astronomy


name figueiredo high energy astronomy observatory program nasa announced plans build great observatory gamma ray astronomy compton gamma ray observatory cgro designed take advantage major advances detector technology launched satellite carried four major instruments greatly improved spatial temporal resolution gamma ray observations cgro provided large amounts data used improve understanding high energy processes universe cgro de orbited june result failure


n't going rain today give yesterday gave yesterday y'gotta right way right way social language codes basil bernstein well known british socio linguist devised book 'elaborated restricted codes social origins consequences' method categorizing language codes according variable emphases verbal extraverbal communication claimed factors like family orientation social control verbal feedback possibly social class contributed development two

Social science
Sociology
Sociolinguistics


blackler elsie conway visited university british columbia researched president british phycological society e yale dawson giovanni battista de toni kathleen mary drew baker nathaniel lyon gardner robert kaye greville michael guiry lena tracy hanks eifion jones vasudeva krishnamurthy friedrich traugott k tzing marie lemoine diane littler hans christian lyngbye carola ivena meikle irene manton valerie may carl n geli lily newton friedrich oltmanns william j oswald george frederik papenfuss mary

Natural science
Biology
Botany
Phycology


proficiency literacy mother tongue second language competency two languages believed broaden students' opportunities communicate people communities ref name ref another advantage bilingual education promoting equal education becoming cure cause underachievement gives students opportunity showcase knowledge skills first language students' first language valued used resource learning positive effect learners self esteem ref name identity affirmation bilingual education introduce new

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Bilingual education


linguistics maintain home languages also promotes cultural linguistic diversity allows positive intercultural communication lead better understanding cultural linguistic differences baker wright point children dual language bilingual schools likely tolerant respectful sensitive equalized status genuine cross cultural friendships may develop issues stereotyping discrimination may diminished official language policy international baccalaureate organization also emphasizes importance cultivation intercultural awareness international mindedness global citizenship international schools students speak


language immersion based previous language skills first type '' 'developmental''' '''maintenance''' bilingual programs programs enroll students native speakers partner language learn english second type '''bilingual immersion''' programs programs enroll native english speakers native speakers partner language third type '''foreign language''' immersion programs programs primarily enroll students speak english native language finally fourth type '''heritage language''' programs programs enroll students primarily dominant english close relative eg parent grandparent speaks


type program native language classes teach academic subjects second language classes content based rather grammar based students learn academic subjects second language dual language type bilingual education students learn reading writing two languages united states majority programs english spanish new partner languages emerged lately japanese korean french mandarin arabic concept dual language promotes bilingualism improved awareness cultural diversity higher levels academic achievement means lessons


two languages models two basic models dual language immersion first model ''' model''' two way bilingual immersion program instructions grades k minority language less supported broader society majority language proportion gradually changes majority language curriculum equally divided languages th grade two way bilingual immersion program based principle clear curriculum separation two languages instruction teachers


population identifying monolingual world 's population identifying bilingual multilingual myth order deserve label bi multilingual one needs equal perfect native like command languages often assumption balanced bilinguals native like proficiency perfect proficiency languages considered bilingual multilingual ref name ref instead perhaps accurate define bilingual multilingual person uses two languages dialects everyday life ref name reality balanced


online learning tool hypertext hypermedia recognized good tools learning ref name hyperhist technology advanced constructivist theory gained popularity technology 's use classroom began evolve mostly drill skill exercises interactive activities required complex thinking part learner ref name markham rapid prototyping first seen process instructional design project prototyped quickly vetted series try revise cycles big departure traditional methods instructional design took far longer

Applied science
Education
Educational Technology
Instructional design


introduction learning design technology ldt majors universities bowling green state university penn state purdue san diego state university stanford harvard university georgia california state university fullerton carnegie mellon university established undergraduate graduate degrees technology centered methods designing delivering education informal learning became area growing importance instructional design particularly workplace ref name ref ref name ref study showed formal training makes percent hours per year average employee spends learning also found learning output informal learning


interactive feedback personalized learning paths enhanced artificial intelligence microlearning gamification widely adopted deliver learning flow work real time data capture enables ongoing design remediation robert gagn robert gagn 's work widely used cited design instruction exemplified citations prominent journals field period synthesizing ideas behaviorism cognitivism provided clear template easy follow designing instructional events instructional designers follow gagn 's theory likely tightly focused efficient


foundation instructional design since beginning conducted research developed training materials military among first coin term instructional design gagn developed earliest instructional design models ideas models laid groundwork present day instructional design models theorists like dick carey carey dick carey systems approach model jerold kemp 's instructional design model ref name instructionalcom instructional design models theories retrieved april th http wwwinstructionaldesigncentralcom htm idc instructionaldesignmodelshtm kemp ref david merrill merrill 's first principle instruction ref name instructionalcom


amazonian fish fauna accumulated increments period tens millions years principally means allopatric speciation arena extending area tropical south america albert reis words unlike well known insular faunas galapagos finches hawaiian drosophilid flies african rift lake cichlids species rich amazonian ichthyofauna result recent adaptive radiations ref name lovejoy n r pp lovejoy n r c willis j albert molecular signatures neogene biogeographic events amazon fish fauna pp

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Biogeography


https booksgooglecom booksid k uycgaaqbaj lieberman b paleobiogeography using fossils study global change plate tectonics evolution kluwer academic plenum publishing https booksgooglecom booksid fmcsfquucryc pg pa lpg pa dq paleobiogeography using fossils study source bl ots lefcdtehqh sig r cdmssqkcniwvd u scznrfii hl en sa x ved ahukewiek cs mruahucjcykhwzvcngq aeivtah v onepage q paleobiogeography using fossils study f false lomolino v brown j h ''foundations biogeography classic papers commentaries'' university chicago press https booksgooglecom booksid kbkcgsepv yc millington blumler schickhoff u eds ''the sage handbook biogeography'' sage london https booksgooglecom booksid clqrhhupic nelson gj http wwwibuspbr silvionihei pdf nelson candolle croizatpdf candolle croizat comments history biogeography ''journal history biology'' udvardy f ''a classification biogeographical provinces world'' iucn occasional paper morges


francis fowke paul r smith vitruvius eug nio dos santos tadeusz ko ciuszko leonardo da vinci zahid ali akbar khan robert e lee herman haupt douglas macarthur george washington fritz todt references external links https wwwusacearmymil headquarters us army corps engineers http milengcoeorg pages defaultaspx nato military engineering centre excellence engineering land warfare engineering disciplines engineering occupations

Applied science
Military sciences
Military engineering


shown improve benefit concern ratio exercise decisional balance increase confidence choose exercise face time demands scheduling self efficacy personal training results higher strength higher workout intensities higher perceived exertion exercise mentioned earlier clients often seek guidance personal trainer motivational purposes adherence personal trainer also psychological benefits individuals may able motivate perform physical activity help persona trainer achieved different types motivational


india reps ireland reps new zealand reps poland reps south africa reps united arab emirates reps united kingdom usreps iranreps australia australia personal trainers may work independently suitable insurance choose member registering body fitness australia physical activity australia qualifications levels include level certificate iii fitness level certificate iv fitness level diploma fitness obtained nationally accredited colleges tafe australian college sport fitness fitness industry training global fitness institute australian institute fitness australian fitness


certifications required law fitness instruction canada unregulated industry iran iran main certifying bodies iranreps bodybuilding federation two organizations signed memorandum understanding beginning iranreps requires diploma degree exercise field europeactive accredited providers sport universities iranreps joined icreps europe europe personal trainers may work independently always need accreditation one main certifying bodies '''nasm ''' national academy sports medicine nasm certified personal trainers


eligible join european register exercise professionals ereps nasm attributed success personal trainers europe accredited companies like unitedfit netherlands became recognized qualified fitness organization europe '''ace ''' american council exercise ace first us fitness certification provider earn approval europeactive standards council makes ace certified personal trainers group fitness instructors eligible join european register exercise professionals ereps '''ereps ''' european register exercise professionals ereps independent process registering instructors trainers


reps registered provider'' ''b complete nz university degree exercise focus'' ''c hold nz certificate exercise '' ' 'd hold current registration icreps partner'' maintain reps registration need ''a renew registration yearly'' ''b keep cpr first aid date valid'' ''c complete cpd points per year'' united kingdom uk several ways achieve personal training qualification personal training qualifications accredited awarding bodies like cyq central ymca qualifications active iq active international qualifications city guilds


qualifications generally delivered education fe establishments like colleges private training providers upon successful completion accredited awarding body qualification candidates become eligible level reps register exercise professionals status university graduates appropriate honors degree also apply become approved reps accreditation prior learning apl accreditation prior achievement apa reps professional body uk health fitness industry award qualifications directly health fitness qualifications endorsed reps vary levels basic


united states registry exercise professionals usreps official registry exercise professionals united states provides clients employers healthcare practitioners policymakers insurance providers single source finding well qualified exercise professionals specific locations verify credentials investigation evaluated random sample personal trainers using fitness instructors knowledge assessment fika measures knowledge nutrition health screening testing protocols exercise prescription special populations study described surveyed degree field related exercise science


represents health fitness facilities started initiative improve standards clubs industry whole january ihrsa implemented recommendation facilities accept personal trainers certifications recognized national commission certifying agencies ncca recognized either council higher education accreditation chea us department education usde result distance education training council detc recognized ihrsa recognized accreditor fitness professional certification organizations since detc accredited several


personal trainer certification organizations including aerobics fitness association america afaa international sports sciences association issa among others nasm issa afaa acsm ace nsca certifications among accredited certifications recognized ihrsa three accredited distance education training council detc various organizations within profession lobbied adoption stringent criteria certification developed nsf international remains national legal restriction industry date except district columbia dc february


passed legislation requiring personal fitness trainers register jurisdiction law went effect first half see also physical exercise physical fitness physical training instructor nutritionist professional fitness coach references training sports coaches


myhill nerode theorem gives necessary sufficient condition formal language regular exact count number states minimal machine language pumping lemma regular languages also useful regularity proofs proven period michael rabin dana scott along computational equivalence deterministic nondeterministic finite automata body algebraic results known structure theory algebraic decomposition theory emerged dealt realization sequential machines smaller machines interconnection ref name structure theory ref

Formal science
Computer science
Theory of computation
Automata theory


formal language theory machine assigned ' 'starting state'' set ''accepting states'' depending whether run starting starting state ends accepting state automaton said ''accept'' ' 'reject'' input sequence set words accepted automaton called ''language recognized automaton'' familiar example machine recognizing language electronic lock accepts rejects attempts enter correct code formal definition automaton automaton represented formally tuple math


automata following automata classification different types described previous section mathematical category deterministic automata sequential machines ' 'sequential automata'' turing machines automata homomorphisms defining arrows automata cartesian closed category categorical limits colimits automata homomorphism maps quintuple automaton ''a'' sub sub onto quintuple another automaton '' a'' sub j sub automata homomorphisms also considered ''automata transformations'' semigroup homomorphisms state space '''''s''''' automaton defined semigroup '''s''' sub g sub monoids also considered suitable


structure according management science human organizations fall roughly four types committees juries ecologies matrix organizations pyramids hierarchies committees juries consist group peers decide group perhaps voting difference jury committee members committee usually assigned perform lead actions group comes decision whereas members jury come decision common law countries legal juries render decisions guilt liability quantify damages juries also used

Applied science
Military sciences
Organization


arrangement often associated basis enough imagine real pyramid enough stone blocks hold higher ones gravity would irrevocably bring monumental structure one imagine leader support subordinates entire structure collapse hierarchies satirized ''the peter principle'' book introduced ''hierarchiology'' saying hierarchy every employee tends rise level incompetence theories social sciences organizations object analysis


computational biomechanics ergonomy forensic biomechanics human factors engineering occupational biomechanics injury biomechanics implant medicine orthotics prosthesis kinaesthetics kinesiology kinetics physiology musculoskeletal orthopedic biomechanics rehabilitation soft body dynamics sports biomechanics history antiquity aristotle student plato considered first bio mechanic work animal anatomy aristotle wrote first book motion animals ''de motu animalium'' movement animals saw animals' bodies mechanical systems pursued questions physiological difference imagining performing action actually


death copernicus came new desire understand learn world around people works deathbed published work revolutions heavenly spheres work revolutionized science physics also development mechanics later bio mechanics ref name asbweborg galileo galilei father mechanics part time biomechanic born years death copernicus galileo spent many years medical school often questioned everything professors taught found professors could prove taught


rather mere size bending strength tubular structure bone much efficient relative weight mason suggests insight one first grasps principles biological optimization ref name mason th century descartes suggested philosophic system whereby living systems including human body soul simply machines ruled mechanical laws idea much promote sustain biomechanical study industrial era next major bio mechanic giovanni alfonso borelli embraced descartes' mechanical


chekhov tolstoy '''russian literature''' refers literature russia migr russian language literature roots russian literature traced middle ages epics chronicles old east slavic composed age enlightenment literature grown importance early russian literature underwent astounding golden age poetry prose drama romanticism permitted flowering poetic talent vasily zhukovsky later prot g alexander pushkin came fore prose flourishing well mikhail lermontov one

Humanities
Languages and literature
Russian Literature


novel ''dead souls'' nikolai gogol realistic school fiction said begun ivan goncharov mainly remembered novel ''oblomov'' ivan turgenev fyodor dostoyevsky leo tolstoy soon became internationally renowned point many scholars f r leavis described one greatest novelist ever mikhail saltykov shchedrin known grotesque satire novel ''the golovlyov family'' considered ''magnum opus'' nikolai leskov best remembered shorter fiction unique ' 'skaz'' techniques late


literary socrealism tens millions copies printed many languages around world china various versions book sold million copies russia million copies book circulation ref name compuart ref book fictionalized autobiography ostrovsky 's life difficult working class childhood became komsomol member july volunteered join red army novel 's protagonist pavel korchagin represented young hero russian literature dedicated political causes help overcome tragedies alexander


andrei sinyavsky andrei bitov sasha sokolov vladimir voinovich short story writer sergei dovlatov emigrate west oleg grigoriev venedikt yerofeyev emigrated alcoholism yury dombrovsky murdered shortly publishing novel ''the faculty useless knowledge'' books published officially perestroika period although fans continued reprint manually manner called samizdat self publishing gallery widths px heights px perrow image boris beside baltic merekule lpasternakjpg boris pasternak image maxim gorky loc restoredjpg maxim gorky image ivan bunin jpg ivan bunin image andrej belij petrov vodkin festm nye jpg andrey bely


books genres written even fewer published although earlier books gogol banned rare exceptions bulgakov ''master margarita'' published author 's lifetime strugatskies ''monday begins saturday'' introduced magic mystical creatures contemporary soviet reality satirize another exception early soviet writer alexander grin wrote romantic tales realistic fantastic gallery widths px heights px perrow image chukovsky repinjpg korney chukovsky image antolstoyjpg aleksey tolstoy image alexander belayevjpg alexander belayev image ilf petrovjpg ilya ilf yevgeny petrov image olga bergholzjpg olga bergholz image jpg sergey mikhalkov


elena katsuba ''doos'' used complex metaphors called meta metaphors st petersburg members ''new leningrad poetry school'' included famous joseph brodsky also victor krivulin sergey stratanovsky elena shvarts prominent first soviet times underground later mainstream poetry poets eg sergey gandlevsky dmitry vodennikov gained popularity writing retro style reflected sliding newly written russian poetry consciously imitative patterns forms developed early th century gallery image lyudmila ulitskaya jpg lyudmila


theory especially lattice quantum chromodynamics plasma physics see plasma modeling simulating physical systems using eg molecular dynamics nuclear engineering computer codes protein structure prediction weather prediction solid state physics soft condensed matter physics hypervelocity impact physics etc computational solid state physics example uses density functional theory calculate properties solids method similar used chemists study molecules quantities interest solid state physics electronic band structure magnetic properties charge densities calculated several methods including luttinger kohn kp method ab initio methods see also

Natural science
Physics
Computational physics


performed sadler 's wells theatre london advertised act curious ad libitum dialogues invisible familiar little tommy however performers beginning incorporate dolls puppets performance notably irishman james burne carries pocket ill shaped doll broad face exhibits nbsp giving utterance childish jargon thomas garbutt entertainment came age era music hall united kingdom vaudeville united states george sutton began incorporate puppet

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Ventriloquism


american ventriloquial figure shape young boy films programs refer dummies alive frightening include ''magic'' ref name andrews ''dead night'' ref name andrews ''the twilight zone'' ref name andrews ref ''devil doll'' ''dead silence'' ''zapatlela'' ''buffy vampire slayer'' ''goosebumps'' ''tales crypt'' ''seinfeld'' episode chicken roaster ''alf'' episode i'm puppet ''gotham'' episode nothing 's shocking ''friday th series'' ''toy story '' ''doctor who'' different episodes literary examples frightening ventriloquist dummies include gerald kersh 's ''the horrible dummy'' story glass eye john


'' http wwwuncedu jimlee tp mabehtml ventriloquism dissociated perspective '' angela mabe http wwwnewadventorg cathen ahtm catholic encyclopedia' 's necromancy entry external links https wwwventhavenorg vent museum ventriloquist museum http acousticengineeringwordpresscom ventriloquists trick brain ventriloquists trick brain vaudeville tropes circus skills vocal skills


general programming languages since early programs used direct behavior machines jacquard looms music boxes player pianos programs machines player piano 's scrolls produce different behavior response different inputs conditions thousands different programming languages created created every year many programming languages written imperative form ie sequence operations perform languages use declarative form ie desired result specified achieve

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages


behavior computer programming languages despite fact commonly turing complete remarks ignorance programming language concepts reason many flaws input formats history early developments early computers colossus programmed without help stored program modifying circuitry setting banks physical controls slightly later programs could written machine language programmer writes instruction numeric form hardware execute directly example instruction add value two memory locations might consist


' ' expression ' ' syntaxhighlight grammar specifies following ''expression'' either ''atom'' ''list'' ''atom'' either ''number'' ' 'symbol'' ''number'' unbroken sequence one decimal digits optionally preceded plus minus sign ' 'symbol'' letter followed zero characters excluding whitespace ''list'' matched pair parentheses zero ''expressions'' inside following examples well formed token sequences grammar code code code code code


undecidable problem generally blur distinction parsing execution contrast lisp 's macro system perl 's code begin code blocks may contain general computations c macros merely string replacements require code execution semantics term ' 'semantics'' refers meaning languages opposed form syntax static semantics static semantics defines restrictions structure valid texts hard impossible express standard syntactic formalisms ref name aaby compiled languages static semantics essentially include semantic rules checked compile time examples include checking


interpreting instance implementations basic compile execute source line time programs executed directly hardware usually run much faster interpreted software one technique improving performance interpreted programs time compilation virtual machine execution translates blocks bytecode going used machine code direct execution hardware proprietary languages although commonly used programming languages fully open specifications implementations many programming languages exist


height plotarea width height left bottom alignbars justify colors id time value rgb id period value rgb id age value rgb id era value rgb id eon value rgb id filler value gray background bar id black value black period till timeaxis orientation horizontal scalemajor unit year increment start scaleminor unit year increment start plotdata align center textcolor black fontsize mark lineblack width shift bar timeframe color era till text early modern period bar timeframe color filler till text late middle ages till text modern age bar portugal color age till text early globalization till text portuguese enlightenment bar portugal color filler

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history
Early modern


shift text rhine confederation bar germany color filler till shift text german confederation bar italy color age till text renaissance till text counter reformation till text foreign domination bar italy color filler till text risorgimento bar poland color age till text polish golden age till text polish lithuanian commonwealth bar poland color filler till text medieval poland till text partitioned poland bar ottomans color age till text ottoman growth till text ottoman stagnation bar ottomans color filler till text ottoman decline bar persia color age till text safavid dynasty till


portions modern world altered relationship biblical quranic value systems revalued monarchical government system abolished feudal economic system new democratic liberal ideas areas politics science psychology sociology economics ref name grosvenormodern ref name micheletandsimpson combination epoch events totally changed thinking thought early modern period dates serve well separate old new modes age revolutions dawned beginning revolts america france political changes pushed forward


break existing orthodoxies like galileo galilei despite inventing gunpowder th century europe classic handheld firearms matchlocks invented evidence use around china using matchlocks portuguese brought matchlocks japan early ref name ref china ming dynasty established bureau maintain calendar bureau necessary calendars linked celestial phenomena needs regular maintenance twelve lunar months days occasional leap months added


lasted around century consisted several continually warring states following contact portuguese tanegashima isle japanese adopted several technologies cultural practices visitors whether military area arquebus european style cuirasses european ships religion christianity decorative art language integration japanese western vocabulary culinary portuguese introduced tempura valuable refined sugar central government largely reestablished oda nobunaga toyotomi hideyoshi azuchi momoyama period although start date often given broad terms period begins oda


foreigners exceptions ''sakoku'' policy ref name hcaotw ref literacy among japanese people rose two centuries isolation ref name hcaotw parts country particularly smaller regions ' 'daimy s'' samurai less identical since ' 'daimy s'' might trained samurai samurai might act local lords otherwise largely inflexible nature social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces time taxes peasantry set fixed amounts account inflation changes monetary value result tax revenues collected samurai


state dept http dosfanlibuicedu erc bgnotes sa afghanistan html afghanistan history ''us department state'' retrieved october ref following muslim arab turkic conquests pashtun ''ghazis'' warriors faith invaded conquered much northern india lodhi dynasty suri dynasty pashtun forces also invaded persia opposing forces defeated battle gulnabad pashtuns later formed durrani empire europe class toccolours style float right margin em em width px text align left clear right div style background f eaba text align center european events dates div beginning early modern period clear cut generally accepted


political struggles rome struggles ultimately led separation church england papal authority dissolution monasteries establishing supreme head church england though henry reportedly became protestant death bed advocated catholic ceremony doctrine throughout life royal support english reformation began heirs devout edward vi renowned elizabeth whilst daughter mary temporarily reinstated papal authority england henry also oversaw legal union england wales laws wales acts


also noted six wives two beheaded christians christendom johann sebastian bach mass b minor agnus dei christianity challenged beginning modern period fall constantinople later various movements reform church including lutheran zwinglian calvinist followed counter reformation end crusades unity battle vienna september hussite crusades involved military actions amongst followers jan hus bohemia ending ultimately


battle grotniki also known hussite wars arguably first european war hand held gunpowder weapons muskets made decisive contribution taborite faction hussite warriors basically infantry many defeats larger armies heavily armored knights helped effect infantry revolution totality hussite crusades inconclusive last crusade ''crusade '' organized counter expanding ottoman empire lift siege belgrade led john hunyadi giovanni da capistrano siege eventually escalated


council trent called reaction ''protestant rebellion'' idea reform state worldliness disarray befallen clergy church reaffirming spiritual authority catholic church position sole true church christ earth effort sought prevent damage church faithful hands newly formed protestant denominations tsardom russia development third rome ideas grand duke ivan iv awesome terrible


new world divided two iberian powers treaty tordesillas late th century area could called ibero america spain called overseas empire indies portugal calling territory south america brazil dyewood found spain concentrated building empire large indigenous populations indians could compelled work large deposits precious metals mainly silver new spain colonial mexico peru fit criteria spanish crown established viceroyalties rule two large areas spanish


early modern period mortality rates early modern period thorough accurate global data mortality rates limited number reasons including disparities medical practices views dead however still remains data european countries still holds valuable information mortality rates infants era book ''life pressure mortality living standards europe asia '' tommy bengsston provides adequate information pertaining data infant mortality rates european countries well provide necessary contextual influences


end early modern period second treaty paris ended american revolution french revolution napoleonic wars congress vienna marked end period political upheaval frequent war rise new concepts nationalism reorganization military forces latest year commonly reckoned end early modern period french revolutions eug ne delacroix 's ''liberty leading people'' french revolution inspired wave revolutions across europe liberalism nationalism popular


thermodynamics statistical mechanics overlaps issue scientific reduction philosophy space time existence nature space time space time central topics philosophy physics ref name maudlinsta ref time time many philosophies seen change time often thought fundamental quantity quantity cannot defined terms quantities time seems like fundamentally basic concept one cannot define terms anything simpler however certain theories loop quantum gravity claim spacetime

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of physics


contemporaneous consumption future consumption via investment capital stock used production known intertemporal choice future consumption discounted constant rate math beta math discrete approximation transition equation capital given math k hat g left k c right f k c math math c math consumption math k math capital math f math production function satisfying inada conditions initial capital stock math k math assumed let math c math consumption period assume consumption yields utility math u c ln c math long consumer lives assume

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Dynamic programming


key attributes problem must order dynamic programming applicable optimal substructure overlapping sub problems problem solved combining optimal solutions ''non overlapping'' sub problems strategy called divide conquer instead ref name merge sort quick sort classified dynamic programming problems ''optimal substructure'' means solution given optimization problem obtained combination optimal solutions sub problems optimal substructures usually described means recursion example given graph ''g '' shortest


easily accessible design pattern within term rewrite based languages wolfram language bioinformatics dynamic programming widely used bioinformatics tasks sequence alignment protein folding rna structure prediction protein dna binding first dynamic programming algorithms protein dna binding developed independently charles delisi usa georgii gurskii alexander zasedatelev ussr recently algorithms become popular bioinformatics computational biology particularly studies nucleosome positioning transcription factor binding examples computer algorithms dijkstra 's algorithm shortest path problem


times scratch larger examples many values code fib code ' 'subproblems'' recalculated leading exponential time algorithm suppose simple map object ''m'' maps value code fib code already calculated result modify function use update resulting function requires ''n'' time instead exponential time requires ''n'' space '''var''' '''''map''''' '''function''' fib n '''if ''key''''' n '''is ''map''''' n fib n fib n '' 'return''' n


dynamic programming brute force consists checking assignments zeros ones counting balanced rows columns zeros ones math n math possible assignments math tbinom n n n math sensible assignments strategy practical except maybe math n math backtracking problem consists choosing order matrix elements recursively placing ones zeros checking every row column number elements assigned plus number ones zeros least sophisticated


width style width px style width px style width px style width px style width px thus code c code let us say checker could start square first rank ie row wanted know shortest path sum minimum costs visited rank get last rank assuming


three squares since squares reach plus code c j code instance class wikitable style text align center b c width style width px style width px style width px style width px style width px


first character b performing optimal alignment tail b deleting first character performing optimal alignment tail b replacing first character first character b performing optimal alignments tails b partial alignments tabulated matrix cell ij contains cost optimal alignment b j cost cell ij calculated adding cost relevant operations


denotes number disks moved h denotes home rod denotes target rod ht denotes third rod neither h denotes concatenation n h solution problem consisting n disks moved rod h rod n problem trivial namely ht move disk rod h rod one disk left number moves required solution sup ''n'' sup nbsp minus nbsp objective '''maximize''' number moves


math n k math time dp solution improved math n k log k math time binary searching optimal math x math recurrence since math w n x math increasing math x math math w nk x math decreasing math x math thus local minimum math max w n x w nk x math global minimum also storing optimal math x math cell dp table referring value previous cell optimal math x math cell found constant time improving math n k math time however


calculations let us assume n p first way multiply chain require calculations second way require calculations obviously second way faster multiply matrices using arrangement parenthesis therefore conclusion order parenthesis matters task find optimal order parenthesis point several choices one design dynamic programming algorithm split


ie multiplication single matrices therefore next step actually split chain ie place parenthesis optimally belong purpose could use following algorithm '''function''' printoptimalparenthesis j '''if''' j print '''else''' print printoptimalparenthesis j printoptimalparenthesis j j print course algorithm useful actual multiplication algorithm user friendly way see result looks like actually multiply matrices using proper splits need following algorithm syntaxhighlight lang javascript function matrixchainmultiply chain


viterbi algorithm used hidden markov models particularly part speech tagging earley algorithm type chart parser needleman wunsch algorithm algorithms used bioinformatics including sequence alignment structural alignment rna structure prediction ref name eddy floyd 's pairs shortest path algorithm optimizing order chain matrix multiplication pseudo polynomial time algorithms subset sum knapsack partition problems dynamic time warping algorithm computing global distance two time series selinger aka system r algorithm relational database query optimization de boor algorithm evaluating b spline curves duckworth lewis method resolving


problem games cricket interrupted value iteration method solving markov decision processes graphic image edge following selection methods magnet selection tool photoshop methods solving interval scheduling problems methods solving travelling salesman problem either exactly exponential time approximately eg via bitonic tour recursive least squares method beat tracking music information retrieval adaptive critic training strategy artificial neural networks stereo algorithms solving correspondence problem used stereo vision seam carving content aware image resizing bellman ford algorithm finding shortest distance


paul oskar kristeller pierre bourdieu terry eagleton eg ''the ideology aesthetic'' though point invention often placed earlier italian renaissance anthony blunt notes term ''arti di disegno'' similar concept emerged italy mid th century argued classical world little theoretical writing art survives practice similar distinctions names artists preserved literary sources greek painters sculptors lesser extent carvers engraved gems several individuals groups


making images paper reproduced multiple times printing process important artistic medium several centuries west east asia major historic techniques include engraving woodcut etching west woodblock printing east asia japanese ukiyo e style important th century invention lithography photographic techniques partly replaced historic techniques older prints divided fine art old master print popular prints book illustrations practical images maps somewhere


technique 's inventor giovanni benedetto castiglione ''the creation adam'' c hokusai underwave kanagawajpg ''the great wave kanagawa'' color woodblock print en plein soleil lacma jpg ''en plein soleil'' etching james abbott mcneill whistler henri de toulouse lautrec divan japonais google art projectjpg ''divan japonais'' henri de toulouse lautrec crayon brush spatter transferred screen lithograph gallery calligraphy calligraphy type visual art contemporary definition calligraphic practice art giving form signs expressive harmonious skillful manner ref name mediavilla ref modern calligraphy ranges functional


hand lettered inscriptions designs fine art pieces abstract expression handwritten mark may may compromise legibility letters ref name mediavilla classical calligraphy differs typography non classical hand lettering though calligrapher may create characters historically disciplined yet fluid spontaneous improvised moment writing gallery widths px heights px lindisfarnefol rincipitmattjpg folio r lindisfarne gospels th century cotton library british library london mi fu calligraphyjpg ''on calligraphy'' mi fu song dynasty china folio koran th th century jpg islamic calligraphy folio koran th century abbasid kufic calligraphy malnazar


holding subordinates accountable standards integrated psychological theory integrated psychological theory leadership attempt integrate strengths older theories ie traits behavioral styles situational functional addressing limitations introducing new element need leaders develop leadership presence attitude toward others behavioral flexibility practicing psychological mastery also offers foundation leaders wanting apply philosophies servant leadership authentic leadership integrated psychological theory began attract attention publication james scouller 's three levels leadership model scouller argued

Applied science
Military sciences
Leadership


negative mood leaders transmit moods group members mechanism emotional contagion ref name cote mood contagion may one psychological mechanisms charismatic leaders influence followers affective tone group group affective tone represents consistent homogeneous affective reactions within group group affective tone aggregate moods individual members group refers mood group level analysis groups leaders positive mood positive affective tone groups leaders


negative mood ref name cote group processes like coordination effort expenditure task strategy public expressions mood impact group members think act people experience express mood send signals others leaders signal goals intentions attitudes expressions moods example expressions positive moods leaders signal leaders deem progress toward goals good group members respond signals cognitively behaviorally ways reflected group processes ref name cote research client service found expressions positive mood


behavior using large international sample researchers found three factors motivate leaders affective identity enjoyment leading non calculative leading earns reinforcement social normative sense obligation assertiveness relationship assertiveness leadership emergence curvilinear individuals either low assertiveness high assertiveness less likely identified leaders authenticity individuals aware personality qualities including values beliefs less biased processing self relevant information likely accepted leaders see authentic leadership big


positives kind environment team members motivated support however emphasis relations opposed getting job done might make productivity suffer paternalism paternalism leadership styles often reflect father figure mindset structure team organized hierarchically leader viewed followers leader also provides professional personal direction lives members ref name aycan ref often limitation choices members choose due heavy direction given leader term


paternalism latin pater meaning father leader often male leadership style often found russia africa pacific asian societies ref name aycan servant leadership transformation knowledge society concept servant leadership become popular notably modern technology management styles agile style leadership externalized leader serves guardian methodology servant service provider team lead cohesion common direction team dictated common culture common


life '''society laws''' certain countries follow paternalism india still allow women treated unjustly issues child marriage minor punishments perpetrators crimes women shape society 's view women treated prevent women feeling comfortable speaking personal professional settings '''glass ceilings glass cliffs''' women work paternalistic culture industry eg oil engineering industry often deal limitations career prevent moving association often due


al instance leadership performance may refer career success individual leader performance group organization even leader emergence measures considered conceptually distinct aspects may related different outcomes inclusion depend applied research focus blockquote another way conceptualize leader performance focus outcomes leader 's followers group team unit organization evaluating type leader performance two general strategies typically used first relies subjective perceptions leader 's performance


thus formal organization expected behave impersonally regard relationships clients members according weber 's model entry subsequent advancement merit seniority employees receive salary enjoy degree tenure safeguards arbitrary influence superiors powerful clients higher one 's position hierarchy greater one 's presumed expertise adjudicating problems may arise course work carried lower levels organization bureaucratic structure forms basis appointment heads


individual capacity consistently succeed given condition viewed meeting expectations organization society john hoyle argues leaders recognized capacity caring others clear communication commitment persist individual appointed managerial position right command enforce obedience virtue authority position however must possess adequate personal attributes match authority authority potentially available absence sufficient personal competence manager may


vugt team looked relation basal testosterone leadership versus dominance found testosterone correlates dominance leadership replicated sample managers relation hierarchical position testosterone level richard wrangham dale peterson ''demonic males apes origins human violence'' present evidence humans chimpanzees among animals living earth share similar tendency cluster behaviors violence territoriality competition uniting behind one chief male land


form power demarcated power ''over'' people rather power ''with'' people exists reciprocal relationship leader followers forsyth ref name forsyth despite popular belief use manipulation coercion domination influence others requirement leadership actuality individuals seek group consent strive act best interests others also become effective leaders eg class president court judge leaders positively influential validity assertion groups flourish guided effective leaders illustrated


use budget surplus two things slow pace strong economic growth stabilize prices inflation high keynesian theory posits removing spending economy reduce levels aggregate demand contract economy thus stabilizing prices economists still debate effectiveness fiscal stimulus argument mostly centers crowding whether government borrowing leads higher interest rates may offset stimulative impact spending government runs budget deficit funds need come public borrowing issue government bonds overseas

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy
Fiscal policy


gulf war coalition forces used phrase describe killing civilians attacks legitimate military targets according scottish linguist deborah cameron classic orwellian arguments finding usage objectionable would jargon extent people cannot decode conceals actually going euphemism abstract agentless affectless even people succeeded associating real act event would insulated feelings repulsion moral outrage collateral damage named

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Collateral damage


published open letter containing findings section titled allegations concerning war crimes elucidates usage ''military necessity'' ' 'distinction'' ''proportionality'' february allegations concerning war crimes pages ref us military approach ''usaf intelligence targeting guide'' defines term unintentional damage incidental damage affecting facilities equipment personnel occurring result military actions directed targeted enemy forces facilities ref name usaf ref stating uch damage occur friendly neutral even enemy forces another united states department defense document uses u nintentional incidental injury damage persons


objects would lawful military targets circumstances ruling time also states uch damage unlawful long excessive light overall military advantage anticipated attack us military terminology unintentional destruction allied neutral targets called friendly fire us military follows technology based process estimating mitigating collateral damage software used known fast cd fast assessment strike tool collateral damage see also accidental death roadkill principles war legitimate military target references external links http wwwfasorg irp doddir usaf afpam part htm


'''collateral damage''' us military term unintended incidental damage military operation '''collateral damage''' may also refer television collateral damage ''edgemont'' episode ''edgemont'' collateral damage ''stargate sg '' episode science fiction television series ''stargate sg '' collateral damage wire episode hbo tv series ''the wire'' collateral damage millennium episode hbo tv series ''millennium'' episode ''ncis'' episode ''csi miami'' episode science fiction television series ''the pretender'' fields ''collateral damage'' film action film


narratives protagonists hayy ''philosophus autodidactus'' kamil ''theologus autodidactus'' autodidactic feral children living seclusion desert island earliest examples desert island story however hayy lives alone animals desert island rest story ''philosophus autodidactus'' story kamil extends beyond desert island setting ''theologus autodidactus'' developing earliest known coming age plot eventually becoming first example science fiction novel ''theologus autodidactus'' deals various science fiction elements spontaneous

Humanities
Languages and literature
History of literature


family manuscript illustration depicts disc shaped flying object similar flying saucer ref name richardson cf ref time imperial court patronized poets courtiers ladies waiting editing anthologies poetry national pastime reflecting aristocratic atmosphere poetry elegant sophisticated expressed emotions rhetorical style renaissance nothing occurred change literature th century renaissance break medieval approaches would clear enough th century however also brought johann gutenberg invention printing press innovation


life ideas perhaps controversial important work time period treatise printed nuremberg entitled ''de revolutionibus orbium coelestium'' astronomer nicolaus copernicus removed earth privileged position universe far reaching effects science literature approach humanity hierarchy truth early modern period new spirit science investigation europe part general upheaval human understanding began european discovery new world continues subsequent centuries


sense work usually understood dates around ''dafne'' lost written jacopo peri elite circle literate florentine humanists gathered camerata th century considered greatest era literature spain called spanish golden age siglo de oro france known grand si cle great century famous french authors beside playwrights include jean de la fontaine charles perrault known primarily fables miguel de cervantes 's ''don quixote'' called


doubly graded spectral sequence tremendous amount data keep track common visualization technique makes structure spectral sequence clearer three indices ''r'' ''p'' ''q'' ''r'' imagine sheet graph paper sheet take ''p'' horizontal direction ''q'' vertical direction lattice point object math e r pq math common ''n'' ''p'' ''q'' another natural index

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Homological algebra


''m'' ''n'' cyclically follow '' delta '' sub ''n'' sub certain homomorphisms determined ''f'' ''g'' called '''connecting homomorphisms''' topological manifestations theorem include mayer vietoris sequence long exact sequence relative homology foundational aspects cohomology theories defined many different objects topological spaces sheaves groups rings lie algebras c algebras study modern algebraic geometry would almost unthinkable without sheaf cohomology central homological algebra notion exact sequence used perform actual calculations classical tool homological algebra


rpft certified registered pulmonary function technologist accs adult critical care specialist nps neonatal pediatric specialist sds sleep disorder specialist respiratory therapists work hospitals intensive care units adult pediatric neonatal hospital floors emergency departments pulmonary functioning laboratories pfts able intubate patients work sleep labs polysomnography psg labs home care specifically dme durable medical equipment home oxygen respiratory therapists specialists educators many areas including cardiology pulmonology sleep therapy respiratory therapists clinicians trained advanced airway management establishing maintaining airway

Applied science
Medicine and health
Respiratory therapy


treatments help breathing support heart 's work giving oxygen drugs ease breathing two examplestherapists also check well patient called patient evaluation intensive care operating room respiratory therapists educate assist diagnosis treat people suffering heart lung problems specialized cardiac pulmonary care respiratory therapists often collaborate specialists pulmonology anaesthesia various aspects clinical care patients respiratory therapists provide vital role medicine nursing vital role icu initiation


operating room evolved include advanced specialized role increasing responsibilities respiratory therapist anesthesia assistant distinct occupation american anesthesiologist assistant canadian respiratory therapists academically prepared perform activities sedation administration anesthetic gases medications insertion management vascular arterial venous access assessment depth anesthesia guidance anesthesiologist role similar nurse anesthetist ref name five ref except anesthesia assistant must anesthesiologist supervising nurse


permits state licenses required states except alaska statutory authority practice respiratory care states licensure requirements also require continuing education american association respiratory care aarc began developing recommendations promotion field respiratory care united states ref name pmid response increased concern regarding licensure credentialing issues well international recognition practicing united states ref name pmid task force decided recommend minimum education requirement


particular ' 's'' ''r'' runtime math mr r log r math weights integers thorup 's method used get runtime math ms log log r math ref name solution linear programming assignment problem solved presenting linear program convenience present maximization problem edge ''i'' ''j'' weight math display inline w ij math edge variable math display inline x ij math sub sub variable edge contained

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Assignment problem


matching otherwise set domain constraints math display block le x ij le text ij math math display block x ij mathbb z text ij math total weight matching math sum ij times w ij x ij math goal find maximum weight perfect matching guarantee variables indeed represent perfect matching add constraints saying vertex adjacent exactly one edge matching ie math display block sum j x ij text sum x ij text j math following lp math display block text maximize sum ij


theory problem assignment problem extended bipartite graphs arbitrary graphs corresponding problem finding matching weighted graph sum weights maximized called maximum weight matching problem see also auction algorithm generalized assignment problem linear bottleneck assignment problem monge kantorovich transportation problem general formulation national resident matching program quadratic assignment problem rank maximal matching secretary problem stable marriage problem stable roommates problem weapon target assignment problem house allocation problem references reading combinatorial optimization matching graph theory polynomial time problems linear programming


species amphibians ref name amphibiaweb ref species reptiles ref name reptilespecies ref spite modern taxonomic irrelevance term persisted particularly names herpetology scientific study non avian reptiles amphibians herpetoculture captive care breeding reptiles amphibians subfields field herpetology divided areas dealing particular '''taxonomic groups''' frogs batrachology ref name wareham ref ref name angelici ref snakes ophiology ophidiology lizards saurology turtles cheloniology chelonology testudinology generally herpetologists work '''functional problems''' ecology evolution physiology behavior etc amphibians reptiles

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Herpetology


main topics research study climate variability mechanisms climate changes modern climate change basic knowledge climate used within shorter term weather forecasting instance climatic cycles el ni southern oscillation enso madden julian oscillation mjo north atlantic oscillation nao arctic oscillation ao pacific decadal oscillation pdo interdecadal pacific oscillation ipo climate models used variety purposes study dynamics weather climate system projections future climate weather known condition atmosphere

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Climatology


instruction violates condition thus introduces flow dependency function nodep b c b b e b end function example dependencies instructions run parallel bernstein 's conditions allow memory shared different processes means enforcing ordering accesses necessary semaphores barriers synchronization method race conditions mutual exclusion synchronization parallel slowdown subtasks parallel

Formal science
Computer science
Parallel computing


memory logically distributed often implies physically distributed well distributed shared memory memory virtualization combine two approaches processing element local memory access memory non local processors accesses local memory typically faster accesses non local memory supercomputers distributed shared memory space implemented using programming model pgas model allows processes one compute node transparently access remote memory another compute node compute nodes also connected external shared


cycle core issue multiple instructions one thread simultaneous multithreading intel 's hyper threading best known early form pseudo multi coreism processor capable concurrent multithreading includes multiple execution units processing unit superscalar architecture issue multiple instructions per clock cycle ''multiple'' threads temporal multithreading hand includes single execution unit processing unit issue one instruction time ''multiple'' threads symmetric multiprocessing symmetric multiprocessor smp computer system multiple identical processors


processing units gpgpu tesla gpgpu card general purpose computing graphics processing units gpgpu fairly recent trend computer engineering research gpus co processors heavily optimized computer graphics processing computer graphics processing field dominated data parallel operations particularly linear algebra matrix operations early days gpgpu programs used normal graphics apis executing programs however several new programming languages platforms built general purpose computation gpus nvidia amd releasing programming environments cuda stream sdk respectively gpu programming languages include brookgpu


uses message passing posix threads openmp two widely used shared memory apis whereas message passing interface mpi widely used message passing system api one concept used programming parallel programs future concept one part program promises deliver required datum another part program future time caps entreprise pathscale also coordinating effort make hybrid multi core parallel programming hmpp directives open standard called openhmpp openhmpp directive based programming model offers syntax efficiently offload computations hardware accelerators