us landmark action needed taken normative scenario army corps engineers analyzed system ref name everglades determined ideal situation would get water right ref name everglades would better flow everglades reduced number canals levees sending water tide transitive scenario development normative scenario army corps engineers developed cerp comprehensive everglades restoration plan ref name everglades plan


created time line projects completed estimated cost ultimate results improving ecosystem native flora fauna prosper ref name everglades also outline human benefits project solution sustainable future generations able enjoy everglades correction water flow creation storage facilities reduce occurrence droughts water shortages southern florida ref name everglades see also design review environmental management industrial ecology sustainability systems

Earth systems engineering and management


performed two standard deviations better students learn via conventional instructional methods competency based learning framework assessment learning based predetermined competencies draws inspiration mastery learning ref name ref history least two attempts produce mastery students' learning winnetka plan carleton washburne associates another approach henry c morrison university chicago laboratory school projects provided school situations mastery particular learning tasks rather time spent central theme ideas popular

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Mastery learning


step instruction goes one two directions student mastered objective begin path enrichment activities correspond build upon original objective students satisfactorily complete topic given additional instruction succeed student demonstrate mastered objective series correctives employed correctives include varying activities individualized instruction additional time complete assignments ref name guskey students receive constructive feedback work


specific feedback using diagnostic formative tests well regularly correcting mistakes students make along learning path assessment mastery learning classroom used measure accountability rather source evidence guide future instruction teacher using mastery approach use evidence generated assessment modify activities best serve student teachers evaluate students criterion referenced tests rather norm referenced tests sense students competing rather competing order achieve personal


citizens fund health research plan adequate numbers distribution quality health workers meet healthcare goals many governments around world established universal health care takes burden healthcare expenses private businesses individuals pooling financial risk variety arguments universal healthcare related health policies healthcare important part health systems therefore often accounts one largest areas spending governments individuals world personal

Applied science
Public administration
Health policy


business individual thus environmental policy tends focus problems arising human impact environment important human society negative impact human values human values often labeled good health 'clean green' environment practice policy analysts provide wide variety types information public decision making process environmental issues typically addressed environmental policy include limited air water pollution waste management ecosystem management biodiversity protection protection natural resources wildlife endangered species

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Environmental policy


throughout world offer specialized professional degrees environmental policy studies standard curriculum students typically take classes policy analysis environmental science environmental law politics ecology energy natural resource management graduates programs employed governments international organizations private sector think tanks advocacy organizations universities academic institutions use varying designations refer environmental policy degrees degrees typically fall one four broad categories master arts master science master public administration phd sometimes specific names used reflect


pollution promotion sustainable development pepa' covers nearly issues pollution generation pollution prevention monitoring confiscation compliance violation prosecution penalization however results legislation subjected virtuous unadulterated implementation burden l write environmental policy organizations http wwwenvironmentalpolicycomau environmental social science


century small population west become ''capitalists'' individuals operate factories businesses pursuit profits owning virtually large scale means production however theorists believe capitalism turned people industrial workers marx 's terms ''proletarians'' individuals structure capitalist economies must sell labor wages notion conflict theories challenge historically dominant ideologies drawing attention power differentials class gender race conflict theory therefore macrosociological approach society interpreted arena

Social science
Sociology
Sociological Theory


fields structured effects field people occupying different positions '''grounded theory''' systematic methodology social sciences involving generation theory data largely qualitative method goal approach discover analyze data comparative analyses though quite flexible use techniques ref name salvini ref name ref '''middle range theory''' approach sociological theorizing aimed integrating theory empirical research currently de facto dominant approach sociological theory construction especially united states middle range theory


citations ref ref name black donald ref ref name calhoun ref ref name gerber john j pp macionis gerber john j linda ''sociology'' th canadian edition upper saddle river new jersey usa pearson education inc p ref ref name macionis gerber ref ref name macionis gerber ref ref name macionis gerber ref ref name macionis gerber ref ref name macionis gerber ref ref name macionis gerber pp macionis gerber john linda ''sociology'' th canadian ed toronto ontario pearson canada inc pp ref ref name macionis gerber pp macionis gerber john linda ''sociology'' th


p stretch b whitehouse eds health social care book oxford heinemann ref ref name sociology macionis john j ''sociology'' th edition boston pearson ref ref name sociology macionis gerber john linda ''sociology'' th canadian ed toronto ontario pearson canada inc pp ref ref name sociology macionis gerber john j linda ''sociology'' th canadian edition upper saddle river new jersey usa pearson education inc pp ref ref name sociology macionis gerber john linda ''sociology'' th canadian ed toronto ontario pearson canada inc pp ref ref name structure merton robert social theory social structure ref


introductory reading adams b n r sydie ''sociological theory'' pine forge press bilton k bonnett p jones ''introductory sociology'' palgrave macmillan babbie earle r ''the practice social research'' th ed wadsworth thomson learning goodman j g ritzer ''sociological theory'' th ed mcgraw hill hughes c j kroehler j w vander zanden ''sociology core'' mcgraw hill https webarchiveorg web http higheredmcgraw hillcom sites x student view chapter chapter summaryhtml lay summary chapter germov j class rest education reproduction class inequality pp nbsp ''sociology education possibilities


perception cognition necessary designing intuitive visualizations ref name ref cognition refers processes human beings like perception attention learning memory thought concept formation reading problem solving human visual processing efficient detecting changes making comparisons quantities sizes shapes variations lightness properties symbolic data mapped visual properties humans browse large amounts data efficiently estimated brain 's neurons involved visual processing proper visualization provides different approach show potential connections relationships etc obvious

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Data visualization


quarrying resources ref name friendly ref maps categorized thematic cartography type data visualization presents communicates specific data information geographical illustration designed show particular theme connected specific geographic area earliest documented forms data visualization various thematic maps different cultures ideograms hieroglyphs provided allowed interpretation information illustrated example linear b tablets mycenae provided visualization information regarding late bronze age era trades mediterranean idea coordinates used ancient


order thus nominal ordinal variables categories order sample recording age group someone falls ref name ref quantitative represent measurements height person temperature environment quantitative variables either continuous discrete continuous variables capture idea measurements always made precisely discrete variables finite number possibilities count outcomes age measured whole years ref name distinction quantitative categorical variables important


often required equal size example determining frequency annual stock market percentage returns within particular ranges bins etc height bar represents number observations years return range represented respective bin basic scatterplot two variables scatter plot x position position symbol glyph color size uses cartesian coordinates display values typically two variables set data points coded via color shape size display additional variables point


warming deliberately minimalist technical indicia communicate intuitively non scientists ref name gizmodo developed may ed hawkins university reading ref stacked represent plural series example animated spiral graphic animated spiral graphic radial distance dependent variable rotating angle cycling months color passing years portrays single dependent variable prototypically ''temperature time'' portray global warming dependent variable progressively plotted along continuous spiral determined function constantly rotating angle twelve months per revolution b evolving color color changes passing years ref name washpost ref box whisker plot box


data visualization social media '''data presentation architecture''' '''dpa''' skill set seeks identify locate manipulate format present data way optimally communicate meaning proper knowledge historically term ' 'data presentation architecture'' attributed kelly lautt data presentation architecture dpa rarely applied skill set critical success value business intelligence data presentation architecture weds science numbers data statistics discovering valuable information data making usable relevant actionable arts data visualization communications organizational psychology change


management order provide business intelligence solutions data scope delivery timing format visualizations effectively support drive operational tactical strategic behaviour toward understood business organizational goals dpa neither business skill set exists separate field expertise often confused data visualization data presentation architecture much broader skill set includes determining data schedule exact format presented best way present data already chosen data visualization skills


cross disciplinary hci visual journalism data driven journalism data journalism visual journalism concerned types graphic facilitation telling news stories data driven data journalism necessarily told data visualisation nevertheless field journalism forefront developing new data visualisations communicate data graphic design conveying information styling typography position aesthetic concerns see also analytics balanced scorecard big data business analysis business intelligence climate change art color coding technology visualization dashboard business data analysis data art data profiling data science data


warehouse exploratory data analysis grand tour data visualisation infographic information architecture information design information visualization interaction design interaction techniques scientific visualization software visualization statistical analysis statistical graphics visual analytics visual journalism warming stripes notes references reading external links http wwwmathyorkuca scs gallery milestones history thematic cartography statistical graphics data visualization illustrated chronology innovations michael friendly daniel j denis http compscicapturedukeedu panopto pages vieweraspxid ee ebd da aa duke university christa kelleher presentation communicating infographics visualizing scientific engineering information march visualization graphic statistical charts diagrams information technology governance visualization de informationsvisualisierung


computer graphics developed emergence computer graphics hardware advances computing led greater advancements interactive computer graphics tx computer developed mit 's lincoln laboratory tx integrated number new man machine interfaces light pen could used draw sketches computer using ivan sutherland 's revolutionary sketchpad software ref name wc using light pen sketchpad allowed one draw simple shapes computer screen save even recall later light pen small photoelectric cell tip cell emitted electronic

Formal science
Computer science
Computer graphics


innovated primarily john carmack sony playstation sega saturn nintendo among consoles sold millions popularized graphics home gamers certain late first generation titles became seen influential popularizing graphics among console users platform games ''super mario '' ''the legend zelda ocarina time'' early fighting games like ''virtua fighter'' ''battle arena toshinden'' ''tekken'' technology algorithms rendering continued improve greatly krishnamurty levoy invented normal mapping improvement jim blinn 's bump mapping saw nvidia release


success directx remained commercial success however opengl continued mature well directx improved greatly second generation shader languages hlsl glsl began popular decade scientific computing gpgpu technique pass large amounts data bidirectionally gpu cpu invented speeding analysis many kinds bioinformatics molecular biology experiments technique also used bitcoin mining applications computer vision diamond plate texture rendered close using physically based rendering principles increasingly active


may use rendering techniques computer graphics models model contained within graphical data file apart rendering however differences include model representation object visually displayed model graphic due printing models confined virtual space rendering model displayed also used non graphical computer simulations calculations computer animation example computer animation produced using motion capture fractal landscape example


transform values location orientation scale stored object 's transformation matrix animation change attribute time multiple methods achieving animation exist rudimentary form based creation editing keyframes storing value given time per attribute animated graphics software change keyframe creating editable curve value mapped time results animation methods animation include procedural expression based techniques former consolidates related elements animated entities sets attributes useful


file outlined graphics pipeline along rendering device gpu gpu device able assist cpu calculations scene look relatively realistic predictable virtual lighting rendering software solve rendering equation rendering equation account lighting phenomena general lighting model computer generated imagery 'rendering' also used describe process calculating effects video editing file produce final video output projection projection method mapping three


depict violence women studies revealed ways women maimed sliced raped advertising images ref name however media product different cultural values western culture creates cultural gender roles based meanings gender cultural practices western culture clear distinctions among sex gender sex biological differences gender social construction however sex still influences society perceives certain gender ref name since culture created though communication among society communication essential formation gender roles culture

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of gender


nations sustainable development goal sdgs un women media compact established order promote vitalize equality within media outlets specifically subdue oppression women within media objectification women objectification women refers instances media women may viewed directly compared insentient objects acquired possessed examined context advertisements objects may anthropomorphized given feminine qualities aspects female form studies indicate widespread objectification women


cartoon network nickelodeon disney atypical household influence gender socialization children raised atypical households challenge normative gender roles jada tidwell 's study observes play children come households lesbian feminist mothers single mothers couples tidwell 's observations consisted individual play well play integrated mothers result observations tidwell asserts atypical environments affect children 's lives ideas according tidwell households challenge hegemonic cultural ideas ultimately give children different perspective


x see also atypical gender role bibliography sociology feminization sociology sex differences humans social construction gender gender role sex segregation sexism gender politics gender essentialism gender empowerment anti gender movement references notes reading external links http wwwlangnagoya uacjp bugai kokugen tagen tagenbunka vol mizokami pdf 'women 's language' really exist critical assessment sex difference research sociolinguistics yuki mizokami nagoya university gender roles gender studies social constructionism social status gender society social privilege


naval warfare naval equivalent military tactics land naval tactics distinct naval strategy naval tactics concerned movements commander makes battle typically presence enemy naval strategy concerns overall strategy achieving victory large movements commandant commander secures advantage fighting place convenient modern naval tactics based tactical doctrines developed world war ii following obsolescence battleship development long range missiles since major naval conflict

Applied science
Military sciences
Naval science
Naval tactics


analysis important activity pathologist laboratory assistant many different colourings disposal gram mgg grocott ziehl neelsen etc immunofluorescence cytochemistry immunocytochemistry fish also used order make correct diagnosis stage allows pathologist determine character liquid normal tumoral inflammatory even infectious indeed microscopic examination often determine causal infectious agent general bacterium mould yeast parasite rarely virus physical analyzers see automated analyser analysers association robotics spectrophotometry allowed

Natural science
Biology
Pathology
Clinical pathology


photo shows visitors looking creative photographs royal geographical society gallery london uk '' 'sociology art''' subfield sociology concerned social worlds art aesthetics studying sociology art throughout history study social history art various societies contributed appearance certain artists key scholars sociology art include pierre bourdieu vera zolberg howard becker arnold hauser harrison white approaches book ''meaning expression toward sociology art'' hanna deinhard gives

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of art


'''formal science''' branch science studying formal language disciplines concerned formal systems logic mathematics statistics theoretical computer science artificial intelligence information theory game theory systems theory decision theory theoretical linguistics whereas natural sciences social sciences seek characterize physical systems social systems respectively using empirical methods formal sciences language tools concerned characterizing abstract structures described symbolic systems formal sciences aid natural science social science actuarial science providing information structures used describe physical contemporary


historian sh j '' ''aramaic'' book daniel ''hebrew'' sirach ''greek'' polybius ''the histories'' book wisdom septuagint ''latin'' terence bce bce comic dramatist ''the brothers'' ''the girl andros'' ''eunuchus'' ''the self tormentor'' quintus ennius bce c bce poet marcus pacuvius ca bce bce tragic dramatist poet statius caecilius bcee bce comic dramatist marcius porcius cato bce bce generalist topical writer gaius acilius nd century bce historian lucius accius bce c bce tragic dramatist philologist gaius lucilius c 's bce bce satirist

Humanities
Languages and literature
History of literature
Ancient literature


''abhij na kuntalam'' recognition shakuntala ''meghad ta'' cloud messenger ''vikram rva yam'' urvashi valour play pujyapada ''i opade divine sermons sarv rthasiddhi attainment higher goals jainendra vy kara jainendra grammar sam dhitantra method selfcontemplation da abhakty disangraha collection ten adorations abd vat rany sa arrangement words forms '' aryabhata aryabhatiya kamandaka'' nitisara'' elements polity bodhidharma ''two entrances four practicestreatise realizing nature refuting signs treatise'' bhart hari ''v kyapad ya treatise sanskrit grammar linguistic philosophy atakatraya three hundred poems moral values '' siddhasena ''ny vat ra''''sanmati sutrakalyan mandir stotra'' sarvanandi lokavibhaga text jain cosmology ''tamil '' ''tirukkural sacred verses '' ''silappatikaram tale anklet '' ''pahlavi '' ''matigan hazar datistan thousand laws


magistan '' ''frahang oim evak'' pahlavi avestan dictionary ''pali'' sri lanka buddhaghosa ''visuddhimagga path purification '' ''latin '' see late latin publius flavius vegetius renatus ''de militari'' augustine hippo ''the city god'' paulus orosius ''seven books history pagans'' jerome ''vulgate'' prudentius ''psychomachia'' consentius 's grammar pseudo dionysius areopagite ''de coelesti hierarchia'' celestial hierarchy ''mystical theology'' socrates constantinople ''historia ecclesiastica'' th century latin boethius ''de consolatione philosophiae'' consolation philosophy widely considered last work classical philosophy ref name dante divine dante placed boethius last romans


framework course late th early mid th century foundation modern labour law slowly laid egregious aspects working conditions steadily ameliorated legislation largely achieved concerted pressure social reformers notably anthony ashley cooper th earl shaftesbury others child labour serious outbreak fever cotton mills near manchester drew widespread public opinion use children dangerous conditions local inquiry presided dr thomas percival instituted justices


peace lancashire resulting report recommended limitation children 's working hours first major piece labour legislation passed health morals apprentices act first albeit modest step towards protection labour act limited working hours twelve day abolished night work required provision basic level education apprentices well adequate sleeping accommodation clothing rapid industrialisation manufacturing turn th century led rapid increase child employment


implemented industrializing countries latter part th century early th century individual labour law employment terms basic feature labour law almost every country rights obligations worker employer mediated contract employment two case since collapse feudalism many contract terms conditions covered legislation common law us example majority state laws allow employment meaning employer terminate employee


name eurostat ref living wage living wage higher minimum wage designed full time worker would able support small family wage hours maximum number hours worked per day time intervals set law many countries laws also control whether workers work longer hours must paid additional compensation industrial revolution workday varied hours growth industrialism introduction machinery longer hours became far common reaching high


convention ref name reuters ref child labour two girls wearing banners yiddish english slogan abolish child slavery international workers' day parade new york city child labour seen problem throughout history disputed beginning universal schooling concepts labourers' children 's rights use child labour commonplace often factories england scotland two thirds persons working water powered textile factories children child labour factory work mining quarrying agriculture helping parents' business operating


manufacturing corporations introduced however always voluntary united kingdom similar proposals drawn command paper produced named bullock report industrial democracy released james callaghan labour party government unions would directly elected half board independent element would also added however proposal enacted european commission offered proposals worker participation fifth company law directive also implemented sweden participation regulated law board representation law covers private companies


pickets allow court orders restrict picketing locations behaving particular ways shouting abuse example international labour law labour movement long concerned economic globalization would weaken worker bargaining power employers could hire workers abroad avoid domestic labour standards karl marx said ref international labour organization world trade organization primary focus among international bodies regulating labour markets conflicts arise people work one country eu law growing body workplace rules international labour organization following world war treaty


provides exception allows imposition sanctions breaches human rights explicit reference core labour standards could allow comparable action wto member state breaches ilo standards opponents argue approach could undermine labour rights industries therefore workforces could harmed guarantee reform furthermore argued singapore ministerial declaration comparative advantage countries particularly low age developing countries must way put question countries want take advantage low wages fewer rules comparative advantage


hours work week ceilings combined competitive job market often motivate american workers work hours american workers average take fewest days developed country fifth fourteenth amendments united states constitution limit power federal state governments discriminate private sector directly constrained constitution several laws particularly civil rights act limit private sector discrimination certain groups fifth amendment ref name us amendments ref explicit requirement federal government deprive individuals life


harold garfinkel among others overview theater metaphor seen origins word ''person'' comes latin ''persona'' meaning 'a mask worn actors' behave differently play different roles front different people audiences pick clothing costume consistent image wish project enlist help friends caterers decorators fellow actors stage crew help us successfully stage dinner friend birthday party relative gala fundraiser need adjust

Social science
Sociology
Dramaturgical sociology


clothing wish say something unflattering one guests careful sight others backstage presentation others known ' 'dramaturgy'' dramaturgical perspective one several sociological ''paradigms'' separated sociological ''theories'' theoretical frameworks rather examining cause human behavior analyzes context however debatable within sociology ''frame analysis'' goffman writes important sense person actor provides others audience dealing


psychological entity rather constantly remade person interacts others dramaturgical model social interaction analyzed terms people live lives like actors performing stage ref name mac macionis john j linda gerber ''sociology'' th canadian ed toronto pearson canada inc ref analysis offers look concepts ' 'status'' like part play ''role'' serves script supplying dialogue action characters ref name mac stage people everyday lives manage settings clothing words


cover mistakes interaction begins example relying audience use tact overlook mistakes performers contrast defensive techniques employed interaction begins involves ref name ohio dramaturgical loyalty work keep team members loyal team members performance dramaturgical discipline dedicating oneself performance without losing oneself self control making sure one play part properly rehearsal dramaturgical circumspection minimizing risk preparing expected problems careful avoid situations mistake potential problem occur choosing


created blogger audience blogger control represents audience spectators presentation blogger 's self dramaturgy also applied aspects theatre performers see also epistemic virtue character mask role engulfment signalling theory references reading brissett dennis charles edgley eds ''life theater dramaturgical source book'' nd ed new york walter de gruyter cohen robert https webarchiveorg web http wwwrobertcohendramacom articles reviews ar roledistancehtml role distance stage merry go round ''journal dramatic theory criticism'' edgley charles ed ''the


demands made schools higher levels pupil achievement schools expected improve reform expectations accompanied calls accountability school level maintenance ' 'status quo'' longer considered acceptable ''administration'' ''management'' terms connote stability exercise control supervision concept leadership favored conveys dynamism pro activity principal school head commonly thought school leader however school leadership may include persons members formal leadership team persons

Applied science
Education
Educational leadership


generally con temporarily experienced neo liberal social economic governance models especially united states united kingdom view term understood borrowed business united states superintendency role chief school administrator undergone many changes since creation position often attributed buffalo common council approved superintendent june superintendency years old four major role changes early th century first half th century early


presented explored instructional leadership b distributed leadership c transformational leadership social justice leadership e teacher leadership researchers explored different practices actions impact student achievement teacher job satisfaction elements related school improvement moreover researchers continue investigate methodology quality principal preparation programs number publications foundations devoted studying particular requirements leadership settings educational leadership taught academic discipline number universities several countries explicit policies school leadership


assistance programs poor ensuring safety food supply food labeling even qualifications product considered organic ref name food policy rice food policy initiated domestic level purposes ensuring safe adequate food supply citizenry ref name linked national models ref developing nation three main objectives food policy protect poor crises develop long run markets enhance efficient resource use increase food production turn promote increase income ref name managing food price risks

Applied science
Public administration
Food policy


instability liberalizing market environment food policy comprises mechanisms food related matters addressed administered governments including international bodies networks public institutions private organizations agricultural producers often bear burden governments' desire keep food prices sufficiently low growing urban populations low prices consumers disincentive farmers produce food often resulting hunger poor trade prospects increased need food imports ref name linked national models developed country united states food nutrition policy must


mostly rural mostly urban rural jobs mostly agricultural mostly non agricultural employment food sector mostly food production primary marketing mostly food manufacturing retail actors food marketing grain traders food companies supply chain short small number food miles long large number food miles typical food preparation mostly food cooked home high proportion pre prepared meals food eaten typical food basic staples unbranded processed food


expectancy achieved last decades eroded late due obesity chronic diseases ref name world getting fat standpoint policy makers diets lower income families within developing countries need contain higher quantities nutrients dietary protein iron calcium vitamin vitamin c relation overall energy intake contrast food policies developed countries encourage lower consumption energy dense foods high dietary fat added sugars promoting higher intakes fruits vegetables whole grains per dietary fiber


formulation food policy united states executive branch food drug administration fda federal agency responsible ensuring safety food products exception meat poultry processed eggs various offices within fda carry agency 's unified food program protects promotes public health following activities ensuring safety foods humans including food additives dietary supplements setting science based standards preventing foodborne illness ensuring compliance standards ensuring safety animal feed


assistance farm subsidy programs farm bill authorized appropriated approximately every five years farm bill authorizes activities two spending approaches mandatory discretionary mandatory spending programs operate entitlements paid using multiple year budget estimates bill enacted whereas programs discretionary designation require additional action congress receive funding briefly farm bill titles include title commodity programs provides support major commodity crops including corn soybeans wheat peanuts rice dairy sugar well disaster assistance title ii conservation encourages environmental stewardship farmlands


difficult economic weather cycles including price supports supply controls deficiency payments direct payments insurance demand expansion united states farm bill specifies type policy instruments funded given cycle cost subsidies farming interests determined primarily farm expected cost billion year period according congressional research service crs crop insurance expensive federal farm subsidies followed conservation policies commodity supports ref name crs report monke j budget issues shaping farm bill


impact relate sustainable agriculture natural resources community development including food security nutrition assistance ensuring adequate food families individuals also centerpiece national food policy efforts united states state minimum wages updated provide groups deem livable wage food assistance programs help provide food resources individuals families monthly assistance primarily takes form monthly benefits calculated based family income adjusted certain deductible living expenses household size used


middle school day revisions program made president lyndon b johnson enactment child nutrition act integrated school lunch programming special milk program launched new national school breakfast program numerous studies confirmed link school performance school breakfast program recently healthy hunger free kids act signed law president barack obama serves reauthorize expenditures food programming children nutrition standards school breakfasts lunches revised first time


allergies related milk eggs fish crustacean shellfish tree nuts peanuts wheat soybeans labeling must contain list major food allergens contained product may come contact food production ref name food allergen labeling usda regulated labeling seal found food products meet nop regulations called organic organic according organic foods production act national organic program ref name organic labeling product labeled organic contains organic ingredients processing aids


atlantis'' bacon put forth optimistic worldview fictional institution salomon 's house uses natural philosophy technology extend man 's power nature betterment society works improve living conditions goal fictional foundation knowledge causes secret motions things enlarging bounds human empire effecting things possible th century native german philosopher geographer ernst kapp based texas published fundamental book grundlinien einer philosophie der technik ref name kapp

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of technology


king 's college london direct descendant nightingale 's school university manchester one first english institutions offer course degree level new building manchester medical school opened early degree courses nursing established time nursing education university expanded greatly new school nursing midwifery created transferring manchester college midwifery nursing university 's faculty medicine dentistry nursing entry level courses sought universities often five

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Nursing education


research hands patient care nursing degrees uk pre registration nurse training education uk via bachelor 's degree uk level qualification ref name ref year pre registration masters degree level following phasing diploma higher education uk level qualification ref name nursing previously offered universities colleges become student nurse individuals must apply university colleges admissions service commonly referred ucas nursing degree choices choosing one four nursing


nursing school philadelphia pitc institute


lay claim status exact science example economic predictions reliable predictions natural sciences another way expressing issue ask whether economic theories state laws philosophers science economists explored issues intensively since work alexander rosenberg daniel hausman dating decades ago rational choice decision theory game theory philosophical approaches decision theory focus foundational concepts decision theory example natures choice preference rationality risk

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of economics


law cost benefit analysis utilitarianism one ethical methodologies origins inextricably interwoven emergence modern economic thought today utilitarianism spread throughout applied ethics one number approaches non utilitarian approaches applied ethics also used questioning ethics economic systems eg rights based deontological approaches many political ideologies immediate outgrowth reflection ethics economic systems marx example generally regarded primarily philosopher notable work philosophy economics however marx 's economic critique capitalism


specialized philosophy economics journals http journalscambridgeorg action displayjournaljid eap bvolume ''economics philosophy'' http ejpeorg ''erasmus journal philosophy economics'' ''journal economic methodology'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwblackwellpublishingcom journals papa ''philosophy public affairs'' ''politics philosophy economics'' https archivetoday http wwwsagepubcom journalsprodaimsnavprodid journal aims scope see also analytic philosophy philosophy science schools economic thought history economic thought notes references boulding kenneth e economics moral science ''american economic review'' pp https wwwjstororg pss caldwell bruce positivism ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' v pp nbsp downie rs moral philosophy ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' v pp nbsp


pp nbsp ''rationality allocation reproduction'' cambridge http wwwoupcom us catalog general subject cp ci description scroll chapter preview https booksgooglecom booksid bqyhej oiryc printsec frontcover source gbs atb v onepage q f false links external links http www personalumdumichedu delittle encyclopedia entries philosophy economicspdf philosophy economics daniel little 's entry ''routledge encyclopedia philosophy science'' http platostanfordedu entries economics philosophy economics stanford encyclopedia philosophy daniel hausman notable field interdisciplinary subfields economics economics


online http ssrncom abstract ref examples projects highlighted humanities high performance computing competition sponsored office digital humanities also digging data challenge organized neh collaboration nsf ref name cohen embrace ref partnership jisc uk sshrc canada addition books historical newspapers also analyzed big data methods analysis vast quantities historical newspaper content showed periodic structures automatically discovered similar analysis performed social media part

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Digital humanities


big data revolution gender bias readability content similarity reader preferences even mood analyzed based text mining methods millions documents ref name lansdall welfare ref historical documents written literary chinese ref name pkbol bol p k c l liu h wang mining discovering biographical information difangzhi language model based approach ''proceedings international conference digital humanities'' https arxivorg abs ref digital humanities also involved creation software providing environments tools producing curating interacting knowledge 'born digital' lives various digital contexts


vocabulary used author input text frequent time text creation whether author used anachronisms neologisms enables detecting terms text underwent considerable semantic change analysis macroscopic trends cultural change culturomics form computational lexicology studies human behavior cultural trends quantitative analysis digitized texts researchers data mine large digital archives investigate cultural phenomena reflected language word usage term american neologism first described ''science'' article called ''quantitative analysis culture using millions


criticism digital humanities criticized ignoring traditional questions lineage history humanities lacking fundamental cultural criticism defines humanities however remains seen whether humanities tied cultural criticism per se order humanities ref name auto ref name berryandfagerjord sciences might imagine digital humanities welcome improvement non quantitative methods humanities social sciences difficulty evaluation field matures recognition standard model academic peer review work may


'''biocybernetics''' application cybernetics biological science disciplines neurology multicellular systems biocybernetics plays major role systems biology seeking integrate different levels information understand biological systems function field cybernetics origins biological disciplines neurophysiology biocybernetics abstract science fundamental part theoretical biology based upon principles systemics terminology biocybernetics conjoined word bio greek life cybernetics greek controlling governing although extended form word biological cybernetics

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Cybernetics
Biocybernetics


locked within time space opportunity innovate therefore found within new structures post industrial society united states way ethnoecologies may exist without bounded notion ''other'' example social scientists attempted understand markers inner city youth use identify threat livelihood including wearing gang colors tattoos protrusions clothes may represent weapon ref name mathios poverty ref likewise concepts spread health needs community

Natural science
Biology
Ecology
Ethnoecology


stalking internet offences neglect including failure take adequate measures safeguard child harm gross negligence providing child 's basic needs needs actions taken protect provide child safeguarding duty person given powers responsibility child take necessary measures protect child child physically sexually abused abusive person responsible assault negligent person responsible failing protect assault cases may

Applied science
Social work 2
Child welfare


going missing children affected custody disputes including parental child abduction children left behind parents move another eu country work children belonging minority ethnic groups eg roma child victims female genital mutilation forced marriage children compulsory education training working children legal age work child victims bullying cyberbullying international treaties international labour organization ilo united nations agency dealing labour issues created takes care also child labour issues particular conventions


right live free abuse human rights act central direcrorate agency responsible safeguarding children within uk legislation places responsibility supporting children families onto local councils authorities including city london corporation legislation also places duties upon organisations assess children 's safety intervene necessary accommodate children require history children act introduced followed children young person act bundle laws protect young persons children early th


person special rating used cinema 's include films bought shop example ''' ''' suitable persons aged ''' ''' suitable persons aged ''' ''' suitable persons aged '''r ''' suitable person aged special rating used sale viewing pornography licensed sex shops illegal sell rent films anyone approved age restriction '''u''' '''pg''' ratings


aerosol spray paint anyone age cruelty persons sixteen children young persons act illegal anyone responsibility child young person age willfully assaults ill treats neglects abandons exposes causes procures assaulted ill treated neglected abandoned exposed manner likely cause unnecessary suffering injury health including injury loss sight hearing limb organ body mental derangement


causing allowing persons sixteen used begging children young persons act illegal let anyone beg public places age sexual abuse sexual offences act br sexual offences scotland act age sexual consent whole uk england scotland wales northern ireland also includes crown dependencies overseas territory 's however illegal someone sex anyone age age


description act followed donoghue v stevenson ukhl reflect new law negligence demolition privily barrier law contract new law recognized product manufacturer may ''many parties removed'' ultimate product consumer product may contain potentially hazardous un examinable content may either ingredient packaging food intolerances simple example purchaser unaware potentiality allergic content unless clearly advised producer purchaser generally 'procurer' person obtains product may


proper consent agreement products best serve needs use products safely case parents children 's needs keep children safe called legal disability disability difference capacity capability case parents parental capacity working together parental capability f children act disability defined mental physical impairment adverse effect normal day day activities person without use legs lacks physical capacity walk capable carrying


incapable instructing solicitor mental capacity act explanatory notes mental capacity act family law protocol law society physical moral emotional health mental faculties decision making physical moral health refer faculties mind used making decisions physical health mental capacity understand effects matter energy self others understand person may physically harmed called causality law negligence moral health mental capacity recognise


persons environment may damaged acts omissions law negligence neighbour principle part children young peoples act headed '' prevention cruelty children exposure physical moral danger '' offence child cruelty includes '' exposure manner likely cause unnecessary injury health '' manner exposure endangers child 's physical moral health faculties mind means nothing setting bad example either behaviour towards others moral health carelessness


law conforms alleged events occurred unlawful enough next issue culpability state mind negligence state mind notion comes criminal law offence child cruelty children young peoples act motivation carelessness malice defence diminished responsibility offence occurred voluntary reasonably foreseeable impaired incapacitated defendant offence child cruelty allows defence parental incapacity wide range


singapore legislature parliament consists president head single chamber whose members elected popular vote role president head state historically largely ceremonial although constitution amended give president veto powers key decisions use national reserves appointment key judiciary civil service singapore armed forces posts also exercise powers civil service appointments national security matters political background singaporean politics dominated

Social science
Political science
Singapore politics


company average million shareholders' equity recent three years office profitable taxes ref name cons constitution art read art ref similar comparable position seniority responsibility organisation department equivalent size complexity public private sector given experience ability administering managing financial affairs enable carry effectively functions duties office president ref name cons constitution art c art b ref


appointed president advice chairman public service commission member council serves six year term eligible appointment terms four years similar speech throne given heads state parliamentary systems president delivers address written government opening parliament kind policies expect coming year current president halimah yacob cabinet lee hsien loong prime minister singapore cabinet forms executive government


answerable parliament consist sitting members parliament headed prime minister head government current prime minister lee hsien loong neither prime minister members cabinet elected parliament prime minister appointed president cabinet members also known ministers appointed president advice prime minister cabinet singapore collectively decides government 's policies influence lawmaking introducing bills ministers singapore highest paid politicians world


satisfied vote fraudulently cast result election may affected result courts issued order since elections held since people 's action party pap dominant political party singapore elected continuously since headed lee hsien loong succeeded goh chok tong goh 's predecessor lee kuan yew served singapore 's prime minister independence since stepping prime minister lee remained influential senior minister minister mentor pap held overwhelming


majority seats parliament since opposition barisan sosialis party resigned parliament left pap sole representative party pap seats expanding parliament general elections pap 's share popular vote contested seats declined however elections saw party 's share popular vote climb winning seats singapore general election marked first time since pap return


significantly smaller role male counterparts singapore nonetheless recent years increasing level female participation singapore political arena july ting ru raeesah begum farid khan became third fourth woman opposition party win seat parliament votes ruling party 's candidates general election sengkang group representation constituency grc team led ting ru first timer raeesah khan proceeded become youngest mp singapore 's parliamentary history lee li lian


achieving goals hold personal meaning individual increases feelings subjective well self concordance model self concordance model model looks sequence steps occur commencement goal attaining goal looks likelihood impact goal achievement based type goal meaning goal individual different types goals impact goal achievement sense subjective well brought achieving goal model breaks factors promote first striving achieve goal

Applied science
Military sciences
Strategy
Goal


organization become displaced part repeating behaviors become traditional within organization example company manufactures widgets may decide seek good publicity putting fundraising drive popular charity tent local county fair fundraising drive county fair tent successful company may choose make annual tradition may eventually involve employees resources new goal raising charitable funds best county fair tent cases goals


analysis ''the goal'' novel ''the jackrabbit factor'' references reading management motivation


significantly time affected many factors volcanism life weathering recently human activity also contributed atmospheric changes global warming ozone depletion acid deposition atmosphere mass nbsp kg three quarters within surface atmosphere becomes thinner increasing altitude definite boundary atmosphere outer space k rm n line earth 's radius often used border atmosphere outer space atmospheric effects become noticeable atmospheric reentry spacecraft

Applied science
Military sciences
Battlespace
Air


leave windows low opacity allowing transmission certain bands light optical window runs around nbsp nm ultraviolet c range humans see visible spectrum commonly called light roughly nbsp nm continues infrared around nbsp nm also infrared radio windows transmit infrared radio waves longer wavelengths example radio window runs one centimeter eleven meter waves emission ''emission'' opposite absorption object emits radiation objects tend emit amounts wavelengths radiation


called abstract algebra modern algebra elementary algebra generally considered essential study mathematics science engineering well applications medicine economics abstract algebra major area advanced mathematics studied primarily professional mathematicians elementary algebra differs arithmetic use abstractions using letters stand numbers either unknown allowed take many values ref name citeboyer example math x math letter math x math unknown applying additive inverses reveal value math x math algebra

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra


solution particular problems general systems stating solving equations although would realized mathematics developed medieval islam time plato greek mathematics undergone drastic change greeks created geometric algebra terms represented sides geometric objects usually lines letters associated ref name citeboyer see ''europe middle ages'' p arithmetical theorems euclid 's ''elements'' vii ix numbers represented line segments letters attached geometric proofs al khwarizmi 's ''algebra'' made use


closed certain operators many mathematical structures called '''algebras''' algebra field generally algebra ring br many classes algebras field ring specific name associative algebra non associative algebra lie algebra hopf algebra c algebra symmetric algebra exterior algebra tensor algebra measure theory sigma algebra algebra set category theory f algebra f coalgebra algebra logic relation algebra residuated boolean algebra expanded involution called converse boolean algebra complemented distributive lattice heyting algebra elementary algebra algebraic expression notation br nbsp power exponent br


''c'' set two dimensional vectors plane various finite groups cyclic groups groups integers modulo ''n'' set theory branch logic technically branch algebra binary operations notion addition abstracted give ''binary operation'' say notion binary operation meaningless without set operation defined two elements ''a'' ''b'' set ''s'' ''a'' ''b'' another element set condition called closure


''b'' ''b'' ''a'' property hold binary operations example matrix multiplication quaternion multiplication non commutative groups combining concepts gives one important structures mathematics group group combination set ''s'' single binary operation defined way choose following properties identity element ''e'' exists every member ''a'' ''s'' ''e'' ''a'' ''a'' ''e'' identical ''a'' every element inverse


two operators need studied important rings fields ring two binary operations distributive first operator forms ''abelian group'' second operator associative need identity inverse division required additive identity element written additive inverse ''a'' written ''a'' distributivity generalises ' 'distributive law'' numbers integers said


larger societal issues researchers believe reductionist approach complemented systems thinking approach produce global minded chemists ref name academic journals several journals publish papers related chemistry education journals focus particular education levels schools vs universities others cover education levels journal articles range reports classroom laboratory practices educational research '''''australian journal education chemistry'''''''' ''' published royal australian chemical institute covers school university education '''''chemical education journal'' cej ''' covers areas chemical education '''''chemistry education research practice'' cerp ''' published royal society

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Chemistry education


services greek orthodox church name english language name ''koine'' derives koine greek term common dialect greek word means common word pronounced us english uk english pronunciation word ''koine'' gradually changed close classical attic pronunciation close modern greek greek language referred hellenistic koin sense hellenistic supraregional language ancient scholars used term ''koine''

Applied science
Divinity
Scriptural study and languages
New Testament Greek


early th century scholars argued use historical present tense ''mark'' due influence aramaic theory fell favor another group scholars believed historical present tense used heighten dramatic effect interpretation favored ''new american bible'' translation volume ii edition ''a grammar new testament'' wf howard argues heavy use historical present herodotus thucydides compared relatively infrequent usage polybius


koine greek table represents reconstruction new testament koine greek deriving degree dialect spoken judea galilee first century similar dialect spoken alexandria egypt realizations certain phonemes differ standard attic dialect koine spirantized palatal allophone front vowels plosive allophone nasals beginning develop fricative articulation intervocalically still preserve ancient aspirated plosive values unaspirated stops perhaps begun develop voiced allophones


special circumstances american indian land claims legal history north american mid th century commenting possibilities ethnohistory studies traditional societies europe ireland guy beiner observed pioneering figures development ethnohistory argued approach could fruitfully applied study western societies initiatives picked explicitly designated ethnohistories european communities written date see also history new philology aztec codices maya codices ethnography ethnic group ethnoarchaeology indian claims commission


composition notebook cover '''composition studies''' also referred '''composition rhetoric''' '''rhetoric composition''' '''writing studies''' simply '''composition''' professional field writing research instruction focusing especially writing college level united states flagship national organization field conference college composition communication us canadian colleges universities undergraduates take freshman higher level composition courses support effective administration courses development basic applied research acquisition writing skills understanding history

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Composition studies


esl teachers look different ways teaching writing see one addresses esl students' difficulties best way combination theories may better multicultural pedagogies basis composition studies multicultural pedagogies specifically tied second language writing pedagogies compositionists often considered students' cultural knowledge use idioms dialects languages american edited english aea enhance instruction english composition example maxine hairston 's diversity ideology teaching writing advocates students' expressivist writing central


students critically analyze evaluate ideologies entrenched dominant discourse even learning english second language ref name ref words four major elements course wilson describes especially respect ideas offers critical writing assignments create alternative pathways students produce writing potential disrupt cultural political ideologies represented various avenues niches dominant public discourse example addition incorporating local topics wilson provides options students investigate language use certain communities societies


prize literature saul bellow joseph brodsky bob dylan isaac bashevis singer magazines ''the new yorker'' proved instrumental exposing many jewish american writers wider reading public stereotypes jews although jewish stereotypes first appeared works non jewish writers world war ii often jewish american writers evoked fixed images prevalence antisemitic stereotypes works authors sometimes interpreted expression self hatred however jewish american authors also used negative stereotypes order refute however american jewish

Humanities
Languages and literature
Jewish American Literature


well investigations human attitude skill performance intelligence creativity social behavior music psychology shed light non psychological aspects musicology musical practice example contributes music theory investigations perception computational modelling musical structures melody harmony tonality rhythm meter form research music history benefit systematic study history musical syntax psychological analyses composers compositions relation perceptual affective social responses music history early history pre study sound musical phenomena prior

Social science
Psychology
Music psychology


main areas associated superior pitch resolution perceived pitch typically depends fundamental frequency though dependence could mediated solely presence harmonics corresponding fundamental frequency perception pitch without corresponding fundamental frequency physical stimulus called pitch missing fundamental ref name zatorre neurons lateral marmoset monkeys found sensitive specifically fundamental frequency complex tone ref name bendor ref suggesting ''pitch constancy'' may enabled neural mechanism pitch constancy refers ability perceive


venues music performance psychoacoustics branch psychophysics cognitive musicology cognitive musicology branch cognitive science concerned computationally modeling musical knowledge goal understanding music cognition cognitive musicology differentiated fields music cognition cognitive neuroscience music difference methodological emphasis cognitive musicology uses computer modeling study music related knowledge representation roots artificial intelligence cognitive science use computer models provides exacting interactive medium formulate test theories ref name tanguiane ref name tanguiane ref name tanguiane ref


role music cognition including preferences emotional reaction musical memory musical preferences biased toward culturally familiar musical traditions beginning infancy adults' classification emotion musical piece depends culturally specific universal structural features ref name soley ref ref name balkwill ref additionally individuals' musical memory abilities greater culturally familiar music culturally unfamiliar music ref name demorest ref ref name groussard ref applied research areas many areas music psychology research focus application music everyday life well practices experiences amateur professional musician


little predictive power influenced greatly test taker 's mood motivation confidence fatigue boredom taking test ref name deutsch et al psychology music music performance including physiology performance music reading sight reading including eye movement performing memory music related memory acts improvisation composition flow experiences interpersonal social aspects group performance music performance quality evaluation audience evaluator eg audition competition including influence musical non musical factors audio engineering music health including effectiveness music healthcare therapeutic settings music specific disorders


state university quinnipiac university university texas austin university virginia university washington indiana university bloomington within university california system programs iran studies taught university california los angeles university california irvine san francisco state university international society iranian studies previously known society iranian studies founded group iranian graduate students began producing journal ''iranian studies'' field expanded considerably number americans served peace corps iran taking

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Iranian studies


well mapping natural disaster risks disaster risk reduction responsibility development relief agencies alike integral part way organizations work add one action disaster risk reduction wide ranging scope much broader deeper conventional emergency management potential disaster risk reduction initiatives every sector development humanitarian work disaster risk indicator poor development reducing disaster risk requires integrating drr drm practice sustainable development goals need

Applied science
Public administration
Disaster research


management gender climate change global catastrophic risk international day disaster reduction risk management vulnerability references external links https pedrrorg ecosystem based disaster risk reduction http gcuedupk drm socihtm disaster risk management society gc university lahore http wwwadpcnet asian disaster preparedness center http wwwfaoorg disasterriskreduction fao platform east central africa http wwwemdatbe em dat international disaster database http wwwgfdrrorg global facility disaster reduction recovery http wwwundrrorg united nations office disaster risk reduction http wwwpreventionwebnet preventionweb building resilience nations communities disasters http wwwworldbankorg hazards world bank hazards management unit http wwwunspiderorg united nations platform space based information disaster management emergency


response disaster preparedness disaster management humanitarian aid natural disasters international development


less contact bearing retainer walls roll faster high speed applications heat friction rolling cause problems metal bearings problems reduced use ceramics ceramics also chemically resistant used wet environments steel bearings would rust major drawback using ceramics significantly higher cost many cases electrically insulating properties may also valuable bearings early toyota researched production adiabatic ceramic engine run temperature nbsp f nbsp c

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Materials Science and Engineering
Ceramic engineering


dispersed matrix phases also control matrix grain size however built self control due inhibition matrix grain growth dispersed phase particulate composites though generally offer increased resistance damage failure still quite sensitive inhomogeneities composition well processing defects pores thus need good processing effective ref name kbu ref name mod particulate composites made commercial basis simply mixing powders two constituents although approach inherently limited homogeneity achieved


fibre compositions coatings composite processing reduce degradation results high temperature composite exposure oxidizing conditions ref name comp ref name des applications silicon nitride thruster left mounted test stand right tested h sub sub sub sub propellants products technical ceramics include tiles used space shuttle program gas burner nozzles ballistic protection nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets bio medical implants jet engine turbine blades missile nose cones products often made materials clay chosen particular physical properties may classified follows oxides silica alumina zirconia non oxides carbides borides


nitrides silicides composites particulate whisker reinforced matrices combinations oxides non oxides eg polymers ceramics used many technological industries one application ceramic tiles nasa 's space shuttle used protect future supersonic space planes searing heat entry earth 's atmosphere also used widely electronics optics addition applications listed ceramics also used coating various engineering cases example would ceramic bearing coating titanium frame used aircraft recently field


mechanical response thus crystallization inorganic materials nature generally occurs ambient temperature pressure yet vital organisms minerals form capable consistently producing extremely precise complex structures understanding processes living organisms control growth crystalline minerals silica could lead significant advances field materials science open door novel synthesis techniques nanoscale composite materials nanocomposites iridescent nacre inside nautilus shell high resolution scanning electron microscope sem observations performed microstructure mother pearl


designed experiments full factorial design left response surface second degree polynomial right statistics '' 'response surface methodology''' '''rsm''' explores relationships several explanatory variables one response variables method introduced george e p box k b wilson main idea rsm use sequence designed experiments obtain optimal response box wilson suggest using second degree polynomial model acknowledge model approximation use model easy

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Response Surface Methodology


minimal confounding also orthogonality provides minimum variance estimates model coefficient uncorrelated ''rotatability'' property rotating points design center factor space moments distribution design points constant ''uniformity '' third property ccd designs used control number center points uniform precision uniformity special geometries cube cubic designs discussed kiefer atkinson donev tobias hardin sloane sphere spherical designs discussed kiefer hardin sloane simplex geometry mixture


experiments mixture experiments discussed many books design experiments response surface methodology textbooks box draper atkinson donev tobias extensive discussion survey appears advanced textbook john cornell extensions multiple objective functions extensions response surface methodology deal multiple response problem multiple response variables create difficulty optimal one response may optimal responses extensions used reduce variability single response targeting specific value attaining near maximum


textile manufacture europe mediterranean proceedings eaa session held istanbul 'first textiles' conference copenhagen '' whewell charles abrahart edward noah textile encyclopedia britannica jun nowiki https wwwbritannicacom topic textile nowiki accessed march gesimondo nancy postell jim materiality interior construction john wiley sons

Applied science
Architecture and design
Textile design


european museums continuing debate exists whether schickard pascal regarded inventor mechanical calculator range issues considered discussed elsewhere set john napier 's calculating tables around gottfried wilhelm von leibniz invented stepped reckoner famous stepped drum mechanism around attempted create machine could used addition subtraction would utilise moveable carriage enable long multiplication division leibniz said unworthy excellent men lose hours like

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
History of computer hardware


bomb sight reached climax world war ii bomb sights mark xiv bomb sight raf bomber command norden united states army air forces art mechanical analog computing reached zenith differential analyzer built h l hazen vannevar bush mit starting built mechanical integrators james thomson torque amplifiers invented h w nieman dozen devices built obsolescence became obvious powerful constructed university pennsylvania 's moore school electrical engineering


limits proof computation replacing g del 's universal arithmetic based formal language formal simple hypothetical devices became known turing machines proved machine would capable performing conceivable mathematical computation representable algorithm went prove solution ''entscheidungsproblem'' first showing halting problem turing machines undecidable general possible decide algorithmically whether given turing machine ever halt also introduced notion universal machine known


especially high density memory modern computers generally use binary logic many early machines decimal computers machines basic unit data decimal digit encoded one several schemes including binary coded decimal bcd bi quinary excess two five code mathematical basis digital computing boolean algebra developed british mathematician george boole work ''the laws thought'' published boolean algebra refined william jevons charles sanders peirce first presented systematically ernst schr der n whitehead ref name dunnhardegree ref


sz machine used high level army communications code named tunny british first intercepts lorenz messages began part attack tunny max newman colleagues developed heath robinson fixed function machine aid code breaking tommy flowers senior engineer post office research station recommended max newman alan turing spent eleven months early february designing building flexible colossus computer superseded heath robinson functional test december colossus shipped bletchley


eniac electronic numerical integrator computer first electronic programmable computer built us although eniac similar colossus much faster flexible unambiguously turing complete device could compute problem would fit memory like colossus program eniac defined states patch cables switches far cry stored program electronic machines came later program written mechanically set machine manual resetting plugs switches


machine huge weighing tons using kilowatts electric power contained vacuum tubes relays hundreds thousands resistors capacitors inductors ref name eniac ref one major engineering feats minimize effects tube burnout common problem machine reliability time machine almost constant use next ten years stored program computer early computing machines programmable sense could follow sequence steps set execute program steps


integrated circuit half year kilby noyce 's invention monolithic integrated circuit ic chip ref name computerhistory ref ref name nasa chip solved many practical problems kilby 's produced fairchild semiconductor made silicon whereas kilby 's chip made germanium basis noyce 's monolithic ic fairchild 's planar process allowed integrated circuits laid using principles printed circuits planar process developed noyce 's colleague jean hoerni early based mohamed atalla 's work semiconductor surface passivation silicon dioxide bell


labs late ref name lojek ref third generation integrated circuit computers first appeared early computers developed government purposes commercial computers beginning mid first silicon ic computer apollo guidance computer agc ref name ceruzzi ref although powerful computer time extreme constraints size mass power apollo spacecraft required agc much smaller denser prior computer weighing lunar landing mission carried two agcs one command


ibm thomas j watson research center developed mos dynamic ram dram ref name ibm ref dawon kahng simon sze bell labs developed floating gate mosfet basis mos non volatile memory eprom eeprom flash memory ref name computerhistory ref ref name economist ref microprocessor computers fourth generation digital electronic computers used microprocessors basis logic microprocessor origins mos integrated circuit mos ic chip ref name ieee ref due rapid mosfet scaling mos ic chips rapidly increased complexity rate predicted moore 's law leading large scale integration lsi hundreds transistors


infusion busicom intel made sasaki 's behest exploit bit slice pmos chip ref die intel bit microcontroller includes cpu running nbsp mhz ram eprom earliest microprocessor ics literally contained processor ie central processing unit computer progressive development naturally led chips containing internal electronic parts computer integrated circuit image right example intel bit microcontroller includes cpu running nbsp mhz bytes


st century multi core cpus became commercially available content addressable memory cam become inexpensive enough used networking frequently used chip cache memory modern microprocessors although computer system yet implemented hardware cams use programming languages currently cams associative arrays software programming language specific semiconductor memory cell arrays regular structures manufacturers prove processes allows price reductions memory products cmos logic gates developed devices could made fast circuit types computer power consumption could


electronics engineers http wwwcolumbiaedu cu computinghistory columbia university computing history http wwwcomputerhistoriesorg computer histories introductory course history computing https wwwcomputerhistoryorg revolution revolution first years computing computer history museum history computing


animal related legal issues journal also publishes ''legislative review'' annual basis covers developments animal related legislation state federal levels ''animal law'' edited entirely students ref name alr admissions members selected three ways admitted virtue grades first year law school also admitted participating anonymous writing competition held three law reviews lewis clark law school summer months however members admitted process students compete


systems jasmine fujitsu marketed computer associates matisse matisse software objectivity db objectivity inc objectstore progress software acquired excelon originally object design incorporated ontos ontos inc name changed ontologic sub sub sub sub technology merged several companies acquired informix turn acquired ibm poet http wwwversantcom developer fastobjects versant acquired poet software versant object database http wwwversantcom versant corporation voss logic arts jade jade software corporation products remain market joined new open source commercial products intersystems cach object database management systems

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Object databases


added concept persistence object programming languages early commercial products integrated various languages gemstone smalltalk gbase lisp vbase cop voss virtual object storage system smalltalk much c dominated commercial object database management market vendors added java late recently c starting object databases seen second growth period open source object databases emerged widely affordable easy use entirely written oop languages like smalltalk java c versant 's db db objects dts


standardization made odmg object query language oql access data faster object retrieved directly without search following pointers another area variation products way schema database defined general characteristic however programming language database schema use type definitions multimedia applications facilitated class methods associated data responsible correct interpretation many object databases example gemstone voss offer support versioning object


suitable applications dealing complex data objects many many relationship accessed use pointers pointers linked objects establish relationships another benefit oodbms programmed small procedural differences without affecting entire system see also comparison object database management systems component oriented database eda database enterprise objects framework nosql object data management group object relational database persistence computer science relational model relational database management system rdbms references external links http wwwodbmsorg object dbms resource portal http db enginescom en ranking object oriented dbms ranking object oriented dbms popularity updated


injections ref name lee subspecialties seven accredited sub specializations recognized united states neuromuscular medicine pain medicine pediatric rehabilitation medicine spinal cord injury sports medicine brain injury hospice palliative medicine fellowship training unaccredited subspecialties within field include following musculoskeletal spine stroke multiple sclerosis neurorehabilitation electrodiagnostic medicine cancer rehabilitation occupational environmental medicine see also american osteopathic board physical medicine rehabilitation american academy physical medicine rehabilitation references external links http wwwmedscapecom viewarticle pm r gives physical medicine rehabilitation resident 's description specialty appeal physician

Applied science
Medicine and health
Rehabilitation medicine


strongly connected b b strongly connected c c must tie either weak strong two developments mathematical models bearing upon analysis structure early influential developments mathematical sociology pertained process instance herbert simon produced mathematical formalization published theory social groups constructing model consisting deterministic system differential equations formal study system led theorems dynamics implied equilibrium states

Social science
Sociology
Mathematical sociology


group emergence mathematical models social sciences part zeitgeist variety new interdisciplinary scientific innovations occurred information theory game theory cybernetics mathematical model building social behavioral sciences approaches mathematics sociology focusing mathematics within sociological research mathematical sociology uses mathematics construct social theories mathematical sociology aims take sociological theory express mathematical terms benefits approach include increased clarity ability use mathematics


bon believed crowds possessed 'racial unconscious' primitive aggressive antisocial instincts william mcdougall psychologist believed 'group mind' distinct existence born interaction individuals ref name hoggw concept collective consciousness essential group dynamics eventually social psychologist kurt lewin coined term ''group dynamics'' describe positive negative forces within groups people ref name dion ref established ''the group dynamics research center'' massachusetts institute technology first institute devoted explicitly study group dynamics

Social science
Psychology
Group psychology


peck describes stages community ''pseudo community'' ''chaos'' ''emptiness'' ''true community'' communities may distinguished types groups peck 's view need members eliminate barriers communication order able form true community examples common barriers expectations preconceptions prejudices ideology counterproductive norms theology solutions need heal convert fix solve need control community born members reach stage emptiness peace richard hackman richard hackman developed synthetic research based model designing


spectators second co action effects examined behaviour presence another individual engaged activity zajonc observed two categories behaviours '' 'dominant responses''' tasks easier learn dominate potential responses '''nondominant responses''' tasks less likely performed '''theory social facilitation''' zajonc concluded presence others action required depending task requirement either social facilitation social interference impact outcome task social facilitation occurs task required dominant response


equal whites similarly integrated schools selected academic journals ''group processes intergroup relations'' ''group dynamics theory research practice'' ''small group research'' ''group analysis'' ''international journal group psychotherapy'' ''the journal specialists group work'' ''social work groups'' ''international journal minority group rights'' ''group facilitation research applications journal'' ''organizational social dynamics'' see also references dynamics social dynamics


support extension basic legal rights personhood non human animals animals often considered arguments personhood hominids animal rights academics support would break species barrier others oppose predicates moral value mental complexity rather sentience alone countries enacted bans hominoid experimentation argentina granted captive orangutan basic human rights since outside order primates animal rights discussions often address status mammals compare charismatic megafauna animals considered less sentient gained less attention insects

Humanities
Philosophy
Ethics
Animal rights


ref singer quotes english philosopher henry sidgwick good one individual importance point view nbsp universe good ref name singer singer p ref peter singer interests predicated ability suffer singer argues equality consideration prescription assertion fact equality sexes based idea men women equally intelligent would abandon practice equal consideration later found false


moral idea equality depend matters fact intelligence physical strength moral capacity equality therefore cannot grounded outcome scientific investigations intelligence nonhumans matters whether suffer ref name singer p singer p ref commentators sides debate accept animals suffer feel pain although always bernard rollin professor philosophy animal sciences biomedical sciences colorado state university writes descartes' influence continued felt veterinarians trained us


empathize cause animal rights men ref name signalandtaylor study suggested factors may partially explain discrepancy include attitudes towards feminism science scientific literacy presence greater emphasis nurturance compassion among women common misconception concept animal rights proponents want grant non human animals exact legal rights humans right vote case concept animals rights equal consideration interests example cats


morality'' manchester university press garner robert ''the political theory animals rights'' manchester university press giannelli michael three blind mice see run critique behavioral research animals mw fox ld mickley eds advances animal welfare science pp nbsp washington dc humane society united states gruen lori dismantling oppression analysis connection women animals greta gaard ''ecofeminism women animals nature'' temple university press griffin donald ''animal thinking'' harvard university press horta oscar speciesism ''the journal environmental


britain ''society animals'' locke john ''some thoughts concerning education'' mackinnon catharine mice men nussbaum sunstein ''op cit'' mason peter ''the brown dog affair'' two sevens publishing midgley mary ''animals matter'' university georgia press molland neil thirty years direct action best nocella ''op cit'' monaghan rachael terrorism name animal rights taylor maxwell horgan john ''the future terrorism'' routledge murray l http advocacybritannicacom blog advocacy aspca pioneers animal welfare aspca pioneers animal welfare ''encyclop dia britannica 's advocacy animals''


rights defense'' palgrave macmillan ryder richard ''animal revolution changing attitudes towards speciesism'' berg sapontzis steve https wwwjstororg stable moral community animal rights ''american philosophical quarterly'' vol july pp nbsp scruton roger ''animal rights wrongs'' claridge press scruton roger http wwwcity journalorg html urbanities animalhtml animal rights ''city journal'' summer singer peter april http wwwnybookscom articles article previewarticle id animal liberation ''the new york review books'' volume number singer peter ''animal liberation'' new york review books singer peter ''ethics action henry spira animal rights movement'' rowman littlefield publishers inc singer


introduction animal rights sunstein nussbaum ''op cit'' sunstein cass r nussbaum martha ''animal rights current debates new directions'' oxford university press taylor angus ''animals ethics overview philosophical debate'' broadview press taylor thomas vindication rights brutes craciun adriana ''a routledge literary sourcebook mary wollstonecraft 's vindication rights woman'' routledge vallentyne peter https wwwjstororg stable mice men equality animals ''the journal ethics'' vol pp nbsp vallentyne peter mice men equality


animals nils holtug kasper lippert rasmussen eds ''egalitarianism new essays nature value equality'' oxford university press walker stephen ''animal thoughts'' routledge weir jack virtue ethics marc bekoff ''encyclopedia animal rights animal welfare'' greenwood williams erin e demello margo ''why animals matter'' prometheus books wise steven ''rattling cage toward legal rights animals'' da capo press wise steven ''drawing line science case animal rights'' perseus wise steven animal rights one step time sunstein


include colombian jorge isaacs 's ''mar a'' ecuadorian juan le n mera 's ''cumand '' brazilian euclides da cunha 's ''os sert es'' works still bedrocks national canons usually mandatory elements high school curricula important works th century latin american literature include regional classics jos hern ndez 's epic poem ''mart n fierro'' story poor gaucho drafted fight frontier war indians ''mart n fierro'' example gauchesque argentine genre poetry centered around lives gauchos literary movements nineteenth

Humanities
Languages and literature
Latin American Literature


women period challenged latin american patriarchal societies prominent women writers discussed hypocrisy dominant class institutions existed nascent nations criticized corruption government prime examples works include clorinda matto de turner 's ''indole'' ''herencia'' ''el conspirador autobiografia de un hombre publico'' ref name arrango ramos ref modernismo vanguards boom precursors late th century ''modernismo'' emerged poetic movement whose founding text nicaraguan rub n dar 's ''azul'' first latin american poetry movement influence literary culture outside region


messages erotic themes critic sylvia molloy describes though modernismo often seen aestheticist anti political poets essayists mart among also peruvians manuel gonz lez prada jos carlos mari tegui introduced compelling critiques contemporary social order particularly plight latin america 's indigenous peoples way early twentieth century also saw rise indigenismo trend previously popularized clorinda matto de turner dedicated representing indigenous culture injustices communities undergoing instance peruvian jos mar arguedas


novel describing conflict civilization barbarism plainlands south america masterpiece criollismo novel became immediate hit translated forty languages notable figures brazil time include exceptional novelist short story writer machado de assis whose ironic view deep psychological analysis introduced universal scope brazilian prose modernist poets rio de andrade oswald de andrade whose manifesto antrop fago praised brazilian powers transculturation carlos drummond de andrade mexico stridentism los contempor neos represented influx


avant garde movements mexican revolution inspired novels mariano azuela 's ''los de abajo'' committed work social realism revolution aftermath would continue point reference mexican literature many decades cuban novelist musicologist alejo carpentier coined term lo real maravilloso along mexican juan rulfo guatemalan miguel ngel asturias would prove precursor boom signature style magic realism poetry modernismo alfonso reyes writer influential pieces mexican surrealism


canon'' bloom says latin american authors century universal read borges frequently closely become something borgesian read activate awareness literature gone farther anybody else among novelists perhaps prominent author emerge latin america th century gabriel garc rquez book ''cien os de soledad'' one important works world literature th century borges opined quixote


clarice lispector brazil ''' ''' ''o vampiro de curitiba'' dalton trevisan brazil ''' ''' ''marzo anterior'' jos balza venezuela ''' ''' ''cenizas de izalco'' claribel alegr el salvador ''' ''' ''la casa verde'' mario vargas llosa peru ''' ''' ''paradiso'' jos lezama lima cuba ''' ''' ''tres tristes tigres'' guillermo cabrera infante cuba ''' ''' ''cien os de soledad'' gabriel garc rquez colombia ''' ''' ''quarup'' ant nio callado brazil ''' ''' ''fuera del juego'' heberto padilla cuba ''' ''' ''el mundo alucinante'' reinaldo arenas cuba ''' ''' ''el


obsceno p jaro de la noche'' jos donoso chile ''' ''' ''la cruz invertida'' marcos aguinis argentina ''' ''' ''sargento get lio'' jo ubaldo ribeiro brazil ''' ''' ''as meninas'' lygia fagundes telles brazil ''' ''' ''yo el supremo'' augusto roa bastos paraguay ''' ''' ''el limonero real'' juan jos saer argentina ''' ''' ''el oto del patriarca'' gabriel garc rquez colombia ''' ''' ''lavoura arcaica'' raduan nassar brazil ''' ''' ''pobrecito poeta que era yo'' roque dalton el salvador ''' ''' ''poema sujo'' ferreira gullar


abstract conception humankind started forming critical juncture construction humanist philosophy previous appeals men shifted towards man evident political documents like ''the social contract'' rousseau says man born free everywhere chains likewise thomas paine 's ''rights man'' uses singular form word revealing universal conception man parallel baconian empiricism though humanism ''per se'' paved way thomas hobbes 's materialism scholar j brent crosson notes wide held belief birth humanism

Humanities
History
Philosophical history
Humanism


''race'' shaped european history gives paradigm africa africa contribution knowledge renaissance disregarded afterwards darwin current era french philosopher auguste comte introduced idea religion humanity sometimes attributed thomas paine atheist cult based humanistic tenets prominent members soon declined nonetheless influential th century humanism rejection supernaturalism echoed works later authors oscar wilde george holyoake coined word ' 'secularism'' george eliot mile zola


humanists international promotes humanist agenda via united nations organizations unesco unicef varieties humanism early th century naturalists viewed humanism religion participated church like congregations used term religious humanism religious humanism appeared mostly us rarely practiced american humanist association arose religious humanism term also used religious groups quakers describe term misapplied cases term renaissance humanism later given tradition cultural


scientific method means finding truth science reason gained widespread approval due tremendous successes various fields appeals irrationality invocation supernatural phenomena failed coherently explain world one form irrational thinking adducing hidden agencies explain natural phenomena diseases humanists skeptical kinds explanations hallmark humanist philosophy human autonomy people autonomous beliefs actions must result reasoning humanists autonomy dignifies individual without autonomy people reduced less


need communal encouragement support promotes capacity intelligence evaluating modifying morality wider cultural ways privileges individual dignity autonomy necessary subordinate goals cultural political groups encourages ethical ideals promoting human intelligence flourishing cultures reasonably support blockquote along social changes nations faced late th century humanist ethics evolved constant voice supporting secularism civil rights personal autonomy religious toleration multiculturalism cosmopolitanism humanist philosopher brian ellis argues social humanist theory morality called social contractual utilitarianism


sexual orientation humanism defends secularism deem fairer comparison theocracy argue secularism prevents discrimination protects plurality modern societies preserves personal autonomy humanism odds conservatism relies long standing traditions tries preserve christian values elements xenophobia bigotry animal cruelty sometimes also part christian values humanism also opposes irrationality nationalism totalitarianism whether part fascism marxist leninist communism political theory contemporary humanism sculptured two main axons first individualistic second inclines collectivism


base rather violently stop car hits road fixtures signs fire hydrants designed collapse impact authorities removed trees vicinity roads idea dangerous trees attracted certain amount skepticism unforgiving objects trees cause severe damage injury errant road users safety barriers provide combination physical protection visual protection depending environment physical protection important protecting sensitive building pedestrian areas visual protection necessary alert drivers changes road

Applied science
Transportation
Highway safety


risk collision oncoming traffic since nearly head collision injuries common common cause fatalities built area another major risk involvement rear end collision waiting gap oncoming traffic countermeasures type collision include addition left turn lanes ref name v ref providing protected turn phasing signalized intersections ref name v ref using indirect turn treatments michigan left converting conventional intersections roundabouts ref name v absence facilities driver turn keep wheels straight


suggesting many safety features introduced speed limits traffic calming road signs road markings traffic lights belisha beacons pedestrian crossings cycle lanes etc potentially self defeating every nonrestrictive safety measure however admirable treated drivers opportunity speeding net amount danger increased latter state worse first new approach known 'shared space' developed removed many features places attracted attention authorities around world ref name spiegel ref


travel footboard bus put part body outside moving stationary bus bus refrain shouting making noise distract driver always hold onto handrail standing moving bus especially sharp turns always adhere bus safety rules cars crash test dummies help improve automobile design safety improved reducing chances driver making error designing vehicles reduce severity crashes occur industrialized countries


data sort type number lower bac g l c c sections


gm president james roche later forced appear united states senate subcommittee apologize nader company 's campaign harassment intimidation nader later successfully sued gm excessive invasion privacy ref name nader v general motors ref roadpeace formed united kingdom advocate better road safety founded world day remembrance road traffic victims received support united nations general assembly ref name un ares page ref see also us notes references notes references sources external links https wwwwhoint violence injury prevention road traffic en road traffic injuries http deepbluelibumichedu bitstream handle pdf


mortality road crashes countries comparison leading causes death university michigan transportation research institute february safety


overlaps hassuna early ubaid ubaid culture southern mesopotamia ubaid period c bc prehistoric period mesopotamia name derives tell al 'ubaid southern mesopotamia earliest large excavation ubaid period material conducted initially henry hall later leonard woolley south mesopotamia period earliest known period alluvial plain although likely earlier periods exist obscured alluvium south long duration bc replaced uruk period ref

Humanities
History
Ancient history
History of Mesopotamia


mesopotamia saw influx non native arabs later also turkic peoples city assur still occupied th century assyrians possibly still formed majority northern mesopotamia middle ages assyrians retain eastern rite christianity whereas mandaeans retain ancient gnostic religion mesopotamian aramaic mother tongue written script day among peoples giving traditional mesopotamian names still common classical antiquity median babylonian assyria bc persian babylonia achaemenid assyria th th centuries bc seleucid mesopotamia th nd