'''applied linguistics''' interdisciplinary field identifies investigates offers solutions language related real life problems academic fields related applied linguistics education psychology communication research anthropology sociology domain applied linguistics interdisciplinary field major branches applied linguistics include bilingualism multilingualism conversation analysis contrastive linguistics sign linguistics language assessment literacies discourse analysis language pedagogy second language acquisition language planning policy interlinguistics stylistics language teacher education pragmatics forensic linguistics translation journals major journals field include ''research methods applied linguistics'' ''annual review applied

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Applied linguistics


forecasting earthquake prediction electroencephalography control engineering astronomy communications engineering largely domain applied science engineering involves temporal measurements '''time series ''analysis''''' comprises methods analyzing time series data order extract meaningful statistics characteristics data '''time series ''forecasting''''' use model predict future values based previously observed values regression analysis often employed way test relationships one different time series type analysis usually called time series analysis refers particular

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Time Series


general class multidimensional data set whereas time series data set one dimensional panel cross sectional dataset data set may exhibit characteristics panel data time series data one way tell ask makes one data record unique records answer time data field time series data set candidate determining unique record requires time data field additional identifier unrelated time eg student id stock symbol country


curve much reflects observed data construction economic time series involves estimation components dates interpolation values benchmarks earlier later dates interpolation estimation unknown quantity two known quantities historical data drawing conclusions missing information available information reading lines interpolation useful data surrounding missing data available trend seasonality longer term cycles known often done using related series known relevant dates alternatively polynomial interpolation


example audio signal conference call partitioned pieces corresponding times person speaking time series segmentation goal identify segment boundary points time series characterize dynamical properties associated segment one approach problem using change point detection modeling time series sophisticated system markov jump linear system models models time series data many forms represent different stochastic processes modeling variations level process three broad


sample entropy wavelet entropy r nyi entropy higher order methods marginal predictability dynamical similarity index state space dissimilarity measures lyapunov exponent permutation methods local flow '''other univariate measures''' algorithmic complexity kolmogorov complexity estimates hidden markov model states rough path signature surrogate time series surrogate correction loss recurrence degree non stationarity '''bivariate linear measures''' maximum linear cross correlation linear coherence signal processing '''bivariate non linear measures''' non linear interdependence dynamical entrainment physics measures phase synchronization measures phase locking '''similarity measures''' cross correlation dynamic time warping ref name sakoe hidden markov models edit distance total correlation newey west estimator prais winsten transformation data vectors


'''helioseismology''' term coined douglas gough study structure dynamics sun oscillations principally caused sound waves continuously driven damped convection near sun 's surface similar geoseismology asteroseismology also coined gough respectively studies earth stars oscillations sun 's oscillations first detected early mid realized oscillations propagated throughout sun could allow scientists study

Natural science
Space science
Stellar astrophysics
Helioseismology


several decades types solar oscillation cid ref note increase speed sound waves approach center sun causes corresponding increase acoustic wavelength solar oscillation modes interpreted resonant vibrations roughly spherically symmetric self gravitating fluid hydrostatic equilibrium mode represented approximately product function radius math r math spherical harmonic math l theta phi math consequently characterized three quantum numbers label number nodal shells radius known ''radial


law math omega gk rm h math irrespective stratification sun math omega math angular frequency math g math surface gravity math k rm h ell r math horizontal wavenumber tend asymptotically relation math k rm h rightarrow infty math seismology reveal oscillations successfully utilized seismology essentially adiabatic dynamics therefore action pressure forces math p math plus putative maxwell stresses matter inertia density math rho math depends upon relation adiabatic change usually quantified via first adiabatic exponent math gamma math


produced granulation datasets clearly show oscillation modes around mhz power spectrum sun around modes maximum power using data golf virgo spm instruments aboard solar heliospheric observatory low degree modes l show clear comb like pattern regular spacing soho colour scale logarithmic saturated one hundredth maximum power signal make modes visible low frequency region dominated signal granulation angular degree increases individual mode frequencies converge onto clear ridges corresponding


'''ring diagram analysis''' first introduced frank hill used infer speed direction horizontal flows solar surface observing doppler shifts ambient acoustic waves power spectra solar oscillations computed patches solar surface typically thus ring diagram analysis generalization global helioseismology applied local areas sun opposed half sun example sound speed adiabatic index compared within magnetically active inactive quiet sun regions '''time distance helioseismology''' aims measure interpret travel times


achieved making restrictive assumptions history solar oscillations first observed early quasi periodic intensity line sight velocity variation period minutes scientists gradually realized oscillations might global modes sun predicted modes would form clear ridges two dimensional power spectra ridges subsequently confirmed observations high degree modes mid ref name ejrrkugws ref mode multiplets different radial orders distinguished whole disc observations ref name grecsouthpole similar time


known ' 'solar abundance problem'' space based observations soho continued soho joined solar dynamics observatory sdo also monitoring sun continuously since operations began addition ground based networks notably bison gong continue operate providing nearly continuous data ground see also minute solar cycle differential rotation diskoseismology frequency separation magnetogravity wave moreton wave solar neutrino problem solar tower astronomy stellar rotation references external links https webarchiveorg web http astphysaudk helio outreach english non technical description helio asteroseismology retrieved november https wwwnsfgov news news summjspcntn id org olpa news scientists issue unprecedented forecast next sunspot


birth earliest human civilizations archaeology delivers traces dance prehistoric times year old bhimbetka rock shelters paintings india egyptian tomb paintings depicting dancing figures c bc many contemporary dance forms traced back historical traditional ceremonial ethnic dances ancient period means social communication bonding dance may used tool social interaction promoted cooperation essential survival among early humans studies found today 's best dancers share two specific genes associated predisposition good social communicators

Humanities
Performing arts
Dance
History of dance


folk celebrations many dances early periods performed ritual gods ancestors believed needed kept entertained world peace ceremonies rituals dance may performed religious shamanic rituals example rain dance performed times drought shamans dancing rain mentioned ancient chinese texts dance important aspect religious rites ancient egypt similarly dance also integral many ceremonies rites among african people ritual dances may also performed temples religious festivals


example rasa ritual dances india number indian classical dances may origin ritual dances cham dances tibet method healing another early use dance may precursor ecstatic trance states healing rituals dance used purpose many cultures brazilian rainforest kalahari desert ref name 'guenther' guenther mathias georg 'the san trance dance ritual revitalization among farm bushmen ghanzi district republic botswana' journal south west africa scientific society v ref medieval european ' 'danses macabres''


heard sounds music dancing wedding ceremony origins dances sri lanka dated back aboriginal tribes mythological times aboriginal yingyang twins yakkas devils classical dances sri lanka kandyan dances feature highly developed system tala rhythm provided cymbals called thalampataa chinese dance details copy th century painting ''night revels han xizai'' gu hongzhong depicting dancer performing dance known tang dynasty long recorded history chinese dances dances


origins ballet dancing traced italian renaissance courts th century dance masters would teach steps nobility court would participate performances form social entertainment practice continued several centuries th century courtly ballet reached peak rule king louis xiv ref name ref th century ballet migrated french italian royal courts paris op ra careful direction composer dancer jean baptiste lully lully sought develop ballet serious art influence ballet


century dance artists began appreciate qualities individual necessities ritual religion primitive expressive emotional atmosphere modern dance began explosion growth suddenly new freedom considered acceptable considered art people wanted create many things suddenly valued much beyond costumes tricks ballet early th century modern choreographers dancers saw ballet negative light isadora duncan thought ugly nothing meaningless gymnastics


explosion modern dance early th century saw growth postmodernism postmodernism veered towards simplicity beauty small things beauty untrained body unsophisticated movement famous manifesto yvonne rainer rejecting costumes stories outer trappings favour raw unpolished movement perhaps extreme wave thinking however long sets cor shock value entered vocabulary modern choreographers contemporary dance vs ballet dance come full circle modern dance


design microarchitecture design logic design implementation history first documented computer architecture correspondence charles babbage ada lovelace describing analytical engine building computer z konrad zuse described two patent applications future projects machine instructions could stored storage used data ie stored program concept two early important examples john von neumann 's paper first draft report edvac described organization logical elements alan turing 's detailed ''proposed electronic calculator''

Formal science
Computer science
Computer architecture


speed enhancements level system architecture term seemed useful machine organization subsequently brooks stretch designer opened chapter book called ''planning computer system project stretch'' stating computer architecture like architecture art determining needs user structure designing meet needs effectively possible within economic technological constraints brooks went help develop ibm system called ibm zseries line computers architecture became noun defining user


questions many genes involved large effects gene interdependent effects different genes genes changes happen eg point mutations vs gene duplication even genome duplication try reconcile high heritability seen twin studies difficulty finding genes responsible heritability using genome wide association studies one challenge studying genetic architecture classical population genetics catalysed modern evolutionary synthesis must updated take account modern molecular

Natural science
Biology
Evolutionary biology


debate french anthropologist marcel mauss author ''the gift'' ''essai sur le don'' contrasting mauss malinowski emphasised exchange goods ''individuals'' non altruistic motives giving expected return equal greater value words reciprocity implicit part gifting free gift given without expectation reciprocity mauss however posited gifts merely individuals representatives larger collectivities gifts argued total prestation simple alienable commodities bought sold like

Social science
Anthropology
Economic Anthropology


model economics preindustrial societies making mistake formalists conceding substantivism rightly emphasises significance social institutions economic processes gudeman considers deductive universal model formalist substantivist marxist ethnocentric tautological view model relationships mechanistic processes taking logic natural science based material world applying human world rather arrogate privileged right model economies subjects anthropologists seek understand interpret local models


production clothing domestic workers bound labourers sweatshops studies shifted informal sector western economies field dominated taking political economy approach neo substantivism capitalism cultural system many anthropologists like gudeman concerned peasant economic behaviour others turned analysis market societies economic sociologist mark granovetter provided new research paradigm neo substantivism researchers granovetter argued neo liberal view economic action separated economics society culture promoted 'undersocialized account' atomises


customers assumes equal higher importance economic transactions involved economic exchanges carried strangers rather individuals involved long term continuing relationships money finance sample picture fictional atm card largest part world 's money exists accounting numbers transferred financial computers various plastic cards devices give individual consumers power electronically transfer money bank accounts without use currency special general purpose money early anthropologists substantivist school


economic markets body work interrogates interrelation economy economics highlighting ways economics economics inspired disciplines marketing shapes economy see callon ethnographies corporation corporations increasingly hiring anthropologists employees consultants leading increasingly critical appraisal organizational forms post modern capitalism aihwa ong 's ''spirits resistance capitalist discipline factory women malaysia'' pathbreaking regard work inspired generation anthropologists examined incorporation women within corporate economies especially new free


cultural historicism french reclamation strasbourg world war one ''french history civilization'' morris ''archaeology cultural history words things iron age greece'' blackwell publishing munslow alun ''deconstructing history'' routledge pic n salas mariano ''a cultural history spanish america'' u california press poirrier philippe les enjeux de l histoire culturelle seuil poster ''cultural history postmodernity disciplinary readings challenges'' new york columbia university press rickard john ''australia cultural history'' monash university publishing rietbergen peter ''europe cultural history'' routledge ritter h


journal ''foreign affairs'' pseudonym x biographer douglas brinkley dubbed forrestal godfather containment account work distributing kennan 's writing use word containment originates called x article circumstances clear main element united states policy toward soviet union must long term patient firm vigilant containment russian expansive tendencies kennan later turned containment policy noted several deficiencies x article later said containment meant containment soviet

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
Containment


fighting communist subversion ref name truman president harry truman 's address joint session congress march ref truman pledged support free peoples resisting attempted subjugation armed minorities outside pressures ref name truman pledge became known truman doctrine portraying issue mighty clash totalitarian regimes free peoples speech marks adoption containment official us policy congress appropriated money truman 's motives occasion subject considerable scholarship several schools interpretation orthodox explanation herbert feis series aggressive


laos cut communist supply lines johnson gathered group elder statesmen called wise men group included kennan acheson former truman advisors rallies support troops discouraged fear patriotic response would lead demands victory rollback ref name jensen military responsibility divided among three generals powerful theater commander could emerge challenge johnson macarthur challenged truman nixon replaced johnson referred foreign policy tente relaxation tension although continued aim restraining soviet union


soviets believed tente misguided peaceful coexistence tantamount surrender soviet union invaded afghanistan american policy makers worried soviets making run control persian gulf throughout policy came known reagan doctrine united states provided technical economic assistance afghanistani guerrillas mujahideen fighting soviet army sending military aid anti communist insurgents afghanistan angola cambodia nicaragua reagan confronted existing communist governments went beyond limits containment doctrine deployed


test written four year old child former soviet union lines ideal teacher red writing gave best grade anyway geography montessori early childhood qais '''early childhood education''' '''ece''' also known '''nursery education''' branch education theory relates teaching children formally informally birth age eight ref name naeycorg ref traditionally equivalent third grade ece described important period child development ece emerged field study

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Early childhood education


united nations sustainable development goal ece also professional designation earned post secondary education program example ontario canada designations ece early childhood educator rece registered early childhood educator may used registered members college early childhood educators made accredited child care professionals held accountable college 's standards practice theories child development developmental interaction approach based theories jean piaget erik erikson john dewey lucy sprague mitchell approach focuses learning


implies computers great educational tool young children used support design construction projects mccarrick xiaoming found computer play consistent theory however plowman stephen found effectiveness computers limited preschool environment results indicate computers effective directed teacher suggests according constructivist theory role preschool teachers critical successfully adopting computers existed kolb 's experiential learning theory david kolb 's experiential learning theory influenced


situation make meaning situation test meaning world around practical implications early childhood education recent decades studies shown early childhood education critical preparing children enter succeed grade school classroom diminishing risk social emotional mental health problems increasing self sufficiency later lives words child needs taught rationalize everything open interpretations critical thinking subject considered taboo starting basic knowledge world


experiment enrolled three four year old african american children cognitive disadvantage low income families randomly assigned treatment control groups intervention children treatment group included active learning preschool sessions weekdays hours per day intervention also included weekly visits teachers homes children hours per visit improve parent child interactions home initial evaluations perry intervention showed preschool program failed significantly boost iq measure however later evaluations followed participants


curricula early childhood care education ecce driving force behind ecce programme integral part engine together energy motivation staff provides momentum makes programmes live follows therefore quality programme greatly influenced quality curriculum early childhood may programs children parents including health nutrition interventions prenatal programs well center based programs children ref name ref barriers challenges children 's learning potential outcomes negatively affected exposure


decrease prescription opioids still providing adequate pain control patients ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name armstrong training image taken september shows extensive repair work right acetabulum years carried onset arthritis bone joint disease made joint damage visible united states orthopedic surgeons typically completed four years undergraduate education four years medical school earned either doctor medicine md doctor osteopathic medicine degree subsequently medical school graduates undergo residency training

Applied science
Medicine and health
Surgery
Orthopedic surgery


orthopedic surgery five year residency categorical orthopedic surgery training selection residency training orthopedic surgery competitive roughly physicians complete orthopedic residency training per year united states current orthopedic surgery residents women members minority groups around actively practicing orthopedic surgeons residents united states according latest occupational outlook handbook published united states department labor practicing physicians orthopedic surgeons many orthopedic surgeons elect training fellowships


cruciate ligament reconstruction knee replacement repair femoral neck fracture repair trochanteric fracture debridement skin muscle bone fracture knee arthroscopy repair menisci hip replacement shoulder arthroscopy distal clavicle excision repair rotator cuff tendon repair fracture radius bone ulna laminectomy repair ankle fracture bimalleolar type shoulder arthroscopy debridement lumbar spinal fusion repair fracture distal part radius low back intervertebral disc surgery incise finger tendon sheath repair ankle fracture fibula repair femoral shaft fracture


visible movement occurs resistance matches muscular tension sprinting running short distances fast possible interval training alternating short bursts lasting around seconds intense activity longer intervals three four minutes less intense activity training specific task oriented fitness person 's ability perform specific activity sports military service reasonable efficiency specific training prepares athletes perform well sport include among others swimmers competitive swimwear perform squats prior entering pool

Human physical performance and recreation


sex hormones metabolic hormones growth hormones body temperature blood flow hydration status body position physical activity shown increase levels natural killer nk cells nk cells macrophages neutrophils eosinophils complements cytokines antibodies cytotoxic cells however mechanism linking physical activity immune system fully understood weight control achieving resilience physical fitness promotes vast complex range health related benefits individuals keep physical fitness levels generally regulate distribution body fat prevent obesity abdominal fat specifically visceral fat


overdrafting pumping fossil water may contributing factor sea level rise subjects water drop one main tasks hydrogeologist typically performs prediction future behavior aquifer system based analysis past present observations hypothetical characteristic questions asked would aquifer support another subdivision river dry farmer doubles irrigation chemicals dry cleaning facility travel aquifer well make sick plume effluent leaving neighbor 's septic

Natural science
Earth science
Hydrogeology


salinity levels aquifers governing equations darcy 's law darcy 's law constitutive equation empirically derived henry darcy states amount groundwater discharging given portion aquifer proportional cross sectional area flow hydraulic gradient hydraulic conductivity groundwater flow equation geometry partially penetrating well drainage system anisotropic layered aquifer groundwater flow equation general form describes movement groundwater porous medium aquifers aquitards known mathematics


theis solution fundamental solution diffusion equation free space matter method use solve groundwater flow equation need initial conditions heads time ''t'' boundary conditions representing either physical boundaries domain approximation domain beyond point often initial conditions supplied transient simulation corresponding steady state simulation time derivative groundwater flow equation set equal two broad categories pde would solved either


transport models surface water groundwater models chemical reaction models simple well documented nature modflow application finite element models finite element programs flexible design triangular elements vs block elements finite difference models use programs available sutra density dependent flow model usgs hydrus commercial unsaturated flow model feflow commercial modelling environment subsurface flow solute heat transport processes opengeosys scientific open source project thermo hydro mechanical chemical thmc processes porous fractured media comsol multiphysics


commercial general modelling environment featool multiphysics easy use matlab simulation toolbox integrated water flow model iwfm still popular practicing hydrogeologists modflow finite element models popular university laboratory environments specialized models solve non standard forms flow equation unsaturated flow density dependent flow coupled heat groundwater flow etc application finite volume models finite volume method method representing evaluating partial differential equations algebraic equations similar finite difference method values calculated


processes porges robert e hammer matthew j ''the compendium hydrogeology'' national ground water association written practicing hydrogeologists inclusive handbook provides concise easy use reference hydrologic terms equations pertinent physical parameters acronyms todd david keith ''groundwater hydrology'' second edition john wiley sons case studies real world problems examples fetter cw ''contaminant hydrogeology'' second edition prentice hall fetter cw ''applied hydrogeology'' fourth edition prentice hall numerical groundwater modeling anderson mary p woessner william w ''applied groundwater modeling'' academic press introduction groundwater modeling


prescription nonprescription medications commonly used together among older adults nearly individuals potentially risk major drug drug interaction ref name qato ref drugs metabolites excreted mostly kidneys liver may impaired elderly necessitating medication adjustment presentation disease elderly persons may vague non specific may include delirium falls pneumonia example may present low grade fever confusion rather high fever cough seen younger people elderly people may find hard describe symptoms

Applied science
Medicine and health
Geriatrics


diet number physicians byzantine empire studied geriatrics doctors like tius amida evidently specializing field alexander tralles viewed process aging natural inevitable form marasmus caused loss moisture body tissue works tius describe mental physical symptoms aging theophilus protospatharius joannes actuarius also discussed topic medical works byzantine physicians typically drew works oribasius recommended elderly patients consume diet rich foods provide heat moisture also recommended


medicine later dr ignatz leo nascher former chief clinic mount sinai hospital outpatient department new york city father geriatrics united states modern geriatrics united kingdom began mother ref name mother ref geriatrics dr marjorie warren ref name history warren emphasized rehabilitation essential care older people using experiences physician london workhouse infirmary believed merely keeping older people fed died enough needed diagnosis treatment care support found patients


previously bedridden able gain degree independence correct assessment treatment practice geriatrics uk also one rich multidisciplinary history values professions medicine contributions optimizing well independence older people another innovator british geriatrics bernard isaacs described giants geriatrics mentioned immobility instability incontinence impaired intellect isaacs asserted examined closely enough common problems older people relate one giants


conference competencies geriatric education consensus reached minimum competencies learning outcomes graduating medical students needed assure competent care new interns older patients twenty six minimum geriatric competencies eight content domains endorsed american geriatrics society ags american medical association ama association directors geriatric academic programs adgap domains cognitive behavioral disorders medication management self care capacity falls balance gait disorders atypical presentation disease palliative care hospital care elders health care planning promotion content domain specifies three


capabilities intellectual giftedness difference learning also benefit specialized teaching techniques different educational programs term special education generally used specifically indicate instruction disabled students whereas special education designed specifically students learning disabilities remedial education designed students without special needs defining trait simply reached point unpreparedness regardless example even people high intelligence prepared education disrupted example internal displacement civil disorder

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Special education


special needs classes non disabled students specific time periods based skills students special needs segregated separate classrooms exclusively students special needs rest school day ref name teachers schools society ref ref name teachersschoolsandsociety ref ''segregation'' separate classroom special school students special needs model students special needs attend classes non disabled students segregated students may attend school regular classes provided spend instructional time exclusively separate classroom students various disabilities special


class located ordinary school may provided opportunities social integration outside classroom eating meals non disabled students alternatively students may attend special school ref name teachers schools society ''exclusion '' student receive instruction school excluded school past students special needs excluded school exclusion still affects million disabled children worldwide particularly poor rural areas developing countries ref name hicks ref may also occur student hospital housebound detained


behavioral challenges may learn self management techniques kept closely comfortingly predictable schedule given extra cues signal activities university field termed ' 'severe disabilities'' also taught throughout us university sector schools education advanced instruction based upon community referenced instruction alignment transition adulthood progressive community practices rehabilitation counseling personnel often association supported employment services typically transition adulthood multi decade recommendations better coordination school community service sectors made federal university levels issues risk


served substituting improved physical care academic program cases question whether teaching non academic subjects pushing buzzer properly job school system rather health care system another large issue lack resources enabling individuals special needs receive education developing world consequence percent children special needs developing countries access education another issue would budget cuts cuts affect special education students n't access proper equipment education


things n't actually benefit child global issues children disabilities often denied right education however little known school attendance patterns collection data children disabilities straightforward data vital ensure policies place address constraints children face ref name unesco ref ref name ref one estimate million children age world 's children living 'moderate severe disability' according world health survey low middle


iraq instance year olds risk disability never school risk hearing impairment higher risk mental disability never school thailand almost year olds disability school yet walking moving impairments never school ref name ref name unesco children disabilities require access services support throughout time school


next years special schools reserved students severe disabilities cannot accommodated local school ref name ofqual use grading marking systems mainstream schools instead assess students according individualized plans ref name ofqual special classes similar may vary national curriculum teachers see fit ''tsukyu'' resource rooms students milder problems use part time specialized instruction individually small groups students spend rest day mainstream classroom students special needs fully included


services statped consists resource centres owned state units special education statped buys services centres offer special educational guidance support local authorities county administrations portugal students disabilities guaranteed right appropriate accommodations assessments ref name ofqual schools generally considered autonomous slovenia national tests national examination center normally grants requests accommodations supported local school 's examination committee legislation opposes use modifications would unfair non disabled students ref name ofqual spain schools required provide services


staff implement education england ''sen pps'' refers special educational needs parent partnership service ''senas'' special educational needs assessment service part local authority ''senco'' refers special educational needs coordinator usually works schools children within schools special educational needs special educational needs parent partnership services help parents planning delivery child 's educational provision department education oversees special education england students individual educational plan students may group plan addition


conflict decided battle god negotiations human beings kharijites thus deemed arbitrators abu musa al ash ari amr ibn al leaders appointed arbitrators ali mu wiyah agreed arbitration companions ali mu wiyah kuff r disbelievers breached rules qur'an believed participants battle jamal including talha zubayr companions muhammad aisha committed ''kabira'' major sin islam ref name referencea abul ala maududi khilafat malookeyat urdu language caliphate kingship


free sin secondly regarded mentioned bah believers considered religious leaders even inferring islamic jurisprudence hadeeth narrated ref name referencea also believed must caliph quraysh pious muslim nominated muslims could eligible caliph ref name referencea additionally kharijites believed obedience caliph binding long managing affairs justice consultation deviates becomes obligatory confront demote even kill


mu'tazila strong belief twelve imams members believe fasting ramadan obligatory although alevi turks performs fasting duties partially ramadan beliefs shamanism still common amongst qizilbash alevi turkish people villages hand members bektashi order conviction batiniyya isma'ilism ref name b en ya hurufism strong belief ''the twelve imams'' conclusion qizilbash alevis part ja'fari jurisprudence fiqh even though considered members different tariqa shia islam


holy book islam namely qur'an regular daily salat fasting holy month ramadan officially accepted members ''alevism'' sub groups like ''ishikists'' ''bektashis'' portrayed ''alevis'' neither comprehend essence regular daily salat '' prayers '' fasting holy month ramadan frequently accentuated many times quran admits principles constitute ineluctable foundations n islam laid allah practised uninterruptible manner


commemoration ashurah marking battle karbala old persian holiday nowruz celebrated bektashis imam ali 's birthday keeping central belief ''wahdat ul wujood'' bektashi see reality contained haqq muhammad ali single unified entity bektashi consider form trinity many practices ceremonies share similarity faiths ritual meal ''muhabbet'' yearly confession sins ''baba'' ''magfirat zunub'' bektashis base practices rituals non orthodox mystical interpretation understanding qur'an


enteric perception taste smell sense time regardless sensory domain three main areas investigation absolute thresholds discrimination thresholds scaling threshold limen point intensity participant detect presence stimulus absolute threshold ref name gescheiderchap ref presence difference two stimuli difference threshold ref name gescheiderchap stimuli intensities threshold considered detectable hence sub liminal stimuli values close enough threshold often detectable proportion occasions therefore threshold considered


stimuli two weights two sounds detectable subject presented one stimulus example weight asked say whether another weight heavier lighter experiments subject may also say two weights point subjective equality pse subject perceives two weights noticeable difference difference limen dl magnitude difference stimuli subject notices proportion ''p'' time usually used ''p'' comparison task


repeated many times also called ''method average error'' ref name gescheiderchap method observers control magnitude variable stimulus beginning level distinctly greater lesser standard one vary satisfied subjective equality two difference variable stimuli standard one recorded adjustment error tabulated considerable series end mean calculated giving average error taken measure sensitivity adaptive


estimating threshold threshold ''and'' slope adaptive methods classified staircase procedures see bayesian maximum likelihood methods staircase methods rely previous response easier implement bayesian methods take whole set previous stimulus response pairs account generally robust lapses attention ref name treutwein ref practical examples found ref name software overview staircase procedures diagram showing specific staircase procedure transformed method rule first reversal neglected simple rule larger step size used


time consuming implement considered robust well known procedures kind quest ml pest kontsevich tyler 's method magnitude estimation prototypical case people asked assign numbers proportion magnitude stimulus psychometric function geometric means numbers often power law stable replicable exponent although contexts change law exponent change stable replicable instead numbers sensory cognitive dimensions used match stimulus method becomes magnitude production


exogenously given stable additional consumption provides smaller smaller increases utility diminishing marginal utility individuals interpersonally commensurable utility functions assumption edgeworth avoided ''mathematical psychics'' assumptions possible construct social welfare function simply summing individual utility functions note measure would still concerned distribution income distributive efficiency distribution final utilities normative terms authors writing benthamite tradition ordinal utility ''new welfare economics'' approach based

Social science
Economics
Welfare economics


given good ref name mas first fundamental theorem said capture logic adam smith 's invisible hand though general reason suppose best pareto efficient point set selected market without intervention point ref name mas second fundamental theorem states given restrictions pareto efficient outcome supported competitive market equilibrium ref name ipe restrictions stronger first fundamental theorem convexity preferences production functions sufficient necessary


scope techniques reliability engineering complex systems requires different elaborate systems approach non complex systems reliability engineering may case involve system availability mission readiness analysis related reliability maintenance requirement allocation functional system failure analysis derived requirements specification inherent system design reliability analysis derived requirements specification hardware software design system diagnostics design fault tolerant systems eg redundancy predictive preventive maintenance eg reliability centered maintenance human factors human interaction human errors manufacturing assembly induced failures effect detected hour quality reliability

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Reliability Theory


object basics reliability assessment many engineering techniques used reliability risk assessments reliability block diagrams hazard analysis failure mode effects analysis fmea fault tree analysis fta reliability centered maintenance probabilistic load material stress wear calculations probabilistic fatigue creep analysis human error analysis manufacturing defect analysis reliability testing etc crucial analyses done properly much attention detail effective large number reliability techniques expense varying degrees reliability required different situations


bhopal love canal chernobyl sendai victims hoku earthquake tsunami case reliability engineering becomes system safety acceptable determined managing authority customers affected communities residual risk risk left reliability activities finished includes unidentified risk therefore completely quantifiable complexity technical systems improvements design materials planned inspections fool proof design backup redundancy decreases risk increases cost risk decreased alara low


reasonably achievable alapa low practically achievable levels reliability availability program plan implementing reliability program simply software purchase checklist items must completed ensure one reliable products processes reliability program complex learning knowledge based system unique one 's products processes supported leadership built skills one develops within team integrated business processes executed following proven standard work practices reliability program plan used document exactly


estimates probabilistic reliability number per item available late project sometimes even many years service use compare problem continuous balancing example lower level system mass requirements development aircraft already often big undertaking notice case masses differ terms function time data non probabilistic available already cad models case reliability levels unreliability failure rates may change factors decades multiples


result minor deviations design process anything else ref name referencea practical reliability engineering o'conner ref information often available without huge uncertainties within development phase makes allocation problem almost impossible useful practical valid manner result massive specification pragmatic approach therefore needed example use general levels classes quantitative requirements depending severity failure effects also validation results far subjective task type requirement quantitative reliability parameters


creep stress relaxation fatigue probabilistic design monte carlo methods doe material component designed reduce probability failure make robust variations another common design technique component derating ie selecting components whose specifications significantly exceed expected stress levels using heavier gauge electrical wire might normally specified expected electric current common tools techniques many tasks techniques analyses used reliability engineering specific particular industries applications commonly include physics failure pof built self test bit


testability analysis failure mode effects analysis fmea reliability hazard analysis reliability block diagram analysis dynamic reliability block diagram analysis fault tree analysis root cause analysis statistical engineering design experiments eg simulations fem models testing sneak circuit analysis accelerated testing reliability growth analysis active reliability weibull analysis testing mainly active reliability thermal analysis finite element analysis fea measurement thermal induced shock vibration fatigue analysis fea measurement electromagnetic analysis avoidance single point failure spof functional analysis functional failure analysis eg function fmea fha


much data possible constraints cost schedule available resources test plans procedures developed reliability test results documented reliability testing common photonics industry examples reliability tests lasers life test burn tests consist highly accelerated aging controlled conditions group lasers data collected life tests used predict laser life expectancy intended operating characteristics reliability test requirements reliability test requirements follow analysis first estimate


assessment failure reporting analysis corrective action systems fracas systematic approach develops reliability safety logistics assessment based failure incident reporting management analysis corrective preventive actions organizations today adopting method utilizing commercial systems web based fracas applications enable create failure incident data repository statistics derived view accurate genuine reliability safety quality metrics extremely important organization adopt common fracas system end items also allow test results captured practical way failure


early system design become common reliability engineers however organization structured work part integrated product team education universities offer graduate degrees reliability engineering reliability professionals typically physics degree university college program many engineering programs offer reliability courses universities entire reliability engineering programs reliability engineer must registered professional engineer state province law reliability professionals engineers reliability engineers required systems public safety risk


role production knowledge make explicit relationship researcher research subject ref name feminist theory feminist theory refers body writing works address gender discrimination disparities acknowledging describing analyzing experiences conditions women 's lives theorists writers bell hooks simone de beauvoir patricia hill collins alice walker added field feminist theory respect ways race gender mutually inform experiences women color works ''feminist theory margin

Social science
Sociology
Gender studies
Women's studies


women 's gender studies'' new york routledge external links https wwwsmithedu academics swg smith college list graduate programs women 's studies gender studies https utmlibraryutorontoca content wsslinks women politics wsslinks women 's studies web links university toronto http userpagesumbcedu korenman wmst indexhtml women 's studies web resources http cwsutacir center women 's studies tehran university iran http wwwglbthistoryorg gay lesbian bisexual transgender historical society karen lerhman '' https wwwmotherjonescom politics motherjones course course '' ''mother jones'' september http wwwlwlorg westfaelische geschichte portal internet kuphptab web id main focus frauen und geschlechtergeschichte westfalen http userpagesumbcedu korenman wmst programshtml outside list women 's studies programs around world http userpagesumbcedu korenman wmst programshtml list women 's studies programs united states http wwwfocusintlcom widnethtm women 's studies resources widnet women


literacy computer literacy research skills critical thinking skills information literacy sub discipline emerging topic interest counter measure among educators librarians advent misinformation fake news disinformation scholars argued order maximize people 's contributions democratic pluralistic society educators challenging governments business sector support fund educational initiatives information literacy history concept article library journal scholars already beginning discuss difficult task subtleties defining term article

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Information literacy


report ref name progress report information literacy update american library association presidential committee information literacy final report ref report outlined six recommendations original report examined areas challenge progress society college national university libraries sconul uk published seven pillars information literacy model facilitate development ideas amongst practitioners field stimulate debate ideas ideas might used library staff higher education concerned development students' skills


today 's researcher scholar ''publishing literacy'' ability format publish research ideas electronically textual multimedia forms introduce electronic public realm electronic community scholars ''emerging technology literacy'' ability continuously adapt understand evaluate make use continually emerging innovations information technology prisoner prior tools resources make intelligent decisions adoption new ones ''critical literacy'' ability evaluate critically intellectual human social strengths weaknesses potentials


practices evolve adapt accordingly information literacy key focus educational institutions levels order uphold standard institutions promoting commitment lifelong learning ability seek identify innovations needed keep pace outpace changes ref name skills ref educational methods practices within increasingly information centric society must facilitate enhance student 's ability harness power information key harnessing power information ability evaluate information ascertain among things relevance authenticity modernity


flexible options implementation rather set standards learning outcomes prescriptive enumeration skills heart framework conceptual understandings organize many concepts ideas information research scholarship coherent whole k education restructuring today instruction methods changed drastically mostly one directional teacher student model collaborative approach students feel empowered much challenge informed american association school librarians published new standards student learning within k environment effective


libraries school library manifesto another immensely popular approach imparting information literacy big set skills ref name effective eisenberg claims big widely used model k education set skills seeks articulate entire information seeking life cycle big made six major stages two sub stages major stages defines six steps task definition information seeking strategies location access use information synthesis evaluation approaches seek cover full range information problem solving actions


around threshold concepts ideas gateways broader understanding skills given discipline also draws newer research around metaliteracy assumes holistic view information literacy includes creation collaboration addition consumption appropriate current practices around social media web ref name six concepts frames authority constructed contextual information creation process information value research inquiry scholarship conversation searching strategic exploration draws concept metaliteracy ref name ref offers renewed vision


students especially within disciplines health sciences distance education information literacy become part core curriculum many post secondary institutions library community charged provide information literacy instruction variety formats including online learning distance education association college research libraries acrl addresses need guidelines distance education services within e learning distance education worlds providing effective information literacy programs brings together challenges distance librarianship instruction prevalence course management systems webct


lowe c spitzer k ''information literacy essential skills information age'' nd edition libraries unlimited ercegovac zorana information literacy search strategies tools resources high school students college freshmen nd ed columbus oh linworth books https webarchiveorg web http infoennet page page html ercegovac zorana letting students use web tools hook one another reading knowledge quest https webarchiveorg web http wwwalaorg aasl kq v fister barbara february information literacy 's third wave ''inside higher ed'' retrieved november https wwwinsidehigheredcom blogs library babel fish information literacy e third wave national commission excellence education ''a nation risk imperative educational reform'' washington dc us


'''decision theory''' '''theory choice''' confused choice theory study agent 's choices decision theory broken two branches normative decision theory analyzes outcomes decisions determines optimal decisions given constraints assumptions descriptive decision theory analyzes ''how'' agents actually make decisions decision theory closely related field game theory interdisciplinary topic studied economists mathematicians data scientists psychologists biologists political social scientists philosophers computer scientists empirical applications rich

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Decision Theory


showing eruption within body water beneath ice surficial lithology unconsolidated surficial materials may also given lithology defined grain size composition often attached interpretation unit formed surficial lithologies given lacustrine coastal fluvial aeolian glacial recent volcanic deposits among others examples surficial lithology classifications used us geological survey glacial till loamy saline lake sediment eolian sediment coarse textured sand dunes ref name usgs surficial ref see also facies references petrology

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Lithology


search quicker efficient web browser however z little date popular scientific websites google scholar ieee xplore arxiv support z protocol citation creators '''citation creators''' citation generators online tools facilitate creation works cited bibliographies citation creators use web forms take input format output according guidelines standards modern language association 's mla style manual american psychological association 's apa style chicago manual style turabian format citation creators generate

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Reference management software


accept many things mathematics reason blockquote since many results applicable science engineering day apollonius argued preface fifth book ''conics'' subject one seem worthy study sake ref name apollonius th century term enshrined full title sadleirian chair '''sadleirian professor pure mathematics''' founded professorship mid nineteenth century idea separate discipline ''pure'' mathematics may

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics


dull elementary parts mathematics practical use hardy considered physicists einstein dirac among real mathematicians time writing ''apology'' considered general relativity quantum mechanics useless allowed hold opinion dull mathematics useful moreover hardy briefly admitted application matrix theory group theory physics come unexpectedly time may come kinds beautiful real mathematics may useful well another insightful view offered magid


menbut every department thought certain stage development laws abstracted real world become divorced real world set something independent laws coming outside world conform ref name engels see also applied mathematics logic metalogic metamathematics references external links https uwaterlooca pure mathematics pure math pure math ''what pure mathematics'' department pure mathematics university waterloo http wwwlivacuk maths pure wipmhtml '' pure mathematics'' professor p j giblin university liverpool http fair useorg bertrand russell principles mathematics ''the principles mathematics'' bertrand russell http hkmathphygooglepagescom puremathhtm become


pure mathematician statistician list undergraduate basic graduate textbooks lecture notes several comments links solutions companion sites data sets errata pages etc fields mathematics abstraction


han dynasty dating back much earlier date later augmented ''yaoxing lun'' ''treatise nature medicinal herbs'' tang dynasty early recognised greek compilers existing current herbal knowledge include pythagoras followers hippocrates aristotle theophrastus dioscorides galen roman sources included pliny elder 's ''natural history'' celsus 's ''de medicina'' ref name kay ref pedanius dioscorides drew corrected earlier authors ''de materia medica'' adding much new material work translated several languages turkish arabic hebrew names added

Applied science
Medicine and health
Traditional medicine


century plant medicines forming basis modern pharmacology modern usage prevalence folk medicine certain areas world varies according cultural norms modern medicine based plant phytochemicals used folk medicine researchers state many alternative treatments statistically indistinguishable placebo treatments knowledge transmission creation indigenous medicine generally transmitted orally community family individuals collected within given culture elements indigenous medicine knowledge may diffusely known many may gathered applied


chinese medicine demand ivory huge factor poaching endangered species rhinos elephants see also ayurveda bioprospecting folk healer herbal medicine medicinal plants native american ethnobotany old wives' tale pharmacognosy traditional african medicine traditional chinese medicine references external links concepts alternative medicine


synthesize fire vegetation data respectively alternates found lakes peat settings provide moderate high resolution information well studied methods often utilized paleoecological field environmental complexity factor normally tackled statistical analysis available numerical data quantitative paleontology paleostatistics study post mortem processes known field taphonomy quaternary quaternary period well represented geographically extensive high temporal resolution records many hypotheses arising ecological studies modern environments tested

Natural science
Earth science
Paleontology
Paleoecology


stanford heuristic programming projects led edward feigenbaum one leaders defining developing first expert systems history earliest days expert systems little formal process creation software researchers sat domain experts started programming often developing required tools eg inference engines time applications expert systems moved academic prototypes deployed business systems realized methodology required bring predictability control

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Knowledge engineering


mechanical systems highly sensitive given initial position '''thermomechanics''' analyzing materials models derived principles thermodynamics '''biomechanics''' solid mechanics applied biological materials eg bones heart tissue '''geomechanics''' solid mechanics applied geological materials eg ice soil rock '''vibrations solids structures''' examining vibration wave propagation vibrating particles structures ie vital mechanical civil mining aeronautical maritime marine aerospace engineering '''fracture damage mechanics''' dealing crack growth mechanics solid materials '''composite materials''' solid mechanics applied materials made


often exhibit non linear behavior new materials used old ones pushed limits non linear material models becoming common basic models describe solid responds applied stress elasticity applied stress removed material returns undeformed state linearly elastic materials deform proportionally applied load described linear elasticity equations hooke 's law viscoelasticity materials behave elastically also damping stress applied removed work


integer value '' '' another example domain describes possible values field coinface heads tails field coinface accept input values like ht constraints constraints make possible restrict domain attribute instance constraint restrict given integer attribute values constraints provide one method implementing business rules database support subsequent data use within application layer sql implements constraint functionality form check constraints constraints restrict data stored

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Relational databases


used describe data entered sometimes good primary keys surrogate keys often used instead surrogate key artificial attribute assigned object uniquely identifies instance table information students school might assigned student id order differentiate surrogate key intrinsic inherent meaning rather useful ability uniquely identify tuple another common occurrence especially regard n cardinality composite key composite key key made


poet knight antarah ibn shaddad notable poets pre islamic period abu layla al muhalhel al shanfara ref name also poets ''mu'allaqat'' suspended ones group poems said display mecca ref name poets imru' al qais tarafah ibn al abd harith ibn hilliza amr ibn kulthum zuhayr ibn abi sulma al nabigha al dhubiy n antara ibn shaddad al 'sha al akbar lab ibn rab 'ah ref name al khansa stood poetry ''rith ''' elegy ref name prominent ''mad h'' panegyric well

Humanities
Languages and literature
Arabic Literature


much arabic culture referred arabic ''al nahda'' means renaissance resurgence new writing arabic confined mainly syria egypt lebanon th century spread countries region cultural renaissance felt within arab world also beyond growing interest translating arabic works european languages although use arabic language revived particularly poetry many tropes previous literature served make ornate


complicated dropped th century movement translate ancient greek literature helped vitalise arabic literature another translation movement period would offer new ideas material arabic literature early popular success ''the count monte cristo'' spurred host historical novels similar arabic subjects ab important translator time rifa'a al tahtawi founded school languages also knowns ''school translators'' cairo th century jabra ibrahim jabra palestinian iraqi intellectual living mostly bagdad translated


jamil sidqi al zahawi maruf al rusafi khalil mutran ref name prose rifa'a al tahtawi lived paris wrote experiences observations published butrus al bustani founded journal ''al jinan'' started writing first encyclopedia arabic ref name ahmad faris al shidyaq published number influential books editor chief tunis founder istanbul ref name adib ishaq spent career journalism theater working expansion press


tales prankster juha maqama ''maqama'' straddles divide prose poetry instead form rhymed prose also part way fiction non fiction series short narratives fictionalised versions real life situations different ideas contemplated good example ''maqama'' musk purports compare feature different perfumes fact work political satire comparing several competing rulers ''maqama'' also makes use doctrine ''badi'' deliberately adding complexity display writer 's dexterity


new works fresh material popular forms theater medieval islamic world puppet theatre included hand puppets shadow plays marionette productions live passion plays known ''ta'ziya'' actors enact episodes muslim history particular shia islamic plays revolved around ' 'shaheed'' martyrdom ali 's sons hasan ibn ali husayn ibn ali live secular plays known ''akhraja'' recorded medieval ''adab'' literature though less common puppetry ''ta'ziya'' theater ref name moreh moreh ref moors noticeable influence works george peele


features relatively little arabic language education systems meaning prominence importance probably generally underrated medieval period estimation tahera qutbuddin citation women 's poetry general medieval anthologies sparse earliest anthologists either ignored women poets made disparaging remarks introduction ''nuzhat al julasa'' al suyuti refers large least six volume anthology lost 'ancient' women 's poetry would seem women poets may formed dynamic part poetic landscape least earliest classical


encyclopedia'' ed josef w meri vols new york routledge ii ref women also important role pre modern periods patrons arts writings medieval moorish spain attest several important female writers pre eminently wallada bint al mustakfi umawi princess al andulus wrote sufi poetry lover fellow poet ibn zaydun granadan poet hafsa bint al hajj al rukuniyya nazhun al garnatiya bint al qulai iya women writers suggest hidden world literature women despite lack prominence among


access education female muslim counterparts ottoman empire time maryana marrash started believed first salon including women aleppo may ziadeh also started literary salon cairo mary 'ajami damascus salons supported emergence women 's writing literary journalistic women 's presses increased interaction male dominated world arab literature late th century early st century quote clarissa burt modern arab poetry


relationship two daughters many written illness died cancer moreover arab post war poetesses include zubayda bash r tunis ghada al samman syria known poetry also short stories novels su'ad al sabah kuwait hamda khamis bahrain regarded bahrain 's first female free verse poet recent arabic literature seen even greater number female writers' works published suhayr al qalamawi ulfat idlibi layla ba'albakki zuhrabi mattummal hoda barakat alifa rifaat novelists prose writers


nonfiction based studies oppression torture authoritarian language government egypt contemporary arab women 's literature strongly influenced diaspora arabic speakers produced writing arabic also languages prominently english french dutch german internet also important furthering reach literature produced arabic arab regions blockquote among younger generation poets internet become platform mounting collections sharing poetry poets websites others included


fairouz rahbani nation'' routledge toomer g j ''eastern wisedome learning study arabic seventeenth century england'' oxford university press van gelder g j h ''beyond line classical arabic literary critics coherence unity poem'' brill von grunebaum g e avicenna 's ris la f 'l 'i q courtly love ''journal near eastern studies'' wainwright martin march https wwwtheguardiancom books mar featuresreviewsguardianreview desert island scripts ''the guardian'' young j l latham j serjeant r b ed ''religion learning science abbasid period'' cambridge university press


known west influenced literature many countries classical persian literature pre islamic persian literature literary works achaemenid iran survived partly due destruction library persepolis remains consists royal inscriptions achaemenid kings particularly darius bc son xerxes many zoroastrian writings destroyed islamic conquest iran th century parsis fled india however took books zoroastrian canon including avesta

Humanities
Languages and literature
Persian Literature


sufi themes styles kind devotional poetry widely imitated many sufi non sufi poets see also article sufi poetry many notable texts persian mystic literature poems yet highly read regarded among ''kimiya yi sa' dat'' ''asrar al tawhid'' ''kashf ul mahjoob'' georgian literature georgian manuscript ''shahnameh'' written georgian script beginning early th century persian traditions large impact georgian ruling elites turn resulted persian influence georgian art architecture literature ref name willem


essays development persian literature excerpts ferdowsi 's ''shahnameh'' also translated swedish prose namdar nasser anja malmberg italian literature last century numerous works classical modern persian literature translated italian alessandro bausani nizami rumi iqbal khayyam carlo saccone 'attar sana'i hafiz nasir khusraw nizami ahmad ghazali ansari herat sa 'di ayen angelo piemontese amir khusraw dihlavi pio filippani ronconi nasir khusraw sa 'di riccardo zipoli kay ka'us bidil maurizio pistoso nizam al mulk giorgio vercellin nizami 'aruzi giovanni maria d'erme 'ubayd zakani hafiz sergio foti suhrawardi rumi


process consisting actions reactions mutual adaptation two individuals goal communicating others also includes animal interaction mating interaction includes language including body language mannerisms interaction danger ending one intends conserved conforming others' expectations ignoring certain incidents solving apparent problems erving goffman underlined importance control interaction one must attempt control others' behaviour interaction order attain information one seeking


relevant important sub fields include environmental health community health behavioral health health economics public policy mental health health education health politics occupational safety disability dental public health gender issues health sexual reproductive health ref name ref public health together primary care secondary care tertiary care part country 's overall health care system public health implemented surveillance cases health indicators promotion healthy behaviors common public health initiatives include promotion hand washing breastfeeding delivery vaccinations suicide prevention smoking cessation obesity education increasing healthcare accessibility distribution

Applied science
Medicine and health
Public health


world different public health concerns given time common public health initiatives include promotion hand washing breastfeeding delivery vaccinations suicide prevention smoking cessation obesity education increasing healthcare accessibility distribution condoms control spread sexually transmitted diseases methods newspaper headlines around world polio vaccine tests april public health aims achieved surveillance cases promotion healthy behaviors communities environments analyzing determinants health population threats faces basis public health ref name


implementation specific population level interventions public health contributes medical care identifying assessing population needs health care services including assessing current services evaluating whether meeting objectives health care system ascertaining requirements expressed health professionals public stakeholders identifying appropriate interventions considering effect resources proposed interventions assessing cost effectiveness supporting decision making health care planning health services including necessary changes informing educating empowering people health issues conflicting aims programs policies associated


public health promotion prevention controversial one example programs focusing prevention hiv transmission safe sex campaigns needle exchange programs another control tobacco smoking changing smoking behavior requires long term strategies unlike fight communicable diseases usually takes shorter period effects observed many nations implemented major initiatives cut smoking increased taxation bans smoking public places supporters argue presenting evidence smoking one major killers therefore governments duty


reduce death rate limiting passive second hand smoking providing fewer opportunities people smoke opponents say undermines individual freedom personal responsibility worry state may encouraged remove choice name better population health overall psychological research confirms tension concerns public health concerns personal liberty best predictor complying public health recommendations hand washing mask wearing staying home except essential activity covid pandemic people 's perceived duties prevent harm


ii best predictor flouting public health recommendations valuing liberty equality simultaneously communicable diseases historically ranged uppermost global health priority non communicable diseases underlying behavior related risk factors bottom changing however illustrated united nations hosting first general assembly special summit issue non communicable diseases september global perspectives village health worker zimbabwe conducting pediatric examination disparities service access community health worker korail basti slum


sub saharan africa surfaced ref name ref ref name ref total health aid developed countries increased billion billion wealthy countries continuously donating billions dollars every year goal improving population health ref name efforts however receive significantly larger proportion funds hiv received increase funds billion twice increase seen sector years ref name health aid seen expansion multiple channels including private philanthropy non governmental organizations


western europe byzantium religious processions commonly took place purported act preventive curative measures entire community urban residents groups also developed preventive measures response calamities war famine floods widespread disease black death instance inhabitants eastern mediterranean western europe reacted massive population decline part basis existing medical theories protocols instance concerning meat consumption burial part developing new ones latter included establishment quarantine facilities


dangers overpopulation ideas well jeremy bentham became influential government circles early years th century ref name britannica latter part century brought establishment basic pattern improvements public health next two centuries social evil identified private philanthropists brought attention changing public opinion led government action ref name britannica ref th century saw rapid growth voluntary hospitals england practice vaccination began following pioneering work edward jenner


''the sanitary condition labouring population'' published followed supplementary report year later time james newlands appointed following passing liverpool sanatory act championed borough liverpool health towns committee designed world 's first integrated sewerage system liverpool joseph bazalgette later creating london 's sewerage system vaccination act introduced compulsory smallpox vaccination england wales legislation required comprehensive system registration run appointed vaccination officers interventions made series


communicating visually dark ocean environments '''bioluminescent communication ''' communication production light occurs commonly vertebrates invertebrates oceans particularly depths eg angler fish two well known forms land bioluminescence occur fireflies glow worms insects insect larvae annelids arachnids even species fungi possess bioluminescent abilities bioluminescent animals produce light whereas others symbiotic nowiki relationship bioluminescent bacteria animals exhibit bioluminescent light lure prey attract mate protect potential predators see also list bioluminescent organisms auditory bird calls

Journalism, media studies and communication


bony fish families resulting wide variety sounds striking body parts together also produce auditory signals well known example tail tip vibration rattlesnakes warning signal examples include bill clacking birds wing clapping manakin courtship displays chest beating gorillas ref name alert motionless groundhog whistles alarmed warn groundhogs burrowing animals species known whistle communicate threats sometimes mood species marmot species including groundhog woodchuck alpine marmot show trait whistling used animals


predators close enough seen respond adaptive behaviour hiding likely survive reproduce atlantic salmon go step detecting predator 's cue individual damaged predator releases chemical cue conspecifics ref name ref also observed species acidification changes ph physically disrupt chemical cues various implications animal behaviour ref name scent marking scent rubbing common forms olfactory communication mammals electric electrocommunication rare form


boas pythons three comparatively smaller pits lining upper sometimes lower lip scales pitvipers advanced suspended sensory membrane opposed simple pit structure within family viperidae pit organ seen subfamily crotalinae pitvipers despite detection ir radiation pits' ir mechanism dissimilar photoreceptors photoreceptors detect light via photochemical reactions protein facial pits snakes temperature sensitive ion channel senses infrared signals


living group sociobiologists argued behaviours benefited whole group animals might emerge result selection pressures acting solely individual gene centered view evolution proposes behaviours enabled gene become wider established within population would become positively selected even effect individuals species whole detrimental apparently excessive eye spot signalling male peacock tail may runaway selection case communication important discussion john krebs richard dawkins established hypotheses evolution


brighter eventually evolution level survival costs male allow trait elaborated two theories exist explain runaway selection first good genes hypothesis theory states elaborate display honest signal fitness truly better mate second handicap hypothesis explains peacock 's tail handicap requiring energy keep makes visible predators thus signal costly maintain remains honest indicator signaler 's condition


attitudes information management recognition information management investment must deliver meaningful results important modern organisations depend information good decision making success ref name bytheway bytheway https wwwspringercom gp book investing information information management body knowledge geneva springer ref theoretical background behavioural organisational theories commonly believed good information management crucial smooth working organisations although commonly accepted theory information management ''per se'' behavioural organisational theories help following behavioural science theory management mainly developed carnegie

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Information management


seeking necessary brutally honest ''can'' achieved also ensure active management assessment benefit delivery since emergence popularisation balanced scorecard ref name kaplan norton kaplan r norton ''the balanced scorecard translating stragegy action'' boston harvard university press ref huge interest business performance management much serious effort made relate business performance management benefits information technology investments introduction new information systems turn millennium ref name ward


people appreciate change makes new demands upon skills ways new information systems often contrary common expectations evidence public sector succeeded information technology induced business change ref name scholl scholl hj e government induced business process change bpc empirical study current practices ''international journal electronic government research'' ijegr pp ref '''business operations''' new systems place business processes business information improved staff finally ready able work new processes business get work even


lack support senior management leading loss strategic vision even political manoeuvring undermines operation whole organisation ref name knights murray knights murray f ''managers divided'' chichester john wiley ref however implementation new forms information management normally lead operational benefits early work galbraith early work taking information processing view organisation design jay galbraith identified five tactical areas increase information processing capacity reduce need information processing ref name galbraith galbraith jr ''organization design'' addison wesley ref developing implementing monitoring


aspects environment organization creation slack resources decrease load overall hierarchy resources reduce information processing relating overload creation self contained tasks defined boundaries achieve proper closure resources hand required perform task recognition lateral relations cut across functional units move decision power process instead fragmenting within hierarchy investment vertical information systems route information flows specific task set tasks accordance


concerned school learning childhood behavioral problems largely contrasts mental health focus clinical psychologists another significant event foundation school psychology today thayer conference thayer conference first held august west point new york hotel thayer day long conference conducted american psychological association apa ref name ysseldyke schakel ref purpose conference develop position roles functions necessary training credentialing school psychologist conference forty eight participants represented

Social science
Psychology
School psychology


practitioners trainers school psychologists discussed roles functions school psychologist appropriate way train ref name ysseldyke schakel time thayer conference school psychology still young profession school psychology practitioners ref name ref one goals thayer conference define school psychologists agreed upon definition stated school psychologists psychologists specialize education specific knowledge assessment learning children school psychologists use knowledge assist school personnel


become complex impossible within use technology incorporate topics school utilize lesson plans students staff teachers need ensure content connected meaningful topics covered class school racial disproportionality special education disproportionality refers group 's overrepresentation comparison groups within certain context field school psychology disproportionality minority students special education concern ref name ref special education disproportionality defined relationship one 's membership specific group


name merrell efforts include establishing opportunities individuals representative minority groups become school psychologists implementing diverse array cld training programs within field education order become school psychologist one must first learn school psychology successfully completing graduate level training program ba bs sufficient united states school psychology training programs housed university schools education departments psychology school psychology programs require courses practica internships degree requirements specific degree requirements vary across training programs school psychology training programs


ncsp credential example non practice credential holding ncsp make one eligible provide services without first meeting state requirements work school psychologist state psychology boards may go different names state also offer credentials school psychologists states ref name example texas offers lssp credential permits licensees deliver school psychological services within public private schools subspecializations pediatric school psychology systems level consultation school based mental health behavioral school psychology professional organizations school psychology


school psychologists ndasp ohio school psychologists association ospa oklahoma school psychological association ospa oregon school psychologists association ospa association school psychologists pennsylvania aspp asociaci n de psicolog escolar de puerto rico apep association school psychology puerto rico rhode island school psychologists association rispa south carolina association school psychologists scasp south dakota association school psychologists sdasp tennessee association school psychologists tasp texas association school psychologists tasp utah association school psychologists uasp vermont association school psychologists vasp virginia academy school psychologists vasp washington state association school psychologists wsasp west virginia school


large scale used grow rice wheat canna lily crops installations exceeding diagram university virgin islands commercial aquaponics system designed yield metric tons tilapia per year ref name uvi development modern aquaponics often attributed various works new alchemy institute works dr mark mcmurtry et al north carolina state university devised integrated aqua vegeculture system iavs based combination aquaculture sand based grow beds ref name mcmurtry ref inspired successes new


aquaponics plants tomatoes cucumbers peppers higher nutrient requirements well mature aquaponic systems high stocking densities fish ref name plants common salads greatest success aquaponics including cucumbers shallots tomatoes lettuce capsicum red salad onions snow peas ref name ref profitable plants aquaponic systems include chinese cabbage lettuce basil roses tomatoes okra cantaloupe bell peppers ref name ncat species vegetables grow well aquaponic system include watercress basil coriander parsley lemongrass sage beans peas kohlrabi taro


tank hits maximum capacity systems usually tanks share filtration system largest tank harvested fish groups moved bigger tank whilst smallest tank restocked fingerlings ref name srac also common several rearing tanks yet ways move fish eliminates labor moving fish allows tank undisturbed harvesting even space usage inefficient fish fingerlings ref name srac ideally bio mass fish


officers vertifarms new orleans targets corporate rooftops vertical farming accruing corporate clients rooftop vertical farming windy drumlins farm wisconsin redesigns aquaponic solar greenhouse extreme weather conditions endure extremely cold climate ref name friendly aquaponics ref volunteer operation nicaragua amigos christ manages plantation feeding poverty stricken school children using nutrients aquaponics method ref name friendly aquaponics verticulture bedstuy utilizes old pfizer manufacturing plant producing basil commercial scale aquaponics yielding pounds basil week upward farms new york expands full scale commercial facility


measures cluster module membership identifying intramodular hubs studying cluster preservation data sets pathway based methods omics data analysis eg approaches identify score pathways differential activity gene protein metabolite members ref name pathvar ref much analysis genomic data sets also include identifying correlations additionally much information comes different fields development syntactically semantically sound ways representing biological models needed creating biological models issn ref researchers begin choosing biological pathway diagramming protein interactions determining


expert judge determines whether expert witness accepted ref name research forensic psychologist researchers make scientific discoveries relevant psychology law ref name professionals usually advanced degree psychology likely phd main focus research unusual take positions forensic psychologists professionals may employed various settings include colleges universities research institutes government private agencies mental health agencies ref name handout ref forensic psychology research pertains

Social science
Psychology
Forensic psychology


forensic therapeutic evaluation forensic psychologist 's interactions ethical responsibilities client differ widely psychologist dealing client clinical setting ref name melton '''scope''' rather broad set issues psychologist addresses clinical setting forensic psychologist addresses narrowly defined set events interactions nonclinical nature ref name ref '''importance client 's perspective''' clinician places primary importance understanding client 's unique point view forensic psychologist interested accuracy client 's viewpoint secondary '''voluntariness''' usually clinical


indicate presented physical illness c psychiatric illness contents suicide note may indicate presence psychiatric disorder example schizophrenia situational factor whether individual threatened suicide note dictated ex good content illiterate individual repeated cutting suicide pact suicide note signed one individual simple contents different notes suicide intent another person abetment suicide school college records information change academic performance recent absences tardiness medical records family history visits physician illness medication taken


psychological autopsy collecting information people maintaining direct indirect interactions personality decedent accurately described assessed becomes significant inputs evaluate thought process traits decedent prior death evaluation involves understanding intention motive suicide autopsy negates suicide shall definitely step stone investigators proceed investigation death excluding theory suicide incident psychological autopsy provide


petrila j poythress n g otto r k mossman condie l ''psychological evaluations courts handbook mental health professionals lawyers'' th ed new york ny guilford ogloff j r p finkelman psychology law overview r roesch hart j r p ogloff eds psychology law state discipline new york springer o'mahony b want forensic psychologist create space ribner ng ''california school professional psychology handbook juvenile forensic psychology'' jossey bass roesch r


wishes understand rarely enough time money gather information everyone everything population goal becomes finding representative sample subset population sometimes defines population obvious example manufacturer needs decide whether batch material production high enough quality released customer sentenced scrap rework due poor quality case batch population although population interest often consists physical objects sometimes necessary

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Sampling Theory


population totals weighting sampled units according probability selection blockquote ''example want estimate total income adults living given street visit household street identify adults living randomly select one adult household example allocate person random number generated uniform distribution select person highest number household interview selected person find income'' ''people living certain selected


sample population blockquote ''example visit every household given street interview first person answer door household one occupant nonprobability sample people likely answer door eg unemployed person spends time home likely answer employed housemate might work interviewer calls 's practical calculate probabilities'' blockquote nonprobability sampling methods include convenience sampling quota sampling purposive sampling addition nonresponse


two neighbouring houses sample give us information variation described systematic sampling eps method elements probability selection example given one ten ''not'' 'simple random sampling' different subsets size different selection probabilities eg set one ten probability selection set zero probability selection systematic sampling also adapted non eps approach example see discussion pps samples stratified sampling visual representation


sample one meets chosen finding technological means internet phone researcher using sample cannot scientifically make generalizations total population sample would representative enough example interviewer conduct survey shopping center early morning given day people could interview would limited given given time would represent views members society


means studying political campaigns longitudinal sampling method allows estimates changes population example regard chronic illness job stress weekly food expenditures panel sampling also used inform researchers within person health changes due age help explain changes continuous dependent variables spousal interaction ref name sm groves et alia ''survey methodology'' ref several proposed methods analyzing panel data including manova growth curves structural equation modeling lagged effects snowball sampling snowball sampling involves finding small group


participation survey failing complete one components questions survey survey sampling many individuals identified part sample may unwilling participate time participate opportunity cost survey administrators may able contact case risk differences respondents nonrespondents leading biased estimates population parameters often addressed improving survey design offering incentives conducting follow studies make repeated attempt contact unresponsive characterize similarities


''analysis survey data'' wiley deming w edwards probability basis action ''the american statistician'' pp gy p ''sampling heterogeneous dynamic material systems theories heterogeneity sampling homogenizing'' elsevier science korn el graubard bi ''analysis health surveys'' wiley lucas samuel r beyond existence proof ontological conditions epistemological implications depth interview research ''quality quantity'' stuart alan ''basic ideas scientific sampling'' hafner publishing company new york portrait f smith page standards iso iso


ship shore ref name techniques boatwork includes knowledge operation different types boat launching procedures recovery boats normal heavy weather conditions ach boat possible use oars sails well basic sail theory sail terminology markings sails ref name techniques one aspect traditional good seamanship housekeeping vessel ref name stcenturyj ref involves correct stowage stores supplies crew personal effects etc ref name stcenturyj also involves keeping decks engine room accommodation clean free debris spills ref name stcenturyj reduces chances fire

Applied science
Transportation
Marine transportation
Seafaring


may ''initial tango initial tango tango ideogam writing system'' felipe hsieh july ''tangobook dance notation classic tango'' external links http wwwdancewritingorg sutton dancewriting zh yue notation

Humanities
Performing arts
Dance
Dance notation


pollution vicinity mines mining activities nature cause disturbance natural environment around minerals located mining engineers must therefore concerned production processing mineral commodities also mitigation damage environment mining result change mining area industries go stringent laws control pollution damage caused environment periodically governed concerned departments history mining engineering prehistoric times

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Mining engineering


spain technical university madrid offers degrees mining engineering tracks mining technology mining operations fuels explosives metallurgy ref name madrid ref united kingdom camborne school mines offers wide choice beng meng degrees mining engineering mining related disciplines done university exeter south africa leading institutions include http wwwupacza mining engineering university pretoria offering year bachelor engineering beng mining engineering well post graduate studies various specialty fields rock engineering numerical modelling explosives engineering ventilation engineering underground mining


established mine may work engineer operations improvement mineral exploration operation capitalization determining mine add equipment personnel engineer may also work supervision management equipment mineral salesperson addition engineering operations nowiki mining engineer nowiki may work environmental health safety manager design engineer act mining required different methods extraction depending mineralogy geology location resources characteristics mineral hardness mineral stratification access mineral determine


encompass much broader deeper intellectual agenda one foreseen government agencies thus american centric arguably one greatest threats area studies project rise rational choice theory political science economics mock one outspoken rational choice theory critics japan scholar chalmers johnson asked need know japanese anything japan 's history culture methods rational choice explain japanese politicians bureaucrats things following demise soviet union philanthropic foundations


oral communication aspects directly related field business implementation modern business communication curriculums enhancing study business communication whole preparing able effectively communicate business community ref name professional associations american journalism historians association ajha association business communication abc association education journalism mass communication aejmc association teachers technical writing attw black college communication association bcca broadcast education association bea central states communication association csca council communication associations cca european association teaching academic writing


clinical theory practice uk republic ireland clinical psychology doctorate falls latter two models whilst much mainland europe training masters level predominantly psychotherapeutic clinical psychologists expert providing psychotherapy generally train within four primary theoretical orientations psychodynamic humanistic cognitive behavioral therapy cbt systems family therapy clinical psychology distinguished psychiatry although practitioners fields mental health professionals clinical psychologists treat mental disorders primarily psychotherapy doctorate psychology doctor psychology

Social science
Psychology
Clinical psychology


degree currently five states louisiana new mexico illinois iowa idaho allow clinical psychologists advanced specialty training prescribe psychotropic medications psychiatrists medical doctors treat mental disorders primarily medication medical degree history pseudo scientific ideas phrenology earliest recorded approaches assess treat mental distress combination religious magical medical perspectives ref name benjamin ref early th century one approach study mental conditions behavior using phrenology study personality examining shape skull popular treatments time included study


american psychological association founded g stanley hall developed section clinical psychology offered certification ref name evans growth field slow next years various unconnected psychological organizations came together american association applied psychology would act primary forum psychologists world war ii apa reorganized ref name apa ref apa created called division division clinical psychology remains leading organization field psychological societies associations


wide range activities focus solely research assessment treatment cause mental illness related conditions teach whether medical school hospital setting academic department eg psychology department institution higher education majority clinical psychologists engage form clinical practice professional services including psychological assessment provision psychotherapy development administration clinical programs forensics eg providing expert testimony legal proceeding ref name compass clinical practice clinical psychologists may work individuals couples families groups variety


name grovemeehl defining characteristic data combined given mechanical approach make prediction reliable make exactly prediction exactly data every time clinical prediction hand guarantee depends decision making processes clinician making judgment current state mind knowledge base ref name meehl ref ref name grovemeehl ref come called clinical versus statistical prediction debate first described detail paul meehl ref name meehl