person image presented current trends behaviorism freudian psychology ref name ryback according aanstoos serlin greening ref name aanstoos et al history participants took issue positivistic trend mainstream psychology time conference described historic event important academic status humanistic psychology ref name taylor future aspirations ref name elkins major theorists ref name several key theorists considered prepared ground humanistic psychology theorists otto rank abraham maslow carl rogers rollo may


totalitarian impulse rooted people 's fear uncertainties responsibilities freedom way overcome fear dare live life fully compassionately r laing analyzed political nature normal everyday experience rollo may said people lost values modern world health humanity depends courage forge new values appropriate challenges present wilhelm reich argued psychological problems often caused sexual repression latter influenced social

Social science
Psychology
Humanistic psychology


name payne ref name stefaroi stefaroi p humanistic paradigm social work brief introduction humanistic social work ''social work review'' pp ref social work psychotherapy social work important beneficiary humanistic psychology 's theory methodology ref name ellenhorn ellenhorn r toward humanistic social work social work conviviality ''humanity society'' vol issue p ref theories produced deep reform modern social work practice theory ref name payne payne ''modern social work theory'' rd ed chicago lyceum books ref leading among others occurrence particular


theory methodology humanistic social work values principles humanistic social work practice described malcolm payne book ''humanistic social work core principles practice'' directly originate humanistic psychological theory humanistic psychotherapy practice namely creativity human life practice developing self spirituality developing security resilience accountability flexibility complexity human life practice ref name payne payne ''humanistic social work core principles practice chicago lyceum basingstoke palgrave macmillan'' ref also representation approach client ''human'' social issue ''human'' issue social work


comparative religion'' bloomington world wisdom bugental j f ed challenges humanistic psychology new york ny mcgraw hill bugental jft third force psychology journal humanistic psychology buhler c allen introduction humanistic psychology monterey ca brooks cole pub co chiang h maslow h healthy personality second ed new york ny van nostrand co decarvalho r j founders humanistic psychology new york ny praeger publishers frick w b humanistic psychology conversations abraham maslow gardner murphy carl rogers


academic disciplines well practical applications countering money laundering terrorism metrics hue red blue max indicates node 's betweenness centralitysize number network members given network connections homophily extent actors form ties similar versus dissimilar others similarity defined gender race age occupation educational achievement status values salient characteristic homophily also referred assortativity multiplexity number content forms contained tie ref name podo example two people friends also work together would multiplexity

Social science
Sociology
Community informatics
Social network analysis


members removed group would disconnect group ref name asanet modelling visualization networks different characteristics social networks b c show varying centrality density networks panel shows network closure ie two actors tied common third actor tend also form direct tie panel e represents two actors different attributes eg organizational affiliation beliefs gender education tend form ties panel f consists two types ties friendship solid line dislike dashed line case two actors friends dislike


product signs positive according balance theory balanced graphs represent group people unlikely change opinions people group unbalanced graphs represent group people likely change opinions people group example group people b c b positive relationship b c positive relationship c negative relationship unbalanced cycle group likely morph


snp coefficients two primary functions classification individuals based social networking potential weighting respondents quantitative marketing research studies calculating snp respondents targeting high snp respondents strength relevance quantitative marketing research used drive viral marketing strategies enhanced variables used calculate individual 's snp include limited participation social networking activities group memberships leadership roles recognition publication editing contributing non electronic media publication editing contributing electronic media websites blogs frequency past distribution information within network acronym snp


possible connections ref name '''centrality''' focuses behavior individual participants within network measures extent individual interacts individuals network individual connects others network greater centrality network ref name ref name degree degree variables related centrality '''in degree''' centrality concentrates specific individual point focus centrality individuals based relation focal point degree individual ref name '''out degree'''


program development administration ref name brain brain christine ''advanced psychology applications issues perspectives'' cheltenham nelson thornes ref clinical psychologists may focus clinical management patients brain injury area known clinical neuropsychology many countries clinical psychology regulated mental health profession work performed clinical psychologists tends done inside various therapy models involve formal relationship professional client usually individual couple family small group employs set procedures intended form therapeutic alliance explore nature psychological problems encourage

Social science
Psychology
Applied psychology


new ways thinking feeling behaving four major perspectives psychodynamic cognitive behavioral existential humanistic systems family therapy growing movement integrate various therapeutic approaches especially increased understanding issues regarding ethnicity gender spirituality sexual orientation advent robust research findings regarding psychotherapy growing evidence major therapies equal effectiveness key common element strong therapeutic alliance training programs psychologists adopting eclectic therapeutic orientation clinical psychologists


usually prescribe medication although growing number psychologists prescribing privileges field medical psychology general however medication warranted many psychologists work cooperation psychiatrists clients get therapeutic needs met ref name brain clinical psychologists may also work part team professionals social workers nutritionists counseling psychology counseling psychology applied specialization within psychology involves research practice number different areas domains according gelso fretz central unifying themes


application psychological methods principles legal questions issues typically forensic psychology involves clinical analysis particular individual assessment specific psycho legal question psycho legal question criminal nature fact forensic psychologist rarely gets involved actual criminal investigations custody cases great example non criminal evaluations forensic psychologists validity upholding eyewitness testimony area forensic psychology veer closer criminal investigations though directly involve psychologist investigation process psychologists


natural limitations human body simple things like size buttons design office chairs layout airplane cockpits human factor psychologists specializing ergonomics attempt de stress everyday lives sometimes even save human factor psychologists specializing engineering psychology tend take slightly different projects ergonomic centered counterparts psychologists look human process interact often engineering psychology may centered computers however base level process simply series inputs outputs human machine


education disseminating information organizing social movements passing laws altering taxes influence decisions psychology applied world scale aim population control example one strategy towards television programming combines social models soap opera informational messages advertising time strategy successfully increased women 's enrollment family planning clinics mexico ref name zimbardo programming deployed around world population communications international population media center combines family planning messages representations female education literacy sport psychology sport psychology specialization within psychology seeks


trains players mentally prepare whereas coaches tend focus mostly physical training sport psychology deals increasing performance managing emotions minimizing psychological effects injury poor performance important skills taught goal setting relaxation visualization self talk awareness control concentration using rituals attribution training periodization principles theories may applied human movement performance tasks eg playing musical instrument acting play public speaking motor skills usually experts recommend students trained kinesiology ie sport exercise sciences physical


teaching practical mathematics arithmetic elementary algebra plane solid geometry trigonometry students equip follow trade craft teaching abstract mathematical concepts set function early age teaching selected areas mathematics euclidean geometry example axiomatic system model deductive reasoning teaching selected areas mathematics calculus example intellectual achievements modern world teaching advanced mathematics students wish follow career

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Mathematics education


taught earlier age typical special honors class elementary mathematics countries taught similarly though differences countries tend cover fewer topics greater depth united states primary school years children learn whole numbers arithmetic including addition subtraction multiplication division comparisons measurement taught numeric pictorial form well fractions proportionality patterns various topics related geometry high school level us algebra geometry analysis pre calculus calculus


conducted recent decades explore theories applied teaching following results examples current findings field mathematics education important results ref name hiebertgrouws one strongest results recent research important feature effective teaching giving students opportunity learn teachers set expectations time kinds tasks questions acceptable answers type discussions influence students' opportunity learn must involve skill efficiency conceptual understanding conceptual understanding ref name hiebertgrouws two important features teaching


cheapest way boost student achievement student engagement teacher professional satisfaction results surpass reducing class size increasing teachers' content knowledge effective assessment based clarifying students know creating appropriate activities obtain evidence needed giving good feedback encouraging students take control learning letting students resources one another homework ref name researchclips ref homework leads students practice past lessons prepare future lessons effective going today 's lesson students benefit feedback students learning disabilities low motivation may profit rewards


walter cecil crawley british entomologist william steel creighton american entomologist horace donisthorpe british myrmecologist named several new species carlo emery italian entomologist johan christian fabricius danish entomologist student linnaeus auguste henri forel swiss myrmecologist studied brain structure humans ants mil august goeldi swiss brazilian naturalist zoologist william gould described horace donisthorpe father british myrmecology robert edmond gregg american entomologist thomas caverhill jerdon british physician zoologist botanist walter wolfgang kempf brazilian myrmecologist heinrich kutter swiss myrmecologist nicolas kusnezov also nikolaj nikolajevich kuznetsov ugamsky

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Myrmecology


trager american myrmecologist gary j umphrey american biostatistician myrmecologist philip ward american entomologist daniel kronauer american myrmecologist alejandro g farji brener argentinean myrmecologist susanne foitzik german myrmecologist related terms myrmecochorous adj dispersed ants myrmecophagous adj feeding ants myrmecophile n organism habitually shares ant nest ''myrmecophilous '' adj ''myrmecophily '' n myrmidons n ant men metamorphoses homer 's iliad achilles' warriors see also ant keeping bees wasps ants recording society formicarium also known ant farm stigmergy biological mechanism attributed coordination ants social insects ''myrmecological news''


resurfaced result seafloor spreading new crust lithosphere created flow magma mantle near surface fissures cools solidifies subduction oceanic crust lithosphere returns convecting mantle ref name adams tectonics ref name oldroyd tectonics areas crust new crust created called ' 'divergent boundaries'' brought back earth ''convergent boundaries'' plates slide past new lithospheric material created destroyed referred transform conservative


necessary also possible almost always held valid interpretation modal operators necessity possibility called alethic modal logic modal logics modes obligatorily permissibly deontic modal logic formulae means p obligatory permissible also almost always held valid first modal axiomatic systems developed c lewis building informal tradition stretching back aristotle relational semantics modal

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Mathematical logic
Modal logic


relation reflexive math mathfrak w models p rightarrow diamond p math math w g math regardless valuation function used reason modal logicians sometimes talk ''frames'' portion relational model excluding valuation function ' 'relational frame'' pair math mathfrak langle g r rangle math math g math set possible worlds math r math binary relation math g math different systems modal logic defined using ''frame conditions'' frame called '' 'reflexive'''


''k'' conditions ''d'' serial ''t'' reflexive ''b'' reflexive symmetric ''s '' reflexive transitive ''s '' reflexive euclidean euclidean property along reflexivity yields symmetry transitivity euclidean property obtained well symmetry transitivity hence accessibility relation ''r'' reflexive euclidean ''r'' provably symmetric transitive well hence models ''r'' equivalence relation ''r'' reflexive symmetric transitive prove frames produce set valid sentences frames


math box p math ''p'' case every time ''t'' trade operators deal future past example math diamond p math '''f'''''p'' math box p math '''g'''''p'' math diamond p math ''p'' '''f'''''p'' math box p math ''p'' '''g'''''p'' operators '''f''' '''g''' may seem initially foreign create normal modal systems note '''f'''''p'' '''g''' ''p'' combine operators form complex statements example '''p'''''p'' '''p'''''p'' says effectively ''everything


computation possible computer state p true ''p'' means future times computation p true another version ''p'' means immediate next state computation ''p'' might true ''p'' means immediate next state computation p true differ choice accessibility relation p always means p true current computer state two examples involve nondeterministic fully understood computations many modal logics specialized different types program analysis


emerged monotony lost autonomy factory work ref name peloquin ref arts crafts used way promoting learning provided creative outlet served way avoid boredom long hospital stays eleanor clarke slagle considered mother occupational therapy slagle one founding members national society promotion occupational therapy nspot proposed habit training primary occupational therapy model treatment based philosophy engagement meaningful routines shape person 's wellbeing habit training

Applied science
Medicine and health
Occupational therapy


treatment existed beginning ref name ref occupational therapy wwi bedridden wounded knitting emergence occupational therapy challenged views mainstream scientific medicine instead focusing purely medical model occupational therapists argued complex combination social economic biological reasons cause dysfunction principles techniques borrowed many disciplines including limited physical therapy nursing psychiatry rehabilitation self help orthopedics social work enrich profession 's scope founders defined realm practice developed supporting theories early aota established educational


stemming sources disability examples new emerging practice areas would include therapists working refugees ref name occupation occupation occupational therapists matthew molineux blackwell publishing ref children experiencing obesity people experiencing homelessness practice frameworks occupational therapist works systematically client sequence actions called occupational therapy process several versions process described numerous scholars practice frameworks include components evaluation assessment intervention outcomes process provides framework occupational therapists assist contribute promoting health ensures structure


cleanup medication management religious spiritual activities expression safety emergency maintenance shopping rest sleep ref name doiorg otpf defines rest sleep activities related obtaining restorative rest sleep support healthy active engagement occupations ref name doiorg examples rest sleep include rest sleep preparation sleep participation education ref name doiorg otpf defines education activities needed support one 's learning participation accessibility within educational environment examples education include formal education participation informal personal education needs interests exploration beyond formal education informal personal education participation work ref


planning treatment occupational therapists work collaboration parents caregivers teachers children teens order develop functional goals within variety occupations meaningful young client early intervention extremely important aspect daily functioning child ages birth years old area practice sets tone standard therapy school setting ot 's practice early intervention develop family 's ability care child special needs promote function participation natural


children better process integrate sensory input child 's body environment thus improving emotional regulation ability learn behavior functional participation meaningful daily activities recognition occupational therapy programs services children youth increasing worldwide occupational therapy children adults recognized united nations human right linked social determinants health occupational therapists working worldwide many work children academic institutions providing occupational therapy instruction


person experiencing mental health need ability actively participate occupations may hindered example person depression anxiety may experience interruptions sleep difficulty completing self care tasks decreased motivation participate leisure activities decreased concentration school job related work avoidance social interactions occupational therapy practitioners possess educational knowledge base mental health contribute efforts mental health promotion prevention intervention occupational therapy practitioners provide services focus social emotional well prevention negative behaviors


ages occupational justice practice area occupational justice relates benefits privileges harms associated participation occupations effects related access denial opportunities participate occupations theory brings attention relationship occupations health well quality life occupational justice approached individually collectively individual path includes disease disability functional restrictions collective way consists public health gender sexual identity social inclusion migration environment skills occupational therapy practitioners enable serve advocates systemic


change impacting institutions policy individuals communities entire populations examples populations experience occupational injustice include refugees prisoners homeless persons survivors natural disasters individuals end life people disabilities elderly living residential homes individuals experiencing poverty children immigrants lgbtqi individuals example role occupational therapist working promote occupational justice may include analyzing task modifying activities environments minimize barriers participation meaningful activities daily living addressing physical mental aspects may hinder person 's functional ability provide intervention relevant client


functional limitations caused physical impairments occupational imbalance limited participation meaningful occupation brought another role different occupation seen situation caregiver person disability also fulfill roles parent children student worker occupational alienation imposition occupation hold meaning person ot profession manifests provision rote activities really relate goals interest


client within occupational therapy practice injustice may ensue situations wherein professional dominance standardized treatments laws political conditions create negative impact occupational engagement clients ref name pmid awareness injustices enable therapist reflect practice think ways approaching client 's problems promoting occupational justice community based therapy occupational therapy ot grown developed community based practice blossomed emerging area practice fundamental part occupational therapy practice scaffa reitz community based practice allows ots work clients


united states canada countries around world licensure requirement order obtain ot ota license one must graduate accredited program complete fieldwork requirements pass national certification examination theoretical frameworks distinguishing facet occupational therapy therapists often espouse use theoretical frameworks frame practice many argued use theory complicates everyday clinical care necessary provide patient driven care note terminology differs scholars incomplete list theoretical bases framing human


significant literary traditions english cumulatively period present numerous writers great britain republic ireland northern ireland us former british colonies received nobel prize works english language language old english literature c first page ''beowulf'' old english literature anglo saxon literature encompasses surviving literature written old english anglo saxon england period settlement saxons germanic tribes england jutes angles c

Humanities
Languages and literature
English literature


period religious literature continued enjoy popularity hagiographies written adapted translated example ''the life saint audrey'' eadmer 's c c end th century layamon ''brut'' adapted norman french wace produce first english language work present legends king arthur knights round table also first historiography written english since anglo saxon chronicle piers ploughman th century manuscript middle english bible translations notably wycliffe 's bible helped establish english literary language wycliffe 's bible


interest arthurian legends medieval theatre middle ages drama vernacular languages europe may emerged enactments liturgy mystery plays presented porches cathedrals strolling players feast days miracle mystery plays along morality plays interludes later evolved elaborate forms drama seen elizabethan stages another form medieval theatre mummers' plays form early street theatre associated morris dance concentrating themes saint george dragon


penetrate england elizabethan era usually regarded height english renaissance however many scholars see beginnings early reign henry viii william caxton introduced printing press england vernacular literature flourished ref name autogenerated reformation inspired production vernacular liturgy led book common prayer lasting influence literary language english renaissance cultural artistic movement england dating late th th century associated pan european renaissance


usually regarded beginning italy late th century like northern europe england saw little developments century later renaissance style ideas slow penetrating england elizabethan era second half th century usually regarded height english renaissance italian influence also found poetry thomas wyatt one earliest english renaissance poets responsible many innovations english poetry alongside henry howard earl surrey introduced


first published quarto besides shakespeare ben jonson major poets early th century included metaphysical poets john donne george herbert henry vaughan andrew marvell richard crashaw ref name odnb ref style characterized wit metaphysical conceits far fetched unusual similes metaphors prose important prose work early th century king james bible one massive translation projects history english time started completed


english civil war king charles reigned executed best known cavalier poets robert herrick richard lovelace thomas carew sir john suckling formal group influenced ben jonson cavalier poets courtiers notable exceptions example robert herrick courtier style marks cavalier poet cavalier works make use allegory classical allusions influenced roman authors horace cicero ovid john milton last great


poet english renaissance published number works including ''l'allegro'' ''il penseroso'' ''comus'' masque ''lycidas'' however major epic works including ''paradise lost'' published restoration period restoration age restoration literature includes ''paradise lost'' earl rochester 's ''sodom'' sexual comedy ''the country wife'' moral wisdom ''pilgrim 's progress'' saw locke 's ''two treatises government'' founding royal society experiments holy meditations robert boyle hysterical attacks theatres jeremy collier


late th century play like ''the school scandal'' goldsmith sheridan reacted sentimental comedy th century theatre writing plays closer style restoration comedy sterne published famous novel ''tristram shandy'' parts frances burney wrote ''evelina'' one first novels manners fanny burney 's novels enjoyed admired jane austen precursors romanticism romantic movement english literature early th century roots th century poetry gothic novel novel sensibility ref name britannicacom ref


p george l mcmichael frederick c crews eds ''anthology american literature colonial romantic'' th ed p ref romantic gothic literature made early appearance washington irving 's ''the legend sleepy hollow'' ''rip van winkle'' picturesque local color elements washington irving 's essays especially travel books prolific popular novelist james fenimore cooper began publishing historical romances frontier indian life however edgar allan poe 's tales macabre first appeared early poetry influential


suffering poor profiting england 's economic prosperity significant early examples genre include ''sybil two nations'' benjamin disraeli charles kingsley 's ''alton locke'' charles dickens emerged literary scene late soon became probably famous novelist history english literature dickens fiercely satirised various aspects society including workhouse ''oliver twist'' failures legal system ''bleak house'' early rival dickens william makepeace thackeray victorian period ranked second


novels thomas hardy including ''the mayor casterbridge'' ''tess d'urbervilles'' hardy victorian realist tradition george eliot like charles dickens also highly critical much victorian society another significant late th century novelist george gissing published novels best known novel ''new grub street'' although pre dated john ruskin 's ''the king golden river'' history modern fantasy genre generally said begin george macdonald influential author


works include macabre mystery novel ''uncle silas'' gothic novella ''carmilla'' tells story young woman 's susceptibility attentions female vampire bram stoker 's horror story ''dracula'' belongs number literary genres including vampire literature horror fiction gothic novel invasion literature arthur conan doyle 's sherlock holmes brilliant london based consulting detective famous intellectual prowess conan doyle wrote four novels short stories featuring holmes published four holmes stories narrated holmes' friend assistant biographer


directions particularly notable development dramatic monologue form used many poets period perfected robert browning literary criticism th century gradually drew attention links victorian poetry modernism tennyson poet laureate united kingdom much queen victoria 's reign described ts eliot greatest master metrics well melancholia finest ear english poet since milton matthew arnold 's reputation poet within past decades plunged drastically


leading poet dramatist late victorian period wilde 's plays particular stand apart many forgotten plays victorian times much closer relationship edwardian dramatists irish playwright george bernard shaw whose career began last decade th century wilde 's comic masterpiece ''the importance earnest'' holds ironic mirror aristocracy displays mastery wit paradoxical wisdom th century modernism rudyard kipling english literary modernism developed early twentieth century


''to lighthouse'' ts eliot begun attempt revive poetic drama ''sweeney agonistes'' followed others including three plays war ''in parenthesis'' modernist epic poem based author david jones 's experience world war published important development beginning tradition working class novels actually written working class background writers among coal miner jack jones james hanley whose father stoker also went sea young


golding 's allegorical novel ''lord flies'' explores culture created man fails using example group british schoolboys marooned deserted island philosopher iris murdoch prolific writer novels throughout second half th century deal especially sexual relationships morality power unconscious scottish writer muriel spark pushed boundaries realism novels ''the prime miss jean brodie'' times takes reader briefly distant future see various fates befall characters anthony burgess


another novel ''larry 's party'' orange prize lawrence hill 's ''book negroes'' commonwealth writers' prize overall best book award alice munro became first canadian win nobel prize literature munro also received man booker international prize amongst internationally known poets leonard cohen anne carson carson lannan literary award poetry foundation 's awards poetry fiction nonfiction came us american writers st century american playwrights poets novelists


rendell pd james scot ian rankin erskine childers' ''the riddle sands'' early example spy fiction another noted writer spy novel genre john le carr thriller writing ian fleming created character james bond jk rowling novelist georgette heyer created historical romance genre emma orczy 's original play ''the scarlet pimpernel'' hero secret identity became favourite london audiences playing performances becoming one popular shows staged england date among significant writers


literature http wwwluminariumorg renlit luminarium th century renaissance english literature http wwwluminariumorg sevenlit luminarium seventeenth century english literature http wwwluminariumorg eightlit luminarium eighteenth century english literature http wwweighteenthcenturypoetryorg eighteenth century poetry archive ecpa https webarchiveorg web http wwwunizares departamentos filologia inglesa garciala bibliographyhtml bibliography literary theory criticism philology ed jos ngel garc landa university zaragoza spain english language culture history literature united kingdom


gilbert frederick sanger pivotal molecular genetic research enabled scientists begin conducting genetic screens relate genotypic sequences phenotypes polymerase chain reaction pcr using taq polymerase invented mullis enabled scientists create millions copies specific dna sequence could used transformation manipulated using agarose gel separation decade later first whole genome sequenced ''haemophilus influenzae'' followed eventual sequencing human genome via human genome project culmination discoveries new

Natural science
Biology
Genetics
Molecular genetics


transcription dna mrna occurs nucleus translation rna proteins occurs ribosome genetic code made four base pairs adenine cytosine uracil guanine redundant meaning multiple combinations base pairs read triplicate produce amino acid proteomics genomics fields biology come study molecular genetics central dogma techniques forward genetics forward genetics molecular genetics technique used identify genes genetic mutations produce certain phenotype genetic


mutation complete addition deletion gene gene segment deletion particular gene creates gene knockout gene expressed loss function results eg knockout mice mis sense mutations may cause total loss function result partial loss function known knockdown knockdown may also achieved rna interference rnai alternatively genes may substituted organism 's genome also known transgene create gene knock result gain function host although techniques


sand grain seen microscope plane polarized light upper picture cross polarized light lower picture scale box nbsp mm '''petrology''' branch geology studies rocks conditions form petrology three subdivisions igneous metamorphic sedimentary petrology igneous metamorphic petrology commonly taught together contain heavy use chemistry chemical methods phase diagrams sedimentary petrology hand commonly taught together stratigraphy deals processes form sedimentary rock background lithology

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Petrology


chicago school sociology commuter town garden city movement gentrification index urban studies articles infrastructure municipal urban engineering rural sociology urban agriculture urban area urban ecology urban economics urban field urban sociology urban studies references bibliography carter harold ''the study urban geography'' fourth edition london arnold kaplan david h james wheeler steven r holloway thomas w hodler cartographer ''urban geography'' john wiley sons inc external links http researchnorthumbriaacuk urbanfutures imagining urban futures http sasigroupshefacuk social spatial inequalities http deptswashingtonedu ugsg urban geography specialty group association american geographers http urban geographyorguk

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Urban geography


responsible using method invented l'h ritier teissier dobzhansky bred populations ''population cages'' enabled feeding breeding sampling whilst preventing escape benefit eliminating migration possible explanation results stocks containing inversions known initial frequency maintained controlled conditions found various chromosome types fluctuate random would selectively neutral adjust certain frequencies become stabilised time dobzhansky published third edition book persuaded chromosome

Applied science
Medicine and health
Clinical laboratory sciences
Cytogenetics


morphs maintained population selective advantage heterozygotes polymorphisms lily mouse lily favored organism cytological examination meiosis since chromosomes large morphological stage meiosis easily identified microscopically hotta chandley et al ref name pmid ref presented evidence common pattern dna nicking repair synthesis male meiotic cells lilies rodents zygotene pachytene stages meiosis crossing presumed occur presence common pattern organisms


magnetic optical properties solids depending material involved conditions formed atoms may arranged regular geometric pattern crystalline solids include metals ordinary water ice irregularly amorphous solid common window glass bulk solid state physics general theory focused crystals primarily periodicity atoms crystal defining characteristic facilitates mathematical modeling likewise crystalline materials often electrical magnetic optical mechanical properties exploited

Natural science
Physics
Solid state physics


dssp largest division american physical society ref name martin pip ref ref name hoddeson ref large communities solid state physicists also emerged europe world war ii particular england germany soviet union ref name hoffmann pss ref united states europe solid state became prominent field investigations semiconductors superconductivity nuclear magnetic resonance diverse phenomena early cold war research solid state physics often restricted solids led physicists found field condensed matter physics organized around common techniques


however unable explain existence insulators nearly free electron model modification free electron model includes weak periodic perturbation meant model interaction conduction electrons ions crystalline solid introducing idea electronic bands theory explains existence conductors semiconductors insulators nearly free electron model rewrites schr dinger equation case periodic potential solutions case known bloch states since bloch 's theorem applies periodic potentials


formulating accurately 'random line' means expectations become integrals respect measure note example phrase 'random chord circle' used construct paradoxes example bertrand 's paradox therefore say integral geometry sense application probability theory axiomatized kolmogorov context erlangen programme klein content theory effectively invariant smooth measures preferably compact homogeneous spaces lie groups evaluation integrals differential forms celebrated case

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Probability theory
Integral geometry


paradigm shift astronomy soon followed johannes kepler 's expressions planetary orbits summarized meticulous observations tycho brahe works men alongside galileo 's perhaps considered constitute scientific revolution great push toward modern concept explanation started galileo one physicists consummate theoretician great experimentalist analytic geometry mechanics descartes incorporated calculus mechanics isaac newton another theoretician experimentalist highest order writing principia mathematica ref name hooke nov see 'correspondence isaac newton vol ' ed h w

Natural science
Physics
Theoretical physics


turnbull cambridge university press page document letter hooke newton dated november ref contained grand synthesis work copernicus galileo kepler well newton 's theories mechanics gravitation held sway worldviews early th century simultaneously progress also made optics particular colour theory ancient science geometrical optics courtesy newton descartes dutchmen snell huygens th th centuries joseph louis lagrange leonhard euler william rowan hamilton would extend theory classical


internal structures atoms molecules quantum mechanics soon gave way formulation quantum field theory qft begun late aftermath world war progress brought much renewed interest qft since early efforts stagnated period also saw fresh attacks problems superconductivity phase transitions well first applications qft area theoretical condensed matter saw formulation standard model particle physics using qft progress condensed matter physics theoretical


cosmological elementary particle scale experimentation cannot done theoretical physics still tries advance use mathematical models mainstream theories '''mainstream theories''' sometimes referred ''central theories'' body knowledge factual scientific views possess usual scientific quality tests repeatability consistency existing well established science experimentation exist mainstream theories generally accepted theories based solely upon effects explaining wide variety data although detection explanation possible composition subjects debate examples analog models gravity big


models new types reasoning used arrive theory however proposed theories include theories around decades eluded methods discovery testing proposed theories include fringe theories process becoming established sometimes gaining wider acceptance proposed theories usually tested addition theories like listed also different interpretations quantum mechanics may may considered different theories since debatable whether yield different predictions physical experiments even principle examples


dimensions loop quantum cosmology loop quantum gravity magnetic monopole massive gravity mirror matter theory multiverse n supersymmetric yang mills theory noncommutative quantum field theory nonsingular black hole models proton decay quantum cosmology quantum foam quantum geometry quantum gravity randall sundrum model semiclassical gravity sphaleron spin foam string theory superfluid vacuum theory supergravity superstring theory supersymmetry supersymmetry breaking technicolor theory everything toda field theory unified field theory universal extra dimensions unparticle physics weak gravity conjecture fringe theories '''fringe theories''' include new area scientific endeavor process becoming established proposed theories include speculative


also experimentally manipulated example knockout mice engineered lack particular gene gene may expressed strain normally 'transgenic' advanced techniques may also permit expression suppression gene occur injection regulating chemical research methods computational models using computer formulate real world problems develop solutions although method often focused computer science begun move towards areas study example psychology one areas computational models allow

Social science
Psychology
Biological psychology


massachusetts general hospital utility multi programming system octo barnett 's laboratory computer science massachusetts general hospital boston another center biomedical computing received significant support nih commonly used programming language clinical applications mumps operating system used support mumps language specifications descendant system used united states veterans affairs hospital system va largest enterprise wide health information system includes electronic medical record known veterans health information systems technology architecture

Applied science
Medicine and health
Health informatics


april npfit originally divided country five regions strategic 'systems integration' contracts awarded one several local service providers lsp various specific technical solutions required connect securely nhs 'spine' system designed broker data different systems care settings npfit fell significantly behind schedule scope design revised real time exacerbated media political lambasting programme 's spend past projected proposed budget consultation launched part new conservative liberal democrat coalition government 's white


data instance gaining information directing patient care assessing best patient care specific clinical conditions therefore substantial resources collected build china 's health informatics system resources arranged construct hospital information system aimed minimize unnecessary waste repetition subsequently promote efficiency quality control health care china successfully spread approximately nationwide hospitals ref name pmid ref however dispersion hospital owned varies critically east part china hospitals constructed


centers second tier district enterprise hospitals along specialist clinics provide second level care third tier provisional municipal general hospitals teaching hospitals provided third level care tier national hospitals governed ministry health china greatly improving health informatics since finally opened doors outside world joined world trade organization wto reported china medical institutions majority


may culturally jurisdictionally specific iso health informatics requirements electronic health record architecture however china 's ehr standard achieve fifteen requirements subclass privacy security shortage supporting different types data reference considering icd referenced china 's external international coding systems similar systems snomed ct clinical terminology presentation cannot considered familiar chinese specialists could lead internationally information sharing deficiency lack generic extensible lower level data structures china 's large


management acts platform standardization integration health data variety sources health informatics centre ministry health embarked introducing electronic hospital information systems several public hospitals including putrajaya hospital serdang hospital selayang hospital similarly ministry higher education hospitals university malaya medical centre ummc university kebangsaan malaysia medical centre ukmmc also using healthcare delivery hospital information system comprehensive integrated information system designed manage administrative financial clinical aspects


hinz organises conference every year also publishes journal ''healthcare informatics review online'' saudi arabia saudi association health information sahi established work direct supervision king saud bin abdulaziz university health sciences practice public activities develop theoretical applicable knowledge provide scientific applicable studies post soviet countries russian federation russian health care system based principles soviet health care system oriented mass prophylaxis prevention infection epidemic diseases vaccination immunization


contains outpatient card integrated system provides opportunity manage consolidated managerial accounting personalized list medical help besides system contains information availability medical institutions various doctors implementation system started organization one computerized database patients city including front end users emias implemented moscow region planned project extend parts country law ''health informatics law'' deals evolving sometimes complex legal principles


severe driving conditions corrosive salt baths '''drivability''' drivability vehicle 's response general driving conditions cold starts stalls rpm dips idle response launch hesitations stumbles performance levels '''cost''' cost vehicle program typically split effect variable cost vehicle front tooling fixed costs associated developing vehicle also costs associated warranty reductions marketing '''program timing''' extent programs timed respect market also production schedules assembly plants new part

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Automotive engineering


performance different values come play attributes involve trade offs include automobile weight aerodynamic drag transmission gearing emission control devices handling roadholding ride quality tires development engineer also responsible organizing automobile level testing validation certification components systems designed tested individually product engineer final evaluation conducted automobile level evaluate system system interactions example audio system radio needs evaluated automobile level interaction electronic components cause interference heat dissipation


automotive components ensure products easy manufacture design manufacturability automotive world crucial make certain whichever design developed research development stage automotive design design established manufacturing engineers take design machinery tooling necessary build automotive components vehicle establish methods mass produce product manufacturing engineers job increase efficiency automotive plant implement lean manufacturing techniques six sigma kaizen automotive engineering roles


automotive engineers include listed aerodynamics engineers often give guidance styling studio shapes design aerodynamic well attractive body engineers also let studio know feasible make panels designs change control engineers make sure design manufacturing changes occur organized managed implemented nvh engineers perform sound vibration testing prevent loud cabin noises detectable vibrations improve sound quality vehicle road modern automotive product engineering process


'''comparative literature''' academic field dealing study literature cultural expression across linguistic national geographic disciplinary boundaries comparative literature performs role similar study international relations works languages artistic traditions understand cultures 'from inside' frequently practised works different languages comparative literature may also performed works language works originate different nations cultures language spoken characteristically intercultural transnational field comparative literature concerns

Humanities
Languages and literature
Comparative literature


literature scholars comparative literature share desire study literature beyond national boundaries interest languages read foreign texts original form many comparatists also share desire integrate literary experience cultural phenomena historical change philosophical concepts social movements discipline comparative literature scholarly associations international comparative literature association icla comparative literature associations many countries many learned journals publish scholarship comparative literature see selected comparative literature comparative humanities journals


list books comparative literature see bibliography text books comparative literature early work work considered foundational discipline comparative literature include spanish humanist juan andr 's work transylvanian hungarian hugo meltzl de lomnitz 's scholarship also founding editor journal ''acta comparationis litterarum universarum'' irish scholar hm posnett 's ''comparative literature'' however antecedents found ideas johann wolfgang von goethe vision world literature ''weltliteratur '' russian formalists credited alexander veselovsky laying groundwork discipline viktor zhirmunsky instance referred veselovsky


developments studies globalization interculturalism comparative literature already representing wider study single language nation state approach may well suited move away paradigm nation state west comparative literature experiencing institutional constriction signs many parts world discipline thriving especially asia latin america caribbean mediterranean current trends transnational studies also reflect growing importance post colonial literary figures j coetzee maryse cond earl lovelace v naipaul michael ondaatje wole soyinka derek walcott


religious studies scholar walter capps described purpose discipline provide training practice nbsp directing conducting inquiry regarding subject religion time capps stated purpose use prescribed modes techniques inquiry make subject religion intelligible religious studies scholar robert segal characterised discipline subject matter open many approaches thus require either distinctive method distinctive explanation worthy disciplinary status different scholars operating field


mccutcheon many peoples study means category equivalent term concept instance word religion languages like sanskrit intellectual foundation background religious studies became field right flourishing united states late several key intellectual figures explored religion variety perspectives one figures famous pragmatist william james gifford lectures book ''the varieties religious experience'' examined religion psychological philosophical perspective still influential


today essay ''the believe'' defends rationality faith max weber studied religion economic perspective ''the protestant ethic spirit capitalism'' famous work major figure sociology doubt influenced later sociologists religion mile durkheim also holds continuing influence one fathers sociology explored protestant catholic attitudes doctrines regarding suicide work ''suicide'' published memorable work religion ''the elementary forms religious life'' history max ller first professor


founded influential journals religious studies initiated example ''religious studies religion'' forward ''approaches study religion'' ninian smart wrote english speaking world religious studies basically dates although fields 'the comparative study religion' 'history religion' 'sociology religion' nbsp britain america decrease student applications diminishing resources led cut backs affecting religious studies departments partridge later decade religious studies began


max weber emphasised relationship religious belief economic foundations society contemporary debates centred issues secularization civil religion cohesiveness religion context globalization multiculturalism sociology religion also deals religion impacts society regarding positive negatives happens religion mixed society theorist marx states religion opium people idea religion become way people deal problems least one comprehensive study refutes idea


muslim middle east pagan rome religion film earliest serious writing interface religion film appeared work film critics like jean epstein subject grown popularity students cited particular relevance given pervasiveness film modern culture approaches study religion film differ among scholars functionalist approaches instance view film site religion manifested theological approaches examine film reflection god 's presence things methodologies number


major criticism functionalism lends teleological explanations example functionalist approach understanding dietary restrictions contained pentateuch function promoting health providing social identity ''ie'' sense belonging though common practice lived religion lived religion ethnographic holistic framework understanding beliefs practices everyday experiences religious spiritual persons religious studies name lived religion comes french tradition sociology religion la religion v cue concept lived religion popularized late


division possible specifically nonzero ring every nonzero element ''a'' multiplicative inverse ie element ''x'' stated differently ring division ring group units equals set nonzero elements division rings differ fields multiplication required commutative however wedderburn 's little theorem finite division rings commutative therefore finite fields historically division rings sometimes referred fields fields called commutative fields semisimple rings module

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Noncommutative algebra


'''science studies''' interdisciplinary research area seeks situate scientific expertise broad social historical philosophical contexts uses various methods analyze production representation reception scientific knowledge epistemic semiotic role similarly cultural studies science studies defined subject research encompass large range different theoretical methodological perspectives practices interdisciplinary approach may include borrow methods humanities natural formal sciences scientometrics ethnomethodology cognitive science science studies certain importance evaluation

Social science
Sociology
Science studies


caused social factors conditions cultural context self interest human knowledge something exists human cognition must contain social components formation process proved difficult however address natural science topics sociological methods abundantly evidenced us science wars ref name thn use deconstructive approach works arts religion natural sciences risked endanger hard facts natural sciences well objectivity positivist tradition sociology ref name thn ref view scientific knowledge


production least partial social construct easily accepted ref name vulc latour others identified dichotomy crucial modernity division nature things objects transcendent allowing detect society subject state immanent artificial constructed dichotomy allowed mass production things technical natural hybrids large scale global issues meanwhile threaten endangered distinction eg ''we never modern'' asks reconnect social natural worlds returning premodern use thing addressing objects hybrids made


reasons eg moral values epistemology political motivationsthe designation expertise authoritative interaction lay people decision makers kind nevertheless challenged contemporary risk societies suggested scholars follow ulrich beck 's theorisation role expertise contemporary democracies important theme debate among science studies scholars argue widely distributed pluralist understanding expertise sheila jasanoff brian wynne example others argue nuanced understanding idea expertise social functions collins evans


example ref name collinsevans ref ref name collins ref see also logology study science merton thesis public awareness science science technology studies science technology studies india social construction technology sociology scientific knowledge sokal affair references bibliography science studies general bauchspies w jennifer croissant sal restivo ''science technology society sociological perspective'' oxford blackwell biagioli mario ed ''the science studies reader'' new york routledge bloor david barnes barry henry john ''scientific knowledge sociological analysis'' chicago university press gross alan ''starring text place rhetoric science studies'' carbondale siu press


'''astrophysics''' science employs methods principles physics chemistry study astronomical objects phenomena one founders discipline said astrophysics seeks ascertain nature heavenly bodies rather positions motions space ''what'' rather ''where'' among subjects studied sun stars galaxies extrasolar planets interstellar medium cosmic microwave background ref name nasagov ref emissions objects examined across parts electromagnetic spectrum properties examined include luminosity density temperature

Natural science
Space science
Astrophysics


elements various temperatures pressures could associate yellow line solar spectrum known elements thus claimed line represented new element called helium greek helios sun personified edward c pickering undertook ambitious program stellar spectral classification harvard college observatory team woman computers notably williamina fleming antonia maury annie jump cannon classified spectra recorded photographic plates catalog stars prepared grouped thirteen spectral


telescopes ground based imaging air cherenkov telescopes iact examples observatories first type rxte chandra x ray observatory compton gamma ray observatory examples iacts high energy stereoscopic system hess magic telescope electromagnetic radiation things may observed earth originate great distances gravitational wave observatories constructed gravitational waves extremely difficult detect neutrino observatories also built primarily study sun cosmic rays consisting high energy particles observed hitting earth 's atmosphere observations


drawn astrophysics due popularization royal astronomical society notable educators prominent professors lawrence krauss subrahmanyan chandrasekhar stephen hawking hubert reeves carl sagan neil degrasse tyson patrick moore efforts early late present scientists continue attract young people study history science astrophysics see also astrochemistry astronomical observatories astronomical spectroscopy astroparticle physics gravitational wave astronomy hertzsprung russell diagram high energy astronomy important publications astrophysics list astronomers includes astrophysicists neutrino astronomy future prospects timeline gravitational physics relativity timeline knowledge galaxies clusters


one example pericyclic reaction analyzed using rules related frontier molecular orbital theory photochemical reactions several orders magnitude faster thermal reactions reactions fast sup sup seconds associated processes fast sup sup seconds often observed photon absorbed directly reactant photosensitizer absorbs photon transfers energy reactant opposite process called quenching photoexcited state deactivated chemical reagent photochemical transformations occur series simple steps

Natural science
Chemistry
Photochemistry


known primary photochemical processes one common example processes excited state proton transfer photochemical reactions examples photochemical reactions '''photosynthesis''' plants use solar energy convert carbon dioxide water glucose oxygen human formation vitamin exposure sunlight '''bioluminescence''' ''eg'' fireflies enzyme abdomen catalyzes reaction produced light polymerizations started photoinitiators decompose upon absorbing light produce free radicals radical polymerization photodegradation many substances eg polyvinyl chloride fp medicine bottles often made darkened glass prevent drugs


'''experimental psychology''' refers work done apply experimental methods psychological study processes underlie experimental psychologists employ human participants animal subjects study great many topics including among others sensation perception memory cognition learning motivation emotion developmental processes social psychology neural substrates history wilhelm wundt charles bell early experimental psychology wilhelm wundt experimental psychology emerged modern academic discipline th century wilhelm wundt introduced mathematical experimental approach field wundt

Social science
Psychology
Experimental psychology


statistics '''crucial experiment''' experiment intended test several hypotheses time ideally one hypothesis may confirmed others rejected however data may also consistent several hypotheses result calls research narrow possibilities '''pilot study''' may run major experiment order try different procedures determine optimal values experimental variables uncover weaknesses experimental design pilot study may experiment usually defined might example consist simply


stereoscope first stereoscope invented wheatstone presents two slightly different images one eye time typically images photographs object taken camera positions mimic position separation eyes head one looks steroscope photos fuse single image conveys powerful sense depth solidity kymograph developed carl ludwig th century kymograph revolving drum moving stylus tracks size


stimulus chamber end inserted directly nostrils mazes probably one oldest instruments studying memory would maze common goal get point point b however mazes vary size complexity two types mazes commonly used rats radial arm maze morris water maze radial arm maze consists multiple arms radiating central point arm small piece food end morris water


attention cognitive experiments done lab instead social setting done mainly provide maximum control experimental variables minimal interference irrelevant events aspects situation great many experimental methods used frequently used methods described main pages topics listed addition studying behavior experimenters may use fmri pet able see areas brain active cognitive processing animal cognition animal cognition refers mental capacities non human animals


new energy marked gaelic revival encouraged modern literature irish generally irish literary revival anglo irish literary tradition found first great exponents richard head jonathan swift followed laurence sterne oliver goldsmith richard brinsley sheridan also written eighteenth century eibhl n dubh n chonaill 's irish language keen caoineadh airt u laoghaire widely regarded greatest poem written century ireland britain lamenting death husband titular art u laoghaire end th century throughout

Humanities
Languages and literature
Irish Literature


deals largely fionn mac cumhaill ''fianna'' militia hill allen often associated fenian cycle chief tales fenian cycle ''acallam na sen rach'' often translated ''colloquy ancients'' ''tales elders ireland'' ''t raigheacht dhiarmada agus ghr inne'' ''the pursuit diarmuid gr inne'' early tales regarding fionn majority fenian cycle appears written later cycles fourth historical cycle cycle kings historical cycle ranges almost


entirely mythological labraid loingsech allegedly became high king ireland around bc entirely historical brian boru reigned high king ireland eleventh century ad historical cycle includes late medieval tale ''buile shuibhne'' ''the frenzy sweeney'' influenced works ts eliot flann o'brien ''cogad g edel gallaib'' ''the war irish foreigners'' tells brian boru 's wars vikings unlike cycles consistent set characters locations cycle stories settings


particularly case munster south west ireland notable names included eoghan rua illeabh aog n rathaille sliabh luachra certain number local patrons still found even early th century especially among surviving families gaelic aristocracy irish still urban language continued well th century first half th century dublin home irish language literary circle connected neachtain naughton family group wide ranging continental


connections little evidence female literacy period women great importance oral tradition main composers traditional laments famous ''caoineadh airt u laoghaire'' composed late th century eibhl n dubh n chonaill one last gaelic gentry west kerry compositions sort committed writing collected th century manuscript tradition well introduction printing ireland works irish continued disseminated manuscript form


first printed book ireland book common prayer access printing press hindered official caution although irish version bible known bedell 's bible anglican clergyman commissioned published th century number popular works irish devotional secular available print early th century manuscript remained affordable means transmission almost end century manuscripts collected literate individuals schoolmasters farmers others


personal idiosyncratic way literature irish resurgence interest irish language late th century gaelic revival much founding gaelic league ''conradh na gaeilge'' league insisted identity ireland intimately bound irish language modernised used vehicle contemporary culture led publication thousands books pamphlets irish providing foundation new literature coming decades patrick pearse teacher


story day life city dublin told dazzling array styles landmark book development literary modernism ''ulysses'' story day ''finnegans wake'' night epic partaking logic dreams written invented language parodies english irish latin joyce 's high modernist style influence coming generations irish novelists notably samuel beckett brian o'nolan published flann o'brien myles na gcopaleen aidan higgins o'nolan bilingual


novelist o'nolan powerfully influenced james joyce nonetheless sceptical cult joyce overshadows much irish writing saying declare god hear name joyce one time surely froth gob brian moore also screenwriter ref name bbcobit ref ref name guardian ref ref name independent ref emigrated canada lived wrote first novels moved united states acclaimed descriptions novels life northern ireland second world war particular


degree originality research among major criteria articles published academic journals usually established means peer review graduate students commonly required perform original research part dissertation scientific research microscopy laboratory idaho national laboratory mit german maritime research vessel ''sonne'' '''scientific research''' systematic way gathering data harnessing curiosity research provides scientific information theories explanation nature properties world makes practical applications possible scientific research funded public authorities

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Research methods


described words test revising hypothesis conclusion reiteration necessary common misconception hypothesis proven see rather null hypothesis generally hypothesis used make predictions tested observing outcome experiment outcome inconsistent hypothesis hypothesis rejected see falsifiability however outcome consistent hypothesis experiment said support hypothesis careful language used researchers recognize alternative hypotheses may also consistent observations


write histories form accounts past studies aim merely examine occurrence behaviours societies communities without particularly looking reasons motivations explain studies may qualitative quantitative use variety approaches queer theory feminist theory ref name roffee ref artistic research '''artistic research''' also seen 'practice based research' take form creative works considered research object research debatable body thought offers alternative purely scientific


artistic research perhaps disciplines intuition utilized method identify wide range new unexpected productive modalities writers whether fiction non fiction books also research support creative work may factual historical background research background research could include example geographical procedural research society artistic research sar publishes triannual ''journal artistic research'' ''jar'' international online open access peer reviewed journal identification publication dissemination artistic research methodologies arts disciplines


following concepts part formal historical research ref name garraghan ref identification origin date evidence localization recognition authorship analysis data identification integrity attribution credibility documentary research steps conducting research research design evidence research cycle research often conducted using hourglass model structure research hourglass model starts broad spectrum research focusing required information method project like neck hourglass expands research form discussion results major steps conducting research


identification research problem literature review specifying purpose research determining specific research questions specification conceptual framework sometimes including set hypotheses choice methodology data collection data collection verifying data analyzing interpreting data reporting evaluating research communicating research findings possibly recommendations steps generally represent overall process however viewed ever changing iterative process rather fixed set steps research begins general statement problem rather purpose engaging study literature review


able estimate size phenomenon interest ref name research question people participants may randomly assigned different treatments way quantitative study considered true experiment feasible researcher may collect data participant situational characteristics statistically control influence dependent outcome variable intent generalize research participants larger population researcher employ probability sampling select participants either qualitative quantitative research


determined relationships ref name christen alleged double standard western knowledge system one hand digital right management used restrict access personal information social networking platforms celebrated protection privacy simultaneously similar functions used cultural groups ie indigenous communities denounced access control reprehended censorship ref name christen research teams indications fresh new teams associated original multidisciplinary scientific studies found zeng et al future perspectives


governments united states funding cuts university research occurred say may lead future decline western dominance research neo colonial approaches professionalisation several national private academic systems professionalisation research resulted formal job titles russia present day russia former soviet union post soviet states term ' 'researcher'' ''nauchny sotrudnik'' generic term person carried scientific research well job position within frameworks ussr academy


political cultural trends various periods early sangam literature dated bce contain anthologies various poets dealing many aspects life including love war social values religion ref name sangam bc akananuru kurunthogai natrinai dated bce ref followed early epics moral literature authored shaivite vaishnavite jain buddhist authors poets lasting th century ce

Humanities
Languages and literature
Tamil Literature


sekkilar lived reign kulothunga chola ii ce religious books vaishnava sect mostly composed sanskrit period great vaishnava leader ramanuja lived reigns athirajendra chola kulothunga chola face religious persecution cholas belonged saiva sect one best known tamil works period ''ramavatharam'' kamban flourished reign kulottunga iii ''ramavatharam'' greatest epic tamil literature although author states followed valmiki work


krishnamurthy notable historical social fiction chandilyan wrote number popular historical romance novels set medieval india medieval trade routes malaysia indonesia europe spanning six decades jayakanthan authored around novels short stories apart two autobiographies outside literature made two films addition four novels adapted films others works revolve around lives underclass people like rickshaw pullers prostitutes rag pickers arunaa nandhini one recent tamil novelists entered


sustain even postage september sadanand running free press journal started tamil daily dinamani ts chockalingam editor priced pies contained bright features fearlessly critical highly successful circulation eclipsed total circulation tamil dailies soon 'india' incorporated dinamani dinamani made studied conscious effort make contents newspaper intelligible even newly literate viduthalai begun views paper newspaper non brahman movement


circulation within years leading tamil daily since today editions highest circulated tamil daily bangalore pondicherry issues book called th vina vidai book every wednesday second part year model question papers subjects standard provided answers along question papers board exams conducted previous year new media rise internet triggered dramatic growth number tamil blogs


mechanism dominant groups establish hegemony language use p many countries language policy designed favor discourage use particular language set languages although nations historically used language policies often promote one official language expense others many countries policies designed protect promote regional ethnic languages whose viability threatened indeed whilst existence linguistic minorities within jurisdiction often considered potential threat internal cohesion states also understand providing language rights

Applied science
Public administration
Language policy


regional conflicts economic development russia ginsburgh v weber eds https wwwpalgravecom us book palgrave handbook economics language london palgrave macmillan pp spolsky bernard '' http wwwcambridgeorg gb knowledge isbn item cambridge handbook language policy '' cambridge university press silva diego b https wwwscielobr j alfa ypntrnvwdw f p pyfjgpkd lang en language policy oceania ''alfa rev lingu st'' zuckermann ghil'ad walsh michael https adelaideacademiaedu zuckermann papers stop revive survive lessons hebrew revival applicable reclamation maintenance empowerment aboriginal languages cultures 'stop revive survive lessons hebrew revival applicable reclamation maintenance empowerment aboriginal languages cultures' ''australian journal linguistics'' external links http wwwcoeint dg linguistic language policy division council europe http brandscom news blog language news worlds weirdest language brands infographic world 's weirdest


alto tenor saxophone reeds '''woodwind instruments''' family musical instruments within general category wind instruments common examples include flute clarinet oboe bassoon saxophone two main types woodwind instruments flutes reed instruments otherwise called reed pipes main distinction instruments wind instruments way produce sound woodwinds produce sound splitting air blown sharp edge reed fipple despite name woodwind may made material

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Woodwinds


known modern china studies china related subjects known national studies sinology translated han studies western sinology beginnings th century earliest westerners known studied chinese significant numbers th century portuguese spanish italian missionariesall either dominican order society jesus jesuits seeking spread catholic christianity among chinese people early spanish dominican mission manila operated printing press produced four works catholic doctrine chinese immigrant community three classical

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Sinology


classical modern chinese language studies time encouraging ecumenical attitude relation rich variety approaches disciplines whether mainly empirical theoretically inflected sinologists journals ''bulletin de l' cole fran aise d'extr orient'' ''chinese heritage quarterly'' china heritage project australian national university ''euro sinica'' ''harvard journal asiatic studies'' ''journal asian studies'' journal european association chinese studies ''journal asiatique'' ''late imperial china'' ''monumenta serica'' ''sino platonic papers'' ''t'oung pao'' ''modern china'' ''toho gakuho'' ''toyoshi kenkyu'' '' https wwwrevistasuspbr ziyue index zi yue revista de sinologia da universidade


used mehrgarh th th millennium bc similar drills found parts indus valley civilization iran one millennium later roman times principle also used widely drilling purposes woodworking ref name ulrich ref dentistry ref name garggarg ref macram comes th century arabic weavers word migramah meaning fringe refers decorative fringes camels horses help amongst things keep flies animal hot desert regions northern africa one earliest recorded uses macram style knots decoration

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Strings


strings nylon covered wound metal crucial step string instrument technology metal wound string produce lower pitch catgut string similar thickness enabled stringed instruments made less thick bass strings string instruments player plucks bows directly eg double bass enabled instrument makers use thinner strings lowest pitched strings made lower pitch strings easier play stringed instruments player presses keyboard causing mechanism strike strings piano enabled


cloth usually woven loom device holds warp threads place filling threads woven fabric band meets definition cloth warp threads weft thread winding also made using methods including tablet weaving back strap techniques without looms ref name dooley ref see also biggest ball twine kite quipu rope stampede string long string usually made leather human hair typically run half way around crown cowboy hat string bag cord sewing notes


anthropology forensic investigation remains grew recognition anthropology distinct scientific discipline growth physical anthropology field anthropology began united states struggled obtain recognition legitimate science early years twentieth century ref name stewart earnest hooton pioneered field physical anthropology became first physical anthropologist hold full time teaching position united states ref name shapiro organizing committee member american association physical anthropologists along founder ale hrdli ka

Social science
Archaeology
Forensic anthropology


method skeletal measurement alphonse bertillon study information helped shape anthropologists' understanding human skeleton multiple skeletal differences occur another prominent early anthropologist thomas wingate todd primarily responsible creation first large collection human skeletons total todd acquired human skulls skeletons anthropoid skulls skeletons mammalian skulls skeletons ref name cobb todd 's contributions field anthropology remain use modern era include various studies regarding suture closures skull timing


used ref name mall formulas used determine stature rely various information regarding individual sex ancestry age determined attempting ascertain height possible due differences occur populations sexes age groups ref name hawks knowing variables associated height accurate estimate made example male formula stature estimation using femur female ancestry would use formula ref name redwoods also important note individual 's approximate age


around age girls around boys clavicle last bone complete growth plate sealed around age ref name young old addition complete skeleton available anthropologists count number bones adults bones bones child yet fused resulting much higher number aging adult skeletons straightforward aging child 's skeleton skeleton changes little adulthood reached ref name adult age one possible way


archaeology also recommended individuals looking pursue forensic anthropology profession get experience dissection usually gross anatomy class well useful internships investigative agencies practicing anthropologists ref name nawrocki subfield educational requirements complete one become certified forensic anthropology society region include ialm exam given forensic anthropology society europe ref name fase certification exam given american board forensic anthropology ref name abfa exam typically forensic anthropologists perform forensic casework part time basis however


television show ''bones'' also author books date subject forensic anthropology ref name britannica clyde snow worked identification king tutankhamun victims oklahoma city bombing well investigation murder john f kennedy ref name clyde snow mildred trotter created statistical formulas calculation stature based human long bones examination korean war casualties ref name mildred kewal krishan advancement forensic anthropology


topic study restricted learning usually mazes stunted state affairs pointed beach although generally agreed real change took place repeated charges decade later results meantime europe ethology making strides studying multitude species plethora behaviors friction two disciplines cooperation comparative psychologists refused part broaden horizons state affairs ended triumph ethology

Social science
Psychology
Comparative psychology


concept formation memory spatial cognition time estimation much research areas related directly indirectly behaviors important survival natural settings navigation tool use numerical competence thus comparative psychology animal cognition heavily overlapping research categories ref name menzel p menzel r fischer j ''animal thinking contemporary issues comparative cognition'' ref ref name wass wasserman zentall eds ''comparative cognition'' ref disorders animal behavior veterinary surgeons recognize psychological state captive domesticated animal must taken account behavior health


creates challenge biologists wish describe catalogue recent developments using dna identify separate species investigate relationship groups various taxonomic scales enormously useful parasitologists many parasites highly degenerate disguising relationships species history cyst imago ''giardia lamblia'' protozoan parasite causes giardiasis species first observed antonie van leeuwenhoek antonie van leeuwenhoek observed illustrated ''giardia lamblia'' linked loose stools first protozoan parasite humans


discrete subgroup reals '''r''' standard metric topology rational numbers '''q''' '''lattice''' locally compact topological group discrete subgroup property quotient space finite invariant measure special case subgroups '''r''' sup ''n'' sup amounts usual geometric notion lattice algebraic structure lattices geometry totality lattices relatively well understood deep results borel harish chandra mostow tamagawa raghunathan margulis zimmer obtained provided examples

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Discrete geometry


john overview transpersonal psychology ''the humanistic psychologist'' ref development field origins thinkers set stage transpersonal studies william james carl jung roberto assagioli abraham maslow ref name miller miller john j book review textbook transpersonal psychiatry psychology ''psychiatric services'' april ref ref name davis ref name scotton scotton bruce w contribution cg jung transpersonal psychiatry scotton bruce w chinen allan b battista john r eds ''textbook transpersonal psychiatry psychology'' new york basic books ref ref name battista battista john abraham maslow roberto assagioli

Social science
Psychology
Transpersonal psychology


greening introduced new profiles contributed insights field among authors find brant cortright stuart sovatsky david lukoff robert p turner francis lu cortright ref name cortright cortright brant ''psychotherapy spirit theory practice transpersonal psychotherapy'' albany ny us state university new york press xii pp suny series philosophy psychology ref sovatsky ref name sovatsky stuart sovatsky stuart ''words soul time east west spirituality psychotherapeutic narrative'' new york state university new york press suny series transpersonal humanistic psychology ref made contributions transpersonal


trans egoic ref name miller detailed version model includes nine different levels human development levels pre personal levels levels personal levels levels transpersonal levels ref name cowley derezotes cowley au deane derezotes david transpersonal psychology social work education journal social work education winter vol issue ref later versions also include tenth level transpersonal stages upper levels model home spiritual events developments ref name elmer macdonald friedman ref name sharma charak sharma framework proposed


perennial philosophy worlds great spiritual traditions later reformulated wilber great nest ref name freeman simple linear hierarchy kind nested hierarchy holarchy ref name walsh vaughan ref name kelly human development evolution considered move holarchy ref name walsh vaughan marked move world integral ideas wilber according commentators stopped referring work transpersonal favor term ''integral'' mid ref name freeman literature confirms shifted transpersonal


lysergic acid diethylamide lsd psilocybin mescaline dipropyl tryptamine dpt methylene dioxy amphetamine mda ref name mcconnell mcconnell james v special section rediscovery human nature ''time magazine'' monday apr ref ref name paulson paulson daryl book review grof stan cosmic game explorations frontiers human consciousness ''the journal transpersonal psychology'' vol ref later lsd prohibited grof developed methods therapy holotropic breathwork ref name paulson ref name taylor taylor eugene desperately seeking spirituality ''psychology today'' nov dec document id ref early findings ref name grof grof stanislav theoretical empirical basis transpersonal psychology


washburn grof ali well existential psychoanalytic body centered approaches also presents unifying theoretical framework field transpersonal psychotherapy identifies dimension human consciousness central transpersonal realm also addresses clinical issues related meditation spiritual emergency altered states consciousness ref name matthews ref name cortright according commentators ref name matthews cortright challenges traditional view transpersonal psychology working psychological issues necessary progression spiritual path instead suggests two lines development intertwined


nature focus clinical attention attributable mental disorder view exist criteria differentiating spiritual problems mental disorders psychosis ref name yang lukoff lu ref name lukoff lu turner lukoff lu fg turner r cultural considerations assessment treatment religious spiritual problems ''psychiatric clinics north america'' sep ref concern also addressed dsm iv sourcebook ref name lu lukoff turner lu fg lukoff turner r ''religious spiritual problems'' dsm iv sourcebook vol widiger ta frances aj pincus ha et al


category religious spiritual problems classified mental disorders foulks ref name foulks foulks ef cultural variables psychiatry ''psychiatric times'' april vol xxi ref also notes new diagnosis included dsm iv tr nonillness category conditions may focus clinical attention addition new category dsm system noticed psychiatric publications ref name miller ref name foulks ref name bender ref name milstein ref name curlin etal curlin etal religion spirituality medicine psychiatrists physicians differing observations interpretations clinical approaches ''the american journal psychiatry'' volume issue


coast us ref name hartelius caplan rardin association transpersonal psychology institute transpersonal psychology founded state california number fields leading theorists come area us ref name hartelius caplan rardin reception recognition criticism reception reception transpersonal psychology surrounding culture reflects wide range views opinions including recognition skepticism transpersonal psychology topic academic articles book reviews academic fields including psychiatry ref name miller ref name travis behavioral science ref name decarvalho


william james sick soul negative dimensions consciousness partial critique transpersonal psychology ''journal american academy religion'' xlviii ref pastoral psychology ref name bidwell library science ref name boone boone lucille humanistic transpersonal psychology historical biographical sourcebook ''library journal'' dec pg ref several commentators expressed views field transpersonal psychology contribution academic landscape hilgard ref name hilgard representing contemporary psychology early regarded transpersonal psychology fringe movement attracted extreme followers humanistic psychology


term literary curator used describe persons work field poetry former nd street director karl kirchwey ref name twsoctb ref technology society recently advances new technologies led widening role curator focus major art institutions internationally become object academic study research way museum curator may acquire objects relevance art curator may select interpret work art injection technology impact

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Curator


curators choose information citizens able educate specific subject interested rather spending time listening information desire learn meanings scotland term curator also used mean guardian child known curator ''ad litem'' australia new zealand term also applies person prepares sports ground use especially cricket ground job equivalent groundsman cricketing nations see also


printed books ancient scribes made errors alterations copying manuscripts hand given manuscript copy several many copies original document textual critic seeks reconstruct original text urtext archetype autograph closely possible processes used attempt reconstruct intermediate editions recensions document 's transcription history ultimate objective textual critic 's work production critical edition containing text closely approximating original three fundamental approaches textual criticism eclecticism stemmatics copy text editing techniques


biblical narrative study eighteenth nineteenth century hermeneutics'' new yale greenspahn frederick e biblical scholars medieval modern j neusner et al eds ''judaic perspectives ancient israel'' philadelphia fortress pp nbsp harrison peter ''the bible protestantism rise natural science'' cambridge cambridge harrisville roy walter sundberg ''the bible modern culture baruch spinoza brevard childs'' nd ed grand rapids eerdmans knight douglas gene tucker eds ''the hebrew bible modern interpreters'' philadelphia fortress chico scholars press nicholson ernest w ''the pentateuch


twentieth century legacy julius wellhausen'' oxford clarendon noll mark ''between faith criticism evangelicals scholarship bible america'' harper row reventlow henning graf ''the authority bible rise modern world'' tr j bowden philadelphia fortress sherwood yvonne stephen moore ''the invention biblical scholar critical manifesto'' fortress sperling david ''students covenant history jewish biblical scholarship north america'' atlanta scholars press sugirtharajah rs ''the bible third world precolonial colonial postcolonial


knowledge base knowledge base represents facts rules inference engine applies rules known facts deduce new facts inference engines also include explanation debugging abilities history early development soon dawn modern computers late early researchers started realizing immense potential machines modern society one first challenges make machine capable thinking like humans particular making machines capable making important decisions way humans medical

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Expert systems


using traditional methods flow charts statistical pattern matching probability theory formal introduction later developments previous situation gradually led development expert systems used knowledge based approaches expert systems medicine mycin expert system internist expert system later middle caduceus expert systems formally introduced around stanford heuristic programming project led edward feigenbaum sometimes termed father expert systems key early contributors bruce buchanan randall davis stanford researchers tried


oracle integrated expert system abilities suite products way specifying business logic rule engines longer simply defining rules expert would use type complex volatile critical business logic often go hand hand business process automation integration environments current approaches expert systems limitations previous type expert systems urged researchers develop new types approaches developed efficient flexible powerful approaches order simulate human decision making process


increases causes processing complexity increase instance expert system million rules envisioned ultimate expert system became obvious system would complex would face many computational problems inference engine would able process huge numbers rules reach decision verify decision rules consistent also challenge many rules usually problem leads satisfiability sat formulation well known np complete problem boolean


hours sustained exertion example one individual cycling speed consecutive days expended total mj kcal dieter calories average power output w skeletal muscle burns nbsp mg mmol glucose minute continuous activity repetitively extending human knee ref name richter e ref generating w mechanical energy since muscle energy conversion efficient w heat energy resting skeletal muscle basal metabolic rate resting energy consumption w kg making

Human physical performance and recreation


fold difference energy consumption inactive active muscles short duration muscular exertion energy expenditure far greater adult human male jumping squat mechanically generate w kg rapid movement generate twice amount nonhuman animals bonobos small lizards energy expenditure large compared basal resting metabolic rate adult human body rate varies somewhat size gender age typically w w total energy expenditure tee due muscular


sustained long periods time plasma glucose plasma glucose said maintained equal rate glucose appearance entry blood glucose disposal removal blood healthy individual rates appearance disposal essentially equal exercise moderate intensity duration however prolonged exercise sufficiently intense exercise result imbalance leaning towards higher rate disposal appearance point glucose levels fall producing onset fatigue rate glucose appearance dictated amount


tool glucose control diabetes mellitus situation elevated blood glucose hyperglycemia moderate exercise induce greater glucose disposal appearance thereby decreasing total plasma glucose concentrations stated mechanism glucose disposal independent insulin makes particularly well suited people diabetes addition appears increase sensitivity insulin approximately hours post exercise particularly useful type ii diabetes producing sufficient insulin demonstrate peripheral resistance insulin signaling however extreme hyperglycemic episodes


strenuous exercise planned duration exertion present metabolic state body adjusts number activated skeletal muscle motor units subjectively experienced fatigue exhaustion idea central governor rejects earlier idea fatigue caused mechanical failure exercising muscles peripheral fatigue instead brain models metabolic limits body ensure whole body homeostasis protected particular heart guarded hypoxia emergency reserve always maintained idea central governor


efficient long distance bipedal running capacity endurance running may evolved allow running game animals persistent slow constant chase many hours central success ability human body unlike animals hunt effectively remove muscle heat waste animals stored allowing temporary increase body temperature allows escape animals quickly speed short duration way nearly predators catch prey humans unlike animals


catch prey remove heat specialized thermoregulation based sweat evaporation one gram sweat remove j heat energy another mechanism increased skin blood flow exercise allows greater convective heat loss aided upright posture skin based cooling resulted humans acquiring increased number sweat glands combined lack body fur would otherwise stop air circulation efficient evaporation humans remove exercise heat avoid fatigue heat exhaustion affects animals chased persistent manner


test data decide health related outcomes discovered '''exercise prescription''' forming training programs best meet individuals health fitness goals must able take account different types exercises reasons goal clients workout pre screened assessments knowing prescribe exercises special considerations populations also required may include age differences pregnancy joint diseases obesity pulmonary disease etc curriculum curriculum exercise physiology includes biology chemistry applied sciences purpose classes selected major proficient understanding human


navigation software high frequency trading antivirus software electronic design automation computer aided design self driving car educational software ethics ''challenger'' disaster held case study engineering ethics engineers obligations public clients employers profession many engineering societies established codes practice codes ethics guide members inform public large engineering discipline professional society maintains code ethics members pledge uphold depending specializations engineers may also governed specific statute whistleblowing product liability laws often principles business

Applied science
Military sciences
Organization
Engineers


north america european engineer eur ing europe practice engineering uk regulated profession control titles chartered engineer ceng incorporated engineer ieng regulated titles protected law subject strict requirements defined engineering council uk title ceng use much commonwealth many skilled semi skilled trades engineering technicians uk call engineers growing movement uk legally protect title 'engineer' professional engineers


protected title used anyone practices profession however title ''ing nieur diplom '' graduate engineer official academic title protected government associated ''dipl d'ing nieur'' renowned academic degree france anyone misusing title france fined large sum jailed usually reserved graduates french engineering ''grandes coles'' engineering schools created french revolution special reputation among french people helped make transition mostly agricultural country


video games continuous process helps train users overcome condition impedes abilities interpretation ref name ability hand eye coordination also improved thanks part video games due need operate controller view screen displaying content time ref name coordination player enhanced due playing continuous observation video game since game gives high mental stimulation coordination important therefore enhanced due constant visual physical

Journalism, media studies and communication


constant cooperation video games specifically designed aid learning another benefit playing video games could educational value provided entertainment video games present problem solving questions player must think order properly solve action orientated video games require strategy order successfully complete process forced think critically helps sharpen mind player ref name game culture one aspect game studies study gaming culture people play video games