revolution labelled opponents ''anarchists'' although accused shared many views later anarchists many revolutionaries th century william godwin wilhelm weitling would contribute anarchist doctrines next generation use ''anarchist'' ''anarchism'' describing beliefs first political philosopher call ''anarchist'' pierre joseph proudhon marking formal birth anarchism mid th century since beginning france ''libertarianism'' often used synonym anarchism use

Humanities
Philosophy
Social philosophy
Anarchism


separate distinctive doctrine according jeremy jennings hard conclude ideas referring anarcho capitalism described anarchist basis misunderstanding anarchism jennings adds anarchism stand untrammelled freedom individual 'anarcho capitalists' appear believe already seen extension individuality community nicolas walter wrote anarchism derive liberalism socialism historically ideologically sense anarchists always remain liberals socialists whenever reject


anarchism without adjectives call toleration unity among anarchists first adopted fernando tarrida del rmol response bitter debates anarchist theory time belief political nihilism espoused anarchists despite separation various anarchist schools thought seen distinct entities rather tendencies intermingle connected set uniform principles individual local autonomy mutual aid network organisation communal democracy justified authority decentralisation classical p inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents mutualism individualism


sources syncretic combining disparate concepts create new philosophical approachesthe anti capitalist tradition classical anarchism remained prominent within contemporary currents contemporary news coverage emphasizes black bloc demonstrations reinforced anarchism 's historical association chaos violence publicity also led scholars fields anthropology history engage anarchist movement although contemporary anarchism favours actions academic theory various anarchist groups tendencies schools thought exist today making difficult describe contemporary anarchist movement theorists activists established relatively stable constellations anarchist principles


taz spaces art poetry surrealism blended display anarchist ideal seen anarchists squatting way regain urban space capitalist market serving pragmatical needs also exemplary direct action acquiring space enables anarchists experiment ideas build social bonds adding tactics mind anarchists share attitudes towards along various forms protesting highly symbolic events make carnivalesque atmosphere part contemporary anarchist vividity key issues anarchism


lead sexuality naturally developing sexual violence concern anarchists benjamin tucker opposed age consent laws believing would benefit predatory men historical current arose flourished within anarchism free love contemporary anarchism current survives tendency support polyamory queer anarchism free love advocates marriage saw way men imposing authority women largely marriage law greatly favoured power men notion free love much broader included critique


never legitimate bakunin saw state meaning coercion domination means coercion camouflaged possible unceremonious overt need john simmons leslie green leaned toward philosophical anarchism believed state could legitimate governed consensus although saw highly unlikely beliefs abolish state also differ anarchism arts p connection anarchism art quite profound classical era anarchism especially among artistic currents developing era futurists


surrealists others literature anarchism mostly associated new apocalyptics neo romanticism movement music anarchism associated music scenes punk anarchists leo tolstoy herbert read stated border artist non artist separates art daily act construct produced alienation caused capitalism prevents humans living joyful life anarchists advocated used art means achieve anarchist ends book ''breaking spell history anarchist filmmakers videotape guerrillas


considered branch anthropology north america asia europe archaeology viewed discipline right grouped related disciplines history etymology abstract noun ''anthropology'' first attested reference history ref name oed present use first appeared renaissance germany works magnus hundt otto casmann ref name medicine ref new latin '''' derived combining forms greek words '' nthr pos'' human ''l gos'' study ref name oed ''oxford english dictionary'' st ed anthropology ''n'' oxford university press oxford ref adjectival form appeared


social sciences including organization human social cultural relations institutions social conflicts etc early anthropology originated classical greece persia studied tried understand observable cultural diversity al biruni islamic golden age ref name ahmed ref anthropology central development several new late th century interdisciplinary fields cognitive science global studies various ethnic studies according clifford geertz ref sociocultural anthropology heavily influenced structuralist postmodern theories well shift toward analysis modern societies


different cultures process participant observation especially helpful understanding culture emic conceptual vs etic technical point view study kinship social organization central focus sociocultural anthropology kinship human universal sociocultural anthropology also covers economic political organization law conflict resolution patterns consumption exchange material culture technology infrastructure gender relations ethnicity childrearing socialization religion myth symbols values etiquette worldview sports music nutrition recreation games food festivals language also object study linguistic anthropology comparison across cultures


often involves participant observation though ethnographer may also draw texts written participants social interactions ethnography views first hand experience social context important tim ingold distinguishes ethnography anthropology arguing anthropology tries construct general theories human experience applicable general novel settings ethnography concerns fidelity argues anthropologist must make writing consistent understanding literature theory notes ethnography may use anthropologists fields inform one another key topics field sociocultural


system' examples trend transform anthropology 'art' anthropology culturally specific 'aesthetics' media punu tribe mask gabon central africa media anthropology also known anthropology media mass media emphasizes ethnographic studies means understanding producers audiences cultural social aspects mass media types ethnographic contexts explored range contexts media production eg ethnographies newsrooms newspapers journalists field film production contexts media reception following audiences everyday responses media


anthropology application theories methods historical materialism traditional concerns anthropology including limited non capitalist societies political economy introduced questions history colonialism ahistorical anthropological theories social structure culture three main areas interest rapidly developed first areas concerned pre capitalist societies subject evolutionary tribal stereotypes sahlin 's work hunter gatherers original affluent society much dissipate image second area concerned vast majority world 's population time


descent one 's social relations development also relatives marriage within kinship two different families people biological families people share dna called consanguineal relations blood ties http contentinflibnetacin data server eacharya documents c ae ce infiep et et v file pdf people also chosen family https wwwpsychologytodaycom us blog unlonely finding connection chosen family finding connection chosen family chose want part family cases people closer chosen family biological families feminist feminist anthropology four field approach anthropology archeological biological


cultural group nbsp history language practices conceptual categories nbsp shape processes human cognition emotion perception motivation mental health also examines understanding cognition emotion motivation similar psychological processes inform constrain models cultural social processes ref name d'andrade ref cognitive cognitive anthropology seeks explain patterns shared knowledge cultural innovation transmission time space using methods theories cognitive sciences especially experimental psychology evolutionary biology often close collaboration historians ethnographers archaeologists linguists musicologists specialists engaged


experiences political legal political political anthropology concerns structure political systems looked basis structure societies political anthropology developed discipline concerned primarily politics stateless societies new development started still unfolding anthropologists started increasingly study complex social settings presence states bureaucracies markets entered ethnographic accounts analysis local phenomena turn towards complex societies meant political themes taken two main levels firstly anthropologists continued study political organization


understanding major trends human past anthropologists geographers share approaches culture regions well since mapping cultures central sciences making comparisons across cultural traditions time based cultural regions space based anthropologists developed various kinds comparative method central part science commonalities fields anthropology developed many different enterprises see history anthropology including limited fossil hunting exploring documentary film making paleontology primatology antiquity dealings curatorship philology etymology genetics regional analysis ethnology history philosophy religious studies difficult characterize entire field


motion pictures general thought rely phi phenomenon beta movement exact causes still uncertain analog mechanical animation media rely rapid display sequential images include ph nakisticope zoetrope flip book praxinoscope film television video popular electronic animation media originally analog operate digitally display computers technology animated gif flash animation developed addition short films feature films television series animated gifs media dedicated display moving images animation also prevalent

Humanities
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Film
Animation


animation industry rest century felix cat debuted became first animated superstar american golden age ''steamboat willie'' featuring mickey mouse minnie mouse popularized film synchronized sound put walt disney 's studio forefront animation industry enormous success mickey mouse seen start golden age american animation would last united states dominated world market animation plethora cel animated theatrical shorts several studios would introduce characters would become popular


''mr bug goes town'' failed box office decades afterward disney would american studio regularly produce animated features ralph bakshi became first also release handful features sullivan bluth studios began regularly produce animated features starting ''an american tail'' although relatively titles became successful disney 's features countries developed animation industries produced short feature theatrical animations wide variety styles relatively often including stop motion cutout animation techniques russia 's soyuzmultfilm animation studio founded


cartoons found new life small screen end production new animated cartoons started shift theatrical releases tv series hanna barbera productions especially prolific huge hit series ''the flintstones'' first prime time animated series ''scooby doo'' since belgian co production ''the smurfs'' constraints american television programming demand enormous quantity resulted cheaper quicker limited animation methods much formulaic scripts quality dwindled daring animation surfaced late


children brought around animation industry remained rather politically unchanged stagnant since inception mainstream culture criticism impact animated movies girls animated movies created sake entertainment although much look subliminal messages hidden animations portray piece reality whether gender racial cultural stereotypes prejudices discrimination values ideologies among others indeed good chance beliefs influenced decades


single scene storyboards handing film animators production team satisfied scenes make sense whole live action films also storyboarded enjoy latitude depart storyboards ie real time improvisation another problem unique animation requirement maintain film 's consistency start finish even films grown longer teams grown larger animators like artists necessarily individual styles must subordinate individuality consistent way whatever style employed particular film


since early teams people animators typically created feature length animated films relatively easy two three artists match styles synchronizing dozens artists difficult problem usually solved separate group visual development artists develop overall look palette film animation begins character designers visual development team draw model sheets show character look like different facial expressions posed different positions


model animation puppets generally armature inside keep still steady constrain motion particular joints examples include ''the tale fox'' france ''the nightmare christmas'' us ''corpse bride'' us ''coraline'' us films ji trnka adult animated sketch comedy television series ''robot chicken'' us present puppetoon created using techniques developed george pal puppet animated films typically use different version puppet different frames rather simply manipulating one existing puppet finnish television commercial clay animation


international animated film association international tourn e animation list film related topics motion graphic design society animation studies wire frame model references citations ref ref name harryhausen dalton ref sources journal articles books online sources url status dead archive url https webarchiveorg web https theheritagetrustwordpresscom worlds oldest animation archive date october archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwwaltdisneyorg blog walt disneys oscars c ae archive date march url status dead df dmy external links http wwwsparetimelabscom animato animato cartoon cartoonhtml making minute cartoon short https webarchiveorg web http wwwnfbca film animando english animando minute film demonstrating different animation techniques teaching use https wwwhistvnet animation bibliography animation websiite histoire de la l vision cartooning articles containing video clips


pollution biofuels genetically modified organisms tariffs farm subsidies leading alternative approaches organic movement ref name motherjones ref ref name smhcomau ref types reindeer herds form basis pastoral agriculture several arctic subarctic peoples pastoralism involves managing domesticated animals nomadic pastoralism herds livestock moved place place search pasture fodder water type farming practised arid semi arid regions sahara central asia parts india shifting cultivation small area forest cleared cutting burning trees cleared


crops ref name fao lps landless systems rely upon feed outside farm representing de linking crop livestock production found prevalently organisation economic co operation development member countries synthetic fertilizers heavily relied upon crop production manure use becomes challenge well source pollution ref name fao lps industrialized countries use operations produce much global supplies poultry pork scientists estimate growth livestock production confined animal feeding operations sometimes called factory


placed restrictions production import use gmo foods crops currently global treaty biosafety protocol regulates trade gmos ongoing discussion regarding labeling foods made gmos eu currently requires gmo foods labeled us herbicide resistant seed gene implanted genome allows plants tolerate exposure herbicides including glyphosate seeds allow farmer grow crop sprayed herbicides control weeds without harming resistant crop herbicide tolerant crops used


human related nitrous oxide times global warming potential co sub sub human induced methane times warming co sub sub also generates ammonia emission livestock expansion cited key factor driving deforestation amazon basin previously forested area occupied pastures remainder used feedcrops ref name lead ref deforestation land degradation livestock also driving reductions biodiversity furthermore unep states methane emissions global livestock projected increase per cent


current practices consumption patterns ref name uneporg land water issues circular irrigated crop fields kansas healthy growing crops corn sorghum green sorghum may slightly paler wheat brilliant gold fields brown recently harvested plowed lain fallow year land transformation use land yield goods services substantial way humans alter earth 's ecosystems driving force causing biodiversity loss estimates amount land transformed humans vary ref name vitousek ref land degradation


non subsidized farmers developing countries experienced adverse effects national policies created artificially low global prices farm products mid early several international agreements limited agricultural tariffs subsidies trade restrictions however still significant amount policy driven distortion global agricultural product prices three agricultural products trade distortion sugar milk rice mainly due taxation among oilseeds sesame taxation overall feed grains oilseeds much lower levels taxation livestock products since policy driven distortions


gill slits large mouth set underside head dermis covered separate dermal placoid scales cloaca urinary genital passages open swim bladder cartilaginous fish produce small number large yolky eggs species ovoviviparous young develop internally others oviparous larvae develop externally egg cases ref name kotpal ref bony fish lineage shows derived anatomical traits often major evolutionary changes features ancient fish bony skeleton generally laterally


snakes species lizard either limbs limbs much reduced size bones better ossified skeletons stronger amphibians teeth conical mostly uniform size surface cells epidermis modified horny scales create waterproof layer reptiles unable use skin respiration amphibians efficient respiratory system drawing air lungs expanding chest walls heart resembles amphibian septum


lizards mostly quadrupeds trunk held ground short sideways facing legs species limbs resemble snakes lizards moveable eyelids eardrums present species central parietal eye ref name dorit '''snakes''' closely related lizards branched common ancestral lineage cretaceous period share many features skeleton consists skull hyoid bone spine ribs though species retain vestige pelvis rear limbs form pelvic spurs bar


mouthparts thorax three pairs segmented legs one pair three segments compose thorax one two pairs wings abdomen composed eleven segments may fused houses digestive respiratory excretory reproductive systems ref name gullan cranston ref considerable variation species many adaptations body parts especially wings legs antennae mouthparts spiders class arachnids four pairs legs body two segments cephalothorax abdomen spiders wings antennae mouthparts


century bce herophilos erasistratus produced accurate anatomical descriptions based vivisection criminals alexandria ptolemaic dynasty ref name bodies ref nd century galen pergamum anatomist clinician writer philosopher ref name britbrit galen wrote final highly influential anatomy treatise ancient times ref name pmid ref compiled existing knowledge studied anatomy dissection animals ref name britbrit galen ref one first experimental physiologists vivisection experiments animals galen 's drawings based mostly dog anatomy became effectively anatomical textbook next thousand years ref name boas work known renaissance doctors


two lands transition unified state happened gradually ancient egyptian writers represented contemporary record menes scholars believe however mythical menes may king narmer depicted wearing royal regalia ceremonial ''narmer palette'' symbolic act unification early dynastic period began bc first dynastic kings solidified control lower egypt establishing capital memphis could control labour force agriculture fertile delta region well

Humanities
History
Ancient history
Ancient Egypt


appears relation sherden shekelesh eqwesh subsequently term applied somewhat indiscriminately several additional ethnonyms including philistines portrayed earliest appearance invaders north reigns merenptah ramesses iii br thesis great migration sea peoples occurred ca bc supposedly based egyptian inscriptions one reign merneptah another reign ramesses iii yet inscriptions migration nowhere appears reviewing egyptian texts say 'the


twenty sixth dynasty bc saite king psamtik able oust assyrians help greek mercenaries recruited form egypt 's first navy greek influence expanded greatly city state naukratis became home greeks nile delta saite kings based new capital sais witnessed brief spirited resurgence economy culture bc powerful persians led cambyses ii began conquest egypt eventually capturing pharaoh psamtik iii battle pelusium cambyses ii assumed


owned land farmers also subject labor tax required work irrigation construction projects corv e system artists craftsmen higher status farmers also state control working shops attached temples paid directly state treasury scribes officials formed upper class ancient egypt known white kilt class reference bleached linen garments served mark rank upper class prominently displayed social status art literature


weave sheets linen make clothing papyrus growing banks nile river used make paper vegetables fruits grown garden plots close habitations higher ground watered hand vegetables included leeks garlic melons squashes pulses lettuce crops addition grapes made wine animals sennedjem plows fields pair oxen used beasts burden source food egyptians believed balanced relationship people animals essential element


penultimate syllable open cv closed cvc writing hieroglyphs stela louvre c bc rosetta stone c bc enabled linguists begin process deciphering ancient egyptian scripts hieroglyphic writing dates c bc composed hundreds symbols hieroglyph represent word sound silent determinative symbol serve different purposes different contexts hieroglyphs formal script used stone monuments tombs could detailed individual works art day day writing scribes used


yellow ochres copper ores blue green soot charcoal black limestone white paints could mixed gum arabic binder pressed cakes could moistened water needed pharaohs used reliefs record victories battle royal decrees religious scenes common citizens access pieces funerary art shabti statues books dead believed would protect afterlife middle kingdom wooden clay models depicting scenes everyday life became popular additions tomb attempt duplicate


introduced hyksos invaders weapons armor continued improve adoption bronze shields made solid wood bronze buckle spears tipped bronze point khopesh adopted asiatic soldiers pharaoh usually depicted art literature riding head army suggested least pharaohs seqenenre tao ii sons however also argued kings period personally act frontline war leaders fighting


kom ombo even old kingdom ancient egyptians developed glassy material known faience treated type artificial semi precious stone faience non clay ceramic made silica small amounts lime soda colorant typically copper material used make beads tiles figurines small wares several methods used create faience typically production involved application powdered materials form paste clay core fired related technique ancient egyptians produced


middle kingdom egypt extrapolating dates ancient sites constructed along course archaeologists italy united states egypt excavating dried lagoon known mersa gawasis unearthed traces ancient harbor launched early voyages like hatshepsut 's punt expedition onto open ocean site 's evocative evidence ancient egyptians' seafaring prowess include large ship timbers hundreds feet ropes made papyrus coiled huge bundles team franco egyptian archaeologists discovered believed world 's oldest port dating


preserve historical legacy egypt gallery widths px heights px file egyptfrontispiecejpg frontispiece ''description de l' gypte'' published volumes file sphinx pyramid khafre jpg tourists pyramid complex khafre near great sphinx giza gallery see also glossary ancient egypt artifacts index ancient egypt related articles outline ancient egypt list ancient egyptians list ancient egyptian inventions discoveries archaeology ancient egypt british school diffusionism notes citation references reading de lexikon der gyptologie external links https wwwbbccouk history ancient egyptians bbc history egyptians provides reliable general overview links http wwwworldhistoryorgcom egypt


ought govern point despite adverse consequences consequences become dire cross stipulated threshold consequentialism takes virtue ethics derived aristotle 's confucius 's notions asserts right action chosen suitably 'virtuous' agent sometimes normative ethical theories clash poses challenges trying resolve real world ethical dilemmas one approach attempts overcome seemingly impossible divide deontology utilitarianism divide caused opposite takings absolute relativist moral view case based reasoning

Humanities
Philosophy
Ethics
Applied ethics


codes ethics medical ethics outline ethics philosophy precautionary principle references reading monograph external links ethics


non philosophical questions also include events happened past questions science mathematics answer ref name ref ''analysis'' name prominent journal philosophy psychotherapy psychoanalysis nbsp seeks elucidate connections among unconscious components patients' mental processes transactional analysis transactional analysis used therapists try gain better understanding unconscious focuses understanding intervening human behavior policy policy analysis nbsp use statistical data predict effects policy decisions made governments agencies policy analysis includes systematic process find efficient

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis


geometric geographic properties time series analysis nbsp methods attempt understand sequence data points spaced apart uniform time intervals aura analysis nbsp technique supporters method claim body 's aura energy field analysed bowling analysis nbsp analysis performance cricket players lithic analysis nbsp analysis stone tools using basic scientific techniques lithic analysis often used archeologists determining types tools used given time period pertaining current artifacts discovered protocol analysis means extracting persons' thoughts


field 's long term goals ref name artificial general intelligence solve problems ai researchers adapted integrated wide range problem solving techniques including search mathematical optimization formal logic artificial neural networks methods based statistics probability economics ai also draws upon computer science psychology linguistics philosophy many fields field founded assumption human intelligence precisely described machine made simulate raises philosophical arguments mind ethics creating artificial beings endowed human like intelligence issues explored

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence


myth fiction philosophy since antiquity science fiction futurology also suggested enormous potential power ai may become existential risk humanity history silver didrachma crete depicting talos ancient mythical automaton artificial intelligence artificial beings intelligence appeared storytelling devices antiquity ref name ai myth ai myth ref common fiction mary shelley 's ''frankenstein'' karel apek 's ''rur'' characters fates raised many issues discussed ethics artificial intelligence study mechanical


formal reasoning began philosophers mathematicians antiquity study mathematical logic led directly alan turing 's theory computation suggested machine shuffling symbols simple could simulate conceivable act mathematical deduction insight digital computers simulate process formal reasoning known church turing thesis church turing thesis along concurrent discoveries neurobiology information theory cybernetics led researchers consider possibility building electronic brain first work generally recognized ai mccullouch


activate learning requires algorithm adjust weights based training data one simple algorithm dubbed fire together wire together increase weight two connected neurons activation one triggers successful activation another neurons continuous spectrum activation addition neurons process inputs nonlinear way rather weighing straightforward votes modern neural networks model complex relationships inputs outputs find patterns data learn continuous functions even digital logical operations neural networks viewed type mathematical


optimization mdash perform gradient descent multi dimensional topology created training network common training technique backpropagation algorithm ref name backpropagation backpropagation paul werbos' introduction backpropagation ai automatic differentiation essential precursor ref learning techniques neural networks hebbian learning fire together wire together gmdh competitive learning ref name learning neural networks competitive learning hebbian coincidence learning hopfield networks attractor networks ref main categories networks acyclic feedforward neural networks signal passes one direction recurrent neural


engines google search targeting online advertisements recommendation systems offered netflix youtube amazon driving internet traffic targeted advertising adsense facebook virtual assistants siri alexa autonomous vehicles including drones self driving cars automatic language translation microsoft translator google translate facial recognition apple 's face id microsoft 's deepface image labeling used facebook apple 's iphoto tiktok spam filtering also thousands successful ai applications used solve problems specific industries institutions examples energy storage deepfakes medical diagnosis military logistics supply chain management game playing


feel situation rather explicit symbolic knowledge ref name dreyfus' critique dreyfus' critique ai historical significance philosophical implications ref although arguments ridiculed ignored first presented eventually ai research came agree ref name psychological evidence sub symbolic reasoning issue resolved sub symbolic reasoning make many inscrutable mistakes human intuition algorithmic bias critics noam chomsky argue continuing research symbolic ai still necessary attain general intelligence part sub symbolic ai move away


clear would required person ''know red looks like'' computationalism functionalism computationalism position philosophy mind human mind information processing system thinking form computing computationalism argues relationship mind body similar identical relationship software hardware thus may solution mind body problem philosophical position inspired work ai researchers cognitive scientists originally proposed philosophers jerry


could also ' 'suffer'' thus would entitled certain rights hypothetical robot rights would lie spectrum animal rights human rights issue considered fiction centuries considered example california 's institute future however critics argue discussion premature future superintelligence superintelligence hyperintelligence superhuman intelligence hypothetical agent would possess intelligence far surpassing brightest gifted human mind ''superintelligence'' may also refer form degree


rise qin dynasty subsequent purge dissent book han lists ten major schools confucianism teaches human beings teachable improvable perfectible personal communal endeavour especially including self cultivation self creation main idea confucianism cultivation virtue development moral perfection confucianism holds one give one 's life necessary either passively actively sake upholding cardinal moral values ' 'ren'' ''yi'' legalism often compared machiavelli foundational traditional chinese bureaucratic empire

Humanities
History
Philosophical history
Ancient philosophy


c bce agrarianism xu xing naturalism zou yan bce neotaoism wang bi guo xiang xiang xiu school diplomacy guiguzi su qin bce zhang yi bef bce yue yi li yiji bce military strategy sunzi c bce sun bin died bce ancient greek roman philosophy graphical relationship among various pre socratic philosophers thinkers red arrows indicate relationship opposition raphael 's school athens depicting array ancient greek philosophers engaged discussion philosophers pre socratic philosophers milesian school thales


bce stilpo bce theophrastus bce hellenistic philosophy pyrrho bce epicurus bce metrodorus lampsacus younger bce zeno citium bce cleanthes c c bce timon bce arcesilaus bce menippus rd century bce archimedes c bce chrysippus bce carneades bce clitomachus bce metrodorus stratonicea late nd century bce philo larissa bce posidonius


animal world speech one distinctive characteristics human development culture accordingly science acoustics spreads across many facets human society music medicine architecture industrial production warfare likewise animal species songbirds frogs use sound hearing key element mating rituals marking territories art craft science technology provoked one another advance whole many fields knowledge robert bruce lindsay 's wheel acoustics well accepted overview various fields acoustics history etymology


propagation falls within domain physical acoustics fluids sound propagates primarily pressure wave solids mechanical waves take many forms including longitudinal waves transverse waves surface waves acoustics looks first pressure levels frequencies sound wave wave interacts environment interaction described either diffraction interference reflection mix three several media present refraction also occur transduction processes also special importance acoustics wave propagation pressure levels spectrogram


young girl saying oh fluids air water sound waves propagate disturbances ambient pressure level disturbance usually small still noticeable human ear smallest sound person hear known threshold hearing nine orders magnitude smaller ambient pressure loudness disturbances related sound pressure level spl measured logarithmic scale decibels wave propagation frequency physicists acoustic engineers tend discuss sound


phenomena earthquakes analytic instruments spectrum analyzer facilitate visualization measurement acoustic signals properties spectrogram produced instrument graphical display time varying pressure level frequency profiles give specific acoustic signal defining character transduction acoustics inexpensive low fidelity nbsp inch '' 'driver''' typically found small radios transducer device converting one form energy another electroacoustic context means converting sound energy electrical energy vice versa electroacoustic transducers include loudspeakers


studied testing acoustic properties prehistoric sites including caves iegor rezkinoff sound archaeologist studies acoustic properties caves natural sounds like humming whistling ref name ref archaeological theories acoustics focused around ritualistic purposes well way echolocation caves archaeology acoustic sounds rituals directly correlate specific sounds meant bring ritual participants closer spiritual awakening ref name parallels also drawn cave wall paintings acoustic properties cave dynamic ref name archaeoacoustics fairly


species known marine animal species domestication typically involves decade scientific research ref name duartemarbaholmer ref domesticating aquatic species involves fewer risks humans land animals took large toll human lives major human diseases originated domesticated animals including diseases smallpox diphtheria like infectious diseases move humans animals human pathogens comparable virulence yet emerged marine species biological control methods manage parasites already used cleaner fish eg lumpsuckers wrasse control sea lice populations salmon


seaweeds grew output volume million tonnes million tonnes ref name ref seaweed farming fish farming fish common form aquaculture involves raising fish commercially tanks fish ponds ocean enclosures usually food facility releases juvenile fish wild recreational fishing supplement species' natural numbers generally referred fish hatchery worldwide important fish species used fish farming order carp salmon tilapia catfish ref name faostat


initiated aquaculture dialogues develop measurable performance based standards responsibly farmed seafood wwf co founded aquaculture stewardship council dutch sustainable trade initiative manage global standards certification programs trials ref name oceangrowncomau ref commercial sea ranch set flinders bay western australia raise abalone ranch based artificial reef made separate concrete units called ''abitats'' abalone habitats nbsp kg abitats host abalone reef seeded young abalone onshore hatchery


production including aquatic plants million tonnes first sale value estimated us billion contribution aquaculture global production capture fisheries aquaculture combined risen continuously reaching percent percent percent annual growth rate period aquaculture continues grow faster major food production sectors longer high annual growth rates experienced ref name total world production fisheries million tonnes aquaculture


china accounted world production aquaculture also currently one fastest growing areas food production us ref name providence ref us shrimp consumption farmed imported recent years salmon aquaculture become major export southern chile especially puerto montt chile 's fastest growing city united nations report titled ''the state world fisheries aquaculture'' released may maintained fisheries aquaculture support livelihoods million people asia africa ref name aquaculture ref fao estimates overall women accounted nearly


several niches extensive cultures low intensity low management within working imta system result greater total production based mutual benefits co cultured species improved ecosystem health even production individual species lower monoculture short term period ref name neori et al ref sometimes term integrated aquaculture used describe integration monocultures water transfer ref name neori et al intents purposes however terms imta integrated aquaculture differ degree descriptiveness aquaponics fractionated aquaculture


fed wild forage fish although carnivorous farmed fish represented percent aquaculture production weight represented percent aquaculture production value farming carnivorous species like salmon shrimp leads high demand forage fish match nutrition get wild fish actually produce omega fatty acids instead accumulate either consuming microalgae produce fatty acids case forage fish like herring sardines case fatty predatory fish like salmon eating prey


oil plant based feeds provide proper nutrition similar growth rates carnivorous farmed fish another impact aquaculture production wild fish risk fish escaping coastal pens interbreed wild counterparts diluting wild genetic stocks escaped fish become invasive competing native species ref name natureza ref animal welfare farming terrestrial animals social attitudes influence need humane practices regulations farmed marine animals guidelines advised farm animal welfare council good animal welfare means fitness sense


doses calm fish transport ref name ashley aquaculture sometimes part environmental rehabilitation program aid conserving endangered species coastal ecosystems aquaculture becoming significant threat coastal ecosystems percent mangrove forests destroyed since partly due shrimp farming ref name autogenerated ref extended cost benefit analysis total economic value shrimp aquaculture built mangrove ecosystems found external costs much higher external benefits four decades indonesian mangroves converted shrimp farms farms


walbaum rome retrieved may ref mass fish kill events impacted salmon farmers along chile 's coast wider ecology increases aquaculture production associated effluent considered possible contributing factors fish molluscan mortality sea cage aquaculture responsible nutrient enrichment waters established results fish wastes uneaten feed inputs elements concern nitrogen phosphorus promote algal growth including harmful algal blooms toxic fish flushing times current speeds distance shore


million euros represents production value affected countries go fisheries oceans canada since pathogens quickly spread within population cultured fish control vital sector historically use antibiotics bacterial epizootics production animal proteins sustainable means preventive measures acceptable biological environmental point view used keep disease problems aquaculture acceptable level added efficiency


way forward prevent loss aquaculture disease genetically modified vaccines used eu due societal concerns regulations meanwhile dna vaccines authorised eu adams challenges fish vaccine development immune response due lack potent adjscientists considering microdose application future also exciting opportunities aquaculture vaccinology due low cost technology regulations change novel antigen expression delivery systems norway subunit vaccine vp peptide infectious pancreatic necrosis used


therapeutics studies rabies shown efficacy depends dose route administration still infancy adams economic gains aquaculture produced fish overtook wild caught fish supply human food means huge demand vaccines prevention diseases reported annual loss fish calculates billion usd approximately fishes dying infectious diseases adams high annual losses increases demand vaccines even though traditionally used vaccines still demand


stephan ludwig jacobi experimented external fertilization brown trouts salmon wrote article '' von der k nstlichen erzeugung der forellen und lachse '' ''on artificial production trout salmon'' summarizing findings regarded founder artificial fish rearing europe latter decades th century oyster farming begun estuaries along atlantic coast north america word aquaculture appeared newspaper article reference harvesting ice also appeared descriptions terrestrial agricultural practise sub irrigation late


'''alternative medicine''' practice aims achieve healing effects medicine lacks biological plausibility untested untestable proven ineffective '''complementary medicine''' '''cm''' '''complementary alternative medicine''' '''cam''' '''integrated medicine''' '''integrative medicine''' '''im''' '''holistic medicine''' among many rebrandings phenomenon alternative therapies share common reside outside medical science instead rely pseudoscience traditional practices become alternative used outside original settings without proper scientific explanation evidence frequently used derogatory terms alternative new age pseudo little distinction

Applied science
Medicine and health
Alternative medicine


quackery alternative practices based theories contradict science human body works others resort supernatural superstitious explain effect others practice plausibly effective many side effects alternative medicine distinct scientific medicine employs scientific method test plausible therapies way responsible ethical clinical trials producing evidence either effect effect research alternative therapies often fails follow proper research protocols placebo controlled trials blind experiments calculation prior probability providing invalid results


theories believed perceived users healing effects medicine name iomquote group n whose effectiveness established using scientific methods ref name atramm ref name hines sampson coulter sagan ref name igpiamayp ref name np whose theory practice part biomedicine whose theories practices directly contradicted scientific evidence scientific principles used biomedicine ref name atramm ref name hines sampson coulter sagan ref name amcer biomedicine medicine part medical science applies principles biology physiology molecular biology biophysics natural sciences clinical practice using scientific methods establish effectiveness


name angell say meaningful define alternative medicine separate conventional medicine expressions conventional medicine alternative medicine complementary medicine integrative medicine holistic medicine refer medicine ref name angell ref name offit ref name dawkins ref name fontanarosa others say alternative medicine cannot precisely defined diversity theories practices includes boundaries alternative conventional medicine overlap porous change healthcare practices categorized alternative may differ historical origin theoretical basis diagnostic technique therapeutic


practice relationship medical mainstream definition alternative medicine non mainstream treatments considered alternative one location may considered conventional another ref name nissen critics say expression deceptive implies effective alternative science based medicine ''complementary'' deceptive implies treatment increases effectiveness complements science based medicine alternative medicines tested nearly always measurable positive effect compared placebo ref name atramm ref name gorski ref name skep dic comp med ref name novella john diamond wrote really


cultures unproven disproven practices part biomedicine entire group collectively marketed promoted single expression alternative medicine ref name atramm ref name qmhchf quack medicine history combating health fraud twentieth century america eric w boyle https booksgooglecom booksid x yctohibpyc pg pa lpg pa ref ref name chbhama ref name nchama ref name frontlineaf ref use alternative medicine west began rise following counterculture movement part rising new age movement ref name atramm ref name enab ref due misleading mass marketing alternative medicine effective alternative biomedicine changing social attitudes


requisite scientific validation effectiveness either unproved disproved ref name nsf ref name atramm ref name kent ref name goldrosen many claims regarding efficacy alternative medicines controversial since research frequently low quality methodologically flawed selective publication bias marked differences product quality standardisation companies making unsubstantiated claims call question claims efficacy isolated examples evidence alternative therapies ref name sarris ''the scientific review alternative medicine'' points confusions general population nbsp person may attribute symptomatic relief


alternative medicine called dangerous unethical ref ref name weisleder ref friendly colorful images herbal treatments may look less threatening dangerous compared conventional medicine intentional marketing strategy social factors authors speculated socio cultural psychological reasons appeal alternative medicines among minority using ''in lieu'' conventional medicine several socio cultural reasons interest treatments centered low level scientific literacy among public large concomitant increase antiscientific attitudes new age mysticism ref name beyerstein related


found percent thought good ways treating sickness medical science recognize ref name nsf use magnets common tool energy medicine america among users percent described least sort scientific scientific ref name nsf least percent us medical schools least class time spent teaching alternative therapies ref name nsf therapeutic touch taught colleges universities countries practice debunked


appropriate treatment unreasonable expectations discourage patients families accepting dealing effectively medical conditions '''direct harm''' results adverse patient outcome ref name napcam ref interactions conventional pharmaceuticals forms alternative medicine biologically active dangerous even used conjunction conventional medicine examples include immuno augmentation therapy shark cartilage bioresonance therapy oxygen ozone therapies insulin potentiation therapy herbal remedies cause dangerous interactions chemotherapy drugs radiation therapy anesthetics surgery among problems ref name cassilethdeng ref name ref name arye example dangers reported


associate professor alastair maclennan adelaide university australia regarding patient almost bled death operating table neglecting mention taking natural potions build strength operation including powerful anticoagulant nearly caused death ref name hills ''abc online'' maclennan also gives another possible mechanism side effects conventional treatments subjected testing undesired side effects whereas alternative therapies general subjected testing treatment nbsp whether conventional alternative nbsp biological psychological effect patient may also


variety problems small samples various biases poor research design lack controls negative results etc even positive results better explained resulting false positives due bias noisy data alternative medicine may lead false understanding body process science ref name mhtg ref ref name fisken ref steven novella neurologist yale school medicine wrote government funded studies integrating alternative medicine techniques mainstream used lend appearance legitimacy treatments legitimate ref name brown marcia angell considered critics felt


patentable may lead less research funding private sector addition countries alternative therapies contrast pharmaceuticals marketed without proof efficacy nbsp also disincentive manufacturers fund scientific research ref name ernst english evolutionary biologist richard dawkins book ''a devil 's chaplain'' defined alternative medicine set practices cannot tested refuse tested consistently fail tests ref name dawkins dawkins argued technique demonstrated effective properly performed trials ceases alternative simply becomes medicine ref name holloway


''v'' ''s'' ''s'' called ''algebraic set'' ''v'' stands ''variety'' specific type algebraic set defined given subset ''u'' '''a''' sup ''n'' sup one recover set polynomials generate ''u'' ''any'' subset '''a''' sup ''n'' sup define ''i'' ''u'' set polynomials whose vanishing set contains ''u'' ''i'' stands ideal two polynomials ''f'' ''g'' vanish ''u'' ''f'' ''g'' vanishes ''u'' ''h'' polynomial ''hf'' vanishes ''u'' ''i'' ''u'' always ideal

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Algebraic geometry


says ''i'' ''v'' ''s'' radical ideal generated ''s'' abstract language galois connection giving rise two closure operators identified naturally play basic role theory example elaborated galois connection various reasons may always want work entire ideal corresponding algebraic set ''u'' hilbert 's basis theorem implies ideals ''k'' '''a''' sup ''n'' sup always finitely generated algebraic set called ''irreducible'' cannot written union two smaller algebraic sets


acting developed students michael chekhov maria knebel united kingdom use improvisation pioneered joan littlewood onwards later keith johnstone clive barker united states promoted viola spolin working neva boyd hull house chicago illinois spolin boyd 's student like british practitioners spolin felt playing games useful means training actors helped improve actor 's performance improvisation argued people may find expressive freedom since

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Acting


play 's overal ''fabel'' eugenio barba argues actors ought concern significance performance behaviour aspect responsibility claims director weaves signifying elements actor 's performance director 's dramaturgical montage theatre semiotician patrice pavis alluding contrast stanislavski 's 'system' brecht 's demonstrating performer beyond denis diderot 's foundational essay art acting ''paradox actor'' c argues blockquote acting long seen terms actor 's sincerity hypocrisy believe saying


gallery around base balloon rather hanging basket first unmanned design brought paper closer fire free flight de rozier d'arlandes took buckets water sponges douse fires arose hand manned design charles essentially modern result exploits hot air balloon became known ''montgolfi re'' type hydrogen balloon ''charli re'' charles robert brothers' next balloon ''la caroline'' charli followed jean baptiste meusnier 's proposals

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Aerospace engineering
Aeronautics


understanding design ornithopters parachutes another significant invention tension spoked wheel devised order create light strong wheel aircraft undercarriage th century th century cayley 's ideas refined proved expanded important investigators included otto lilienthal horatio phillips branches eurofighter typhoon antonov ''mriya'' largest aeroplane ever built aeronautics may divided three main branches comprising aviation aeronautical science aeronautical engineering aviation aviation art practice aeronautics historically aviation meant heavier air flight nowadays includes flying


satellites human spaceflight exploration planets comparatively inefficient low speed use lightweight powerful capable generating large accelerations attaining extremely high speeds reasonable efficiency chemical rockets common type rocket typically create exhaust combustion rocket propellant chemical rockets store large amount energy easily released form dangerous however careful design testing construction use minimizes risks see also references citations sources external links courses research


vehicle operation articles containing video clips


field '''''r'' algebra''' ''r'' module associative ''r'' bilinear binary operation also contains multiplicative identity examples concept ''s'' ring center ''c'' ''s'' associative ''c'' algebra definition let ''r'' commutative ring ''r'' could field '''associative ''r'' algebra''' simply '''''r'' algebra''' ring also ''r'' module way two additions ring addition module addition operation scalar multiplication satisfies math r cdot xy r cdot x x r cdot math

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Associative algebra


ring homomorphism math eta colon r math whose image lies center ''a'' make ''a'' ''r'' algebra defining math r cdot x eta r x math ''r'' ''r'' ''x'' ''a'' ''a'' ''r'' algebra taking ''x'' formula turn defines ring homomorphism math eta colon r math whose image lies center ring commutative equals center commutative ''r'' algebra defined simply commutative ring ''a'' together commutative ring homomorphism math eta colon r math


equivalent ring characteristic ''n'' '''z''' ''n'''''z''' algebra way given ''r'' module ''m'' endomorphism ring ''m'' denoted end sub ''r'' sub ''m'' ''r'' algebra defining ''r'' ''x'' ''r'' ''x'' ring matrices coefficients commutative ring ''r'' forms ''r'' algebra matrix addition multiplication coincides previous example ''m'' finitely generated free ''r'' module particular square ''n'' ''n'' matrices entries field ''k'' form associative algebra ''k'' complex numbers form dimensional commutative algebra real numbers quaternions form dimensional associative


quotients exterior symmetric algebras categorically speaking functor maps ''r'' module tensor algebra left adjoint functor sends ''r'' algebra underlying ''r'' module forgetting multiplicative structure following ring used theory rings given commutative ring ''a'' let math g ta math set formal power series constant term abelian group group operation multiplication power series ring multiplication denoted math circ math math


''a'' automatically ''r'' module since ''r'' nbsp nbsp ''x'' ''r'' sub ''a'' sub ''x'' gives quotient ring ''a'' nbsp nbsp ''i'' structure ''r'' module fact ''r'' algebra follows ring homomorphic image ''a'' also ''r'' algebra direct products direct product family ''r'' algebras ring theoretic direct product becomes ''r'' algebra obvious scalar multiplication free products one form free product ''r'' algebras manner similar free product groups free product coproduct category ''r'' algebras tensor products tensor product two


''r'' algebras also ''r'' algebra natural way see tensor product algebras details given commutative ring ''r'' ring ''a'' tensor product ''r'' nbsp sub '''z''' sub nbsp ''a'' given structure ''r'' algebra defining ''r'' nbsp nbsp ' 's'' nbsp nbsp ''a'' ''rs'' nbsp nbsp ''a'' functor sends ''a'' ''r'' nbsp sub '''z''' sub nbsp ''a'' left adjoint functor sends ''r'' algebra underlying ring forgetting module structure see also change rings separable algebra let ''a'' algebra commutative ring ''r'' algebra ''a'' right module math e op otimes r


full matrix ring division ring ''a'' simple algebra ''a'' full matrix algebra division algebra ''d'' ''k'' ie math n math generally ''a'' semisimple algebra finite product matrix algebras various division ''k'' algebras fact known artin wedderburn theorem fact ''a'' artinian simplifies notion jacobson radical artinian ring jacobson radical ''a'' intersection two sided maximal ideals contrast general jacobson radical


'''aesthetics''' '''esthetics''' branch philosophy deals nature beauty taste well '''philosophy art''' area philosophy comes aesthetics examines aesthetic values often expressed judgments taste aesthetics covers natural artificial sources aesthetic experience judgment considers happens minds engage aesthetic objects environments viewing visual art listening music reading poetry experiencing play exploring nature philosophy art specifically studies artists imagine


beauty bagster london sd pp nbsp francis grose therefore claimed first critical 'aesthetic regionalist' proclaiming anti universality aesthetics contrast perilous always resurgent dictatorship beauty 'aesthetic regionalism' thus seen political statement stance vies universal notion beauty safeguard counter tradition aesthetics related considered dubbed un beautiful one 's culture contemplate eg e burke 's sublime usually defined 'primitive' art un harmonious non cathartic art camp art 'beauty'


posits creates dichotomously opposite without even need formal statements 'perceived' ugly likewise aesthetic judgments may culturally conditioned extent victorians britain often saw african sculpture ugly decades later edwardian audiences saw sculptures beautiful evaluations beauty may well linked desirability perhaps even sexual desirability thus judgments aesthetic value become linked judgments economic political moral value current context lamborghini might judged beautiful partly


desires culture preferences values subconscious behaviour conscious decision training instinct sociological institutions complex combination depending exactly theory employed third major topic study aesthetic judgments unified across art forms instance source painting 's beauty different character beautiful music suggesting aesthetics differ kind distinct inability language express aesthetic judgment role social construction cloud issue aesthetic universals philosopher denis dutton identified six universal signatures human aesthetics ref name dutton denis


beauty aesthetics concept art'' open court stephen davies ''definitions art'' terry eagleton ''the ideology aesthetic'' blackwell susan l feagin patrick maynard aesthetics oxford readers penny florence nicola foster eds ''differential aesthetics'' london ashgate berys gaut dominic mciver lopes eds ''routledge companion aesthetics'' rd edition london new york routledge annemarie gethmann siefert ''einf hrung die sthetik'' munich w fink david goldblatt lee b brown ed ''aesthetics reader philosophy arts'' rd edition pearson publishing theodore gracyk ''the philosophy


art introduction'' polity press greenberg clement modernist painting ''the collected essays criticism '' university chicago press evelyn hatcher ed ''art culture introduction anthropology art'' georg wilhelm friedrich hegel ''aesthetics lectures fine art'' trans tm knox vols oxford clarendon press hans hofmann sara weeks bartlett h hayes addison gallery american art http wwwworldcatlibrariesorg oclc referer brief results ''search real essays'' cambridge massachusetts mit press michael ann holly keith moxey eds ''art history visual studies'' yale university press carol


close range effect rather making plate armour obsolete use firearms stimulated development plate armour later stages period allowed horsemen fight targets defending arquebusiers without easily killed full suits armour actually worn generals princely commanders right second decade th century way could mounted survey overall battlefield safety distant musket fire horse afforded protection lances infantry weapons steel

Applied science
Military sciences
Military weapons
Armor


bayonets sabres lances cavalry wary repeating rifles machine guns artillery unlike foot soldiers least trench give protection present today ballistic vests also known flak jackets made ballistic cloth eg kevlar dyneema twaron spectra etc ceramic metal plates common among police forces security staff corrections officers branches military us army adopted interceptor body armour uses enhanced small arms protective inserts esapis chest sides back armour plate


vasa livrustkammaren tif plate armour file riot policeman piccadilly gardens manchesterjpg riot police body protection physical impact provide much protection firearms however gallery vehicle first modern production technology armour plating used navies construction ironclad warship reaching pinnacle development battleship first tanks produced world war aerial armour used protect pilots aircraft systems since first world war modern ground forces' usage meaning armour expanded include role


horse armour could made whole part cuir bouilli hardened leather surviving examples especially rare see also battledress bomb suit linothorax powered exoskeleton rolled homogeneous armour high voltage transformer fire barriers notes references ballistic protection levels bulletproofmecom body armor armorup lp nd october articles containing video clips safety clothing military equipment antiquity


math varepsilon rm math absolute error math x math true value math bar x math observed value error measurement inverse measure accurate measurement ie smaller error greater accuracy measurement errors expressed relatively given relative error math varepsilon rm r math math varepsilon rm r frac varepsilon rm x left frac x bar x x right math percent error also calculated math varepsilon rm r times math want use values function may also want calculate error function let math f math function math n math

Natural science
Chemistry
Analytical chemistry


performance sensitivity detection limit selectivity robustness dynamic range linear range accuracy precision speed cost purchase operation training time space among main branches contemporary analytical atomic spectrometry widespread universal optical mass spectrometry direct elemental analysis solid samples new leaders laser induced breakdown laser ablation mass spectrometry related techniques transfer laser ablation products inductively coupled plasma advances design diode lasers optical parametric oscillators promote developments fluorescence ionization spectrometry also absorption techniques uses


muskets ' 'spingarde'' arquebus ' 'schioppi'' hand cannon greek fire guns cannons fire works every place considered excellent casting artillery knowledge using javanese fleet led patih yunus sailed attack portuguese malacca much artillery made java javanese skilled founding casting works iron india ref name ref ref name ref early th century javanese already locally producing large guns still survived present day dubbed sacred cannon holy cannon

Applied science
Military sciences
Artillery


force battlefield pushing development much lighter smaller weapons deploying far greater numbers previously outcome battles still determined clash infantry shells explosive filled fused projectiles also developed th century development specialized pieces shipboard artillery howitzers mortars also begun period esoteric designs like multi barrel ''ribauldequin'' known organ guns also produced book kazimierz siemienowicz ''artis magnae artilleriae pars prima'' one important contemporary publications subject artillery two centuries


projectile 's velocity providing additional 'push' small rocket motor part projectile 's base base bleed uses small pyrotechnic charge base projectile introduce sufficient combustion products low pressure region behind base projectile responsible large proportion drag ramjet assisted similar rocket assisted using ramjet instead rocket motor anticipated ramjet assisted mm mortar shell could reach range propelling charges tube artillery provided one two ways either cartridge bags


includes mortar carrier vehicles many allow mortar removed vehicle used dismounted potentially terrain vehicle cannot navigate order avoid detection organizational types beginning modern artillery period late th century many armies three main types artillery case sub branches within artillery branch others separate branches corps also types excluding armament fitted warships horse drawn artillery man pulled artillery gas masks operate adj howitzer world war


howitzers fire maximum elevations least close elevations normal modern howitzers howitzers also choice charges meaning elevation angle fire achieve different range depending charge used rifled bores lower muzzle velocities shorter barrels equivalent guns means deliver fire steep angle descent multi charge capability ammunition mostly separate loading projectile propellant loaded separately leaves six combinations three criteria


outbreak war size towing vehicle depends weight equipment amount ammunition carry variation towed portee vehicle carries gun dismounted firing mortars often carried way mortar sometimes carried armored vehicle either fire dismounted fire ground since early possible carry lighter towed guns mortars helicopter even parachuted landed


point ''preparation fire'' delivered attack weaken enemy position purposes existed th century although definitions evolved continue lack ' 'suppression'' ''counterbattery'' omission broadly defined either ''deep supporting fire'' directed objectives immediate vicinity force neutralizing destroying enemy reserves weapons interfering enemy command supply communications observation ''close supporting fire'' placed enemy troops weapons positions proximity present immediate


friendly artillery later optimum time depending tactical situation counter battery policy air strike another option situations task locate active enemy batteries attack using counter battery fire appropriate moment accordance plan developed artillery intelligence staff situations counter battery fire may occur whenever battery located sufficient accuracy modern counter battery target acquisition uses unmanned aircraft counter battery radar ground reconnaissance sound ranging counter battery fire may adjusted systems example operator unmanned


called time target tot developed british army north africa end early particularly counter battery fire concentrations proved popular relied bbc time signals enable officers synchronize watches second avoided need use military radio networks possibility losing surprise need field telephone networks desert technique time flight fire unit battery troop target taken range firing tables


regulate social economic political spheres human interaction civil law countries often specialized administrative courts review decisions civil law countries unlike common law jurisdictions civil law jurisdictions specialized courts sections deal administrative cases rule apply procedural rules specifically designed cases distinct applied private law proceedings contract tort claims brazil brazil administrative cases typically heard either federal courts matters concerning federal union


right well military medical judicial disciplinary bodies french body administrative law called ' 'droit administratif'' course history france 's administrative courts developed extensive coherent case law ''jurisprudence constante'' legal doctrine ''principes g n raux du droit'' ''principes fondamentaux reconnus par les lois de la r publique'' often similar concepts enshrined constitutional legal texts principes include right fair trial ' 'droit la fense'' including internal disciplinary bodies right challenge administrative decision administrative court ' 'droit au recours'' equal treatment public


governmental units decisions could reviewed court general jurisdiction principle judicial review based upon due process united states fundamental justice canada judicial review administrative decisions different administrative appeal sitting review decision court look method decision arrived whereas administrative appeal correctness decision examined usually higher body agency difference vital appreciating administrative law common law countries scope judicial


federal executive departments still part executive branch congress also created special judicial bodies known article tribunals handle areas administrative law actions executive agencies independent agencies main focus american administrative law response rapid creation new independent agencies early twentieth century see discussion congress enacted administrative procedure act '''apa''' many independent agencies operate miniature versions tripartite federal government authority legislate rulemaking see federal register


ancient egyptians babylonians ref name nysscpa time emperor augustus roman government access detailed financial information ref name oldroyd david ''the role accounting public expenditure monetary policy first century ad roman empire'' accounting historians journal volume number birmingham alabama december p http cliolibolemissedu utils getfile collection aah id filename pdf olemissedu ref double entry bookkeeping pioneered jewish community early medieval middle east refined medieval europe ref name logicaugentbe ref development joint stock companies accounting split financial accounting management accounting first published work double entry


british accounting topics accounting several subfields subject areas including financial accounting management accounting auditing taxation accounting information systems ref name wc weber richard p w c stevenson evaluations accounting journal department quality accounting review ref financial accounting financial accounting focuses reporting organization 's financial information external users information investors potential investors creditors calculates records business transactions prepares financial statements external users accordance generally accepted accounting principles gaap ref name hdf ref


gaap turn arises wide agreement accounting theory practice change time meet needs decision makers ref name np financial accounting produces past oriented reports example financial statements often published six ten months end accounting period annual quarterly basis generally organization whole ref name hdf management accounting management accounting focuses measurement analysis reporting information help managers making decisions fulfill goals organization management accounting internal measures


accountants united states ref name prince ref many professional bodies offer education training including qualification administration various accounting designations certified public accountant aicpa chartered accountant ref name aicpa cpa ref ref name icaew aca ref firms depending size company may legally required financial statements audited qualified auditor audits usually carried accounting firms ref name parliament auditors ref accounting firms grew united states europe late nineteenth early twentieth century several mergers


planet laboratory using computer modeling generate wide variety virtual planets see would look like viewed tpf darwin hoped missions come online spectra cross checked virtual planetary spectra features might indicate presence life estimate number planets intelligent ''communicative'' extraterrestrial life gleaned drake equation essentially equation expressing probability intelligent life product factors fraction planets might habitable

Natural science
Space science
Astrobiology


universe example organisms able withstand exposure vacuum radiation outer space include lichen fungi ''rhizocarpon geographicum'' ''xanthoria elegans'' bacterium ''bacillus safensis'' ref name theplanetaryreport ''the planetary report'' volume xxix number march april make happen survive ten hardy organisms selected life project amir alexander ref ''deinococcus radiodurans'' ref name theplanetaryreport ''bacillus subtilis'' ref name theplanetaryreport yeast ''saccharomyces cerevisiae'' ref name theplanetaryreport seeds ''arabidopsis thaliana'' 'mouse ear cress' ref name theplanetaryreport well invertebrate animal tardigrade ref name theplanetaryreport tardigrades considered true extremophiles considered


different earth cassini data studied reported march titan may also underground ocean composed liquid water ammonia phosphine detected atmosphere planet venus known abiotic processes planet could cause presence given venus hottest surface temperature planet solar system venusian life exists likely limited extremophile microorganisms float planet 's upper atmosphere conditions almost earth like measuring ratio hydrogen


methane levels mars may help determine likelihood life mars ref name pnas ref ref name space ref according scientists low h sub sub ch sub sub ratios less approximately indicate life likely present active ref name pnas scientists recently reported methods detecting hydrogen methane extraterrestrial atmospheres ref name nature ref ref name wired ref complex organic compounds life including uracil cytosine thymine formed laboratory outer space conditions using starting chemicals pyrimidine found meteorites pyrimidine like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pahs carbon rich chemical found universe ref name nasa ref rare earth


best candidates extremophiles since adapted survive different kind extreme conditions earth course evolution extremophiles developed various strategies survive different stress conditions different extreme environments stress responses could also allow survive harsh space conditions although evolution also puts restrictions use analogues extraterrestrial life thermophilic species g thermantarcticus good example microorganism could survive space travel bacterium spore forming genus bacillus formation spores allows survive extreme


distribution destiny universe loeb avi ''extraterrestrial first sign intelligent life beyond earth'' houghton mifflin harcourt reading goldsmith owen ''the search life universe'' addison wesley publishing company rd edition andy weir 's best selling novel ''project hail mary'' centers astrobiology dealing climate change caused space dwelling microbes astronaut finds another civilization suffering problem external links https webarchiveorg web http astrobiologynasagov astrobiologynasagov http astrobiologyacuk uk centre astrobiology http cabinta csices spanish centro de astrobiolog https wwwlocgov loc kluge fellowships nasa astrobiologyhtml astrobiology research library congress https wwwastrobionet astrobiology magazine exploring solar system


fundamental forces flight lift drag thrust weight lift drag aerodynamic forces ie forces due air flow solid body calculation quantities often founded upon assumption flow field behaves continuum continuum flow fields characterized properties flow velocity pressure density temperature may functions position time properties may directly indirectly measured aerodynamics experiments calculated starting equations conservation mass momentum energy air flows density


atmospheric conditions mean free path length order micrometers body orders magnitude larger cases length scale aircraft ranges meters tens meters much larger mean free path length applications continuum assumption reasonable continuum assumption less valid extremely low density flows encountered vehicles high altitudes eg nbsp ft nbsp km ref name andersonhist ref satellites low earth orbit cases statistical mechanics


accurate method solving problem continuum aerodynamics knudsen number used guide choice statistical mechanics continuous formulation aerodynamics conservation laws assumption fluid continuum allows problems aerodynamics solved using fluid dynamics conservation laws three conservation principles used conservation mass conservation mass requires mass neither created destroyed within flow mathematical formulation principle known mass continuity equation conservation momentum mathematical formulation principle considered


problem less speed sound transonic speeds speed sound present normally characteristic speed approximately speed sound supersonic characteristic flow speed greater speed sound hypersonic flow speed much greater speed sound aerodynamicists disagree precise definition hypersonic flow rough definition considers flows mach numbers hypersonic ref name andersonhist influence viscosity flow dictates third classification problems may encounter


small viscous effects case viscosity considered negligible approximations problems called inviscid flows flows viscosity cannot neglected called viscous flows incompressible aerodynamics incompressible flow flow density constant time space although real fluids compressible flow often approximated incompressible effect density changes cause small changes calculated results likely true flow speeds significantly lower speed sound


simplified version equations fluid dynamics thus making available aerodynamicist range quick easy solutions ref name ref solving subsonic problem one decision made aerodynamicist whether incorporate effects compressibility compressibility description amount change density flow effects compressibility solution small assumption density constant may made problem incompressible low speed aerodynamics problem density allowed vary flow called compressible air compressibility


object giving impression fluid knows object seemingly adjusting movement flowing around supersonic flow however pressure disturbance cannot propagate upstream thus fluid finally reaches object strikes fluid forced change properties temperature density pressure mach number extremely violent irreversible fashion called shock wave presence shock waves along compressibility effects high flow velocity see reynolds number fluids central difference supersonic subsonic aerodynamics


bugs fly list aerospace engineering topics list engineering topics nose cone design references reading '''general aerodynamics''' '''subsonic aerodynamics''' obert ed delft practical aerodynamics industry effects design aircraft '''transonic aerodynamics''' '''supersonic aerodynamics''' '''hypersonic aerodynamics''' '''history aerodynamics''' '''aerodynamics related engineering''' ''ground vehicles'' ''fixed wing aircraft'' ''helicopters'' ''missiles'' ''model aircraft'' '''related branches aerodynamics''' ''aerothermodynamics'' ''aeroelasticity'' ''boundary layers'' ''turbulence'' external links http wwwgrcnasagov www k airplane bgahtml nasa beginner 's guide aerodynamics http wwwaerodynamics studentscom aerodynamics students https webarchiveorg web http selairselkirkbcca training aerodynamics indexhtml aerodynamics pilots https webarchiveorg web http www edgecom performance tuning aerohtml aerodynamics race car tuning http wwwaerodyndesigncom aerodynamic related projects http wwwefluidscom efluids pages bicyclehtm efluids bicycle aerodynamics https webarchiveorg web http wwwforumula net f features car design technology aerodynamics


advertising increased dramatically united states industrialization expanded supply manufactured products percent gross domestic product gdp us averaged percent gdp least though may declined dramatically since great recession industry could benefit increased productivity without substantial increase consumer spending contributed development mass marketing designed influence population 's economic behavior larger scale advertisers us adopted doctrine

Journalism, media studies and communication


fact first american advertising use sexual sell created woman soap product although tame today 's standards advertisement featured couple message skin love touch psychologists walter scott john b watson contributed applied psychological theory field advertising scott said man called reasoning animal could greater truthfulness called creature suggestion reasonable greater extent suggestible demonstrated advertising technique


home soon adopted advertising techniques would allow messages stand slogans mascots jingles began appear radio early television rise mass media communications allowed manufacturers branded goods bypass retailers advertising directly consumers major paradigm shift forced manufacturers focus brand stimulated need superior insights consumer purchasing consumption usage behaviour needs wants aspirations earliest radio drama series sponsored soap manufacturers genre became known


chrysler exxon esso using insights drawn research methods psychology cultural anthropology led enduring campaigns th century commercial television early dumont television network began modern practice selling advertisement time multiple sponsors previously dumont trouble finding sponsors many programs compensated selling smaller blocks advertising time several businesses eventually became standard commercial television industry united states however still common practice single sponsor


cinema television television advertising one expensive types advertising networks charge large amounts commercial airtime popular events annual super bowl football game united states known prominent advertising event television audience million studies showing tuned see advertisements ref name super bowl ad really worth million edition game average thirty second ad cost us million


first paid downloadable content appeared mobile phones finland mobile advertising followed also first launched finland value mobile advertising reached billion providers admob delivered billions mobile ads advanced mobile ads include banner ads coupons multimedia messaging service picture video messages advergames various engagement marketing campaigns particular feature driving mobile ads barcode replaces need typing web addresses uses camera feature modern phones gain immediate access web


aired super bowl found nielsen 's buzzmetrics buzzed another example companies using crowdsourcing successfully beverage company jones soda encourages consumers participate label design trend given rise several online platforms host user generated advertising competitions behalf company founded zooppa launched ad competitions brands google nike hershey 's general mills microsoft nbc universal zinio mini cooper crowdsourcing remains controversial long term impact advertising industry still unclear globalization


success ad country region ability identify elements moments ad contribute success economies scale maximized one knows works ad idea ideas imported market market research measures flow attention flow emotion branding moments provide insight working ad country region measures based visual verbal elements ad foreign public messaging foreign governments


created reasons concern study found brands advertising negative return investment unsolicited ads criticized attention theft ref name wired ref regulation increasing efforts protect public interest regulating content influence advertising examples include restrictions advertising alcohol tobacco gambling imposed many countries well bans around advertising children exist parts europe advertising regulation focuses heavily veracity claims often tighter restrictions


rating point history advertising history advertising britain history advertising trust informative advertising integrated marketing communications list advertising awards local advertising mad men marketing communications market overhang marketing mix media planning meta advertising mobile marketing museum brands packaging advertising performance based advertising promotion promotional mix senior media creative sex advertising shock advertising television advertisement tobacco advertising trade literature video commerce viral marketing world federation advertisers influential thinkers advertising theory practice n w ayer son probably first advertising agency use mass media ie telegraph promotional campaign ernest


poland assassination william silent holland assassination king henry iii france assassination king henry iv france middle ages regicide rare western europe recurring theme eastern roman empire strangling bathtub commonly used method renaissance tyrannicide assassination personal political reasons became common western europe high medieval sources mention assassination king demetrius zvonimir dying hands people objected proposition pope go

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Assassination


yekaterinburg bolsheviks following october revolution reinhard heydrich died attack british trained czechoslovak soldiers behalf czechoslovak government exile operation anthropoid knowledge decoded transmissions allowed united states carry targeted attack killing japanese admiral isoroku yamamoto travelling plane polish home army conducted regular campaign assassinations top nazi german officials occupied poland adolf hitler almost killed officers survived various attempts persons organizations operation foxley though plan never put


death mentally unstable crown prince dipendra nepal shot head died three days later june spending brief reign king coma israeli tourist minister rehavam ze'evi assassinated october hamdi quran three members popular front liberation palestine pflp stated assassination retaliation august killing abu ali mustafa secretary general pflp israeli air force policy targeted killings lebanon


former prime minister opposition leader benazir bhutto assassinated running election bhutto 's assassination drew unanimous condemnation international community guinea bissau president jo bernardo vieira assassinated early hours march capital bissau unlike typical assassinations death swift first survived explosion presidential villa shot wounded finally butchered machetes assassination carried renegade soldiers apparently avenging death general tagme na waie chief staff


major figures one example might traveling car protected bubble clear bulletproof glass mrap like popemobile pope john paul ii built following attempt life politicians often resent need separation sometimes send bodyguards away personal publicity reasons us president william mckinley public reception assassinated ref name report potential targets go seclusion rarely heard seen public writer salman rushdie related form protection use


translation dharma buddha ''f ji o'' chinese ''bukky '' japanese ''nang pa sangs rgyas pa'i chos'' tibetan ''buddhadharma'' sanskrit ''buddha sana'' pali four noble truths ' 'dukkha'' ending alt color manuscript illustration buddha teaching four noble truths nalanda bihar india buddha teaching four noble truths sanskrit manuscript nalanda bihar india four truths express basic orientation buddhism crave cling impermanent states things ' 'dukkha'' incapable satisfying painful keeps us caught sa ra endless cycle repeated rebirth dukkha


produced rebirth ends br spiro buddhis message said simply psychological message ie desire cause suffering unsatisfied desire produces frustration contain message sure importantly eschatological message desire cause suffering desire cause rebirth extinction desire leads deliverance suffering signals release wheel rebirth br john j makransky third noble truth cessation ''nirodha'' nirvana represented ultimate aim


driven impulse prey suffer manusya human beings one realms rebirth attaining nirvana possible rebirth realm therefore considered fortunate opportunity end endless samsara associated dukkha asuras variously translated lowly deities demi gods demons titans anti gods recognised theravada tradition part heavenly realm devas including brahm variously translated gods deities angels heavenly beings vast majority buddhist lay people historically pursued buddhist rituals practices motivated rebirth


deva realm ref name merv fowler quote vast majority buddhists theravadin countries however order monks seen lay buddhists means gaining merit hope accumulating good karma better rebirth ref east asian tibetan buddhism rebirth instantaneous intermediate state tibetan bardo one life next orthodox theravada position rejects intermediate state asserts rebirth immediate however passages ''samyutta nikaya'' pali canon


seem lend support idea buddha taught intermediate stage one life next karma buddhism karma sanskrit action work drives ' 'sa ra'' endless cycle suffering rebirth good skilful deeds p li ''kusala'' bad unskilful deeds p li ''akusala'' produce seeds unconscious receptacle '' laya'' mature later either life subsequent rebirth existence karma core belief buddhism major indian religions implies neither fatalism everything happens


good karma living family members ancestors ref karma merit transfer concept controversial accepted later jainism hinduism traditions unlike buddhism adopted ancient times remains common practice ref name appletonp according bruce reichenbach merit transfer idea generally absent early buddhism may emerged rise mahayana buddhism adds major hindu schools yoga advaita vedanta others believe merit transfer bhakti hindu traditions later adopted idea like buddhism liberation aniconic depiction


circuitous links twelve nidanas buddhism asserts liberation endless cycles rebirth dukkha attained self emptiness related doctrine buddhism ''anatt '' pali ''an tman'' sanskrit view unchanging permanent self soul essence phenomena buddha buddhist philosophers follow vasubandhu buddhaghosa generally argue view analyzing person schema five aggregates attempting show none five components personality permanent absolute


seen ended rebirth mental defilements bodhisattva bound awakening meanwhile simply name someone working towards awakening ''bodhi'' buddha according early buddhist schools well theravada considered bodhisattva one made vow front living buddha also received confirmation one 's future buddhahood ref name drewes david drewes david ''mah na tras opening bodhisattva path'' paper presented xviii iabs congress toronto updated ref


given sexual acts monastic pursuit lay buddhists sensual misconduct sexual involvement someone married unmarried woman protected parents relatives style background cfc right livelihood ' 'samyag j vana br samm j va'' monks beg feed possessing essential sustain life lay buddhists canonical texts state right livelihood abstaining wrong livelihood explained becoming source means suffering sentient beings cheating harming killing way style background fff rowspan meditation br sanskrit


various graduated paths usually presented practice taught prior formal sitting meditation supports meditation weakening sense desires hindrance meditation ref name layo p layo satipa h na direct path realization p windhorse publications ref according layo sense restraint one guards sense doors order prevent sense impressions leading desires discontent ref name layo p avoidance sense impression kind mindful attention towards sense impressions dwell


hence awareness relative value different practices exercises training mindfulness early discourses four ''satipa h nas'' sanskrit ' 'sm tyupasth na'' establishments mindfulness '' n p nasati'' sanskrit '' n p nasm ti'' mindfulness breathing '' closely related mental faculty often mentioned side side mindfulness ' 'sampaja a'' clear comprehension faculty ability comprehend one happening mind whether influenced unwholesome states wholesome ones meditation ''sam dhi'' ''dhy na'' k sawaki practicing zazen sitting dhyana wide


''four dhy nas'' buddhist invention alexander wynne argues buddha learned ' 'dhy na'' brahmanical teachers whatever case buddha taught meditation new focus interpretation particularly ''four dhy nas'' methodology mindfulness maintained focus meditation underlying theory liberation guiding meditation different buddhism example states bronkhorst verse ''brihadaranyaka upanishad'' become calm subdued quiet patiently enduring concentrated one sees soul oneself probably meditative state buddhist discussion meditation without


often grouped ''jh na'' scheme four meditative states referred early texts ''arupa sam pattis'' formless attainments also referred commentarial literature immaterial formless ''jh nas'' ''ar pajh nas'' first formless attainment place realm infinite space '' k na c yatana'' without form colour shape second termed realm infinite consciousness ''vi c yatana'' third realm nothingness '' ki ca yatana'' fourth realm neither perception non perception ref name wayman p ref four ''rupa jh nas'' buddhist practice lead rebirth successfully better ''rupa'' brahma heavenly realms ''arupa jh nas''


important part buddhist meditation tradition according gombrich buddhist usage ''brahma vih ra'' originally referred awakened state mind concrete attitude toward beings equal living brahman later tradition took descriptions literally linking cosmology understanding living brahman rebirth brahma world according gombrich buddha taught kindness christians tend call love way salvation tantra visualization subtle body th century mongolian miniature


subtle body energies seen influencing consciousness powerful ways thus used order generate 'great bliss' ''maha sukha'' used attain luminous nature mind realization empty illusory nature phenomena illusory body leads enlightenment completion practices often grouped different systems six dharmas naropa six yogas kalachakra tibetan buddhism also practices methods sometimes seen outside two tantric stages mainly mahamudra dzogchen ''atiyoga'' practice


thus condemned animal sacrifice brahmins well hunting killing animals food led various policies buddhist kings asoka meant protect animals establishing 'no slaughter days' banning hunting certain circumstances however early buddhist texts depict buddha allowing monastics eat meat seems monastics begged food thus supposed accept whatever food offered tempered rule meat three times clean meant


texts composed indian scholars revered tibetan tradition ref name lopez busc ref buddhist textual history vast manuscriptsmostly buddhist non buddhistwere discovered dunhuang chinese cave alone ref name lopez busc early buddhist texts gandhara birchbark scroll fragments c st century british library collection early buddhist texts refers literature considered modern scholars earliest buddhist material first four pali nikayas corresponding chinese gamas generally considered among earliest material apart also fragmentary collections ebt


school preserved early non sectarian body teachings according peter harvey contains material odds later theravadin orthodoxy states theravadins may ''added'' texts canon time appear tampered already earlier period abhidharma commentaries distinctive feature many tripitaka collections inclusion genre called abhidharma dates rd century bce later according collett cox genre began explanations elaborations teachings


suttas time evolved independent system doctrinal exposition time various abhidharma traditions developed various disagreements points doctrine discussed different abhidharma texts schools major abhidharma collections modern scholars information therav da sarv stiv da schools sri lanka south india therav da abhidhamma system influential addition abhidharma project schools also began accumulating literary tradition scriptural commentary respective tripitakas commentaries particularly


important therav da school pali commentaries ''a hakath '' remain influential today abhidhamma pali commentaries influenced ''visuddhimagga'' important th century text theravada scholar buddhaghosa also translated compiled many ''a hakath s'' older sinhalese sources sarv stiv da school one influential abhidharma traditions north india magnum opus tradition massive abhidharma commentary called ''mah vibha a'' 'great commentary' compiled great synod kashmir reign kanishka ii c ''abhidharmakosha'' vasubandhu another influential abhidharma work


back groups wandering yogi magicians called mahasiddhas question origins early vajrayana taken various scholars david seyfort ruegg suggested buddhist tantra employed various elements pan indian religious substrate specifically buddhist shaiva vaishnava according indologist alexis sanderson various classes vajrayana literature developed result royal courts sponsoring buddhism saivism sanderson argued buddhist tantras shown borrowed practices terms rituals form shaiva tantras argues buddhist texts even directly copied various shaiva


orthodox form buddhism tends conservative doctrine monastic discipline p li canon complete buddhist canon surviving ancient indian language language p li serves school 's sacred language lingua franca besides p li canon therav da scholastics also often rely post canonical p li literature comments interprets p li canon later works ''visuddhimagga'' doctrinal ' 'summa'' written fifth century exegete buddhaghosa also remain influential today therav da derives mah vih ra mrapar ya sect


china mah na great vehicle refers forms buddhism consider mah na sutras authoritative scriptures accurate rendering buddha 's words ref name karlpotter p ref traditions liberal form buddhism allowing different new interpretations emerged time ref name chengp ref focus mah na path bodhisattva ''bodhisattvay na'' though path means interpreted many different ways first mah na texts date sometime st century bce st century ce remained minority movement time guptas palas great mah na


monastic centres learning n land university established evidenced records left three chinese visitors india ref name scharfe p ref universities supported buddhist scholarship well studies non buddhist traditions secular subjects medicine hosted visiting students spread buddhism east central asia ref name scharfe p ref name higham p ref native mah na buddhism practised today china japan korea singapore parts russia vietnam also commonly referred eastern buddhism buddhism practised tibet himalayan regions mongolia also form mah na also different


way modern buddhist studies west english words buddhism boudhist bauddhist buddhist coined early th century west rhys davids founded pali text society influential western resource buddhist literature pali language one earliest publisher journal buddhist studies also th century asian buddhist immigrants mainly china japan began arrive western countries united states canada bringing buddhist religion period also saw


first westerners formally convert buddhism helena blavatsky henry steel olcott ref name prothero ''the white buddhist'' olcott approach buddhism terminology protestant buddhism creolization prothero extensively discussed ka mcmahan creolization american religious history metaphysical nature henry steel olcott phd dissertation unpublished manuscript ann arbor ref important event introduction buddhism west world parliament religions first time saw well publicized speeches major buddhist leaders alongside religious leaders th century saw prolific growth