assessment protocols conjunction experts involved occupational public risks clinical medical device management specification selection acceptance testing commissioning quality assurance control medical devices accordance latest published european international recommendations management supervision associated programmes testing based current recommended techniques protocols clinical involvement carrying participating supervising everyday radiation protection quality control procedures ensure ongoing effective optimised use medical radiological devices including patient specific optimization development service quality cost effectiveness leading introduction new medical


scope specialization may also encompass lasers ultraviolet systems photodynamic therapy fmri methods functional imaging well molecular imaging electrical impedance tomography diffuse optical imaging optical coherence tomography dual energy x ray absorptiometry legislative advisory bodies icru international commission radiation units measurements icrp international commission radiological protection ncrp national council radiation protection measurements nrc nuclear regulatory commission fda food drug administration iaea international atomic energy agency ampi association medical physicists india aapm american association physicists medicine ccpm canadian college physicists


social agents furthermore reality objective truth waiting uncovered positivist scientific inquiry ref name rather multiple realities compete truth legitimacy ref name social constructionism understands fundamental role language communication understanding contributed linguistic turn recently turn discourse theory ref name majority social constructionists abide belief language mirror reality rather constitutes creates ref name broad definition social constructionism supporters critics organizational sciences ref name constructionist approach

Social science
Sociology
Interpretive sociology
Social constructionism


factors interact provide safe highway human factors include reaction time braking steering visual acuity traffic signs signals car following behaviour vehicle considerations include vehicle size dynamics essential determining lane width maximum slopes selection design vehicles highway engineers design road geometry ensure stability vehicles negotiating curves grades provide adequate sight distances undertaking passing maneuvers along curves two lane two way roads ref name mcgraw geometric design highway transportation engineers must meet many safety service performance standards designing

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Transportation engineering
Highway engineering


'''rheumatology''' greek '' '' ''rhe ma'' flowing current branch medicine devoted diagnosis therapy rheumatic diseases physicians undergone formal training rheumatology called '''rheumatologists''' rheumatologists deal mainly immune mediated disorders musculoskeletal system soft tissues autoimmune diseases vasculitides inherited connective tissue disorders many diseases known disorders immune system rheumatology alongside clinical immunology allergy considered study practice medical immunology beginning incorporation biopharmaceuticals include inhibitors tnf alpha certain interleukins

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Rheumatology


modern school economics likewise address development specifically major european nations th th centuries adopted mercantilist ideals varying degrees influence ebbing th century development physiocrats france classical economics britain mercantilism held nation 's prosperity depended supply capital represented bullion gold silver trade value held state emphasised maintenance high positive trade balance maximising exports minimising imports means accumulating bullion achieve positive trade balance protectionist measures tariffs

Social science
Economics
Development economics


drew mercantilist economies britain elizabeth france colbert list 's ''das nationale system der politischen konomie'' translated english national system political economy emphasized stages growth hamilton professed developing industrialized economy impossible without protectionism import duties necessary shelter domestic infant industries could achieve economies scale theories proved influential united states much higher american average tariff rates manufactured products wwii period countries nationalist policies including protectionism pursued


utilized spur development urbanized industrial sector hollis chenery 's ''patterns development'' approach holds different countries become wealthy via different trajectories ''pattern'' particular country follow framework depends size resources potentially factors including current income level comparative advantages relative nations empirical analysis framework studies sequential process economic industrial institutional structure underdeveloped economy transformed time permit new industries replace traditional agriculture engine economic growth ref name economic


''public choice theory'' ''market friendly approach'' three free market approach public choice theory contend market totally free meaning intervention government necessarily bad public choice theory arguably radical two view closely associated libertarianism governments rarely good therefore minimal possible ref name economic development academic economists given varied policy advice governments developing countries see example economy chile arnold harberger economic history taiwan sho chieh tsiang anne krueger noted


culture language religion conflicts rwanda largely along tribal lines nigeria 's string conflicts thought least degree religiously based proposed saliency different ethnic variables tends vary time across geography research methodologies vary according context ref name alesina ref somalia provides interesting example due fact population defined somali somalia considered rather ethnically homogeneous nation ref name alesina however civil war caused ethnicity ethnic affiliation


index religious rather ethno linguistic groups though commonly used alesina la ferrara point elf index fails account possibility fewer large ethnic groups may result greater inter ethnic conflict many small ethnic groups ref name alesina recently researchers montalvo reynal querol put forward ''q'' polarization index appropriate measure ethnic division ref name montalvo jose g montalvo jose g marta reynal querol http wwweconupfedu montalvo wp jde marta josepdf ethnic diversity economic development journal development economics '' '' print ref based simplified adaptation polarization index developed


determinism human development capability association international association feminist economics international monetary fund international development important publications development economics economic development international development un human development index gini coefficient lorenz curve harrod domar model debt relief human security kaldor 's growth laws poverty development economics social development sustainable development women 's education development footnotes bibliography https archivetoday http publicationsworldbankorg ecommerce catalog productitem id ''development economics decades critical look years world development report'' world bank publications washington dc https webarchiveorg web http publicationsworldbankorg ecommerce catalog product detailproduct id ''the complete world development report single user dvd th anniversary edition'' world bank publications washington dc behrman


adjective refer bah faith term follower bah u 'll h derived arabic meaning 'glory' 'splendor' older term ''baha ism'' ''bahaism'' still used example variant bahai faith us library congress less common bah community prefers ''bah faith'' beliefs ingleside sydney australia teachings bah u 'll h form foundation bah belief three principles central teachings unity god unity religion unity humanity


issues number foundational texts described mystical include ''seven valleys'' ''four valleys'' ''the seven valleys'' written follower sufism style attar persian muslim poet sets forth stages soul 's journey towards god first translated english becoming one earliest available books bah u 'll h west ''the hidden words'' another book written bah u 'll h period containing short passages bah u 'll h claims taken basic essence certain spiritual


claim divine revelation baghdad iraq align right forced leave baghdad istanbul adrianople valign top align right bah u 'll h forced harsher confinement akk palestine valign top align right bah u 'll h dies near akk align right appointed abdu'l bah successor valign top align right abdu'l bah released prison valign top align right abdu'l bah dies haifa align right appointed shoghi effendi guardian valign top align right shoghi effendi dies england valign top align right universal house justice first elected bah faith


tensions grew subh azal appointed leader b b recognize bah u 'll h 's claim throughout rest life bah u 'll h gained allegiance b b came known bah spent less four months constantinople receiving chastising letters bah u 'll h ottoman authorities turned put house arrest adrianople edirne remained four years royal decree banished b b either cyprus akk near ottoman penal colony akk


community election universal house justice unexpectedly died brief illness november london england conditions allow successor appointed shoghi effendi launched seven year plan bah north america followed another launched first international plan ten year world crusade plan included extremely ambitious goals expansion bah communities institutions translation bah texts several new languages sending bah pioneers previously


god clerical directives led mob attacks public executions starting twentieth century addition repression aimed individual bah centrally directed campaigns targeted entire bah community institutions initiated one case yazd bah killed bah schools tarbiyat boys' girls' schools tehran closed bah marriages recognized bah texts censored reign mohammad reza pahlavi divert attention economic difficulties iran growing nationalist


government generally include interest rate money supply tax government spending tariffs exchange rates labor market regulations many aspects government selecting tools goals government central banks limited number goals achieve short term instance may pressure government reduce inflation reduce unemployment reduce interest rates maintaining currency stability selected goals short term policy likely incoherent normal consequence reducing inflation maintaining currency

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy


century spurred increasingly devastating cholera outbreaks emergence public health debate first legislation issue emerged highly influential new focus report ''the sanitary condition labouring population'' social reformer edwin chadwick argued importance adequate waste removal management facilities improve health wellbeing city 's population uk nuisance removal disease prevention act began steadily evolving process provision regulated waste management

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Environmental management
Waste management


waste industries use variety colors distinguish trash recycling cans addition areas world disposal municipal solid waste cause environmental strain due official benchmarks help measure environmental sustainability certain practices waste segregation recycling point gda sk university technology separation wet waste dry waste purpose recycle dry waste easily use wet waste compost segregating waste amount waste gets landfilled reduces considerably resulting lower levels air


mixed msw municipal solid waste number broad studies indicated administration source separation collection followed reuse recycling non organic fraction energy compost fertilizer production organic material via anaerobic digestion favoured path example resource recycling beneficial many items thrown away contain metals recycled create profit components circuit boards wood chippings pallets packaging materials recycled useful products horticulture recycled chips cover paths walkways


difficult deal unlike solid wastes liquid wastes cannot easily picked removed environment liquid wastes spread easily pollute sources liquid brought contact type waste also soaks objects like soil groundwater turn carries pollute plants animals ecosystem well humans within area pollution industrial wastewater sewage sludge avoidance reduction methods important method waste management prevention waste material created also


'''justification''' may refer justification epistemology property beliefs person good reasons holding justification jurisprudence defence prosecution criminal offense justification theology god 's act declaring making sinner righteous god justification typesetting kind typographic alignment rationalization making excuses phenomenon psychology see also justify justified

Humanities Philosophy Epistemology Justification


smallest newest variety buttel coins ''agro population ecology'' says similar first derived science ecology primarily based modern theories population ecology population dynamics constituent species relationships climate biogeochemistry role genetics ref name buttel ref dalgaard ''et al'' identify different points view call early integrative agroecology investigations henry gleason frederic clements second version cite hecht coining hard agroecology identify reactive environmental politics


probably concept process ecology studied arthur tansley inspired harper 's concept agroecosystems consider foundation modern agroecology ref name dalgaard dalgaard ''et al'' claim frederic clements 's investigations ecology using social sciences community ecology landscape perspective agroecology well henry gleason 's investigations population ecology plants using different scientific disciplines ref name dalgaard ethnobotanist efraim hernandez x 's work traditional knowledge mexico led new education programs agroecology ref name francis works ''silent spring'' ''the limits growth''


century grand expeditions opening popular public displays europe north america natural history museums germany great britain united states france ref name farber ref preservationist conservationist sentiments development late th early th centuries charles darwin set sail hms ''beagle'' people world including darwin believed special creation species unchanged ref name ref george louis leclerc one first naturalist questioned belief proposed volume natural

Applied science
Public administration
Conservation biology


removal proposal build dam dinosaur national monument ref name davis ref roosevelt muir glacier point yosemite national park th century canadian civil servants including charles gordon hewitt james harkin spearheaded movement toward wildlife conservation st century professional conservation officiers begun collaborate indigenous communities protecting wildlife canada global conservation efforts mid th century efforts arose target individual species conservation notably efforts big cat conservation south america led new york zoological society early th


ecology clarified workings biosphere ie complex interrelationships among humans species physical environment burgeoning human population associated agriculture industry ensuing pollution demonstrated easily ecological relationships disrupted concepts foundations measuring extinction rates extinction rates measured variety ways conservation biologists measure apply statistical measures fossil records ref name sahneybenton recoveryfromprofoundextinction rates habitat loss multitude variables loss biodiversity function rate habitat loss site occupancy obtain


may present natural habitat ref name also non interference may used termed preservationist method preservationists advocate giving areas nature species protected existence halts interference humans ref name hunter regard conservationists differ preservationists social dimension conservation biology engages society seeks equitable solutions society ecosystems preservationists emphasize potential biodiversity world without humans ethics values conservation biologists interdisciplinary researchers practice ethics biological social sciences chan states ref name chan ref


values natural capital tadrart acacus desert western libya part sahara conservation biologists started collaborate leading global economists determine measure wealth services nature make values apparent global market transactions ref name ec ref system accounting called ''natural capital'' would example register value ecosystem cleared make way development wwf publishes ''living planet report'' provides global index biodiversity monitoring approximately nbsp populations nbsp species vertebrate mammals birds fish reptiles


keystone species species called ''keystone species'' form central supporting hub unique ecosystem ref name society ref loss species results collapse ecosystem function well loss coexisting species ref name hunter keystone species usually predators due ability control population prey ecosystem ref name society importance keystone species shown extinction steller 's sea cow ''hydrodamalis gigas'' interaction sea otters sea urchins kelp kelp beds grow form nurseries shallow waters


shelter creatures support food chain sea urchins feed kelp sea otters feed sea urchins rapid decline sea otters due overhunting sea urchin populations grazed unrestricted kelp beds ecosystem collapsed left unchecked urchins destroyed shallow water kelp communities supported steller 's sea cow 's diet hastened demise sea otter thought keystone species coexistence many ecological associates kelp beds relied upon otters survival however later questioned turvey risley ref name pmid ref


may approximately times higher natural background extinction rate ref name dell'amore ref estimated two thirds mammal genera one half mammal species weighing least gone extinct last years ref name pmid global amphibian assessment reports amphibians declining global scale faster vertebrate group surviving species threatened extinction surviving populations continual decline threatened since mid actual rates extinction exceeded times rates measured


earth ref name vince ref humans dominated planet high consumption resources along pollution generated affecting environments species live ref name vince ref name tate ref wide variety species humans working protect hawaiian crow whooping crane texas ref name worrall ref people also take action preserving species advocating voting global national policies improve climate concepts climate mitigation climate restoration earth 's oceans demand particular attention climate change continues alter ph levels making uninhabitable


organisms shells dissolve result ref name dell'amore status oceans reefs global assessments coral reefs world continue report drastic rapid rates decline world 's coral reef ecosystems effectively collapsed largest period decline occurred dramatic bleaching event approximately coral reefs world disappeared less year ''coral bleaching'' caused mixture environmental stresses including increases ocean temperatures acidity causing release symbiotic algae


benefits protected area list basic biology topics list biological websites list biology topics list conservation organisations list conservation topics mutualisms conservation natural environment nature conservation nature conservation organizations country regional red list renewable resource restoration ecology tyranny small decisions water conservation wildlife disease wildlife management world conservation monitoring centre references reading scientific literature textbooks free textbook download free textbook download general non fiction periodicals ''animal conservation'' http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn ''biological conservation'' ''conservation'' http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn quarterly magazine society conservation biology ''conservation society'' http wwwconservationandsocietyorg


garden lawrenceville georgia march typical cart used horticulture vottem belgium '''horticulture''' art cultivating plants gardens produce food medicinal ingredients comfort ornamental purposes horticulturists agriculturists grow flowers fruits nuts vegetables herbs well ornamental trees lawns ref name preece biology ref study practice horticulture traced back thousands years horticulture contributed transition nomadic human communities sedentary semi sedentary horticultural communities ref name hagen vw von hagen vw ancient sun kingdoms americas ohio world

Applied science
Agriculture
Horticulture


skills ever expanding art science global horticulture initiative globalhort fosters partnerships collective action among different stakeholders horticulture organization special focus horticulture development h involves using horticulture reduce poverty improve nutrition worldwide globalhort organized consortium national international organizations collaborate research training technology generating activities designed meet mutually agreed upon objectives globalhort non profit organization registered belgium see also agronomy floriculture forest gardening gardening genetically modified trees genomics domestication hoe farming horticultural botany horticultural flora horticultural oil horticultural therapy indigenous horticulture


experiences strategically designed utilize elements music therapeutic effects including melody harmony key mode meter rhythm pitch range duration timbre form texture instrumentation common music therapy practices include developmental work communication motor skills etc individuals special needs songwriting listening reminiscence orientation work elderly processing relaxation work rhythmic entrainment physical rehabilitation stroke survivors music therapy used medical hospitals cancer centers schools alcohol drug recovery programs psychiatric hospitals nursing homes correctional facilities ref name music therapy amta ref broad qualitative

Applied science
Medicine and health
Music therapy


quantitative research literature base music therapy ref name music therapy amta music therapy distinctive musopathy relies generic non cultural approach based neural physical responses fundamental aspects sound according dr daniel levitin singing instrumental activities might helped species refine motor skills paving way development exquisitely fine muscle control required vocal signed speech evidence suggests music therapy beneficial individuals physically mentally benefits music therapy include improved heart rate reduced


therapy ref name bruscia ref name neurologic music therapy vocal psychotherapy ref name psychological orientations used music therapy include psychodynamic ref name ref cognitive behavioral humanistic existential ref name bruscia biomedical model bonny method guided imagery music trained method students required healthcare professionals courses open music therapists mental health professionals music educator therapist helen lindquist bonny developed approach influenced humanistic transpersonal psychological views known bonny method guided imagery music bgim gim guided imagery


music means therapy clive robbins special educator partnered nordoff years exploration research music 's effects disabled children first uk us pilot projects included placements care units autistic children child psychiatry departments put programs place children mental disorders emotional disturbances developmental delays handicaps success establishing means communication relationship children cognitive impairments university pennsylvania gave rise national


better listening skills methods among adolescents group meetings individual sessions main methods music therapy methods may include listening music discussing concerning moods emotions toward music analyzing meanings specific songs writing lyrics composing performing music musical improvisation ref name keen private individual sessions provide personal attention effective using music preferred patient using music adolescents relate connect help adolescent patients view therapist safe trustworthy engage therapy less resistance ref name keen


music therapy conducted groups allows adolescent individuals feel sense belonging express opinions learn socialize verbalize appropriately peers improve compromising skills develop tolerance empathy ref name yinger group sessions emphasize cooperation cohesion effective working adolescents assessment assessment includes obtaining full medical history musical ability duplicate melody identify changes rhythm etc non musical functioning social physical motor emotional etc premature infants premature infants born weeks conception earlier subject numerous health


worthlessness marked psychomotor retardation prolonged marked functional impairment hallucinatory experiences thinking hears voice transiently sees image deceased person many countries including united states music therapists diagnose therefore diagnosing bereavement related disorder would within scope practice grief treatment become well known music therapy field music effective tool treatment grief bereavement francesca albergato muterspaw looked music actually played role


process dealing grief using music elicit concepts makes powerful tool indeed lastly found music important clients way give tribute deceased top areas note also discussed participants better understanding simply talking albergato muterspaw appears music allows context meta messages easily successfully communicated group important point


achieve ''multicultural competence'' lifelong journey formal informal education self reflection multicultural therapy ''uses'' ''modalities defines goals consistent life experiences cultural values clients'' ref name sue torino ref rather basing therapy therapist 's worldview dominant culture 's norms empathy general important aspect mental health practitioner true music therapists multicultural awareness added complexity cultural empathy comes adding music provides greater risk potential provide exceptional culturally sensitive therapy valentino


year old sumerian clay tablet includes instructions tuning hymn honoring ruler lipit ishtar title oldest extant song historians point hurrian hymn ode goddess nikkal composed cuneiform ancient hurrian 's sometime around th century bc western cultures music healing music used healing implement centuries ref name misic p ref apollo ancient greek god music medicine son aesculapius said cure diseases mind


th r se pageau h pital st jean de dieu h pital louis hippolyte lafontaine montreal conference august organized norma sharpe six music therapists led founding canadian music therapy association later renamed canadian association music therapy camt organization members canada 's first music therapy training program founded capilano college capilano university north vancouver nancy mcmaster carolyn kenny germany germany music therapy society defines music therapy targeted use


music therapy herbalists witch doctors faith healers according professor charles aluede ambrose alli university ekpoma edo state nigeria applying music thematic sounds healing process believed help patient overcome true sickness mind seemingly cure disease another practice involving music called igbeuku religious practice performed faith healers practice igbeuku patients persuaded confess sins cause serve discomfort following confession patients feel emotionally relieved priest announced clean subjected


therapy event due coronavirus pandemic sars cov congress moved online event united states credential national board certification current ''mt bc music therapist board certified also written board certified music therapist ref name ref '' state license registration varies state see small superseded credentials credentials listed previously conferred former national organizations aamt namt credentials remained valid individuals maintained continuing education requirements available since small small cmt certified music therapist small small acmt advanced certified music therapist small small rmt


still recognized need assess true viability value music medically based therapy walter reed army medical center office surgeon general worked together lead one earliest assessments music therapy program goal study understand whether music presented according specific plan influenced recovery among service members mental emotional disorders eventually case reports reference study relayed importance also impact music therapy services recovery military service personnel first university


wigram http wwwmrwintersciencewileycom cochrane clsysrev articles cd framehtml music therapy schizophrenia schizophrenia like illnesses cochrane database systematic reviews issue harbert wilhelmina k http wwwworldcatorg oclc principles practices techniques musical therapy university pacific dissertations hart hugh march ''the new york times'' https wwwnytimescom arts television harthtmlref television season song dance autism section ar p nbsp ''la musicoth rapie th math que'' montr al biblioth que du personnel h pital rivi des prairies levinge alison ''the music music therapy winnicott school object relations'' london jessica kingsley publishers marcello sorce keller ethnomusicological considerations magic therapeutic uses


mendelian genetics one common hypothesis blending inheritance blending inheritance genetic variance would rapidly lost making evolution natural sexual selection implausible hardy weinberg principle provides solution variation maintained population mendelian inheritance according principle frequencies alleles variations gene remain constant absence selection mutation migration genetic drift ref name ewens wj ref next key step work british biologist statistician ronald fisher series papers starting culminating

Natural science
Biology
Genetics
Population genetics


loss function speed loss evolves depends mutation rate effective population size indicating driven mutation bias genetic drift mutations involve large sections dna becoming duplicated usually genetic recombination leads copy number variation within population duplications major source raw material evolving new genes types mutation occasionally create new genes previously noncoding dna genetic drift ''genetic drift'' change allele frequencies caused random sampling ref name masel ref


selection linked sites important stochastic force work traditionally ascribed genetic drift means sampling error mathematical properties genetic draft different genetic drift direction random change allele frequency autocorrelated across generations ref name masel gene flow gene flow transfer alleles one population another population immigration individuals example one birds population immigrates population b fewer dominant alleles mating incorporates alleles


temperatures animals bull semen cryopreserved first time team scientists led christopher polge led much wider use cryopreservation today many organs tissues cells routinely stored low temperatures large organs hearts usually stored transported short times cool freezing temperatures transplantation cell suspensions like blood semen thin tissue sections sometimes stored almost indefinitely liquid nitrogen temperature cryopreservation human sperm eggs embryos routinely stored fertility research treatments


sheaves sites complete list examples note however nonequivalent sites often give rise equivalent topoi indicated introduction sheaves ordinary topological spaces motivate many basic definitions results topos theory category sets g sets category sets important special case plays role point topos theory indeed set may thought sheaf point since functors singleton category single object identity morphism specific

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Topos theory


''x'' characterized named ''f'' applies topos whether concrete concrete case namely ''c'' faithful example category sets situation reduces familiar behavior functions monics ''m'' ''x '' rarr ''x'' exactly injections one one functions ''x '' ''x'' given image ''mx'' ''x'' ''x '' constitute subobject ''x'' corresponding morphism ''f'' ''x'' ''f'' sup minus sup ''t'' image monics subobject general many


toposes ''tome '' ''' ''' following monographs include introduction topos theory cater primarily beginning students listed perceived order increasing difficulty nice introduction basics category theory topos theory topos logic assumes prerequisites good start available http historicallibrarycornelledu cgi bin culmath docviewerdid gold id online http wwwmcsvuwacnz rob robert goldblatt 's homepage version available http publishuwoca jbell catlogprimepdf online http publishuwoca jbell john bell 's homepage complete difficult read online version concise ''sheaves geometry logic'' hard beginners reference works experts less suitable first introduction


cattle feedlot colorado us alt cattle feedlot '''animal husbandry''' branch agriculture concerned animals raised meat fibre milk products includes day day care selective breeding raising livestock husbandry long history starting neolithic revolution animals first domesticated around bc onwards predating farming first crops time early civilisations ancient egypt cattle sheep goats pigs raised farms major changes took place columbian exchange old world livestock brought

Applied science
Agriculture
Animal husbandry


intensive animal farming developed parts world example beef cattle kept high density feedlots thousands chickens may raised broiler houses batteries poorer soil uplands animals often kept extensively may allowed roam widely foraging livestock herbivores except pigs chickens omnivores ruminants like cattle sheep adapted feed grass forage outdoors may fed entirely part rations richer energy protein


plants animals linked early holocene climate amelioration'' current science vol july indian academy sciences ref fossilised chicken bones dated bc found northeastern china far wild ancestors lived jungles tropical asia archaeologists believe original purpose domestication sport cockfighting meanwhile south america llama alpaca domesticated probably bc beasts burden wool neither strong enough pull plough limited


sheep deer ostrich emu llama alpaca ref name levinson ref uplands united kingdom sheep turned fells spring graze abundant mountain grasses untended brought lower altitudes late year supplementary feeding provided winter rural locations pigs poultry obtain much nutrition scavenging african communities hens may live months without fed still produce one two eggs week ref name webster intensive system midwestern united states alt pigs barn extreme developed parts


profession must still study universities standard curriculum length years ref name law schools also begun award diplom jurist degree german students enter law school high school ''gymnasium'' graduation studies candidates complete first state examination ref name first state exam exam specialized area law chosen examinee organized carried university ref name practice important part obligatory areas law examined

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Legal education


nd state exam trainee may become lawyer ref name hong kong hong kong law studied four year undergraduate degree bachelor laws llb two year postgraduate degree juris doctor common professional examination conversion course non law graduates one must pass one year postgraduate certificate laws pcll currently offered university hong kong hku chinese university hong kong city university hong kong starting vocational training year 's pupillage barristers two year training contract solicitors move four year llb


passed examination earned undergraduate degrees elite japanese universities university tokyo kyoto university hitotsubashi university new law school system came new bar exam passage rate capped numerical quota applicants limited taking exam three times five year period despite much higher bar passage rate new exam due quotas approximately half japanese law school graduates never admitted practice new system also reduced apprenticeship period legal research


zealand council legal education established section new zealand university amendment act amending deemed part new zealand university act new zealand law students association published journal called ''wagon mound'' holds annual national mooting competition auckland university law students society publishes auckland university law review member international law students association held students' conference law reform wellington law students society otago law students society


program juris doctor jd program advanced degrees offered law schools requirements admission practice law philippines degrees master laws llm master legal studies available handful philippine universities colleges among san beda college graduate school law university santo tomas ateneo de manila university doctor civil law degree dcl offered university santo tomas doctor juridical science jsd degree offered san beda


south africa university stellenbosch faculty law south africa llb universal legal qualification admission enrollment advocate attorney since llb programmes may entered directly undergraduate level time llb continues offered postgraduate may accelerated dependent bachelor 's degree programme lasts two four years correspondingly compare australia see although formally required specialised practice training eg tax usually via postgraduate diplomas focused coursework based llm programmes research degrees


normally proceeds along following route undergraduate education usually years law school usually years admission bar usually taking state 's bar exam legal practice united states cases degree awarded american law schools doctor jurisprudence juris doctor jd doctoral degree pursuit students undertake completed undergraduate degree field usually bachelor 's degree law school program considered professional school program upon graduation receive distinct title doctor although


legal studies bs academic master 's degrees legal studies available master studies ms master professional studies mps degree required enter jd program foreign lawyers seeking practice us jd often seek obtain master laws llm degrees similar llm juris master jm master comparative law mcl master jurisprudence mj see also references


short handed however promise found unenforceable crew already contracted sail ship pre existing duty rule also extends general legal duties example promise refrain committing tort crime sufficient capacity sometimes capacity either natural artificial persons either enforce contracts contracts enforced restricted instance small children may held bargains made assumption lack maturity understand errant employees directors may prevented


failed may possible sever void affected clauses contract includes severability clause test whether clause severable objective test whether reasonable person would see contract standing even without clauses typically non severable contracts require substantial performance promise rather whole complete performance promise warrant payment however express clauses may included non severable contract explicitly require full performance obligation classification terms contractual terms may given different names required different


condition generic term warranty promise ref name gillies language contract determined contractual term representations often precontractual typically less strictly enforced terms material misrepresentations historically cause action tort deceit warranties enforced regardless materiality modern united states law distinction less clear warranties may enforced strictly ref name west lewis statements opinion may viewed mere puff specific circumstances terms used differently example english insurance law violation


venue assignment delegation waiver jury trial notice escape clauses get clauses ''force majeure'' restrictive provisions contracts consumer little negotiating power contracts adhesion attract consumer protection scrutiny implied terms term may either express implied express term stated parties negotiation written contractual document implied terms stated nevertheless form provision contract terms implied fact terms may implied due factual circumstances conduct parties case ''bp refinery westernport


pty ltd v shire hastings'' ref name bp refinery uk privy council appeal australia proposed five stage test determine situations facts case may imply terms classic tests business efficacy test officious bystander test business efficacy test first proposed ''the moorcock'' minimum terms necessary give business efficacy contract implied officious bystander test named ''southern foundries ltd v shirlaw'' actually originating ''reigate v union manufacturing co ramsbottom ltd'' term


term implied custom needs well known acquiesced everyone making contract situation reasonably presumed imported term contract ref name con stan industries v norwich third parties common law doctrine privity contract provides party contract may sue sued leading case ''tweddle v atkinson'' immediately showed doctrine effect defying intent parties maritime law cases


one party claims specialist knowledge topic discussed likely courts hold statement opinion party statement fact fallacy opinion cannot statement fact statement honest expression opinion honestly entertained cannot said involves fraudulent misrepresentations fact innocent misrepresentation judge takes account likelihood party would rely false claim significant false claim ref name ref remedies misrepresentation rescission


render identity different contracted making performance contract impossible ref name svanosi v mcnamara see also ref ''great peace shipping ltd v tsavliris salvage international ltd'' court held common law grant relief common mistake test ''bell v lever bros ltd'' made one party knowledge party knowledge promises guarantees existence subject matter party breach subject matter exist ref name mcrae v commonwealth courtname auto date ref '''mutual


manner ordinary court judgments recognized enforceable internationally new york convention parties however new york convention states arbitral decisions generally immune unless showing arbitrator 's decision irrational tainted fraud arbitration clauses enforceable cases arbitration may sufficient resolve legal dispute example disputes regarding validity registered ip rights may need resolved public body within national registration system matters significant public interest go beyond


choice venue clause limits parties word exclusive explicitly included clause jurisdictions accept action connection court chosen others enforce choice venue clause consider convenient forum litigation contracts governed multilateral instruments require non chosen court dismiss cases require recognition judgments made courts jurisdiction based choice court clause example brussels regime instruments european


breach contract compensatory damages two heads loss consequential damage direct damage theory compensatory damages designed put injured party rightful position usually award expectation damages liquidated damages estimate loss agreed contract court avoids calculating compensatory damages parties greater certainty liquidated damages clauses may called penalty clauses ordinary language law distinguishes liquidated damages legitimate penalties invalid test determining category clause falls


recognise existence rights privilege power arising promise gallery gallery file chinese slave tradejpg contract tang dynasty records purchase year old slave six bolts plain silk five chinese coins file heiratsbrief gottfried werner von zimmern apollonia von henneberg img jpg german marriage contract apollonia von henneberg r mhild file insurance contact jpg thomas boylston thomas jefferson may maritime insurance premiums file insurance contractjpg fire insurance contract gallery see also arbitration clause bill sale conflict contract laws contract awarding contract farming contract management contract sale


contract theory economics contracting wiktionary contractual clauses category design contract document automation dual overhead rate electronic signature employment contract estoppel ethical implications contracts force majeure assurances gentlemen 's agreement good faith implicit contract indenture information asymmetry invitation treat legal remedy letters assist meet release contract memorandum understanding negotiation option contract order business peppercorn legal perfect tender rule principal agent problem quasi contract restitution sharia civil cases smart contract social contract specification technical standard standard form contract stipulation tortious interference unjust enrichment voidable contract country australian contract law law obligations bulgaria english contract law german contract law


indian contract law south african contract law united states contract law notes references ewan mckendrick ''contract law text cases materials'' oxford university press ps atiyah ''the rise fall freedom contract'' clarendon press randy e barnett ''contracts'' aspen publishers external links http wwwaustraliancontractlawcom australian contract law https wwwlawcornelledu ucc uniform commercial code '' united states contract law '' https wwwlawcornelledu wex contract cornell law school wex entry contract law http wwwjusuiono lm eucontractprinciplespart principles european contract law http legalunorg avl ha ccisg ccisghtml united nations convention contracts international sale goods vienna april http wwwlexisnexiscom lawschool study outlines word contractsdoc lexisnexis capsule summary contracts http wwwiaccmcom international association


communication studies '''organizational communication''' field study focusing communication information flow within organizations different roles media flow communication within members individuals organizations could either formal informal history field traces lineage business information business communication early mass communication studies published organizational communication discipline consisted professors within speech departments particular interest speaking writing business settings current field established

Journalism, media studies and communication


communication became concerned constitutive role communication organizing critical theory influence field felt organizational communication scholars focused communication 's possibilities oppress liberate organizational members shift thought arose french postulations brought theorist michel foucault foucault often revered father post modern thought described radical relativist contemporaries camille paglia early underlying assumptions main assumptions underlying much early organizational communication research humans act rationally


even eliminated careful management techniques organizations function container within communication takes place differences form function communication occurring organization another setting identified studied factors affecting communicative activity herbert simon introduced concept ''bounded rationality'' challenged assumptions perfect rationality communication participants maintained people making decisions organizations seldom complete information even information available tended pick first acceptable option rather exploring pick


asked managers people responsible operation enterprise whole ideally meanings sent meanings received often case messages concern something verified objectively example piece pipe fits threads coupling case receiver message check sender 's words actual trial necessary however sender 's words describe feeling opinion something cannot checked objectively meanings unclear work hard


behavior example someone talking length object may hold hands give visual estimate reasonably clear case face face communication virginia satir pointed people cannot help communicate symbolically example clothing possessions form body language messages conveyed telephone messenger letter situation context message sent becomes part non verbal content example company losing money


letter production division front office orders reorganization shipping receiving departments could construed mean people going lose jobs unless made explicitly clear would occur ref name virginia ref number variables influence effectiveness communication found environment communication takes place personalities sender receiver relationship exists sender receiver different variables suggest difficulties communicating


doubly relative takes one person say something another decide said ref name simon ref physical cognitive including semantic filters decide meaning words combine form part memory system helps us respond reality sense march simon compare person data processing system behavior results interaction person 's internal state environmental stimuli learned past experience becomes inventory data bank consisting values goals sets expectations preconceptions consequences acting one


surveys text indexing network mapping behavior modeling early interpretive revolution took place organizational communication putnam pacanowsky 's text ''communication organizations interpretive approach'' argued opening methodological space qualitative approaches narrative analyses participant observation interviewing rhetoric textual approaches readings philosophic inquiries addition qualitative quantitative research methodologies also third research approach called mixed methods mixed methods type procedural approach conducting research involves collecting analyzing mixing quantitative qualitative data within single program


mandelbrot set x px x px mathematics '''fractal''' subset euclidean space fractal dimension strictly exceeds topological dimension fractals appear different scales illustrated successive magnifications mandelbrot set ref name mandelbrot ref name falconer ref name patterns ref name vicsek fractals often exhibit similar patterns increasingly smaller scales property called self similarity also known expanding symmetry unfolding symmetry replication exactly every scale menger sponge ref name gouyet called affine self similar fractal geometry lies within mathematical branch

Formal science
Mathematics
Applied mathematics
Dynamical systems
Fractal geometry


formally defined mandelbrot summarized beautiful damn hard increasingly useful 's fractals formally mandelbrot defined ''fractal'' follows fractal definition set hausdorff besicovitch dimension strictly exceeds topological dimension later seeing restrictive simplified expanded definition fractal shape made parts similar whole way still later mandelbrot proposed use ''fractal'' without pedantic definition use ''fractal dimension'' generic term applicable ''all'' variants consensus among mathematicians theoretical


fractals infinitely self similar iterated detailed mathematical constructs fractal dimensions many examples formulated studied ref name mandelbrot ref name falconer ref name patterns ref fractals limited geometric patterns also describe processes time ref name gouyet ref name vicsek ref name time series fractal patterns various degrees self similarity rendered studied visual physical aural media ref name music ref found nature ref name heart ref name heartrate ref name cerebellum ref ref name neuroscience ref ref name branching technology ref name soil ref ref name diagnostic imaging ref ref name medicine ref ref name seismology art ref name novel ref name african art architecture ref name springercom ostwald michael j vaughan josephine


''the fractal dimension architecture'' birhauser basel ref law ref name legal fractal ref fractals particular relevance field chaos theory graphs chaotic processes fractals many real model networks found fractal features self similarity ref name self ref etymology term fractal coined mathematician beno mandelbrot mandelbrot based latin meaning broken fractured used extend concept theoretical fractional dimensions geometric patterns nature ref name mandelbrot ref name mandelbrot quote ref introduction x px fractal tree


cover entire curve ie snowflake infinite perimeter ref name mandelbrot history koch snowflake fractal begins equilateral triangle replaces middle third every line segment pair line segments form equilateral bump alt x px cantor ternary set history fractals traces path chiefly theoretical studies modern applications computer graphics several notable people contributing canonical fractal forms along way ref name classics ref ref name mactutor ref common theme traditional african architecture use fractal scaling whereby small parts structure tend


cantor attended lectures weierstrass ref name mactutor published examples subsets real line known cantor sets unusual properties recognized fractals ref name classics also last part century felix klein henri poincar introduced category fractal come called self inverse fractals ref name mandelbrot julia set fractal related mandelbrot set alt x px sierpinski gasket generated fractal tree x px one next milestones came helge von koch extending ideas poincar dissatisfied weierstrass 's


self similar branching pattern modeled silico using l systems principles ref name branching ref alt x px images fractals created fractal generating programs butterfly effect small change single variable unpredictable outcome ''iterated function systems ifs '' use fixed geometric replacement rules may stochastic deterministic ref name ifs ref eg koch snowflake cantor set haferman carpet sierpinski carpet sierpinski gasket peano curve harter heighway dragon curve square menger sponge ''strange attractors'' use iterations map solutions system initial value differential difference equations exhibit chaos eg see multifractal image


fractal features outputs modelling process may highly artistic renderings outputs investigation benchmarks fractal analysis specific applications fractals technology listed elsewhere images outputs modelling normally referred fractals even strictly fractal characteristics possible zoom region fractal image exhibit fractal properties also may include calculation display artifacts characteristics true fractals modeled fractals may sounds ref name music digital images


assemble fractals diego krapf shown branching processes actin filaments human cells assemble fractal patterns ref name geomopt similarly matthias weiss showed endoplasmic reticulum displays fractal features current understanding fractals ubiquitous cell biology proteins organelles whole cells creative works since scientific groups performed fractal analysis jackson pollock 's paintings created pouring paint directly onto horizontal canvasses recently fractal analysis used achieve success rate distinguishing real


imitation pollocks cognitive neuroscientists shown pollock 's fractals induce stress reduction observers computer generated fractals nature 's fractals decalcomania technique used artists max ernst produce fractal like patterns involves pressing paint two surfaces pulling apart cyberneticist ron eglash suggested fractal geometry mathematics prevalent african art games divination trade architecture circular houses appear circles circles rectangular houses rectangles rectangles scaling patterns also found african textiles sculpture even cornrow hairstyles ref name african art ref


lateral moraine glacier joining gorner glacier zermatt swiss alps moraine high bank debris top left hand quarter image glaciologist erin pettit antarctica upright '''glaciology''' latin ''glacies'' frost ice ancient greek ''logos'' subject matter literally study ice scientific study glaciers generally ice natural phenomena involve ice glaciology interdisciplinary earth science integrates geophysics geology physical geography geomorphology climatology meteorology hydrology biology ecology impact glaciers people includes fields human geography

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Glaciology


annual loss ice ablation exceeds annual gain precipitation ar te acute ridge rock two cirques meet bergschrund crevasse formed near head glacier mass ice rotated sheared torn apart manner geological fault cirque corrie cwm bowl shaped depression excavated source glacier creep adjustment stress molecular level flow movement ice constant direction fracture brittle failure breaking ice stress


disciplines medical sociology started adopt methodologies anthropology qualitative research began focus patient medical anthropology started focus western medicine argued interdisciplinary communication could improve disciplines ref name popular medicine medical systems much th century concept ''popular medicine'' ''folk medicine'' familiar doctors anthropologists doctors anthropologists medical anthropologists used terms describe resources help health professionals european latin american peasants used

Social science
Anthropology
Medical Anthropology


united states canada mexico brazil collaboration anthropology medicine initially concerned implementing community health programs among ethnic cultural minorities qualitative ethnographic evaluation health institutions hospitals mental hospitals primary care services regarding community health programs intention resolve problems establishing services complex mosaic ethnic groups ethnographic evaluation involved analyzing interclass conflicts within institutions undesirable effect administrative reorganization institutional objectives particularly conflicts among doctors nurses auxiliary staff


unequal access health services however comprehensive service available public new problems emerge ethnic cultural religious differences differences age groups genders social classes implementing community care mechanisms gives rise one set problems whole new set problems also arises mechanisms dismantled responsibilities assumed placed back shoulders individual members society fields local qualitative ethnographic research indispensable understanding way patients social networks


different postgraduate training courses different countries found website ''society medical anthropology'' ''american anthropological association'' see also biological anthropology critical medical anthropology cultural ecology culture bound syndrome ecological anthropology epidemiological transition ethnomedicine medical sociology william abel caudill references ref ref name charuty ref ref name comelles ref ref name comelles ref ref name comelles martinez ref ref name entralgo ref ref name foucault ref ref name mcelroy ref ref name mcelroy townsend ref ref name saillant genest ref ref name saillant genest ref ref name scotch https wwwjstororg pss book review citing details ref ref name seymour smith pp ref reading following books present global panorama international medical anthropology useful handbooks beginners students


picture rating system film classification science scientific classification disambiguation biological classification organisms chemical classification medical classification process transforming descriptions medical diagnoses procedures universal medical code numbers taxonomic classification also known classification species cladistics approach using similarities organizations involved classification international society knowledge organization uses industrial process mechanical screening sorting materials size shape density etc civil service classification personnel grades government classification swords classification wine classification society non governmental organization establishes maintains technical standards construction

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Classification


operation ships offshore structures locomotive classification product classification security classification information access restricted law regulation see also class disambiguation classified disambiguation classifier disambiguation data classification disambiguation order taxonomy disambiguation external links former disambiguation pages converted set index articles


civil affairs peasant riots treasury shortfalls court intrigues term foreign affairs applied management temporary issues outside sovereign realm term remained widespread use english speaking states th century remains name departments several states manage foreign relations although originally intended describe short term management specific concern departments manage day day long term international relations among states organisations council foreign relations united states sometimes employed government foreign relations organisations develop foreign policy

Applied science
Public administration
Foreign policy


winner consumer news commentary general interest category single article ref name fp folio magazine award ''folio'' magazine silver editorial excellence eddie award consumer magazine news commentary general interest single article world enslaved benjamin skinner mar apr ref name fp folio magazine award ''folio'' magazine silver editorial excellence eddie award consumer magazine news commentary general interest full issue may june ref name fp folio magazine award ''media industry newsletter'' 's min best web award blog category passport blog editors foreign policy ref name fp min award ref ''' ''' ''foreign policy'' national magazine award general excellence


'''machine learning''' '''ml''' study computer algorithms improve automatically experience use data seen part artificial intelligence machine learning algorithms build model based sample data known training data order make predictions decisions without explicitly programmed machine learning algorithms used wide variety applications medicine email filtering speech recognition computer vision difficult unfeasible develop conventional algorithms perform needed tasks ref name tvt hu j niu h

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Machine learning


outputs may numerical value within range example classification algorithm filters emails input would incoming email output would name folder file email similarity learning area supervised machine learning closely related regression classification goal learn examples using similarity function measures similar related two objects applications ranking recommendation systems visual identity tracking face verification speaker verification unsupervised learning unsupervised


reconstruction inputs coming unknown data generating distribution necessarily faithful configurations implausible distribution replaces manual feature engineering allows machine learn features use perform specific task feature learning either supervised unsupervised supervised feature learning features learned using labeled input data examples include artificial neural networks multilayer perceptrons supervised dictionary learning unsupervised feature learning features learned unlabeled input data examples include dictionary learning independent component analysis autoencoders matrix factorization various forms


non european sounding names ref name using job hiring data firm racist hiring policies may lead machine learning system duplicating bias scoring job applicants similarity previous successful applicants ref name edionwe outline ref ref name jeffries outline ref responsible collection data documentation algorithmic rules used system thus critical part machine learning ai well equipped make decisions technical fields rely heavily data historical information decisions rely objectivity logical reasoning human languages contain biases machines trained language ''corpora''


industrially hydrocarbons process known steam reforming ref name rylander paul n rylander hydrogenation dehydrogenation ''ullmann 's encyclopedia industrial chemistry'' wiley vch weinheim ref many applications hydrogen transferred donor molecules formic acid isopropanol dihydroanthracene hydrogen donors undergo dehydrogenation respectively carbon dioxide acetone anthracene processes called transfer hydrogenations substrates important characteristic alkene alkyne hydrogenations homogeneously heterogeneously catalyzed versions hydrogen addition occurs syn addition hydrogen entering least hindered side reaction performed


support also laboratory unsupported massive precious metal catalysts platinum black still used despite cost homogeneous catalysts activity adjusted changes environment around metal ie coordination sphere different faces crystalline heterogeneous catalyst display distinct activities example modified mixing metals using different preparation techniques similarly heterogeneous catalysts affected supports many cases highly empirical modifications involve selective poisons thus carefully chosen catalyst used hydrogenate functional groups without affecting others


hydrogenation resorcinol derivative using raney nickel catalyst file succpdh png hydrogenation maleic acid succinic acid gallery transfer hydrogenation transition state two transfer hydrogenation reactions ruthenium hydride complexes onto carbonyls transfer hydrogenation uses hydrogen donor molecules place h sub sub reactants also serve solvents reaction include hydrazine dihydronaphthalene dihydroanthracene isopropanol formic acid reaction involves outer sphere mechanism organic synthesis transfer hydrogenation useful asymmetric reduction polar unsaturated substrates ketones aldehydes imines hydrogenation polar substrates ketones aldehydes typically


catalyze hydrogenation reactions conversion nitriles amines production margarine homogeneous catalytic hydrogenation calvin discovered copper ii complexes oxidized h sub sub witnessed development well defined homogeneous catalysts using transition metal complexes eg wilkinson 's catalyst rhcl pph sub sub sub sub soon thereafter cationic rh ir found catalyze hydrogenation alkenes carbonyls ref name acs ref asymmetric hydrogenation demonstrated synthesis l dopa saw invention noyori asymmetric hydrogenation development homogeneous hydrogenation influenced work started


kingdom strathclyde finally english angles germanic invaders overrun much southern britain held kingdom bernicia later northern part northumbria reached lothians scotiish borders south east christianisation particularly sixth century added latin intellectual written language modern scholarship based surviving placenames historical evidence indicates picts spoke brythonic language none literature seems survived modern era however surviving literature

Humanities
Languages and literature
Scottish Literature


gododdin killed fighting ''battle catraeth'' around ad similarly ''battle gwen ystrad'' attributed taliesin traditionally thought bard court rheged roughly period religious works gaelic including ''elegy st columba'' dallan forgaill c praise st columba beccan mac luigdech rum c latin include prayer protection attributed st mugint c mid sixth century ''altus prosator'' high creator attributed st columba c arguably


companion medieval scottish poetry'' woodbridge brewer pp ref first scottish press established southgait edinburgh merchant walter chepman c c bookseller andrew myllar f although first press relatively short lived beside law codes religious works press also produced editions work scottish makars demise probably next recorded press thomas davidson f first long line king 's printers also produced editions works makars ref name macquarrie pp macquarrie printing


john bellenden translated latin ''history scotland'' compiled hector boece verse prose ref name brownetalpp david lyndsay c diplomat head lyon court prolific poet wrote elegiac narratives romances satires ref name vanheijnsbergen pp van heijnsbergen culture renaissance reformation poetry lynch ed ''the oxford companion scottish history'' oxford oxford university press pp nbsp ref george buchanan major influence latin poet founding tradition neo latin poetry would continue seventeenth century ref name mason pp r mason culture


brown scottish identity b bradshaw p roberts eds ''british consciousness identity making britain '' cambridge cambridge university press pp ref soon began anglicise written language james 's characteristic role active literary participant patron english court made defining figure english renaissance poetry drama would reach pinnacle achievement reign patronage high style scottish tradition largely became sidelined significant court poet continue work scotland king 's


scottish kirk time scottish cultural identity poverty sexuality beneficial aspects popular socialising ref name address kibble red star cafe http redstarcafewordpresscom address kibble address kibble retrieved september ref major literary figures connected romanticism include poets novelists james hogg allan cunningham john galt well claims scottish origins one significant figures romantic movement lord byron brought scotland acquired english title engraving playwright joanna baillie drama pursued scottish playwrights london


encouraged native playwrights including robert mclellan writers emerged second world war followed macdiarmid writing scots including robert garioch sydney goodsir smith others demonstrated greater interest english language poetry among norman maccaig george bruce maurice lindsay ref name visitingartsscotland george mackay brown orkney iain crichton smith lewis wrote poetry prose fiction shaped distinctive island backgrounds ref name visitingartsscotland glaswegian poet edwin morgan became known translations works wide range european languages also first scots makar official national poet


douglas dunn robert crawford carol ann duffy ref name visitingartsscotland glasgow born duffy named poet laureate may first woman first scot first openly gay poet take post see also association scottish literary studies books famous scots series golden treasury scottish poetry history scots language literature languages britain modern scottish poetry faber english literature g ross roy founding editor journal ''studies scottish literature'' references notes bibliography beasley j c ''tobias smollett novelist'' university georgia press buchan j


indeed partly due political concerns western european united states slavic world nurtured cold war slavic studies flourished years world war ii though university enrollments slavic languages declined since subfields following traditional division slavs three subgroups eastern southern western slavic studies also divided three distinctive sublields east slavic studies encompassing study east slavic peoples linguistic literary cultural historical heritages belarusian studies belarusistics russian studies russistics

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Slavic studies


slovak studies slovakistics sorbian studies sorbistics slavic countries areas interest country belarus language literature culture history bosnia herzegovina language literature culture history bulgaria language literature culture history croatia language literature culture history czechia language literature culture history north macedonia language literature culture history macedonian studies montenegro language culture history poland languages dialects polish kashubian silesian literature polish kashubian culture history russia language literature culture history serbia language literature culture history national ethnic slovakia language literature culture history slovenia language literature culture history ukraine language literature culture history languages serbo croatian


languages literatures harvard university united states department slavic languages literatures stanford university united states https slavicbarnardedu slavic department barnard college united states https slavicprincetonedu department slavic languages literatures university princeton united states https wwwbrownedu academics slavic studies department slavic studies brown university united states https slaviccolumbiaedu department slavic languages columbia university united states http gnswiscedu department german nordic slavic university wisconsin madison united states https slavicnorthwesternedu department slavic languages literatures weinberg college arts sciences united states https slavicwashingtonedu department slavic languages literatures university washington united states https slavicasvirginiaedu department slavic languages literatures


canada https wwwuvicca humanities germanicslavic undergraduate slavic indexphp department germanic slavic studies university victoria canada https uwaterlooca germanic slavic studies department germanic slavic studies university waterloo canada https ufr languesuniv paris fr etudes slaves department slavic studies le partement tudes slaves universite paris france http slawistikunivieacat home institute slavistics university vienna austria http slawistikuni grazat de institut institute slavistics university graz austria department slavic studies university salzburg austria http sfusduacin department slavonic finno ugrian studies university delhi india https fphilunibask en departments research centres department slavic studies department slavic studies comenius university slovakia http enslavstuduoagr department russian language literature slavic studies university athens greece https slavistikaffuni ljsi department slavistics university ljubljana slovenia


commands combining components process information produce preferred output first four components hardware software database network make known information technology platform information technology workers could use components create information systems watch safety measures risk management data actions known information technology services certain information systems support parts organizations others support entire organizations still others support groups organizations recall department functional area within organization collection application programs

Applied science
Business
Information systems


others information systems also defined collection hardware software data people procedures work together produce quality information related terms information systems relationship information technology computer science information science business similar computer science disciplines seen related foundation disciplines domain study involves study theories practices related social technological phenomena determine development use effects information systems organizations society may considerable overlap disciplines


differentiating field neighbours ask aspects reality meaningful field fields ref name ref basden http aiselaisnetorg ukais basden using spheres meaning define dignify discipline ''international journal information management'' employs philosophy late herman dooyeweerd differentiate distinct aspects 'spheres meaning' paper suggests computer science finds http wwwdooyinfo formativehtml formative aspect shaping structuring processing central interest business organizational fields find http wwwdooyinfo economichtml economic http wwwdooyinfo socialhtml social aspects central interest


organization retrieval dissemination knowledge may include documents accounting records unrecorded procedures practices skills knowledge management km system covers process knowledge creation acquisition internal processes external world collected knowledge incorporated organizational policies procedures disseminated stakeholders ref name joshi ref see also bachelor computer information systems business intelligence business performance management business rule corporate governance information technology data mining predictive analytics purchase order request enterprise architecture enterprise information system enterprise planning system management objectives online analytical processing online office suite

Applied science
Business
Information systems
Management information systems


formation volcanoes current historic eruptions volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes especially active ones observe volcanic eruptions collect eruptive products including tephra ash pumice rock lava samples one major focus enquiry prediction eruptions currently accurate way predicting eruptions like predicting earthquakes could save many lives modern volcanology volcanologist examining tephra horizons south central iceland diagram destructive plate margin subduction fuels volcanic activity subduction zones tectonic plate boundaries first volcanological observatory

Natural science
Earth science
Volcanology


fire water volcanoes empedocles maintained manifestation elemental fire plato contended channels hot cold waters flow inexhaustible quantities subterranean rivers depths earth snakes vast river fire ''pyriphlegethon'' feeds world 's volcanoes aristotle considered underground fire result thefriction wind plunges narrow passages wind played key role volcano explanations th century lucretius roman philosopher claimed etna completely hollow fires underground driven fierce wind circulating


science wrestled ideas combustion pyrite water rock solidified bitumen notions rock formed water neptunism volcanoes known near water hence action sea upon land used explain volcanism interaction religion mythology puu hawaii july tribal legends volcanoes abound pacific ring fire americas usually invoking forces supernatural divine explain violent outbursts volcanoes taranaki tongariro according


mental health also created provided support training hospital employees research conditions afflicted patients period hill burton acts also passed program funded mental health hospitals along community health services act hill burton acts helped creation outpatient psychiatric clinics inpatient general hospitals rehabilitation community consultation centers ref name fadul deinstitutionalisation late twentieth century however large number mental hospitals closed due lack funding overpopulation england example

Social science
Psychology
Abnormal psychology


england united states worldwide countries like australia many mentally ill patients enough treatment facilities recent studies found prevalence mental illness decreased significantly past years fact increased frequency regarding specific conditions anxiety mood disorders led large number patients released fully cured disorder hospitalized became known phenomenon deinstitutionalization movement noble goals treating individuals outside


conjunction type psychotherapy psychological explanations according sigmund freud 's structural model id ego superego three theoretical constructs define way individual interacts external world well responding internal forces ref name boag ref id represents instinctual drives individual remain unconscious superego represents person 's conscience internalization societal norms morality finally ego serves realistically integrate drives id prohibitions super ego lack development superego incoherently developed superego within


certain behavior characteristic relevant low percentage population however necessarily mean individuals suffering mental illness example statistical abnormalities extreme wealth attractiveness ''psychometric abnormality'' nbsp psychometric abnormality implicates abnormality deviation statistically determined norm population average iq case iq score less may define someone learning disability suggests difficulties coping life however problems associated low iq differ widely across individuals depending life


high amounts inattention hyperactive impulsiveness inattentive symptoms include listening careless errors disorganization loss items easily distracted forgetfulness symptoms hyperactive impulsiveness include fidgeting talking excessively interrupting others ref name phares '''antisocial personality disorder''' antisocial personality disorder described cluster personality traits lead specific outcomes violate rights people personality traits include callousness deceitfulness remorselessness lack empathy manipulativeness impulsiveness grandiosity ref name nchez de ribera ref additional traits may include superficial charm sexual promiscuousness pathological lying ref name nchez de ribera '''dissociative identity disorder''' dissociative identity disorder involves


anxiety disorder characterized constant chronic state worry anxiety related large variety situations difficult control additional symptoms may include irritability fatigue concentration difficulties restlessness '''specific phobia''' individuals specific phobias extreme fear avoidance various objects situations ref name ipser ref specifically fears become phobias excessive unreasonable fear disproportionate culture individual ref name phares examples specific phobias include limited phobias school blood injury needles small animals


dissociative disorders ref name dsm somatic symptom related disorders ref name dsm feeding eating disorders ref name dsm elimination disorders ref name dsm sleep wake disorders ref name dsm sexual dysfunctions ref name dsm gender dysphoria ref name dsm disruptive impulse control conduct disorders ref name dsm substance related addictive disorders ref name dsm neurocognitive disorders ref name dsm personality disorders ref name dsm paraphilic disorders ref name dsm medication induced movement disorders effects medication ref name dsm mental disorders additional codes ref name dsm categories used organize various abnormal psychological concepts based similarity ref name dsm section iii


psychological development ref name icd '''f f ''' behavioral emotional disorders onset usually occurring childhood adolescence ref name icd '''f ''' unspecified mental disorder ref name icd ref icd icd recent version international classification diseases ''mental behavioral neurodevelopmental disorders section'' highlights forms abnormal psychology ref name icd ref '''mental behavioral neurodevelopmental disorders''' ''' z''' neurodevelopmental disorders ref name icd ''' z''' schizophrenia primary psychotic disorders ref name icd ''' z''' catatonia ref name icd ''' z''' mood disorders ref name icd ''' b b z''' anxiety fear related disorders ref name icd ''' b b z''' obsessive compulsive related disorders ref name icd ''' b b z''' disorders specifically associated


allow calculation ''heritability coefficient'' genetic vulnerabilities diathesis stress model ref name phares biological causal factors neurotransmitter imbalances neurotransmitters like norepinephrine dopamine serotonin gaba gamma aminobutyric acid hormonal imbalances brain constitutional liabilities physical handicaps temperament brain dysfunction neural plasticity physical deprivation disruption deprivation basic physiological needs socio cultural factors effects urban rural dwelling gender minority status state mind generalizations cultural practices beliefs may fail capture diversity exists within across cultural groups must extremely careful stereotype individuals


saini samurai scordisci scythians seminole sengunthar shaolin shieldmaiden ref name nordisk http runebergorg nfce html article ''sk ldm '' ''nordisk familjebok'' ref sioux sipahi sohei somatophylakes spartan timawa teutonic knights ref name auto thingmen triballi uskoks valkyrie vanniyar vanniar chieftain varangian guard velir vellalar vikings virago voynuks white lotus sect yadav see also endemic warfare ''deadliest warrior'' honour martial races soldier warg women warriors literature culture references bibliography ayvazyan http wwwhayqorg upload files code honor summary engpdf code honor armenian military th centuries shannon e french ''code warrior exploring warrior values past present'' external links https wwwacademiaedu roman warriors myth military machine roman warriors myth

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Warrior


connoisseur english dealer art historian philip mould says noticing things specific characteristics artists involved opposed general characteristics era points importance condition understanding artist originally painted opposed painting looks colleague bendor grosvenor takes view connoisseurship learned looking paintings cannot taught classroom believes become unfashionable world art history result activities producing catalogue raisonn


model generalised circles perpendicular unit circle correspond hyperbolic lines geodesics translations model described bius transformations map unit disc distance points given cayley klein metric known invariant translations since depends cross ratio key projective invariant translations described variously isometries metric space theory linear fractional transformations formally projective linear transformations projective linear group case su work poncelet jakob steiner others

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Projective geometry


way hyperbola ''lies across line infinity'' parabola distinguished tangent line whole family circles considered ''conics passing two given points line infinity'' cost requiring complex coordinates since coordinates synthetic one replaces fixing line two points considering ''linear system'' conics passing points basic object study method proved attractive talented geometers topic studied


intersections called '''projective conic''' acknowledgement work jakob steiner referred steiner conic suppose projectivity formed two perspectivities centered points ''a'' ''b'' relating ''x'' ''x'' intermediary ''p'' math x overset doublebarwedge p overset b doublebarwedge x math projectivity math x barwedge x math given projectivity math barwedge math induced conic math c barwedge bigcup xx cdot yy x barwedge x land barwedge math given


conic ''c'' point ''p'' two distinct secant lines ''p'' intersect ''c'' four points four points determine quadrangle ''p'' diagonal point line two diagonal points called polar ''p'' ''p ''is '''pole''' line alternatively polar line ''p'' set projective harmonic conjugates ''p'' variable secant line passing ''p'' ''c'' see also projective line projective plane incidence fundamental theorem projective geometry desargues' theorem pappus 's hexagon theorem pascal 's theorem projective


affine geometry one uses playfair 's axiom find line c parallel b b find line b parallel b c intersection c result indicated translation mathematics '''affine geometry''' remains euclidean geometry ignoring mathematicians often say forgetting metric notions distance angle notion ''parallel lines'' one main properties independent metric affine geometry often considered study parallel lines therefore playfair 's axiom given line l

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Affine geometry


affine space set ''points'' equipped set ''transformations'' bijective mappings translations forms vector space given field commonly real numbers given ordered pair points unique translation sending first point second composition two translations sum vector space translations concrete terms amounts operation associates ordered pair points vector another operation allows translation point


ordered geometry presented include properties imply structure real numbers properties carry axiomatization affine geometry field real numbers ternary rings first non desarguesian plane noted david hilbert ''foundations geometry'' moulton plane standard illustration order provide context geometry well desargues theorem valid concept ternary ring developed marshall hall approach affine planes constructed ordered pairs taken


generalization algebraic geometry introduced grothendieck many notions commutative algebra counterparts geometrical notions occurring algebraic geometry case krull dimension primary decomposition regular rings cohen macaulay rings gorenstein rings many notions history subject first known ideal theory began richard dedekind 's work ideals based earlier work ernst kummer leopold kronecker later david hilbert introduced term ''ring'' generalize earlier term ''number ring'' hilbert introduced abstract approach replace concrete computationally oriented methods

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Commutative algebra


fixed commutative ring ''i'' ideal defined analogy classical zariski topology closed sets affine space defined polynomial equations see connection classical picture note set ''s'' polynomials algebraically closed field follows hilbert 's nullstellensatz points ''v'' ''s'' old sense exactly tuples ''a sub sub '' ''a sub n sub '' ''x sub sub '' ''a sub sub '' ''x sub n sub '' ''a sub n sub '' contains ''s'' moreover maximal ideals weak nullstellensatz ideal affine


' b ' c math set math g sim math structure group math g math math b b ' b ' b math equivalence classes group thought formal differences elements abelian monoid group math g math also associate monoid homomorphism math g math given math mapsto math certain universal property get better understanding group consider equivalence classes abelian monoid math math denote identity element math math

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
K-theory


completion viewed functor math g mathbf abmon mathbf abgrp math property left adjoint corresponding forgetful functor math u mathbf abgrp mathbf abmon math means given morphism math phi u b math abelian monoid math math underlying abelian monoid abelian group math b math exists unique abelian group morphism math g b math example natural numbers illustrative example look grothendieck completion math n math see math g n z math pair math ab math find minimal representative math a'b' math using invariance scaling


using bott periodicity theorem made basis extraordinary cohomology theory played major role second proof atiyah singer index theorem circa furthermore approach led noncommutative k theory c algebras already jean pierre serre used analogy vector bundles projective modules formulate serre 's conjecture states every finitely generated projective module polynomial ring free assertion correct settled years later swan 's theorem another aspect analogy developments


intersection math z cap math math z vir z z x z math kontsevich uses construction one papers chern characters chern classes used construct homomorphism rings topological k theory space completion rational cohomology line bundle ''l'' chern character ch defined math operatorname ch l exp c l sum infty frac c l math generally math v l oplus dots oplus l n math direct sum line bundles first chern classes math x c l math chern character defined additively math operatorname ch v


''philosophy psychology'' prentice hall foundations philosophy series prentice hall ken richardson ''understanding psychology'' open university press george botterill peter carruthers ''the philosophy psychology'' cambridge university press craig steven titus ''philosophical psychology psychology emotions freedom'' cua press jose bermudez ''philosophy psychology contemporary introduction'' routledge terence horgan john tienson ''connectionism philosophy psychology'' mit press external links http conscnet mindpapers part mindpapers philosophy cognitive science contains articles many online copies http wwwartsualbertaca raw philofpsychpdf philosophy

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of psychology


often studied via categories modules module ring abelian group ring acts ring endomorphisms much akin way fields integral domains every non zero element invertible act vector spaces examples noncommutative rings given rings square matrices generally rings endomorphisms abelian groups modules monoid rings representation theory representation theory branch mathematics draws heavily non commutative rings studies abstract algebraic structures ' 'representing'' elements linear

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Ring theory


noetherian local ring depth ''r'' less equal dimension ''r'' equality holds ''r'' called cohen macaulay ring regular local ring example cohen macaulay ring theorem serre ''r'' regular local ring finite global dimension case global dimension krull dimension ''r'' significance global dimension homological notion morita equivalence two rings ''r'' ''s'' said morita


non zero complex values variable ' 's'' form ' 's'' nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp ''it'' ''t'' nbsp nbsp modern times biggest technical change development ' 'sieve methods'' particularly multiplicative problems combinatorial nature quite varied extremal branch combinatorial theory return greatly influenced value placed analytic number theory quantitative upper lower bounds another recent development ''probabilistic number theory'' uses methods probability theory estimate distribution number theoretic functions many prime divisors

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Number theory
Analytic number theory


number developments within analytic number theory often refinements earlier techniques reduce error terms widen applicability example ''circle method'' hardy littlewood conceived applying power series near unit circle complex plane thought terms finite exponential sums unit circle power series truncated needs diophantine approximation auxiliary functions generating functions coefficients constructed use pigeonhole principle involve several complex variables fields diophantine


size ''height'' important example gauss circle problem asks integers points ''x'' nbsp ''y'' satisfy math x leq r math geometrical terms given circle centered origin plane radius ''r'' problem asks many integer lattice points lie inside circle hard prove answer math pi r e r math math e r r math math r infty math difficult part great achievement analytic number theory obtaining specific upper bounds error term nbsp ''e'' ''r'' shown gauss


laboratory director food analytical chemist technical sales five common positions food scientists food scientist technologist product developer quality assurance control director r scientific technical director research ref name ref country australia commonwealth scientific industrial research organisation csiro federal government agency scientific research australia csiro maintains sites across australia biological control research stations france mexico nearly employees south korea korean society food science technology kosfost claims first society south korea food

Applied science
Agriculture
Food science


life scientists started working together recognized engineers n't know enough actual biology behind work resolve problem engineers wanted get biological engineering devoted time studying processes biology psychology medicine ref name ref recently term biological engineering applied environmental modifications surface soil protection slope stabilization watercourse shoreline protection windbreaks vegetation barriers including noise barriers visual screens ecological enhancement area engineering disciplines also address living organisms term biological engineering applied

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Bioengineering


landscapes defined terms uniformity land use landscape ecology explores landscape 's natural potential terms functional utility human societies analyse potential necessary draw several natural sciences ''topological ecology landscape scale'' ref name forman ref 'landscape' defined heterogeneous land area composed cluster interacting ecosystems woods meadows marshes villages etc repeated similar form throughout explicitly stated landscapes areas kilometres wide ''human scale'' perception modification etc landscape ecology describes explains

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Landscape ecology


landscape ecology interconnected interrelated discipline landscape certainly 'landscape' central concept landscape ecology however defined quite different ways example ref name kirchhoff carl troll conceives landscape mental construct objectively given 'organic entity' ''harmonic individuum space'' ernst neef ref name neef ref name haase defines landscapes sections within uninterrupted earth wide interconnection geofactors defined basis uniformity terms specific land use


important process landscapes development occurs important consequence repeated random clearing whether natural disturbance human activity contiguous cover break isolated patches happens area cleared exceeds critical level means landscapes exhibit two phases connected disconnected ref name green ref theory landscape ecology theory stresses role human impacts landscape structures functions also proposes ways restoring degraded landscapes ref name naveh landscape ecology explicitly includes humans entities cause functional changes landscape ref name sanderson landscape ecology theory includes landscape


age partners female male relationships laws apply explicitly historically applied male homosexual sexual activity ''see also morris v united kingdom'' ''state v limon'' prohibiting youth bringing sex date high school prom ''see also fricke v lynch marc hall v durham catholic school board'' adoption bans either sex couples gay lesbian bisexual individuals ''see also lgbt adoption gill'' legislation prevents legal social equality ie laws prohibit protection discrimination based sexual orientation perceived sexual orientation particularly regard

Social science
Sociology
Sexology
Heterosexism


martin'' films posters homosexual themes refusal include families headed sex parents school events represent family diversity school curricula ' 'see also anti bias curriculum'' coercive forced sex reassignment surgery gay men lesbian women bisexuals issue addressed tanaz eshaghian 's documentary ''be like others'' ''see also lgbt rights iran'' forced disappearance ' 'damnatio memoriae'' ostracism shunning forms social rejection geared towards making homosexual bisexual people ''personae non gratae'' effects heterosexism causes range effects people sexual orientation however


government information nuclear weapons often additional marking show contains information cnwdi international government agency group shares information agency group country 's government generally employ special classification scheme parties previously agreed honour example marking atomal applied us restricted data formerly restricted data united kingdom atomic information released nato atomal information marked cosmic top secret atomal ctsa nato secret atomal nsat nato confidential atomal nca nato classifications example sensitive

Applied science
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Security classification


set romanian intelligence service must aligned nato regulations case conflicting regulations latter applied priority dissemination classified information foreign agents powers punishable life imprisonment dissemination threatens romania 's national security kgb regulation seen museum genocide victims vilnius russia russian federation state secret information protected state military foreign policy economic intelligence counterintelligence operational investigative activities dissemination could harm state security sweden swedish examples markings attached


according related regulations turkey four levels document classification ref name tr ref '' ok gizli'' top secret ''gizli'' secret '' zel'' confidential ''hizmete zel'' restricted fifth inscription ''tasnif '' means unclassified united kingdom security classifications uk united kingdom used five levels classification lowest highest protect restricted confidential secret top secret formerly secret cabinet office provides guidance protect information including security clearances required personnel staff may required sign confirm understanding acceptance official