study practice traditional forms medicine including ayurveda chinese medicine tibetan medicine according pierce salguero buddhist monasteries ample opportunity motivation combine imported local therapies institutional contexts accumulate oral tacit knowledge efficacious ref name c pierce salguero '' https journalequinoxpubcom bsr article view toward global history buddhism medicine '' buddhist studies review issn online ref important buddhist centers medical practice n land produced medical texts materia medica pharmaceuticals trained doctors widely disseminated across buddhist world ref name n land university


vietnam large buddhist populations live mainland china taiwan north korea nepal south korea ref name pew forum ref russia buddhists form majority tuva kalmykia buryatia zabaykalsky krai also significant buddhist populations buddhism also growing conversion new zealand total buddhists converts buddhism buddhism also spread nordic countries example burmese buddhists founded city kuopio north savonia first buddhist monastery finland named buddha dhamma ramsi monastery countries largest


bibliography china tibet east west center http wwwunmedu rhayes numatahtml ten philosophical questions buddhism richard hayes leiden university http wwwaccesstoinsightorg readings theravada buddhism access insight http terebesshu zen hakuinhtml readings zen buddhism hakuin ekaku ed monika bincsik http wwwdsbcprojectorg readings sanskrit buddhist canon nagarjuna institute uwest http wwwtipitakaorg indexshtml readings buddhism vipassana research institute english southeast asian indian languages religion spirituality buddhism open directory project http wwwpatheoscom topics future world religions buddhismhtml future buddhism series ''patheos'' http wwwasiasiedu exhibitions online buddhism defaulthtm buddhist art smithsonian https webarchiveorg web http wwwvamacuk collections asia asia features buddhism indexhtml buddhism nbsp objects art history v museum https tricycleorg beginners buddhism beginners tricycle stika gautama buddha indian religions category moksha aligned dharmas transtheism


george beadle edward tatum received nobel prize work fungi showing one gene produces one enzyme ref name krebs krebs p ref colin pitchfork first person convicted murder dna evidence led growth forensic science ref name butler butler p ref recently andrew z fire craig c mello received nobel prize discovering role rna interference rnai silencing gene expression ref name sen chandan pp ref starting materials chemical elements life main elements


animals may may need ultra small amounts six elements carbon hydrogen nitrogen oxygen calcium phosphorus make almost mass living cells including human body see composition human body complete list addition six major elements compose human body humans require smaller amounts possibly biomolecules main classes molecules bio chemistry often called biomolecules carbohydrates lipids proteins nucleic acids ref name slabaugh slabaugh pp ref many biological molecules polymers terminology monomers relatively small macromolecules


furanose form exchanged oh side chain another sugar yielding full acetal prevents opening chain aldehyde keto form renders modified residue non reducing lactose contains reducing end glucose moiety whereas galactose moiety forms full acetal c oh group glucose saccharose reducing end full acetal formation aldehyde carbon glucose c keto carbon fructose c lipids structures common lipids top cholesterol oleic acid middle structure


bond connects nitrogen one amino acid 's amino group carbon 's carboxylic acid group resulting molecule called ' 'dipeptide'' short stretches amino acids usually fewer thirty called ''peptides'' polypeptides longer stretches merit title ''proteins'' example important blood serum protein albumin contains amino acid residues ref name metzler metzler p ref generic amino acids neutral form exist physiologically joined together dipeptide schematic hemoglobin red blue ribbons represent protein globin green


amino group removed amino acid leaves behind carbon skeleton called keto acid enzymes called transaminases easily transfer amino group one amino acid making keto acid another keto acid making amino acid important biosynthesis amino acids many pathways intermediates biochemical pathways converted keto acid skeleton amino group added often via transamination amino acids may linked together form protein similar process


used break proteins first hydrolyzed component amino acids free ammonia nh existing ammonium ion nh blood toxic life forms suitable method excreting must therefore exist different tactics evolved different animals depending animals' needs unicellular organisms simply release ammonia environment likewise bony fish release ammonia water quickly diluted general mammals convert ammonia urea via urea cycle order determine whether two proteins related words


form backbone nucleic acid sequence nitrogenous bases stores information common nitrogenous bases adenine cytosine guanine thymine uracil nitrogenous bases strand nucleic acid form hydrogen bonds certain nitrogenous bases complementary strand nucleic acid similar zipper adenine binds thymine uracil thymine binds adenine cytosine guanine bind one another adenine thymine adenine uracil contains two hydrogen bonds hydrogen bonds formed cytosine


cell cannot use oxygen nad restored converting pyruvate lactate lactic acid eg humans ethanol plus carbon dioxide eg yeast monosaccharides like galactose fructose converted intermediates glycolytic pathway aerobic aerobic cells sufficient oxygen human cells pyruvate metabolized irreversibly converted acetyl coa giving one carbon atom waste product carbon dioxide generating another reducing equivalent nadh two molecules acetyl coa one molecule glucose enter citric acid cycle producing two


schematic depicts one possible view relationships fields '''''biochemistry''''' study chemical substances vital processes occurring live organisms biochemists focus heavily role function structure biomolecules study chemistry behind biological processes synthesis biologically active molecules applications biochemistry biochemistry studies life atomic molecular level '''''genetics''''' study effect genetic differences organisms often inferred absence normal component eg one gene study mutants organisms


pyrrhic victory ultimately favors defeated party resolution reached battle result stalemate conflict one side unwilling reach decision direct battle using conventional warfare often becomes insurgency th century majority battles short duration many lasting part day battle preston battle nations battle gettysburg exceptional lasting three days mainly due difficulty supplying armies

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Battle


misuse referring almost scale combat notably strategic forces involving hundreds thousands troops may engaged either one battle time battle leipzig operations battle kursk space battle occupies depends range weapons combatants battle broader sense may long duration take place large area case battle britain battle atlantic advent artillery aircraft battles fought


battle smolensk bringing hostilities end battle hastings battle hattin decisive battle change balance power boundaries countries concept ' 'decisive battle'' became popular publication edward creasy 's ''the fifteen decisive battles world'' british military historians jfc fuller ''the decisive battles western world'' bh liddell hart ''decisive wars history'' among many others written books style creasy 's work land obvious difference way battles


battles affect individuals take part well political actors personal effects battle range mild psychological issues permanent crippling injuries battle survivors nightmares conditions encountered abnormal reactions certain sights sounds suffer flashbacks physical effects battle include scars amputations lesions loss bodily functions blindness paralysis death battles affect politics decisive battle cause losing side surrender pyrrhic victory battle asculum cause winning side reconsider goals battles


civil wars often decided fate monarchs political factions famous examples include wars roses well jacobite risings battles affect commitment one side continuance war example battle inchon battle hu tet offensive see also list battles military strategy military tactics naval battle pitched battle skirmisher war reading interstate war battle dataset references sources isbn external links military operations type


approach darwin 's publication ''origin species'' concept common descent required modifications candollean system reflect evolutionary relationships distinct mere morphological similarity botany greatly stimulated appearance first modern textbook matthias schleiden 's '''' published english ''principles scientific botany'' schleiden microscopist early plant anatomist co founded cell theory theodor schwann rudolf virchow among first grasp significance cell nucleus described robert brown


ultimately enabled use genetic engineering experimentally knock gene genes responsible specific trait add genes gfp report gene interest expressed technologies enable biotechnological use whole plants plant cell cultures grown bioreactors synthesise pesticides antibiotics pharmaceuticals well practical application genetically modified crops designed traits improved yield modern morphology recognises continuum major morphological categories root stem caulome leaf phyllome trichome furthermore emphasises structural dynamics


considered animals botanists examine internal functions processes within plant organelles cells tissues whole plants plant populations plant communities levels botanist may concerned classification taxonomy phylogeny evolution structure anatomy morphology function physiology plant life strictest definition plant includes land plants embryophytes include seed plants gymnosperms including pines flowering plants free sporing cryptogams including ferns clubmosses liverworts hornworts mosses embryophytes multicellular eukaryotes descended ancestor obtained energy sunlight photosynthesis


land plants algae inulin polymer fructose used purpose sunflower family asteraceae glucose converted sucrose common table sugar export rest plant unlike animals lack chloroplasts plants eukaryote relatives delegated many biochemical roles chloroplasts including synthesising fatty acids amino acids fatty acids chloroplasts make used many things providing material build cell membranes making polymer cutin found


regions characteristic vegetation types dominant plants well similar abiotic biotic factors climate geography make biomes like tundra tropical rainforest herbivores eat plants plants defend species parasitic even carnivorous organisms form mutually beneficial relationships plants example mycorrhizal fungi rhizobia provide plants nutrients exchange food ants recruited ant plants provide protection honey bees bats animals pollinate flowers humans animals act dispersal vectors spread spores seeds plants climate


reproduction giving rise clonal populations genetically identical parent one several types apomixis occur plants apomixis also happen seed producing seed contains embryo genetically identical parent sexually reproducing organisms diploid paired chromosomes doubling chromosome number may occur due errors cytokinesis occur early development produce autopolyploid partly autopolyploid organism normal processes cellular differentiation produce cell types polyploid endopolyploidy gamete formation


thale cress ''arabidopsis thaliana'' weedy species mustard family brassicaceae genome hereditary information contained genes species encoded million base pairs dna forming one smallest genomes among flowering plants ''arabidopsis'' first plant genome sequenced sequencing relatively small genomes rice ''oryza sativa'' ''brachypodium distachyon'' made important model species understanding genetics cellular molecular biology cereals grasses monocots generally model plants ''arabidopsis thaliana'' used


studying molecular biology plant cells chloroplast ideally organisms small genomes well known completely sequenced small stature short generation times corn used study mechanisms photosynthesis phloem loading sugar plants single celled green alga ''chlamydomonas reinhardtii'' embryophyte contains green pigmented chloroplast related land plants making useful study red alga ''cyanidioschyzon merolae'' also used study basic chloroplast functions spinach peas soybeans moss ''physcomitrella patens'' commonly used


vascular plants including clubmosses ferns seed plants gymnosperms angiosperms generally aerial subterranean subsystems shoots consist stems bearing green photosynthesising leaves reproductive structures underground vascularised roots bear root hairs tips generally lack chlorophyll non vascular plants liverworts hornworts mosses produce ground penetrating vascular roots plant participates photosynthesis sporophyte generation nonphotosynthetic liverworts may able contribute part energy needs photosynthesis mosses hornworts root system shoot system interdependent


allows botanists better understand process evolution plants despite study model plants increasing use dna evidence ongoing work discussion among taxonomists best classify plants various taxa technological developments computers electron microscopes greatly increased level detail studied speed data analysed symbols symbols current use botany number others obsolete example linnaeus used planetary symbols woody herbaceous perennial plants following symbols still


used female male hermaphrodite bisexual vegetative asexual reproduction sex unknown annual px biennial poisonous information crossbred hybrid grafted hybrid see also branches botany evolution plants glossary botanical terms glossary plant morphology list botany journals list botanists list botanical gardens list botanists author abbreviation list domesticated plants list flowers list systems plant taxonomy outline botany timeline british botany notes references citations sources last


nucleotide amino acid sequences protein domains protein structures actual process analyzing interpreting data referred computational biology important sub disciplines within bioinformatics computational biology include development implementation computer programs enable efficient access management use various types information development new algorithms mathematical formulas statistical measures assess relationships among members large data sets example methods locate gene within sequence predict protein structure function cluster protein sequences families related sequences primary goal


bioinformatics increase understanding biological processes sets apart approaches however focus developing applying computationally intensive techniques achieve goal examples include pattern recognition data mining machine learning algorithms visualization major research efforts field include sequence alignment gene finding genome assembly drug design drug discovery protein structure alignment protein structure prediction prediction gene expression protein protein interactions genome wide association studies modeling evolution cell division mitosis bioinformatics entails creation advancement databases algorithms computational statistical techniques theory


solve formal practical problems arising management analysis biological data past decades rapid developments genomic molecular research technologies developments information technologies combined produce tremendous amount information related molecular biology bioinformatics name given mathematical computing approaches used glean understanding biological processes common activities bioinformatics include mapping analyzing dna protein sequences aligning dna protein sequences compare creating viewing models protein structures relation fields bioinformatics


study complex evolutionary events gene duplication horizontal gene transfer prediction factors important bacterial speciation build complex computational population genetics models predict outcome system time track share information increasingly large number species organisms future work endeavours reconstruct complex tree life area research within computer science uses genetic algorithms sometimes confused computational evolutionary biology two areas necessarily related comparative genomics core comparative genome analysis establishment


development analysis lesions found recurrent among many tumors gene protein expression analysis gene expression expression many genes determined measuring mrna levels multiple techniques including microarrays expressed cdna sequence tag est sequencing serial analysis gene expression sage tag sequencing massively parallel signature sequencing mpss rna seq also known whole transcriptome shotgun sequencing wtss various applications multiplexed situ hybridization techniques extremely noise prone subject bias biological measurement major research area computational biology involves developing statistical tools


species identification tools ontologies data integration biological ontologies directed acyclic graphs controlled vocabularies designed capture biological concepts descriptions way easily categorised analysed computers categorised way possible gain added value holistic integrated analysis obo foundry effort standardise certain ontologies one widespread gene ontology describes gene function also ontologies describe phenotypes databases databases essential bioinformatics research applications many databases exist covering various information types


example dna protein sequences molecular structures phenotypes biodiversity databases may contain empirical data obtained directly experiments predicted data obtained analysis commonly may specific particular organism pathway molecule interest alternatively incorporate data compiled multiple databases databases vary format access mechanism whether public commonly used databases listed comprehensive list please check link beginning subsection used biological sequence analysis genbank uniprot used


structure analysis protein data bank pdb used finding protein families motif finding interpro pfam used next generation sequencing sequence read archive used network analysis metabolic pathway databases kegg biocyc interaction analysis databases functional networks used design synthetic genetic circuits genocad software tools software tools bioinformatics range simple command line tools complex graphical programs standalone web services available various bioinformatics companies public institutions open source bioinformatics software many free open source software tools existed continued grow since ref name obf main ref combination continued need


website creative commons license project pi project also offers open source educational materials free course runs low cost raspberry pi computers used teach adults school pupils actively developed consortium academics research staff run research level bioinformatics using raspberry pi computers operating system mooc platforms also provide online certifications bioinformatics related disciplines including coursera 's bioinformatics specialization uc san diego genomic data science specialization johns hopkins well edx 's data analysis life


dedicated environmental applications focused maintenance biodiversity remotion pollutants ref name brown biotechnology related management arid lands deserts one application creation enhanced seeds resist extreme environmental conditions arid regions related innovation creation agriculture techniques management resources ref name violet biotechnology related law ethical philosophical issues around biotechnology ref name dark biotechnology color associated bioterrorism biological weapons biowarfare uses microorganisms toxins cause diseases death


business organization business ethics two dimensions normative business ethics descriptive business ethics corporate practice career specialization field primarily normative academics attempting understand business behavior employ descriptive methods range quantity business ethical issues reflects interaction profit maximizing behavior non economic concerns interest business ethics accelerated dramatically within major corporations within academia example major corporations today promote commitment non economic values headings ethics codes social responsibility charters adam smith said people

Applied science
Business
Business ethics


workplace unethical mean illegal follow guidelines put place osha eeoc law binding entities potential employees ethical obligations employers involving intellectual property protection whistle blowing employers must consider workplace safety may involve modifying workplace providing appropriate training hazard disclosure differentiates location type work taking place need comply standards protect employees non employees workplace safety larger economic issues immigration trade policy globalization trade unionism affect workplaces


ethical dimension often beyond purview individual companies ref name pin trade unions trade unions example may push employers establish due process workers may also cause job loss demanding unsustainable compensation work rules unionized workplaces may confront union busting strike breaking face ethical implications work rules advantage workers others management strategy among many people management strategies companies employ soft approach regards employees source creative energy participants workplace decision making hard version explicitly focused


name theguardiancom transparency revealing decision making data sustainability reached companies give away insights help others across industry beyond make sustainable decisions nike launched making app released data sustainability materials using ultimately allows companies make sustainable design decisions create lower impact products ref name theguardiancom academic discipline academic discipline business ethics emerged since academic business ethics journals conferences existed researchers published general management journals attended general conferences time specialized peer reviewed


staff eg physicians administrators etc clinical engineers also advise collaborate medical device producers regarding prospective design improvements based clinical experiences well monitor progression state art redirect procurement patterns accordingly inherent focus ''practical'' implementation technology tended keep oriented towards ''incremental'' level redesigns reconfigurations opposed revolutionary research development ideas would many years clinical adoption however growing effort expand time horizon clinical engineers influence trajectory biomedical

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Biomedical engineering


benefits expected patients use device technical file contains documentation data records supporting medical device certification fda technical file similar content although organized different structure quality system deliverables usually include procedures ensure quality throughout product life cycles standard iso en usually applied quality management systems us worldwide implants artificial hip joints generally extensively regulated due invasive nature devices european union certifying entities named notified bodies


field majority bme positions prefer even require since bme related professions involve scientific research pharmaceutical medical device development graduate education almost requirement undergraduate degrees typically involve sufficient research training experience either masters doctoral level degree certain specialties phd notably common others hardly ever majority except academia fact perceived need kind graduate credential strong undergraduate bme programs actively discourage students


access key normally required ie study crack encryption algorithms implementations use terms ''' cryptography ''' ''' cryptology ''' interchangeably english others including us military practice generally use cryptography refer specifically use practice cryptographic techniques cryptology refer combined study cryptography cryptanalysis ref name goldreichbook oded goldreich ''foundations cryptography volume basic tools'' cambridge university press ref ref name websters ref english flexible several languages cryptology done cryptologists always used second

Formal science
Computer science
Computer security
Cryptography


much secure triple des variant remains quite popular used across wide range applications atm encryption ref name atm ref e mail privacy ref name opgp ref secure remote access ref name ssh ref many block ciphers designed released considerable variation quality many even designed capable practitioners thoroughly broken feal ref name hac ref name schneierbook ref stream ciphers contrast 'block' type create arbitrarily long stream key material combined plaintext bit bit character character somewhat like one time pad stream cipher output stream


additional complication blocks attack scheme bare digest algorithms thought worth effort cryptographic hash functions third type cryptographic algorithm take message length input output short fixed length hash used example digital signature good hash functions attacker cannot find two messages produce hash md long used hash function broken md strengthened variant md also widely used broken practice us national security agency developed secure


high quality public key algorithms among widely used asymmetric key algorithms include cramer shoup cryptosystem elgamal encryption various elliptic curve techniques document published government communications headquarters gchq british intelligence organization revealed cryptographers gchq anticipated several academic developments ref name nytimes ref reportedly around james h ellis conceived principles asymmetric key cryptography clifford cocks invented solution similar design rationale rsa ref name nytimes ref name mjtci ref malcolm j williamson claimed developed diffie hellman key exchange ref name singh ref


example message signed encrypted alice signs message private key bob verify alice sent message message modified public key cryptography also used implementing digital signature schemes digital signature reminiscent ordinary signature characteristic easy user produce difficult anyone else forge digital signatures also permanently tied content message signed cannot 'moved' one document another


symmetric key encryption algorithm used message relevant symmetric key sent message encrypted using public key algorithm similarly hybrid signature schemes often used cryptographic hash function computed resulting hash digitally signed ref name hac cryptographic hash functions cryptographic hash functions cryptographic algorithms ways generate utilize specific keys encrypt data either symmetric asymmetric encryption functions may viewed keys take message length input output short fixed length


research intel security design fear prosecution dmca ref name bus ref cryptologist bruce schneier argued dmca encourages vendor lock inhibiting actual measures toward cyber security ref name doe r ref alan cox longtime linux kernel developer edward felten students princeton encountered problems related act dmitry sklyarov arrested visit us russia jailed five months pending trial alleged violations dmca arising work done russia work legal cryptographic


random data example drive securely wiped see also first cryptography chart world wide web consortium 's collision attack references reading excellent coverage many classical ciphers cryptography concepts modern des rsa systems ''cryptography mathematics'' bernhard esslinger pages part free open source package cryptool cryptool widespread e learning program cryptography cryptanalysis open source ''in code mathematical journey'' sarah flannery david flannery popular account sarah 's award winning project public key cryptography co written father


''ostomachion'' archimedes rd century bce may considered number configurations tiling puzzle combinatorial interests possibly present lost works apollonius middle ages combinatorics continued studied largely outside european civilization indian mathematician mah v ra c provided formulae number permutations combinations formulas may familiar indian mathematicians early th century ce philosopher astronomer rabbi abraham ibn ezra c established symmetry binomial coefficients closed formula obtained later

Formal science
Mathematics
Applied mathematics
Combinatorics


'''calculus''' originally called '''infinitesimal calculus''' calculus infinitesimals mathematical study continuous change way geometry study shape algebra study generalizations arithmetic operations two major branches differential calculus integral calculus former concerns instantaneous rates change slopes curves integral calculus concerns accumulation quantities areas curves two branches related fundamental theorem calculus make use fundamental notions convergence infinite

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Calculus


formula sum fourth powers used results carry would called integration function formulae sums integral squares fourth powers allowed calculate volume paraboloid ref name katz katz vj ideas calculus islam india ''mathematics magazine'' mathematical association america ref india th century indian mathematicians gave non rigorous method resembling differentiation applicable trigonometric functions madhava sangamagrama kerala school astronomy mathematics thereby stated components calculus


times represented area shaded region nbsp approximate area intuitive method would divide distance number equal segments length segment represented symbol small segment choose one value function call value area rectangle base height gives distance time multiplied speed traveled segment associated segment average value


courses within zero gravity environments varieties years many reformulations calculus investigated different purposes non standard calculus imprecise calculations infinitesimals widely replaced rigorous definition limit starting meanwhile calculations infinitesimals persisted often led correct results led abraham robinson investigate possible develop number system infinitesimal quantities theorems calculus still valid building upon work edwin hewitt jerzy succeeded developing non standard analysis theory


carbon dioxide co sub sub example chemical compound ''compound'' pure chemical substance composed one element properties compound bear little similarity elements standard nomenclature compounds set international union pure applied chemistry iupac organic compounds named according organic nomenclature system names inorganic compounds created according inorganic nomenclature system compound one component divided two classes electropositive electronegative components addition chemical


properties distinguish different chemical classifications chemicals exist several phases part chemical classifications independent bulk phase classifications however exotic phases incompatible certain chemical properties ''phase'' set states chemical system similar bulk structural properties range conditions pressure temperature physical properties density refractive index tend fall within values characteristic phase phase matter defined ''phase transition'' energy put taken


substance another thermal electrical energy existence characteristic energy levels different chemical substances useful identification analysis spectral lines different kinds spectra often used chemical spectroscopy eg ir microwave nmr esr etc spectroscopy also used identify composition remote objects like stars distant galaxies analyzing radiation spectra emission spectrum iron term chemical energy often used indicate potential chemical substance undergo transformation chemical reaction transform chemical


proposing mechanisms various chemical reactions several empirical rules like woodward hoffmann rules often come handy proposing mechanism chemical reaction according iupac gold book chemical reaction process results interconversion chemical species accordingly chemical reaction may elementary reaction stepwise reaction additional caveat made definition includes cases interconversion conformers experimentally observable detectable chemical reactions normally involve sets molecular entities indicated definition often conceptually convenient


unsuccessful explaining nature matter transformations performing experiments recording results alchemists set stage modern chemistry chemistry body knowledge distinct alchemy began emerge clear differentiation made robert boyle work ''the sceptical chymist'' alchemy chemistry concerned matter transformations crucial difference given scientific method chemists employed work chemistry considered become established science work antoine lavoisier


end century thereby filling basic structure table ''top '' expected results alpha particles passing plum pudding model atom undisturbed br ''bottom '' observed results small portion particles deflected indicating small concentrated charge turn twentieth century theoretical underpinnings chemistry finally understood due series remarkable discoveries succeeded probing discovering nature internal structure atoms jj thomson cambridge university discovered electron soon french scientist becquerel well


biography history website allmusic first alexey last eremenko access date december ref years active present label defstar associated acts website current members yoshikuni chin br kaname kawabata '''chemistry''' styled '''chemistry''' japanese pop duo consisting history winners asayan audition similar ''american idol'' series organized sony music entertainment japan first single pieces dream released march


align center rowspan ''the way are'' point return align center align center go way align center align center rowspan kimi sagashiteta new jersey united br new jersey united align center align center align center rowspan ''second none'' floatin' align center align center takes two align center align center gift align center align center rowspan ashita e kaeru br align center


pacific company v jensen'' us oliver wendell holmes dissenting early th century legal professionals come reject idea higher natural law law law law arises act sovereign whether sovereign speaks legislature executive judicial officer ref ref name lawgovpol https lawgovpolcom common law advantages disadvantages lawgovpol ''common law advantages disadvantages'' ref ref name duhaimedef ref ref name washingtonprobatedef washington probate estate planning probate glossary ''washington state probate'' http wwwwa probatecom intro estate probate glossaryhtm sv common december retrieved november law based prior court decision ref defining characteristic


cameroon canada federal system provinces except quebec cyprus dominica fiji ghana grenada guyana hong kong india ireland israel jamaica kenya liberia malaysia malta marshall islands micronesia namibia nauru new zealand nigeria pakistan palau papua new guinea philippines sierra leone singapore south africa sri lanka trinidad tobago united kingdom including overseas territories gibraltar united states federal system states zimbabwe countries variants common law systems countries common law considered synonymous case law ref name


vs whether issue decided judge issues law issues relating equity standard review degree deference given appellate tribunal decision lower tribunal review issues law reviewed ' 'de novo'' new scratch appellate tribunal issues equity reviewed abuse discretion great deference tribunal remedies available rules procedure applied courts equity rely common law


york 's highest court held mislabeling poison innocuous herb selling mislabeled poison dealer would expected resell put human life imminent danger ''thomas'' relied reason create exception privity rule new york held ''statler v ray mfg co'' coffee urn manufacturer liable person injured urn exploded urn character inherently applied purposes designed liable become source


highest court pulled broader principle predecessor cases facts almost identical ''cadillac'' year earlier wheel wheel manufacturer sold buick dealer macpherson wheel failed injuring macpherson judge cardozo held cardozo 's new rule exists prior case inferrable synthesis thing danger principle stated merely extending foreseeable danger even purposes designed source great danger ''macpherson'' takes care present foreseeable


preexisting common law almost areas law even statutory framework contracts sale goods criminal law legislature enacted statutes agency promulgated regulations generally give terse statements general principle fine boundaries definitions exist interstitial common law find precise law applies particular set facts one locate precedential decisions topic reason decisions analogy common law jurisdictions sense opposed civil law


tort rooted common law traditionally recognized damages tort may sued whether mention damages current statutory law instance person sustains bodily injury negligence another may sue medical costs pain suffering loss earnings earning capacity mental emotional distress loss quality life disfigurement damages need set forth statute already exist tradition common law however without wrongful death statute extinguished


older cases survive extent conflict newer cases interpretations courts example supreme court interpretations constitution federal statutes stable long older interpretation maintains support majority court older decisions persist combination belief old decision right sufficiently wrong overruled jurisdictions england wales northern ireland since supreme court united kingdom authority overrule unify criminal law decisions


customs england'' led yearly compilations court cases known year books first extant published year bracton died year books known law reports medieval england principal source knowledge developing legal doctrines concepts methods period th th centuries common law developed recognizable form influence roman law term common law often used contrast roman derived civil law fundamental processes


process rather common law developed judges design insulated political process federalists believed common law birthright independence natural rights life liberty pursuit happiness rights protected common law even advocates common law approach noted ideal fit newly independent colonies judges lawyers alike severely hindered lack printed legal materials independence comprehensive law libraries maintained tory lawyers libraries vanished


equity administered lord chancellor courts chancery nature equity law frequently conflict litigation would frequently continue years one court countermanded even though established th century equity prevail england courts law opposed equity combined courts equity judicature acts equity prevailing case conflict united states parallel systems law providing money damages cases heard jury upon either party 's request


words rational consideration facts opened access justice far broadly alternatives common law systems civil law systems comparisons contrasts common law th century edition ''corpus juris civilis romani'' main alternative common law system civil law system used continental europe central south america judicial decisions play minor role shaping civil law primary contrast two systems role written decisions precedent ref name lawgovpol


decisis'' contrast civil law systems individual decisions advisory binding effect civil law systems case law acquires weight long series cases use consistent reasoning called ''jurisprudence constante'' civil law lawyers consult case law obtain best prediction court rule comparatively civil law judges less bound follow reason statutes civil law systems comprehensive detailed continuously updated covering matters capable brought court adversarial system vs inquisitorial system common law systems tend


evidence trial whether accused pleads guilty trial conducted unlike adversarial system conviction sentence served released trial jury together president trial bench following common deliberation contrast adversarial system onus framing case rests parties judges generally decide case presented rather acting active investigators actively reframing issues presented adversary system civil criminal cases first


medieval period preservation roman law doctrine presumption innocence common law legal systems present day jurisdictions around world common law constitutes basis legal systems australia federal individual states bangladesh belize brunei canada federal individual provinces except quebec caribbean jurisdictions antigua barbuda barbados bahamas dominica grenada jamaica st vincent grenadines saint kitts nevis trinidad tobago ghana hong kong india ireland israel kenya nigeria malaysia myanmar new zealand pakistan philippines


say substantive rules common laws countries many matters particularly uk wide interest similar scotland shares supreme court england wales northern ireland civil cases court 's decisions binding jurisdiction case arises influential similar cases arising scotland effect converging law certain areas instance modern uk law negligence based ''donoghue v stevenson'' case originating paisley scotland scotland maintains separate


law general obligations shows remnants civil law tradition new york continued dutch days louisiana louisiana 's codified system louisiana civil code private law substantive law private sector parties based principles law continental europe common law influences principles derive ultimately roman law transmitted french law spanish law state 's current territory intersects area north america colonized spain france contrary popular belief louisiana code directly derive napoleonic


various parts world show inherent international society irrespective culture tradition inter state relations pre islamic period resulted clear cut rules warfare high humanitarian standard rules neutrality treaty law customary law embodied religious charters exchange embassies temporary semi permanent character india became part british empire break tradition hindu islamic law supplanted common law failed rebellion british british parliament took control


post partition bangladesh retained common law system canada canada separate federal provincial legal systems canadian provincial legal systems province territory considered separate jurisdiction respect case law procedural law civil matters statutorily created provincial courts superior trial courts inherent jurisdiction culminating court appeal province courts appeal subject supreme court canada terms appeal decisions one provinces canada use


voet practice majority decisions rely recent precedent ghana ghana follows english common law tradition inherited british colonisation consequently laws ghana part modified version imported law continuously adapting changing socio economic political realities country bond marked period people ghana gold coast ceded independence british gave british judicial authority later supreme court ordinance formally introduced british law common


'''civil law''' may refer civil law common law non criminal branch law common law legal system civil law legal system continental law legal system originating continental europe based roman law private law branch law civil law legal system governs relations among private individuals municipal law domestic law state opposed international law see also civil code civil disambiguation ''ius civile'' latin civil law common law disambiguation criminal law


div class thumb tright div class thumbinner style width px style border px solid ccc link programming language theory link computational complexity theory link artificial intelligence link computer architecture div class thumbcaption computer science deals theoretical foundations information algorithms architectures computation well practical techniques application div div div '''computer science''' study computation automation information computer science spans theoretical disciplines algorithms theory computation information theory practical disciplines including design implementation hardware software computer science generally considered area academic


design principles behind developing software areas operating systems networks embedded systems investigate principles design behind complex systems computer architecture describes construction computer components computer operated equipment artificial intelligence machine learning aim synthesize goal orientated processes problem solving decision making environmental adaptation planning learning found humans animals within artificial intelligence computer vision aims understand process image video data natural language processing aims understand process textual linguistic data fundamental concern computer science determining cannot automated turing


award generally recognized highest distinction computer science history charles babbage sometimes referred father computing ada lovelace published first algorithm intended processing computer earliest foundations would become computer science predate invention modern digital computer machines calculating fixed numerical tasks abacus existed since antiquity aiding computations multiplication division algorithms performing computations existed since antiquity even development sophisticated computing equipment wilhelm schickard designed constructed first working mechanical calculator


create departments starting purdue despite name significant amount computer science involve study computers several alternative names proposed certain departments major universities prefer term ''computing science'' emphasize precisely difference danish scientist peter naur suggested term ' 'datalogy'' reflect fact scientific discipline revolves around data data treatment necessarily involving computers first scientific institution use term department datalogy university copenhagen founded peter


writing deciphering secret messages modern cryptography scientific study problems relating distributed computations attacked technologies studied modern cryptography include symmetric asymetric encryption digital signatures cryptographic hash functions key agreement protocols blockchain zero knowledge proofs garbled circuits databases data mining database intended organize store retrieve large amounts data easily digital databases managed using database management systems store create maintain search data database models query languages data mining process discovering patterns large data sets computer graphics visualization computer


aaas computer science misc https csstackexchangecom computer science stack exchange community run question answer site computer science http wwwcsbuedu aboutcs whatiscspdf computer science https webarchiveorg web https wwwcsmtuedu john jenningpdf computer science science https wwwresearchgatenet publication computer science software must considered independent discipline computer science software must treated sub domain subset mathematics computer science software must considered independent discipline computer engineering


entirely attributed interstellar dust milky way ref name nature ref formation evolution large scale structure understanding formation evolution largest earliest structures ie quasars galaxies clusters superclusters one largest efforts cosmology cosmologists study model '''hierarchical structure formation''' structures form bottom smaller objects forming first largest objects superclusters still assembling ref name hess ref one way study structure universe survey visible galaxies order construct three dimensional picture galaxies

Natural science
Space science
Cosmology
Physical cosmology


allows life exist attempt explain context universe ref name siegfried ref example weak anthropic principle alone distinguish one universe ever exist underlying principle constrains cc value observe one universe ever exist although underlying principle fixing cc got lucky lots universes exist simultaneously serially range cc values course one life supporting ones possible explanations dark energy include quintessence ref


book introductory text released slightly wmap results undergraduates mathematically gentle strong historical focus introductory astronomy text classic reference researchers cosmology without general relativity introduction cosmology thorough discussion inflation discusses formation large scale structures detail introduction including general relativity quantum field theory strong historical focus classic work large scale structure correlation functions standard reference mathematical formalism benjamin gal cosmology physics philosophy springer verlag div id google translate element div external links groups


'''condensed matter physics''' field physics deals macroscopic microscopic physical properties matter especially solid liquid phases arise electromagnetic forces atoms generally subject deals condensed phases matter systems many constituents strong interactions exotic condensed phases include superconducting phase exhibited certain materials low temperature ferromagnetic antiferromagnetic phases spins crystal lattices atoms bose einstein condensate found ultracold atomic systems condensed matter physicists seek understand behavior phases

Natural science
Physics
Condensed matter physics


possible higher dimensional lattices research bloch spin waves n el antiferromagnetism led developing new magnetic materials applications magnetic storage devices ref name mattis magnetism modern many body physics magnet levitating high temperature superconductor today physicists working understand high temperature superconductivity using ads cft correspondence sommerfeld model spin models ferromagnetism illustrated successful application quantum mechanics condensed matter problems however still several unsolved problems notably description superconductivity kondo effect ref name coleman ref world war ii several


electrons able explain anomalous behavior specific heat metals wiedemann franz law ref name hoddeson structure crystalline solids studied max von laue paul knipping observed x ray diffraction pattern crystals concluded crystals get structure periodic lattices atoms ref name hoddeson swiss physicist felix bloch provided wave function solution schr dinger equation periodic potential known bloch 's theorem ref name han ref calculating electronic properties metals solving many body wavefunction often computationally hard hence


approximation methods needed obtain meaningful predictions ref name perdew ref thomas fermi theory developed used estimate system energy electronic density treating local electron density variational parameter later douglas hartree vladimir fock john slater developed called hartree fock wavefunction improvement thomas fermi model hartree fock method accounted exchange statistics single particle electron wavefunctions general 's difficult solve hartree fock equation free electron gas case solved exactly ref name ashcroftmermin ref finally walter kohn pierre hohenberg


invented simple farming metallurgy could developed without previous non smelting processes involving metals simple ground collection mining morgan like th century social evolutionists believed less orderly progression primitive civilized th century anthropologists largely reject notion human societies must pass stages order grounds notion fit empirical facts th century ethnologists like julian steward instead argued similarities reflected similar adaptations similar environments although th century ethnologists saw

Social science
Anthropology
Cultural anthropology


phenomena somewhat secondary main issues social scientific inquiry parallel rise cultural anthropology united states social anthropology developed academic discipline britain france ref name ho ref foundational thinkers lewis henry morgan lewis henry morgan lawyer rochester new york became advocate ethnological scholar iroquois comparative analyses religion government material culture especially kinship patterns proved influential contributions field anthropology like scholars day edward tylor morgan argued human societies


popular theoretical approach discipline authors volumes ''reinventing anthropology'' worried anthropology 's relevance since issues power examined eric wolf 's ''europe people without history'' central discipline books like ''anthropology colonial encounter'' pondered anthropology 's ties colonial inequality immense popularity theorists antonio gramsci michel foucault moved issues power hegemony spotlight gender sexuality became popular topics relationship history anthropology influenced


time researching background information topic also helpful know previous research conducted one 's chosen location similar topics participant observation takes place location spoken language one anthropologist familiar usually also learn language allows anthropologist become better established community lack need translator makes communication direct allows anthropologist give richer contextualized representation witness addition participant observation


united states european social anthropologists focused observed social behaviors social structure relationships among social roles example husband wife parent child social institutions example religion economy politics american cultural anthropologists focused ways people expressed view world especially symbolic forms art myths two approaches frequently converged generally complemented one another example kinship leadership function symbolic systems social institutions today almost socio cultural anthropologists refer work


humans form maintain relationships one another relationships operate within define social organization ref name ref research kinship studies often crosses different anthropological subfields including medical feminist public anthropology likely due fundamental concepts articulated linguistic anthropologist patrick mcconvell blockquote kinship bedrock human societies know humans recognize fathers mothers sons daughters brothers sisters uncles aunts husbands wives grandparents cousins often many complex types relationships terminologies use


matrix human children born great majority cases first words often kinship terms blockquote throughout history kinship studies primarily focused topics marriage descent procreation ref name ref anthropologists written extensively variations within marriage across cultures legitimacy human institution stark differences communities terms marital practice value leaving much room anthropological fieldwork instance nuer sudan brahmans nepal practice polygyny one man several marriages two women


nyar india nyimba tibet nepal practice polyandry one woman often married two men marital practice found cultures however monogamy one woman married one man anthropologists also study different marital taboos across cultures commonly incest taboo marriage within sibling parent child relationships found cultures incest taboo degree taboo shifts cultures marriage extends beyond nuclear family unit ref name similar foundational differences act


anthropology institutions may analyze labor unions businesses ranging small enterprises corporations government medical organizations ref name education ref name magolda prisons ref name cunha ref name rhodes financial institutions ref name ho nongovernmental organizations garnered particular interest field institutional anthropology capable fulfilling roles previously ignored governments previously realized families local groups attempt mitigate social problems ref name types methods scholarship performed anthropology institutions take number forms institutional anthropologists may study relationship


'''cardiology''' greek ''kardi '' heart '' logia'' study branch medicine deals disorders heart well parts circulatory system field includes medical diagnosis treatment congenital heart defects coronary artery disease heart failure valvular heart disease electrophysiology physicians specialize field medicine called '''cardiologists''' specialty internal medicine pediatric cardiologists pediatricians specialize cardiology physicians specialize cardiac surgery called '''cardiothoracic surgeons''' '''cardiac surgeons''' specialty general surgery specializations

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Cardiology


specialty internal medicine cardiologist united states three year residency internal medicine followed three year fellowship cardiology possible specialize sub specialty recognized sub specialties united states acgme cardiac electrophysiology echocardiography interventional cardiology nuclear cardiology recognized subspecialties united states american osteopathic association bureau osteopathic specialists aoabos include clinical cardiac electrophysiology interventional cardiology india person needs undergo three years residency general medicine pediatrics mbbs three


emerged called adult congenital heart disease achd field entered either adult pediatric cardiology achd specializes congenital diseases setting adult diseases eg coronary artery disease copd diabetes otherwise atypical adult pediatric cardiology heart blood flow valves center focus cardiology heart numerous anatomical features eg atria ventricles heart valves numerous physiological features eg systole heart sounds afterload encyclopedically documented many centuries disorders heart lead heart disease cardiovascular disease


end circulation since represent source blood supply myocardium little redundant blood supply blockage vessels critical cardiac examination cardiac examination also called precordial exam performed part physical examination patient presents chest pain suggestive cardiovascular pathology would typically modified depending indication integrated examinations especially respiratory examination like medical examinations cardiac examination follows standard structure inspection palpation auscultation


group cardiovascular diseases common type ref name gdb b common symptom chest pain discomfort may travel shoulder arm back neck jaw ref name hlb occasionally may feel like heartburn usually symptoms occur exercise emotional stress last less minutes get better rest ref name hlb shortness breath may also occur sometimes symptoms present ref name hlb ref first sign occasionally heart attack ref name cdc complications include heart failure irregular heartbeat ref name cdc ref risk factors include high blood pressure smoking diabetes lack


arrhythmia cardiac arrhythmia also known cardiac dysrhythmia irregular heartbeat group conditions heartbeat irregular fast slow heart rate fast beats per minute adults called tachycardia heart rate slow beats per minute called bradycardia ref name nih def ref many types arrhythmia symptoms symptoms present may include palpitations feeling pause heartbeats seriously may lightheadedness passing shortness breath chest pain ref


create atrial septal defect asd permanent fix complicated involves redirecting pulmonary return right atrium systemic return left atrium known senning procedure rastelli procedure also done rerouting left ventricular outflow dividing pulmonary trunk placing conduit right ventricle pulmonary trunk levo transposition happens newborns characterized left ventricle pumping blood lungs right ventricle pumping blood aorta may


eye providence seeing eye god seen us bill taken evidence conspiracy involving founders united states illuminati ref name barkun '''conspiracy theory''' explanation event situation invokes conspiracy sinister powerful groups often political motivation ref name harambam aupers ref explanations probable ref name harambam aupers ref name brothertonfrench ref ref name probability additional sources ref term negative connotation implying appeal conspiracy based prejudice insufficient evidence ref name byford ref conspiracy

Journalism, media studies and communication


favor model contrasts deep conspiracy theories shallow ones according rothbard shallow theorist observes event asks ''cui bono'' benefits jumping conclusion posited beneficiary responsible covertly influencing events hand deep conspiracy theorist begins hunch seeks evidence rothbard describes latter activity matter confirming certain facts one 's initial paranoia lack evidence belief conspiracy theories generally based evidence faith believer noam chomsky contrasts conspiracy theory


institutional analysis focuses mostly public long term behavior publicly known institutions recorded example scholarly documents mainstream media reports ref name wintonickqu bec ref conspiracy theory conversely posits existence secretive coalitions individuals speculates alleged activities belief conspiracy theories associated biases reasoning conjunction fallacy ref name brothertonfrench ref clare birchall king 's college london describes conspiracy theory form popular knowledge interpretation ref use word 'knowledge' suggests ways conspiracy theory may considered relation legitimate modes knowing


particularly acute vulnerable disadvantaged populations however appear beliefs help address motives fact may self defeating acting make situation worse instead ref name douglas ref name sciam example conspiratorial beliefs result perceived sense powerlessness exposure conspiracy theories immediately suppresses personal feelings autonomy control furthermore also make people less likely take actions could improve circumstances ref name douglas ref name sciam additionally supported fact conspiracy theories number disadvantageous attributes ref name douglas example


situation unconventional worldview feeling disempowerment ref name goreisvoracek various aspects personality affect susceptibility conspiracy theories none big five personality traits associated conspiracy beliefs ref name goreisvoracek ref political scientist michael barkun discussing usage conspiracy theory contemporary american culture holds term used belief explains event result secret plot exceptionally powerful cunning conspirators achieve malevolent end ref name new internationalist according barkun appeal conspiracism threefold first conspiracy theories claim explain


learning traditionally using statistical methods since mid neural networks socher et al early deep learning tutorial acl met interest time scepticism participants neural learning basically rejected lack statistical interpretability deep learning evolved major framework nlp tasks addressed applied computational linguistics see natural language processing article includes classical problems design pos taggers part speech taggers parsers natural languages tasks machine translation

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Computational linguistics


mt sub division computational linguistics dealing computers translate languages one earliest difficult applications computational linguistics mt draws many subfields theoretical applied aspects traditionally automatic language translation considered notoriously hard branch computational linguistics aside dichothomy theoretical applied computational linguistics divisions computational major areas according different criteria exist including '''medium''' language processed whether spoken textual speech recognition speech synthesis deal spoken language understood created using computers '''task'''


neural network project created ability infants develop language also modeled using robots order test linguistic theories enabled learn children might model created based affordance model mappings actions perceptions effects created linked spoken words crucially robots able acquire functioning word meaning mappings without needing grammatical structure vastly simplifying learning process shedding light information furthers current understanding linguistic development important note information could empirically


language structure theoretical approaches structure languages also developed works allow computational linguistics framework within work hypotheses understanding language myriad ways one original theoretical theses internalization grammar structure language proposed two types models ref name autogenerated models rules patterns learned increase strength frequency encounter ref name autogenerated work also created question computational linguists answer infant learn specific


spotting speech based interactive approach recent technologies placed emphasis speech based interactive systems systems siri ios operating system operate similar pattern recognizing technique text based systems former user input conducted speech recognition branch linguistics involves processing user 's speech sound waves interpreting acoustics language patterns computer recognize input comprehension approaches much focus modern computational linguistics comprehension proliferation internet


statistics language analysis included work mosteller wallace analysis words used ''the federalist papers'' used attempt determine authorship concluding madison likely authored majority papers terry winograd developed early natural language processing engine capable interpreting naturally written commands within simple rule governed environment primary language parsing program project called shrdlu capable carrying somewhat natural conversation user giving commands within scope toy


important support linguistic research eg corpus linguistics ref name historical linguistics study change time computational methods contribute modeling identification language families ref name bowern claire computational phylogenetics annual review linguistics ref see quantitative comparative linguistics phylogenetics well modeling changes sound meaning legacy subject computational linguistics recurring impact popular culture star trek franchise features heavily classical nlp applications notably machine translation universal translator natural language user interfaces question answering


cognitive science however presumably believe field study anything certain knowledge sought plato scope cognitive science large field covers wide array topics cognition however recognized cognitive science always equally concerned every topic might bear relevance nature operation minds among philosophers classical cognitivists largely de emphasized avoided social cultural factors emotion consciousness animal cognition comparative evolutionary psychologies however decline behaviorism internal states

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Cognitive science


similar spatial resolution fmri extremely poor temporal resolution ''electroencephalography'' eeg measures electrical fields generated large populations neurons cortex placing series electrodes scalp subject technique extremely high temporal resolution relatively poor spatial resolution ''functional magnetic resonance imaging'' fmri measures relative amount oxygenated blood flowing different parts brain oxygenated blood particular region assumed correlate increase neural activity part brain allows us localize


jerry fodor functionalism marvin minsky early wrote computer programs languages lisp attempt formally characterize steps human beings go making decisions solving problems christopher longuet higgins coined term ''cognitive science'' noam chomsky published review bf skinner 's book ''verbal behavior'' began cognitivism dominant behaviorism ref name chomsky george miller wrote capacities human thinking mental representations herbert simon co created logic theory


different cpu operating system one cross compiler runs ''bootstrap compiler'' often temporary compiler used compiling permanent better optimised compiler language related software include program translates low level language higher level one ' 'decompiler'' program translates high level languages usually called ' 'source source compiler'' ''transpiler'' language ' 'rewriter'' usually program translates form expressions without change language ''compiler compiler'' compiler produces

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Compilers


invest significant effort ensure compiler correctness ref name sun ref compilers language processor used transform source programs interpreter computer software transforms executes indicated operations ref name dragon translation process influences design computer languages leads preference compilation interpretation theory programming language compiler interpreter practice programming languages tend associated one compiler interpreter history diagram operation typical multi language multi target compiler theoretical computing concepts developed scientists mathematicians


architectures compilers became complex darpa defense advanced research projects agency sponsored compiler project wulf 's cmu research team production quality compiler compiler pqcc design would produce production quality compiler pqc formal definitions source language target pqcc tried extend term compiler compiler beyond traditional meaning parser generator eg yacc without much success pqcc might properly referred compiler generator pqcc research code generation process sought build truly automatic compiler writing system effort discovered designed phase structure pqc


developers tool kit modern scripting languages include php python ruby lua lua widely used game development interpreter compiler support field compiling began late focus limited translation high level language programs machine code compiler field increasingly intertwined disciplines including computer architecture programming languages formal methods software engineering computer security compiler research next years article noted importance object oriented languages java security parallel computing cited among future research targets


last term usually applied translations involve change language bytecode compilers compile assembly language theoretical machine like prolog implementations prolog machine also known warren abstract machine wam bytecode compilers java python also examples category time compilers jit compiler defer compilation runtime jit compilers exist many modern languages including python javascript smalltalk java microsoft net 's common intermediate language cil others jit compiler generally runs inside interpreter interpreter detects code path


output compilers target computer hardware low level example field programmable gate array fpga structured application specific integrated circuit asic compilers said hardware compilers source code compile effectively controls final configuration hardware operates output compilation interconnection transistors lookup tables example hardware compiler xst xilinx synthesis tool used configuring fpgas similar tools available altera synplicity synopsys hardware vendors ''assembler'' program compiles human


lim z z frac f z f z z z math superficially definition formally analogous derivative real function however complex derivatives differentiable functions behave significantly different ways compared real counterparts particular limit exist value difference quotient must approach complex number regardless manner approach math z math complex plane consequently complex differentiability much stronger implications real differentiability instance holomorphic functions infinitely differentiable whereas existence ''n''th derivative need imply existence

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Complex analysis


technical meetings little social society john smeaton father civil engineering institution civil engineers founded london eminent engineer thomas telford became first president institution received royal charter formally recognising civil engineering profession charter defined civil engineering ref civil engineering education first private college teach civil engineering united states norwich university founded captain alden partridge first degree civil engineering united states awarded

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering


rensselaer polytechnic institute first degree awarded woman granted cornell university nora stanton blatch ref name eb ref uk early th century division civil engineering military engineering served royal military academy woolwich coupled demands industrial revolution spawned new engineering education initiatives class civil engineering mining founded king 's college london mainly response growth railway system need qualified engineers private college


engineer designated professional engineer united states canada south africa chartered engineer commonwealth countries chartered professional engineer australia new zealand european engineer countries european union international agreements relevant professional bodies allow engineers practice across national borders benefits certification vary depending upon location example united states canada licensed professional engineer may prepare sign seal submit engineering plans drawings public authority approval seal engineering


weaknesses searched new doctrines replace confucian teachings new ideologies include three principles people establishment republic china maoism people 's republic china late twentieth century confucian work ethic credited rise east asian economy ref name lin particular emphasis importance family social harmony rather otherworldly source spiritual values core confucianism humanistic ref name juergensmeyer ref according herbert fingarette 's conceptualisation confucianism


confucius believed either written edited texts scholar tu weiming explains classics embodying five visions underlie development confucianism ching classic change ''book changes'' generally held earliest classics shows metaphysical vision combines divinatory art numerological technique ethical insight philosophy change sees cosmos interaction two energies yin yang universe always shows organismic unity dynamism classic poetry ''book songs'' earliest anthology chinese poems songs shows


holy hall confucius ''k ngsh ngt ng'' shenzhen affiliated federation confucian culture qufu city first nationwide movement congregations civil organisations unified holy confucian church ''k ngsh nghu '' first spiritual leader holy church renowned scholar jiang qing founder manager yangming confucian abode ''y ngm ng j ngsh '' confucian academy guiyang guizhou chinese folk religious temples kinship ancestral shrines may peculiar occasions choose confucian liturgy called ''r '' ''zh ngt ng'' orthopraxy led


one must first govern oneself according universal order actual king 's personal virtue ' 'de'' spreads beneficent influence throughout kingdom idea developed great learning tightly linked taoist concept wu wei less king gets done calm center around kingdom turns king allows everything function smoothly avoids tamper individual parts whole idea may traced back ancient shamanic beliefs king axle


benevolence ''jen'' confucianism including pro authoritarian scholars xunzi always recognised right revolution tyranny meritocracy master said teaching distinction classes source ''analects'' legge translation although confucius claimed never invented anything transmitting ancient knowledge ''analects'' produce number new ideas many european american admirers voltaire herrlee g creel point revolutionary idea replacing nobility blood nobility virtue ''j nz '' lit lord 's child originally signified younger


passage women grouped together ''xiaoren'' literally small people meaning people low status low moral described difficult cultivate deal many traditional commentators modern scholars debated precise meaning passage whether confucius referred women certain groups women analysis suggests however women 's place confucian society may complex ref name adler han dynasty period influential confucian text ''lessons women'' ''n jie'' written ban zhao ce instruct daughters


schematic representation category objects ''x'' ''y'' ''z'' morphisms ''f'' ''g'' ''g'' ''f'' category 's three identity morphisms sub ''x'' sub sub ''y'' sub sub ''z'' sub explicitly represented would appear three arrows letters x z respectively '''category theory''' formalizes mathematical structure concepts terms labeled directed graph called ''category'' whose nodes called ''objects'' whose labelled directed edges called ''arrows'' morphisms category two basic properties ability compose arrows associatively existence identity arrow

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Category theory


object language category theory used formalize concepts high level abstractions sets rings groups informally category theory general theory functions several terms used category theory including term morphism used differently uses rest mathematics category theory morphisms obey conditions specific category theory samuel eilenberg saunders mac lane introduced concepts categories functors natural transformations study algebraic topology goal understanding processes preserve mathematical structure category


category groupoids way concept pervasive algebra applications natural transformations abstracting yet diagrammatic sequential constructions often naturally related vague notion first sight leads clarifying concept natural transformation way map one functor another many important constructions mathematics studied context naturality principle like general covariance physics cuts deeper initially apparent arrow two functors natural transformation subject certain naturality


distinguished properties objects common empty set product two topologies yet definition category objects considered atomic ie ' 'do know'' whether object ''a'' set topology abstract concept hence challenge define special objects without referring internal structure objects define empty set without referring elements product topology without referring open sets one characterize objects terms relations objects


category theory describes representable functors functor categories duality every statement theorem definition category theory ' 'dual'' essentially obtained reversing arrows one statement true category ''c'' dual true dual category ''c'' sup op sup duality transparent level category theory often obscured applications lead surprising relationships adjoint functors functor left right adjoint another functor maps opposite direction pair adjoint functors typically arises


semantics categorical abstract machine came later certain categories called topoi singular ''topos'' even serve alternative axiomatic set theory foundation mathematics topos also considered specific type category two additional topos axioms foundational applications category theory worked fair detail basis justification constructive mathematics topos theory form abstract sheaf theory geometric origins leads ideas pointless topology categorical logic well defined field based type theory intuitionistic logics


air filter utilizes low temperature oxidation catalyst convert carbon monoxide less toxic carbon dioxide room temperature also remove formaldehyde air '''catalysis''' process increasing rate chemical reaction adding substance known '''catalyst''' ref name iupacc ref catalysts consumed reaction remain unchanged reaction rapid catalyst recycles quickly small amounts catalyst often suffice mixing surface area temperature important factors reaction rate catalysts generally react one

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Catalysis


energy starting material transition state '' 'does not''' change energy difference starting materials products thermodynamic barrier available energy provided environment heat light related concepts called catalysts really '''precatalysts''' precatalysts convert catalysts reaction example wilkinson 's catalyst rhcl pph loses one triphenylphosphine ligand entering true catalytic cycle precatalysts easier store easily activated situ preactivation step many catalytic reactions involve induction period '''cooperative catalysis''' chemical species improve catalytic activity called


adsorbed atomic species new bonds resulting fragments form part due close proximity way particularly strong triple bond nitrogen broken would extremely uncommon gas phase due high activation energy thus activation energy overall reaction lowered rate reaction increases another place heterogeneous catalyst applied oxidation sulfur dioxide vanadium v oxide production sulfuric acid ref name housecroft heterogeneous catalysts typically supported means catalyst dispersed


electrodes fuel cell platinum increases rate oxygen reduction either water hydroxide hydrogen peroxide homogeneous catalysis homogeneous catalysts function phase reactants typically homogeneous catalysts dissolved solvent substrates one example homogeneous catalysis involves influence h esterification carboxylic acids formation methyl acetate acetic acid methanol high volume processes requiring homogeneous catalyst include hydroformylation hydrosilylation hydrocyanation inorganic chemists homogeneous catalysis often synonymous organometallic catalysts many homogeneous


catalysis alkylation catalytic cracking breaking long chain hydrocarbons smaller pieces naphtha reforming steam reforming conversion hydrocarbons synthesis gas even exhaust burning fossil fuels treated via catalysis catalytic converters typically composed platinum rhodium break harmful byproducts automobile exhaust co co n regard synthetic fuels old still important process fischer tropsch synthesis hydrocarbons synthesis gas processed via water gas shift


assumed two kinds surface forces math mathbf f c math body forces math mathbf f b math thus total force math mathcal f math applied body portion body expressed math mathcal f mathbf f c mathbf f b math surface forces ''surface forces'' ''contact forces'' expressed force per unit area act either bounding surface body result mechanical contact bodies imaginary internal surfaces bound portions body result mechanical interaction parts body

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Continuum mechanics


initial configuration math mathbf x math location point deformed configuration deformation gradient given math boldsymbol f frac partial mathbf x partial mathbf x nabla mathbf x math balance laws let math f mathbf x math physical quantity flowing body let math g mathbf x math sources surface body let math h mathbf x math sources inside body let math mathbf n mathbf x math outward unit normal surface math partial omega math let math mathbf v mathbf x math flow velocity physical particles carry physical quantity flowing also let


cauchy stress tensor math boldsymbol p j boldsymbol sigma cdot boldsymbol f text j det boldsymbol f math alternatively define nominal stress tensor math boldsymbol n math transpose first piola kirchhoff stress tensor math boldsymbol n boldsymbol p j boldsymbol f cdot boldsymbol sigma math balance laws become math begin align rho det boldsymbol f rho qquad text balance mass rho ddot mathbf x boldsymbol nabla circ cdot boldsymbol n rho mathbf b qquad text balance linear momentum boldsymbol f cdot boldsymbol n boldsymbol n cdot boldsymbol f qquad text balance angular momentum rho dot e boldsymbol n dot boldsymbol f boldsymbol nabla circ cdot mathbf q rho


sum frac partial v partial x v ii boldsymbol nabla circ cdot boldsymbol sum ij frac partial ij partial x j mathbf e ijj mathbf e math math mathbf v math vector field math boldsymbol math second order tensor field math mathbf e math components orthonormal basis reference configuration inner product defined math boldsymbol boldsymbol b sum ij ij b ij operatorname trace boldsymbol boldsymbol b math clausius duhem inequality clausius duhem inequality used express second law thermodynamics elastic plastic materials inequality statement concerning irreversibility natural processes especially energy dissipation involved like balance laws


ordinary law land dicey rule law formula consists three classic tenets first regular law supreme arbitrary discretionary powers n man punishable except distinct breach law established ordinary legal manner ordinary courts land second men stand equal eyes law man lawevery man whatever rank condition subject ordinary law realm amenable jurisdiction


science linguistics economics domain cognitive psychology overlaps cognitive science takes interdisciplinary approach includes studies non human subjects artificial intelligence history philosophically ruminations human mind processes around since times ancient greeks bce plato known suggested brain seat mental processes ren descartes posited humans born innate ideas forwarded idea mind body dualism would come known substance dualism essentially idea

Social science
Psychology
Cognitive psychology


concerned processes even operate absence relevant stimulation images hallucinations given sweeping definition apparent cognition involved everything human might possibly every psychological phenomenon cognitive phenomenon although cognitive psychology concerned human activity rather fraction concern particular point view viewpoints equally legitimate necessary dynamic psychology begins motives rather sensory input case point instead asking


control ref name chicaetal ref exogenous control works bottom manner responsible orienting reflex pop effects ref name chicaetal endogenous control works top deliberate attentional system responsible divided attention conscious processing ref name chicaetal one major focal point relating attention within field cognitive psychology concept divided attention number early studies dealt ability person wearing headphones discern meaningful conversation presented different messages ear known dichotic listening task ref name anderson key findings involved increased


typical u shaped curve disrupted attention grabbing word known von restorff effect baddeley hitch model working memory many models working memory made one regarded baddeley hitch model working memory takes account visual auditory stimuli long term memory use reference central processor combine understand large part memory forgetting large debate among psychologists decay theory versus interference theory long term memory modern conceptions


cognitive therapy particular type cbt treatment work areas recognition treatment depression gained worldwide recognition book titled ''cognitive therapy depression'' beck puts forth three salient points regard reasoning treatment depression means therapy therapy antidepressants versus using pharmacological approach blockquote despite prevalent use antidepressants fact remains patients respond beck cites patients respond antidepressants recent meta analyses statistical breakdown


sense brain imaging studies theories left aside ref name kluender ref ref name barkley ref field language cognition research generative grammar taken position language resides within private cognitive module 'cognitive linguistics' goes opposite extreme claiming language independent function operates general cognitive capacities visual processing motor skills consensus neuropsychology however takes middle position language specialized function overlaps interacts visual processing ref name goel ref name schwarz friesel ref nonetheless much research language cognition continues


mandler jean matter mandler ellen markman james mcclelland george armitage miller ulrich neisser allen newell allan paivio seymour papert jean piaget steven pinker michael posner karl h pribram giacomo rizzolatti henry l roediger iii eleanor rosch david rumelhart eleanor saffran daniel schacter otto selz roger shepard richard shiffrin herbert simon george sperling robert sternberg larry squire saul sternberg anne treisman endel tulving amos tversky lev vygotsky see also style vertical align top style width em cognition connectionism digital infinity discursive psychology ecological psychology evolutionary psychology fuzzy trace theory genetic epistemology intelligent system intertrial priming logical fallacy models abnormality neurocognitive perceptual control


'''computational chemistry''' branch chemistry uses computer simulation assist solving chemical problems uses methods theoretical chemistry incorporated computer programs calculate structures properties molecules groups molecules solids necessary apart relatively recent results concerning hydrogen molecular ion dihydrogen cation see references therein details quantum many body problem cannot solved analytically much less closed form computational results normally complement information obtained chemical experiments cases predict hitherto unobserved chemical phenomena

Natural science
Chemistry
Computational chemistry


providing excellent model systems studying normal physiology biochemistry cells eg metabolic studies aging effects drugs toxic compounds cells mutagenesis carcinogenesis also used drug screening development large scale manufacturing biological compounds eg vaccines therapeutic proteins fluorescence microscopy fluorescent markers gfp used label specific component cell afterwards certain light wavelength used excite fluorescent marker visualized ref name phase contrast microscopy uses optical aspect light represent solid liquid

Applied science
Medicine and health
Clinical laboratory sciences
Cytology


signal sequence allows golgi apparatus recognize direct correct place lysosome lysosome functions degrade material brought outside cell old organelles contains many acid hydrolases proteases nucleases lipases break various molecules autophagy process degradation lysosomes occurs vesicle buds er engulfs material attaches fuses lysosome allow material degraded ribosomes functions translate rna protein serves site protein synthesis


camp ip dag calcium secondary messengers function amplify signals target ion channels enzymes one example amplification signal camp binding activating pka removing regulatory subunits releasing catalytic subunit catalytic subunit nuclear localization sequence prompts go nucleus phosphorylate proteins either repress activate gene activity ref name receptor tyrosine kinases bind growth factors promoting tyrosine intracellular portion protein cross phosphorylate phosphorylated tyrosine becomes


lost particular lineage cell damage terminal differentiation occurs nerve cells programmed cell death apoptosis development maintenance cell division potential successive generations depends avoidance accurate repair cellular damage particularly dna damage sexual organisms continuity germline depends effectiveness processes avoiding dna damage repairing dna damages occur sexual processes eukaryotes well prokaryotes provide opportunity effective repair dna damages germ line homologous recombination ref name


replicated phase replication dna cell replicates chromosomes pairs g phase cell multiplies preparation cell division organelles proteins form phase mitosis cytokinesis occurs cell separation formation two daughter cells identical g phase cells leave g enter g resting stage cell g job without actively preparing divide pathology scientific branch studies diagnoses diseases cellular level called cytopathology cytopathology generally used


response dna damage cell 's dna repair reaction cascade signaling pathways leads checkpoint engagement regulates repairing mechanism dna cell cycle alterations apoptosis numerous biochemical structures well processes detect damage dna atm atr induce dna repair checkpoints cell cycle sequence activities cell organelles duplicated subsequently separated daughter cells precision major events happen cell cycle processes happen cell cycle include cell development replication segregation


chemical engineers design construct operate process plants fractionating columns pictured '''chemical engineering''' certain type engineering deals study operation design chemical plants well methods improving production chemical engineers develop economical commercial processes convert raw material useful products chemical engineering uses principles chemistry physics mathematics biology economics efficiently use produce design transport transform energy materials work chemical engineers range utilization nanotechnology nanomaterials laboratory large scale industrial processes convert chemicals raw materials

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering


specifically given two starting trajectories phase space infinitesimally close initial separation math delta mathbf z math two trajectories end diverging rate given math delta mathbf z approx e lambda delta mathbf z math math math time math lambda math lyapunov exponent rate separation depends orientation initial separation vector whole spectrum lyapunov exponents exist number lyapunov exponents equal number dimensions phase space though common refer largest

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Chaos theory


sixth iteration shows points almost completely scattered phase space progressed iterations mixing would homogeneous irreversible logistic map equation math x k x k x k math expand state space logistic map two dimensions second state math math created math k x k k math math x k k math math k x k k math otherwise mod span also displays topological mixing blue region transformed dynamics first purple


periods specified sharkovskii 's theorem sharkovskii 's theorem basis li yorke proof continuous one dimensional system exhibits regular cycle period three also display regular cycles every length well completely chaotic orbits strange attractors lorenz attractor displays chaotic behavior two plots demonstrate sensitive dependence initial conditions within region phase space occupied attractor dynamical systems like one dimensional logistic map defined span style white space nowrap ''x'' ''x'' ''x'' span chaotic everywhere


''x'' span vertical slice shows attractor specific value ''r'' diagram displays period doubling ''r'' increases eventually producing chaos darker points visited frequently discrete chaotic systems logistic map exhibit strange attractors whatever dimensionality universality one dimensional maps parabolic maxima feigenbaum constants math delta math math alpha math ref name feigenbaum ref well visible map proposed toy model discrete laser dynamics math x rightarrow g x mathrm tanh x math math x math stands electric field amplitude math g math ref name okulov yu ref laser gain bifurcation parameter


systems physics jerk third derivative position respect time differential equations form math j left overset x ddot x dot x x right math sometimes called ''jerk equations'' shown jerk equation equivalent system three first order ordinary non linear differential equations certain sense minimal setting solutions showing chaotic behaviour motivates mathematical interest jerk systems systems involving fourth higher derivative called accordingly hyperjerk systems jerk system 's behavior described jerk equation certain jerk equations


henri poincar studying three body problem found orbits nonperiodic yet forever increasing approaching fixed point jacques hadamard published influential study chaotic motion free particle gliding frictionlessly surface constant negative curvature called hadamard 's billiards hadamard able show trajectories unstable particle trajectories diverge exponentially one another positive lyapunov exponent chaos theory began field ergodic theory later studies also topic


important chaos theory analyzed example soviet physicist lev landau developed landau hopf theory turbulence david ruelle floris takens later predicted landau fluid turbulence could develop strange attractor main concept chaos theory edward lorenz early pioneer theory interest chaos came accidentally work weather prediction ref name lorenz ref lorenz using simple digital computer royal mcbee lgp run weather simulation wanted see sequence data save time started


viewed fairly near dimensional curved strand dimensional argued dimensions object relative observer may fractional object whose irregularity constant different scales self similarity fractal examples include menger sponge sierpi ski gasket koch curve ' 'snowflake'' infinitely long yet encloses finite space fractal dimension circa mandelbrot published ''the fractal geometry nature'' became classic chaos theory biological systems branching circulatory bronchial systems proved


eye tracking disorder among schizophrenics led renewal physiology application chaos theory example study pathological cardiac cycles per bak chao tang kurt wiesenfeld published paper ''physical review letters'' describing first time self organized criticality soc considered one mechanisms complexity arises nature alongside largely lab based approaches bak tang wiesenfeld sandpile many investigations focused large scale natural social systems known suspected display scale invariant behavior although approaches


theory remains active area research involving many different disciplines mathematics topology physics social systems population modeling biology meteorology astrophysics information theory computational neuroscience pandemic crisis management ref name ct ref ref name ct ref etc applications conus textile shell similar appearance rule cellular automaton chaotic behaviour although chaos theory born observing weather patterns become applicable variety situations areas benefiting chaos theory today geology mathematics biology computer science economics engineering finance meteorology philosophy anthropology ref name physics politics population dynamics psychology ref name safonovtomer robotics


population growth chaos also found ecological systems hydrology chaotic model hydrology shortcomings still much learn looking data lens chaos theory another biological application found cardiotocography fetal surveillance delicate balance obtaining accurate information noninvasive possible better models warning signs fetal hypoxia obtained chaotic modeling economics possible economic models also improved application chaos theory predicting health


economic system factors influence extremely complex task economic financial systems fundamentally different classical natural sciences since former inherently stochastic nature result interactions people thus pure deterministic models unlikely provide accurate representations data empirical literature tests chaos economics finance presents mixed results part due confusion specific tests chaos general tests non linear relationships chaos could found economics means


different starting places r time series first delay plots provide best support claims made showing fairly clear march periodicity irregularity feeding times increased various phase trajectory plots spectral analyses hand match well enough graphs overall theory lead inexorably chaotic diagnosis example phase trajectories show definite progression towards greater greater complexity away periodicity process seems quite muddied also metcalf


legislative measures taken state called ''leges'' latin laws ref name metz apostolic canons ''apostolic canons'' ''ecclesiastical canons holy apostles'' collection ancient ecclesiastical decrees eighty five eastern fifty western church concerning government discipline early christian church incorporated apostolic constitutions part ante nicene fathers ref name metz ref catholic church catholic church canon law system laws legal principles made enforced church 's hierarchical authorities regulate external organization government