teachers provide historic documents promote active methods would give pupils immense happiness discovery proponents said reaction memorization names dates characterized teaching left students bored traditionalists protested loudly postmodern innovation threatened leave youth ignorant french patriotism national identity bias school teaching history books bookstore several countries history textbooks tools foster nationalism patriotism give students official narrative national enemies many countries history textbooks sponsored


'''history''' study past '''history''' may also refer general history earth human history natural history philosophy history arts entertainment media literature ''history'' herodotus properly ''histories'' ''history'' malmesbury ''gesta regum anglorum'' william malmesbury ''history'' novel novel elsa morante history short story science fiction isaac asimov ''history'' book poems robert lowell ''history armenia'' moses chorene ''natural history'' pliny ''naturalis historiae'' pliny elder music groups history band history south korean pop boy band albums ''history'' alphaville album


international e journal critical geographies'' ''antipode'' ''area'' ''dialogues human geography'' ''economic geography'' ''environment planning'' ''geoforum'' ''geografiska annaler'' ''geohumanities'' ''global environmental change human policy dimensions'' ''human geography'' ''migration letters'' ''progress human geography'' ''southeastern geographer'' ''social cultural geography'' ''tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie'' ''transactions institute british geographers'' see also physical geography geography food integrated geography political ecology emotional geography ap human geography notes urbanization major component human population geography especially past years population shift moved urban areas references reading external links

Social science
Geography
Human geography


computing satisfaction goes say human computer interaction studies human machine communication draws supporting knowledge machine human side machine side techniques computer graphics operating systems programming languages development environments relevant human side communication theory graphic industrial design disciplines linguistics social sciences cognitive psychology social psychology human factors computer user satisfaction relevant course engineering design methods relevant ref name acm sigchi due multidisciplinary nature hci people different backgrounds contribute

Formal science
Computer science
Human-computer interaction


new user interface early focus placed user task many users needed perform task established appropriate users determined someone never used interface use interface future likely valid user addition task users performing often task need performed defined empirical measurement interface tested real users come contact interface daily results vary performance level


increase efficiency increase user satisfaction many potential benefits achieved utilizing principles certain principles may apply different displays situations principles may also appear conflicting simple solution say one principle important another principles may tailored specific design situation striking functional balance among principles critical effective design ref name guidelines perceptual principles '' make displays legible audible '' display 's legibility critical necessary


designing usable display characters objects displayed cannot discernible operator cannot effectively use '' avoid absolute judgment limits'' ask user determine level variable based single sensory variable eg color size loudness sensory variables contain many possible levels '' top processing'' signals likely perceived interpreted expected based user 's experience signal presented contrary user 's expectation physical evidence signal may need presented assure understood correctly '' redundancy


keystroke level model user performance time interactive systems ref ref name three mile island ref ref name cognitive ergonomics ref reading academic overviews field julie jacko ed human computer interaction handbook rd edition crc press andrew sears julie jacko eds human computer interaction handbook nd edition crc press julie jacko andrew sears eds human computer interaction handbook mahwah lawrence erlbaum associates historically important classic stuart k card thomas p moran allen newell ''the psychology human computer interaction'' erlbaum hillsdale overviews history field jonathan grudin


opposed british colonialism wanted distinguish religious groups british began categorise communities strictly religion indians generally define exclusively religious beliefs instead identities largely segmented basis locality language var j ti occupation sect ref wrote british borrowed word hindu india gave new meaning significance reimported india reified phenomenon called hinduism th century european merchants colonists began refer followers indian religions collectively hindus ref


name ampscrollin ref word hindu much older believed used name indus river northwestern part indian subcontinent frequently used rigveda sindhu area part ry varta land aryans according gavin flood actual term ''hindu'' first occurs persian geographical term people lived beyond river indus sanskrit ''sindhu'' specifically th century bce inscription darius bce term ''hindu'' ancient records geographical term


rooted militaristic traditions militaristic traditions include ramaism worship hero epic literature rama believing incarnation vishnu parts political hinduism heroism also called virya marga according michaels one nine hindu belongs birth one brahmanic sanskritic hinduism folk religion typology whether practicing non practicing classifies hindus belonging choice one founded religions vaishnavism shaivism moksha focussed often de emphasize brahman priestly authority yet incorporate ritual grammar brahmanic sanskritic hinduism


non western cultures religions emphasizes universal spiritual values social justice peace spiritual transformation humanity developed partly due enculturation pizza effect elements hindu culture exported west gaining popularity consequence also gained greater popularity india globalization hindu culture brought west teachings become important cultural force western societies turn become important cultural force india place origin legal definitions definition hinduism


four proper goals aims human life known puru rthas ref name bilimoria p dharma artha kama moksha dharma righteousness ethics dharma considered foremost goal human hinduism concept dharma includes behaviors considered accord rta order makes life universe possible includes duties rights laws conduct virtues right way living ref name tce ref hindu dharma includes religious duties moral rights duties individual well behaviors enable social order right conduct


avatars ''bhagavata purana'' though latter adds incarnations vishnu innumerable avatars vishnu important vaishnavism theology goddess based shaktism tradition avatars devi found goddesses considered different aspects metaphysical brahman shakti '' energy '' avatars deities ganesha shiva also mentioned medieval hindu texts minor occasional theistic atheistic ideas epistemological metaphysical reasons profuse different schools hinduism early nyaya school hinduism example


fierce warrior goddesses like kali durga followers shaktism recognize shakti power underlies male principle shaktism also associated tantra practices community celebrations include festivals include processions idol immersion sea water bodies smartism centers worship simultaneously major hindu deities shiva vishnu shakti ganesha surya skanda smarta tradition developed early classical period hinduism around beginning common era hinduism emerged interaction brahmanism local traditions smarta tradition aligned advaita


oneself ref group web ref '''' bhavishya pur brahmaparva adhy ya meaning ' 'vedas smritis good approved tradition agreeable one 's self conscience wise declared four direct evidences dharma'' hindu scriptures composed memorized transmitted verbally across generations many centuries written many centuries sages refined teachings expanded shruti smriti well developed shastras epistemological metaphysical theories six classical schools hinduism ''shruti'' lit heard primarily refers ''vedas'' form earliest record


simple celibate life detached material pursuits meditation spiritual contemplation ref name bhaskaranandaessential ref hindu monk called ''sany '' ''s dhu'' ''sw mi'' female renunciate called ''sany sini'' renunciates receive high respect hindu society simple ahi driven lifestyle dedication spiritual liberation moksha believed ultimate goal life hinduism ref name dp bhawuk pages monastics live monasteries others wander place place depending donated food charity needs history hindu shore temple mahabalipuram


period hinduism jainism buddhism epic early puranic period c bce ce saw classical golden age hinduism c ce coincides gupta empire period six branches hindu philosophy evolved namely samkhya yoga nyaya vaisheshika vedanta monotheistic sects like shaivism vaishnavism developed period bhakti movement period roughly ce forms late classical period early middle ages classical puranic hinduism established adi shankara 's influential consolidation advaita vedanta


found nepal nbsp million bangladesh nbsp million indonesian island bali nbsp million ref name bps ref also significant population hindus also present pakistan million majority vietnamese cham people also follow hinduism largest proportion ninh thu n province hinduism third fastest growing religion world islam christianity predicted growth rate px countries greatest proportion hindus ref group web ref


substantial universal agreement colonialism influenced study hinduism even degree influence debated wish european orientalists establish textual basis hinduism akin protestant culture also driven preference among colonial powers written authority rather oral authority influence brahmins european conceptions hinduism identification vedanta specifically advaita vedanta 'the paradigmatic example mystical nature hindu religion' sweetman cites several factors led favouring vedanta


osmium tetroxide uranyl acetate ref name ross pawlina main action aldehyde fixatives cross link amino groups proteins formation methylene bridges ch sub sub case formaldehyde c sub sub h sub sub cross links case glutaraldehyde process preserving structural integrity cells tissue damage biological functionality proteins particularly enzymes formalin fixation leads degradation mrna mirna dna well denaturation modification proteins tissues however extraction analysis nucleic acids proteins formalin fixed paraffin embedded tissues


commonly performed histochemical technique targets specific chemical perls' prussian blue reaction used demonstrate iron deposits ref name bancroft stevens diseases like hemochromatosis nissl method nissl substance golgi 's method related silver stains useful identifying neurons examples specific stains ref name bancroft stevens historadiography historadiography slide sometimes stained histochemically x rayed commonly autoradiography used visualizing locations radioactive substance transported within body cells phase undergoing dna replication incorporate


ramon cajal conflicting interpretations neural structure brain based differing interpretations images ram n cajal prize correct theory golgi silver staining technique invented make possible ref name nobelprize future directions ''in vivo'' histology currently intense interest developing techniques ''in vivo'' histology predominantly using mri would enable doctors non invasively gather information healthy diseased tissues living patients rather fixed tissue samples notes references references ref name adelmann malpighi ref ref


way solution level never drops roots continuous flow solution culture ''nutrient film technique'' nft used grow various salad greens continuous flow solution culture nutrient solution constantly flows past roots much easier automate static solution culture sampling adjustments temperature ph nutrient concentrations made large storage tank potential serve thousands plants popular variation nutrient film technique nft whereby shallow stream water containing dissolved nutrients required plant growth


supply requirements since excessive deficient amounts one results imbalance one others nft design provides system three requirements healthy plant growth met time provided simple concept nft always remembered practised result advantages higher yields high quality produce obtained extended period cropping downside nft little buffering interruptions flow eg power outages overall


released plant 's roots runs back reservoir constantly recirculating system deep water culture airstone reservoir pumps air water via hose outside reservoir airstone helps add oxygen water airstone water pump run hours day biggest advantage top fed deep water culture standard deep water culture increased growth first weeks deep water culture time roots reached


wool rock wool mineral wool widely used medium hydroponics rock wool inert substrate suitable run waste recirculating systems rock wool made molten rock basalt 'slag' spun bundles single filament fibres bonded medium capable capillary action effect protected common microbiological degradation rock wool typically used seedling stage newly cut clones remain plant base lifetime rock wool many advantages disadvantages latter


possible skin irritancy mechanical whilst handling flushing cold water usually brings relief advantages include proven efficiency effectiveness commercial hydroponic substrate rock wool sold date non hazardous non carcinogenic material falling note q european union classification packaging labeling regulation clp mineral wool products engineered hold large quantities water air aid root growth nutrient uptake hydroponics fibrous nature also provides good mechanical structure hold plant stable naturally high ph mineral wool makes


initially unsuitable plant growth requires conditioning produce wool appropriate stable ph ref name alexander ref expanded clay aggregate expanded clay aggregate baked clay pellets suitable hydroponic systems nutrients carefully controlled water solution clay pellets inert ph neutral contain nutrient value clay formed round pellets fired rotary kilns causes clay expand like popcorn become porous light weight compact time shape individual pellet


satisfy liebig 's law minimum specific plant variety ref name adv nevertheless generally acceptable concentrations nutrient solutions exist minimum maximum concentration ranges plants somewhat similar nutrient solutions mixed concentrations ppm ref name gericke acceptable concentrations individual nutrient ions comprise total ppm figure summarized following table essential nutrients concentrations ranges often lead nutrient deficiencies exceeding ranges lead nutrient toxicity optimum nutrition concentrations plant varieties found empirically experience


plant tissue tests ref name adv class wikitable element role ionic form low range ppm high range ppm common sources comment nitrogen essential macronutrient p p ref name jones ref name adv kno sub sub nh sub sub sub sub ca sub sub sub sub hno sub sub nh sub sub sub sub sub sub nh sub sub sub sub hpo sub sub nh interferes ca sup sup uptake toxic plants used major nitrogen source ratio n nh n ''wt '' sometimes recommended balance ph nitrogen absorption ref name jones plants respond differently depending form


ref name adv ref name jones nh sub sub sub sub mo sub sub sub sub na sub sub moo sub sub component enzyme nitrate reductase required rhizobia nitrogen fixation ref name jones nickel essential micronutrient ni sup sup ref name jones ref name adv niso sub sub nico sub sub essential many plants eg legumes grain crops ref name jones also used enzyme urease chlorine variable micronutrient cl sup sup highly variable kcl cacl sub sub mgcl sub sub nacl interfere uptake plants beneficial


nacl nahco sub sub naoh na sup sup partially replace k sup sup plant functions k sup sup still essential nutrient ref name adv vanadium non essential micronutrient vo sup sup trace undetermined voso sub sub beneficial rhizobial n sub sub fixation ref name jones lithium non essential micronutrient li sup sup undetermined li sub sub sub sub licl lioh li sup sup increase chlorophyll content plants eg potato pepper plants ref name jones organic hydroponic solutions organic fertilizers used supplement entirely replace inorganic compounds used conventional


water source could potentially avoid costly reverse osmosis filtration systems maintaining high crop yield tools common equipment managing nutrient concentrations oxygen saturation ph values within acceptable ranges essential successful hydroponic horticulture common tools used manage hydroponic solutions include electrical conductivity meters tool estimates nutrient ppm measuring well solution transmits electric current ph meter tool uses electric current determine concentration hydrogen ions solution oxygen electrode electrochemical sensor determining oxygen concentration solution litmus paper disposable ph indicator


harmonic analysis roots mid th century analysis topological groups core motivating ideas various fourier transforms generalized transform functions defined hausdorff locally compact topological groups theory abelian locally compact groups called pontryagin duality harmonic analysis studies properties duality fourier transform attempts extend features different settings instance case non abelian lie groups general non abelian locally compact groups harmonic analysis closely related theory unitary group representations compact groups

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Harmonic analysis


qualifications stimulate innovation benefit learners society intensity integration world work includes enterprise civil society public sector manifested strong focus application learning approach involves combining phases work study concern employability cooperation employers use practice relevant knowledge use inspired research examples providers professional higher education may include graduate colleges architecture business journalism law library science optometry pharmacy public policy human medicine professional engineering podiatric medicine scientific dentistry k education veterinary medicine statistics

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Higher education


http wwwaeranet american educational research association https webarchiveorg web http wwwworldbankorg education tertiary world bank tertiary education educational stages tertiary education


effectively apply knowledge artificial intelligence researcher hector levesque noted nonhuman animal intelligence common chimpanzee use tools chimpanzee using stick get food although humans primary focus intelligence researchers scientists also attempted investigate animal intelligence broadly animal cognition researchers interested studying mental ability particular species comparing abilities species study various measures problem solving well numerical verbal reasoning abilities challenges area defining intelligence

Applied science
Military sciences
Organization
Intelligence


technology reshaped blogging web feeds online news aggregators internet enabled accelerated new forms personal interactions instant messaging internet forums social networking services online shopping grown exponentially major retailers small businesses entrepreneurs enables firms extend brick mortar presence serve larger market even sell goods services entirely online business business financial services internet affect supply chains across entire industries internet single centralized governance either technological implementation policies access usage constituent

Formal science
Computer science
Computer communications (networks)
Internet


internet governance playa vista neighborhood los angeles california united states internet global network comprises many voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks operates without central governing body technical underpinning standardization core protocols ipv ipv activity internet engineering task force ietf non profit organization loosely affiliated international participants anyone may associate contributing technical expertise maintain interoperability principal name spaces internet administered internet corporation assigned names numbers icann icann governed international


airport halls coffee shops various terms used ''public internet kiosk'' ''public access terminal'' ''web payphone'' many hotels also public terminals usually fee based terminals widely accessed various usages ticket booking bank deposit online payment wi fi provides wireless access internet via local computer networks hotspots providing access include wi fi cafes users need bring wireless devices laptop pda services may free free customers fee based grassroots efforts led


methods transfer bits protocols manage hardware assumes appropriate technology available examples technology include wi fi ethernet dsl user data processed protocol stack abstraction layer adds encapsulation information sending host data transmitted ''over wire'' link level hosts routers encapsulation removed receiving host intermediate relays update link encapsulation hop inspect ip layer routing purposes internet protocol conceptual data flow simple network topology two hosts ''a'' ''b'' connected


likely blog first place among blog men likely professional blog whereas women likely personal blog splitting country iceland norway sweden netherlands denmark highest internet penetration number users population access ref name itu individualsusingtheinternet http wwwituint en itu statistics documents statistics individuals internet xls percentage individuals using internet international telecommunication union geneva june retrieved june ref several neologisms exist refer internet users netizen citizen net refers


connection internet give worker complete access normal files data including email applications away office referred among system administrators virtual private nightmare extends secure perimeter corporate network remote locations employees' homes late internet described main source scientific information majority global north population ref name jemielniakprzegalinska ref social networking entertainment many people use world wide web access news weather


online gambling industries taken advantage world wide web although many governments attempted restrict industries' use internet general failed stop widespread popularity another area leisure activity internet multiplayer gaming form recreation creates communities people ages origins enjoy fast paced world multiplayer games range mmorpg first person shooters role playing video games online gambling online gaming around since modern modes online gaming began subscription services


become drain corporate resources average uk employee spent minutes day surfing web work according study peninsula business services internet addiction disorder excessive computer use interferes daily life nicholas g carr believes internet use effects individuals instance improving skills scan reading interfering deep thinking leads true creativity electronic business electronic business ''e business'' encompasses business processes spanning entire value chain purchasing supply chain management marketing sales customer service business relationship e commerce seeks


digital divide electronic commerce may responsible consolidation decline mom pop brick mortar businesses resulting increases income inequality author andrew keen long time critic social transformations caused internet focused economic effects consolidation internet businesses keen cites institute local self reliance report saying brick mortar retailers employ people every nbsp million sales amazon employs similarly employee room rental start airbnb valued nbsp billion half much hilton worldwide employs people


data transfer therefore contributed nbsp million tons co sub sub emission per year argued new digital sobriety regulations restricting use size video files see also crowdfunding crowdsourcing darknet deep web freenet internet industry jargon index internet related articles internet metaphors internet video internets open systems interconnection outline internet notes references sources reading http wwwfirstmondayorg ''first monday'' peer reviewed journal internet university library university illinois chicago http sonetdigital articles internet explained ''the internet explained'' vincent zegna


international level typically complex process domestic trade main difference international trade typically costly domestic trade due fact border typically imposes additional costs tariffs time costs due border delays costs associated country differences language legal system culture non tariff barriers another difference domestic international trade factors production capital labor often mobile within country across countries thus international trade mostly restricted trade

Applied science
Business
International trade


trade import international trade interdependence international business international trade law internationalization market segmentation index mercantilism monopolistic competition international trade northwest passage panama canal suez canal tariff trade adjustment assistance trade bloc trade finance transfer problem united nations conference trade development unctad lists list countries current account balance list countries imports list countries exports list international trade topics https wwwseaircoin export import data provider notes references external links data statistics intergovernmental sources data value exports imports quantities often broken detailed lists


absolute much overlap subdiscipline organometallic chemistry applications every aspect chemical industry including catalysis materials science pigments surfactants coatings medications fuels agriculture key concepts structure ionic framework potassium oxide k sub sub many inorganic compounds ionic compounds consisting cations anions joined ionic bonding examples salts ionic compounds magnesium chloride mgcl sub sub consists magnesium cations mg sup sup chloride anions cl sup sup sodium oxide na sub sub consists sodium cations na sup sup oxide anions sup sup salt

Natural science
Chemistry
Inorganic chemistry


identified important diatomic gas opened way describing compounds reactions according stoichiometric ratios discovery practical synthesis ammonia using iron catalysts carl bosch fritz haber early deeply impacted mankind demonstrating significance inorganic chemical synthesis typical main group compounds sio sub sub sncl sub sub n sub sub many main group compounds also classed organometallic contain organic groups eg b ch sub sub sub sub main group compounds also occur nature eg phosphate dna therefore may classed bioinorganic conversely organic


iron sulfur clusters central components iron sulfur proteins essential human metabolism clusters found classes chemical compounds according commonly accepted definition cluster consists minimally triangular set atoms directly bonded metal metal bonded dimetallic complexes highly relevant area clusters occur pure inorganic systems organometallic chemistry main group chemistry bioinorganic chemistry distinction large clusters bulk solids increasingly blurred interface chemical basis nanoscience nanotechnology specifically arise


electron transfer fundamental redox reaction self exchange involves degenerate reaction oxidant reductant example permanganate one electron reduced relative manganate exchange one electron mno sub sub sup sup mno sub sub sup sup mno sub sub sup sup mno sub sub sup sup reactions ligands coordinated ligands display reactivity distinct free ligands example acidity ammonia ligands co nh sub sub sub sub sup sup elevated relative nh sub sub alkenes bound metal cations reactive toward nucleophiles whereas alkenes normally large industrially important area catalysis hinges ability


metals modify reactivity organic ligands homogeneous catalysis occurs solution heterogeneous catalysis occurs gaseous dissolved substrates interact surfaces solids traditionally homogeneous catalysis considered part organometallic chemistry heterogeneous catalysis discussed context surface science subfield solid state chemistry basic inorganic chemical principles transition metals almost uniquely react small molecules co h sub sub sub sub c sub sub h sub sub industrial significance feedstocks drives active area catalysis ligands also undergo


substantially completed bell labs end shannon first time introduced qualitative quantitative model communication statistical process underlying information theory opening assertion fundamental problem communication reproducing one point either exactly approximately message selected another point came ideas information entropy redundancy source relevance source coding theorem mutual information channel capacity noisy channel including promise perfect loss free communication

Formal science
Computer science
Computer communications (networks)
Information theory


property entropy maximized messages message space equiprobable ie unpredictable case special case information entropy random variable two outcomes binary entropy function usually taken logarithmic base thus shannon sh unit math h mathrm b p p log p p log p math joint entropy two discrete random variables merely entropy pairing implies independent joint


x dots x n dots n math common information theory speak rate entropy language appropriate example source information english prose rate source information related redundancy well compressed subject channel capacity communications channel primary motivation information theory however channels often fail produce exact reconstruction signal noise periods silence forms signal corruption often degrade quality consider communications


reading classic work shannon ce mathematical theory communication ''bell system technical journal'' pp nbsp july october http mathharvardedu ctm home text others shannon entropy entropypdf pdf br https webarchiveorg web http cmbell labscom cm ms shannonday paperhtml notes formats rvl hartley http wwwdotrosecom etext miscellaneous transmission information bpdf transmission information ''bell system technical journal'' july andrey kolmogorov https wwwtandfonlinecom doi pdf three approaches quantitative definition information international journal computer mathematics journal articles j l kelly jr http wwwprincetonedu wbialek rome refs kelly pdf princeton new interpretation information rate ''bell system technical journal'' vol july pp nbsp r landauer http ieeexploreieeeorg search wrapperjsparnumber ieeeorg information physical ''proc workshop physics


pendulum'' wiley charles seife ''decoding universe'' viking jeremy campbell ''grammatical man'' touchstone simon schuster henri theil ''economics information theory'' rand mcnally company chicago escolano suau bonev '' https wwwspringercom computer image processing book information theory computer vision pattern recognition '' springer vlatko vedral ''decoding reality universe quantum information'' oxford university press mooc information theory raymond w yeung http wwwinccuhkeduhk informationtheory indexhtml information theory chinese university hong kong external links lambert f l http jchemedchemwiscedu journal issues oct abs html shuffled cards messy desks disorderly dorm rooms examples entropy increase nonsense ''journal


'''infection''' invasion organism 's body tissues disease causing agents multiplication reaction host tissues infectious agents toxins produce '''infectious disease''' also known '''transmissible disease''' '''communicable disease''' illness resulting infection infections caused wide range pathogens prominently bacteria viruses hosts fight infections using immune system mammalian hosts react infections innate response often involving inflammation followed adaptive response specific medications used treat infections include antibiotics antivirals antifungals

Applied science
Medicine and health
Infectious disease


class wikitable comparison viral bacterial infection characteristic viral infection bacterial infection typical symptoms general viral infections systemic means involve many different parts body one body system time ie runny nose sinus congestion cough body aches etc local times viral conjunctivitis pink eye herpes viral infections painful like herpes pain viral infections often described itchy burning ref name nipa classic symptoms


host becoming inoculated pathogen ultimate outcome include route entry pathogen access host regions gains intrinsic virulence particular organism quantity load initial inoculant immune status host colonized example several staphylococcal species remain harmless skin present normally sterile space capsule joint peritoneum multiply without resistance cause harm interesting fact gas chromatography mass spectrometry ribosomal rna analysis omics


greater fold ref name lancet ref important indicators include parental concern clinical instinct temperature greater nbsp c ref name lancet microbial culture four nutrient agar plates growing colonies common gram negative bacteria many diagnostic approaches depend microbiological culture isolate pathogen appropriate clinical specimen microbial culture growth medium provided specific agent sample taken potentially diseased tissue fluid tested presence infectious agent able grow within medium many pathogenic bacteria easily grown nutrient agar form solid


medium supplies carbohydrates proteins necessary growth along copious amounts water single bacterium grow visible mound surface plate called colony may separated colonies melded together lawn size color shape form colony characteristic bacterial species specific genetic makeup strain environment supports growth ingredients often added plate aid identification plates may contain substances permit growth bacteria others


ability viral protein hemagglutinin bind red blood cells together detectable matrix may also characterized biochemical test viral infection although strictly speaking hemagglutinin ''enzyme'' metabolic function serological methods highly sensitive specific often extremely rapid tests used identify microorganisms tests based upon ability antibody bind specifically antigen antigen usually protein carbohydrate made infectious agent bound antibody binding sets chain events


virulence severity disease cause part necessary consequence need reproduce spread many common primary pathogens humans infect humans however many serious diseases caused organisms acquired environment infect non human hosts ref name pmid ref opportunistic pathogens opportunistic pathogens cause infectious disease host depressed resistance immunodeficiency unusual access inside body example via trauma opportunistic infection may caused microbes ordinarily contact host


tested modern practice ethical reasons proving would require experimental infection healthy individual pathogen produced pure culture conversely even clearly infectious diseases always meet infectious criteria example ''treponema pallidum'' causative spirochete syphilis cannot cultured ''in vitro'' however organism cultured rabbit testes less clear pure culture comes animal source serving host derived microbes derived plate culture ref name pmid ref epidemiology study analysis


disease occurs determines whether various populations disease another important tool used understand infectious disease epidemiologists may determine differences among groups within population whether certain age groups greater lesser rate infection whether groups living different neighborhoods likely infected factors gender race researchers also may assess whether disease outbreak sporadic occasional occurrence endemic steady level regular cases occurring region epidemic fast arising unusually high number


wider distribution possibly new host organism parasites jumping nonhuman human hosts known zoonoses disease invasion parasite invades new host species may become pathogenic new host ref name krauss ref several human activities led emergence zoonotic human pathogens including viruses bacteria protozoa rickettsia spread vector borne diseases ref name krauss see also globalization disease wildlife disease encroachment wildlife habitats construction new villages housing developments rural areas force animals live dense populations creating opportunities


particularly writing italian physician girolamo fracastoro anton van leeuwenhoek advanced science microscopy first observe microorganisms allowing easy visualization bacteria mid th century john snow william budd important work demonstrating contagiousness typhoid cholera contaminated water credited decreasing epidemics cholera towns implementing measures prevent contamination water louis pasteur proved beyond doubt certain diseases caused infectious agents developed vaccine rabies robert koch provided study infectious diseases


like ''herrerasaurus'' specimen ref name molnar pathology molnar r e theropod paleopathology literature survey ''mesozoic vertebrate life'' edited tanke h carpenter k indiana university press pp ref outer space space shuttle experiment found ''salmonella typhimurium'' bacterium cause food poisoning became virulent cultivated space ref name asu ref april scientists rensselaer polytechnic institute funded nasa reported spaceflight international space station microbes seem adapt space environment ways observed earth ways lead increases


reflected international comity practices customs adopted states maintain good relations mutual recognition saluting flag foreign ship enforcing foreign legal judgment international law differs state based legal systems primarily though exclusively applicable countries rather individuals operates largely consent since universally accepted authority enforce upon sovereign states consequently states may choose abide international law even break treaty however violations particularly customary international law peremptory norms ''jus cogens''

Humanities
Law
Civil law
Public international law


eastern mediterranean east asia ancient greece developed basic notions governance international relations contributed formation international legal system many earliest peace treaties record concluded among greek city states neighboring states roman empire established early conceptual framework international law ''jus gentium'' law nations governed status foreigners living rome relations foreigners roman citizens adopting greek concept natural law romans conceived ''jus gentium'' universal however contrast modern international law


upon law nature dutch jurist hugo grotius widely regarded seminal figure international law one first scholars articulate international order consists society states governed force warfare actual laws mutual agreements customs grotius secularized international law organized comprehensive system work ''de jure belli ac pacis'' ''on law war peace'' laid system principles natural law bind nations regardless local custom law


sea continental shelf germany icj held matter ought settled according strict legal rules applying equitable principles ''case concerning maritime delimitation black sea romania v ukraine '' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj international organizations united nations world trade organization international labour organization nato european union g g opec organisation islamic conference food agriculture organization world health organization social economic policy ''netherlands v sweden'' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj sweden jurisdiction guardianship policy meaning laws overrode conflicting guardianship order


barack obama 's strategic pivot asia president donald j trump withdrew united states tpp set become world 's largest free trade deal covering percent global economy regional comprehensive economic partnership rcep rcep free trade agreement asia pacific nations australia brunei cambodia china indonesia japan laos malaysia myanmar new zealand philippines singapore south korea thailand vietnam includes asean members plus asean foreign partners nations signed agreement november via tele conference deal excludes us


argued resolution simply declared assembly 's powers already according un charter case dead locked security council ref name un apv ref ref name un apv ref ref name un apv ref ref name un apv ref soviet union permanent member security council vote charter interpretations made recommendation assembly 's adoption resolution alleged violations charter also raised states security council security council could subsequently pass resolutions chapter vi un charter recommend pacific resolution disputes resolutions binding


involve thousands pages pleadings evidence world 's leading specialist international lawyers november cases pending icj decisions made means arbitration may binding non binding depending nature arbitration agreement whereas decisions resulting contentious cases argued icj always binding involved states though states increasingly international organizations usually ones standing address violation international law treaties international covenant civil political rights optional protocol


eclectic legal positivism schools thought natural law approach argues international norms based axiomatic truths th century natural law writer francisco de vitoria professor theology university salamanca examined questions war spanish authority americas rights native american peoples hugo grotius argued nations well persons ought governed universal principle based morality divine justice relations among polities ought governed law peoples ''jus


morality ethics congress vienna marked formal recognition political international legal system based conditions europe modern legal positivists consider international law unified system rules emanates states' international law objective reality needs distinguished law classic positivism demands rigorous tests legal validity deems irrelevant extralegal arguments criticisms nation states observe principle affirmed article un charter


holds state subjection state john austin therefore asserted 'so called' international law lacking sovereign power unenforceable really law positive morality consisting opinions sentimentsmore ethical legal nature ref name auto james b scott legal nature international law ''columbia law review'' vol feb p ref bulk international law comes treaties binding parties ratify accede blockquote legislation making laws person assembly binding


best described international anarchy ' blockquote domestic politics struggle power governed circumscribed law international politics law governed circumscribed struggle power international politics called power politics war means states last resort defend vital intereststhe causes war inherent power politics blockquote hans morgenthau believed international law weakest primitive system law enforcement likened decentralised nature law prevails preliterate tribal societies monopoly violence


international litigation international community international constitutional law international law commission international regulation internationalization danube river interpol martens clause law prize law refugee law speaking truth power space law third world approaches international law twail unidroit united nations general assembly sixth committee legal university peace european institute international law international relations ''pacta sunt servanda'' agreements kept roerich pact rule law armed conflicts project rulac notes references brownlie ''principles public international law'' th edn oxford university press dominique carreau droit international pedone e dition


also effect development regulation immune system ref name pmid ref including increased risk developing pubescent post pubescent autoimmunity ref name pmid ref also evidence cell surface receptors b cells macrophages may detect sex hormones system ref name pmid ref female sex hormone estradiol shown regulate level immunological response ref name pmid ref male androgens testosterone seem suppress stress response infection androgens however dhea increase immune response ref name pmid ref females male sex hormones seem


military occupation infantry easily recognise adapt respond local conditions weather changing enemy weapons tactics operate wide range terrain inaccessible military vehicles operate lower logistical burden infantry easily delivered forces ground combat areas simple reliable marching trucks sea air transport also inserted directly combat amphibious landing air drop parachutes airborne infantry via air assault helicopters airmobile infantry augmented variety crew served weapons

Applied science
Military sciences
Military weapons
Infantry


mechanised infantry units termed ''cavalry'' ''armoured cavalry'' even though never horses emphasise combat mobility modern us army soldiers officially infantry basic training new us army soldiers includes basic use infantry used weapons basic tactics even tank crews artillery crews base logistical personnel however mos receives detailed rigorous training standards every infantry soldier endures regular basis history ancient greek infantry greco persian wars bc light infantry left slinger


battlefield formations manoeuvres regular infantry though main force army forces usually kept small due cost training upkeep might supplemented local short term mass conscript forces using older irregular infantry weapons tactics remained common practice almost modern times adoption chariot create first mobile fighting forces armies pure infantry even exceptions like mongol empire infantry largest component armies history western world classical


infantry distinguished skirmish formation flexible tactics modern rifleman infantry became primary force taking holding ground battlefields worldwide vital element combined arms combat firepower continued increase use infantry lines diminished infantry became light infantry practice modern classifications infantry expanded reflect modern equipment tactics motorised infantry mechanised armoured infantry mountain infantry marine infantry airborne infantry equipment swiss infantry kits arrayed front field kitchen spitalacker bern workers' strike


weapon infantry typically shared equipment top like tents heavy weapons carrying burden spread across several infantrymen reach soldier march heavy infantry burdens changed little centuries warfare late roman republic legionaries nicknamed ''marius' mules'' main activity seemed carrying weight legion around backs ref group note marius' reforms roman army included making man responsible carrying supplies weapons several days' worth ration made


ranged close combat infantry ranged pole weapons often carried sword dagger possible hand hand combat ref name germany war ''pilum'' javelin roman legionaries threw drawing primary weapon ''gladius'' short sword closing enemy line modern infantrymen treat bayonet backup weapon may also handguns pistols may also deploy anti personnel mines booby traps incendiary explosive devices defensively combat non weapon equipment designed close combat shock effects get psychological edge melee


immediate comrades presenting solid shield wall enemy charge french cuirassiers battle waterloo british infantry square opponents first formations close combat infantry tribal societies military without regular infantry called barbarians used arms focused individual weapons using personal strength force larger swinging swords axes clubs take room individual freedom swing wield necessitating loose organisation may allow fierce running attack initial shock advantage


tighter formation heavy spear shield infantry gave local manpower advantage several might able fight opponent thus tight formations heightened advantages heavy arms gave greater local numbers melee also increase staying power multiple rows heavy infantrymen added also increased shock combat effect individual opponents saw literally lined several heavy infantryman seemingly chance defeating ''heavy infantry'' developed huge solid block formations hundred meters wide dozen rows deep maintaining


engaging friendly units build strength point effective infantry traditionally main force overrun units past modern combat used pursue enemy forces constricted terrain urban areas particular faster forces armoured vehicles incapable going would exposed ambush defence operations defence operations natural counter attacks mission hold objective defeat enemy forces attempting dislodge defender defensive posture offers many advantages infantry


important roles modern infantry particularly operating alongside armoured vehicles capacity infantry essentially conducts patrol move scouring terrain may hide enemy infantry waiting ambush friendly vehicles identifying enemy strong points attack heavier units royal sup e sup r giment base defence infantry units tasked protect certain areas like command posts airbases units assigned job usually large number military police attached control checkpoints prisons manoeuvring operations maneouvering consumes much infantry unit 's time infantry like


systems analyst works creating designing improving information systems specific need oftentimes systems analyst works business evaluate implement organizational processes techniques accessing information order improve efficiency productivity within business information professional information professional individual preserves organizes disseminates information information professionals skilled organization retrieval recorded knowledge traditionally work print materials skills increasingly used electronic visual audio digital materials information professionals work variety

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Information science


depositories today known libraries archives institutionally information science emerged th century along many social science disciplines science however finds institutional roots history science beginning publication first issues ''philosophical transactions'' generally considered first scientific journal royal society london institutionalization science occurred throughout th century benjamin franklin established library company philadelphia first library owned group public citizens quickly expanded beyond realm books became


imagined world 's knowledge interlinked made available remotely anyone also proceeded build structured document collection collection involved standardized paper sheets cards filed custom designed cabinets according hierarchical index culled information worldwide diverse sources commercial information retrieval service answered written requests copying relevant information index cards users service even warned query likely produce results per search ref name autogenerated documentation formally institutionalized evidenced


ref increases reach farther wider traditional methods people like interact information enjoy including people know circle knowledge sharing social media become influential publishers must play nice desire succeed although often mutually beneficial publishers facebook share promote uncover new content ref name facebook improve user base experiences impact popular opinion spread unimaginable ways social media allows interaction simple learn access tools ''the wall street journal'' offers app


professions thus providing platform future research area model intended prompt new insights give rise refined applicable theories information seeking p nbsp model adapted wilkinson proposes model information seeking lawyers recent studies topic address concept information gathering provides broader perspective adheres better professionals work related reality desired skills solomon bronstein information society information society society creation distribution diffusion uses integration manipulation information


phrases similarities usually derived set theoretic operations sets common models standard boolean model extended boolean model fuzzy retrieval ''algebraic models'' represent documents queries usually vectors matrices tuples similarity query vector document vector represented scalar value vector space model generalized vector space model enhanced topic based vector space model extended boolean model latent semantic indexing aka latent semantic analysis ''probabilistic models'' treat process document retrieval probabilistic inference similarities computed probabilities document relevant given query probabilistic theorems like

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Information retrieval


''et al'' invention citation index eugene garfield ''' ''' term information retrieval coined calvin mooers ''' ''' philip bagley conducted earliest experiment computerized document retrieval master thesis mit ref name doyle ref ''' ''' allen kent joined case western reserve university eventually became associate director center documentation communications research year kent colleagues published paper american documentation describing precision recall measures well detailing proposed framework evaluating ir system included statistical sampling methods


robert mayo ''information storage retrieval tools elements theories'' new york wiley ''' ''' karen sp rck jones finished thesis cambridge ''synonymy semantic classification'' continued work computational linguistics applies ir national bureau standards sponsored symposium titled statistical association methods mechanized documentation several highly significant papers including g salton 's first published reference believe smart system '''mid s''' national library medicine developed medlars medical literature analysis retrieval system first major machine readable database batch retrieval system project intrex mit ''' '''


retrieval important concept though automated analysis tool proved ultimately disappointing ''' ''' salton michael j mcgill published ''introduction modern information retrieval'' mcgraw hill heavy emphasis vector models ''' ''' david blair bill maron publish evaluation retrieval effectiveness full text document retrieval system '''mid s''' efforts develop end user versions commercial ir systems ''' ''' key papers experimental systems visualization interfaces work donald b crouch robert r korfhage matthew chalmers anselm spoerri others ''' ''' first world wide web proposals tim berners lee


protect consumers us many credible news organizations incorporated entities editorial board exhibit separate editorial advertising departments many credible news organizations employees often belong abide ethics professional organizations american society news editors society professional journalists investigative reporters editors inc online news association many news organizations also codes ethics guide journalists' professional publications instance ''the new york times'' code standards ethics considered particularly rigorous crafting news stories regardless

Journalism, media studies and communication


best represent legitimate points view additionally ability render subject 's complex fluid narrative sufficient accuracy sometimes challenged time available spend subjects affordances constraints medium used tell story evolving nature people 's identities forms several forms journalism diverse audiences journalism said serve role fourth estate acting watchdog workings government single publication newspaper contains many forms journalism may


much less interest sort advocacy journalism inspired revolutionaries france parisian newspapers largely stagnant ''first world war'' circulation inched six million day five million major postwar success story ''paris soir'' lacked political agenda dedicated providing mix sensational reporting aid circulation serious articles build prestige circulation million double nearest rival tabloid ''le petit parisien'' addition daily paper ''paris soir'' sponsored


wing well improvise context publish print newspapers seen print revenues sink faster pace rate growth digital revenues ref name notably american media landscape newsrooms reduced staff coverage traditional media channels television grappling declining audiences example cnn edited story packages nearly half original time length ref name state http stateofthemediaorg overview state news media annual report american journalism pew research center 's project excellence


loyalty citizenry journalists thus obliged tell truth must serve independent monitor powerful individuals institutions within society view essence journalism provide citizens reliable information discipline verification journalistic codes ethics notably european ones also include concern discriminatory references news based race religion sexual orientation physical mental disabilities parliamentary assembly council europe approved resolution ethics journalism recommends journalists respect


story acting accordingly example justifiable consequence exposing professional dubious practices hand acting within justifiable consequence means writing compassionately family mourning third claim claim humanity states journalists writing global population therefore must serve everyone globally work avoiding smaller loyalties country city etc ref name legal status imprisonment colleagues human rights day december pmc ref governments widely varying policies practices towards journalists control research write


ideas history succession twenty four leaders ''tirthankaras'' first current time cycle rishabhadeva tradition holds lived millions years ago twenty third ''tirthankara'' parshvanatha historians date ninth century bce twenty fourth ''tirthankara'' mahavira around bce jainism considered eternal ' 'dharma'' ''tirthankaras'' guiding every time cycle cosmology jainism one world 's oldest religions practice day two major ancient sub traditions digambaras v mbaras different views ascetic practices gender


hinduism buddhism according jainism ''siddha'' liberated soul gone beyond ''sa ra'' apex omniscient remains eternally cosmology image jain cosmic time cyclejpg caption division time jain cosmology total width jain texts propound universe consists many eternal ''lokas'' realms existence buddhism hinduism time universe eternal universe transient universe body matter time considered separate soul ''jiva'' interaction explains life living death rebirth jain philosophy


harm one 's personality jain ethics five vows nishidhi stone depicting vow ' 'sallekhana'' th century karnataka jainism teaches five ethical duties calls five vows called ''anuvratas'' small vows jain laypersons ''mahavratas'' great vows jain mendicants moral precepts preface jain access ''guru'' teacher counsellor ' 'deva'' jina god doctrine individual free five offences doubts faith indecisiveness truths jainism sincere desire jain teachings recognition fellow jains admiration spiritual pursuits


gods gods disagree core teachings choose whether participate prayers rituals festivals consider values non violence important link suffering craving individual 's actions intents karma believe spirituality means enlightened peace bliss eternal liberation ''moksha'' jainism differs buddhism hinduism ontological premises believe impermanence buddhism incorporates premise ''anatta'' eternal self soul hinduism incorporates eternal unchanging ''atman'' soul jainism incorporates eternal changing ''jiva'' soul jain


ever changing bound body matter lifetime thereby finite size infuses entire body living jainism similar buddhism recognizing primacy vedas hindu brahman jainism hinduism however believe soul exists self evident truth jains hindus frequently intermarried particularly northern central western regions india early colonial scholars stated jainism like buddhism part rejection hindu caste system later scholars consider western error


first ''tirthankara'' rishabhanatha reinforcer jain dharma current time cycle one '' rama a'' traditions ancient india rejected vedas according twentieth century scholar comparative religion dr sarvepalli radhakrishnan jainism existence vedas composed historicity first twenty two tirthankaras determined yet rd tirthankara parshvanatha historical dated jain tradition ninth century bce historians date eighth seventh century bc mah v ra considered contemporary buddha around


life jain texts state died intentionally shravanabelagola fasting versions chandragupta 's story appear buddhist jain hindu texts third century bce emperor ashoka pillar edicts mentions ''niganthas'' jains ''tirthankara'' statues date back second century bce archeological evidence suggests mathura important jain center second century bce onwards inscriptions early first century ce already show schism digambara v mbara inscriptional evidence presence jain monks south india second first centuries bce


rajchandra mystic poet philosopher revered amongst jains gujarat believed attained ''jatismaran gnana'' ability recollect past lives age seven virchand gandhi mentioned feat parliament world 's religions ref name karbharig ndh ref best known association mahatma gandhi introduced mumbai various conversations letters gandhi south africa gandhi noted impression shrimad rajchandra autobiography ''the story experiments truth'' calling guide helper refuge moments


means omniscient person teaches path salvation majority jains currently reside india four five million followers worldwide jainism small compared major world religions jains form india 's population mostly states maharashtra million ref name jaindemographics indian jains rajasthan gujarat madhya pradesh significant jain populations exist karnataka uttar pradesh delhi tamil nadu ref name jaindemographics ref outside india jain communities found areas hosting large indian populations europe united kingdom


isbn ref quote ref year publisher university california press isbn date isbn publisher university california press date orig year publisher motilal banarsidass location delhi isbn date publisher motilal banarsidass location delhi edition first isbn isbn year publisher motilal banarsidass isbn year publisher routledge isbn year publisher infobase publishing isbn ref year publisher oxford university press isbn year publisher oxford university press isbn year publisher routledge isbn year publisher routledge isbn publisher abhinav publications date isbn ref year publisher ib tauris isbn year publisher john wiley sons isbn year publisher motilal banarsidass isbn year publisher state university new york press isbn year publisher greenwood


external links definition beliefs history literature facts url https wwwbritannicacom topic jainism work encyclop dia britannica publisher encyclop dia britannica inc https wwwsrikanta sastriorg original home jainism 'the original home jainism' dr srikanta sastri dualism cosmology indian religions nontheism religions require vegetarianism transtheism polytheism history india stika moksha aligned dharmas


type question scholars seek answer theories jurisprudence schools thought regarding questions best answered contemporary philosophy law deals general jurisprudence addresses problems internal law legal systems problems law social institution relates larger political social context exists ref name shiner shiner philosophy law ''cambridge dictionary philosophy'' ref article addresses three distinct branches thought general jurisprudence ancient natural law idea rational objective limits power legislative rulers


various dharma stra texts starting dharmasutra bhodhayana ancient china daoists confucians legalists competing theories jurisprudence jurisprudence ancient rome origins ''periti'' experts ''jus'' ''mos maiorum'' traditional law body oral laws customs praetors established working body laws judging whether singular cases capable prosecuted either edicta annual pronunciation prosecutable offense extraordinary situations additions made edicta iudex would prescribe remedy according facts case


sort mean act argues term justice actually refers two different related ideas general justice particular justice ref name referencea ''nicomachean ethics'' bk v ch ref person 's actions toward others completely virtuous matters aristotle calls sense general justice idea justice less coextensive virtue particular partial justice contrast part general justice individual virtue concerned treating others equitably ref name referencea aristotle moves unqualified discussion justice


law eternal natural divine human eternal law refers divine reason known god god 's plan universe man needs plan without would totally lack direction natural law participation eternal law rational human creatures discovered reason divine law revealed scriptures god 's positive law mankind human law supported reason enacted common good natural law based first principles blockquote '' nbsp first precept law good done


understood founded international law modern sense instead placing origins post period francisco su rez regarded among greatest scholastics aquinas subdivided concept ''ius gentium'' working already well formed categories carefully distinguished ''ius inter gentes'' ''ius intra gentes'' ''ius inter gentes'' corresponds modern international law something common majority countries although positive law natural law necessarily universal hand ''ius intra gentes'' civil law specific nation lon fuller writing world war ii


''ought'' something merely something ''is'' case analysing clarifying way world ''is'' must treated strictly separate question normative evaluative questions ''ought'' done important questions analytic jurisprudence laws ''the'' law relationship law power sociology relationship law morality legal positivism dominant theory although growing number critics offer interpretations historical school historical jurisprudence came prominence debate


germany austria france work free law theorists eg ernst fuchs hermann kantorowicz eugen ehrlich francois geny encouraged use sociological insights development legal juristic theory internationally influential advocacy sociological jurisprudence occurred united states throughout first half twentieth century roscoe pound many years dean harvard law school used term characterise legal philosophy united states many later writers followed pound 's lead developed distinctive approaches sociological jurisprudence australia julius stone strongly


increasingly important interrelations law culture especially multicultural western societies legal positivism legal positivism view content law dependent social facts legal system 's existence constrained morality within legal positivism theorists agree law 's content product social facts theorists disagree whether law 's validity explained incorporating moral values legal positivists argue incorporation moral values explain law 's validity labeled exclusive hard legal positivists joseph raz 's legal positivism example exclusive legal


identify certain acts decisions sources law neil maccormick wrote pivotal book hart second edition published refined offered important criticisms led maccormick develop theory best example ''institutions law'' important critiques include ronald dworkin john finnis joseph raz recent years debates nature law become increasingly fine grained one important debate within legal positivism one school sometimes called exclusive legal positivism associated view


juventius celsus philosophy law rule law rule according higher law sociological jurisprudence sociology law strict interpretation virtue jurisprudence notes references http ssrncom abstract ''hastings international comparative law review '' vol pp reading cotterrell r ''law 's community legal theory sociological perspective'' oxford oxford university press cotterrell r ''the politics jurisprudence critical introduction legal philosophy'' nd ed oxford oxford university press cotterrell r ''sociological jurisprudence juristic thought social inquiry'' new york london routledge freeman ''lloyd 's introduction jurisprudence'' th ed london sweet maxwell hartzler


used long written histories scholars historical linguistics also studied uralic languages another european language family little written material existed back significant work followed corpora languages austronesian languages well native american language families approach comparativism linguistics however small part much broader discipline called historical linguistics comparative study specific indo european languages considered highly specialised field today comparative research carried

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics


many words related words rules collectively describe grammar language example english speakers recognize words ' 'dog'' ' 'dogs'' closely related differentiated plurality morpheme found bound noun phrases speakers english fusional language recognize relations innate knowledge english 's rules word formation infer intuitively ' 'dog'' ' 'dogs'' ''cat'' ''cats'' similar fashion ' 'dog'' ' 'dog catcher'' ' 'dish'' ' 'dishwasher'' contrast classical chinese


time death structures linguistic structures pairings meaning form particular pairing meaning form saussurean sign instance meaning cat represented worldwide wide variety different sound patterns oral languages movements hands face sign languages written symbols written languages linguistic patterns proven importance knowledge engineering field especially ever increasing amount available data linguists focusing structure attempt understand rules regarding language use native speakers know always consciously


even small lexicon theoretically capable producing infinite number sentences style stylistics also involves study written signed spoken discourse varying speech communities genres editorial narrative formats mass media involves study interpretation texts aspects linguistic tonal style stylistic analysis entails analysis description particular dialects registers used speech communities stylistic features include rhetoric diction stress satire irony dialogue forms phonetic variations stylistic analysis also include study language


structuralist approaches take perspective form follows inner mechanisms bilateral multilayered language system biological approaches cognitive linguistics generative grammar study linguistic cognition view towards uncovering biological underpinnings language generative grammar underpinning understood including innate domain specific grammatical knowledge thus one central concerns approach discover aspects linguistic knowledge innate cognitive linguistics contrast rejects notion innate grammar studies human mind creates linguistic constructions


usual term english scientific study language though ''linguistic science'' sometimes used linguistics multi disciplinary field research combines tools natural sciences social sciences formal sciences humanities many linguists david crystal conceptualize field primarily scientific term ''linguist'' applies someone studies language researcher within field someone uses tools discipline describe analyse specific languages ref name american heritage ref early grammarians formal study language began india


east grammarians classical languages use methods reach conclusions contemporaries indic world early interest language west part philosophy grammatical description first insights semantic theory made plato ''cratylus'' dialogue argues words denote concepts eternal exist world ideas work first use word etymology describe history word 's meaning around bc one alexander great 's


description played role development disciplines sociolinguistics anthropological linguistics linguistic anthropology investigate relations language culture society emphasis linguistic description documentation also gained prominence outside north america documentation rapidly dying indigenous languages becoming focus university programmes linguistics language description work intensive endeavour usually requiring years field work language concerned equip linguist write sufficiently accurate reference grammar task documentation requires linguist collect substantial corpus


bc private personal libraries made written books appeared classical greece th century bc th century close classical period great libraries mediterranean world remained constantinople alexandria libraries timbuktu also established around time attracted scholars world fatimids r also possessed many great libraries within domains historian ibn abi tayyi describes palace library probably contained largest collection literature earth time wonder

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Library


research library often academic national library large special library may research library within special field largest public libraries also serve research libraries large university library may considered research library north america libraries may belong association research libraries united kingdom may members research libraries uk rluk research library either reference library lend holdings lending library lend


list iso information documentation international library statistics iso information documentation library performance indicators iso information documentation document storage requirements archive library materials iso information documentation requirements binding books periodicals serials paper documents archive library use methods materials iso tr information documentation performance indicators electronic library services buildings butler library columbia university est national library india kolkata est librarians sometimes complained library buildings used accommodate libraries inadequate


undertakings protect libraries carried topic also creation strike lists coordinates important cultural monuments libraries preserved see also lists libraries references reading barnard tdf ed ''library buildings design fulfilment papers read week end conference london home counties branch library association held hastings april '' london library association london home counties branch terry belanger ''lunacy arrangement books'' new castle del oak knoll books rd ptg bieri susanne


lat glotto impe glottorefname imperial latin glotto lati glottorefname latin lingua aab aa aab ac image rome colosseum inscription jpg imagecaption latin inscription colosseum rome italy map

Applied science
Divinity
Scriptural study and languages
Latin


earliest extant latin literary works comedies plautus terence latin alphabet devised etruscan alphabet writing later changed initially either right left boustrophedon script ultimately became strictly left right script classical latin late republic first years empire new classical latin arose conscious creation orators poets historians literate men wrote great works classical literature taught grammar rhetoric schools today 's instructional grammars trace


radio finland nuntii latini broadcast shut june ref name rte ref vatican radio television broadcast news segments material latin variety organisations well informal latin 'circuli' 'circles' founded recent times support use spoken latin moreover number university classics departments began incorporating communicative pedagogies latin courses include university kentucky university oxford also princeton university many websites forums maintained latin enthusiasts


book fairy tales intended garner popular interest language additional resources include phrasebooks resources rendering everyday phrases concepts latin meissner 's latin phrasebook influence present day languages latin influence english significant stages insular development middle ages borrowing latin occurred ecclesiastical usage established saint augustine canterbury th century indirectly norman conquest anglo norman language th th centuries english writers cobbled together huge numbers new words


roman dominion led adoption latin phraseology specialized areas science technology medicine law example linnaean system plant animal classification heavily influenced ''historia naturalis'' encyclopedia people places plants animals things published pliny elder roman medicine recorded works physicians galen established today 's medical terminology would primarily derived latin greek words greek filtered latin roman engineering effect scientific terminology whole latin law principles survived partly


university kentucky iowa state university british cambridge university press major supplier latin textbooks levels cambridge latin course series also published subseries children 's texts latin bell forte recounts adventures mouse called minimus latin ancient greek duke university durham north carolina united kingdom classical association encourages study antiquity various means publications grants university cambridge open university number prestigious independent schools


similar ''e'' ''hey'' rowspan ''i'' ''pit'' p similar ''i'' ''machine'' n rowspan ''o'' ''port'' p similar ''o'' ''post'' po st rowspan ''u'' put p similar ''ue'' ''true'' u rowspan exist english '' '' german k exist english '' h'' german f


earliest known old latin texts found quirinal hill rome latin written latin alphabet derived etruscan alphabet turn drawn greek alphabet ultimately phoenician alphabet alphabet continued used centuries script romance celtic germanic baltic finnic many slavic languages polish slovak slovene croatian bosnian czech adopted many languages around world including vietnamese austronesian languages many turkic languages languages sub saharan africa americas


oceania making far world 's single widely used writing system number letters latin alphabet varied first derived etruscan alphabet contained letters later ''g'' added represent previously spelled ''c'' ''z'' ceased included alphabet language voiced alveolar fricative ref name ref letters ''y'' ''z'' later added represent greek letters upsilon zeta respectively greek loanwords ref name ''w'' created th century ''vv'' represented


mostly declined like normal third declension nouns exceptions plural nominative neuter example ending '' ia'' everything third declension nouns plural nominative neuter ending '' a'' '' ia'' heads animals one two three forms masculine feminine neuter nominative singular participles latin participles like english participles formed verb main types participles present active participles perfect passive participles future active participles future passive participles prepositions latin sometimes uses prepositions depending type prepositional


likewise italic ultimately ancestral proto indo european language however close cultural interaction romans adapted etruscan alphabet form latin alphabet also borrowed etruscan words language including mask actor ref name h ref latin also included vocabulary borrowed oscan another italic language fall tarentum bc romans began hellenising adopting features greek culture including borrowing greek words vaulted roof symbol bath ref name h hellenisation led addition z


ref name lkhs following notation accented short vowels acute diacritic accented long vowels circumflex diacritic representing long falling pitch unaccented long vowels marked simply macron reflects tone voice ideally stress phonetically realized may always clearly articulated every word sentence regardless length vowel end word may significantly shortened even altogether deleted next word begins vowel also process called elision unless short


librarian ballard carnegie library seattle washington ca '' 'reference desk''' '''information desk''' library public service counter professional librarians provide library users direction library materials advice library collections services expertise multiple kinds information multiple sources purpose usage library users consult staff reference desk help finding information using structured reference interview librarian works library user clarify needs determine information sources fill ref name reference desk ref ref name bls librarians ref borrow

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Reference desk


assistants used primary contact sometimes information desk sri lanka librarians reference desks typically master 's degrees sri lankan library association 's accredited programs electronic reference services development web digital reference services beginning take roles traditional reference desk library disagreement whether development desirable inevitable see also internet search engines libraries reference scenario current awareness service references external links http ucla pbwikicom ucla dis info access wiki reference services edited


solving extends horn clauses allowing predicates declared constraint predicates occur literals body clauses constraint logic program set clauses form kbd h c sub sub c sub n sub b sub sub b sub n sub kbd kbd h kbd kbd b sub sub kbd atomic formulas kbd c sub sub kbd constraints declaratively clauses read ordinary logical implications kbd h c sub sub c sub n sub b sub sub b sub n sub kbd however whereas predicates heads clauses defined constraint logic program predicates constraints

Formal science
Computer science
Logic in computer science
Logic programming


implies logical consequences program deduced concurrent constraint logic programming concurrent constraint logic programming combines concurrent logic programming constraint logic programming using constraints control concurrency clause contain guard set constraints may block applicability clause guards several clauses satisfied concurrent constraint logic programming makes committed choice use one inductive logic programming inductive logic programming concerned generalizing positive negative examples context background knowledge machine learning logic programs recent work


area combining logic programming learning probability given rise new field statistical relational learning probabilistic inductive logic programming higher order logic programming several researchers extended logic programming higher order programming features derived higher order logic predicate variables languages include prolog extensions hilog prolog linear logic programming basing logic programming within linear logic resulted design logic programming languages considerably expressive based classical logic horn clause programs represent state change change arguments predicates


math x yz zx z xy math math x math '' math math '' '' math z math '' math mathfrak g math using bilinearity expand lie bracket math x yx math using alternativity shows math xy yx math elements math x math '' math math '' math mathfrak g math showing bilinearity alternativity together imply anticommutativity math xy yx math elements math x math '' math math '' math mathfrak g math field 's characteristic anticommutativity implies alternativity since implies math xx xx math customary denote lie algebra lower case fraktur letter math mathfrak g

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Lie algebra


text xy mathfrak g math associative rings ideals precisely kernels homomorphisms given lie algebra math mathfrak g math ideal math mathfrak math one constructs ''factor algebra'' ''quotient algebra'' math mathfrak g mathfrak math first isomorphism theorem holds lie algebras since lie bracket kind infinitesimal commutator corresponding lie group say two elements math xy mathfrak g math ''commute'' bracket vanishes math xy math centralizer subalgebra subset math subset mathfrak g math set elements commuting '' math math '' math mathfrak z mathfrak g x mathfrak g


math mathfrak g oplus mathfrak g' math consisting pairs math mathfrak xx' x mathfrak g x' mathfrak g' math operation math xx' yy' xy x'y' math copies math mathfrak g mathfrak g' math commute math x x' math let math mathfrak g math lie algebra math mathfrak math ideal math mathfrak g math canonical map math mathfrak g mathfrak g mathfrak math splits ie admits section math mathfrak g math said semidirect product math mathfrak math math mathfrak g mathfrak math math mathfrak g mathfrak g mathfrak ltimes mathfrak math see also semidirect sum lie algebras levi 's theorem says finite dimensional lie algebra semidirect product radical complementary subalgebra levi subalgebra derivations


split real form complex semisimple lie algebra cf real form complexification example split real lie algebra see also split lie algebra information vector space basis practical calculations often convenient choose explicit vector space basis algebra common construction basis sketched article structure constants definition using category theoretic notation although definitions sufficient conventional understanding lie algebras understood additional insight gained using notation common category


vector field ''x'' first order partial differential operator ''l'' sub ''x'' sub acting smooth functions letting ''l'' sub ''x'' sub ''f'' directional derivative function ''f'' direction ''x'' lie bracket ''x''''y'' two vector fields vector field defined action functions formula math l xy f l x l f l l x f math kac moody algebras large class infinite dimensional lie algebras whose structure similar finite dimensional cases moyal algebra infinite dimensional lie algebra contains classical lie algebras subalgebras virasoro algebra paramount importance


even locally homeomorphism example diff '''s''' sup sup one may find diffeomorphisms arbitrarily close identity image exp furthermore infinite dimensional lie algebras lie algebra group real form complexification given complex lie algebra math mathfrak g math real lie algebra math mathfrak g math said ' 'real form'' math mathfrak g math complexification math mathfrak g otimes mathbb r mathbb c simeq mathfrak g math isomorphic math mathfrak g math ref name fulton ref real form need unique example math mathfrak sl mathbb c math two real forms math mathfrak sl mathbb r math


let math g math group math xy x xy math commutator operation let math g g supseteq g supseteq g supseteq cdots supseteq g n supseteq cdots math central series math g math mdash commutator subgroup math g ig j math contained math g j math math ij math math l bigoplus g g math lie ring addition supplied group operation abelian homogeneous part bracket operation given math xg yg j xy g j math extended linearly centrality series ensures commutator math xy math gives bracket operation


classification scheme schemes method system similar meaning method methods system means classification schemes like dewey decimal classification universal decimal classification types classification identifying understanding education research purposes classification method means classification schemes like ddc udc english language universal classification systems moys classification scheme used law library hong kong high court common systems english speaking countries dewey decimal classification ddc library congress classification lcc colon classification cc universal decimal classification udc systems include moys

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Classification
Library classification


decimal classification ndc chinese library classification clc korean decimal classification kdc russian library bibliographical classification bbk universal classification systems rely synthesis faceted systems bliss bibliographic classification colon classification cutter expansive classification universal decimal classification newer classification systems tend use principle synthesis combining codes different lists represent different attributes work heavily comparatively lacking lc ddc practice classifying library classification associated library descriptive cataloging rubric ''cataloging classification'' sometimes grouped together ''technical services'' library professional engages process


see also attribute value system categorization classification general theory decimal classification document classification information retrieval knowledge organization library management library congress subject headings w c berwick sayers subject indexing notes references knowledge representation


three dimensional euclidean space three planes represent solutions linear equations intersection represents set common solutions case unique point blue line common solution two equations '''linear algebra''' branch mathematics concerning linear equations math x cdots nx n b math linear maps math x ldots x n mapsto x cdots nx n math representations vector spaces matrices linear algebra central almost areas mathematics instance linear algebra fundamental modern presentations geometry including defining basic objects

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Linear algebra


centuries generalized abstract algebra development computers led increased research efficient algorithms gaussian elimination matrix decompositions linear algebra became essential tool modelling simulations ref name vitulli marie vector spaces th century linear algebra introduced systems linear equations matrices modern mathematics presentation ' 'vector spaces'' generally preferred since synthetic general limited finite dimensional case conceptually simpler although abstract vector space field often field real numbers set


mapped zero gaussian elimination basic algorithm finding elementary operations proving results linear systems finite set linear equations finite set variables example math x x ldots x n math math x ldots z math called '' 'system linear equations''' '''linear system''' systems linear equations form fundamental part linear algebra historically linear algebra matrix theory developed solving systems modern presentation linear algebra vector spaces matrices many problems may interpreted terms


bidual infinite dimensional case canonical map injective surjective thus complete symmetry finite dimensional vector space dual motivates frequent use context bra ket notation math langle f mathbf x rangle math denoting math f mathbf x math dual map let math f v w math linear map every linear form composite function linear form defines linear map math f w v math dual spaces called '' 'dual''' '''transpose'''


linear algebra also studies vector spaces additional structure inner product inner product example bilinear form gives vector space geometric structure allowing definition length angles formally ''inner product'' map math langle cdot cdot rangle v times v f math satisfies following three axioms vectors '''u''' '''v''' '''w''' ''v'' scalars ''a'' ''f'' ref name jain ref ref name prugovec ki ref conjugate symmetry math langle mathbf u mathbf v rangle overline langle mathbf v mathbf u rangle math '''r'''


symmetric linearity first argument math langle mathbf u mathbf v rangle langle mathbf u mathbf v rangle math math langle mathbf u mathbf v mathbf w rangle langle mathbf u mathbf w rangle langle mathbf v mathbf w rangle math positive definiteness math langle mathbf v mathbf v rangle geq math equality '''v''' define length vector '''v''' ''v'' math mathbf v langle mathbf v mathbf v rangle math prove cauchy schwarz inequality math langle mathbf u mathbf v rangle leq mathbf u cdot mathbf v math particular quantity math frac langle mathbf u mathbf v rangle mathbf u cdot mathbf v


lapack best known implementations improving efficiency configure algorithms automatically run time adapting specificities computer cache size number available cores nbsp processors typically graphics processing units gpu designed matrix structure optimizing operations linear algebra extensions generalizations section presents several related topics appear generally elementary textbooks linear algebra commonly considered advanced mathematics parts linear algebra module theory existence multiplicative inverses fields involved


word lexicology looks words broken well identifies common patterns follow ref name ref lexicology associated lexicography practice compiling dictionaries etymology term ''lexicology'' derives greek word ''lexicon'' neuter ''lexikos'' words ''lexis'' speech word '' logia'' study suffix derived ''logos'' amongst others meaning learning reasoning explanation subject matter etymology science actually focus lexicology since lexicology studies meaning words semantic relations often

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Lexicology


critic semiotician ghil'ad zuckermann born june israeli linguist language revivalist see also lexicography lexicon lexeme calque vocabulary computational lexicology lexicostatistics lexical semantics lexical analysis english lexicology lexicography list lexicographers list linguists lexical markup framework references references external links societies https webarchiveorg web http wwwatalaorg association automatic language processing atala paris france http wwwleacuk english jmc ishllhtml international society historical lexicography lexicology university leicester theory http wwwciil ebooksnet html lexico link htm lexicology vs lexicography explanation https webarchiveorg web http coralliliuni bielefeldde classes winter gsdictionary complex node html lexicography lexicology lexicon theory glossary https glossarysilorg term l 'l' entries lexeme lexicon sil summer institute linguistics 's glossary


composing also includes creation music notation sheet music score performed composer singers musicians popular music traditional music act composing typically called songwriting may involve creation basic outline song called lead sheet sets melody lyrics chord progression classical music composer typically orchestrates compositions musical theatre pop music songwriters may hire arranger orchestration cases songwriter


clear stable enough distinguish noise example much easier listeners discern pitch single note played piano try discern pitch crash cymbal struck melody traditional song pop goes weasel thumb melody also called tune series pitches notes sounding succession one often rising falling pattern notes melody typically created using pitch systems scales modes melodies also


harpsichord early may use single dynamic give another example art music pieces symphonies long pop songs minutes long history prehistory prehistoric music theorized based findings paleolithic archaeology sites flutes often discovered carved bones lateral holes pierced thought blown one end like japanese shakuhachi divje babe flute carved cave bear femur thought least years old though considerable


date back approximately nbsp bc oldest surviving notated work music ancient egypt musicians amun tomb nakht th dynasty western thebes earliest material representational evidence egyptian musical instruments dates predynastic period evidence securely attested old kingdom harps flutes double clarinets played percussion instruments lyres lutes added orchestras middle kingdom cymbals ref name ucl ref frequently accompanied music dance much still egypt today egyptian folk music including traditional sufi ' 'dhikr'' rituals closest


sculptures show dance old musical instruments like seven holed flute various types stringed instruments drums recovered harappa mohenjo daro excavations carried sir mortimer wheeler rigveda elements present indian music musical notation denote metre mode chanting indian classical music marga monophonic based single melody line raga rhythmically organized talas ''silappadhikaram'' ilango adigal provides information new scales formed modal shifting tonic existing scale present


netherlands belgium northern france called franco flemish composers held important positions throughout europe especially italy countries vibrant musical activity included germany england spain baroque class wikitable style text align right float left margin right px align center js bach br small toccata fugue small style text align left background dcdcdc px baroque era music took place baroque artistic style flourished across europe time music expanded range complexity baroque music began first operas dramatic solo vocal music accompanied orchestra written baroque


almost voicelike singable new genres developed fortepiano forerunner modern piano replaced baroque era harpsichord pipe organ main keyboard instrument though pipe organ continued used sacred music masses importance given instrumental music dominated development musical forms initially defined baroque period sonata concerto symphony others main kinds trio string quartet serenade divertimento sonata important developed form although baroque composers also wrote sonatas classical


genres enabled recordings songs bands widely distributed introduction multitrack recording system major influence rock music could much record band 's performance using multitrack system band music producer could overdub many layers instrument tracks vocals creating new sounds would possible live performance jazz evolved became important genre music course th century second half century rock music jazz


american musical artform originated beginning th century african american communities southern united states confluence african european music traditions style 's west african pedigree evident use blue notes improvisation polyrhythms syncopation swung note rock music genre popular music developed rock roll rockabilly blues country music sound rock often revolves around electric guitar acoustic guitar uses strong back beat laid rhythm section


expression heavy metal guitar player might use hammer ons pull offs th century art music solo performers may give general instruction perform music expressively without describing detail performer performer expected know use tempo changes accentuation pauses among devices obtain expressive performance style th century art music notation often became explicit used range markings annotations indicate performers play sing piece popular music


culture types music typically include western art music baroque classical romantic modern era symphonies concertos solo works typically heard formal concerts concert halls churches audience sitting quietly seats types music including limited jazz blues soul country often performed bars nightclubs theatres audience may able drink dance express cheering later th century division high low musical forms widely accepted valid distinction separated better quality


musicologists women became involved music education degree women dominated field later half th century well th century ref name parlorsongscom ref according jessica duchen music writer london 's ''the independent'' women musicians classical music often judged appearances rather talent face pressure look sexy onstage photos ref name musiccbcca http musiccbcca blogs classical musics shocking gender gap ref duchen states women musicians refuse play looksthe ones tend materially successful ref name musiccbcca according uk 's


communal setting industrialized countries listening music recorded form sound recording record radio became common experiencing live performance roughly middle th century watching music videos popular way listen music also seeing performers sometimes live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds example disc jockey uses disc records scratching th century works solo instrument voice performed along music prerecorded onto tape pop bands use recorded backing