association listening tastes social identity creation thousands niche markets another effect internet arose online communities social media websites like youtube facebook social networking service sites make easier aspiring singers amateur bands distribute videos songs connect musicians gain audience interest professional musicians also use youtube free publisher promotional material youtube users example longer download listen mp also actively create according tapscott anthony williams


hand small colleges may offer training single profession eg sound recording university conservatory music programs focus training students classical music number universities colleges train musicians careers jazz popular music musicians composers notable us examples including manhattan school music berklee college music two important schools canada offer professional jazz training mcgill university humber college individuals aiming careers types music heavy metal music country music


blues less likely become professionals completing degrees diplomas colleges universities instead typically learn style music singing playing many bands often beginning amateur bands cover bands tribute bands studying recordings available cd dvd internet working already established professionals style music either informal mentoring regular music lessons since increasing popularity availability internet forums youtube videos enabled many singers musicians metal blues similar genres improve skills


many pop rock country singers train informally vocal coaches singing teachers undergraduate undergraduate university degrees music including bachelor music bachelor music education bachelor arts major music typically take four years complete degrees provide students grounding music theory music history many students also study instrument learn singing technique part program graduates undergraduate music programs seek employment go study music graduate programs bachelor 's degree graduates also eligible


apply graduate programs professional schools outside music eg public administration business administration library science jurisdictions teacher 's college law school medical school graduate graduate music degrees include master music master arts musicology music theory another music field doctor philosophy phd eg musicology music theory recently doctor musical arts dma master music degree takes one two years complete typically awarded students studying performance instrument education voice singing


lifelong love music particularly works bach mozart stating life without playing music would inconceivable interviews einstein even attributed much scientific intuition music son hans recounting whenever felt come end road difficult situation work would take refuge music would usually resolve difficulties something music according michele robert root bernstein ''psychology today'' would guide thoughts new creative directions


said einstein considered mozart 's music reveal universal harmony einstein believed existed universe great wolfgang amadeus 'create' beautifully clear music simply discovered already made perspective parallels remarkably einstein views ultimate simplicity nature explanation statement via essentially simple mathematical expressions review suggests music may effective improving subjective sleep quality adults insomnia symptoms music also used clinical rehabilitation cognitive motor disorders see also glossary musical


'''music''' art form consisting sound silence expressed time '''music''' may also refer music musical notation system writing musical sounds pitch rhythm timing volume tonality sheet music paper printed written musical notation albums ''music'' album ''music'' carole king album ''music'' erick sermon album ''music'' girugamesh album ''music'' madonna album ''music'' mika nakashima album ''music'' windsor airlift album ''music songs inspired motion picture'' album sia accompany musical


microeconomics analyzes market mechanisms enable buyers sellers establish relative prices among goods services shown marketplace delhi '''microeconomics''' branch mainstream economics studies behavior individuals firms making decisions regarding allocation scarce resources interactions among individuals firms ref name glossary ref microeconomics focuses study individual markets sectors industries opposed national economy whole studied macroeconomics one goal microeconomics analyze market mechanisms establish relative prices among goods services


norwegian economist ragnar frisch co recipient first nobel memorial prize economic sciences ref name frisch r propagation problems impulse problems dynamic economics ''economic essays honour gustav cassel'' ed r frisch london allen unwin ref ref name varian hr however frisch actually use word microeconomics instead drawing distinctions micro dynamic macro dynamic analysis way similar words microeconomics macroeconomics used today ref name first known use term microeconomics published article pieter de wolff


price theory '''microeconomics''' strategic behavior interactions among sellers market significant part microeconomics emphasized price theory price theorists focus competition believing reasonable description markets leaves room study additional aspects tastes technology result price theory tends use less game theory microeconomics price theory focuses agents respond prices framework applied wide variety socioeconomic issues might


quantity demanded consumers equals quantity supplied producers price results stable economic equilibrium supply demand model describes prices vary result balance product availability demand graph depicts increase right shift demand sub sub sub sub along consequent increase price quantity required reach new equilibrium point supply curve alt graph depicting quantity x axis price axis prices quantities described directly observable attributes goods produced


exchanged market economy theory supply demand organizing principle explaining prices coordinate amounts produced consumed microeconomics applies price output determination market perfect competition includes condition buyers sellers large enough price setting power given market commodity demand relation quantity buyers would prepared purchase unit price good demand often represented table graph showing price quantity demanded


capitalism market socialism advocates state socialism often criticizing markets aiming substitute replace markets varying degrees government directed economic planning competition acts regulatory mechanism market systems government providing regulations market cannot expected regulate regulations help mitigate negative externalities goods services private equilibrium market match social equilibrium one example regards building codes absent purely competition regulated market system might result several horrific injuries deaths


people applications include wide array economic phenomena approaches auctions bargaining mergers acquisitions pricing fair division duopolies oligopolies social network formation agent based computational economics general equilibrium mechanism design voting systems across broad areas experimental economics behavioral economics information economics industrial organization political economy economics information information economics branch microeconomic theory studies information information systems affect economy economic decisions information special characteristics easy create hard trust easy spread


created combining fundamental equations neo classical microeconomics order generate macroeconomic fluctuations rb c models explained recessions unemployment changes technology instead changes markets goods money critics rb c models argue money clearly plays important role economy idea technological regress explain recent recessions implausible ref name blanchard however technological shocks prominent myriad possible shocks system modeled despite questions theory behind rb c models clearly


become comparatively expensive foreign consumers leading decline exports conventional keynesian use ad model aggregate supply curve horizontal low levels output becomes inelastic near point potential output corresponds full employment since economy cannot produce beyond potential output ad expansion lead higher price levels instead higher output ad diagram model variety macroeconomic phenomena including inflation changes non price level factors determinants cause changes aggregate demand shifts entire aggregate


underpinnings aggregate demand discussed answers question given price level quantity goods demanded model shows combination interest rates output ensure equilibrium goods money markets goods market modeled giving equality investment public private saving money market modeled giving equilibrium money supply liquidity preference curve consists points combinations income interest rate investment given interest rate equal public


''a priori'' like foundational mathematics sometimes considered special case metaphysics applied existence number tries give coherent account structure world capable explaining everyday scientific perception world free contradictions mathematics many different ways define numbers similarly metaphysics many different ways define objects properties concepts entities claimed make world metaphysics may special case study entities postulated fundamental science


independently observer subject fundamental sciences ref name khlentzos metaphysical anti realism hand assumes objects studied metaphysics exist inside mind observer subject becomes form introspection conceptual analysis ref name khlentzos ref position recent origin philosophers notably kant discuss worlds inferred one logical positivists many scientists reject metaphysical realism meaningless unverifiable others reply criticism also applies type


across two moments time account another question identity arises ask criteria ought determining identity reality identity interfaces linguistic expressions metaphysical positions one takes identity far reaching implications issues mind body problem personal identity ethics law ancient greeks took extreme positions nature change parmenides denied change altogether heraclitus argued change ubiquitous man ever steps river twice identity sometimes called numerical identity


ontologically distinct mind idealism postulates material objects exist unless perceived perceptions adherents panpsychism kind property dualism hold everything ''has'' mental aspect everything exists ''in'' mind neutral monism postulates existence consists single substance neither mental physical capable mental physical aspects attributesthus implies dual aspect theory last century dominant theories science inspired including materialistic monism type identity theory token identity theory functionalism


normative claims ref name fred ref imre lakatos maintained scientific theories metaphysical hard core essential generation hypotheses theoretical assumptions thus according lakatos scientific changes connected vast cataclysmic metaphysical revolutions example biology lakatos' thesis david hull argued changes ontological status species concept central development biological thought aristotle cuvier lamarck darwin darwin 's ignorance metaphysics made difficult respond critics could readily grasp ways


tv interview nearly false ref name hanfling oswald hanfling ch logical positivism stuart g shanker ''philosophy science logic mathematics twentieth century'' london routledge https booksgooglecom booksid jizt ilic pg pa pp ref continued influence philosophy development arguing rejections scholastic philosopher edward feser held hume 's critique metaphysics specifically hume 's fork notoriously self refuting feser argues hume 's fork conceptual truth empirically testable living philosophers amie thomasson argued many metaphysical questions dissolved looking


state puru bonded prak ti form ref name sambri fusion state samkhya scholars led emergence ''buddhi'' spiritual awareness ''aha k ra'' ego consciousness universe described school one created purusa prak ti entities infused various permutations combinations variously enumerated elements senses feelings activity mind ref name sambri http wwwbritannicacom ebchecked topic samkhya samkhya hinduism encyclop dia britannica ref state imbalance one constituents overwhelm others creating form bondage particularly mind end imbalance bondage called liberation moksha


something nature determines progress life ref name jamesg james g lochtefeld guna illustrated encyclopedia hinduism vol rosen publishing p ref samkhya theory gu widely discussed developed refined various schools indian philosophies including buddhism samkhya 's philosophical treatises also influenced development various theories hindu ethics ref name royper ved nta realization nature self identity principal object vedanta system indian metaphysics upanishads self consciousness first person indexical self awareness self awareness self reference without identification also


unknowable essential nature eternal subject knows everything including atman knower also known metaphysicians regard self either distinct absolute entirely identical absolute given form three schools thought ''dualistic school'' b ''quasi dualistic school'' c ''monistic school'' result varying mystical experiences prakrti atman treated two separate distinct aspects form basis dualism shvetashvatara upanishad quasi dualism reflected


opposite direction copernicus' shift man subject sun object center universe kant saw rationalist philosophers aiming kind metaphysical knowledge defined ' 'synthetic apriori'' knowledge come senses priori nonetheless reality synthetic inasmuch reality differs abstract mathematical propositions terms analytical apriori apriori distinct empirical scientific knowledge terms synthetic aposteriori synthetic apriori knowledge


british idealists f h bradley j e mctaggart followers karl marx took hegel 's dialectic view history fashioned materialism early analytic philosophy positivism period idealism dominant philosophy science making great advances arrival new generation scientifically minded philosophers led sharp decline popularity idealism analytic philosophy spearheaded bertrand russell g e moore russell william james tried compromise idealism materialism theory neutral monism


systems brentano 's concept intentionality would become widely influential including analytic philosophy heidegger author ''being time'' saw focusing qua introducing novel concept ''dasein'' process classing existentialist sartre wrote extensive study ''being nothingness'' speculative realism movement marks return full blooded realism process metaphysics two fundamental aspects everyday experience change persistence recently western philosophical tradition arguably championed substance persistence notable exceptions however according process thinkers novelty flux accident matter sometimes


constitute ultimate reality broad sense process metaphysics old western philosophy figures heraclitus plotinus duns scotus leibniz david hume georg wilhelm friedrich hegel friedrich wilhelm joseph von schelling gustav theodor fechner friedrich adolf trendelenburg charles renouvier karl marx ernst mach friedrich wilhelm nietzsche mile boutroux henri bergson samuel alexander nicolas berdyaev seemingly remains open question whether major continental figures late martin heidegger maurice merleau ponty gilles deleuze michel foucault jacques derrida included strict sense process metaphysics may limited


seem dry stylistically similar computer programming mathematics even accountancy common stated goal account entities world see also computational metaphysics feminist metaphysics fundamental question metaphysics metaphysical grounding metaphilosophy meta ontology meta epistemology metasemantics meta ethics metacognition metaphysical fiction novels metaphysics presence philosophical logic philosophical realism philosophical theology philosophy science notes references bibliography butchvarov panayot ''being qua theory identity existence predication'' bloomington london indiana university press chalmers david david manley ryan wasserman eds ''metametaphysics new essays foundations ontology'' oxford


achieve considered subject prior preparatory philosophy ref name griswold see example ref others see inherently part philosophy ref name heidegger ref automatically part philosophy ref name williamson ref others adopt combination views ref name joll interest metaphilosophy led establishment journal ''metaphilosophy'' january ref name scope journal http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn homepage productinformationhtml describes scope particular areas interest include foundation scope function direction philosophy justification philosophical methods arguments interrelations among schools fields


philosophy example relation logic problems ethics epistemology aspects philosophical systems presuppositions philosophical schools relation philosophy disciplines example artificial intelligence linguistics literature sociology philosophy relevance philosophy social political action issues teaching philosophy ref many sub disciplines philosophy branch 'metaphilosophy' examples meta aesthetics meta epistemology meta ethics metametaphysics meta ontology ref name edwards ref although ''term'' metaphilosophy explicit attention metaphilosophy specific domain within philosophy arose th century topic likely old


contrasting opinions debate persists whether evaluation nature philosophy 'second order philosophy' simply 'plain philosophy' many philosophers expressed doubts value metaphilosophy ref name overgaard ref among gilbert ryle preoccupation questions methods tends distract us prosecuting methods run rule worse better think lot feet let us speak ref name ryle quoted ref terminology designations ''metaphilosophy'' ''philosophy philosophy'' variety meanings sometimes taken


claimed example karl popper held problems exist solvable actually found definite solutions david chalmers divides inquiry philosophical progress metaphilosophy three questions existence question progress philosophy comparison question much progress philosophy science explanation question n't progress philosophy see also antiphilosophy metatheory meta knowledge metaphysics metapolitics metasemantics non philosophy unsolved problems philosophy theory everything philosophy references reading double r ''metaphilosophy free will''


oxford university press usa ducasse cj http wwwditextcom ducasse ducassehtml ''philosophy science matter method'' lazerowitz ''studies metaphilosphy'' london routledge overgaard gilbert p burwood ''an introduction metaphilosophy'' cambridge cambridge university press rescher n ''philosophical dialectics essay metaphilosophy'' albany state university new york press rescher nicholas ''philosophical reasoning study methodology philosophizing'' blackwell williamson ''the philosophy philosophy'' london blackwell wittgenstein ludwig ''tractatus logico philosophicus'' trans david pears brian mcguinness routledge hardcover paperback hardcover


implicit equations often polynomial equations spawned algebraic geometry analytic geometry makes possible consider spaces dimensions higher three suffices consider three coordinates longer model physical space geometry expanded quickly th century major event discovery second half th century non euclidean geometries geometries parallel postulate abandoned besides russel 's paradox one starting points foundational crisis mathematics taking question ''truth'' aforementioned postulate


feit thompson theorem axioms traditional thought self evident truths conception problematic formal level axiom string symbols intrinsic meaning context derivable formulas axiomatic system goal hilbert 's program put mathematics firm axiomatic basis according g del 's incompleteness theorem every sufficiently powerful axiomatic system undecidable formulas final axiomatization mathematics impossible nonetheless mathematics often imagined far formal content nothing set theory


particular individual forms ethical subjectivism relativist notable forms universalist '''ideal observer theory''' holds right determined attitudes hypothetical ''ideal observer'' would ideal observer usually characterized perfectly rational imaginative informed among things though subjectivist theory due reference particular albeit hypothetical subject ideal observer theory still purports provide universal answers moral questions '''divine command theory''' holds thing right unique

Humanities Philosophy Ethics Meta-ethics


foundationalism moral beliefs epistemological view implies moral beliefs propositional contents implies cognitivism ethical intuitionism commonly suggests moral realism view objective facts morality specific ethical non naturalism view evaluative facts cannot reduced natural fact however neither moral realism ethical non naturalism essential view ethical intuitionists simply happen hold views well ethical intuitionism comes rationalist variety empiricist variety known moral sense theory moral skepticism


moral skepticism class meta ethical theories members entail one moral knowledge many moral skeptics also make stronger modal claim moral knowledge impossible forms moral skepticism include limited error theory forms non cognitivism see also anthropic principle axiology deontic logic ethical subjectivism fact value distinction ought problem meta rights moral realism normative ethics ''principia ethica'' right good references external links http wwwieputmedu metaethi metaethics entry ''internet encyclopedia philosophy'' http wwwditextcom hare lmhtml ''the language morals'' r


paper neutralize existing acid prevent decay services several commercial deacidification techniques market bookkeeper process non aqueous liquid phase process uses magnesium oxide bookkeeper available preservation technologies lp plants us spain japan poland netherlands south africa csc book saver uses carbonated magnesium propylate deacidification ref name deacidification banik g mass deacidification technology germany quality control ''restaurator international journal preservation library archival material'' ref available conservaci n de sustratos celul sicos sl csc barcelona

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Mass deacidification


spain papersave process developed battelle ingenieurtechnik gmbh therefore sometimes referred battelle process process uses magnesium titanium alkoxide ref name deacidification available europe nitrochemie wimmis wimmis switzerland name papersave swiss zentrum f r bucherhaltung leipzig germany wei t'o process uses methoxy magnesium methyl carbonate isopropoxy magnesium isopropyl carbonate ref name porck porck h mass deacidification update possibilities limitations http wwwknawnl ecpa publ porck htm wei t'o sable url accessed october ref new products coming wei t'o less commonly


paper cause loss pliancy mechanical strength ref name loc library congress https wwwlocgov preserv deacid bkkeep html evaluation bookkeeper mass deacidification process technical evaluation team report url accessed september ref faculty members slovak university technology added requirements chemicals used safe process able applied kind paper process cause swelling warping paper effects processes imparted adequately high ph studies conducted european commission preservation access


discoloration white deposit newton rings bleeding inks dyes odor different feel paper wei t'o caused odor white residues rings cockling yellow discolorations adhesive bleeding ref name porck conservators british library acknowledge existing mass deacidification processes still developing research needs conducted chemical mechanical effects history research process development mass deacidification nbsp along microfilm lamination nbsp developed early mid th century response chemical process hydrolysis fibers constitute paper providing


structure strength bonds broken resulting paper becomes increasingly brittle time environmental pollutants react paper form acids promote oxidation creating acid product results positive feedback loop autocatalytic destruction supported part grants council library resources william j barrow conducted research paper decay found three percent books published would survive fifty years response standing committee preservation research library materials


conference council'' url accessed april ref one technique proposed place books evacuated chamber introduce diethylzinc dez theory diethylzinc would react acidic residues paper leaving alkaline residue would protect paper degradation practice heating required remove trace water books reaction dez reacts violently water caused accelerated degradation paper range chemical reactions dez components book glues bindings caused damage production unpleasant smells regardless


field molecular biology happened late understand complex system advantageous approach would made simple way understanding using bacteria bacteriophages organism yields information basic biological process readily animal cell two young men named francis crick james watson working medical research council unit cavendish laboratory cambridge made double helix model dna changed whole research scenario proposed dna structure based previous research done rosalind franklin maurice wilkins research lead finding

Natural science
Biology
Molecular biology


scientific disciplines emerged evolved th century became clear sought determine molecular mechanisms underlie vital cellular functions advances molecular biology closely related development new technologies optimization molecular biology elucidated work many scientists thus history field depends understanding scientists experiments begins phenomenon transformation bacteria frederick griffith observed phenomenon transformation one bacterium known


genetic transformation time could n't explain phenomenon transformation later three scientists oswald avery colin macleod maclyn mccarty demonstrated whole phenomenon transformation bacteria two years molecular biology established official branch science term molecular biology n't coined done scientist warren weaver working director natural sciences rockefeller foundation ref name following experiment concluded dna basic genetic material caused genetic changes


bradford assay molecular biology technique enables fast accurate quantitation protein molecules utilizing unique properties dye called coomassie brilliant blue g ref name ref coomassie blue undergoes visible color shift reddish brown bright blue upon binding protein ref name unstable cationic state coomassie blue background wavelength nbsp nm gives reddish brown color ref name ref coomassie blue binds protein acidic solution background wavelength shifts nbsp nm dye gives bright blue color ref name proteins assay


shows surgical incision may extensive natural tear likely contribute later incontinence pain sex natural tear would ref name mayo clinic ref midwife assists baby needed fully emerged cuts umbilical cord desired either baby 's parents may cut cord past cord cut shortly birth growing evidence delayed cord clamping may benefit infant ref name medlineplus ref '''third stage labor''' third stage labour mother

Applied science
Medicine and health
Midwifery


keep hands soft comfort mother child ref name french valerie french midwives maternity care roman world helios new series pp ref pliny another physician time valued nobility quiet inconspicuous disposition midwife ref name jackson ralph jackson ''doctors diseases roman empire'' norman university oklahoma press p ref appears three grades midwives present first technically proficient second may read texts obstetrics gynecology third


chair often armrests mother grasp delivery birthstools chairs backs patient could press soranus suggests cases chairs backless assistant would stand behind mother support ref name french midwife sat facing mother encouraging supporting birth perhaps offering instruction breathing pushing sometimes massaging vaginal opening supporting perineum delivery baby assistants may helped pushing downwards top mother 's abdomen finally


midwife received infant placed pieces cloth cut umbilical cord cleansed baby ref name jackson child sprinkled fine powdery salt natron aphronitre soak birth residue rinsed powdered rinsed next midwives cleared away mucus present nose mouth ears anus midwives encouraged soranus put olive oil baby 's eyes cleanse away birth residue place piece wool soaked olive oil umbilical cord delivery


upon completion 'diploma' awarded rather bsc united states undergraduate mechanical engineering programs accredited accreditation board engineering technology abet ensure similar course requirements standards among universities abet web site lists accredited mechanical engineering programs march mechanical engineering programs canada accredited canadian engineering accreditation board ceab countries offering engineering degrees similar accreditation societies australia mechanical engineering degrees awarded bachelor engineering mechanical similar nomenclature although increasing number

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering


university cooperative education another option future work skills research puts demand study components feed student 's creativity innovation job duties mechanical engineers research design develop build test mechanical thermal devices including tools engines machines mechanical engineers typically following analyze problems see mechanical thermal devices might help solve problem design redesign mechanical thermal devices using analysis computer aided design develop test prototypes devices design analyze test results change design needed oversee manufacturing process device manage


failure'' occurs object fails number repeated loading unloading cycles fatigue failure occurs imperfections object microscopic crack surface object instance grow slightly cycle propagation crack large enough cause ultimate failure failure simply defined part breaks however defined part operate intended systems perforated top sections plastic bags designed break systems break failure analysis might


branch fluid mechanics uses numerical methods algorithms solve analyze problems involve fluid flows computers used perform calculations required simulate interaction liquids gases surfaces defined boundary conditions high speed supercomputers better solutions achieved ongoing research yields software improves accuracy speed complex simulation scenarios turbulent flows initial validation software performed using wind tunnel final validation coming full scale testing eg flight tests acoustical engineering acoustical engineering one many sub disciplines


south australia victoria western australia media studies appear taught state new south wales secondary level victoria vce media studies course structured unit representation technologies representation new media unit media production australian media organisations unit narrative texts production planning unit media process social values media influence media studies also form major part primary junior secondary curriculum includes areas photography print media television victoria also hosts peak

Journalism, media studies and communication


media ecology mcluhan says technique fragmentation essence machine technology shaped restructuring human work association essence automation technology opposite uses example electric light make connection explain medium message electric light pure information medium without message unless used spell verbal ad name characteristic media means content medium always another medium example


gives information fill blanks inclusive used lecturing example hot media seminars example low media use hot medium hot cool culture makes difference ref name mcgraw hill china two universities china specialize media studies communication university china formerly known beijing broadcasting institute dates back cuc full time students including undergraduates candidates doctor master 's degrees students


programs continuing education university known media studies china zhejiang university media communications zumc campuses hangzhou tongxiang almost full time students currently studying programs colleges schools zumc institutions produced china 's brightest broadcasting talents television well leading journalists magazines newspapers czech republic university specialized journalism media studies seven public universities department media studies three biggest based prague charles


one independent research institutions dedicated issues surrounding media communications policies term ''wissenschaft'' cannot translated straightforwardly ' 'studies'' calls mind scientific methods humanities accordingly german media theory combines philosophy psychoanalysis history scienctific studies media specific research ''medienwissenschaften'' currently one popular courses study universities germany many applicants mistakenly assuming studying automatically lead career tv media led widespread disillusionment students blaming universities offering highly theoretical


academic study english literary criticism broadly key date according andrew crisell blockquote joseph trenaman left bbc 's education unit become first holder granada research fellowship television leeds university soon centre mass communication research founded leicester university degree programmes media studies began sprout polytechnics universities ref name crisell ref blockquote james halloran university leicester credited much influence development media studies communication studies


al jazari th century al jazari water device th century middle ages aristotle 's theories criticized modified number figures beginning john philoponus th century central problem projectile motion discussed hipparchus philoponus persian islamic polymath ibn n published theory motion ''the book healing'' said impetus imparted projectile thrower viewed persistent requiring external forces air resistance dissipate ref name espinoza ref ref name nasr ref ref name sayili ref ibn sina made distinction


effective formal system immediately realized new definitions computability could used purpose allowing state incompleteness theorems generality could implied original paper numerous results recursion theory obtained stephen cole kleene emil leon post kleene introduced concepts relative computability foreshadowed turing arithmetical hierarchy kleene later generalized recursion theory higher order functionals kleene georg kreisel studied formal versions intuitionistic mathematics particularly context proof theory formal logical systems

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Mathematical logic


intuitionistic logic brouwer rejected formalization presented work unformalized natural language advent bhk interpretation kripke models intuitionism became easier reconcile classical mathematics see also argument informal logic knowledge representation reasoning logic list computability complexity topics list first order theories list logic symbols list mathematical logic topics list set theory topics mereology propositional calculus well formed formula notes classic graduate text first appeared ref use ref name ferreir ssurveys surveys rise first order logic


snodgrass professor anthropology colorado state university termed india 's ''bhats'' mythographers myth criticism myth criticism system anthropological interpretation culture created french philosopher gilbert durand scholars used myth criticism explain mythical roots contemporary fiction means modern myth criticism needs interdisciplinary cultural myth criticism without abandoning analysis symbolic invades cultural manifestations delves difficulties understanding myth today cultural myth criticism studies mythical manifestations fields wide literature film television theater sculpture painting video games


music dancing internet artistic fields ref author title source mythos ''myth'' sometimes used pejorative sense scholars opted use term ''mythos'' instead ref name grassie ref however ''mythos'' commonly refers aristotelian sense plot point body interconnected myths stories especially belonging particular religious cultural tradition ref name oedmthos mythos ''n'' ''oxford english dictionary'' oxford oxford university press ref sometimes used specifically modern fictional mythologies world building h p lovecraft mythopoeia ''mythopoeia'' 'i make


explicit distinction true false narratives context ancient greek theatre ''mythos'' referred myth narrative plot story play according david wiles greek term ''mythos'' era covered entire spectrum different meanings undeniable falsehoods stories religious symbolic significance according philosopher aristotle bce spirit theatrical play ''mythos'' term ''mythos'' also used source material greek tragedy tragedians era could draw inspiration greek mythology body traditional storylines


impersonal magical laws realize applications laws work give belief natural law favor belief personal gods controlling nature thus giving rise religious myths meanwhile humans continue practicing formerly magical rituals force habit reinterpreting reenactments mythical events finally humans come realize nature follows natural laws discover true nature science science makes myth obsolete humans progress magic religion science segal asserted pitting mythical thought modern scientific thought theories


cultural norms social institutions thus following structuralist era c predominant anthropological sociological approaches myth increasingly treated myth form narrative studied interpreted analyzed like ideology history culture words myth form understanding telling stories connected power political structures political economic interests approaches contrast approaches joseph campbell eliade hold myth type essential connection ultimate sacred meanings transcend cultural specifics particular myth studied


study infinite structures problems studied techniques used model theory higher order logics infinitary logics hampered fact completeness compactness general hold logics however great deal study also done logics informally model theory divided classical model theory model theory applied groups fields geometric model theory missing subdivision computable model theory arguably viewed independent subfield logic examples early theorems classical model theory include

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Mathematical logic
Model theory


satsifiability however also several direct semantic proofs compactness theorem corollary ie contrapositive compactness theorem says every unsatisfiable first order theory finite unsatisfiable subset theorem central importance model theory words compactness commonplace another cornerstone first order model theory l wenheim skolem theorem according l wenheim skolem theorem every infinite structure countable signature countable elementary substructure conversely infinite cardinal every infinite structure countable signature cardinality less


generally true two sequences math dots n math math b dots b n math satisfy type ''a'' mapped automorphism structure math mathcal math converse holds ''a'' smaller cardinality math mathcal math called '''homogeneous''' real number line atomic language contains order math math since ''n'' types empty set realised math dots n math math mathbb r math isolated order relations math dots n math saturated however since


model theory tarski 's proofs decidability various algebraically interesting classes real closed fields boolean algebras algebraically closed fields given characteristic considerations around saturated models ultraproduct construction led development non standard analysis abraham robinson james ax simon b kochen showed special case artin 's conjecture diophantine equations ax kochen theorem using ultraproduct construction recently connection stability geometry definable sets led several applications algebraic diophantine geometry including


ehud hrushovski 's proof geometric mordell lang conjecture characteristics jonathan pila applied techniques around minimality prove andr oort conjecture products modular curves separate strand inquiries also grew around stable theories laskowski showed nip theories describe exactly definable classes pac learnable machine learning theory history model theory subject existed since approximately middle th century however earlier research especially mathematical logic often regarded model theoretical nature retrospect


consequence deductive systems algebra logic theory definability semantic definition truth among topics semantic methods culminated model theory number berkeley students developed ' history discipline different strands began emerge focus subject shifted techniques around ultraproducts became popular tool model theory time researchers james ax investigating first order model theory various algebraic classes others h jerome keisler


math sum r sup left lbrace sum j r j aleph j subseteq right rbrace math define sum math r math supremum sums finitely many measure math mu math math sigma math math kappa math additive math lambda kappa math family disjoint sets math x alpha alpha lambda math following hold math bigcup alpha lambda x alpha sigma math math mu left bigcup alpha lambda x alpha right sum alpha lambda mu left x alpha right math note second condition equivalent statement ideal null sets math kappa math complete sigma finite measures measure space called finite finite real number rather nonzero finite measures

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Probability theory
Measure theory


organization chart united states coast guard shows hierarchy managerial roles organization '''management''' '''managing''' administration organization whether business non profit organization government body art science managing resources management includes activities setting strategy organization coordinating efforts employees volunteers accomplish objectives application available resources financial natural technological human resources run business change business two concepts


class one habit thought regards management equivalent business administration thus excludes management places outside commerce example charities public sector broadly every organization must manage work people processes technology etc maximize effectiveness nonetheless many people refer university departments teach management business schools institutions harvard business school use name others yale school management employ broader term management english speakers may also use term management management collective word describing


operational members operational manager may well thought middle management may categorized non management operate liable policy specific organization efficiency middle level vital organization since bridge gap top level bottom level staffs functions include design implement effective group inter group work information systems define monitor group level performance indicators diagnose resolve problems within among workgroups design implement reward systems support cooperative behavior also make decision share ideas top managers lower lower managers include


training form electronic educational technology also called e learning online education increased accessibility management training people live near college university cannot afford travel city training available requirement professions require academic credentials order work profession eg law medicine engineering require respectively bachelor law doctor medicine bachelor engineering degrees management administration positions necessarily require completion academic degrees well known senior executives us


growing size complexity organizations distinction owners individuals industrial dynasties groups shareholders day day managers independent specialists planning control gradually became common early writing field management originated ancient china ref name ewan ferlie p ewan ferlie laurence e lynn christopher pollitt ''the oxford handbook public management'' p ref including possibly first highly centralized bureaucratic state earliest second century bc example administration based merit testing ref name aphq kazin edwards rothman ''one oldest examples merit based civil service


approached phenomenon management sociological perspective saw development militarization trend management parts eurasia nkvd soviet union ss greater germanic reich example managed labor camps industrial enterprises using slave labor supervised uniformed cadres military habits persisted management circles peter drucker wrote one earliest books applied management ''concept corporation'' published resulted alfred sloan chairman general motors commissioning study


cross cultural leadership ability understand effects culture leadership style technical expertise one 's particular functional area behavioral perception towards others conflict resolution time management self improvement stress management resilience patience clear communication implementation policies strategies policies strategies must discussed managerial personnel staff managers must understand implement policies strategies action plan must devised department policies strategies must reviewed regularly contingency plans must devised case environment changes top level managers carry regular progress assessments


sample analyzer blocks light polarizer however anisotropic sample generally change polarization light pass thin sections powders used samples ref name manual isotropic crystal viewed appears dark change polarization light however immersed calibrated liquid lower index refraction microscope thrown focus bright line called ''becke line'' appears around perimeter crystal observing

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Mineralogy


sometimes based astrological ideas admiral fitzroy tried separate scientific approaches prophetic ones research visual atmospheric phenomena twilight baker beach thumb ptolemy wrote atmospheric refraction light context astronomical observations alhazen showed atmospheric refraction also responsible twilight estimated twilight begins sun degrees horizon also used geometric determination based estimate maximum possible height earth 's atmosphere ''passim'' miles nbsp km st albert great first propose

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Meteorology


suggested aurorae caused magnetic effluvia moving along earth 's magnetic field lines instruments classification scales hemispherical cup anemometer king sejong 's son prince munjong korea invented first standardized rain gauge sent throughout joseon dynasty korea official tool assess land taxes based upon farmer 's potential harvest leone battista alberti developed swinging plate anemometer known first ''anemometer'' ref name jacobson ref galileo galilei constructed thermoscope johannes kepler wrote first scientific treatise snow crystals strena seu de


deals air wave forecasts ships operating sea organizations ocean prediction center honolulu national weather service forecast office united kingdom met office jma prepare high seas forecasts world 's oceans military meteorology military meteorology research application meteorology military purposes united states united states navy 's commander naval meteorology oceanography command oversees meteorological efforts navy marine corps united states air force 's air force weather agency responsible air force army environmental meteorology environmental meteorology mainly analyzes industrial


pollution dispersion physically chemically based meteorological parameters temperature humidity wind various weather conditions renewable energy meteorology applications renewable energy includes basic research exploration potential mapping wind power solar radiation wind solar energy see also references reading byers horace general meteorology new york mcgraw hill dictionaries encyclopedias external links ''please see weather forecasting weather forecast sites'' http wwwshodororg metweb air quality meteorology online course introduces basic concepts meteorology air quality necessary understand meteorological computer models written bachelor 's degree level http wwwglobegov home


education training meted comet program https webarchiveorg web http wwwlibnoaagov noaa central library national oceanic atmospheric administration http ww atmosuiucedu world weather project university illinois urbana champaign http wwwogimetcom indexphtmlen ogimet online data meteorological stations world obtained noaa free services https webarchiveorg web https wwwarchivesucaredu national center atmospheric research archives documents history meteorology http wwwmetofficegovuk learning science weather forecasting climate science united kingdom meteorological office http wwwbbccouk programmes p v meteorology bbc radio discussion vladimir jankovi richard hambyn iba taub ''in time march https bibnumobspmfr exhibits show temps temps introduction virtual exhibition meteorology digital library paris


locations marine life image crown thorns jonhansonjpg caption image grilse jpg caption image chelonia mydas bubblesjpg caption image black browed albatrossjpg caption image sea otters holding hands croppedjpg caption biology many phyla families genera species live sea others live land marine biology classifies species based


reptiles ichthyosaurs evolved viviparous requirement return land birds birds adapted living marine environment often called seabirds examples include albatross penguins gannets auks although spend lives ocean species gulls often found thousands miles inland mammals five main types marine mammals namely cetaceans toothed whales baleen whales sirenians manatees pinnipeds including seals walrus sea otters polar bear air breathing


environmental issues carbon dioxide displacement recent marine biotechnology focused largely marine biomolecules especially proteins may uses medicine engineering marine environments home many exotic biological materials may inspire biomimetic materials related fields marine biology branch biology closely linked oceanography especially biological oceanography may regarded sub field marine science also encompasses many ideas ecology fisheries science marine conservation considered partial offshoots marine biology well environmental studies marine chemistry physical


area data important scientists fishermen discovering restricting commercial fishing one small area large impact maintaining healthy fish population much larger area history aristotle recorded embryo dogfish attached cord kind placenta yolk sac study marine biology dates back aristotle bc made many observations life sea around lesbos laying foundation many future discoveries samuel gottlieb gmelin published


surprise ancient villages located water 's edge since last ice age sea level risen much therefore great deal record human activity throughout ice age found water flooding area known black sea land bridge bosporus collapsed pressure rising water mediterranean sea submerged great deal human activity gathered round enormous fresh water lake significant cave art

Social science
Archaeology
Maritime archaeology


increase shipwrecks wrecks cargo remains offer glimpses time economy culture politics ancient world particularly useful archaeologists studies amphoras ceramic shipping containers used mediterranean region th century bc medieval period addition many discoveries sea wrecks examined lakes notable caligula 's pleasure barges lake nemi italy nemi ships shipwreck sites occasionally yield objects unique artistic value instance antikythera wreck contained staggering collection marble


evaluation fda drug development regulatory processes apa recommendations also include supervised clinical experience intended integrate seven knowledge domains assess competencies skills applied knowledge national psychology practitioner association nappp wwwnappporg national certifying body academy medical psychology wwwamphomeorg established national training examination specialty practice criteria guidelines specialty medical psychology established national journal specialty certifying bodies view psychopharmacology training either prescribe consult one component training specialist medical psychology

Social science
Psychology
Medical psychology


audio recordings popular examples multimedia include video podcasts audio slideshows animated videos multimedia recorded playback computers laptops smartphones electronic devices either demand real time streaming early years multimedia term rich media synonymous interactive multimedia time hypermedia extensions brought multimedia world wide web terminology term ''multimedia'' coined singer artist bob goldstein later 'bobb goldsteinn' promote july opening lightworks l'oursin show southampton long island goldstein perhaps aware

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Multimedia


used distinguish motion photography '' animation '' rendered motion imagery multiple forms information content often considered modern forms presentation audio video likewise single forms information content single methods information processing eg non interactive audio often called multimedia perhaps distinguish static media active media fine arts example leda luss luyken 's modulart brings two key elements musical composition film world painting variation theme movement within picture making ''modulart'' interactive multimedia form


various areas including limited advertisements art education entertainment engineering medicine mathematics business scientific research spatial temporal applications several examples follows creative industries creative industries use multimedia variety purposes ranging fine arts entertainment commercial art journalism media software services provided industries listed individual multimedia designer may cover spectrum throughout career request skills range technical analytical creative commercial uses much electronic old new media used


evaluated disciplines experiment students engagement active learning approximately greater material delivered using bullet points text speech corroborating range theories presented multimedia learning scholars like sweller mayer idea media convergence also becoming major factor education particularly higher education defined separate technologies voice telephony features data productivity applications video share resources interact media convergence rapidly changing curriculum universities world higher


new vehicles cutting time needed test designs allowing designers make changes real time also reduces expenses since virtual car making real world prototypes longer needed mathematical scientific research mathematical scientific research multimedia mainly used modeling simulation example scientist look molecular model particular substance manipulate arrive new substance representative research found journals ''journal multimedia'' one well known example


beginning around also comparative musicology parent disciplines parent disciplines musicology include general history cultural studies philosophy particularly aesthetics semiotics ethnology cultural anthropology archaeology prehistory psychology sociology physiology neuroscience acoustics psychoacoustics computer information sciences mathematics musicology also two central practically oriented sub disciplines parent discipline performance practice research sometimes viewed form artistic research theory analysis composition music disciplinary neighbours musicology address forms art performance ritual communication including history theory visual plastic

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Musicology


characterized polarized 'musicological' 'sociological' approach also typical popular musicology music theory analysis composition music theory field study describes elements music includes development application methods composing analyzing music notation occasion musical sound broadly theory may include statement belief conception music boretz person studies practices music theory music theorist music theorists attempt explain techniques composers use establishing rules patterns others model


phd standard minimum credential tenure track professor positions part initial training musicologists typically complete bmus ba music related field history many cases musicology individuals apply directly bachelor 's degree phd cases may receive given increasingly interdisciplinary nature university graduate programs applicants musicology phd programs may academic training music outside music eg student may apply


stage opera typically uses conventional symphony orchestra musicals generally orchestrated ensembles ranging players players rock musicals usually employ small group mostly rock instruments musicals may call piano two instruments music musicals uses range styles influences including operetta classical techniques folk music jazz local historical styles appropriate setting ref name continuum musicals may begin overture played orchestra weav es together excerpts score 's famous melodies eastern traditions

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Musical theatre


music dancing singing acting often expensive costumes complex stage design developed sung plays recognizable english operas first usually thought ''the siege rhodes'' ref name buelow buelow p ref france meanwhile moli turned several farcical comedies musical entertainments songs music provided jean baptiste lully dance late th century influenced brief period english opera ref name carter carter butt p ref composers john blow henry purcell ref name buelow th century popular forms


musical theatre britain ballad operas like john gay 's ''the beggar 's opera'' included lyrics written tunes popular songs day often spoofing opera later pantomime developed commedia dell'arte comic opera mostly romantic plot lines like michael balfe 's ''the bohemian girl'' meanwhile continent singspiel com die en vaudeville op ra comique zarzuela forms light musical entertainment emerging ''the beggar 's opera'' first recorded long running play kind running successive performances would take almost century afterwards


diminished street lighting made safer travel night number patrons growing number theatres increased enormously plays ran longer leading better profits improved production values men began bring families theatre first musical theatre piece exceed consecutive performances french operetta ''the chimes normandy'' ref name dgillanscreamingnet english comic opera adopted many successful ideas european operetta none successfully series dozen long running gilbert sullivan comic operas including ''hms pinafore'' ''the mikado''


comic opera used elements burlesque harrigan hart pieces replaced bawdy women burlesque respectable corps gaiety girls complete musical visual fun success first ''in town'' ''a gaiety girl'' set style next three decades plots generally light romantic poor maiden loves aristocrat wins odds shows music ivan caryll sidney jones lionel monckton shows immediately widely copied america edwardian musical comedy swept away


series successful broadway shows including ''on toes'' ray bolger first broadway musical make dramatic use classical dance ''babes arms'' ''the boys syracuse'' porter added ''du barry lady'' longest running piece musical theatre ''hellzapoppin'' revue audience participation played performances setting new broadway record ref name hellz still creative teams began build ''show boat' 's innovations ''of thee sing'' political satire gershwins first musical awarded


first act ends cast informing audience mad jerry herman played significant role american musical theatre beginning first broadway production ''milk honey'' performances founding state israel continuing blockbuster hits ''hello dolly '' performances ''mame'' performances ''la cage aux folles'' performances even less successful shows like ''dear world'' ''mack mabel'' memorable scores ''mack mabel'' later reworked london hit writing words music many


musical theatre izing rock music despite growing number large scale musicals number lower budget smaller scale musicals managed find critical financial success ''falsettoland'' ''little shop horrors'' ''bat boy musical'' ''blood brothers'' topics pieces vary widely music ranges rock pop often produced broadway smaller london theatres stagings regarded imaginative innovative present trends new century familiarity embraced producers investors


anxious guarantee recoup considerable investments took usually modest budget chances new creative material ''urinetown'' ''avenue q'' ''the light piazza'' ''spring awakening'' ''in heights'' ''next normal'' ''american idiot'' ''the book mormon'' ''hamilton'' transformed dramatized american history unusual hip hop inflected hit sondheim argued forms contemporary pop music rap closest traditional musical theatre one pathway future however major market st century productions taken safe


school musical'' several sequels enjoyed particular success adapted stage musicals media dove cameron starred tv musicals ''descendants'' ''hairspray live '' ''schmigadoon '' nbc began series live television broadcasts musicals ''the sound music live '' although production received mixed reviews ratings success broadcasts included ''peter pan live '' nbc ''the wiz live '' nbc ref name variety ratings ref uk broadcast ''the sound music live'' itv ''grease live'' fox ''hairspray live '' nbc ''a christmas story live '' fox


''rent live'' fox television shows set episodes musical examples include episodes ''ally mcbeal'' ''xena warrior princess'' bitter suite lyre lyre heart 's fire ''psych'' psych musical ''buffy vampire slayer'' feeling ''that 's raven'' ''daria'' ''dexter 's laboratory'' ''the powerpuff girls'' ''the flash'' ''once upon time'' ''oz'' ''scrubs'' one episode written creators ''avenue q'' ''batman brave bold'' mayhem music meister ''that ' show'' th episode ' musical others included scenes characters suddenly


canada often well locally occasionally even reach broadway west end eg ''the boy oz'' ''the drowsy chaperone'' south africa active musical theatre scene revues like ''african footprint'' ''umoja'' book musicals ''kat kings'' ''sarafina '' touring internationally locally musicals like ''vere'' ''love green onions'' ''over rainbow new gay extravaganza'' ''bangbroek mountain'' ''in briefs queer little musical'' produced successfully japan 's female takarazuka revue performance parisette successful musicals continental europe include shows


century traubner richard ''operetta theatrical history'' garden city new york doubleday company external links http wwwibdbcom internet broadway database cast production lists song lists award lists http wwwguidetomusicaltheatrecom guidetomusicaltheatrecom synopses cast lists song lists etc http wwwbroadwaymusicalhomecom broadway musical home https webarchiveorg web http wwwvamacuk collections theatre performance features history musicals indexhtml history musicals v museum website http wwwcastalbumdbcom castalbumdb musical cast album database http wwwstageagentcom browse showtype musical synopses character descriptions major musicals stageagentcom history theatre theatrical genres theatre theatre singing


similarly outputs compound stem word based morphology word based morphology usually word paradigm approach theory takes paradigms central notion instead stating rules combine morphemes word forms generate word forms stems word based morphology states generalizations hold forms inflectional paradigms major point behind approach many generalizations hard state either approaches word paradigm approaches also well suited capturing purely morphological phenomena morphomes examples show effectiveness word based approaches usually drawn fusional languages

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Morphology (linguistics)


work kind comprehensive botanical kingdom fungi reasonably modern'' many fungi produce toxins antibiotics ref name brian ref secondary metabolites example cosmopolitan worldwide genus ''fusarium'' toxins associated fatal outbreaks alimentary toxic aleukia humans extensively studied abraham joffe ref name joffeyagen eg ref fungi fundamental life earth roles symbionts eg form mycorrhizae insect symbionts lichens many fungi able break complex organic biomolecules lignin durable component wood pollutants


xenobiotics petroleum polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons decomposing molecules fungi play critical role global carbon cycle fungi organisms traditionally recognized fungi oomycetes myxomycetes slime molds often economically socially important cause diseases animals including humans plants ref name de lucca pp ref apart pathogenic fungi many fungal species important controlling plant diseases caused different pathogens example species filamentous fungal genus ''trichoderma'' considered one important biological control agents


author abbreviation optionally added afterwards founding nomenclaturist carl linnaeus included fungi binomial naming system type organism two word name consisting genus species whereas organisms often designated latin phrases containing many words ref name kibby originated scientific names still used today numerous well known mushroom taxa ''boletus'' l ref name sf boletus ''agaricus'' l ref name sf agaricus period fungi considered belong plant kingdom find place magnum opus ''species plantarum''


much interested higher plants instance grouped together genus ''agaricus'' gilled mushrooms stem ref name kiger ref name linnaeus many thousands gilled species later divided dozens diverse genera modern usage genus ''agaricus'' refers mushrooms closely related common shop mushroom ''agaricus bisporus'' je lange imbach ref name laessoe example linnaeus gave name ''agaricus deliciosus'' saffron milk cap current name ''lactarius deliciosus'' l gray ref name sf ldeliciosus hand field mushroom ''agaricus campestris''


definition ''agaricus'' ref ref name linnaeus entries fungi start ''agaricus'' page volume ref ref name sf agaricus ref ref name sf acampestris ref ref name sf boletus ref ref name sf ldeliciosus ref ref name sf polyporus ref ref name sf tuber ref ref name shashkina ref ref name smith ref cited literature external links professional organizations bms http wwwbritmycolsocorguk british mycological society united kingdom msa http wwwmsafungiorg mycological society america north america amateur organizations mssf http wwwmssforg mycological society san francisco http namycoorg clubs indexhtml north american mycological association list amateur organizations north america http psmsorg puget sound mycological society http wwwwildmushroomsorg oregon mycological society ima http wwwillinoismycoorg illinois mycological association miscellaneous links https webarchiveorg web http mediamedscedu microbiology online lectures mycology


university south carolina http mycologycornelledu www virtual library mycology https webarchiveorg web http wwwmykowebcom linkshtml mykoweb links page http wwwmushroomthejournalcom greatlakesdata terms termsframehtml mycological glossary illinois mycological association http wwwfungimagcom fungi magazine professionals amateurs largest circulating us publication concerning things mycological https webarchiveorg web http indexhtml fungal cell biology group university edinburgh uk http exhibitsmannlibcornelledu mycological mycological marvels cornell university mann library branches biology


stimulating revolution revolution new periodicals played central roles propaganda organs various factions jean paul marat prominent editor ''l'ami du peuple'' advocated vigorously rights lower classes enemies people marat hated closed assassinated napoleon reimposed strict censorship magazines flourished napoleon left based paris emphasized literature poetry stories served religious cultural political communities times political crisis expressed helped shape views readership


although figures declined launches outnumbered closures years sometimes ratio focusing narrowly mediafindercom found new magazines launched first six months closed time frame category produced new publications regional interest six new magazines launched including '' th broad'' ''craft beer brewing'' however two magazines change print schedules johnson publishing 's ''jet'' stopped printing regular issues making transition digital format however still print annual print


traditional gender roles th century ''harper 's bazaar'' first focus exclusively couture fashion fashion accessories textiles inclusion didactic content housekeeping may increased appeal magazine broader audience women men concerned frivolity fashion magazine ref name vogue types issue ''popular aviation'' became largest aviation magazine circulation ref name time june monthly magazine month called ''popular aviation aeronautics'' circulation largest selling u air publications editor aeronautics


decorating sports magazines sunday magazines teen magazines trade journals video magazines zines lists list th century british periodicals list th century british periodicals list architecture magazines list art magazines list fashion magazines list health fitness magazines list magazines circulation lists magazines country list men 's magazines list music magazines list online magazine archives list political magazines list railroad related periodicals list satirical magazines list science magazines list travel magazines list teen magazines list women 's magazines categories references reading angeletti norberto alberto


driven development revolutionary technologies rubbers plastics semiconductors biomaterials cases decades many eventual ''materials science'' departments ''metallurgy'' ''ceramics engineering'' departments reflecting th early th century emphasis metals ceramics growth materials science united states catalyzed part advanced research projects agency funded series university hosted laboratories early expand national program basic research training materials sciences ref name martin pip ref field since broadened include every class

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Materials engineering


necessary differentiate number dimensions nanoscale nanotextured surfaces ''one dimension'' nanoscale ie thickness surface object nbsp nm nanotubes ''two dimensions'' nanoscale ie diameter tube nbsp nm length could much greater finally spherical nanoparticles ''three dimensions'' nanoscale ie particle nbsp nm spatial dimension terms nanoparticles ultrafine particles ufp often used synonymously although ufp reach micrometre range term


physicians inpatient outpatient settings neurologists begin interactions patients taking comprehensive medical history performing physical examination focusing evaluating nervous system components neurological examination include assessment patient 's cognitive function cranial nerves motor strength sensation reflexes coordination gait instances neurologists may order additional diagnostic tests part evaluation commonly employed tests neurology include imaging studies computed axial tomography cat scans magnetic resonance imaging mri ultrasound major blood vessels head neck

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Neurology


stroke dementia movement disorders neurointensive care headaches epilepsy sleep disorders chronic pain management multiple sclerosis neuromuscular diseases overlapping areas overlap also occurs specialties varying country country even within local geographic area acute head trauma often treated neurosurgeons whereas sequelae head trauma may treated neurologists specialists rehabilitation medicine although stroke cases traditionally managed internal medicine hospitalists emergence vascular neurology interventional neuroradiology created demand stroke specialists establishment joint commission certified stroke centers increased


age physical medicine rehabilitation physicians may treat patients neuromuscular diseases electrodiagnostic studies needle emg nerve conduction studies diagnostic tools united kingdom countries many conditions encountered older patients movement disorders including parkinson 's disease stroke dementia gait disorders managed predominantly specialists geriatric medicine clinical neuropsychologists often called upon evaluate brain behavior relationships purpose assisting differential diagnosis planning rehabilitation strategies documenting cognitive strengths weaknesses measuring change time eg identifying abnormal aging tracking progression


classified separately treated psychiatrists review article ''american journal psychiatry'' professor joseph b martin dean harvard medical school neurologist training wrote separation two categories arbitrary often influenced beliefs rather proven scientific observations fact brain mind one makes separation artificial anyway ref name pmid ref neurological disorders often psychiatric manifestations poststroke depression depression dementia associated parkinson 's disease mood cognitive dysfunctions alzheimer 's disease huntington disease name hence sharp


brain structures language comprehension production modern research neuroimaging techniques still uses brodmann cerebral cytoarchitectonic map referring study cell structure anatomical definitions era continuing show distinct areas cortex activated execution specific tasks th century neuroscience began recognized distinct academic discipline right rather studies nervous system within disciplines eric kandel collaborators cited david rioch francis schmitt stephen kuffler played critical roles establishing field ref


general conclusions cell types example human mouse brain different versions fundamentally cell types molecular cellular neuroscience stained neuron chicken embryo basic questions addressed molecular neuroscience include mechanisms neurons express respond molecular signals axons form complex connectivity patterns level tools molecular biology genetics used understand neurons develop genetic changes affect biological functions morphology molecular identity physiological characteristics neurons relate different types behavior


examples alliances include neuroeconomics decision theory social neuroscience neuromarketing address complex questions interactions brain environment study consumer responses example uses eeg investigate neural correlates associated narrative transportation stories energy efficiency computational neuroscience questions computational neuroscience span wide range levels traditional analysis development structure cognitive functions brain research field utilizes mathematical models theoretical analysis computer simulation describe verify biologically plausible neurons nervous systems example biological neuron models


grown steadily recorded members different countries annual meetings held year different american city draw attendance researchers postdoctoral fellows graduate students undergraduates well educational institutions funding agencies publishers hundreds businesses supply products used research major organizations devoted neuroscience include international brain research organization ibro holds meetings country different part world year federation european neuroscience societies fens holds meeting different european city every two years


students emerging field called educational neuroscience federal agencies united states national institute health nih national science foundation nsf also funded research pertains best practices teaching learning neuroscience concepts engineering applications neuroscience neuromorphic computer chips neuromorphic engineering branch neuroscience deals creating functional physical models neurons purposes useful computation emergent computational properties neuromorphic computers fundamentally different conventional computers sense complex system computational components interrelated


john o'keefe united states br united kingdom rowspan discoveries cells constitute positioning system brain rowspan ref name nobel ref px scope row data sort value moser may britt may britt moser norway px scope row data sort value moser edvard edvard moser norway rowspan rowspan physiology px scope row data sort value hall jeffrey c jeffrey c hall united states rowspan discoveries molecular mechanisms controlling circadian rhythm rowspan ref name nobel ref


regions human brain gut brain axis connectomics affect psychology references reading squire l ''et al'' ''fundamental neuroscience th edition'' academic press byrne roberts ''from molecules networks'' academic press sanes reh harris ''development nervous system nd edition'' academic press siegel ''et al'' ''basic neurochemistry th edition'' academic press rieke f ''et al'' ''spikes exploring neural code'' mit press reprint edition https wwwncbinlmnihgov entrez queryfcgicmd search db books doptcmdl genbookhl term cellular components nervous system neurosci bbook buid rid neurosci section neuroscience nd ed dale purves george j augustine david fitzpatrick lawrence c katz anthony samuel lamantia james mcnamara mark williams published sinauer associates inc


w norton company pinker ''the blank slate modern denial human nature '' viking adult penrose r hameroff r kak tao l consciousness universe quantum physics evolution brain mind cambridge cosmology science publishers ramachandran v ''phantoms brain'' new york harpercollins paperback rose '' st century brain explaining mending manipulating mind'' paperback sacks ''the man mistook wife hat'' summit books hardcover paperback sacks ''awakenings '' new york vintage books see also


nuclear physics yukawa 's meson postulated bind nuclei hideki yukawa proposed first significant theory strong force explain nucleus holds together yukawa interaction virtual particle later called meson mediated force nucleons including protons neutrons force explained nuclei disintegrate influence proton repulsion also gave explanation attractive strong force limited range electromagnetic repulsion protons later discovery pi meson showed properties


second trillions years plotted chart function atomic neutron numbers binding energy nuclides forms known valley stability stable nuclides lie along bottom energy valley increasingly unstable nuclides lie valley walls weaker binding energy stable nuclei fall within certain ranges balances composition neutrons protons many neutrons relation number protons cause decay example beta decay nitrogen


fission reverse process fusion nuclei heavier nickel binding energy per nucleon decreases mass number therefore possible energy released heavy nucleus breaks apart two lighter ones process alpha decay essence special type spontaneous nuclear fission highly asymmetrical fission four particles make alpha particle especially tightly bound making production nucleus fission particularly likely several heaviest nuclei whose fission produces free neutrons


calculated root roughly therefore truncation error roughly error generated propagates calculation example operation computer inexact calculation type even inexact truncation error created mathematical procedure approximated integrate function exactly infinite sum regions must found numerically finite sum regions found hence approximation exact solution similarly differentiate function differential element approaches zero numerically

Formal science
Mathematics
Numerical analysis


developed using matrix splitting root finding algorithms used solve nonlinear equations named since root function argument function yields zero function differentiable derivative known newton 's method popular choice linearization another technique solving nonlinear equations solving eigenvalue singular value problems several important problems phrased terms eigenvalue decompositions singular value decompositions instance spectral image compression algorithm based singular value decomposition corresponding tool statistics


called principal component analysis optimization optimization problems ask point given function maximized minimized often point also satisfy constraints field optimization split several subfields depending form objective function constraint instance linear programming deals case objective function constraints linear famous method linear programming simplex method method lagrange multipliers used reduce optimization problems constraints unconstrained optimization problems evaluating integrals numerical integration


instances also known numerical quadrature asks value definite integral popular methods use one newton cotes formulas like midpoint rule simpson 's rule gaussian quadrature methods rely divide conquer strategy whereby integral relatively large set broken integrals smaller sets higher dimensions methods become prohibitively expensive terms computational effort one may use monte carlo quasi monte carlo methods see monte carlo integration modestly large dimensions method sparse grids differential equations numerical analysis


repository contains various collections software routines numerical problems mostly fortran c commercial products implementing many different numerical algorithms include imsl nag libraries free software alternative gnu scientific library years royal statistical society published numerous algorithms ''applied statistics'' code functions https jblevinsorg mirror amiller apstat acm similarly ''transactions mathematical software'' toms code https jblevinsorg mirror amiller toms naval surface warfare center several times published https appsdticmil sti pdfs ada pdf ''library mathematics subroutines'' code https jblevinsorg mirror amiller nswc several popular numerical computing applications matlab ref name gh gander w


mid new serious scientific attention began flourish projects emerged produce nanotechnology roadmaps ref name pnroadmap ref ref name nasaroadmap ref center atomically precise manipulation matter discuss existing projected capabilities goals applications team korean researchers korea advanced institute science technology kaist national nano fab center developed nbsp nm mosfet world 's smallest nanoelectronic device based gate around gaa finfet technology sixty countries created nanotechnology research development r government programs government funding exceeded corporate spending nanotechnology

Natural science
Chemistry
Nanotechnology


long term view molecular nanotechnology sometimes called molecular manufacturing describes engineered nanosystems nanoscale machines operating molecular scale molecular nanotechnology especially associated molecular assembler machine produce desired structure device atom atom using principles mechanosynthesis manufacturing context productive nanosystems related clearly distinguished conventional technologies used manufacture nanomaterials carbon nanotubes nanoparticles term nanotechnology independently coined popularized eric drexler time unaware earlier usage norio taniguchi


performed ho lee cornell university used scanning tunneling microscope move individual carbon monoxide molecule co individual iron atom fe sitting flat silver crystal chemically bound co fe applying voltage current research graphical representation rotaxane useful molecular switch dna tetrahedron ref name goodman ref artificially designed nanostructure type made field dna nanotechnology edge tetrahedron base pair dna double helix vertex three arm junction


applications nanotechnology flavor progress made using materials medical applications see nanomedicine nanoscale materials nanopillars sometimes used solar cells combats cost traditional silicon solar cells development applications incorporating semiconductor nanoparticles used next generation products display technology lighting solar cells biological imaging see quantum dots recent application nanomaterials include range biomedical applications tissue engineering drug delivery antibacterials biosensors bottom approaches seek arrange smaller components complex assemblies dna


biomimicry seeks apply biological methods systems found nature study design engineering systems modern technology biomineralization one example systems studied bionanotechnology use biomolecules applications nanotechnology including use viruses lipid assemblies nanocellulose potential bulk scale application speculative subfields seek anticipate inventions nanotechnology might yield attempt propose agenda along inquiry might progress often take big picture view nanotechnology emphasis societal implications details inventions could actually


higher surface area compared nanomaterials recently two dimensional nanomaterials extensively investigated electronic biomedical drug delivery biosensor applications tools techniques afm setup microfabricated cantilever sharp tip deflected features sample surface much like phonograph much smaller scale laser beam reflects backside cantilever set photodetectors allowing deflection measured assembled image surface several important modern developments atomic force microscope afm scanning tunneling microscope stm


designing different tips microscopes used carving structures surfaces help guide self assembling structures using example feature oriented scanning approach atoms molecules moved around surface scanning probe microscopy techniques ref name feature ref name fospm present expensive time consuming mass production suitable laboratory experimentation contrast bottom techniques build grow larger structures atom atom molecule molecule techniques include chemical synthesis self assembly positional assembly dual polarisation interferometry one tool suitable characterisation self assembled


cell 's microenvironment direct differentiation suitable lineage example creating scaffolds support growth bone researchers may mimic osteoclast resorption pits researchers successfully used dna origami based nanobots capable carrying logic functions achieve targeted drug delivery cockroaches said computational power nanobots scaled commodore nanoelectronics commercial nanoelectronic semiconductor device fabrication began sk hynix began commercial mass production nm process ref name hynix ref tsmc began production nm finfet process samsung


today ref experts including director woodrow wilson center 's project emerging nanotechnologies david rejeski testified successful commercialization depends adequate oversight risk research strategy public engagement berkeley california currently city united states regulate nanotechnology cambridge massachusetts considered enacting similar law ultimately rejected health environmental concerns video health safety implications nanotechnology nanofibers used several areas different products everything aircraft wings tennis rackets inhaling airborne nanoparticles nanofibers may lead number


delayed marketing approval enhanced labelling additional safety data development requirements relation certain forms nanotechnology royal society report ref name royalsociety identified risk nanoparticles nanotubes released disposal destruction recycling recommended manufacturers products fall extended producer responsibility regimes end life regulations publish procedures outlining materials managed minimize possible human environmental exposure p xiii center nanotechnology society found people respond nanotechnologies differently depending application participants public deliberations positive nanotechnologies


organism survive grow reproduce seven major classes relevant nutrients animals including humans carbohydrates dietary fiber fats proteins minerals vitamins water nutrients grouped either macronutrients carbohydrates dietary fiber fats proteins water needed gram quantities micronutrients vitamins minerals needed milligram microgram quantities diet nutrition ' 'diet'' organism sum foods eats largely determined availability palatability foods human nutrition ''human nutrition'' deals provision essential nutrients


example approximated latter diophantine approximation older term number theory ''arithmetic'' early twentieth century superseded number theory ref group note already l heath explain arithmetic plato meant arithmetic sense science considers numbers words mean theory numbers ref word arithmetic used general public mean elementary calculations also acquired meanings mathematical logic ''peano arithmetic'' computer science ''floating point arithmetic''

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Number theory


odd number measures divides even number also measures divides half needed prove math sqrt math irrational pythagorean mystics gave great importance odd even discovery math sqrt math irrational credited early pythagoreans pre theodorus ref name thea plato ''theaetetus'' p b example cited theodorus writing us something roots roots three five showing incommensurable unit ''see also'' spiral theodorus ref revealing modern


india ryabha seems mind applications astronomical calculations brahmagupta ce started systematic study indefinite quadratic equations particular misnamed pell equation archimedes may first interested start solved west time fermat euler later sanskrit authors would follow using brahmagupta 's technical terminology general procedure chakravala cyclic method solving pell 's equation finally found jayadeva cited eleventh century work otherwise lost earliest surviving exposition appears bh skara ii 's b ja ga ita twelfth


fact math p x math math p equiv bmod math initial work towards proof every integer sum four squares first complete proof joseph louis lagrange soon improved euler lack non zero integer solutions math x z math implying case ''n '' fermat 's last theorem case ''n '' euler also proved related method ''pell 's equation'' first misnamed euler ref name eulpell euler generous giving credit others always correctly ref wrote link


math gcd aq math good approximation math x math math x q frac q c math math c math large question special interest math x math algebraic number math x math cannot well approximated equations integer rational solutions moreover several concepts especially height turn critical diophantine geometry study diophantine approximations question also special interest transcendental number theory number better approximated algebraic number transcendental number argument


book vii ''elements'' together proof correctness however form often used number theory namely algorithm finding integer solutions equation math x b c math finding quantities whose existence assured chinese remainder theorem first appears works ryabha th th century ce algorithm called ''ku aka'' pulveriser without proof correctness two main questions compute compute rapidly anyone test whether


mathematical subdisciplines rewarded ''fermat prize'' see also algebraic function field finite field p adic number notes references sources subscription needed https archiveorg details ahistoryofmathematics edition archiveorg first carl friedrich last waterhouse first william c trans year author link carl friedrich gauss title disquisitiones arithmeticae orig year publisher springer isbn url https booksgooglecom booksid lck cwzmpqc last guthrie first ks trans author link kenneth sylvan guthrie year last porphyry author link porphyry philosopher title life pythagoras location alpine new jersey publisher platonist press url http wwwtertullianorg fathers porphyry life pythagoras texthtm last jowett first benjamin trans author link benjamin jowett year last plato author link plato title theaetetus url http classicsmitedu plato theatuhtml last milne first j author link james milne mathematician date march issue title algebraic number theory url https wwwjmilneorg math coursenotes anthtml access date april last morrow first glenn raymond trans ed year last proclus author link proclus title commentary


ten year long research failed fulfill expectations funding machine translation dramatically reduced little research machine translation conducted late first statistical machine translation systems developed ''' s''' notably successful natural language processing systems developed shrdlu natural language system working restricted blocks worlds restricted vocabularies eliza simulation rogerian psychotherapist written joseph weizenbaum using almost information human thought emotion eliza sometimes provided startlingly human like interaction patient exceeded

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Natural language processing


ibm research systems able take advantage existing multilingual textual corpora produced parliament canada european union result laws calling translation governmental proceedings official languages corresponding systems government however systems depended corpora specifically developed tasks implemented systems often continues major limitation success systems result great deal research gone methods effectively learning


obvious effort directed automatic learning procedures make use statistical inference algorithms produce models robust unfamiliar input eg containing words structures seen erroneous input eg misspelled words words accidentally omitted generally handling input gracefully handwritten rules generally creating systems handwritten rules make soft decisions extremely difficult error prone time consuming systems based automatically learning rules made accurate simply supplying input data however systems based handwritten


networks major drawback statistical methods require elaborate feature engineering since field thus largely abandoned statistical methods shifted neural networks machine learning popular techniques include use word embeddings capture semantic properties words increase end end learning higher level task eg question answering instead relying pipeline separate intermediate tasks eg part speech tagging dependency parsing areas shift entailed substantial changes nlp systems designed deep neural network based approaches may viewed


languages text segmentation significant task requiring knowledge vocabulary morphology words language sometimes process also used cases like bag words bow creation data mining morphological analysis lemmatization task removing inflectional endings return base dictionary form word also known lemma lemmatization another technique reducing words normalized form case transformation actually uses dictionary map words actual form morphological segmentation separate words


given sentence determine part speech pos word many words especially common ones serve multiple parts speech example book noun book table verb book flight set noun verb adjective least five different parts speech stemming process reducing inflected sometimes derived words base form ''eg'' close root closed closing close closer etc stemming yields similar results lemmatization


prior experience artificial intelligence machine learning nlp quickly train computer extract specific data need different document types nlp powered document ai enables non technical teams quickly access information hidden documents example lawyers business analysts accountants grammatical error detection correction involves great band width problems levels linguistic analysis phonology orthography morphology syntax semantics pragmatics grammatical error correction impactful since affects hundreds millions people use acquire english second language thus subject number


'' big tree '' author 's intent imply tree '' physically large '' relative trees authors experience used metaphorically '' tomorrow big day '' author intent imply '' importance '' intent behind usages like '' big person '' remain somewhat ambiguous person cognitive nlp algorithm alike without additional information assign relative measures meaning word phrase sentence piece text based information presented piece text analyzed eg


means probabilistic context free grammar pcfg mathematical equation algorithms presented math rmm token n pmm token n times frac left sum pmm token n times pf token ntoken n right math ''where'' '''rmm''' relative measure meaning '''token''' block text sentence phrase word '''n''' number tokens analyzed '''pmm''' probable measure meaning based corpora '' 'd''' location token along sequence '''n ''' tokens '''pf''' probability function specific language ties cognitive linguistics part historical heritage


nlp less frequently addressed since statistical turn nevertheless approaches develop cognitive models towards technically operationalizable frameworks pursued context various frameworks eg cognitive grammar functional grammar construction grammar computational psycholinguistics cognitive neuroscience eg act r however limited uptake mainstream nlp measured presence major conferences acl recently ideas cognitive nlp revived approach achieve explainability eg notion cognitive ai likewise ideas cognitive nlp inherent neural models multimodal nlp


brain computer interface bci human subject ref name brown bi http biomedbrownedu courses bi bi groups histhtm ref modern surgical instruments main advancements neurosurgery came result highly crafted tools modern neurosurgical tools instruments include chisels curettes dissectors distractors elevators forceps hooks impactors probes suction tubes power tools robots ref name neurosurgery surgical power tool ref ref name stealthsurgicalcom department neurosurgical ref modern tools medical practice relatively long time main difference tools neurosurgery precision crafted tools crafted edges within millimeter desired accuracy ref name technology increases precision safety neurosurgery ref tools

Applied science
Medicine and health
Surgery
Neurosurgery


artificial disc replacement rely microsurgery ref name stealthsurgicalcom department neurosurgical using ' 'stereotaxy'' neurosurgeons approach minute target brain minimal opening used functional neurosurgery electrodes implanted gene therapy instituted high level accuracy case parkinson 's disease alzheimer 's disease using combination method open stereotactic surgery intraventricular hemorrhages potentially evacuated successfully ref name technology increases precision safety neurosurgery conventional surgery using image guidance technologies also becoming common referred surgical navigation computer assisted surgery navigated surgery stereotactic navigation similar car


brain spinal cord moyamoya disease recovery post operative pain pain following brain surgery significant may lengthen recovery increase amount time person stays hospital following surgery increase risk complications following surgery ref name ref severe acute pain following brain surgery may also increase risk person developing chronic post craniotomy headache ref name approaches treating pain adults include treatment nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drugs nsaids shown reduce pain hours following surgery ref name low


surgery victor horsleyknown first neurosurgeon karin muraszkofirst woman occupy chair neurosurgery american medical school university michigan hermann schloffer invented transsphenoidal surgery harvey cushingknown one fathers modern neurosurgery robert wheeler rand along theodore kurze md among first introduce surgical microscope neurosurgical procedures published first textbook microneurosurgery gazi ya argilknown father microneurosurgery majid samiipioneer cerebello pontine angle tumor surgery world federation neurosurgical societies coined medal honor bearing samii name would