genomes would destroyed logging forest mining bitumen effectively instructional capital genomes undervalued analyses view rainforest primarily source wood oil tar perhaps food increasingly carbon credit leaving extremely carbon intensive dirty bitumen ground also valued government ecuador set price us oil lease intent selling someone committed never exercising instead preserving rainforest natural capital


j ''environmental natural resource economics contemporary approach'' houghton mifflin company ref persistent pollutants organic pollutants nuclear waste absorbed slowly ecological economists emphasize minimizing cumulative pollutants ref name harris pollutants affect human health health ecosystem economic value natural capital ecosystem services accepted mainstream environmental economics emphasized especially important ecological economics ecological economists may begin estimating maintain stable environment assessing cost dollar terms ref name harris ecological economist robert costanza led attempted

Social science
Economics
Ecological economics


central issue ecological economics early economists thomas malthus pointed finite carrying capacity earth also central mit study ''limits growth'' diminishing returns suggest productivity increases slow major technological progress made food production may become problem erosion impending water crisis soil salinity irrigation reduce productivity agriculture ecological economists argue industrial agriculture exacerbates problems sustainable agriculture generally inclined favorably organic farming also reduces output carbon ref name harris global


economics willing entertain alternative conceptions utility efficiency cost benefits positional analysis multi criteria analysis ecological economics typically viewed economics sustainable development may goals similar green politics green economics international regional national policy circles concept ''green economy'' grew popularity response financial predicament first became vehicle growth development united nations environment programme unep defines 'green economy' one focuses human aspects natural influences economic order


monetary policy methodology primary objective ecological economics ee ground economic thinking practice physical reality especially laws physics particularly laws thermodynamics knowledge biological systems accepts goal improvement human well development seeks ensure achievement planning sustainable development ecosystems societies course terms development sustainable development far lacking controversy richard b norgaard argues traditional economics hi jacked development terminology book ''development betrayed'' well


time study study criticized pre ecological even environmental economists ndash inconsistent assumptions financial capital valuation ecological economists inconsistent ecological economics focus biological physical indicators whole idea treating ecosystems goods services valued monetary terms remains controversial common objection life precious priceless demonstrably degrades worthless within cost benefit analysis standard economic methods reducing human bodies financial values necessary part


criticized david pearce recent stern report although stern report employ discounting criticized reasons ecological economists clive spash concerning externalities like eco businessman paul hawken argue orthodox economic line reason goods produced unsustainably usually cheaper goods produced sustainably due hidden subsidy paid non monetized human environment community future generations arguments developed hawken amory hunter lovins promote vision environmental capitalist


utopia ''natural capitalism creating next industrial revolution'' contrast ecological economists like joan martinez alier appeal different line reasoning rather assuming new form capitalism best way forward older ecological economic critique questions idea internalizing externalities providing corrective current system work karl william kapp explains concept externality misnomer fact modern business enterprise operates basis shifting costs onto others normal practice make profits charles eisenstein argued method


economics resulting ecosystem service based conservation harmful describes four main problems approach firstly seems assumed ecosystem services financially beneficial undermined basic characteristic ecosystems act specifically favour single species certain services might useful us coastal protection hurricanes mangroves example others might cause financial personal harm wolves hunting cattle complexity eco systems makes challenging weigh value given species wolves


cumberland j h daly h goodland r norgaard r b ''an introduction ecological economics'' st lucie press international society ecological economics http wwweoearthorg article introduction ecological economics e book e book encyclopedia earth daly h ''economics ecology ethics essays toward steady state economy'' wh freeman company daly h townsend k eds ''valuing earth economics ecology ethics'' cambridge mass london england mit press daly h steady state economics ''ecology key concepts critical theory'' edited c merchant humanities press daly h j b cobb ''for common good redirecting


joyce huesemann http wwwnewtechnologyandsocietyorg ''technofix technology wo n't save us environment'' new society publishers gabriola island british columbia canada pp jackson tim ''prosperity without growth economics finite planet'' london routledge earthscan kevlar https webarchiveorg web http greenscoreca articles eco economics eco economics horizon economics human nature behavioural perspective krishnan r harris j n r goodwin ''a survey ecological economics'' island press martinez alier j ''ecological economics energy environment society'' oxford england basil blackwell martinez alier j ropke eds ''recent developments ecological economics''


included unpaid household work gdp first half th century left reasons compatibility new international standard ailsa mckay argues basic income tool promoting gender neutral social citizenship rights partially address concerns omission power relations feminist economics often assert power relations exist within economy therefore must assessed economic models ways previously overlooked ref name power marilyn example neoclassical texts sale labor viewed

Social science
Economics
Feminist economics


significant difference yet studies fail find difference less likely published highlighted addition claims men women different preferences risk competition altruism often tend misinterpreted categorical applying women men individuals fact small differences average behavior found studies generally accompanied large overlaps men 's women 's distributions men women generally found risk averse competitive altruistic groups


example edith kuiper discusses adam smith 's engagement feminist discourse role women eighteenth century france england finds writings smith typically supported ' 'status quo'' women 's issues lost sight division labor family contribution women 's economic work response points mary collier 's works ''the woman 's labour'' help understand smith 's contemporaneous experiences women fill gaps engendering macroeconomic theories access date september ref central feminist economics effort alter theoretical


labor stimulates investment increase female activity housework raises savings model highlights gender effects macroeconomic variables shows economies higher likelihood recovering downturns women participate labor force instead devoting time housework ref name berik gendered macroeconomic variables us women 's weekly earnings employment percentage men 's earnings industry approach demonstrates effects gender inequalities enhancing macroeconomic models bernard walters shows traditional neoclassical models fail adequately assess work related reproduction assuming population labor


quantifying human capability across nations communities aspects could left calculations include incomes unable quantified staying home raise children bartering goods services well individuals' perceptions well measures human development include human poverty index hpi gender empowerment measure measures many aspects development pillars six basic pillars human development equity sustainability productivity empowerment cooperation security equity idea fairness every person men women

Social science
Economics
Human development theory


right education health care sustainability view right earn living sustain lives access even distribution goods productivity states full participation people process income generation also means government needs efficient social programs people empowerment freedom people influence development decisions affect lives cooperation stipulates participation belonging communities groups means mutual enrichment source social meaning security


humanities biggest problems quantify develop plan action solve problems plan action called agenda agenda make sure humanity still around year thousands cities local agenda companies organisations also align strategic plan strategic plan agenda approaching year un secretary general kofi annan compelled develop something existed private sector setting long term plan mid term plan


developed ref name mkrdmie nature ''fiqh'' imposes concern individual transactions minute legalistic characteristics analyzing islamic economics terms ''fiqh'' risks losing ability provide macro economic theory ref name mkrdmie kahf relevance definition methodology p ref according economist muhammad akram khan main plank islamic economics theory riba another landmark zakat tax wealth income ref name wiwwie xv xvi khan ''what wrong islamic economics'' pxv xvi ref according another contemporary writer salah el sheikh islamic economic principles calls fiqhiconomic model

Social science
Economics
Islamic economics


economics economy revolutionary shibboleth indubitably absent official documents media disappeared iranian political discourse ref name internationaluclaedu era zia ul haq several islamic economic concepts practices introduced domestic economy part zia 's islamisation reforms see islamic economics pakistan term lived muslim world shifting form less ambitious goal interest free banking muslim bankers religious leaders suggested ways integrate islamic law usage money modern concepts ethical investing banking done


research labor economics islamic framework '' paper presented th international conference islamic economics king abdulaziz university april jeddah ref surveying islamic economics finance courses offered universities muslim countries kayed found courses conventional economics finance courses islamic economics finance total ref name kayed appalling intolerable negligence made worse curriculum courses failed debate issues discipline give due thought future development


islamic financial industry rather attempted squeeze much abstract information possible courses according kayed ref name kayed ref name wiwwie khan ''what wrong islamic economics'' p ref another economist muhammad akram khan lamented real problem despite efforts developing separate discipline islamic economics much genuinely called `economics` islamic economics consists theology economic matters ref name wiwwie another mn siddiqi notes islamic economics teaching conventional economics islamic perspective rather islamic economics ref name hasan despite start


state property movable immovable acquired conquest peaceful means unclaimed unoccupied heir less properties including uncultivated land ''mawat'' considered state property ref name nomanip life muhammad one fifth military equipment captured enemy battlefield considered state property reign umar recommendation ali considered conquered land state rather private property usual practice purported reason privatizing property would concentrate resources hands prevent


driven even leading advocates experts islamic banking muhammad nejatullah siddiqi talk crisis identity islamic financial movement interest noticeable important objective islamic banking ban charging interest loans ref name kuran x quran condemns ''riba'' usually translated interest believe devour ''riba'' doubled redoubled careful allah fear allah may successful islamic public finance ''bayt al mal'' financial institution islamic governance prophethood caliph period


baitulmaal public treasury wherein wealths distributed instantly basis need prophethood last receipt tribute bahrain amounting eight hundred thousands dirham distributed one sitting though first caliph earmarked house baitulmaal money kept receipt money distributed immediately treasury generally remained locked time death one dirham baitulmaal second caliph besides developing central baitulmaal also opened baitulmaal state headquarters levels also carried census caliphate


human activities beyond repetitious pieties model neither capitalist socialist ref name halliday fred p blockquote little mimicry conventional economics embellished verses quran sunnah muhammad ahram khan ref name wiwwie xv claiming call return islamic practices actually invented tradition timur kuran failing achieve goals abolishing interest money establishing economic equality superior business ethic ref name pipes ref nonetheless spared critical scrutiny ignorance misguided tolerance methods objectives considered unrealistic threaten prevailing economic structures


'''diplomatic history''' deals history international relations states diplomatic history different international relations former concern foreign policy one state latter deals relations two states diplomatic history tends concerned history diplomacy international relations concern current events creating model intended shed explanatory light international politics ref name matusumoto pages matusumoto saho diplomatic history pages kelly boyd ed ''the encyclopedia historians historical writing'' p ref history


helping young men 's poets got solemn duty say useful things poem blockquote similarly plutarch would later speak power poet thales words english poet john milton 'prepare mollify spartan surliness smooth songs odes better plant among law civility' plutarch also spoke deep influence homer 's 'lessons state' lycurgus framer spartan constitution adrastus euripides tragedy ''the suppliants'' king adrastus argos describes hippomedon received civic education endurance


many names alternative meanings mathematical literature explained history separation axioms example meanings normal sub sub sometimes interchanged similarly regular sub sub etc many concepts also several names however one listed first always least likely ambiguous axioms alternative definitions meaning definitions given fall consistent pattern relates various notions separation defined previous section possible definitions found individual articles

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
General topology


native americans first settled americas present day united states prevailing theory proposes people eurasia followed game across beringia land bridge connected siberia present day alaska ice age spread southward throughout americas migration may begun early years ago continued years ago land bridge became submerged rising sea level caused melting glaciers early inhabitants called paleo indians soon diversified hundreds culturally distinct nations tribes pre columbian era incorporates


migrated along pacific coast interior constructed large multi family dwellings villages used seasonally summer hunt fish winter gather food supplies another group oshara tradition people lived bce ce part archaic southwest mound builders pueblos grave creek mound located moundsville west virginia one largest conical mounds united states built adena culture monks mound cahokia unesco world heritage site


rural southern colonies contrasted greatly north outside virginia first british colony south new england maryland established catholic economy two colonies built entirely yeoman farmers planters planters established tidewater region virginia establishing massive plantations slave labor small scale farmers made way political office province carolina established charleston became region 's great trading port virginia 's economy based tobacco carolina much diversified exporting rice indigo


benjamin franklin 's call colonies join die franklin man many inventions one concept united states america emerged would realized decade later taxation without representation painting boston tea party american colonies following britain 's acquisition french territory north america king george iii issued royal proclamation goal organizing new north american empire protecting native americans colonial expansion western lands beyond


appalachian mountains following years strains developed relations colonists crown british parliament passed stamp act imposing tax colonies without going colonial legislatures issue drawn parliament right tax americans represented crying taxation without representation colonists refused pay taxes tensions escalated late early boston tea party direct action activists town boston protest


washington often outmaneuvered british counterparts strategist however better idea win war british sent four invasion armies washington 's strategy forced first army boston responsible surrender second third armies saratoga yorktown limited british control new york city places keeping patriot control great majority population loyalists britain john trumbull 's ''declaration independence'' loyalists


new nation fragile withstand international war even internal revolts shays' rebellion massachusetts nationalists war veterans organized every state convinced congress call philadelphia convention delegates every state wrote new constitution created much powerful efficient central government one strong president powers taxation new government reflected prevailing republican ideals guarantees individual liberty constraining power government system separation


new millennial age second great awakening stimulated establishment many reform movements including abolitionism temperance designed remove evils society anticipated second coming jesus christ era good feelings independence day celebration centre square philadelphia john lewis krimmel strong opponents war federalists held hartford convention hinted disunion national euphoria victory new orleans ruined prestige federalists longer played significant role political party president madison


principles led andrew jackson martin van buren became democratic party norton explains transformation horace greeley 's ''new york tribune'' leading whig paper endorsed clay president fillmore governor opposing factions led henry clay helped form whig party democratic party small decisive advantage whigs whigs fell apart issue slavery behind platforms issued state national parties stood widely shared political outlook characterized democrats great majority anti slavery activists


building new heaven manifest destiny rejected modernizers especially whigs like henry clay abraham lincoln wanted build cities factories farms democrats strongly favored expansion key election bitter debate congress republic texas annexed leading war mexico considered texas part mexico due large numbers mexican settlers american occupation mexico city mexican american war broke whigs opposed war


largest american cities non hispanic whites panic broke severe nationwide depression impacting farmers workers businessmen saw prices wages profits fall many railroads went bankrupt resultant political reaction fell democratic party whose leader president grover cleveland shouldered much blame labor unrest involved numerous strikes notably violent pullman strike shut federal troops cleveland 's orders populist party gained strength among cotton wheat farmers well coal miners overtaken


mckinley gold standard enacted tariff raised us strongest economy globe apart two short recessions overall economy remained prosperous growing republicans citing mckinley 's policies took credit imperialism judge magazine regarding america 's imperial ambitions following quick victory spanish american war american flag flies philippines hawaii pacific cuba puerto rico caribbean united states emerged world economic military power


victory november president wilson demanded germany depose kaiser accept terms famed fourteen points speech wilson dominated paris peace conference germany treated harshly allies treaty versailles wilson put hopes new league nations wilson refused compromise senate republicans issue congressional power declare war senate rejected treaty league roaring twenties prohibition agents destroying barrels alcohol chicago us grew steadily


whites blacks blue collar workers labor unions white southerners provided relief long term unemployed numerous programs works progress administration wpa young men civilian conservation corps large scale spending projects designed provide private sector construction jobs rebuild infrastructure purview public works administration second new deal turn left building labor unions wagner act unions became powerful element merging new deal coalition reelection roosevelt


switched allied side significant european front opened day june american allied forces invaded nazi occupied france britain war fervor also inspired anti japanese sentiment leading internment japanese americans roosevelt 's executive order resulted americans japanese descent removed homes placed internment camps two thirds interned american citizens half children ref name richey ref trinity test manhattan project first detonation nuclear weapon harry truman 's speech regarding nuclear attack hiroshima japan


realized well behind americans military technology try catch would expensive military expenses already heavy burden slowing economy invasion grenada bombing libya popular us though backing contras rebels mired controversy iran contra affair reagan met four times soviet leader mikhail gorbachev ascended power summit conferences led signing intermediate range nuclear forces treaty gorbachev tried save communism


south excepting largely due strength among socially conservative white evangelical protestants traditionalist roman catholics added traditional strength business community suburbs white democrats south lost dominance democratic party region took two party apparatus characterized nation republican party 's central leader ronald reagan whose conservative policies called reduced government spending regulation lower taxes strong anti soviet foreign policy iconic status party persists st century practically


reports inaccurate liberation iraqi people despite initial successes early invasion continued iraq war fueled international protests gradually saw domestic support decline many people began question whether invasion worth cost years violence iraqi insurgency president bush deployed troops strategy dubbed surge death toll decreased political stability iraq remained doubt headquarters lehman brothers filed bankruptcy september height us financial


american recovery reinvestment act billion economic stimulus aimed helping economy recover deepening recession obama like bush took steps rescue auto industry prevent future economic meltdowns included bailout general motors chrysler putting ownership temporarily hands government cash clunkers program temporarily boosted new car sales african american president barack obama 's inauguration speech january recession officially ended june economy slowly began expand beginning december


contribute well lived fulfilling life positive psychologists often use terms subjective well happiness interchangeably positive psychologists suggested number factors may contribute happiness subjective well example social ties spouse family friends colleagues wider networks membership clubs social organizations physical exercise practice meditation spirituality also considered factor leads increased individual happiness well spiritual practice religious commitment topic researchers studying another possible source increased well added part

Social science
Psychology
Positive psychology


disease model specifically studying identifying dysfunction individual positive psychology grew important field study within psychology martin seligman chose theme term president american psychological association ref name time ref first sentence book ''authentic happiness'' seligman claimed last half century psychology consumed single topic mental illness expanding maslow 's comments urged psychologists continue earlier missions psychology nurturing talent improving normal life development first positive psychology summit took place


interests entertainment etc despite attention given martin seligman says transient element happiness may least important ref name nyscihap ref ''good life'' investigation beneficial effects immersion absorption flow felt individuals optimally engaged primary activities study good life life engagement flow experienced positive match person 's strength current task ie one feels confident accomplishing chosen assigned task ''meaningful life'' inquiry meaningful life life affiliation questions


someone highly skilled results boredom ref name csikszentmihalyi flow extremely beneficial comes parenting children flow enhanced parents children parents capable thriving role parent parenting style positively oriented also result children experience lower levels stress overall improve child 's well research advances applications topical methodological development expanded field positive psychology advances enabled field positive psychology grow beyond core theories methods positive


authors compton hoffman give top predictors well high self esteem optimism self efficacy sense meaning life positive relationships others personality traits associated well extraversion agreeability low levels neuroticism study published students enrolled positive psychology course focused improving happiness well teaching positive psychology ref name ref participants answer questions pertaining categories known perma end semester students reported significantly higher scores categories


found interventions expressing optimism expressing gratitude enhanced subjective well participants took part intervention months ref name ref researchers concluded interventions successful participants know endorse commit intervention ref name article provides support individuals enthusiastically take part behavioral interventions expression optimism gratitude may engaging approach increase happiness subjective well elliott kruse joseph chancellor peter ruberton sonja lyubomirsky published academic article journal ''social psychology


row report provides insights happiness based environmental conditions social conditions urban rural happiness differentials sustainable development ref name also provides overview possible explanations nordic countries consistently ranked top ten happiest countries world happiness report since ref name worldhappinessreport ref possible explanations include nordic countries' high quality government benefits protections citizens including welfare benefits well operated democratic institutions well social connections bonding trust ref name worldhappinessreport additional national well indices reported statistics include gallup global emotions report gallup sharecare well index global happiness council 's global happiness


global wellness economy valued trillion wellness industry represents global economic output key sectors wellness industry include workplace wellness fitness mind body personal care wellness lifestyle highlighting happiness well strategy harnessed various companies marketing strategies food beverage companies coca cola pocky whose motto share happiness emphasize happiness commercials branding descriptions ceos retail companies zappos profited publishing books detailing deliverance happiness amazon 's logo features dimpled smile criticism positive


gatherings identify also pointed body research showing high positivity correlates positive illusion effectively distorts reality extent downfall high positivity flourishing one could become incapable psychological growth unable self reflect tend hold racial biases contrast negativity sometimes evidenced mild moderate depression correlated less distortion reality therefore schneider argues negativity might play important role within dynamics human flourishing illustrate conflict engagement acknowledgement appropriate negativity including certain negative emotions like guilt might


would otherwise overlap another state 's contiguous zone however unlike territorial sea standard rule resolving conflicts states question must negotiate compromise america invoked contiguous zone kilometres baseline september exclusive economic zone exclusive economic zone extends baseline maximum kilometres coastal nation control economic resources within exclusive economic zone including fishing mining oil exploration pollution resources however cannot prohibit passage loitering

Applied science
Public administration
Immigration policy


cover undisputed territory apply foreign aircraft intending enter territorial airspace overlap ref name globsec biosecurity quarantine operations deployed mainland chinese border control international certificate vaccination issued bureau quarantine philippines individual vaccinated covid vaccine biosecurity refers measures aimed preventing introduction spread harmful organisms eg viruses bacteria etc animals plants order mitigate risk transmission infectious disease agriculture measures aimed protecting food crops


mandatory covid vaccination international travellers together decreased willingness travel implementation biosecurity measures negative economic social impact travel industry slow travel increased popularity pandemic tourists visiting fewer destinations trips biosecurity measures restrictions cross border travel introduction mandatory vaccination international travellers adoption quarantine mandatory testing measures helped contain spread covid ref name b ref test based border screening measures may prove effective certain circumstances may fail detect significant quantity positive


measures target variety issues ranging customs violations trade unlawful goods suppression unauthorised migration travel specific border security measures taken jurisdiction vary depending priorities local authorities affected social economic geographical factors india maintains free movement nepal bhutan border security focuses primarily bangladeshi pakistani myanmar borders india 's primary focus regard border bangladesh deter unlawful immigration drug trafficking ref name channel ref pakistani border border security force aims


official reason fence stop spread foot mouth disease among livestock zimbabweans argue height fence clearly intended keep people botswana responded fence designed keep cattle ensure entrants shoes disinfected legal border crossings botswana also argued government continues encourage legal movement country zimbabwe unconvinced barrier remains source tension gallery file algodones sand dune fencejpg mexico united states barrier california file indo bangladeshi barrierjpg border fence built india seen near hili


changi airport disembark directly sterile lounge may proceed connecting gate without clearing border checkpoint completing border control formality move terminals using skytrain without clearing checkpoint file afghan border crossing sher khan kunduz province jpg port entry shir khan bandar northern afghanistan near tajikistan border guarded american military personnel prior withdrawal afghanistan following taliban assumed control border checkpoints afghanistan neighbours file hong kong macau ferry pierjpg hong kong macau ferry terminal sheung wan


used curtail unauthorised migration hong kong smuggling goods either direction result partition korean peninsula america soviet union world war ii exacerbated subsequent korean war demilitarised zone dmz spanning ' 'de facto'' border north south korea dmz follows effective boundaries end korean war similarly frontier closed area hong kong zone defence apparatus exists sides border


oci status uk ancestry visa exempts members british diaspora ref usual immigration controls poland issues karta polaka citizens certain northeast european countries polish ancestry nations recognise right return people ancestry country connection particular ethnic group notable example right sephardi jews acquire spanish nationality virtue community 's spanish origins similar exemptions immigration controls exist people armenian origin seeking acquire armenian citizenship ghana similarly grants indefinite right stay


south korea instead north korea time policy operated prevent pro north korea zainichi koreans recognised japan ch sen seki entering south korea without special permission south korean authorities despite regarded citizens republic korea members korean diaspora generally refuse exercise status open borders member states european union open border deregulation lack regulation movement persons nations jurisdictions apply trade movement privately


nepal showing free movement india nepal treaty file northern ireland border crossing sign mphjpg sign often found crossings republic ireland north image grenzuebergang nl elmpt grenzejljpg open schengen area border crossing germany netherlands file panoramio v dudush avenue princesse grace jpg open schengen area border crossing france monaco border open long schengen started file panoramiojpg open schengen area border crossing swiss lichtenstein border open long schengen started file border slovenia italy panoramiojpg open schengen area border crossing slovenian italian border


border controls since joining malaysia internal border control asymmetrical sabah sarawak impose immigration control malaysian citizens states corresponding border control peninsular malaysia malaysians sabah sarawak unrestricted right live work peninsular social business visits less three months malaysian citizens may travel peninsular sabah sarawak using malaysian identity card mykad malaysian passport longer stays sabah sarawak required internal travel document passport


great britain northern ireland primary catalyst northern ireland riots unusual example internal border controls pertains customs enforcement within schengen area even though borders generally invisible existence areas within schengen area outside european union value added tax area well jurisdictions andorra officially part schengen area accessed without passing resulted existence sporadic internal border controls customs purposes additionally per schengen area rules hotels


types commercial accommodation must register foreign citizens including citizens schengen states requiring completion registration form hand schengen rules require procedures thus schengen states free regulate details content registration forms identity documents produced may also require persons exempted registration schengen laws registered schengen state also permitted reinstate border controls another schengen country short period


subject internal border controls since america chose stop regulating arrivals hyder british columbia since travellers exiting hyder stewart british columbia subject canadian border controls theoretically possible someone accidentally enter hyder canada without travel documents face difficulties since america canada would subject border controls require travel documents time however northern road connecting hyder uninhabited mountain regions british columbia equipped neither american canadian border controls meaning tourists canada proceeding northwards


south africa white required black african men cities towns carry around permits called passes times anyone found without pass would arrested immediately sent rural area replaced natives urban areas consolidation act imposed influx control black men also set guidelines removing people deemed living idle lives urban areas act outlined requirements african peoples' qualification reside legally white metropolitan areas section rights based


identification information employers often entered behavioural evaluation conduct pass holder employer defined law could white person pass also documented permission requested denied granted certain region reason seeking permission terms law government employee could strike entries basically cancelling permission remain area passbook without valid entry allowed officials arrest imprison bearer pass passes often became


serve different purposes example united kingdom immigration stamp passport includes formal leave enter granted person subject entry control countries stamp activates acknowledges continuing leave conferred passport bearer 's entry clearance schengen system foreign passport stamped date stamp indicate duration stay means person deemed permission remain either three months period shown visa specified otherwise member states european


departure procedures ref china exit stamp issued upon request using e gate costa rica costa rican airports different entry exit stamps made border crossing panama el salvador fiji hong kong entry exit stamps issued instead landing slips issued upon arrival iran israel entry exit stamps issued ben gurion airport instead landing slips issued upon arrival departure japan exit stamp issued upon request using e gate since july ref name japan begin screening departing foreign travelers facial recognition technology ref macau entry


nationals india non visa free nationals obtain electronic travel authorisation days holding valid american visa republic china taiwan certain nationalities obtain online travel authorisation holding valid american visa days days days certain nationalities obtain electronic turkish visa holding valid american visa visa arrival days nationals india applicable indian citizens holding american green card notably philippines permits nationals india china use several foreign


visas clear border controls ref order encourage tourism transit passengers south korea permits passengers transit would otherwise require south korean visa enter thirty days utilising australian canadian american schengen visa uniquely british territory bermuda ceased issue visas instead requires travellers either clear immigration visa free one three countries canada america united kingdom direct flights hold visa one beginning many countries introduced e visas electronic travel


lodged online time travel entry australia holders eta must free tuberculosis must criminal convictions sentence sentences whether served total months ref name eta ref eta currently available passport holders handful jurisdictions asia north america ref brunei canada hong kong japan malaysia singapore south korea united states evistor programme evisitor scheme established create reciprocal short stay travel arrangement nationals australia european union still


period tourism business purposes time travel entry australia holders evisitor must free tuberculosis must criminal convictions sentence sentences whether served total months ref name evisitor holders jurisdictions ref european union andorra iceland liechtenstein monaco valign top norway san marino switzerland united kingdom sup sup vatican city sub british passport holders british citizens eligible apply evisitor sub western europe eligible enter australia evisitor programme ''east african community''


similar united kingdom 's juxtaposed controls system mitigate arrival border controls sides border ref name iskandar ref '''malaysia thailand''' padang besar railway station padang besar railway station padang besar malaysia co located border control facilities malaysia thailand although station wholly located inside malaysian territory albeit metres south malaysia thailand border facilities country operate separate counters inside railway station building platform level passengers entering thailand clear malaysian thai border formalities malaysian territory


gare du nord file uk paris entryjpg british entry stamp issued uk border force gare du nord file bruxelles midi eurostar check passport control jpg juxtaposed immigration controls brussel zuid bruxelles midi railway station belgian federal police carrying exit immigration checks schengen area front uk border force carrying uk entry immigration checks behind file eurotunnel coquelles uk borderjpg uk border force checkpoint eurotunnel calais terminal entry checks carried boarding train uk file london st pancras french immigration controljpg french border police checkpoint london st pancras international station entry immigration checks schengen area carried


bermuda aruba bahamas abu dhabi ireland facilities located canada accept nexus cards united states passport cards land sea entry lieu passports preclearance facility currently planned dubai international airport citizens bahamas enter america either two preclearance facilities country enjoy exemption general requirement hold visa long sufficiently prove significant criminal record either bahamas america bahamians applying admission port entry pre clearance


smartgate uses information passport photograph name date birth respective countries' databases ie banned travellers database decide whether grant entry departure australia generate referral customs agent checks would otherwise require manual processing human time consuming costly potentially error prone ref name oaggovtnz ref british isles epassport gates british isles operated uk border force irish naturalisation immigration service located immigration checkpoints arrival halls airports across


american authorities entitles members dedicated rfid enabled lanes crossing land border nexus card also utilised travel document two countries entitles passengers priority border control facilities canada global entry facilities america free secure trade fast similar programme commercial drivers approved importers reducing amount customs checks conducted border expediting border control process entering america air holders nexus cards may use global entry kiosks clear border controls participating airports sentri sentri


airports tsa precheck tsa precheck trusted traveller programme initiated december administered american transportation security administration allows selected members select frequent flyer programs members global entry nexus sentri members armed forces cadets midshipmen united states service academies completing background check fingerprinted paying fee travellers get known traveler number tsa issue id card like global entry nexus sentri ref name precheck faq ref travelers notified precheck indicator printed


airport grodno airport prior travel visitors must obtain authorisation local travel agency belarus schengen area schengen states share external land border non schengen state authorised eu regulation conclude bilateral agreements neighbouring countries implementing simplified local border traffic regime agreements define border area provide issuance local border traffic permits residents border area may used cross eu external border within border area gallery file heathrow terminal epassport gatesjpg epassport gates heathrow airport


subdivision law enforcement force islamic republic iran authority issue iranian passports deals immigrants iran agency member icao 's public key directory pkd ''islamic republic iran border guard command'' islamic republic iran border guard command commonly known naja border guard subdivision law enforcement force islamic republic iran naja iran 's sole agency performs border guard control land borders coast guard maritime borders unit founded unit 's duties


republic issues pertaining president 's authority commander chief eg officer promotions finland russia border controlled external border schengen area routinely patrolled protected border zone enforced border guard finland 's borders norway sweden internal schengen borders routine border controls border guard maintains personnel area owing search rescue sar duties two coast guard districts patrolling maritime borders peacetime border guard trains special forces light infantry incorporated fully part


immigration enforcement organisation responsible enforcing border control policies within united kingdom including pursuing removing undocumented migrants gallery file cbsa vancouver policejpg canadian border security agency officers police vancouver file self service kiosks yyzpng automated passport control kiosks toronto pearson international airport file roc moi national immigration agency entry jpg national immigration agency headquarters taipei file ski contingent itbp rd raising day parade jpg ski contingent indo tibetan border police rd raising day parade file bsf insigniasvg insignia indian border security force file migrant hunting eu agency shut frontex warsaw jpg thumb protests


south 's ability impose border shutdown north thus negating right self determination predominantly turkish northern cypriot population subjecting airports border controls imposed predominantly greek south result northern cyprus heavily dependent turkey economic support unable develop functioning economy ref name indepuni ref israel border control entry exit israeli airports rate passengers' potential threat security using factors including nationality ethnicity race instances discrimination arabs people perceived muslim russian jews among others


image bundespolizei vw transporterjpg car german border patrol image fietspad op de grens nederland duitsland panoramiojpg cyclepath border netherlands cyclepath germany gravelroad gallery see also asylum seeker border barrier airspace air sovereignty illegal entry united states border patrol security guard illegal immigration immigration law maritime boundary freedom movement refugees notes references reading susan harbage page z valdez april http southernspacesorg residues border control residues border control ''southern spaces'' desmond king patrick le gal https wwwsciencespofr centre etudes europeennes en researcher tommaso vitale tommaso vitale https wwwacademiaedu assimilation security borders member states assimilation security borders member states desmond king


march http pewhispanicorg reports reportphpreportid estimates size characteristics undocumented population pew hispanic center jeffrey passel march http pewhispanicorg reports reportphpreportid growing share immigrants choosing naturalization pew hispanic center unctad 's http unctadorg en publicationslibrary ditctab enpdf classification non tariff measures report external links itc 's http wwwmacmaporg market access map online database customs tariffs market requirements control export import control international relations control international law travel visas


organization optometry organizations countries adopted following definition used describe optometry optometrist ref history page treatise eye manner phaenomena vision william porterfield published edinburgh book word optometer appears first time optometric history tied development vision science related areas medicine microbiology neurology physiology psychology etc optics optical aids optical instruments imaging techniques eye care professions history optometry traced back early studies

Applied science
Medicine and health
Optometry


used describe profession early twenty first century however marking distinction dispensing opticians become internationally accepted term training licensing representation scope practice optometry officially recognized many jurisdictions regulations concerning education practice optometrists like many healthcare professionals required participate ongoing continuing education courses stay current latest standards care world council optometry http wcopelleswebno web resource provides basic information eye care providers countries africa five


involved providing core optometry services like binocular vision low vision training india present fifty schools optometry india year two schools optometry established one gandhi eye hospital aligarh uttar pradesh another one sarojini devi eye hospital hyderabad telangana second five year plan director general health services government india schools offered diplomas optometry courses two years duration validated state medical faculties subsequently four schools opened


arabia optometrists must complete five year doctor optometry degree qassim university king saud university also must complete one year residency singapore tertiary education optometrists takes years following institutions singapore polytechnic diploma optometry singapore polytechnic ngee ann polytechnic diploma optometry ngee ann polytechnic taiwan education optometry taiwan commenced shu zen college medicine management currently bcahelor degrees optometry obtained seven universities north south university kang ning yuanpei university medical technology asia university central taiwan university


new optometrists register annunally thailand since late thailand set goal provide optometrists meet minimal public demands international standards vision care three university degree programs thailand program accepts students completed grade th third year high school following us education model programs offer doctor optometry degree graduates program take six years complete courses practising optometrists also required pass licensing examination three parts examinations administrated


training technology development provision medical services professor ioannis pallikaris received numerous awards recognitions institute 's contribution ophthalmology performed first lasik procedure human eye hungary optometrist education takes years medical universities hungary get bachelor science degree work networks retail stores private optics located health care care system ophthalmologists assistant ireland profession optometry represented century association optometrists ireland aoi


physics physics education demonstrates free body physics education characterized study science deals matter energy interactions physics first program endorsed american association physics teachers curriculum th grade students take introductory physics course purpose enrich students' understanding physics allow detail taught subsequent high school biology chemistry classes also aims increase number students go take th grade physics ap physics

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Science education


generally elective courses american high schools sup sup physics education high schools united states suffered last twenty years many states require three sciences satisfied earth physical science chemistry biology fact many students take physics high school makes difficult students take scientific courses college university college level using appropriate technology related projects spark non physics majors' interest learning physics shown successful sup sup potential opportunity forge connection physics social


science teachers one research study examining cellphones used post secondary science teaching settings showed mobile technologies increase student engagement motivation science classroom according bibliography constructivist oriented research teaching learning science percent studies documented carried domain physics percent domain biology percent chemistry major reason dominance physics research teaching learning appears understanding physics includes difficulties due particular nature


national research council achieve nonprofit organization also involved developing math english standards informal science education young women participate conference argonne national laboratory young students use microscope first time examine bacteria discovery day organized big brother mouse literacy education project laos informal science education science teaching learning occurs outside formal school curriculum places museums media community based programs national science teachers association created position statement informal


consensus theory situation since consensus theory cannot explain lawsuits owners tenants legal foundations asymmetrical power relationship two social conflict theories social conflict theorist marxism point view social class inequality emerges social structure based conflict contradictions contradictions interests conflict scarce resources groups foundation social society according social conflict theory engels marx higher class try maintain privileges power status social position therefore try influence

Social science
Sociology
Social conflict theory


politics education institutions protect limit access forms capital resources whereas lower class contradiction higher class different interests specific forms capital need protect interested gaining access resources capital higher class example education lower class everything gain access higher class resources based democratizing liberalizing education systems forms capital thought value


contribution critique political economy tr w ryanzanskaya edited dobb london lawrence whishart skocpol theda states social revolutions comparative analysis france russia china new york cambridge university press wallerstein immanuel modern world system capitalist agriculture origins european world economy sixteenth century new york academic press modern world system ii mercantilism consolidation european world economy new york academic press marx k en f engels manifest der kommunistischen partei londen je burghard external links


held high ground dugouts varying degrees comfort built rear support trench british dugouts usually deep germans based knowledge studies russo japanese war ref name keegan p ref made something science designing constructing defensive works used reinforced concrete construct deep shell proof ventilated dugouts well strategic strongpoints german dugouts typically much deeper usually minimum deep sometimes dug three stories concrete staircases reach upper levels layout trenches never

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Trench warfare


used provide sheltered place waves attacking troops would follow first waves leaving front trench saps temporary unmanned often dead end utility trenches dug man 's land fulfilled variety purposes connecting front trench listening post close enemy wire providing advance jumping line surprise attack one side 's front line bulged towards opposition salient formed concave trench line facing salient called entrant large salients perilous occupants


british soldiers also known use sawn shotguns trench raids portability effectiveness close range ease use confines trench practice officially sanctioned shotguns used invariably modified sporting guns vickers machine gun germans embraced machine gun outset sixteen units equipped 'maschinengewehr' mdash machine gun crews elite infantry units units attached jaeger light infantry battalions british infantry units armed two vickers machine guns per battalion germans


would occupy front two reserve companies platoons lower structure division duty proceeded frequently units would rotate front line duty support reserve day snipers artillery observers balloons made movement perilous trenches mostly quiet daytime hours soldiers would amuse trench magazines peril associated daytime activities trenches busiest night cover darkness allowed movement troops supplies maintenance expansion


men suffered intense breakdowns often rendered completely immobile often seen cowering low trenches unable even perform instinctive human responses running away fighting back condition came known shell shock war neurosis battle hypnosis although trenches provided cover shelling small arms fire also amplified psychological effects shell shock way escape trench shellfire coming soldier became debilitated shell shock evacuated trench hospitalized possible


years german army tried establish special stormtrooper detachments units sending selected men rohr men train comrades original units similar tactics developed independently countries french army captain russian general aleksei brusilov failed adopted military doctrine german stormtrooper methods involved men rushing forward small groups using whatever cover available laying covering fire groups unit moved forward new tactics


mines western front still visible today two undetonated mines remained ground near messines location mislaid war one blew thunderstorm remains ground ref name ww dotcom significant mining operations also carried italian front australian infantry wearing wwi gas masks ypres september gas world war saw large scale use poison gases start war gas agents used relatively weak delivery unreliable mid war advances chemical warfare reached horrifying levels


nose mouth urea would disable poison armies rushed issue regulation gas masks regular equipment front line troops anti gas equipment procedures improved significantly war point gas attacks become less devastating war 's end several different gas agents used tear gas first employed august french could temporarily disable enemy april chlorine gas first used germany second battle ypres exposure large dose could kill killed


german attack delivered ardennes forest inter war french planning believed would take germans days move forces area could held small forces german forces outpaced expectations soon crossed france main french forces maginot line advanced towards english channel surrounded anglo french armies small secondary german attacks concentrated points line mixed success bulk maginot line untouched garrisons withdrawn flanked due lack combat much


past basis determining sedimentary features rock record formed comparing similar features today features rock record example comparing modern sand dunes dunes preserved ancient aeolian sandstones geologists reconstruct past environments sedimentary rock types middle triassic marginal marine sequence siltstones sandstones southwestern utah four primary types sedimentary rocks clastics carbonates evaporites chemical clastic rocks composed particles derived weathering erosion precursor rocks consist primarily fragmental material clastic rocks classified according

Natural science
Earth science
Sedimentology


deduction gentzen 's approach introducing idea symmetry grounds asserting propositions expressed introduction rules consequences accepting propositions elimination rules idea proved important proof theory gentzen introduced idea sequent calculus calculus advanced similar spirit better expressed duality logical connectives went make fundamental advances formalisation intuitionistic logic provide first combinatorial proof consistency peano arithmetic together presentation natural deduction

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Mathematical logic
Proof theory


reverse mathematics often incorporates methods techniques recursion theory well proof theory functional interpretations functional interpretations interpretations non constructive theories functional ones functional interpretations usually proceed two stages first one reduces classical theory c intuitionistic one one provides constructive mapping translates theorems c theorems second one reduces intuitionistic theory quantifier free theory functionals f interpretations contribute form hilbert 's program since prove consistency classical theories relative constructive ones


flow use pump fan mechanical means thermal radiation occurs vacuum transparent medium solid fluid gas transfer energy means photons electromagnetic waves governed laws ref name geankoplis ref overview radiation intensity clouds atmosphere surface heat defined physics transfer thermal energy across well defined boundary around thermodynamic system thermodynamic free energy amount work thermodynamic system perform enthalpy thermodynamic potential designated letter h

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Heat transfer


moved physical transfer hot cold object one place another simple placing hot water bottle heating bed movement iceberg changing ocean currents practical example thermal hydraulics described formula math phi q v rho c p delta math math phi q math heat flux w sup sup math rho math density kg sup sup math c p math heat capacity constant pressure j kg k math delta math difference temperature k math v math velocity conduction microscopic scale heat conduction occurs hot


third method heat transfer convection usually used describe combined effects heat conduction within fluid diffusion heat transference bulk fluid flow streaming process transport fluid streaming known advection pure advection term generally associated mass transport fluids advection pebbles river case heat transfer fluids transport advection fluid always also accompanied transport via heat diffusion also known heat conduction process heat convection understood


narrow angle ie coming source much smaller distance concentrated small spot using reflecting mirrors exploited concentrating solar power generation burning glass example sunlight reflected mirrors heats ps solar power tower day heat water reachable temperature target limited temperature hot source radiation sup sup law lets reverse flow radiation back source rise surface somewhat k hot sun allows reach


power station engineering insulation radiance resistance thermal insulators materials specifically designed reduce flow heat limiting conduction convection thermal resistance heat property measurement object material resists heat flow heat per time unit thermal resistance temperature difference radiance spectral radiance measures quantity radiation passes emitted radiant barriers materials reflect radiation therefore reduce flow heat radiation sources good insulators necessarily good radiant barriers vice versa metal


group atoms pre cooled methods laser cooling magnetic refrigeration cools k making use magnetocaloric effect radiative cooling radiative cooling process body loses heat radiation outgoing energy important effect earth 's energy budget case earth atmosphere system refers process long wave infrared radiation emitted balance absorption short wave visible energy sun thermosphere top atmosphere cools space primarily infrared energy radiated carbon dioxide co


law thermal contact conductance thermal physics thermal resistance electronics heat transfer enhancement references external links http ahttmitedu heat transfer textbook free download https wwwthermalfluidscentralorg encyclopedia indexphp main page thermal fluidspedia online thermal fluids encyclopedia http hyperphysicsphy astrgsuedu hbase thermo heatrahtml hyperphysics article heat transfer overview http wwwicaxcouk thermalbankhtml interseasonal heat transfer practical example heat transfer used heat buildings without burning fossil fuels http wwwmsmcamacuk phase trans ht heat transferhtml aspects heat transfer cambridge university https wwwthermalfluidscentralorg thermal fluids central http energyconcordorg energy energy interactive heat transfer simulations everyone chemical engineering mechanical engineering unit operations transport phenomena


precision timekeeping navigation metrology plasmonics studies interaction light plasmons dielectric metallic structures plasmons quantizations plasma oscillations coupled electromagnetic wave manifest surface plasmon polaritons localized surface plasmons polaritonics differs photonics fundamental information carrier polariton polaritons mixture photons phonons operate range frequencies gigahertz approximately terahertz programmable photonics studies development photonic circuits reprogrammed implement different functions fashion

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Materials Science and Engineering
Photonics


advanced research topic within photonics investigation fabrication special structures materials engineered optical properties include photonic crystals photonic crystal fibers metamaterials amplifiers optical amplifiers used amplify optical signal optical amplifiers used optical communications erbium doped fiber amplifiers semiconductor optical amplifiers raman amplifiers optical parametric amplifiers advanced research topic optical amplifiers research quantum dot semiconductor optical amplifiers detection photodetectors detect light photodetectors range fast photodiodes communications applications medium speed charge coupled devices ccds digital cameras slow


application pics optical transceivers data center optical networks pics fabricated iii v indium phosphide semiconductor wafer substrates first achieve commercial success ref name kaminowli ref pics based silicon wafer substrates also commercialized technology key applications integrated photonics include data center interconnects data centers continue grow scale companies institutions store process information cloud increase data center compute demands data center networks correspondingly increase optical cables support greater lane bandwidth longer transmission distances copper cables


short reach distances gbps data transmission rates non integrated approaches vertical cavity surface emitting lasers used optical transceivers multi mode optical fiber networks ref name frank ref beyond range bandwidth photonic integrated circuits key enable high performance low cost optical transceivers analog rf signal applications using ghz precision signal processing photonic integrated circuits radiofrequency rf signals manipulated high fidelity add drop multiple channels radio spread across ultra broadband frequency range addition photonic integrated circuits remove background noise rf signal unprecedented precision


diagnostic abilities example cancer infectious diseases also used environmental applications main advantages approach speed analysis non invasive diagnostics ability work situ see also nano optics op tec optronics optoelectronics organic photonics bio inspired photonics photonics mast submarines photonic radar european photonics industry consortium references optics


absorbing reasonable factors commonality germanic languages esperanto completely consistent speech writing stress every word fixed penultimate syllable learning twenty eight letters mastering phonetic rules one read write words simplification standardization esperanto becomes easily mastered languages ease learning helps one build confidence learning esperanto learning strategy constitutes good introduction foreign language study teaching strategies blended learning blended learning combines face face teaching distance education frequently electronic either computer based web based

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Language education


language education may vary region however underlying understandings drive fundamentally similar rote repetition drilling memorisation grammar conjugating used world sometimes different preferences teaching methods region language immersion popular european countries used much united states asia australia different life stage early childhood education early childhood fastest critical period one master language life children 's language communication transformed non verbal communication verbal communication


benjamins publishing company met lorenz e lessons us immersion programs two decades experience r johnson swain eds immersion education international perspectives pp nbsp cambridge uk cambridge university press swain johnson r k immersion education category within bilingual education r k johnson swain eds immersion education international perspectives pp nbsp ny cambridge university press parker j l students' attitudes toward project based learning intermediate spanish course ''international journal curriculum instruction'' http ijciwcci internationalorg indexphp ijci article view external links https wwwlanguageacademiacom language academia https webarchiveorg web http wwwpavelicpaperscom documents odpor indexhtml ucla language materials project


acids detergents substitute fuels petrochemicals soil science agronomists study sustainable ways make soils productive profitable classify soils analyze determine whether contain nutrients vital plant growth common macronutrients analyzed include compounds nitrogen phosphorus potassium calcium magnesium sulfur soil also assessed several micronutrients like zinc boron percentage organic matter soil ph nutrient holding capacity cation exchange capacity tested regional laboratory agronomists interpret laboratory reports make recommendations modify soil nutrients optimal plant growth soil conservation additionally


delineations pieces antler '''prehistory''' also known '''pre literary history''' period human history use first stone tools hominins million years ago invention writing systems use symbols marks images appears early among humans earliest known writing systems appeared years ago took thousands years writing systems widely adopted human cultures writing systems used nineteenth century even used present

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history
Prehistoric


developed writing system often known protohistory culture definition written records human prehistory dating prehistoric materials crucial clear techniques dating well developed nineteenth century article concerned human prehistory time since behaviorally anatomically modern humans first appeared beginning recorded history earlier periods also called prehistoric separate articles overall history earth history life humans definition massive stone pillars g bekli tepe southeast


tools made copper period still largely neolithic character phase bronze age discovered adding tin copper formed harder bronze copper age originally defined transition neolithic bronze age however characterized use metals copper age considered part bronze age rather stone age chalcolithic copper mine timna valley negev desert israel archaeological site serbia contains oldest securely dated evidence copper making


prehistory sri lanka prehistory central asia prehistoric siberia southeast asia prehistoric indonesia prehistoric thailand southwest asia near east prehistory iran aurignacian natufian culture ubaid period uruk period ancient near east prehistoric europe prehistoric caucasus prehistoric georgia prehistoric armenia paleolithic europe neolithic europe bronze age europe iron age europe atlantic fringe prehistoric britain prehistoric ireland prehistoric iberia prehistoric balkans new world pre columbian americas prehistoric southwestern cultural divisions nd millennium bce north american history st millennium bce north american history st millennium north american history prehistory newfoundland labrador prehistory canadian maritimes prehistory


peoples pacific islands australia new zealand classical religions ancient greece rome hellenistic descendants middle eastern religions abrahamic western asian religions study comparative religion category abrahamic religions consists three monotheistic religions christianity islam judaism claim abraham hebrew ''avraham'' arabic ''ibrahim'' part sacred history smaller religions bah faith fit description sometimes included often omitted original belief god abraham eventually became strictly

Humanities
Theology
Comparative Religion


believed muslims final prophet islam ''khatam nabiyyin'' meaning last prophets ever sent allah seal prophets based muslim figure mahd ultimate savior humankind final im twelve imams ali muhammad shirazi later known bab created b b movement belief gate twelfth im signaled break islam started new religious system b bism however split occurred vast majority


natural order believed influence keeps universe balanced ordered associated nature due belief nature demonstrates ''tao'' flow ''ch'i'' essential energy action existence compared universal order ''tao'' following ''tao'' also associated proper attitude morality lifestyle intimately tied complex concept ''de'' literally virtue power ''de'' active expression ''tao'' taoism ch'an buddhism centuries mutual influence


enoch well parallels christ sages ref name ping jesuit translation interpretation yijing classic changes historical cultural perspective ''international forum teaching studies '' ref also noted similarity tao way well christ claiming way scholarship rejects view today notable view history comparative religion beliefs ultimately opposed disavowed catholic church th century ref name introduction nestorian christianity china


rather religion equation two led collapse nestorian christianity china alongside persecution buddhism ref name comparing traditions bah faith bah faith unity religion bah faith buddhism bah faith hinduism bah faith zoroastrianism buddhism buddhism christianity buddhism eastern religions buddhism gnosticism buddhism hinduism buddhism jainism buddhism theosophy buddhism islam comparison buddhism christianity christianity christianity religions buddhism christianity comparison buddhism christianity christianity


religions'' anuradha prakashan new delhi davis g scott ''believing acting pragmatic turn comparative religion ethics'' oxford university press eastman roger ''the ways religion introduction major traditions'' rd ed oxford university press eliade mircea ''patterns comparative religion'' https archiveorg details eliade mircea patterns comparative religion sheed ward online eliade mircea ''the sacred profane nature religion'' https archiveorg details eliade mircea sacred profane online gothoni rene ''how comparative religion three ways many goals'' https archiveorg details howtodocomparati unse page n mode online james e ''comparative religion'' https archiveorg details dliernet online textbook jones lindsay ed ''encyclopedia religion'' nd edn


commander chief kriegsmarine albert speer minister armaments war production nazi germany william calley former us army officer found guilty murder role lai massacre general tikka khan aka butcher bengal notorious pakistan army general known war crimes bangladesh indo pakistani war ali hassan abd al majid al tikriti commonly known nickname chemical ali executed post ba'athist iraq leadership gassing kurdish villages iran iraq war also governor illegally occupied kuwait

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
War crimes


un security council acting chapter viii un charter nuremberg principles ''war crimes'' different crimes peace crimes peace include planning preparing initiating waging war aggression war violation international treaties agreements assurances definition state war may debated term war crime seen different usage different systems international military law degree application outside may consider state war areas conflicts


idea determining aside orders committee ruled aircrew involved attack assigned responsibility fact given wrong target inappropriate attempt assign criminal responsibility incident senior leaders provided wrong information officials another agency ref name ref report also notes much material submitted otp consisted reports civilians killed often inviting conclusion drawn crimes therefore committed collateral


casualties civilians collateral damage civilian objects occur variety reasons ref name rendulic rule rendulic rule standard commanders judged german general lothar rendulic charged ordering extensive destruction civilian buildings lands retreating suspected enemy attack called scorched earth policy military purpose denying use ground enemy overestimated perceived risk argued hague iv authorized destruction necessary war acquitted charge


rendulic rule persons must assess military necessity action based information available time cannot judged based information subsequently comes light ref name war crimes modern times stryker infantry brigade kill team staff sergeant calvin gibbs arrives new platoon starts talking easy toss grenade someone kill started recruiting people team like jeremy morlock among others form kill team one first killings


united nations human rights governing body facing allegations detaining migrants including hundreds children women libya rough spot right government shambles voting process new leadership libya whittled war since fall former autocrat moammar gadhafi years ago reports say migrants intercepted libyan coast guard since including centers run country department combating illegal migration see also country listings list


crimes aftermath war international criminal law laws war violence men crimes violence women


found modern financial theory various historical reasons developments achieve much recognition result actuarial science developed along different path becoming reliant assumptions opposed arbitrage free risk neutral valuation concepts used modern finance divergence related use historical data statistical projections liability cash flows instead caused manner traditional actuarial methods apply market data numbers example one traditional actuarial method suggests changing asset allocation mix investments change

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Actuarial science


subdivided regions significant time periods within regions andre schaeffner introduced system based state matter sound producing mechanism giving rise two top level categories solid containing strings percussion gas containing woodwind brass invention hydraulophone physics based organology expanded use solid liquid gas wherein top level category state matter material makes sound number societies exist dedicated study musical instruments among prominent galpin society based united kingdom

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Organology


written henry johnson published journal anthropological society oxford paper sought demonstrate contribution field ethnomusicology make study musical instruments johnson defines four facets connection ethnomusicology organology form context performance environment interrelationship instrument performer sound object categories meant provide detailed look cultural significance musical instruments johnson states ethnomusicology produce study instruments includes examination interrelationship material


sax n argued diversity thought social inclusivity two essential cornerstones bioethics albeit fully realized points critiques along neglect women 's perspectives within bioethics also discussed amongst feminist bioethical scholars ref name issues areas health sciences subject published peer reviewed bioethical analysis include see also list bioethics journals list canadian bioethics programs biotechnology risk cytoplasmic transfer eugenics feminist approaches bioethics jewish medical ethics johns hopkins berman institute bioethics islamic bioethics medical law neuroethics preimplantation


supermassive black hole core supergiant elliptical galaxy messier mass billion times sun depicted first false colour image radio waves released event horizon telescope april ref name nyt ref ref name apjl ref ref name nasa ref ref name bbc ref visible crescent shaped emission ring central shadow ref name ref gravitationally magnified views black hole 's photon ring photon capture zone event horizon crescent shape arises black hole 's rotation relativistic beaming shadow times diameter

Natural science
Space science
Astrophysics
Black holes


overly large densities visible stars like betelgeuse star million km radius could possibly high density sun firstly force gravitation would great light would unable escape rays falling back star like stone earth secondly red shift spectral lines would great spectrum would shifted existence thirdly mass would produce much curvature spacetime metric space would close around star


werner israel brandon carter david robinson hair theorem emerged stating stationary black hole solution completely described three parameters kerr newman metric mass angular momentum electric charge ref name heuslernohair first suspected strange features black hole solutions pathological artifacts symmetry conditions imposed singularities would appear generic situations view held particular vladimir belinsky isaak khalatnikov evgeny lifshitz tried prove singularities appear generic solutions however late


true real black holes laws modern physics currently unsolved problem ref name heuslernohair ref properties special visible outside black hole example charged black hole repels like charges like charged object similarly total mass inside sphere containing black hole found using gravitational analog gauss 's law adm mass far away black hole likewise angular momentum spin measured far away using frame dragging gravitomagnetic field


total angular momentum nbsp ''j'' expected satisfy math frac q pi epsilon frac c j g le g math black hole mass ''m'' black holes minimum possible mass satisfying inequality called extremal solutions einstein 's equations violate inequality exist possess event horizon solutions called naked singularities observed outside hence deemed ''unphysical'' cosmic censorship hypothesis rules formation singularities created gravitational collapse realistic matter ref name wald supported numerical


direction spin formation evolution given bizarre character black holes long questioned whether objects could actually exist nature whether merely pathological solutions einstein 's equations einstein wrongly thought black holes would form held angular momentum collapsing particles would stabilize motion radius led general relativity community dismiss results contrary many years however minority relativists continued contend black holes physical objects end


black hole would diameter less tenth millimeter black hole small radiation effects expected become strong black hole mass car would diameter nbsp take nanosecond evaporate time would briefly luminosity times sun lower mass black holes expected evaporate even faster example black hole mass nbsp tev ''c'' would take less seconds evaporate completely


mass primordial black holes nasa 's fermi gamma ray space telescope launched continue search flashes black holes evaporate via hawking radiation solar mass black hole evaporate beginning temperature cosmic microwave background drops black hole period years ref name frautschi supermassive black hole mass evaporate around years ref name page see particular equation ref monster black holes universe predicted continue grow perhaps collapse superclusters


light paths near event horizon highly bent dark shadow middle results light paths absorbed black hole ref name image false color detected light halo image visible spectrum radio waves artist 's impression depicts paths photons vicinity black hole gravitational bending capture light event horizon cause shadow captured event horizon telescope event horizon telescope eht active program directly observes


heavily depends assumptions made properties dense matter new exotic phases matter could push bound ref name cms phase free quarks high density might allow existence dense quark stars supersymmetric models predict existence q stars extensions standard model posit existence preons fundamental building blocks quarks leptons could hypothetically form preon stars hypothetical models could potentially explain number observations stellar black hole candidates however shown arguments general relativity


states total entropy isolated system never decrease classical objects absolute zero temperature assumed black holes zero entropy case second law thermodynamics would violated entropy laden matter entering black hole resulting decrease total entropy universe therefore bekenstein proposed black hole entropy proportional horizon area ref name wald ref link laws thermodynamics strengthened hawking 's discovery quantum field


wander teach ancient tradition religious universities however study islam suffice students must pass state mandated curriculum pass religious scholars often serve judges especially criminal family law rarely commercial law judaism pertaining jewish religious education secular society michael rosenak israeli philosopher jewish education asserts even non religious jewish educators insist instruction judaism religious matter agree religious factor important culture secularism dawned

Applied science
Divinity
Field ministry
Religious education


hindus muslims sikhs christians jains buddhists era british rule christian private schools quite prominent widely attended uk british indian students many schools established era especially areas heavy christian population still existence today school teaches academic education according standard uk curriculum alongside devotional subjects bhajan kirtan singing instrumentation also gaudiya vaishnava philosophy ref name mayapurschool ref iskcon instituted number seminaries schools tertiary higher education addition typical formal education iskcon also offers specialized religious spiritual


religious education religious education private middle high schools requires teacher accredited university teaching religious education standards private schools traditional connection buddhist sects generally mandate religious study religious political education clubs promote specific religious political group prohibited public schools pakistan pakistan muslim students must take islamic studies primary higher education subject optional non muslim students choose subject ethics instead south east asia thailand burma majority buddhist societies


buddhist teachings social decorum sometimes taught public school young men expected live monks several months one time lives receive religious education iran percent iranians practice shi'ism islam official religion iran sunni shi'i two largest branches islam overwhelming majority iranians practicing shi'i islam main religion taught students iran islam holy book called quran students start learn elementary secondary school typically ages


relationship customers understanding needs expectations strategy using different approaches software applications software service e commerce crm e crm primarily focuses customer experiences sales conducted online e crm software ability analyze customer information sales patterns record store data website 's metrics example conversion rates customer click rate e mail subscription opt ins products customers interested concerns much written economic advantages internet enabled commerce also evidence aspects internet maps


transaction occurred means sufficient evidence prove transaction one way address non repudiation using digital signatures ref name canada digital signature ensures message document electronically signed person since digital signature created one person also ensures person cannot later deny provided signature ref name non nonrepudiation definition information security covering today 's security topics techtarget sept web nov http searchsecuritytechtargetcom sdefinition sid gci html ref access control certain electronic resources information limited


expensive set transactions cost also cheaper geographical boundaries greatest benefit possibility geographical dispersion anyone order anything anywhere time government subsidies digitalisation encouraged government provide necessary support newmarket entry great potential enable entry previously unknown market traditional business could ref name ref lower levels inventory electronic business enables companies lower level inventory digitalizing assets ie netflix sell anymore physical dvd 's proposes online streaming content


states department defense jean ichbiah team honeywell began designing ada year project define requirements language specification first published revisions saw rapid growth interest object oriented programming languages imperative style added features support objects last two decades th century saw development many languages smalltalk originally conceived alan kay released xerox palo alto research center parc drawing

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Imperative programming


java james gosling sun microsystems javascript brendan eich netscape ruby yukihiro matz matsumoto released microsoft 's net framework imperative core main target languages vbnet c run however microsoft 's f functional language also runs see also functional programming comparison programming paradigms reactive programming history programming languages list imperative programming languages notes references pratt terrence w marvin v zelkowitz ''programming languages design implementation'' rd ed englewood cliffs nj prentice hall sebesta robert w ''concepts


used canal freight transportation bypass aswan cataract chinese also built canals water transportation far back warring states period began th century bce whether canals used hire public transport remains unknown grand canal china begun bce served primarily shipping grain omnibus first organized public transit system within city appears originated paris france although service question carrosses cinq sols failed months founder blaise pascal

Applied science
Transportation
Mass transit


spatial constriction overcrowding high speeds accelerations height phobias may discourage use public transport actual travel time public transport becomes lesser consideration predictable travel reasonably comfortable seats toilets services thus scheduled used pleasurably productively overnight rest chauffeured movement enjoyed many people relaxing safe monotonous waiting interchanging stops holdups example due traffic security discomforting jet lag human constraint discouraging frequent rapid long distance east west commuting favoring modern telecommunications vr technologies airline


many systems implemented fully integrated within existing public transportation networks examples include metrocable medell n metrocable caracas portland aerial tram roosevelt island tramway new york city london 's emirates air line ferry water bus ''vaporetto'' venice italy ferry boat used carry ''ferry'' passengers sometimes vehicles across body water foot passenger ferry many stops sometimes called water bus ferries form part public transport systems many waterside cities islands allowing direct transit points capital


businesses several mid size european cities many smaller towns around world converted entire bus networks zero fare european capital free public transport tallinn local zero fare shuttles inner city loops far common city wide systems also zero fare airport circulators university transportation systems revenue profit subsidies governments frequently opt subsidize public transport social environmental economic reasons common motivations include desire provide transport people unable use automobile reduce congestion land use automobile emissions subsidies may take


figure computer simulation showing results study january showing lowest concentrations result decreased activity city holiday season january showed highest nmhc concentrations increased vehicular activity city due public transportation strike based benefits public transport green movement affected public policy example state new jersey released ''getting work reconnecting jobs transit'' initiative attempts relocate new jobs areas higher public transportation accessibility initiative


helps provide transport within city total energy cost london 's trains kwh per p km times better personal car ref name withouthotaircom david jc mackay sustainable energy without hot air p wwwwithouthotaircom ref busing london kwh per p km times personal car ref name withouthotaircom includes lighting depots inefficiencies due capacity ie train bus may operating full capacity times inefficiencies efficiencies transport japan


literature homogeneous reflects different cultures peoples published books first work native american english ''a sermon preached execution moses paul indian'' samson occom mohegan tribe published went editions ''the life adventures joaquin murieta'' john rollin ridge cherokee first novel native american ''o gi maw kwe mit gwa ki'' ''queen woods'' simon pokagon potawatomi first native american novel devoted subject

Humanities
Languages and literature
World literature
American literature


reason belief human natural occurrences messages god longer fit budding anthropocentric culture many intellectuals believed human mind could comprehend universe laws physics described isaac newton one cotton mather first book published north america promoted newton natural theology mather 's ''the christian philosopher'' enormous scientific economic social philosophical changes th century called enlightenment impacted authority clergyman scripture making way democratic principles increase population helped account


african american literature robert montgomery bird wrote ''calavar'' ''nick woods'' james fenimore cooper notable author best known novel ''the last mohicans'' written ref name wsuedu george tucker produced first fiction virginia colonial life ''the valley shenandoah'' followed one country 's first science fictions ''a voyage moon account manners customs science philosophy people morosofia lunarians'' th century unique american style john neal


four chronicling rising falling fortunes harry rabbit angstrom course four decades backdrop major events second half th century broke new ground release characterization detail american middle class frank discussion taboo topics adultery notable among updike 's characteristic innovations use present tense narration rich stylized language attention sensual detail work also deeply imbued christian themes two final installments rabbit series ''rabbit rich''


well received ''the twenty seventh city'' novel centering native st louis gain national attention publication essay perchance dream ''harper 's magazine'' discussing cultural role writer new millennium prism frustrations ''the corrections'' tragicomedy disintegrating lambert family called literary phenomenon decade ref name timefranzen ref ranked one greatest novels past century ref name time published ''freedom'' great critical acclaim ref name timefranzen ref name kakutani franzen ref ref name tanenhaus franzen ref notable writers


something 'superior' 'above' flesh contrast emily dickinson lived sheltered life genteel unmarried woman small town amherst massachusetts poetry ingenious witty penetrating work unconventional day little published lifetime many poems dwell topic death often mischievous twist one could stop death begins kindly stopped opening another dickinson poem toys position woman male dominated society unrecognized poet i'm nobody


attempt bringing modern realism drama james herne 's ''margaret fleming'' addressed issues social determinism realistic dialogue psychological insight symbolism play successful critics audiences thought dwelt much unseemly topics included improper scenes main character nursing husband 's illegitimate child onstage middle th century american drama dominated work playwrights tennessee williams arthur miller well maturation american musical found way integrate script music


christian church person giving symbols held staff signify role seems music became rhythmically complex staff moved indicate beat acting early form baton th century devices indicate passing time came use rolled sheets paper smaller sticks unadorned hands shown pictures period large staff responsible death jean baptiste lully injured foot one conducting ''te deum''

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Conducting


first conductor utilize wooden baton keep time practice still generally use today prominent conductors use baton include pierre boulez kurt masur james conlon yuri temirkanov leopold stokowski vasily safonov eugene ormandy period dimitri mitropoulos composers hector berlioz richard wagner attained greatness conductors wrote two earliest essays dedicated subject berlioz considered first virtuoso conductor wagner largely responsible shaping conductor 's role one imposes view piece onto


made debut conducting ''aida'' filling last minute indisposed conductor day regarded authorities james levine greatest verdi conductors toscanini 's repertory wide interpretations german symphonists beethoven brahms particularly renowned influential favoring stricter faster tempi conductor like b low wagner still style shows inflection reputation may suggest particularly gifted revealing detail getting orchestras play


singing manner furtw ngler many regard greatest interpreter wagner although toscanini also admired composer bruckner conducted beethoven brahms good deal inflection tempo generally manner revealed structure direction music particularly clearly accomplished composer well performer disciple theorist heinrich schenker emphasized concern underlying long range harmonic tensions resolutions piece strength furtw ngler 's conducting along interest large scale furtw ngler also shaped details


century standardized great influential conductors middle th century like leopold stokowski otto klemperer herbert von karajan leonard bernstein incidentally first american conductor attain greatness international fame widely varied techniques karajan bernstein formed another apparent antipode karajan music director berlin philharmonic bernstein part period music director new york philharmonic later frequent guest conductor europe karajan 's technique highly controlled eventually conducted eyes


believed suited expressive meaning music first horn player refused finally agreed let understudy play instead karajan bernstein made extensive use advances media convey art tellingly different ways bernstein hosted major prime time national television series educate reach children public large classical music karajan made series films late life talk made numerous recordings attitudes toward recording differed karajan frequently made new studio


wagner ''the guardian'' called conducting one last glass ceilings music industry ref name motherjonescom ref article stated france concerts conducted women women conducted national op ra paris ''bachtrack'' reported list world 's top conductors year five women mexico produced several major international conductors alondra de la parra become first mexican born woman attain distinction profession similarly conductors east asian descent become prominent within contemporary orchestral


last beat bar instant beat occurs called ''ictus'' plural '''' ''ictuses'' usually indicated sudden though necessarily large click wrist change baton direction instances ictus also used refer horizontal plane ictuses physically located top music stand baton tapped ictus gesture leading ictus called preparation continuous flow steady beats called


preparation concluded complete stillness conductors aim maintain eye contact ensemble much possible encouraging eye contact return increasing dialogue players singers conductor facial expressions may also important demonstrate character music encourage players cases little rehearsal time prepare piece conductor may discreetly indicate bars music beat immediately start movement holding fingers front chest


storage retrieval information stored main memory secondary memory implementation data structures generally based ability computer fetch store data place memory specified pointer bit string representing memory address stored memory manipulated program thus array record data structures based computing addresses data items arithmetic operations linked data structures based storing addresses data items within structure implementation data

Formal science
Computer science
Data structures