generalissimo alexander suvorov crossing alps catherine successfully waged two wars decaying ottoman empire advanced russia 's southern boundary black sea russia annexed crimea created black sea fleet allying rulers austria prussia incorporated territories polish lithuanian commonwealth century russian rule non catholic mainly orthodox population prevailed partitions poland pushing russian frontier westward central europe accordance treaty russia signed georgians protect new


means th century russia remained poor backward overwhelmingly agricultural illiterate country alexander victory napoleon time death catherine 's expansionist policy made russia major european power alexander continued policy wresting finland weakened kingdom sweden bessarabia ottomans key advisor adam jerzy czartoryski battle ganja russo persian war russian armies liberated allied georgia persian occupation clashed persia control consolidation georgia well


russian empire would play leading role behalf conservatism late retention serfdom precluded economic progress significant degree west european economic growth accelerated industrial revolution sea trade colonialism begun second half th century russia began lag ever farther behind undermining ability field strong armies nicholas decembrist revolt senate square russia 's great power status obscured inefficiency government isolation people economic backwardness following defeat napoleon alexander


ottoman towns erzurum gumushane posing protector saviour greek orthodox population received extensive support region 's pontic greeks following brief occupation russian imperial army withdrew back georgia russia conquered persian territories major ottoman territories caucasus nicholas crushed november uprising poland russian autocracy gave polish artisans gentry reason rebel assailing national core values language religion culture resulting january uprising massive polish revolt also crushed france


first half th century golden age russian poetry writers pushkin krylov zhukovsky gnedich st quarter th century time russian literature becomes independent striking phenomenon time laws russian literary language formed reasons rapid development russian literature period lie intra literary processes socio political life russian society western europe modernized issue russia became one direction westernizers favored imitating western europe others


avoid war however present crisis support france feared failure support serbia would lead loss russian credibility major political defeat russia 's goals leadership role balkans tsar nicholas ii mobilised russian forces july defend serbia austria hungary christopher clark states russian general mobilisation july one momentous decisions july crisis first general mobilisations came moment german government


petrograd new name saint petersburg february march thousands female textile workers walked factories protesting lack food calling workers join within days nearly workers city idle street fighting broke tsar ordered duma disband ordered strikers return work ordered troops shoot demonstrators streets orders triggered february revolution especially soldiers openly sided strikers tsar aristocracy fell march nicholas


russia treaty brest litovsk time new nation included four constituent republics russian sfsr ukrainian ssr belarusian ssr transcaucasian sfsr constitution adopted established federal system government based succession soviets set villages factories cities larger regions pyramid soviets constituent republic culminated union congress soviets however appeared congress exercised sovereign power body actually governed communist party turn controlled politburo


industrialization internal struggles joseph stalin established near total control soviet society wielding virtually unrestrained power following lenin 's death stalin wrestled gain control soviet union rival factions politburo especially leon trotsky 's trotskyists either exiled rendered powerless stalin ready put radical programme industrialisation action ref name deutscbher deutscher ''stalin political biography'' oxford university press pp ref fourth flag soviet union variant used stalin proposed first five year plan ref name richman abolishing nep


plan government took control agriculture state collective farms ''kolkhozes'' ref name conquest coll conquest robert ''the harvest sorrow soviet collectivization terror famine'' new york oxford university press ref decree february one million individual peasants ''kulaks'' forced land many peasants strongly opposed regimentation state often slaughtering herds faced loss land sections revolted countless peasants deemed kulaks authorities executed combination bad weather deficiencies hastily established collective farms massive confiscation


convicts working labor camps gulag system became important component industrialization effort especially siberia ref name forcedlabor gregory paul r valery lazarev eds ''the economics forced labor soviet gulag'' stanford hoover institution press ref ref name ivanova ivanova galina ''labor camp socialism gulag soviet totalitarian system'' armonk ny e sharpe ref estimated million people passed gulag system perhaps another nbsp million experience form forced labor ref name applebaum applebaum anne ''gulag history soviet camps'' london penguin books ref


room assert independence two superpowers partially able recognize common interest trying check spread proliferation nuclear weapons treaties salt salt ii anti ballistic missile treaty us soviet relations deteriorated following beginning nine year soviet afghan war election ronald reagan staunch anti communist improved communist bloc started unravel late collapse soviet union russia lost superpower status second


access information decades government repression social problems received wider public attention undermining communist party 's authority ''glasnost'' allowed ethnic nationalist disaffection reach surface many constituent republics especially baltic republics georgian ssr moldavian ssr sought greater autonomy moscow unwilling provide revolutions ussr lost allies eastern europe gorbachev 's attempts economic reform sufficient soviet government left intact fundamental elements communist economy suffering low pricing petroleum natural gas ongoing war


russian studies vol introduction russian history'' pages surveys scholars bartlett roger p ''a history russia'' https archiveorg details historyofrussia bart online brown archie et al eds ''the cambridge encyclopedia russia former soviet union'' nd ed pages https archiveorg details cambridgeencyclo brow online bushkovitch paul ''a concise history russia'' https wwwamazoncom concise history russia cambridge histories dp excerpt text search connolly richard ''the russian economy short introduction'' oxford university press https ehnet book reviews russian economy short introduction online review figes orlando ''natasha 's dance cultural history russia'' https wwwamazoncom natashas dance cultural history russia dp excerpt florinsky michael ed ''mcgraw hill encyclopedia russia soviet


period fossil record shows ''homo sapiens'' also known modern humans anatomically modern humans living africa years ago earliest known ''homo sapiens'' fossils include jebel irhoud remains morocco ca years ago ref name nat ref florisbad skull south africa ca years ago omo remains ethiopia ca years ago ref name guardian ref ref name hublinben ncer ref scientists suggested ''homo sapiens'' may arisen years ago merging populations east africa south africa ref name nyt ref ref name nat ref evidence variety behaviors indicative


distinctive features nubia became center iron making cotton cloth manufacturing egyptian writing replaced meroitic alphabet lion god apedemak added egyptian pantheon gods trade links red sea increased linking nubia mediterranean greece architecture art diversified pictures lions ostriches giraffes elephants eventually rise aksum nubia 's trade links broken suffered environmental degradation tree cutting required iron production ad aksumite king ezana brought mer e end carthage carthaginian empire egyptians referred


expanded red sea mediterranean egypt israel phoenicia greece rome black sea persia india china aksum known throughout lands th century bc region prosperous exporting ivory hippopotamus hides gold dust spices live elephants imported silver gold olive oil wine aksum manufactured glass crystal brass copper export powerful aksum emerged unifying parts eastern sudan northern ethiopia tigre eritrea kings built stone palatial buildings buried megalithic monuments ad aksum minting


grew millet found augustin holl soninke mand peoples likely responsible constructing settlements around bc region became desiccated settlements began decline likely relocating koumbi saleh ref name holla ref architectural evidence comparison pottery styles suggest dhar tichitt related subsequent ghana empire djenn djenno present day mali settled around bc town grew house sizable iron age population evidenced crowded cemeteries living structures made sun dried mud bc djenn djenno


press p ref city mogadishu came known ''city islam'' controlled east african gold trade several centuries ''almnara tower'' mogadishu period sultanates ajuran empire sultanate mogadishu republics like barawa merca hobyo respective ports flourished lucrative foreign commerce ships sailing coming arabia india venice persia egypt portugal far away china vasco da gama passed mogadishu th century noted large city


mande mandingo leader sundiata lord lion keita clan defeated soumaoro kant king sosso southern soninke battle kirina c sundiata continued conquest fertile forests niger valley east niger bend north sahara west atlantic ocean absorbing remains ghana empire sundiata took title ''mansa'' established capital empire niani although salt gold trade continued important mali empire agriculture pastoralism also critical growing


pra ofin rivers formed alliances defense paid tribute denkyira one powerful akan states time along adansi akwamu th century ashante society experienced sudden changes including population growth cultivation new world plants cassava maize increase gold trade coast north th century osei kofi tutu c help okomfo anokye unified became ashante confederation golden stool symbol


herero entered alliance germans thinking could get upper hand nama germans set garrison herero capital started allocating herero land white settlements including best grazing land central plateau made tax labor demands herero ovambanderu rebelled rebellion crushed leaders executed rinderpest crippled herero nama economy slowed white expansion germans continued policy making namibia white settlement seizing land cattle even trying


enabled batswana chiefdoms rebuild bakwena bangwaketse bangwato batawana cooperated control lucrative ivory trade used proceeds import horses guns turn enabled establish control botswana process largely complete thus bushmen bakalanga bakgalagadi batswapong current minorities subjugated batswana following great trek afrikaners cape colony established borders botswana transvaal coalition tswana chiefdoms led sechele resisted afrikaner


barotseland time boers began encroach upon basotho territory ref name ross ref cape colony ceded britain conclusion napoleonic wars ''voortrekkers'' pioneers farmers opted leave former dutch colony moved inland eventually established independent polities ref name ross ref name thompson ref time developments moshoeshoe gained control basotho kingdoms southern highveld ref name thompson universally praised skilled diplomat strategist able wield disparate refugee groups escaping difaqane


fish river zuurveld referred ''voortrekkers'' founded republics transvaal orange free state mostly areas sparse population diminished ''mfecane difaqane'' unlike khoisan bantu states conquered afrikaners population density greater unity additionally began arm guns acquired trade cape cases xhosa boer wars boers removed xhosa lands required dedicated imperial military force subdue bantu speaking states boer republics defeated


britain second boer war defeat however consummated many afrikaners' ambition south africa would white rule british placed power legislative executive administrative english afrikaner hands european trade exploration conquest tripod mounted maxim machine gun european states partitioned conquered africa years european nations mainly limited involvement trading stations african coast dared venture inland coast like portuguese often met defeats retreat coast several technological innovations helped


became one main convoy assembly points raf coastal command major submarine hunting operations based west africa smaller raf command dealt submarines indian ocean ferrying aircraft north america britain major mission western desert air force addition smaller localized commands set throughout war military establishments small throughout british africa largely consisted whites comprised two percent population outside south africa soon war began newly created african units


african countries decolonization africa started libya although liberia south africa egypt ethiopia already independent many countries followed peak year africa saw african nations declare independence including large part french west africa remaining countries gained independence throughout although colonizers portugal particular reluctant relinquish sovereignty resulting bitter wars independence lasted decade last african countries gain formal independence guinea bissau


pied noirs left country crippling economy neo destour new constitution party founded habib bourguiba pushing independence tunisia tunisia became independent ''bey'' deposed habib bourguiba elected president tunisia gamal abdel nasser deposed monarchy egypt egyptian revolution came power prime minister egypt muammar gaddafi led libyan coup d' tat deposed idris libya gaddafi remained power death libyan civil war egypt involved several wars


assassinated members egyptian islamic jihad khalid islambouli assassins islamists targeted sadat signing accords south african occupied south west africa maximum extent south african unita operations angola zambia angolan civil war southern africa apartheid laws started south africa dominant national party largely continuation existing policies difference policy separate development apartheid previous policies disparate efforts economically exploit african majority apartheid represented entire


southern region eg wad noun draa morocco consider offensive term ref name mohamed despite historicity etymology questionable european colonialists european africanists used term haratin identifiers groups black apparently mixed people found algeria mauritania morocco ref name mohamed saadian invasion songhai empire serves precursor later narratives grouped darker skinned maghrebians together identified origins sub saharan west africa ref name mohamed ii gold serving motivation behind saadian invasion songhai empire


opposed antiquated analogy based history darker skinned north africans darker skinned africans islamic world limited ref name mohamed part textual tradition generally associates inherited status servant dark skin eg negro labor negro cultivators negroid slaves freedman ref name mohamed european africanist paradigm uses primary reference point construction origins narratives darker skinned north africans eg imported slaves sub saharan west africa ref name mohamed darker skinned north africans darker skinned africans islamic world treated allegory alterity another part


fabrications ref name mohamed ii purpose apparent literary fabrications may affirm view bible greater quran affirm viewpoints held readers composed works ref name mohamed ii adoption th century european abolitionists religious polemical narrative present day european africanist paradigm may due correspondence established textual tradition ref name mohamed ii use stereotyped hypersexuality moors th century european abolitionists present day european africanist paradigm common ref name mohamed ii due


lack considerable development field research regarding enslavement islamic societies resulted present day european africanist paradigm relying unreliable estimates trans saharan slave trade ref name mohamed ii however insufficient data also used justification continued use faulty present day european africanist paradigm ref name mohamed ii darker skinned maghrebians particularly morocco grown weary lack discretion foreign academics shown toward bear resentment toward way depicted foreign academics consequently find intended activities foreign academics


authors various countries eg algeria cameroon sudan africa critiqued conceptualization sahara regional barrier provided counter arguments supporting interconnectedness continental africa historic cultural connections well trade west africa north africa east africa eg north africa niger mali north africa tanzania sudan major hubs islamic learning niger mali ref name merolla africa conceptually compartmentalized meaning black africa africa south sahara sub saharan africa ref name merolla north africa conceptually orientalized separated


middle dutch middle high german german meaning 'garment' history banton burial cloth oldest existing example warp ikat southeast asia displayed national museum philippines cloth likely made native asia people northwest romblon precursor today 's textiles includes leaves barks fur pelts felted cloths banton burial cloth oldest existing example warp ikat southeast asia displayed national museum philippines cloth likely made native

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silkworms '''wool''' refers hair domestic sheep goat distinguished types animal hair individual strands coated scales tightly crimped wool whole coated wax mixture known lanolin sometimes called wool grease waterproof dirtproof lanolin contaminants removed raw wool processing woollen refers yarn produced carded non parallel fibre worsted refers finer yarn spun longer fibers combed parallel


accessories well utilitarian articles rope '''acetate''' used increase shininess certain fabrics silks velvets taffetas '''seaweed''' used production textiles water soluble fibre known alginate produced used holding fibre cloth finished alginate dissolved leaving open area '''rayon''' manufactured fabric derived plant pulp different types rayon imitate feel texture silk cotton wool linen fibres stalks plants hemp flax nettles also known


fabrics available almost every colour dyeing process often requires several dozen gallons water pound clothing coloured designs textiles created weaving together fibres different colours tartan uzbek ikat adding coloured stitches finished fabric embroidery creating patterns resist dyeing methods tying areas cloth dyeing rest tie dyeing drawing wax designs cloth dyeing batik using various printing processes finished fabric woodblock printing still used india elsewhere today oldest dating back least


ce china textiles also sometimes bleached making textile pale white meaning iron yarn english light reflecting strong material invented germany th century made soaking cotton threads starch paraffin wax solution threads stretched polished steel rollers brushes end result process lustrous tear resistant yarn extremely hardwearing ref name history http wwwwuppertalihk de servicemarken branchen neu industrie industrie im bs textilstandort wuppertalhtml ''industriegeschichte aus dem bergischen land'' german accessed november ref ref name video http digitwdrde entries index q eyj ah iolsieze fsisinsxyx ixswie ijpbinsymn ixswiezf ijpbeyjmawvszci iij xx qt search wdr digit project ''eisengarnfabrikation barmen'' video min german accessed


pair antipodal points subgroup free group free result quite interesting statement purely algebraic yet simplest known proof topological namely free group ''g'' may realized fundamental group graph ''x'' main theorem covering spaces tells us every subgroup ''h'' ''g'' fundamental group covering space ''y'' ''x'' every ''y'' graph therefore fundamental group ''h'' free hand type application also handled simply

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forces interactions exert one another results produced interactions general physics regarded fundamental science natural sciences use obey field 's principles laws physics relies heavily mathematics logical framework formulating quantifying principles study principles universe long history largely derives direct observation experimentation formulation theories governing laws universe central study physics early philosophy gradually yielding


newton albert einstein lev landau worked multiple areas astronomy astronomy natural science studies celestial objects phenomena objects interest include planets moons stars nebulae galaxies comets astronomy study everything universe beyond earth 's atmosphere includes objects see naked eyes astronomy one oldest sciences astronomers early civilizations performed methodical observations night sky astronomical artifacts found much earlier periods two types astronomy observational astronomy theoretical astronomy observational astronomy focused


detractors heresy th century western european scholars philosophers came contact body knowledge previously ignorant large corpus works greek arabic preserved islamic scholars translation latin western europe introduced aristotle natural philosophy works taught new universities paris oxford early th century although practice frowned upon catholic church decree synod paris ordered lectures


early theologians including tatian eusebius considered natural philosophy outcropping pagan greek science suspicious although later christian philosophers including aquinas came see natural science means interpreting scripture suspicion persisted th th centuries condemnation forbade setting philosophy level equal theology debate religious constructs scientific context showed persistence catholic leaders resisted development natural philosophy even theological perspective aquinas albertus magnus another catholic theologian era sought


laws applied earth outer space uniting two spheres physical world previously thought function independently according separate physical rules newton example showed tides caused gravitational pull moon another newton 's advances make mathematics powerful explanatory tool natural phenomena natural philosophers long used mathematics means measurement analysis principles used means understanding cause effect nature newton th century th century scientists including


country''' private profit making businesses different government owned bodies countries certain businesses legally obliged organized certain ways '''tax advantages''' different structures treated differently tax law may advantages reason '''disclosure compliance requirements''' different business structures may required make less information public report relevant authorities may bound comply different rules regulations '''control coordination requirements''' function risk complexity tasks organize business organized set formal


source laws govern treatment labour employee relations worker protection safety discrimination basis age gender disability race jurisdictions sexual orientation minimum wage well unions worker compensation working hours leave specialized businesses may also require licenses either due laws governing entry certain trades occupations professions require special education raise revenue local governments professions require special licenses include law medicine piloting aircraft selling liquor radio broadcasting selling investment securities selling used cars roofing local jurisdictions


elements type bonds forms determined arrangement electrons orbitals particularly outermost valence electrons arrangements reflected position elements periodic table ref name mcsween based position elements fall broad groups alkali metals alkaline earth metals transition metals semi metals also known metalloids halogens noble gases lanthanides actinides ref name mcsween another useful classification scheme geochemistry goldschmidt classification places elements four main groups ''lithophiles'' combine easily oxygen elements include na k si al ti


interfaces liquid water air forward reaction enhanced humidity air less water vapor moved wind kinetic fractionation generally enhanced compared equilibrium fractionation depends factors reaction rate reaction pathway bond energy since lighter isotopes generally weaker bonds tend react faster enrich reaction products ref name kendall biological fractionation form kinetic fractionation since reactions tend one direction biological organisms prefer lighter isotopes lower energy cost


factors hydrogen helium lithium formed minutes big bang rest created interiors stars ref name mcsween meteorites meteorites come variety compositions chemical analysis determine whether planetesimals melted differentiated ref name palme chondrites undifferentiated round mineral inclusions called chondrules ages billion years date early solar system particular kind ci chondrite composition closely matches sun 's photosphere except depletion


resolution sensitivity spectral analysis allowing identification much greater collection molecules including ethane acetylene water carbon monoxide ref name lewis ref however earth based spectroscopy becomes increasingly difficult remote planets since reflected light sun much dimmer spectroscopic analysis light planets used detect vibrations molecules infrared frequency range constrains abundances elements h c n ref name lewis two elements detected phosphorus gas phosphine ph sub sub germanium germane geh sub sub ref name lewis helium


atom vibrations ultraviolet range strongly absorbed atmospheres outer planets earth thus despite abundance helium detected spacecraft sent outer planets indirectly collision induced absorption hydrogen molecules ref name lewis information jupiter obtained ''galileo'' probe sent atmosphere ref name fortney ref final mission cassini probe enter atmosphere saturn ref name bittersweet ending ref atmosphere jupiter found depleted factor


biotite may found great numbers partially converted augite magnetite hornblende biotite stable pressures conditions surface unstable higher levels ground mass rocks augite almost universally present plutonic representatives magma granite syenite contain biotite hornblende far commonly augite ref name eb felsic intermediate mafic igneous rocks rocks contain silica crystallizing yield free quartz form group generally designated felsic rocks contain least silica


magnesia iron quartz absent olivine usually abundant form mafic group intermediate rocks include characterized general absence quartz olivine important subdivision contains high percentage alkalis especially soda consequently minerals nepheline leucite common rocks often separated others alkali soda rocks corresponding series mafic rocks lastly small sub group rich olivine without feldspar called ultramafic rocks


quartz br orthoclase oligoclase mica hornblende augite little quartz br orthoclase hornblende augite biotite little quartz br plagioclase hornblende augite biotite quartz br plagioclase augite olivine felspar br augite hornblende olivine plutonic abyssal type granite syenite diorite gabbro peridotite intrusive hypabyssal type quartz porphyry orthoclase porphyry porphyrite dolerite picrite lavas effusive type rhyolite obsidian trachyte andesite basalt komatiite rocks


ocean amount required metal cofactor enzymes marine phytoplankton negligible ref name bruland ref trace metals nutrient type distributions strongly associated internal cycles particulate organic matter especially assimilation plankton lowest dissolved concentrations metals surface ocean assimilated plankton dissolution decomposition occur greater depths concentrations trace metals increase residence times metals zinc several thousand one hundred thousand years finally example scavenged type trace metal aluminium strong


ref program scholasticism began attempt harmonization part medieval christian thinkers harmonize various authorities tradition reconcile christian theology classical late antiquity philosophy especially aristotle also neoplatonism main figures scholasticism include anselm canterbury father scholasticism peter abelard alexander hales albertus magnus duns scotus william ockham bonaventure thomas aquinas aquinas 's masterwork ''summa theologica'' considered pinnacle scholastic medieval christian philosophy ref name gilsonp ref began aquinas

Humanities
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derived earlier syriac translations thus twice removed original greek text word word translations arabic texts could produce tortured readings contrast structural closeness latin greek permitted literal intelligible word word translations ref name institutions universities developed large cities europe period rival clerical orders within church began battle political intellectual control centers educational life two main orders founded period franciscans dominicans franciscans founded francis assisi


leader middle century bonaventure traditionalist defended theology augustine philosophy plato incorporating little aristotle neoplatonist elements following anselm bonaventure supposed reason discover truth philosophy illuminated religious faith important franciscan scholastics duns scotus peter auriol william ockham contrast dominican order teaching order founded st dominic propagate defend christian doctrine placed emphasis use reason made extensive use new


formal logic russell 's paradox discovered bertrand russell existed set could defined using possible sets included bertrand russell proposed various theories type fix problem russell arrived ramified theory types together axiom reducibility featured prominently whitehead russell 's ''principia mathematica'' published system avoided russell 's paradox creating hierarchy types assigning concrete mathematical possibly entity

Formal science
Computer science
Logic in computer science
Type theory


term called judgemental equality functions type theory functions terms functions either lambda terms given axiomatically lambda terms lambda term looks like ''variablename'' ''type '' ''term'' type ''type '' math math ''type '' type ''type '' math math ''type '' indicates lambda term function takes parameter type ''type '' computes term type ''type '' term inside lambda term must value ''type '' assuming variable type ''type '' example


nat zero canonical values larger zero use constructor function nat math math nat thus one two three etc decimal numbers notationally equal terms nat nat nat natural numbers defined function r uses recursion define function nats takes function p nat math math u


known identity type propositional equality reason needs identity type equal terms compute term assuming x nat terms x x compute term recall notation function add notation function r cannot compute r value x specified specified two different calls r compute term identity type


phrase judgemental equality comes judgements enforce every term type type restrict rules applied term rules type theory 's rules expressed using horizontal line required input judgements line resulting judgement line rule creating lambda term math display block begin array c gamma vdash b b hline gamma vdash lambda b b end array math judgements required create


set theories define subtyping computation takes place repeated application rules many type theories strongly normalizing means application rules always result result however normalizing type theory one directional computation rules called reduction rules applying rules reduces term rule one directional called conversion rule decision problems type theory naturally associated decision problem type inhabitation type inhabitation decision problem


proven term type proof proposition thus type pi x nat x x represents x type nat x x equal term type represents proof curry howard correspondence curry howard correspondence observed similarity logics programming languages implication logic math math b resembles function type type b variety logics rules similar expression programming language 's types similarity goes farther applications


categories ''themselves'' viewed type theories certain kind fact alone indicates type theory much closely related category theory set theory brief category viewed type theory regarding objects types sorts ie roughly speaking category may thought type theory shorn syntax number significant results follow way ref name sets extensions twentieth century ref cartesian closed categories correspond typed calculus lambek c monoids categories products


current small measure equipment time river bed contributed short circuit signal however similar process voltage induced tide english channel measured faraday carefully omitted term hydrodynamics work ideal resistive mhd mhd simulation solar wind simplest form mhd ideal mhd assumes fluid little resistivity treated perfect conductor limit infinite magnetic reynolds number

Natural science
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Numerical simulations
Magnetohydrodynamics


field long enough along field ignore landau damping time scales much longer ion gyration time system smooth slowly evolving importance resistivity imperfectly conducting fluid magnetic field generally move fluid following diffusion law resistivity plasma serving diffusion constant means solutions ideal mhd equations applicable limited time region given size diffusion becomes important ignore one estimate diffusion time across


shear alfv n wave slow alfv n wave torsional alfv n wave magnetosonic wave longitudinal compressional alfv n wave fast alfv n wave magnetoacoustic wave phase velocity depends angle wave vector magnetic field mhd wave propagating arbitrary angle respect time independent bulk field satisfy dispersion relation math frac omega k v cos theta math math v frac b sqrt mu rho math alfv n speed branch corresponds shear alfv n mode


quality inspector volkseigener betrieb sewing machine parts factory dresden east germany '''quality control''' '''qc''' process entities review quality factors involved production iso defines quality control part quality management focused fulfilling quality requirements approach places emphasis three aspects enshrined standards iso ref name praxiomiso ref ref name aftfunda ref elements controls job management defined well managed processes performance integrity criteria identification records competence knowledge skills experience qualifications soft elements

Applied science
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including people economy institutions practice state governments rely wide range means including diplomacy economic power military capabilities perceptions security since possible know precision extent something 'secure' measure vulnerability unavoidable perceptions security vary often greatly ref name ref name example fear death earthquake common united states us slipping bathroom floor kills people ref name bruce schneier ''beyond fear thinking security uncertain world'' copernicus books pages

Applied science
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given property finite groups periodic groups simple groups solvable groups rather exploring properties individual group one seeks establish results apply whole class groups new paradigm paramount importance development mathematics foreshadowed creation abstract algebra works hilbert emil artin emmy noether mathematicians school groups additional structure important elaboration concept group occurs ''g'' endowed additional structure notably topological space differentiable manifold

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Group theory


algebraic variety group operations ''m'' multiplication ''i'' inversion math g times g g gh mapsto gh quad g g g mapsto g math compatible structure continuous smooth regular sense algebraic geometry maps ''g'' topological group lie group algebraic group presence extra structure relates types groups mathematical disciplines means tools available study topological groups form natural domain abstract harmonic analysis whereas lie groups frequently realized transformation


half twentieth century mathematicians chevalley steinberg also increased understanding finite analogs classical groups related groups one family groups family general linear groups finite fields finite groups often occur considering symmetry mathematical physical objects objects admit finite number structure preserving transformations theory lie groups may viewed dealing continuous symmetry strongly influenced associated weyl groups finite groups generated reflections act finite dimensional euclidean space


modern theoretical physics provide natural framework analysing continuous symmetries differential equations differential galois theory much way permutation groups used galois theory analysing discrete symmetries algebraic equations extension galois theory case continuous symmetry groups one lie 's principal motivations combinatorial geometric group theory groups described different ways finite groups described writing group table consisting possible multiplications compact way defining group ''generators


link algebraic field extensions group theory gives effective criterion solvability polynomial equations terms solvability corresponding galois group example ''s'' sub sub symmetric group elements solvable implies general quintic equation cannot solved radicals way equations lower degree theory one historical roots group theory still fruitfully applied yield new results areas class field theory algebraic topology algebraic topology another domain prominently associates groups


objects theory interested groups used describe certain invariants topological spaces called invariants defined way change space subjected deformation example fundamental group counts many paths space essentially different poincar conjecture proved grigori perelman prominent application idea influence unidirectional though example algebraic topology makes use eilenberg maclane spaces spaces prescribed homotopy groups similarly algebraic k theory relies


theorem harmonic analysis analysis lie groups certain groups called harmonic analysis haar measures integrals invariant translation lie group used pattern recognition image processing techniques combinatorics combinatorics notion permutation group concept group action often used simplify counting set objects see particular burnside 's lemma circle fifths may endowed cyclic group structure music presence periodicity circle fifths yields applications elementary group theory musical


molecular orbitals molecular symmetry responsible many physical spectroscopic properties compounds provides relevant information chemical reactions occur order assign point group given molecule necessary find set symmetry operations present symmetry operation action rotation around axis reflection mirror plane words operation moves molecule indistinguishable original configuration group theory rotation axes mirror planes called symmetry elements


since applying twice produces identity operation molecules one rotation axis c sub n sub axis largest value n highest order rotation axis principal axis example boron trifluoride bf sub sub highest order rotation axis '''c sub sub ''' principal axis rotation '''c sub sub ''' reflection operation ''' ''' many molecules mirror planes although may obvious reflection operation exchanges left right point moved perpendicularly plane position exactly far plane


procedure british military officer lost nose toxic effects mercury treatments german surgeon carl ferdinand von graefe published major work entitled ''rhinoplastik'' von graefe modified italian method using free skin graft arm instead original delayed pedicle flap first american plastic surgeon john peter mettauer performed first cleft palate operation instruments designed johann friedrich dieffenbach wrote comprehensive text rhinoplasty titled ''operative chirurgie'' introduced concept reoperation improve

Applied science
Medicine and health
Surgery
Plastic surgery


gunshot wounds war gillies developed private practice rainsford mowlem including many famous patients travelled extensively promote advanced techniques worldwide gillies' cousin archibald mcindoe joined practice became committed plastic surgery world war ii broke plastic surgery provision largely divided different services armed forces gillies team split gillies sent rooksdown house near basingstoke became principal army plastic surgery unit tommy kilner worked gillies first world war


minimally invasive cosmetic procedures performed united states percent increase study found requests cosmetic procedures increased significantly since beginning covid pandemic possibly due increase videoconferencing cited estimates include increase united states increase france americans underwent cosmetic surgery procedures number rose almost half million people popular aesthetic cosmetic procedures include abdominoplasty tummy tuck reshaping firming abdomen blepharoplasty eyelid surgery reshaping upper lower eyelids


pregnancy example involves removal breast skin opposed glandular tissue augmentation mastopexy breast lift breast implants lifting breasts make less saggy repositioning nipple higher location increasing breast size saline silicone gel implants recent studies newer technique '' 'simultaneous augmentation mastopexy''' sam indicate safe surgical procedure minimal medical complications sam technique involves invaginating tacking tissues first order previsualize final result making surgical incisions breast ref name r ref buttock augmentation butt implant


used able mine data use data derivatives status security surrounding access data collected data updated data may also modified ''become'' anonymous individuals may readily identified ref name nascio however even anonymized data sets potentially contain enough information allow identification individuals occurred journalists able find several individuals based set search histories inadvertently released aol inadvertent revelation personally identifiable information leading

Formal science
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Data mining


situation united states united states privacy concerns addressed us congress via passage regulatory controls health insurance portability accountability act hipaa hipaa requires individuals give informed consent regarding information provide intended present future uses according article ''biotech business week'' ' n practice hipaa may offer greater protection longstanding regulations research arena' says aahc importantly rule 's goal protection informed consent approach level incomprehensibility average


available proprietary licenses angoss knowledgestudio data mining tool lionsolver integrated software application data mining business intelligence modeling implements learning intelligent optimization lion approach polyanalyst data text mining software megaputer intelligence microsoft analysis services data mining software provided microsoft netowl suite multilingual text entity analytics products enable data mining oracle data mining data mining software oracle corporation pseven platform automation engineering simulation analysis multidisciplinary optimization data mining provided datadvance qlucore omics explorer data mining software rapidminer environment machine learning


based human rights principles help advance human rights gender equality empowerment young people ref name unfpaorg sources abbr long condom obelisk buenos aires argentina part awareness campaign world aids day sex education may taught informally someone receives information conversation parent friend religious leader media may also delivered sex self help authors magazine advice columnists sex columnists sex education web sites training also provided multimedia resources adolescents spend lot

Social science
Sociology
Sexology
Sex education


time social media watching television adolescents may also hard time talking families sexual matters study shown mass media interventions example use teaching sexual education commercials shown television ads social media proven effective decreased amount unprotected sex formal sex education occurs schools health care providers offer sex education slyer stated sex education teaches young person know personal conduct relationship others gruenberg also stated


great increase books sex education children young adults countries indonesia mongolia south korea systematic policy framework teaching sex within schools malaysia thailand assessed adolescent reproductive health needs view developing adolescent specific training messages materials bangladesh myanmar pakistan coordinated sex education programs ref name escap http wwwunescaporg esid psis population icpd sec asp adolescents changing times issues perspectives adolescent reproductive health escap region united nations social economic commission asia pacific ref nepal sex education mandatory school japan sex


rights told feelings informed talk case feel uncomfortable private matter wish talk finally objectives include enforcement capacity decide ability express feelings situation say secondary schools programs ages basic objective give students secure moment caring well informed adults confidentiality mutual respect students talk adult understands


methods birth control infection prevention sexual orientation sexual abuse factual ethical information abortion varied widely abstinence sex education tells teenagers sexually abstinent marriage provide information contraception kaiser study high school principals said school 's main message abstinence difference two approaches impact teen behavior remains controversial subject us teenage birth rates dropping since however centers disease control prevention report showed increase


view tend see political question whether society individual teach sexual mores sexual education may thus seen providing individuals knowledge necessary liberate socially organized sexual oppression make minds addition sexual oppression may viewed socially harmful sex relationship experts like reid mihalko reid sex suggest open dialogue physical intimacy health education generate self esteem self confidence humor general health claim certain sex education curricula break pre existing notions modesty


'''ichthyology''' branch zoology devoted study fish including bony fish osteichthyes cartilaginous fish chondrichthyes jawless fish agnatha according fishbase species fish described october approximately new species described year etymology word derived greek words ''ikhthus'' meaning fish ''logos'' meaning study history fish represent approximately figurative depictions mimbres pottery alt photo square side pottery showing fish skewed checkered pattern skin zig zag lines represent waves top bottom

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Ichthyology


father modern taxonomy taxonomic approach became systematic approach study organisms including fish linnaeus professor university uppsala eminent botanist however one colleagues peter artedi earned title father ichthyology indispensable advancements artedi contributed linnaeus 's refinement principles taxonomy furthermore recognized five additional orders fish malacopterygii acanthopterygii branchiostegi chondropterygii plagiuri artedi developed standard methods making counts measurements anatomical features modernly exploited another associate linnaeus albertus seba prosperous pharmacist amsterdam


document describes species fish new science remains one ambitious treatises modern world scientific exploration americas advanced knowledge remarkable diversity fish charles alexandre lesueur student cuvier made cabinet fish dwelling within great lakes saint lawrence river regions adventurous individuals john james audubon constantine samuel rafinesque figure faunal documentation north america often traveled one another rafinesque wrote ''ichthyologic ohiensis'' addition louis agassiz switzerland established


reputation study freshwater fish first comprehensive treatment palaeoichthyology ''poisson fossil 's'' agassiz moved united states taught harvard university death albert g nther published ''catalogue fish british museum'' describing species mentioning another generally considered one influential ichthyologists david starr jordan wrote articles books subject served president indiana university stanford university modern publications class wikitable publication frequency date


directly plank wood transfers drawing done paper plank wood traditionally artist handed work technician uses sharp carving tools carve away parts block receive ink western tradition surface block inked use brayer however japanese tradition woodblocks inked brush sheet paper perhaps slightly damp placed block block rubbed baren spoon

Humanities
Visual arts
Applied arts
Printmaking


div style width float right margin px padding px border px solid aa artists using technique include honor daumier vincent van gogh george bellows pierre bonnard edvard munch emil nolde pablo picasso odilon redon henri de toulouse lautrec salvador dal c escher willem de kooning joan mir stow wengenroth elaine de kooning louise nevelson div ''la goulue'' lithograph poster toulouse lautrec lithography technique invented alois senefelder based chemical repulsion oil water porous surface normally limestone used image drawn limestone greasy medium


variety materials paper cloth canvas rubber glass metal artists used technique print bottles slabs granite directly onto walls reproduce images textiles would distort pressure printing presses monotype paul gauguin ''arearea varua ino'' words devil watercolor monotype japan paper mounted cardboard national gallery art washington dc monotype technique 's inventor giovanni benedetto castiglione ''the creation adam'' c monotyping type printmaking made drawing painting smooth


non absorbent surface surface matrix historically copper etching plate contemporary work vary zinc glass acrylic glass image transferred onto sheet paper pressing two together usually using printing press monotypes also created inking entire surface using brushes rags removing ink create subtractive image eg creating lights field opaque color inks used may oil based water based oil based inks paper may dry case


limited lux foot candles less artificial lights equipped uv filtering sleeves tubes prints onto animal skins vellum also maintained humidity level prints onto silk particularly sensitive light including camera flashes see also rembrandt ''christ preaching'' '' hundred guilder print '' etching c albrecht rer ''saint jerome study'' artist 's proof banhua chinese printmaking carborundum printmaking graphic design line engraving list printmakers old master print shin hanga sosaku hanga ukiyo e visual arts printmakers nationality engravers


variant angular glagolitic alphabet preserved croatia see early cyrillic alphabet detailed description script information sounds originally expressed phonology old church slavonic following segments reconstructible sounds given slavic transliterated form rather ipa exact realisation uncertain often differs depending area text originated consonants class wikitable style text align center labial dental palatal velar plosive affricate

Applied science
Divinity
Scriptural study and languages
Old Church Slavonic


domov dom x dom dom mi adjectives inflected ''o jo'' stems masculine neuter ''a ja'' stems feminine three genders could short indefinite long definite variants latter formed suffixing indefinite form anaphoric third person pronoun ''j '' synthetic verbal conjugation expressed present aorist imperfect tenses perfect pluperfect future conditional tenses moods made combining auxiliary verbs participles synthetic tense forms sample conjugation verb ' 'vesti'' lead underlyingly ' 'ved ti'' given table class wikitable sample conjugation verb ' 'vesti'' lead


mucha ''the slav epic'' old church slavonic language developed first bulgarian empire taught preslav bulgarian capital ohrid bulgarian capital represent one regional dialect generalized form early eastern south slavic cannot localized ref name old church slavonic horace lunt existence two major literary centres empire led period th th centuries emergence two recensions otherwise called redactions termed eastern western respectively researchers


sibilant consonants wide use soft consonant clusters later stages developed modern macedonian phonemes strict distinction articulation yers vocalisation strong position deletion weak position confusion yat yat denasalization latter stages wider usage retention phoneme slavic languages affricated czech recension czech bohemian recension


cases denasalization yuses occurred old church slavonic modern polish isolated bulgarian dialects retained old slavonic nasal vowels serbian recension serbian recension written mostly cyrillic also glagolitic alphabet depending region th century serbs used exclusively cyrillic alphabet latin script coastal areas miroslav gospels belong serbian recension feature following linguistic characteristics nasal vowels denasalised one case closed e u eg ocs r ka sr ruka hand ocs j zyk


''canon'' manuscripts must satisfy certain linguistic chronological cultural criteria incorporated canon must significantly depart language tradition saints cyril methodius usually known ''cyrillo methodian tradition'' example freising fragments dating th century show linguistic cultural traits old church slavonic usually included canon phonological features writings appear belong certain pannonian slavic dialect period similarly ostromir gospels exhibits dialectal features classify east slavic rather


scientific update aristotle 's work part ibn n 's massive ''kit b al '' frederick ii eventually wrote treatise falconry ''de arte venandi cum avibus'' related ornithological observations results hunts experiments court enjoyed performing ref name egerton ref several early german french scholars compiled old works conducted new research birds included guillaume rondelet described observations mediterranean pierre belon described fish birds seen france levant belon 's ''book birds''

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Ornithology


folio volume descriptions species comparison skeleton humans birds considered landmark comparative anatomy ref name miall ref volcher coiter dutch anatomist made detailed studies internal structures birds produced classification birds ''de differentiis avium'' around based structure habits ref name egallen ref konrad gesner wrote ''vogelbuch'' ''icones avium omnium'' around like gesner ulisse aldrovandi encyclopedic naturalist began volume natural history three volumes birds entitled ''ornithologiae hoc est de avibus historiae libri xii'' published


came first major system bird classification based function morphology rather form behaviour willughby 's ''ornithologiae libri tres'' completed john ray sometimes considered mark beginning scientific ornithology ray also worked ''ornithologia'' published posthumously ''synopsis methodica avium et piscium'' ref name white ref earliest list british birds ''pinax rerum naturalium britannicarum'' written christopher merrett authors john ray considered little value ray however value expertise naturalist sir thomas


society us started organizations started primary objective conservation rspb born grew small group women croydon met regularly called fur fin feather folk took pledge refrain wearing feathers birds killed purpose food ostrich exempted organization allow men members initially avenging policy british ornithologists' union keep women ref name allen unlike rspb primarily conservation oriented


make better decisions areas logistics training schedules second world war modern field operational research arose world war ii world war ii era operational research defined scientific method providing executive departments quantitative basis decisions regarding operations control ref name c para operational research british army october report c uk national archives file wo br quoted dust jacket morse philip kimball george e ''methods operation research'' st edition revised mit press j wiley th printing ref

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research


submarines would attacked sunk number sightings result findings coastal command changed aircraft using white undersurfaces work cc ors indicated average trigger depth aerial delivered depth charges dcs changed feet kill ratios would go reason u boat saw aircraft shortly arrived target feet charges would damage u boat would n't time descend far


effective camouflage night fighters traditional dull camouflage paint finish smooth paint finish increased airspeed reducing skin friction ref name proceedings land operational research sections army operational research group aorg ministry supply mos landed normandy followed british forces advance across europe analyzed among topics effectiveness artillery aerial bombing anti tank shooting world war ii auspices british association symposium organised dundee opening address watson watts offered definition


business management science applied statistics engineering disciplines mathematical quantitative methods economics mathematical economics decision making


every entry first less equal corresponding entry second said first vector less equal second vector linear programming applied various fields study widely used mathematics lesser extent business economics engineering problems industries use linear programming models include transportation energy telecommunications manufacturing proven useful modeling diverse types problems planning routing scheduling assignment design history leonid kantorovich john von neumann problem

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Linear programming


polynomial time leonid khachiyan ref name khachiyan ref larger theoretical practical breakthrough field came narendra karmarkar introduced new interior point method solving linear programming problems ref name karmarkar ref uses linear programming widely used field optimization several reasons many practical problems operations research expressed linear programming problems ref name dantzig certain special cases linear programming ''network flow'' problems ''multicommodity flow'' problems considered important enough generated much research specialized algorithms solution


created great interest interior point methods ref name strang ref since karmarkar 's discovery many interior point methods proposed analyzed vaidya 's algorithm vaidya proposed algorithm runs math n math time vaidya 's algorithm vaidya developed algorithm runs math n math time formally speaking algorithm takes math n n l math arithmetic operations worst case math math number constraints math n math number variables math l math number bits input sparsity time algorithms lee


price simplex algorithm used solve lp problems notes references f l hitchcock '' https onlinelibrarywileycom doi abs sapm distribution product several sources numerous localities '' journal mathematics physics gb dantzig '' https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id zpyca h c oi fnd pg pa dq maximization linear function variables subject linear inequalities ots viwrkqvgk sig ncv tdyjtlyxcxn demwbn maximization linear function variables subject linear inequalities '' published pp nbsp tc koopmans ed ''activity analysis production allocation'' new york london wiley chapman hall j e beasley editor ''advances linear integer programming'' oxford science collection surveys karl heinz borgwardt ''the simplex algorithm probabilistic analysis'' algorithms combinatorics volume springer verlag


average behavior random problems richard w cottle ed ''the basic george b dantzig'' stanford business books stanford university press stanford california selected papers george b dantzig george b dantzig mukund n thapa ''linear programming introduction'' springer verlag george b dantzig mukund n thapa ''linear programming theory extensions'' springer verlag comprehensive covering eg pivoting interior point algorithms large scale problems decomposition following dantzig wolfe benders introducing stochastic programming evar nering albert w tucker ''linear programs related problems'' academic press elementary padberg ''linear optimization extensions'' second edition springer verlag


carefully written account primal dual simplex algorithms projective algorithms introduction integer linear programming featuring traveling salesman problem odysseus christos h papadimitriou kenneth steiglitz ''combinatorial optimization algorithms complexity'' corrected republication new preface dover computer science invited survey international symposium mathematical programming computer science reading dmitris alevras manfred w padberg '' https booksgooglecom booksid rauyb ndhjwc printsec frontcover v onepage q f false linear optimization extensions problems solutions '' universitext springer verlag problems padberg solutions chapter linear programming pp nbsp describes randomized half plane intersection algorithm linear programming


mp integer programming pg computer science complexity theory elementary introduction mathematicians computer scientists cornelis roos tam terlaky jean philippe vial ''interior point methods linear optimization'' second edition springer verlag graduate level alexander schrijver ''theory linear integer programming'' john wiley sons mathematical linear optimization modeling h p williams '' https booksgooglecom booksid yjrh toes uc printsec frontcover v onepage q f false model building mathematical programming '' fifth edition modeling stephen j wright '' https booksgooglecom booksid oqdbzxhzeukc printsec frontcover v onepage q f false primal dual interior point methods '' siam graduate level yinyu ye ''interior point algorithms theory analysis'' wiley advanced graduate level ziegler g nter chapters ''lectures polytopes'' springer verlag new


ship ''albatros'' built fridtjof nansen allowed ship ''fram'' frozen arctic ice enabled obtain oceanographic meteorological astronomical data stationary spot extended period ocean currents writer geographer john francon williams frgs commemorative plaque clackmannan cemetery geographer john francon williams published seminal book ''geography oceans'' otto kr mmel published ''handbuch der ozeanographie'' became influential awakening public interest oceanography four month north atlantic expedition headed john murray

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Oceanography


ocean 's biogeochemical setup understanding worlds oceans permit scientists better decide weather changes addition guides reliable utilization earths resources branches oceanographic frontal systems southern hemisphere study oceanography divided five branches biological oceanography biological oceanography investigates ecology biology marine organisms context physical chemical geological characteristics ocean environment chemical oceanography chemical oceanography study chemistry ocean whereas chemical oceanography primarily occupied study understanding seawater properties


regions corals likely severely affected become less able build calcium carbonate skeletons ref name cohen ref turn adversely impacting reef dwellers ref name aboutantarctica ref current rate ocean chemistry change seems unprecedented earth 's geological history making unclear well marine ecosystems adapt shifting conditions near future ref name h nisch ref particular concern manner combination acidification expected additional stressors higher temperatures lower oxygen levels impact seas ref name gruber ref geological oceanography geological oceanography study geology


crab nebula supernova remnant discovered hard x ray kev source scintillation counter flown balloon launched palestine texas united states likely first balloon based detection x rays discrete cosmic x ray source ref name headates ref high energy focusing telescope crab nebula remnant exploded star image shows crab nebula various energy bands including hard x ray image heft data taken observation run image wide high energy focusing telescope heft balloon borne experiment image

Natural science
Space science
Astronomy
X-ray astronomy


x rays x ray sources many beginnings theory found earth based laboratory x ray source built studied dynamos dynamo theory describes process rotating convecting electrically conducting fluid acts maintain magnetic field theory used explain presence anomalously long lived magnetic fields astrophysical bodies stellar magnetic fields really induced dynamos field strength might associated rotation rate ref name trimble ref astronomical models international year light br chandra x ray observatory observed x ray spectrum combined


radio portion obtained unknown source ref name morrison dividing line giant stars evolve become red giants also coincides wind coronal dividing lines ref name kashyap ref explain drop x ray emission across dividing lines number models proposed low transition region densities leading low emission coronae high density wind extinction coronal emission cool coronal loops become stable changes magnetic field structure open topology leading decrease magnetically confined plasma changes magnetic dynamo


high energy radiation stellar environment ref name gudel current wisdom massive coronal main sequence stars late early f stars conjecture supported observation theory ref name gudel young low mass stars cluster newly formed stars orion nebula newly formed stars known pre main sequence stars stage stellar evolution reach main sequence stars stage ages million years produce x rays stellar coronae however x ray emission sup sup sup sup times stronger main sequence stars similar masses ref name preibisch ref x ray


astronomy detected x ray sources around near sun appear associated processes corona outer atmosphere coronal heating problem area solar x ray astronomy coronal heating problem photosphere sun effective temperature k ref name massey ref yet corona average temperature sup sup k ref name erdelyi ref however hottest regions sup sup k ref name erdelyi high temperature corona shows heated something direct heat conduction photosphere ref


spectral type bp ap appreciable magnetic radio sources bp ap stars remain undetected reported early producing x rays identified probably single stars x ray observations offer possibility detect x ray dark planets eclipse part corona parent star transit methods particularly promising low mass stars jupiter like planet could eclipse rather significant coronal area x ray dark planet comet x ray observations offer possibility detect x ray dark planets eclipse part corona


context use important factor using methods goals formal semantics study role pragmatics development children autism spectrum disorders developmental language disorder dld ambiguity sentence green light ambiguous without knowing context identity speaker speaker 's intent difficult infer meaning certainty example could mean space belongs green ambient lighting driving green traffic signal longer wait continue

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Pragmatics


person uttering mentioned meanings brought relationship signified signifier one way define relationship placing signs two categories '' 'referential indexical signs''' also called shifters '''pure indexical signs''' referential indexical signs signs meaning shifts depending context hence nickname shifters 'i' would considered referential indexical sign referential aspect meaning would ' st person singular' indexical aspect would person speaking refer definitions semantic referential indexical meaning another


concept chair ref name referential expressions conversation referring things people common feature conversation conversants collaboratively individuals engaging discourse utilize pragmatics ref name ref addition individuals within scope discourse cannot help avoid intuitive use certain utterances word choices effort create communicative success ref name study referential language heavily focused upon definite descriptions https wwwmccauslandcenterscedu alab sites scedualab files attachments almor nair pdf referent accessibility theories presented direct referent descriptions occur discourse ref name ref layman 's terms reiteration certain names places


esteem addressee via special forms address self humbling first person pronouns '''affinal taboo index''' example avoidance speech produces reinforces sociological distance seen aboriginal dyirbal language australia language others social taboo use everyday lexicon presence certain relatives mother law child law paternal aunt 's child maternal uncle 's child relatives present dyirbal speaker switch completely separate lexicon reserved purpose cases semantico referential


utterance must conform various conditions involving austin calls felicity deal things like appropriate context speaker 's authority instance couple arguing husband says wife accepts apology even though offered nothing approaching apology assertion infelicitous made neither expression regret request forgiveness exists none accept thus act accepting possibly happen jakobson 's six functions language ref roman jakobson expanding work karl b hler described six constitutive


words eg autumn leaves fallen expressive alternatively called emotive affective function relates addresser best exemplified interjections sound changes alter denotative meaning utterance add information addresser 's speaker 's internal state eg wow view conative function engages addressee directly best illustrated vocatives imperatives eg tom come inside eat poetic function focuses message sake ref name duranti duranti ref operative function poetry well


state sole power define hate speech legally state makes hate speech performative jacques derrida remarked work done pragmatics aligned well program outlined book ''of grammatology'' mile benveniste argued pronouns fundamentally distinct pronouns role creating subject gilles deleuze f lix guattari discuss linguistic pragmatics fourth chapter ''a thousand plateaus'' november postulates linguistics draw three conclusions austin performative utterance communicate information act


quaternions drew attention need expand algebraic structures beyond associatively multiplicative class review alexander macfarlane wrote main idea work unification several methods generalization ordinary algebra include rather comparative study several structures time george boole 's algebra logic made strong counterpoint ordinary number algebra term universal served calm strained sensibilities whitehead 's early work sought unify quaternions due hamilton grassmann 's ausdehnungslehre boole 's algebra logic whitehead wrote

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Universal algebra


book '' algebras intrinsic value separate detailed study also worthy comparative study sake light thereby thrown general theory symbolic reasoning algebraic symbolism particular comparative study necessarily presupposes previous separate study comparison impossible without knowledge '' ref name gratzer whitehead however results general nature work subject minimal early garrett birkhoff ystein ore began publishing universal algebras developments metamathematics category theory furthered field particularly


universal constructions '' pub henry helson crescent berkeley ca pp nbsp birkhoff garrett universal algebra ''comptes rendus du premier congr canadien de math matiques'' university toronto press toronto pp nbsp burris stanley n hp sankappanavar '' http wwwthoralfuwaterlooca htdocs ualghtml course universal algebra '' springer verlag ''free online edition'' cohn paul moritz ''universal algebra'' dordrecht netherlands dreidel publishing '' first published harper row '' freese ralph ralph mckenzie '' http wwwmathhawaiiedu ralph commutator commutator theory congruence modular varieties st ed london mathematical society lecture note series cambridge univ press free online second edition''


gr tzer george ''universal algebra'' van nostrand company inc higgins p j https londmathsoconlinelibrarywileycom doi abs plms groups multiple operators proc london math soc higgins pj algebras scheme operators ''mathematische nachrichten'' hobby david ralph mckenzie '' http wwwamsorg books conm structure finite algebras '' american mathematical society ''free online edition'' jipsen peter henry rose '' http www chapmanedu jipsen jipsenrosevolhtml varieties lattices '' lecture notes mathematics springer verlag ''free online edition'' pigozzi '' http peoplemathscedu mcnulty alglatvar pigozzinotespdf general theory algebras '' ''free online edition'' smith jdh ''mal'cev varieties'' springer verlag whitehead alfred


north '' http historicallibrarycornelledu cgi bin culmath docviewerdid seq treatise universal algebra '' cambridge ''mainly historical interest'' external links https wwwspringercom birkhauser mathematics journal ''algebra universalis'' journal dedicated universal algebra


carried majesty law ref name ipngovpl ref fearing proper jobs many writers associated borejsza 's publishing empire embraced sovietization polish culture ref name kott jan kott https booksgooglecom booksid yx c fik c pg pa dq jerzy borejsza lr brr ei zl szrbkafmygt zedbbq ppa ''still alive autobiographical essay'' p ''yale university press'' google print ref zlp union run kruczkowski slew prominent signatories declared full support persecution religious leaders ministry public security death sentences enforced although father fudali died unexplained circumstances ref name ipn fudali http wwwipngovpl ftp wystawy proces kurii krakowskiej html plansza fhtml ks j zef fudali kap archidiecezji krakowskiej ''institute national remembrance'' retrieved october ref ref

Humanities
Languages and literature
Polish Literature


''livre noir du communisme crimes terreur r pression'' black book communism crimes terror repression ''harvard university press'' pages pages ref present width width valign top gustaw morcinek pola gojawiczy ska aleksander wat sergiusz piasecki konstanty ildefons ga czy ski jan dobraczy ski marek h asko czes aw mi osz nobel prize literature kazimierz brandys stanis aw lem tadeusz konwicki andrzej kijowski andrzej bursa bogdan czaykowski marek krajewski born joanna bator born adam zagajewski nbsp valign top ryszard kapu ci ski joanna


underway red cross hospital tampere finland finnish civil war surgery invasive technique fundamental principle physical intervention organs organ systems tissues diagnostic therapeutic reasons general rule procedure considered surgical involves cutting person 's tissues closure previously sustained wound procedures necessarily fall rubric angioplasty endoscopy may considered surgery involve common surgical procedure settings use sterile environment anesthesia antiseptic conditions typical surgical instruments

Applied science
Medicine and health
Surgery


involves reconstruction injured mutilated deformed part body transplant surgery replacement organ body part insertion another different human animal person undergoing surgery removing organ body part live human animal use transplant also type surgery body part surgery performed one organ system structure may classed organ organ system tissue involved examples include cardiac surgery performed heart gastrointestinal surgery performed within digestive tract


surgical robot da vinci zeus robotic surgical systems control instrumentation direction surgeon terminology excision surgery names often start name organ excised cut end ''' ectomy''' procedures involving cutting organ tissue end ''' otomy''' surgical procedure cutting abdominal wall gain access abdominal cavity laparotomy minimally invasive procedures involving small incisions endoscope inserted end ''' oscopy''' example surgery abdominal cavity


populations elderly people older adults widely varying physical health frail elderly people significant risk post surgical complications need extended care assessment older people elective surgery accurately predict person 's recovery trajectories ref name frailty ref one frailty scale uses five items unintentional weight loss muscle weakness exhaustion low physical activity slowed walking speed healthy person scores frail person scores compared non frail elderly people people intermediate frailty scores twice likely post surgical complications spend


'neglected stepchild global health' particularly affects low resource settings weak surgical health systems 'global surgery' term adopted describe rapidly developing field seeking address defined 'the multidisciplinary enterprise providing improved equitable surgical care world 's population core tenets issues need access quality' lancet commission global surgery launched examine case surgery integral component global health care provide recommendations regarding delivery surgical anesthesia


even tuberculosis often undid benefit gained intervention consequently adopted position surgical procedures used last resort important th early th century surgeons included percival pott described tuberculosis spine first demonstrated cancer may caused environmental carcinogen noticed connection chimney sweep 's exposure soot high incidence scrotal cancer astley paston cooper first performed successful ligation abdominal aorta james syme pioneered symes amputation


surgical procedures women medicine list surgery related fields cardiac surgery cardiothoracic surgery colorectal surgery eye surgery general surgery neurosurgery oral maxillofacial surgery orthopedic surgery hand surgery otolaryngology pediatric surgery plastic surgery reproductive surgery surgical oncology transplant surgery trauma surgery urology andrology vascular surgery notes references


journal 's goal bring together historians social scientists interested material intellectual aspects modern economic life academic journals societies first journal specializing field economic history ''the economic history review'' founded main publication economic history society first journal featured publication professor sir william ashley first professor economic history english speaking world described emerging field economic history discipline existed alongside long standing fields political history religious history military history one focused


humans' interactions 'visible happenings' continued ' economic history primarily unless expressly extended history actual human practice respect material basis life visible happenings regard use old formula production distribution consumption wealth form wide enough field' later economic history association established another academic journal ''the journal economic history'' way expanding discipline united states first president economic history association edwin f gay described aim economic history provide new perspectives


time different eight centuries financial folly'' benn steil ''the battle bretton woods john maynard keynes harry dexter white making new world order'' adam tooze ''the wages destruction making breaking nazi economy'' globalization inequality sven beckert ''empire cotton global history'' william j bernstein ''a splendid exchange trade shaped world prehistory today'' niall ferguson ''the cash nexus money power modern world '' robert fogel stanley l engerman ''time cross


tax havens'' notable economic historians notable economic historians irving fisher anna schwartz milton friedman stanley fischer carl menger edward c prescott alfred marshall franco modigliani moses abramovitz jeremy adelman robert allen ashton correlli barnett j rg baten maxine berg jean fran ois bergier ben bernanke francesco boldizzoni leah boustan fernand braudel rondo cameron sydney checkland carlo cipolla john clapham gregory clark thomas c cochran nicholas crafts louis cullen peter davies economic historian brad delong melissa dell barry eichengreen friedrich engels stanley engerman https nyuadnyuedu en academics divisions social science faculty giovanni federicohtml giovanni federico charles feinstein niall ferguson ronald findlay moses israel finley irving


studies also analyses relationships economic social cultural biological processes influencing population history demographic thoughts traced back antiquity present many civilisations cultures like ancient greece ancient rome china india ref name srivastava https booksgooglecom booksid oncflpmw buc pg pa lpg pa dq studies demography source bl ots qfr lgxp sig xjkw mxvl xs gij toposfza e hl es ei qdjrs djmsgc gbj ii dw sa x oi book result ct result resnum ved ccmq aewaq v onepage q f false scsrivastava''studies demography'' p ref made prefix ' 'demo '' suffix '' graphy'' term demography refers overall study population ancient greece found writings herodotus thucidides hippocrates epicurus protagoras polus plato aristotle ref name srivastava rome writers philosophers like cicero seneca pliny elder marcus aurelius epictetus cato


migration place birth previous residence language religion nationality ethnicity race citizenship countries vital registration system may incomplete censuses also used direct source information fertility mortality example censuses people 's republic china gather information births deaths occurred months immediately preceding census countries population date september indirect methods indirect methods collecting data required countries periods full data available


life table gompertz models hazards models cox proportional hazards models multiple decrement life tables brass relational logits fertility hernes model coale trussell models parity progression ratios marriage singulate mean marriage page model disability sullivan 's method multistate life tables population projections lee carter model leslie matrix population momentum keyfitz united kingdom series four national birth cohort studies first three spaced apart years national survey health development national child development study british cohort study millennium cohort study begun much recently


investigation employed consultants private firms academia government employees addition laboratory role forensic scientists testify expert witnesses criminal civil cases work either prosecution defense field could technically ''forensic'' certain sections developed time encompass majority forensically related cases ref name aafs sections ref forensic science combination two different latin words forensis science former forensic relates discussion examination performed public trials ancient world typically held

Humanities
Law
Criminal law
Forensic science


described methods distinguishing suicide faked suicide one song ci 's accounts ''washing away wrongs'' case person murdered sickle solved investigator instructed suspect bring sickle one location realized sickle testing various blades animal carcass comparing wounds flies attracted smell blood eventually gathered single sickle light owner sickle confessed murder book also described distinguish drowning water


lungs strangulation broken neck cartilage described evidence examining corpses determine death caused murder suicide accident methods around world involved saliva examination mouth tongue determine innocence guilt precursor polygraph test ancient india ref name edodd ref suspects made fill mouths dried rice spit back similarly ancient china accused crime would rice powder placed mouths ancient middle eastern cultures accused made lick hot


much better test combined sample containing arsenic sulfuric acid arsenic free zinc resulting arsine gas gas ignited decomposed pure metallic arsenic passed cold surface would appear silvery black deposit sensitive test known formally marsh test could detect little one fiftieth milligram arsenic first described test ''the edinburgh philosophical journal'' ballistics henry goddard scotland yard pioneered use bullet comparison noticed flaw


wales first united kingdom fingerprint bureau founded scotland yard metropolitan police headquarters london sir edward richard henry subsequently achieved improvements dactyloscopy united states dr henry p deforrest used fingerprinting new york civil service december new york city police department deputy commissioner joseph faurot expert bertillon system fingerprint advocate police headquarters introduced fingerprinting criminals united states uhlenhuth test uhlenhuth test antigen antibody precipitin test species invented paul


world archibald reiss founded ''institut de police scientifique'' university lausanne unil first school forensic science world dr edmond locard became known sherlock holmes france formulated basic principle forensic science every contact leaves trace became known locard 's exchange principle founded may first criminal laboratory world persuading police department lyon france give two attic rooms two assistants symbolic newfound prestige forensics use


techniques advocated holmes later became reality generally infancy time conan doyle writing many reported cases holmes frequently complains way crime scene contaminated others especially police emphasising critical importance maintaining integrity well known feature crime scene examination used analytical chemistry blood residue analysis well toxicology examination determination poisons used ballistics measuring bullet calibres matching suspected murder weapon late th early th century figures


revised published office high commissioner human rights see also american academy forensic sciences archibald reiss founder first forensic school world university lausanne association firearm tool mark examiners australian academy forensic sciences ballistic fingerprinting bloodstain pattern analysis canadian identification society canadian society forensic science computer forensics crime crime science computational forensics diplomatics forensic paleography edmond locard founder first forensic laboratory world epigenetics forensic science evidence packaging fingerprint footprints forensic accounting forensic animation


focus world bank research programme subject several mainstream books including robert putnam 's ''bowling alone'' ref name putnam putnam robert ''bowling alone collapse revival american community'' simon schuster ref putnam lewis feldstein 's ''better together'' reflections contributed remarkably development social capital concept following decades appearance modern social capital conceptualization new way look debate keeping together importance community build generalized trust time importance individual free choice


order create cohesive society reason social capital generated much interest academic political world definitions forms social capital multiple definitions interpretations uses david halpern argues popularity social capital policymakers linked concept 's duality coming hard nosed economic feel restating importance social researchers term popular partly due broad range outcomes explain multiplicity uses social capital led multiplicity


individualistic approach investment social relations expected returns marketplace may subsume concepts others bourdieu flap eriksson newton considered social capital subjective phenomenon formed values attitudes influence interactions nahapiet ghoshal examination role social capital creation intellectual capital suggest social capital considered terms three clusters structural relational cognitive ref name nahapiet definitional issues number scholars raised concerns lack precise definition social


association''' american propensity civil association fukuyama argues social capital produces civil society civic engagement important part democracy development fukuyama states one person 's civic engagement another 's rent seeking therefore social capital facilitate economic development reducing transaction cost increasing productivity social capital also distort democracy civic association enables special interest gain special favors however fukuyama argues despite risk society much social capital nonetheless worse little unable organize public goods


likelihood bridging social capital attenuated bonding social capital also perpetuate sentiments certain group allowing bonding certain individuals together upon common radical ideal strengthening insular ties lead variety effects ethnic marginalization social isolation extreme cases ethnic cleansing may result relationship different groups strongly negative mild cases isolates certain communities suburbs cities bonding social capital fact people communities spend much time away


weakening civil society however ignores arguments many theorists believe social capital leads exclusion rather stronger civil society international development ben fine john harriss heavily critical inappropriate adoption social capital supposed panacea promoting civil society organisations ngos example agents development inequalities generated neoliberal economic development leads controversy role state institutions promotion social capital abundance social capital seen


women 's informal formal networks tend toward care work often considered apolitical ref name eliasoph eliasoph n ''avoiding politics'' cambridge uk cambridge university press ref women also likely engage local politics social movement activities traditional forums focused national politics ref name vickers vickers j ''reinventing political science feminist approach'' halifax fernwood ref women likely organize less hierarchical ways focus creating consensus ref name eliasoph often informal nature female social capital allows women politicize apolitical environments without conforming masculine standards thus keeping


thousand oaks ca sage ref articles suggest technologically based interactions negative relationship social capital displacing time spent engaging geographical person social activities ref name cummings butler kraut however consensus research shows time people spend online person contact thus positively enhancing social capital ref name ref name boase jeffrey john horrigan barry wellman lee rainie strength internet ties ''pew internet american life project'' washington ref recent research conducted also shows internet users often wider networks


community development social capital particularly important terms education also importance education schools designed create 'functioning community' forging tighter links parents school linking without interaction social capital area disadvantaged demonstrates social capital plays major role education ref name parental involvement putnam mentions book ''bowling alone'' child development powerfully shaped social capital continues presence social capital linked various positive outcomes particularly education ref name putnam according


step pyramid pharaoh djoser built imhotep first engineer history known name pyramids common major structures built ancient civilizations structural form pyramid inherently stable almost infinitely scaled opposed structural forms cannot linearly increased size proportion increased loads ref name saouma structural stability pyramid whilst primarily gained shape relies also strength stone constructed ability support weight

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timeline galileo galilei published book ''two new sciences'' examined failure simple structures isaac newton published ''philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica'' contains laws motion leonhard euler developed theory buckling columns leonardo da vinci made many contributions galileo galilei published book ''two new sciences'' examined failure simple structures hooke 's law robert hooke isaac newton published ''philosophi naturalis principia mathematica'' contains laws motion euler bernoulli beam equation daniel bernoulli introduced principle virtual work leonhard


international relations scholar chris brown university warwick professor susan strange almost single handedly responsible creating international political economy field study united states approaches associated journal ''international organization'' became leading journal ipe editorship robert keohane peter j katzenstein stephen krasner also associated journal ''the review international political economy'' also critical school ipe inspired thinkers antonio gramsci karl polanyi two major figures matthew watson robert

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political economy good social welfare system facilitate labor mobility tend make entire economy productive labor develop skills experience various ways move one enterprise another little controversy difficulty adapting another important controversy regards labor mobility broader philosophical issue usage phrase human resources governments developing nations often regard developed nations encourage immigration guest workers appropriating human capital rightfully part developing nation required economic growth time

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inquiry consistency mathematical theories reflective critique theory review becomes object mathematical study led hilbert call study ''metamathematics'' ''proof theory'' ref name kleene ref middle century new mathematical theory created samuel eilenberg saunders mac lane known category theory became new contender natural language mathematical thinking th nbsp century progressed however philosophical opinions diverged well founded questions foundations raised century 's beginning hilary putnam summed

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Philosophy of mathematics


mathematics derived logical concepts explicit definitions ''theorems'' mathematics derived logical axioms purely logical deduction gottlob frege founder logicism seminal ''die grundgesetze der arithmetik'' ''basic laws arithmetic'' built arithmetic system logic general principle comprehension called basic law v concepts ''f'' ''g'' extension ''f'' equals extension ''g'' objects ''a'' ''fa'' equals ''ga'' principle took acceptable part logic


bertrand russell frege 's construction flawed bertrand russell discovered basic law v inconsistent russell 's paradox frege abandoned logicist program soon continued russell whitehead attributed paradox vicious circularity built called ramified type theory deal system eventually able build much modern mathematics altered excessively complex form example different natural numbers type infinitely many types also make several compromises


example game euclidean geometry seen consisting strings called axioms rules inference generate new strings given ones one prove pythagorean theorem holds one generate string corresponding pythagorean theorem according formalism mathematical truths numbers sets triangles like fact anything another version formalism often known deductivism deductivism pythagorean theorem absolute truth relative one ''if'' one assigns


meaning strings way rules game become true ie true statements assigned axioms rules inference truth preserving ''then'' one must accept theorem rather interpretation one given must true statement held true mathematical statements thus formalism need mean mathematics nothing meaningless symbolic game usually hoped exists interpretation rules game hold compare position structuralism


taken two senses one sense irrefutable logically true second sense factually true falsifiable another way putting say single number statement express two propositions one explained constructivist lines realist lines philosophy language innovations philosophy language th century renewed interest whether mathematics often said ''language'' science although mathematicians philosophers would accept statement mathematics language linguists believe implications


mathematics presumably beauty lies work divine proportion huntley relates feeling reading understanding someone else 's proof theorem mathematics viewer masterpiece art reader proof similar sense exhilaration understanding original author proof much argues viewer masterpiece sense exhilaration similar original painter sculptor indeed one study mathematical scientific writings literature philip j davis reuben hersh commented


universal agreement result one elegant proof gregory chaitin argued idea philosophers sometimes criticized mathematicians' sense beauty elegance best vaguely stated token however philosophers mathematics sought characterize makes one proof desirable another logically sound another aspect aesthetics concerning mathematics mathematicians' views towards possible uses mathematics purposes deemed unethical inappropriate best known exposition view occurs g h hardy 's book ''a mathematician 's apology'' hardy argues


mathematical genius along lobsters birds cats dogs '' thunder 's mouth press new york ny dummett michael ''frege philosophy mathematics'' harvard university press cambridge dummett michael b ''frege philosophers'' oxford university press oxford uk dummett michael ''origins analytical philosophy'' harvard university press cambridge ernest paul ''social constructivism philosophy mathematics'' state university new york press albany ny george alexandre ed ''mathematics mind'' oxford university press oxford uk hadamard jacques ''the psychology invention mathematical field'' st edition princeton university press


north holland elsevier amsterdam klein jacob ''greek mathematical thought origin algebra'' eva brann trans mit press cambridge reprinted dover publications mineola ny kline morris ''mathematics physical world'' thomas crowell company new york ny reprinted dover publications mineola ny kline morris ''mathematical thought ancient modern times'' oxford university press new york ny k nig julius gyula ber die grundlagen der mengenlehre und das kontinuumproblem ''mathematische annalen'' reprinted foundations set theory continuum problem stefan bauer mengelberg trans pp nbsp jean van


heijenoort ed k rner stephan ''the philosophy mathematics introduction'' harper books lakoff george n ez rafael e ''where mathematics comes embodied mind brings mathematics being'' basic books new york ny lakatos imre ''proofs refutations logic mathematical discovery'' eds j worrall e zahar cambridge university press lakatos imre ''mathematics science epistemology philosophical papers'' volume eds jworrall gcurrie cambridge university press lakatos imre ''problems philosophy mathematics'' north holland leibniz gw ''logical papers'' ghr parkinson ed trans oxford university press


university toronto press toronto canada th edition raymond eric utility mathematics http catborg esr writings utility math eprint smullyan raymond ''recursion theory metamathematics'' oxford university press oxford uk russell bertrand ''introduction mathematical philosophy'' george allen unwin london uk reprinted john g slater intro routledge london uk shapiro stewart ''thinking mathematics philosophy mathematics'' oxford university press oxford uk strohmeier john westbrook peter ''divine harmony life teachings pythagoras'' berkeley hills books berkeley ca styazhkin ni ''history mathematical logic


philosophy mathematics http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg mathlogichtm mathematical logic http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg settheoryhtm set theory logic https webarchiveorg web http wwwrbjonescom rbjpub philos maths indexhtm rb jones' philosophy mathematics page http golemphutexasedu category philosophy real mathematics blog david corfield http wwwcspeircecom menu library bycsp stoicheia stoicheiahtm kaina stoicheia c peirce