brain evolved environment often referred environment evolutionary adaptedness ref name economics idea ''environment evolutionary adaptedness'' first explored part attachment theory john bowlby ref name bowlby ref environment particular evolved mechanism adapted specifically environment evolutionary adaptedness defined set historically recurring selection pressures formed given adaptation well aspects environment necessary proper development functioning adaptation humans comprising genus ''homo'' appeared


variability around general optimum ref name gaulin personality traits may represent different genetically predisposed behavioral morphs alternate behavioral strategies depend frequency competing behavioral strategies population example population generally trusting gullible behavioral morph cheater extreme case sociopath may advantageous finally like many psychological adaptations personality traits may facultative sensitive typical variations social environment especially early development example later born children likely firstborns rebellious less conscientious

Social science
Psychology
Evolutionary psychology


learning necessary posit existence innate grammar module explain human language acquisition tomasello argues studies children primates actually acquire communicative skills suggest humans learn complex behavior experience instead module specifically dedicated language acquisition language acquired cognitive mechanisms used acquire kinds socially transmitted behavior issue whether language best seen evolved adaptation spandrel evolutionary biologist w tecumseh fitch following


speculative much evidence required understand language might selectively adapted mating given sexual reproduction means genes propagated future generations sexual selection plays large role human evolution human mating interest evolutionary psychologists aim investigate evolved mechanisms attract secure mates several lines research stemmed interest studies mate selection mate poaching mate retention mating preferences conflict sexes robert trivers published influential paper sex


decision help reputation recipient studies show people helpful likely receive help calculations indirect reciprocity complicated tiny fraction universe uncovered simple rule emerged indirect reciprocity promote cooperation probability q knowing someone 's reputation exceeds cost benefit ratio altruistic act q c b one important problem explanation individuals may able evolve capacity obscure reputation reducing probability q


name gaulin sociopathy may represent evolutionarily stable strategy small number people cheat social contracts benefit society consisting mostly non sociopaths ref name gaulin steven j c pp mild depression may adaptive response withdraw evaluate situations led disadvantageous outcomes analytical rumination hypothesis ref name ncbinlmnihgov see evolutionary approaches depression speculations yet developed fully testable hypotheses great deal research required confirm validity antisocial criminal behavior evolutionary psychology applied explain criminal otherwise immoral behavior


necessarily moral good ref name wilson ref name pinker pinker ''the blank slate'' ny penguin ref ref name levy however caution committing naturalistic fallacy criticized means stifle legitimate ethical discussions ref name wilson contradictions models criticisms evolutionary psychology point contradictions different aspects adaptive scenarios posited evolutionary psychology one example evolutionary psychology model extended social groups selecting modern human brains contradiction synaptic function modern human brains require high amounts many specific essential nutrients transition higher requirements


essential nutrients shared individuals population would decrease possibility forming large groups due bottleneck foods rare essential nutrients capping group sizes mentioned insects societies different ranks individual monkeys remain socially functioning removal brain additional arguments big brains promoting social networking model males providers protectors criticized impossibility two places male cannot protect family home hunting


journal ''evolution human behavior'' journal http wwwhbescom human behavior evolution society ''evolutionary psychological science'' international interdisciplinary forum original research papers address evolved psychology spans social life sciences anthropology philosophy criminology law humanities '' http wwwpoliticsandthelifesciencesorg politics life sciences '' interdisciplinary peer reviewed journal published http wwwaplsnetorg association politics life sciences '' https wwwspringercom social sciences anthropology archaeology journal human nature interdisciplinary biosocial perspective '' advances interdisciplinary investigation biological social environmental factors underlie human behavior focuses primarily functional unity factors


beginning end bah regard eschatologies religions symbolic bah belief human time marked series progressive revelations successive messengers prophets come god ref name psmith ref coming messengers seen day judgment adherents previous religion may choose accept new messenger enter heaven belief denounce new messenger enter hell denial view terms heaven hell become symbolic terms person 's spiritual progress


nearness distance god ref name psmith bah belief coming bah 'u 'll h founder bah faith signals fulfilment previous eschatological expectations islam christianity major religions buddhism christianity christian eschatology study concerned ultimate destiny individual soul entire created order based primarily upon biblical texts within old new testaments christian eschatological research looks study discuss matters nature divine divine nature jesus christ death afterlife


heaven hell second coming jesus resurrection dead rapture tribulation millennialism end world last judgment new heaven new earth world come eschatological passages occur many places bible old new testaments old testament apocalyptic eschatology found notably isaiah isaiah joel zechariah well closing chapters daniel ezekiel ref name nbd bauckham r j apocalyptic r w wood h marshall


r millard j packer j wiseman eds ''new bible dictionary'' rd ed p leicester england downers grove il intervarsity press ref new testament applicable passages include matthew mark parable sheep goats book revelation revelation often occupies central place christian eschatology second coming christ central event christian eschatology within broader context fullness kingdom god christians believe death suffering continue exist christ 's return however various


respected fear evil may leadership given people unworthy expect day judgment regarding major signs companion prophet narrated sitting together talking amongst prophet appeared asked us discussing said day judgment said 'it called ten signs appeared smoke ad dukhan dajjal antichrist creature wound people rising sun west second


rio declaration principle reads right development must fulfilled equitably meet developmental environmental needs present future generations sustainable development core concept international environmental discussion ever since including world summit sustainable development earth summit united nations conference sustainable development earth summit rio equity defined unep include intergenerational equity right future generations enjoy fair level common patrimony intragenerational equity right people

Humanities
Law
Civil law
Environmental law


damage lack full scientific certainty shall used reason postponing cost effective measures prevent environmental degradation principle may play role debate need environmental regulation prevention concept prevention perhaps better considered overarching aim gives rise multitude legal mechanisms including prior assessment environmental harm licensing authorization set conditions operation consequences violation conditions well adoption strategies policies emission limits


implementing agreement major examples convention international trade endangered species wild fauna flora cites international union conservation nature iucn international environmental law also includes opinions international courts tribunals limited authority decisions carry much weight legal commentators quite influential development international environmental law one biggest challenges international decisions determine adequate compensation environmental damages courts include international court justice icj international tribunal


east improve environmental governance water pollution water security clean fuels vehicles public participation pollution prevention ref name middle east ref oceania main concerns environmental issues oceania illegal releases air water pollutants illegal logging timber trade illegal shipment hazardous wastes including e waste ships slated destruction insufficient institutional structure lack enforcement capacity ref name inece asia ref secretariat pacific regional environmental programme sprep international organization australia cook islands fms fiji france kiribati marshall islands nauru new zealand niue palau png samoa solomon island tonga tuvalu usa


authority policies involving environment water resources preservation environmental programs involving amazon ref name brazil ref canada department environment act establishes department environment canadian government well position minister environment duties include preservation enhancement quality natural environment including water air soil quality renewable resources including migratory birds non domestic flora fauna water meteorology ref name department environment act ref environmental protection act main piece canadian environmental legislation put place


march act focuses respecting pollution prevention protection environment human health order contribute sustainable development ref name cepa canada ref principle federal statutes include canadian environmental assessment act species risk act provincial federal legislation conflict federal legislation takes precedence said individual provinces legislation ontario 's environmental bill rights clean water act china according us environmental protection agency china working great determination recent years develop


name nzaou kongo ref ecuador enactment constitution ecuador became first country world codify rights nature constitution specifically articles recognizes inalienable rights ecosystems exist flourish gives people authority petition behalf ecosystems requires government remedy violations rights rights approach break away traditional environmental regulatory systems regard nature property legalize manage degradation environment rather prevent ref name celdf community rights pioneers protecting nature


control board numerous state pollution control boards apart also individual legislations specifically enacted protection water air wildlife etc legislations include water prevention control pollution act water prevention control pollution cess act forest conservation act air prevention control pollution act air prevention control pollution union territories rules biological diversity act wild life protection act batteries management handling rules recycled plastics plastics manufacture usage rules


etc promotion environmental activities corporations citizens ngos environmental education provision information promotion science technology ref name japan new zealand ministry environment office parliamentary commissioner environment established environment act positions responsible advising minister areas environmental legislation common theme new zealand 's environmental legislation sustainably managing natural physical resources fisheries forests resource management act main piece environmental legislation outlines government 's strategy managing


sorts ways may ''the conversation'' external links international http wwwuneporg united nations environment programme https webarchiveorg web http wwwecolexorg startphp ecolex gateway environmental law http wwwelaworg environmental law alliance worldwide e law http wwwcielorg centre international environmental law http wwwinternationalwildlifelaworg wildlife interest group american society international law http wwwearthrightsorg legal earthrights international https webarchiveorg web http wwwaida americasorg front interamerican association environmental defense https webarchiveorg web http wwwukelaorg united kingdom environmental law association http wwwlexadinnl wlg legis nofr legisphp lexadin global law database http wwwadborg features things know green justice asia pacific upholding environmental laws asia pacific united states http wwwabanetorg environ american bar association section environment energy resources http wwwepagov us environmental protection agency http wwweliorg environmental law institute eli http wwwearthjusticeorg earthjustice https webarchiveorg web http lawlibwluedu lj indexaspx law journals


study western esotericism advantage faivre 's system facilitates comparing varying esoteric traditions one another systematic fashion however many scholars criticised faivre 's theory pointing various weaknesses hanegraaff claimed faivre 's approach entailed reasoning prototype relied upon already best example western esotericism look like phenomena compared scholar esotericism kocku von stuckrad born noted faivre 's taxonomy based areas specialism renaissance hermeticism christian kabbalah protestant theosophy


true nature god emphasising humans must transcend rational thought worldly desires find salvation reborn spiritual body immaterial light thereby achieving spiritual unity divinity another tradition esoteric thought late antiquity gnosticism various gnostic sects existed broadly believed divine light imprisoned within material world malevolent entity known demiurge served demonic helpers archons gnostic belief people imbued divine light seek attain gnosis thus


rosicrucian claiming access secret esoteric knowledge result real initiatory brotherhood established late th century scotland transformation medieval stonemason guilds include non craftsman freemasonry soon spreading parts europe england largely rejected esoteric character embraced humanism rationalism france embraced new esoteric concepts particularly christian theosophy th th early th centuries ''hypnotic ance'' painting swedish artist richard bergh age enlightenment witnessed process increasing secularisation european governments embrace


think singular object affiliate thus asprem granholm noted use term esotericism among scholars significantly contributes reification category general audience ' 'despite'' explicated contrary intentions scholars field popular culture asprem granholm highlighted contemporary esotericism intimately increasingly connected popular culture new media granholm noted esoteric ideas images appear many aspects western popular media citing examples ''buffy vampire slayer'' ''avatar'' ''hellblazer'' ''his dark


oppose seek deconstruct see also age enlightenment alchemy black magic ceremonial magic chaldean oracles counterculture english qaballa gnosis involution esoterism magic supernatural medieval european magic medieval inquisition metaphysics presence occult renaissance magic white magic witch trials early modern period references footnotes sources reading '' https archivetoday http brillpublisheringentaconnectcom content brill arie aries journal study western esotericism '' leiden brill since '' http wwwbrillnl arbs aries book series texts studies western esotericism '' leiden brill since '' http wwwesotericmsuedu contentshtml esoterica '' east lansing michigan state university msu online resource since http wwwesotericmsuedu contentshtml volume


could maintain ma'at order cosmos repel isfet chaos state dedicated enormous resources religious rituals construction temples individuals could interact gods purposes appealing help prayer compelling gods act magic practices distinct closely linked formal rituals institutions popular religious tradition grew prominent course egyptian history status pharaoh declined egyptian belief afterlife importance funerary practices evident

Humanities
Theology
Ancient Egyptian Religion


divine characteristics gods populated divine realm inextricably linked egyptians' understanding properties world lived deities egyptians believed phenomena nature divine forces deified forces included elements animal characteristics abstract forces egyptians believed pantheon gods involved aspects nature human society religious practices efforts sustain placate phenomena turn human advantage ref name allen ref polytheistic


narratives rarely written full often texts contain episodes allusions larger myth knowledge egyptian mythology therefore derived mostly hymns detail roles specific deities ritual magical texts describe actions related mythic events funerary texts mention roles many deities afterlife information also provided allusions secular texts finally greeks romans plutarch recorded extant myths late egyptian history among significant egyptian myths creation


earliest pyramid texts loose collection hundreds spells inscribed walls royal pyramids old kingdom intended magically provide pharaohs means join company gods afterlife spells appear differing arrangements combinations appear pyramids end old kingdom new body funerary spells included material pyramid texts began appearing tombs inscribed primarily coffins collection writings known


naming name held crucial part person 's identity important ceremonies surrounding death ensured soul 's survival beyond religious practices sought discern gods' seek knowledge included interpretation dreams could seen messages divine realm consultation oracles people also sought affect gods' behavior benefit magical rituals individual egyptians also prayed gods gave private offerings evidence type personal


arid conditions mummified body naturally early dynastic period however began using tombs greater protection body insulated desiccating effect sand subject natural decay thus egyptians developed elaborate embalming practices corpse artificially desiccated wrapped placed coffin quality process varied according cost however could afford still buried desert graves mummification process complete mummy carried deceased person 's house


became increasingly popular period possibly response uncertainty foreign influence time isis grew popular goddess protection magic personal salvation became important goddess egypt th century bc egypt became hellenistic kingdom ptolemaic dynasty bc assumed pharaonic role maintaining traditional religion building rebuilding many temples kingdom 's greek ruling class identified egyptian deities cross cultural syncretism emerged serapis god combined osiris apis characteristics


near east outline ancient egypt index egyptian mythology articles references bibliography reading external links


possibly accounting lack representation educational psychology content introductory psychology textbooks ref name lucas lucas jl blazek riley ab lack representation educational psychology school psychology introductory psychology textbooks ''educational psychology'' ref field educational psychology involves study memory conceptual processes individual differences via cognitive psychology conceptualizing new strategies learning processes humans educational psychology built upon theories operant conditioning functionalism structuralism constructivism humanistic psychology gestalt psychology information processing ref name snowman educational psychology seen rapid growth development profession

Social science
Psychology
Educational psychology


external forces believed mind like blank tablet tabula rasa successions simple impressions give rise complex ideas association reflection locke credited establishing empiricism criterion testing validity knowledge thus providing conceptual framework later development experimental methodology natural social sciences philosophers education juan vives johann pestalozzi friedrich fr bel johann herbart examined classified judged methods education centuries beginnings psychology late juan vives juan vives


show student apply new material show material learn next ref name hergenhahn three major figures educational psychology period william james g stanley hall john dewey three men distinguished general psychology educational psychology overlapped significantly end th century ref name berliner william james william james period considered golden era educational psychology aspirations new discipline rested application scientific methods observation experimentation educational problems


influence culture education looked impact poverty educational development ref name zimmerman benjamin bloom benjamin bloom spent years university chicago worked department education ref name zimmerman believed students learn developed taxonomy educational objectives ref name zimmerman objectives divided three domains cognitive affective psychomotor cognitive domain deals think ref name clark clark nd bloom 's taxonomy learning domains retrieved http wwwnwlinkcom donclark hrd bloomhtml ref divided categories continuum easiest complex ref


curriculum match ideas taxonomy ref name zimmerman taxonomy considered greater influence internationally united states internationally taxonomy used every aspect education training teachers development testing material ref name zimmerman bloom believed communicating clear learning goals promoting active student thought teachers provide feedback students strengths weaknesses ref name zimmerman bloom also research college students problem solving processes found differ understanding basis problem


coincident development discipline continuing debates nature intelligence revolve whether characterized single factor known general intelligence ref name spearman spearman c general intelligence objectively determined measured ''american journal psychology'' ref multiple factors eg gardner 's theory multiple intelligences whether measured practice standardized instruments stanford binet iq test wisc widely used economically developed countries identify children need individualized educational treatment children classified gifted often provided accelerated


construction knowledge presupposes effective teaching methods would move student lower higher level understanding mechanisms reflection actual mental actions vis vis alternative solutions problems tagging new concepts solutions symbols help one recall mentally manipulate examples mechanisms cognitive development may used facilitate learning ref name demetriou finally psychology cognitive development concerned individual differences organization cognitive processes abilities rate change mechanisms


capable instructor sense zpd provides prospective view cognitive development opposed retrospective view characterizes development terms child 's independent capabilities advancement attainment upper limit zpd limited instructional scaffolding related capabilities knowledgeable mko mko typically assumed older experienced teacher parent often learner 's peer someone junior mko need even person machine book


attributional perspective ''educational psychology review'' ref describes students' beliefs causes academic success failure affect emotions motivations example students attribute failure lack ability ability perceived uncontrollable experience emotions shame embarrassment consequently decrease effort show poorer performance contrast students attribute failure lack effort effort perceived controllable experience emotion guilt consequently increase effort show improved performance ref name weiner self determination theory sdt developed psychologists edward deci richard ryan


producing learning outcomes far exceeding normally achieved classroom instruction gagn another psychologist earlier developed influential method task analysis terminal learning goal expanded hierarchy learning objectives ref name gronlund gronlund ne ''how write use instructional objectives'' th ed columbus oh usa merrill ref connected prerequisite relationships following list technological resources incorporate computer aided instruction intelligence educational psychologists students intelligent tutoring system cognitive tutor cooperative learning collaborative learning problem based learning computer supported collaborative learning constructive alignment technology essential field educational psychology


educational psychology action research method references reading barry wj challenging status quo meaning educational quality introducing transformational quality tq theory ''educational journal living theories'' http ejoltsnet node external links http psychathabascauca html aupr educationalshtml educational psychology resources athabasca university http wwwapaorg division div html division american psychological association http wwwbpsorguk education education homecfm psychology education section british psychological society https webarchiveorg web http wwwinstructionaldesignorg explorations learning instructional design theory practice database http psychclassicsyorkuca indexhtm classics history psychology http wwwapaorg science standardshtml standards educational psychological testing https wwwyoutubecom watchv hvfxq l psychology educational quality transformational quality tq theory video branches psychology


marc baier helped emirati intelligence operatives advanced cyber technology assist breaches directed potential enemies political rivals darkmatter also hired several ex nsa cia officers salaries worth hundreds thousands dollars year targets espionage espionage agents usually trained experts targeted field differentiate mundane information targets value organizational development correct identification target execution sole purpose espionage operation broad areas espionage targeting expertise include natural resources strategic production identification

Applied science
Military sciences
Espionage


intelligence services breaching confidentiality communications recruiting defectors moles methods terminology although news media may speak spy satellites like espionage synonym intelligence gathering disciplines specific form human source intelligence humint codebreaking cryptanalysis comint aircraft satellite photography imint analysis publicly available data sources osint intelligence gathering disciplines none considered espionage many humint activities prisoner interrogation reports military reconnaissance patrols diplomats etc considered espionage


technology techniques agent handling concealment device covert agent covert listening device cut cyber spying dead drop false flag operations honeypot impersonation impostor interrogation non official cover numbers messaging official cover one way voice link sabotage safe house side channel attack steganography surveillance surveillance aircraft '''source ''' ref name protocol organization intelligence officer 's clothing accessories behavior must unremarkable possible lives others' may depend spy person employed seek top secret information source ref name bar ref within united states intelligence community asset common usage case


previous acts espionage must treated prisoner war note provision apply citizens committed treason country co belligerents country may captured prosecuted place time regardless whether rejoined military belongs war ones excluded treated spies behind enemy lines escaping prisoners war downed airmen international law distinguishes disguised spy disguised escaper ref name protocol ref


purpose waging destruction enemy 's vital targets addition intelligence gathering example world war ii eight german agents entered us june part operation pastorius sabotage mission us economic targets two weeks later arrested civilian clothes fbi thanks two german agents betraying mission us hague convention germans classified spies tried military tribunal washington dc august eight found guilty sentenced death five


jeffery ''the us intelligence community'' fourth edition smith w thomas jr ''encyclopedia central intelligence agency'' tuchman barbara w ''the zimmermann telegram'' new york macmillan warner michael ''the rise fall intelligence international security history'' external links https webarchiveorg web http konstantynowiczinfo family history genealogy historia rodzina genealogia italy uk switzerland estonia sweden belarus russia poland france belarusian estonian polish russian genealogical historical database europe indexhtml history espionage russia law enforcement occupations organized crime activity positions authority security


viewed rate illusion motion result called persistence vision fact mind cannot process individual images speed images merge together produce illusion motion within image film animation kind widely separated time images planned seen standard speed traditionally films recorded onto celluloid film stock photochemical process shown movie projector onto large screen contemporary films often fully digital


theater july precursors art film drawn several earlier traditions fields oral storytelling literature theatre visual arts forms art entertainment already featured moving projected images include shadowgraphy probably used since prehistoric times camera obscura natural phenomenon possibly used artistic aid since prehistoric times shadow puppetry possibly originated around bce central asia india indonesia china magic lantern developed multi media phantasmagoria shows utilized magic lanterns popular throughout first


first photographic emulsions needed long exposures recording moving subjects seemed impossible least early photographic series subjects posed different positions created either suggest motion sequence document range different viewing angles advent stereoscopic photography early experiments commercial success since early raised interest completing photographic medium addition means capture colour motion joseph plateau published idea combine invention


black white television started seriously depressing north american theater attendance attempt lure audiences back theaters bigger screens installed widescreen processes polarized projection stereophonic sound introduced films made color soon became rule rather exception important mainstream hollywood films still made black white late mid marked end era color television receivers available us since mid first expensive broadcasts color


art form began ricciotto canudo 's ''the birth sixth art'' formalist film theory led rudolf arnheim b la bal zs siegfried kracauer emphasized film differed reality thus could considered valid fine art andr bazin reacted theory arguing film 's artistic essence lay ability mechanically reproduce reality differences reality gave rise realist theory recent analysis spurred jacques lacan 's psychoanalysis ferdinand de saussure 's semiotics among things given rise psychoanalytic film theory structuralist film


analysis evaluation films general works divided two categories academic criticism film scholars journalistic film criticism appears regularly newspapers media film critics working newspapers magazines broadcast media mainly review new releases normally see given film day two formulate opinions despite critics important impact audience response attendance films especially certain genres mass marketed action horror comedy films tend greatly affected


addition lectures texts revenue industry sometimes volatile due reliance blockbuster films released movie theaters rise alternative home entertainment raised questions future cinema industry hollywood employment become less reliable particularly medium low budget films associated fields derivative academic fields study may interact develop independently filmmaking film theory analysis fields academic study created derivative dependent existence film film criticism film history


commercial aspects go fun evening date example book titled understand film would probably aesthetics theory film book entitled let 's go movies would probably history entertaining movies blockbusters terminology used distinguish various forms media used film industry motion pictures moving pictures frequently used terms film movie productions specifically intended theatrical exhibition instance ''batman'' dvd videotape video formats


fast scene shown sound film introduced late constant speed required sound head frames per second chosen slowest thus cheapest speed allowed sufficient sound quality improvements since late th century include mechanization cameras nbsp allowing record consistent speed quiet camera design nbsp allowing sound recorded set usable without requiring large blimps encase camera invention sophisticated filmstocks lenses allowing directors film increasingly dim conditions


rating system stars votes converted overall rating ranking particular film community driven review sites include letterboxd reviewer movie attractions flixster filmcrave flickchart everyone 's critic rotten tomatoes metacritic aggregate scores accredited critics submitted users online review sites users generally register site order submit reviews means form open access poll advantages disadvantages notably guarantee

Humanities
Performing arts
Film
Film criticism


representative sample film 's audience cases online review sites produced wildly differing results scientific polling audiences likewise reviews ratings many movies greatly differ different review sites even though certain movies well rated poorly rated across board ref name wiredcouk ref academic film criticism often known film theory film studies academic critique explores cinema beyond journalistic film reviews film critics try examine film works works aesthetically politically means effects


shows per cent writers movie entertainment magazines websites men per cent trade publications per cent critics general interest magazines like ''time'' per cent reviewers radio formats npr writing ''the atlantic'' kate kilkenny argued women better represented film criticism rise internet past film considered less prestigious visual art literature easier women break film criticism judith crist pauline kael


blockquote matt reynolds ''wired'' pointed men tend look much favorably films masculine themes male leading actors online review sites imdb leads skewed imbalanced review results per cent reviewers site men ref name wiredcouk study using johanson analysis used evaluate representation women films ref name johanson ref johanson complied statistics year female protagonist affected movie following results ref name johanson 's movies female protagonists critics


per month ref name bizfluent see also prestige picture list film critics list film journals magazines list films considered best list films considered worst ''for love movies story american film criticism'' documentary film references reading http artsguardiancouk youngcritics story html peter bradshaw gives advice young aspiring would film critics ''the guardian'' july haberski raymond j jr ''it 's movie film critics american culture'' university press kentucky rosenbaum jonathan ''movie wars hollywood media conspire


'''flavor''' '''flavour''' perceptual impression food substances determined primarily chemical senses gustatory olfactory system ref name wol ref trigeminal senses detect chemical irritants mouth throat well temperature texture also important overall gestalt taste perception taste food altered naturally artificially three chemical senses smell main determinant food item 's flavor five basic tastes sweet sour bitter salty umami savory universally recognized although cultures also include pungency ref


either imitate enhance natural flavor mixtures formulated flavorists give food product unique flavor maintain flavor consistency different product batches recipe changes list known flavoring agents includes thousands molecular compounds flavor chemist flavorist often mix together produce many common flavors many flavorants consist esters often described sweet fruity class wikitable chemical odor manzanate apple diacetyl acetylpropionyl acetoin buttery isoamyl acetate banana benzaldehyde bitter almond cherry


vegans follow dietary restrictions disallow use animal byproducts alcohol certain contexts many western countries consumers rely jewish kosher pareve certification mark indicate natural flavorings used food product free meat dairy although still contain fish vegan society 's sunflower symbol currently used companies worldwide also used see products use animal ingredients including flavorings colorings similarly persons known sensitivities allergies food products advised avoid


scientific resources ''flavour fragrance journal'' h w schultz editor ''symposium foods chemistry physiology flavors fourth series symposia foods held oregon state university'' avi pub co westpoint conn lccn https lccnlocgov lccn permanent link see also aroma compound ester list artificial flavor chemical compounds food additive fragrance oil katsuobushi flavour palatability seasoning taste bud artificial butter flavoring notes references external links http sciencehowstuffworkscom question htm stuff works ''how artificial flavors work'' http wwwmonellorg monell chemical senses center https quality flavorscom manufacturers flavors https effaeu effa website https effaeu library guidance documents effa guidance documents


''macroscopic'' viewpoint rather ''microscopic'' fluid mechanics especially fluid dynamics active field research typically mathematically complex many problems partly wholly unsolved best addressed numerical methods typically using computers modern discipline called computational fluid dynamics cfd devoted approach particle image velocimetry experimental method visualizing analyzing fluid flow also takes advantage highly visual nature fluid flow brief history study fluid mechanics goes back least days ancient greece archimedes investigated fluid statics

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Fluid mechanics


order recognized laws another jurisdiction child custody many nations joined hague convention civil aspects international child abduction order grant recognition member states' custody orders avoid issues parental kidnapping see also specific jurisdictions references reading external links https webarchiveorg web http marriagerutgersedu publications pub whitehead testimony apr htm testimony barbara dafoe whitehead phd co director national marriage project rutgers university us senate subcommittee analysis long term effect divorce children https ssrncom abstract r partain comparative family law korean family law missing


encourage functional programming per martin l f developed intuitionistic type theory also called ''constructive'' type theory associated functional programs constructive proofs expressed dependent types led new approaches interactive theorem proving influenced development subsequent functional programming languages lazy functional language miranda developed david turner initially appeared strong influence haskell miranda proprietary haskell began consensus form open standard functional programming research implementation releases ongoing since recently found use

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Functional programming


higher order functions higher order functions functions either take functions arguments return results calculus example higher order function differential operator math dx math returns derivative function math f math higher order functions closely related first class functions higher order functions first class functions allow functions arguments results functions distinction two subtle higher order describes mathematical concept functions operate functions first class computer science term programming language entities


reversed performed parallel cannot interfere one another terms evaluation pure expression thread safe entire language allow side effects evaluation strategy used gives compiler freedom reorder combine evaluation expressions program example using deforestation compilers imperative programming languages detect pure functions perform common subexpression elimination pure function calls cannot always pre compiled libraries generally expose information thus preventing optimizations involve


numlist result numlist syntaxhighlight functional programming higher order functions syntaxhighlight lang javascript const result filter n n map reduce b b syntaxhighlight simulating state tasks example maintaining bank account balance often seem naturally implemented state pure functional programming performs tasks tasks accepting user input printing screen different


industry functional programming seen use wide variety industrial applications example erlang developed swedish company ericsson late originally used implement fault tolerant telecommunications systems ref name armstrong since become popular building range applications companies nortel facebook lectricit de france whatsapp ref name erlang faq ref name larson ref name sim diasca ref name whatsappblog http blogwhatsappcom indexphp million million whatsapp blog last important piece infrastracture erlang ref scheme dialect lisp used basis several applications early apple macintosh computers ref


gas constant molar mass particular gas conservation laws three conservation laws used solve fluid dynamics problems maybe written integral differential form conservation laws may applied region flow called ''control volume'' control volume discrete volume space fluid assumed flow integral formulations conservation laws used describe change mass momentum energy within control volume differential formulations conservation laws apply stokes' theorem


control volume whereas right hand side contains integration surface control volume mass convected system mass flow system accounted positive since normal vector surface opposite sense flow system term negated differential form continuity equation divergence theorem math frac partial rho partial nabla cdot rho mathbf u math defn newton 's second law motion applied control volume statement change momentum


governing equations especially case fluid uniform density flow gases determine whether use compressible incompressible fluid dynamics mach number flow evaluated rough guide compressible effects ignored mach numbers approximately liquids whether incompressible assumption valid depends fluid properties specifically critical pressure temperature fluid flow conditions close critical pressure actual flow pressure becomes acoustic problems always require allowing compressibility since sound waves compression


heat mass transfer another promising methodology large eddy simulation les especially guise detached eddy simulation des combination rans turbulence modelling large eddy simulation approximations large number possible approximations fluid dynamic problems commonly used listed ''boussinesq approximation'' neglects variations density except calculate buoyancy forces often used free convection problems density changes small ''lubrication theory'' ''hele shaw flow'' exploits large aspect ratio domain show certain terms


fluid rest need distinguish total entropy static entropy always equal definition entropy commonly referred simply entropy see also fields study acoustic theory aerodynamics aeroelasticity aeronautics computational fluid dynamics flow measurement geophysical fluid dynamics hemodynamics hydraulics hydrology hydrostatics electrohydrodynamics magnetohydrodynamics quantum hydrodynamics mathematical equations concepts airy wave theory benjamin bona mahony equation boussinesq approximation water waves different types boundary conditions fluid dynamics helmholtz 's theorems kirchhoff equations knudsen equation manning equation mild slope equation morison equation navier stokes equations oseen flow


secure financial future environment economic instability pursuing checking savings account preparing retirement long term expenses corporate finance founded dutch east india company voc started spice trader going public year world 's first ipo corporate finance deals actions managers take increase value firm shareholders sources funding capital structure corporations tools analysis used allocate financial resources corporate finance principle different


make break ref name irons dividend policy use excess funds reinvested business returned shareholders capital structure deciding mix funding used attempting find optimal capital mix debt commitments vs cost capital latter creates link investment banking securities trading capital raised generically comprise debt ie corporate bonds equity often listed shares risk management corporates see financial managers ie opposed corporate financiers


finance branch management concerns managerial application finance techniques theory emphasizing financial aspects managerial decisions assessment per managerial perspectives planning directing controlling techniques addressed drawn main managerial accounting corporate finance former allow management better understand hence act financial information relating profitability performance latter optimizing overall financial structure including impact working capital ''implementation'' techniques ie financial management described academics


include insurance mathematics quantitative portfolio management relatedly techniques developed applied pricing hedging wide range asset backed government corporate securities main mathematical tools 's stochastic calculus simulation partial differential equations subject close relationship discipline financial economics concerned much underlying theory involved financial mathematics generally financial mathematics derive extend mathematical models suggested computational finance branch applied computer science deals problems practical interest finance especially emphasizes


capital liquidity requirements major tools employed value risk stress testing sensitivities analysis xva quants also responsible building deploying investment strategies quantitative funds mentioned also involved quantitative investing generally areas trading strategy formulation automated trading high frequency trading algorithmic trading program trading experimental finance experimental finance aims establish different market settings environments experimentally observe provide lens science analyze agents' behavior resulting characteristics trading flows information diffusion aggregation


one possible modes vibration idealized circular drum head modes eigenfunctions linear operator function space common construction functional analysis '''functional analysis''' branch mathematical analysis core formed study vector spaces endowed kind limit related structure eg inner product norm topology etc linear functions defined spaces respecting structures suitable sense historical roots functional analysis lie study spaces functions formulation properties

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Functional analysis


proper invariant subspace many special cases invariant subspace problem already proven banach spaces general banach spaces complicated hilbert spaces cannot classified simple manner particular many banach spaces lack notion analogous orthonormal basis examples banach spaces math l p math spaces real number given also measure math mu math set sometimes also denoted math l p x mu math vectors equivalence classes math f math measurable functions whose absolute value 's math p math th power finite integral functions math f math


group music costume group performers sharing traditional serbian folk music streets belgrade serbia word ''folklore'' compound ''folk'' ''lore'' coined englishman william thoms contrived term replacement contemporary terminology popular antiquities popular literature second half word ''lore'' comes old english l r 'instruction' knowledge traditions particular group frequently passed along word mouth concept ''folk'' varied time thoms first created term ''folk'' applied


contrast urban populace cities toward end century urban proletariat coattails marxist theory become included rural poor folk common feature expanded definition folk identification underclass society moving forward th century tandem new thinking social sciences folklorists also revised expanded concept folk group understood social groups ie folk groups around us individual enmeshed multitude


songs used express cultural values farms important farmers old weather beaten teach children different domesticated animals verbal folklore original folklore artifacts defined william thoms older oral cultural traditions rural populace published call help documenting antiquities thoms echoing scholars across european continent collect artifacts verbal lore beginning th century collections grown include artifacts around world across several centuries system organize categorize


presence either intended permanent use used next meal folklore artifacts single objects created hand specific purpose however folk artifacts also mass produced dreidels christmas decorations items continue considered folklore long pre industrial history customary use material objects existed prior continue alongside mechanized industry transmitted across generations subject forces conservative tradition individual variation ref name dorson found


folk art folk costume folk medicines food recipes presentation foodways common handicrafts handmade toys haystacks hex signs decorative ironworks pottery quilting stone sculpting tipis traditional fences vernacular architecture weather vanes woodworking customs customary culture remembered enactment ie enactment patterns expected behavior within group traditional expected way things ref name sweterlitsch ref custom single gesture thumbs handshake also complex interaction multiple folk customs artifacts seen child 's birthday party including verbal lore happy birthday song material


children children away influence supervision adult children 's folklore contains artifacts standard folklore genres verbal material customary lore however '''child child conduit''' distinguishes artifacts childhood social group children teach learn share traditions flourishing street culture outside purview adults also ideal needs collected iona peter opie demonstrated pioneering book ''children 's games street playground'' ref name opie social group


painting recognizable comparable modern variations still played today artifacts childlore innumerable variations also continue serve function learning practicing skills needed growth bouncing swinging rhythms rhymes encourage development balance coordination infants children verbal rhymes like peter piper picked serve increase oral aural acuity children songs chants accessing different part brain used memorize series alphabet song also provide necessary beat complex physical rhythms movements


life cycle celebrations ex birthday dance performances framing occurs part event frequently marked location audience goes event location participate games defined primarily rules initiation rules game framed folklorist barre toelken describes evening spent navaho family playing string figure games members shifting performer audience create display different figures verbal lore performer start end recognized linguistic formulas


context material culture two hand crafted items identical sometimes deviations performance production unintentional part process sometimes deviations intentional performer artisan want play boundaries expectation add creative touch perform within tension conserving recognized form adding innovation folklorist barre toelken identifies tension combination changing 'dynamic' static 'conservative' elements evolve change sharing communication performance time cultural context shifts morphs new leaders


considered elite thus excluded making distinction fashion whereas ''trend'' often connotes peculiar aesthetic expression often lasting shorter season identifiable visual extremes fashion distinctive industry supported expression traditionally tied fashion season collections ref name kawamura yuniija ref ''style'' expression lasts many seasons often connected cultural movements social markers symbols class culture baroque rococo according sociologist pierre bourdieu fashion connotes latest difference even though terms ''fashion'' ''clothing'' ''costume''


key part someone 's identity similarly art aims person 's choices fashion necessarily liked everyone instead expression personal taste ref name person 's personal style functions societal formation always combining two opposite principles socially acceptable secure way distinguish oneself others time satisfies individual 's need social adaptation imitation ref name ref philosopher immanuel kant believed fashion nothing genuine judgements taste instead case


date start western fashion clothing middle th century ref name braudel fernand braudel ''civilization capitalism th th centuries vol structures everyday life p william collins sons london '' ref though tend rely heavily contemporary imagery illuminated manuscripts common th century dramatic early change fashion sudden drastic shortening tightening male garment calf length barely covering buttocks ref name conceitomcombr ref sometimes accompanied stuffing chest make look bigger created distinctive western outline


weeks held cities designers exhibit new clothing collections audiences succession major designers coco chanel yves saint laurent kept paris center watched rest world although ''haute couture'' subsidized sale ready wear collections perfume using branding modern westeners vast number choices selection clothes person chooses wear reflect personality interests people high cultural status start wear new different styles


one lives within group locality style changes little fashion contrast change evolve quickly affiliated one group area world spreads throughout world wherever people communicate easily example anti fashion would ceremonial otherwise traditional clothing specific garments designs reproduced faithfully intent maintaining status quo tradition seen clothing kabuki plays character outfits kept intact designs several


transform standard interpretation frequency spectrum signal magnitude resulting complex valued function math f math frequency math f math represents amplitude frequency component whose initial phase given angle math f math polar coordinates fourier transforms limited functions time temporal frequencies equally applied analyze ' 'spatial'' frequencies indeed nearly function domain justifies use diverse branches image processing heat conduction automatic control processing signals audio radio waves light waves seismic waves

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Fourier analysis


real valued function ''s'' converse true transform odd symmetric function ''i'' ' 's'' imaginary valued function ''i'' ''s'' converse true history early form harmonic series dates back ancient babylonian mathematics used compute ephemerides tables astronomical positions ref name prestini ref name rota ref name neugebauer ref name brack classical greek concepts deferent epicycle ptolemaic system astronomy related fourier series see modern times variants discrete fourier transform used alexis clairaut


fourier transform perfect ''frequency resolution'' time information alternatives fourier transform time frequency analysis one uses time frequency transforms represent signals form time information frequency information uncertainty principle trade generalizations fourier transform short time fourier transform gabor transform fractional fourier transform frft use different functions represent signals wavelet transforms chirplet transforms wavelet analog continuous fourier transform continuous wavelet transform


'''game theory''' study mathematical models strategic interactions among rational agents ref name myerson myerson roger b ''game theory analysis conflict'' harvard university press p nbsp https booksgooglecom booksid e wqfrcsnr c printsec find pg pa chapter preview links pp https booksgooglecom booksid e wqfrcsnr c printsec find pg pr vii xi ref applications fields social science well logic systems science computer science originally addressed two person zero sum games participant 's gains losses exactly balanced participants st century game theory applies wide range behavioral relations umbrella term science logical decision

Applied science
Military sciences
Game theory


concepts correlated equilibrium trembling hand perfection common knowledge introduced analyzed game theorists thomas schelling robert aumann followed nash selten harsanyi nobel laureates schelling worked dynamic models early examples evolutionary game theory aumann contributed equilibrium school introducing equilibrium coarsening correlated equilibria developing extensive formal analysis assumption common knowledge consequences leonid hurwicz eric maskin roger myerson awarded nobel prize economics laid foundations mechanism design theory myerson 's contributions include


players changed without changing payoff strategies game symmetric many commonly studied games symmetric standard representations chicken prisoner 's dilemma stag hunt symmetric games scholars would consider certain asymmetric games examples games well however common payoffs games symmetric commonly studied asymmetric games games identical strategy sets players instance ultimatum game similarly dictator game different strategies


market share elasticity market demand cournot equilibrium reached firm operates reaction function incentive deviate best response based firms output ref name within game firms reach nash equilibrium cournot equilibrium achieved equilibrium cournot quantity competition bertrand competition bertrand competition assumes homogenous products constant marginal cost players choose prices ref name equilibrium price competition price equal marginal costs assuming complete information


opponent 's strengths jurors may unaware colleague 's interpretation evidence trial cases participants may know character opponent well may know well opponent knows character bayesian game means strategic game incomplete information strategic game decision makers players every player group actions core part imperfect information specification set states every state completely describes collection characteristics relevant player preferences details


''player '' chooses ''player '' gets payoff eight real world terms interpreted many ways simplest terms money could mean things eight days vacation eight countries conquered even eight opportunities play game players ''player '' gets payoff two extensive form also capture simultaneous move games games imperfect information represent either dotted line connects different vertices represent part information set


well ref name larson ref although pre twentieth century naturalists charles darwin made game theoretic kinds statements use game theoretic analysis biology began ronald fisher 's studies animal behavior work predates name game theory shares many important features field developments economics later applied biology largely john maynard smith book ''evolution theory games'' addition used describe predict explain behavior game theory also used develop theories ethical normative behavior


finding equilibria games predict actual human populations behave confronted situations analogous game studied particular view game theory criticized argued assumptions made game theorists often violated applied real world situations game theorists usually assume players act rationally practice human behavior often deviates model game theorists respond comparing assumptions used physics thus assumptions always hold treat game theory reasonable scientific ideal akin


since strategy best given others ref name gt f r ref ref name gt f r ref payoffs game generally taken represent utility individual players prototypical paper game theory economics begins presenting game abstraction particular economic situation one solution concepts chosen author demonstrates strategy sets presented game equilibria appropriate type economists business professors suggest two primary uses noted ' 'descriptive'' ''prescriptive'' ref name camerer chartered institute procurement supply cips


manager subcontractors among subcontractors typically several decision points example ambiguity contract contractor subcontractor must decide hard push case without jeopardizing whole project thus stake similarly projects competing organizations launched marketing personnel decide best timing strategy market project resultant product service gain maximum traction face competition scenarios required


sex ratios suggested sex ratios result evolutionary forces acting individuals could seen trying maximize number grandchildren additionally biologists used evolutionary game theory ess explain emergence animal communication analysis signaling games communication games provided insight evolution communication among animals example mobbing behavior many species large number prey animals attack larger predator seems example spontaneous emergent organization ants also shown


skyrms stalnaker ethics notably david gauthier gregory kavka jean hampton authors attempted pursue thomas hobbes' project deriving morality self interest since games like prisoner 's dilemma present apparent conflict morality self interest explaining cooperation required self interest important component project general strategy component general social contract view political philosophy examples see authors attempted use evolutionary game theory order explain emergence human attitudes morality


drawn game theory demonstrated strategies applied characters novel ''spy story'' len deighton explores elements game theory regard cold war army exercises novel ''the dark forest'' liu cixin explores relationship extraterrestrial life humanity game theory prime antagonist joker movie ''the dark knight'' presents game theory concepts notably prisoner 's dilemma scene asks passengers two different ferries bomb one save see also applied ethics chainstore paradox collective intentionality glossary game


papers lecture notes much stuff alvin roth comprehensive list links game theory information web adam kalai https webarchiveorg web http wikiccgatechedu theory indexphp cs game theory computer science spring game theory computer science lecture notes game theory computer science mike shor http wwwgametheorynet gametheorynet lecture notes interactive illustrations information jim ratliff 's http virtualperfectioncom gametheory graduate course game theory lecture notes ross http platostanfordedu entries game theory review game theory ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' bruno verbeek christopher morris http platostanfordedu entries game ethics game theory ethics elmer g wiens http wwwegwaldca operationsresearch gameintroductionphp game theory introduction worked examples play online two person zero sum games marek


nucleus slow contraction forming disk also suggested dark matter halo pull galaxy thus stopping disk contraction lambda cdm model cosmological model explains formation universe big bang relatively simple model predicts many properties observed universe including relative frequency different galaxy types however underestimates number thin disk galaxies universe reason galaxy formation models predict large number mergers disk galaxies merge another galaxy

Natural science
Space science
Numerical simulations
Galaxy formation and evolution


academic discipline central geological engineering plays important role geotechnical engineering sarychev peak volcano erupts june matua island geological materials majority geological data comes research solid earth materials typically fall one two categories rock unlithified material meteorites extra terrestrial natural materials also studied geological methods mineral minerals natural occurring elements compounds definite homogeneous chemical composition ordered atomic composition rock rock cycle shows relationship igneous sedimentary metamorphic rocks rock

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Geology


weight specific volume mineral effervescence involves dripping hydrochloric acid mineral test fizzing magnetism involves using magnet test magnetism taste minerals distinctive taste halite tastes like table salt smell minerals distinctive odor example sulfur smells like rotten eggs unlithified material geologists also study unlithified materials referred ' 'drift'' typically come recent deposits materials superficial deposits lie bedrock study often known quaternary geology quaternary period


west coast mexico development plate tectonics provided physical basis many observations solid earth long linear regions geological features explained plate boundaries ref name tde plates ref example mid ocean ridges high regions seafloor hydrothermal vents volcanoes exist seen divergent boundaries two plates move apart arcs volcanoes earthquakes theorized convergent boundaries one plate subducts moves another transform boundaries san andreas fault system resulted widespread powerful earthquakes plate tectonics also provided mechanism


seismic modeling studies alongside knowledge elemental composition earth reproduce conditions experimental settings measure changes crystal structure studies explain chemical changes associated major seismic discontinuities mantle show crystallographic structures expected inner core earth geological time geological time scale encompasses history earth bracketed earliest dates first solar system material ga ref name ref billion years ago formation earth ga ref


fault cutting b c e methods relative dating developed geology first emerged natural science geologists still use following principles today means provide information geological history timing geological events '''the principle uniformitarianism''' states geological processes observed operation modify earth 's crust present worked much way geological time fundamental principle geology advanced th century scottish physician geologist james hutton present key past hutton 's


units absolute dates could applied fossil sequences datable material converting old relative ages new absolute ages many geological applications isotope ratios radioactive elements measured minerals give amount time passed since rock passed particular closure temperature point different radiometric isotopes stop diffusing crystal lattice used geochronologic thermochronologic studies common methods include uranium lead dating potassium argon dating argon argon dating uranium thorium dating methods used variety


place since cambrian time areas much geologically complex southwestern united states sedimentary volcanic intrusive rocks metamorphosed faulted foliated folded even older rocks acasta gneiss slave craton northwestern canada oldest known rock world metamorphosed point origin indiscernible without laboratory analysis addition processes occur stages many places grand canyon southwestern united states visible example lower rock units metamorphosed deformed deformation


sedimentary layers structural geology study positions rock units deformation many cases geologists also study modern soils rivers landscapes glaciers investigate past current life biogeochemical pathways use geophysical methods investigate subsurface sub specialities geology may distinguish '''endogenous''' '''exogenous''' geology field methods typical usgs field mapping camp today handheld computers gps geographic information systems software often used geological field work digital geological mapping petrified log petrified forest national park arizona usa geological field work varies depending


structural geology collement builds shape critical taper angles within wedge remain failures inside material balance failures along collement analogous bulldozer pushing pile dirt bulldozer overriding plate structural geologists use microscopic analysis oriented thin sections geological samples observe fabric within rocks gives information strain within crystalline structure rocks also plot combine measurements geological structures better understand orientations faults folds reconstruct


zones mountains built along convergent tectonic plate boundaries analog versions experiments horizontal layers sand pulled along lower surface back stop results realistic looking patterns faulting growth critically tapered angles remain orogenic wedge numerical models work way analog models though often sophisticated include patterns erosion uplift mountain belt helps show relationship erosion shape mountain range studies


also give useful information pathways metamorphism pressure temperature space time stratigraphy different colors show different minerals composing mount ritagli di lecca seen fondachelli fantina sicily laboratory stratigraphers analyze samples stratigraphic sections returned field drill cores ref name hodell stratigraphers also analyze data geophysical surveys show locations stratigraphic units subsurface geophysical data well logs combined produce better view subsurface stratigraphers often use computer programs three dimensions stratigraphers


development science china polymath shen kuo formulated hypothesis process land formation based observation fossil animal shells geological stratum mountain hundreds miles ocean inferred land formed erosion mountains deposition silt nicolas steno credited law superposition principle original horizontality principle lateral continuity three defining principles stratigraphy word ''geology'' first used ulisse aldrovandi jean andr deluc


strata earth'' work first narrative modern geology based unity processes time explanation earth 's past present james hutton often viewed first modern geologist presented paper entitled ''theory earth'' royal society edinburgh paper explained theory earth must much older previously supposed allow enough time mountains eroded sediments form new rocks bottom sea


book influenced thought charles darwin successfully promoted doctrine uniformitarianism theory states slow geological processes occurred throughout earth 's history still occurring today contrast catastrophism theory earth 's features formed single catastrophic events remained unchanged thereafter though hutton believed uniformitarianism idea widely accepted time much th century geology revolved around question earth 's exact age estimates varied hundred thousand billions years early th century radiometric dating allowed


parent ref name griffiths sect many species including humans pattern inheritance diploid organisms two copies allele given gene called homozygous gene locus organisms two different alleles given gene called heterozygous set alleles given organism called genotype observable traits organism called phenotype organisms heterozygous gene often one allele called dominant qualities dominate phenotype organism allele called recessive qualities recede


two homologous chromosomes allele inherited different parent walther flemming 's diagram eukaryotic cell division chromosomes copied condensed organized cell divides chromosome copies separate daughter cells many species called sex chromosomes determine gender organism ref name griffiths sect ref humans many animals chromosome contains gene triggers development specifically male characteristics evolution chromosome lost content also genes x chromosome similar chromosomes contains many


crossing performed harriet creighton barbara mcclintock research experiments corn provided cytological evidence genetic theory linked genes paired chromosomes fact exchange places one homolog probability chromosomal crossover occurring two given points chromosome related distance points arbitrarily long distance probability crossover high enough inheritance genes effectively uncorrelated ref name staub ref genes closer together however lower probability crossover means


organisms include gut bacterium ''escherichia coli'' plant ''arabidopsis thaliana'' baker 's yeast ''saccharomyces cerevisiae'' nematode ''caenorhabditis elegans'' common fruit fly ''drosophila melanogaster'' common house mouse ''mus musculus'' medicine schematic relationship biochemistry genetics molecular biology medical genetics seeks understand genetic variation relates human health disease searching unknown gene may involved disease researchers commonly use genetic linkage genetic pedigree charts find location genome associated disease population level researchers take advantage mendelian randomization look


mutations occasionally occur within cells body divide although mutations inherited offspring affect behavior cells sometimes causing grow divide frequently biological mechanisms attempt stop process signals given inappropriately dividing cells trigger cell death sometimes additional mutations occur cause cells ignore messages internal process natural selection occurs within body eventually mutations accumulate within cells promote growth creating cancerous tumor grows invades


various tissues body normally cell divides response signals called growth factors stops growing contact surrounding cells response growth inhibitory signals usually divides limited number times dies staying within epithelium unable migrate organs become cancer cell cell accumulate mutations number genes three seven cancer cell divide without growth factor ignores inhibitory signals also immortal grow indefinitely even makes contact


molecular sequences associated many human diseases sequencing become less expensive researchers sequenced genomes many organisms using process called genome assembly utilizes computational tools stitch together sequences many different fragments technologies used sequence human genome human genome project completed ref name human genome project ref new high throughput sequencing technologies dramatically lowering cost dna sequencing many researchers hoping bring cost resequencing human genome thousand dollars next generation sequencing high throughput sequencing came due ever increasing demand


subsurface earliest advances occurred development earth pressure theories construction retaining walls henri gautier french royal engineer recognized natural slope different soils idea later known soil 's angle repose rudimentary soil classification system also developed based material 's unit weight longer considered good indication soil type ref name das ref name budhu ref application principles mechanics soils documented early charles coulomb physicist engineer army captain developed improved methods determine

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Geotechnical engineering


many contemporary advanced constitutive models describing behavior soil ref name wood soil behavior critical state soil mechanics wood david muir cambridge university press ref geotechnical centrifuge modeling method testing physical scale models geotechnical problems use centrifuge enhances similarity scale model tests involving soil strength stiffness soil sensitive confining pressure centrifugal acceleration allows researcher obtain large prototype scale stresses small physical models soil mechanics phase diagram soil indicating weights volumes air


ratio volume voids volume solid particles soil mass void ratio mathematically related porosity ref name nptel void math e frac n n math permeability measure ability water flow soil expressed units darcies permeability allows flow cm per second fluid cp centipoise viscosity cross sectional area cm pressure gradient atm cm applied ref name nptel p ref compressibility rate change volume effective stress


density core cutter machine standard penetration test machine field permeability single double packer machine application design bridges foundation type depth recommendation design tunnel rmr q value calculation structural design buildings bring safe bearing load design retaining structures recommendation ground improvement technique structures foundations building 's foundation transmits loads buildings structures earth geotechnical engineers design foundations based load characteristics structure properties soils bedrock site


though lightly loaded structures rock sites may experience negligible settlements heavier structures softer sites overall settlement relative unbuilt areas neighboring buildings differential settlement single structure concerns particular concern settlement occurs time immediate settlement usually compensated construction ground movement beneath structure 's foundations occur due shrinkage swell expansive soils due climatic changes frost expansion soil melting permafrost slope instability causes factors must considered design foundations


behind wall vertical pressures ground sometimes cantilevered walls buttressed front include counterfort back improve stability high loads buttresses short wing walls right angles main trend wall walls require rigid concrete footings seasonal frost depth type wall uses much less material traditional gravity wall cantilever walls resist lateral pressures friction base wall ''passive earth pressure'' tendency soil resist lateral movement basements


decreased fill placement work often specifications requiring specific degree compaction alternatively specific properties compacted soil situ soils compacted rolling deep dynamic compaction vibration blasting gyrating kneading compaction grouting etc ground improvement ground improvement technique improves engineering properties treated soil mass usually properties modified shear strength stiffness permeability ground improvement developed sophisticated tool support foundations wide variety structures properly applied ie giving due consideration nature ground improved


coastline opposition ''onshore'' ''nearshore'' ref name dean dean etr offshore geotechnical engineering principles practice thomas telford reston va p ref oil platforms artificial islands submarine pipelines examples structures number significant differences onshore offshore geotechnical engineering ref name dean ref name randolph gourvenec randolph gourvenec offshore geotechnical engineering spon press ny p ref notably ground improvement seabed site investigation expensive offshore structures exposed wider range geohazards environmental financial consequences higher case failure offshore


based working hypothesis calculation values quantities unfavorable conditions compatible available data concerning subsurface conditions selection advance course action design modification every foreseeable significant deviation observational findings predicted based working hypothesis measurement quantities observed evaluation actual conditions design modification accordance actual conditions observational method suitable construction already begun unexpected development occurs failure accident threatens already occurred ref name peck


mcgraw hill publishing company cedergren harry r ''seepage drainage flow nets'' wiley kramer steven l ''geotechnical earthquake engineering'' prentice hall inc freeze ra cherry ja ''groundwater'' prentice hall lunne long ''review long seabed samplers criteria new sampler design'' marine geology vol p nbsp mitchell james k soga k ''fundamentals soil behavior'' rd ed john wiley sons inc rajapakse ruwan pile design construction div div style font size fang h daniels j ''introductory geotechnical engineering environmental perspective'' taylor francis https webarchiveorg web http wwwvulcanhammernet geotechnical dm pdf navfac


denoted math x math math math directed graph directed graph three vertices four directed edges double arrow represents edge direction '' 'directed graph''' '' 'digraph''' graph edges orientations one restricted common sense term '' 'directed graph''' ordered pair math g math comprising math v math set ' 'vertices'' also called ''nodes'' ''points'' math e subseteq left xy mid x v textrm x neq right math set ''edges'' also called ' 'directed edges'' ' 'directed links'' ' 'directed lines'' ''arrows'' ''arcs''

Formal science
Mathematics
Applied mathematics
Graph theory


theory also widely used sociology way example measure actors' prestige explore rumor spreading notably use social network analysis software umbrella social networks many different types graphs acquaintanceship friendship graphs describe whether people know influence graphs model whether certain people influence behavior others finally collaboration graphs model whether two people work together particular way acting movie together biology likewise graph theory useful biology conservation efforts vertex


represent regions certain species exist inhabit edges represent migration paths movement regions information important looking breeding patterns tracking spread disease parasites changes movement affect species graphs also commonly used molecular biology genomics model analyse datasets complex relationships example graph based methods often used 'cluster' cells together cell types single cell transcriptome analysis another use model genes proteins pathway study relationships


crossing number graph minimum number intersections edges drawing graph plane must contain planar graph crossing number zero definition drawings surfaces plane also studied techniques visualize graph away vertices edges including circle packings intersection graph visualizations adjacency matrix tabular graph data structures tabular representation lends well computational applications different ways store graphs computer system data structure used


edges specific decomposition problems studied include arboricity decomposition forests possible cycle double cover decomposition collection cycles covering edge exactly twice edge coloring decomposition matchings possible graph factorization decomposition regular graph regular subgraphs given degrees graph classes many problems involve characterizing members various classes graphs examples questions enumerating members class characterizing class terms forbidden substructures ascertaining relationships among


hermetic teachings argued go back old egyptian kingdom c bc jewish christian origins contemporary scholarship largely agrees gnosticism jewish christian origins originating late first century ad nonrabbinical jewish sects early christian sects many heads gnostic schools identified jewish christians church fathers hebrew words names god applied gnostic systems ref name je g jewish encyclopedia http wwwjewishencyclopediacom viewjspartid letter g search gnosticism ixzz l waxy gnosticism ref cosmogonic speculations among christian gnostics partial origins maaseh bereshit ''maaseh merkabah'' thesis notably put forward gershom scholem


highest divinity emanate lower divine beings known aeons demiurge one aeons creates physical world divine elements fall material realm locked within human beings divine element returns divine realm gnosis esoteric intuitive knowledge divine element within obtained dualism monism gnostic systems postulate dualism god world varying radical dualist systems manichaeism mitigated dualism classic gnostic movements radical dualism absolute dualism posits two co equal divine forces ''mitigated dualism'' one


important unless based personal internal motivation ptolemy 's ''epistle flora'' describes general asceticism based moral inclination individual concepts monad many gnostic systems god known ''monad'' one god high source pleroma region light various emanations god called ons according hippolytus view inspired pythagoreans called first thing came existence ''monad'' begat dyad begat numbers begat point begetting lines etc sethian cosmogony


constitute ''pleroma'' region light lowest regions pleroma closest darkness physical world two commonly paired ons christ ''sophia'' greek wisdom latter refers christ consort ''a valentinian exposition'' ref name valen expos ref sophia gnostic tradition term ''sophia'' greek wisdom refers final lowest emanation god identified ''anima mundi'' world soul versions gnostic myth sophia births demiurge turn brings creation


depiction yaldabaoth demiurge however cf mithraic zervan akarana term ' 'demiurge'' derives latinized form greek term ' 'd miourgos'' literally public skilled worker ref wherein text existed describing demiurge lion faced serpent ref name apocryphon ref figure also called yaldabaoth ref name apocryphon samael aramaic ' 's el'' blind god saklas syriac ' 's kla'' foolish one sometimes ignorant superior god sometimes opposed thus latter case correspondingly malevolent names identifications ahriman el satan yahweh demiurge creates physical universe


sayings center coming endtime thomas sayings center kingdom heaven already future event according helmut koester thomas sayings older implying earliest forms christianity jesus regarded wisdom teacher alternative hypothesis states thomas authors wrote second century changing existing sayings eliminating apocalyptic concerns according april deconick change occurred end time come thomasine tradition turned toward new theology mysticism theological commitment


older sethian texts utilize large fund philosophical conceptuality derived contemporary platonism late middle platonism traces christian content according john turner german american scholarship views sethianism distinctly inner jewish albeit syncretistic heterodox phenomenon british french scholarship tends see sethianism form heterodox christian speculation roelof vandenbroek notes sethianism may never separate religious movement term refers rather set mythological themes occur various texts according smith sethianism may begun


two coexistent realms light darkness become embroiled conflict certain elements light became entrapped within darkness purpose material creation engage slow process extraction individual elements end kingdom light prevail darkness manicheanism inherits dualistic mythology zurvanist zoroastrianism eternal spirit ahura mazda opposed antithesis angra mainyu dualistic teaching embodied elaborate cosmological myth included defeat primal man powers darkness devoured imprisoned


particles light according kurt rudolph decline manichaeism occurred persia th century late prevent spread movement east west ref name kurt west teachings school moved syria northern arabia egypt north africa ref evidence manicheans rome dalmatia th century also gaul spain syria progressed still farther palestine asia minor armenia influence manicheanism attacked imperial elects polemical writings religion remained


found cathar beliefs distinctly notion lesser satanic creator god though apparently place special relevance upon knowledge ''gnosis'' effective salvific force islam sufism iblis rules material world manner resembles gnostic demiurge quran like gnostic cosmology makes sharp distinction world afterlife god commonly thought beyond human comprehension islamic schools thought somehow identifiable gnostic monad ref name referencea tilman nagel ''geschichte der islamischen theologie von mohammed bis zur gegenwart'' ch


papyrus codices buried sealed jar found local farmer named muhammed al samman writings codices comprised fifty two mostly gnostic treatises also include three works belonging ''corpus hermeticum'' partial translation alteration plato 's ''republic'' codices may belonged nearby pachomian monastery buried bishop athanasius condemned use non canonical books festal letter though original language composition probably greek various codices contained collection written coptic st nd century date composition


ref name perseus lsj group web perseustuftsedu https wwwperseustuftsedu hopper morphl gnwstikos la greek lexicon lsj entry ref ref name perseus gnostikos group web perseustuftsedu https wwwperseustuftsedu hopper wordfreqlang greek lookup gnwstiko fs ''gbostikos'' ref reading primary sources general sethians external links texts http wwwgnosisorg libraryhtml gnostic society library nbsp primary sources commentaries http wwwearlychristianwritingscom gnosticshtml early christian writings nbsp primary texts http wwwsacred textscom gno indexhtm gnostic texts sacred textscom encyclopedias http wwwieputmedu gnostic gnosticism edward moore internet encyclopedia philosophy http wwwiranicaonlineorg articles gnosticism gnosticism kurt rudolph encyclop dia iranica http wwwnewadventorg cathen ahtm gnosticism catholic encyclopedia st century establishments spirituality


samothrace founded school greek island rhodes ref name casson ref dionysius thrax 's grammar book remained primary grammar textbook greek schoolboys late twelfth century ad ref name casson romans based grammatical writings basic format remains basis grammar guides many languages even today ref name casson latin grammar developed following greek models st century bc due work authors orbilius pupillus remmius palaemon marcus valerius probus verrius flaccus aemilius asper grammar irish originated th

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Grammar


first grammar slovene written adam bohori grammars languages began compiled purposes evangelism bible translation th century onward ''grammatica arte de la lengua general de los indios de los reynos del per '' quechua grammar fray domingo de santo tom latter part th century grammar came understood subfield emerging discipline modern linguistics ''deutsche grammatik'' jacob grimm first published ''comparative grammar''


reference grammar systemic functional grammar montague grammar frameworks based innate universal grammar idea developed noam chomsky models object placed verb phrase prominent biologically oriented theories cognitive grammar cognitive linguistics construction grammar fluid construction grammar word grammar generative grammar transformational grammar generative semantics semantic syntax generalised phrase structure grammar late head driven phrase structure grammar principles parameters grammar government binding theory lexical functional grammar categorial grammar lambda calculus minimalist program based grammar stochastic grammar probabilistic operator grammar parse


correctness arise often produces discrepancy contemporary usage accepted time standard correct linguists tend view prescriptive grammars little justification beyond authors' aesthetic tastes although style guides may give useful advice ' 'standard language employment'' based descriptions usage contemporary writings language linguistic prescriptions also form part explanation variation speech particularly variation speech individual speaker example speakers say n't nothing say n't anything


''geodaisia'' literally division earth primarily concerned positioning within temporally varying gravitational field geodesy german speaking world divided higher geodesy ''erdmessung'' ''h geod sie'' concerned measuring earth global scale practical geodesy engineering geodesy ''ingenieurgeod sie'' concerned measuring specific parts regions earth includes surveying geodetic operations also applied astronomical bodies solar system also science measuring understanding earth 's geometric shape orientation space gravitational field large extent


air pressure variations continued continental masses geoid unlike reference ellipsoid irregular complicated serve computational surface solve geometrical problems like point positioning geometrical separation geoid reference ellipsoid called geoidal undulation varies globally nbsp referred grs nbsp ellipsoid reference ellipsoid customarily chosen size volume geoid described semi major axis equatorial radius ''a'' flattening ''f'' quantity ''f'' nbsp ''b'' semi minor axis polar radius


newtonian constant gravitation future gravity altitude measured relativistic time dilation measured optical clocks units measures ellipsoid geographical latitude longitude stated units degree minute arc second arc ''angles'' metric measures describe ' 'direction'' local normal reference ellipsoid revolution ''approximately'' direction plumbline ie local gravity also normal geoid surface reason astronomical position determination measuring direction


arranged date pythagoras nbsp bc ancient greece eratosthenes nbsp bc ancient greece hipparchus nbsp bc ancient greece posidonius nbsp bc ancient greece claudius ptolemy ad nbsp roman empire roman egypt al ma'mun baghdad iraq mesopotamia abu rayhan biruni khorasan iran samanid dynasty muhammad al idrisi arabia sicily regiomontanus germany austria abel foullon france pedro nunes portugal gerhard mercator belgium germany snellius willebrord snel van royen leiden netherlands christiaan huygens netherlands pierre bouguer france peru pierre de maupertuis france alexis clairaut france johann heinrich lambert france roger joseph


right begin bmatrix end bmatrix qquad rho left u right begin bmatrix u end bmatrix qquad rho left u right begin bmatrix u end bmatrix math representation faithful one one map another representation ''c'' sub sub math mathbb c math isomorphic previous one given math sigma left right begin bmatrix end bmatrix qquad sigma left u right begin bmatrix u

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Group representation


'''vect''' sub ''k'' sub category vector spaces field ''k'' definition equivalent linear representation likewise set theoretic representation representation ''g'' category sets ''c'' '''ab''' category abelian groups objects obtained called ''g'' modules another example consider category topological spaces '''top''' representations '''top''' homomorphisms ''g'' homeomorphism group topological space ''x'' two types representations closely related linear representations projective representations category projective spaces described linear representations


united states fighting endless war faraway place culture people n't understand political reasons make sense washington nowhere else p nbsp schmidt ls http wwwdticmil cgi bin gettrdocad adb location u doc gettrdocpdf american involvement filipino resistance mindanao japanese occupation ms thesis us army command general staff college pp sutherland daniel e sideshow longer historiographical review guerrilla war ''civil war history'' american civil war sutherland daniel e ''a savage conflict decisive role guerrillas american civil

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Guerrilla warfare


grow knowledge develop specialists graphic design decorating blockquote decade later course catalog california school arts crafts advertised course titled graphic design lettering replaced one called advanced design lettering classes taught frederick meyer unclear changed name course history origins graphic design traced origins human existence caves lascaux rome 's trajan 's column illuminated manuscripts middle ages

Applied science
Architecture and design
Visual communication
Graphic design


came hours required ink dry side paper solution first print ads print news side day publication paper four pages long ads least total paper pages one four hot news located inside ref name initial use ''boston news letter'' carried campbell 's solicitations advertising readers campbell 's first paid advertisement third edition may th


layout typographic changes simulate effects traditional media traditional tools pencils useful even computers used finalization designer art director may sketch numerous concepts part creative process styluses used tablet computers capture hand drawings digitally computers software designers disagree whether computers enhance creative process designers argue computers allow explore multiple ideas quickly detail achieved hand rendering paste designers find limitless choices digital design


gastroenterology sleeping proctology among ancient greeks hippocrates attributed digestion concoction galen 's concept stomach four ''faculties'' widely accepted modernity seventeenth century eighteenth century italian lazzaro spallanzani among early physicians disregard galen 's theories gave experimental proof action gastric juice foodstuffs german johann von zimmermann wrote important work dysentery maximilian stoll vienna described cancer gallbladder nineteenth century philipp bozzini made first attempt observe inside living human body using tube

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Gastroenterology


historical events body knowledge relative human evolution science narrative real imaginary events story ref name oed online oxford university press anglo norman ''history'' borrowed middle english time loan stuck appears th century ''ancrene wisse'' seems become common word late th century early attestation appearing john gower 's ''confessio amantis'' vi finde bok compiled matiere old histoire comth nou mi memoire middle


study happened latter sense sometimes distinguished capital letter word ''historiography'' ref name ferrater mora adjective ''historical'' attested ''historic'' ref name whitney whitney wd '' https booksgooglecom booksid wracaaaaiaaj century dictionary encyclopedic lexicon english language '' new york century co ref description title page ''the historians' history world'' historians write context time due regard current dominant ideas interpret past sometimes write provide lessons society words benedetto


often referred new science historical method also laid groundwork observation role state communication propaganda systematic bias history ref name mowlana h mowlana information arab world ''cooperation south journal'' ''' ''' ref thus considered father historiography ref name enan ref father philosophy history ref name akhtar sw akhtar islamic concept knowledge ''al tawhid quarterly journal islamic thought culture'' ''' ''' ref west historians developed modern methods historiography th th centuries especially


included fernand braudel e h carr fritz fischer emmanuel le roy ladurie hans ulrich wehler bruce trigger marc bloch karl dietrich bracher peter gay robert fogel lucien febvre lawrence stone many advocates history social science noted multi disciplinary approach braudel combined history geography bracher history political science fogel history economics gay history psychology trigger history archaeology wehler bloch fischer stone febvre le roy ladurie varying differing ways amalgamated history sociology geography anthropology economics nevertheless multidisciplinary approaches failed


interpretation periodisations however narrative aspect relying largely relative chronology thus devoid specific meaning despite development recent decades ability radiocarbon dating scientific methods give actual dates many sites artefacts long established schemes seem likely remain use many cases neighbouring cultures writing left history cultures without may used periodisation however viewed perfect framework one account explaining cultural changes conveniently start


central america study past passed generation generation continent earth 's western hemisphere history caribbean begins oldest evidence year old remains found history south america study past passed generation generation continent earth 's southern western hemisphere history antarctica emerges early western theories vast continent known terra australis believed exist far south globe history eurasia collective history several distinct


still well represented history departments two decades proportion professors history american universities identifying social history rose proportion political historians fell history departments british universities faculty members identified social history political history came next old social history hodgepodge topics without central theme often included political movements like populism social