perceived world space processes globalization carried religious cosmologies including traditional conceptions universalism corners world cosmologies legitimated processes globalization dynamic inter relation continued present changing sometimes new intensifying contradictions blockquote religion social landscape religion shape large scale social institutions government social movements plays part families race gender class age things involved everyday lives families general religion often associated families


external links http www asanetorg section american sociological association section sociology religion http wwwsociologyofreligioncom association sociology religion asr http wwwsssrweborg society scientific study religion https webarchiveorg web http wwwportcultcom ops htm sociological work mois esp rito santo http wwwtheardacom association religion data archives https webarchiveorg web http csrsndedu religionlinksshtml religion resources center study religion society https webarchiveorg web http ctiitcvirginiaedu jkh x soc paradigmhtml hadden religion quest meaning order https webarchiveorg web http wwwholysmokeorg sdhok joininghtm test stark bainbridge theory affiliation cults sects http wwwfacultyrsuedu felwell theorists weber whomehtm verstehen max weber 's homepage http wwwsociologiadellareligioneit associazione italiana di sociologia sezione religione http wwwsociologyofreligionnet sociology religion resources

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of religion


extension population biology evolutionary theory social organization sociobiology based premise behaviors social individual least partly inherited affected natural selection begins idea behaviors evolved time similar way physical traits thought evolved predicts animals act ways proven evolutionarily successful time among things result formation complex social processes conducive evolutionary fitness discipline seeks explain behavior


environments criminal behavior might adaptive ref name mealy ref evolutionary neuroandrogenic ena theory sociologist criminologist lee ellis posits female sexual selection led increased competitive behavior among men leading criminality cases another theory mark van vugt argues history intergroup conflict resources men led differences violence aggression men women novelist elias canetti also noted applications sociobiological theory cultural practices slavery autocracy support premise genetic mouse mutants illustrate power genes exert behaviour


example commonly accepted among many biologists however attempting use genetic basis explain complex behaviours human societies remained extremely controversial reception steven pinker argues critics overly swayed politics fear biological determinism ref accusing among others stephen jay gould richard lewontin radical scientists whose stance human nature influenced politics rather science lewontin steven rose leon kamin drew distinction politics history idea scientific validity ref name lrk ref argue sociobiology fails


'' https booksgooglecom booksid nawaaqbaj pg pa oxford handbook sikh studies '' oxford university press ref understood sikh tradition monotheistic unity god ''ik onkar'' sometimes capitalized loosely rendered 'the one supreme reality' 'the one creator' 'the pervading spirit' ways expressing diffused unified singular sense god creation traditional ''mul mantar'' goes ''ik onkar'' ''nanak hosee bhee sach'' guru nanak first guru sikhs living forever existence guru eternal sach means right true real means guru nanak real ages


heart completes one purpose meaning world action spirituality ref name jas guru nanak first sikh guru founder sikhism bhakti saint ref name richard ref taught important form worship ''bhakti'' devotion waheguru ref name mayled ref guru arjan ''sukhmani sahib'' recommended true religion one loving devotion god ''guru granth sahib'' includes suggestions sikh perform constant bhakti ref name mayled ref name sggs ref ref name jhutti johal ref scholars call sikhism bhakti sect indian traditions ref name davidlorenzen lorenzen david ''bhakti religion north india community


traditions clearly disassociate vedic texts cosmologies metaphysical worldview sikh tradition clearly disassociate vedic tradition ref name singha ref sikh sects outside punjab region india found maharashtra bihar practice ''aarti'' ceremonial use lamps bhakti observances sikh gurdwara sikh gurdwaras forbid ''aarti'' bhakti practices ref name emphasizing bhakti sikh gurus also taught spiritual life secular householder life intertwined separate logically follows panentheistic nature sikh philosophy ref


good faith without discrimination remembrance divine name key practice sikhs remembrance ref name naamsimran ref ''naam'' divine name waheguru ref name pruthi contemplation done ''n japna'' repetition divine name ''naam simran'' remembrance divine name recitation ref name naamsimran verbal repetition name god sacred syllable ancient established practice religious traditions india however sikhism developed ''naam simran'' important bhakti practice ref name dhillon ref guru nanak 's ideal total exposure one 's divine name


sikhism takes three forms ''tan'' physical service ie labor ''man'' mental service dedicating heart service others ''dhan'' material service including financial support sikhism stresses ''kirat kar '' honest work sikh teachings also stress concept sharing ''va chakk '' giving needy benefit community justice equality sikhism regards god true king king kings one dispenses justice law ''karma'' retributive model divine grace ref name justice ref ref name chanchreek ref name dugga term


guru granth sahib acknowledges vedas puranas qur'an imply syncretic bridge hinduism islam emphasises focusing nitnem banis like japu repeating mantra divine name god waheguru instead muslim practices circumcision praying prostrating ground god hindu rituals wearing thread dasam granth dasam granth sikh scripture contains texts attributed guru gobind singh including autobiography bachittar natak major narrative text chaubis avtar avatars hindu god vishnu rudra


lorenzen pages group lower roman historically sikh religion derives nirguni current bhakti religion lorenzen pp ref ref name louis fenech page group lower roman technically would place sikh community 's origins much remove perhaps dawning sant movement possesses clear affinities guru nanak 's thought sometime tenth century predominant ideology sant ''parampara'' turn corresponds many respects much wider devotional bhakti tradition northern india pashaura fenech p ref ref name encyclobritannicasikh group lower roman earliest stage sikhism clearly movement within


military victories created sikh empire sikh empire capital lahore spread almost comprising northwestern indian subcontinent sikh empire entered treaty colonial british powers side recognizing sutlej river line control agreeing invade side ranjit singh 's lasting legacy restoration expansion harmandir sahib revered gurudwara sikhs marble gold popular name golden temple derived death ranjit singh


operation bluestar sikh soldiers india mutinied attempted reach amritsar liberate golden temple ref name chima p within six months october indira gandhi 's sikh bodyguards satwant beant singh assassinated assassination triggered anti sikh riots ref name horowitz ref according donald horowitz anti sikh riots led much damage deaths many serious provocations militants also failed trigger ethnic violence many cases throughout sikhs neighbors part ignored attempts provoke riots communal strife ref name horowitz sikh people class sortable wikitable floatright sikhs


sects financially administratively supported mughal rulers hopes gaining favorable compliant citizenry ref name takhar p ref ref name fenechmcleod p ref collapse mughal empire particularly rule ranjit singh udasi sikhs protected sikh shrines preserved sikh scripture rebuilt desecrated destroyed muslim sikh wars however udasi sikhs kept idols images inside sikh temples ref name oberoi p ref name fenech p ref th century namdharis nirankaris sects formed sikhism seeking reform return believed pure form


star must also account statistics binary stars initial mass function stars form isolation part group stars referred star clusters stellar associations stellar nurseries hubble space telescope image known ''pillars creation'' stars forming eagle nebula interstellar clouds aquila one largest star factories milky way august spiral galaxy like milky way contains stars stellar remnants diffuse interstellar medium ism gas dust interstellar medium consists

Natural science
Space science
Numerical simulations
Star formation


compressed agitated tidal forces latter mechanism may responsible formation globular clusters supermassive black hole core galaxy may serve regulate rate star formation galactic nucleus black hole accreting infalling matter become active emitting strong wind collimated relativistic jet limit star formation massive black holes ejecting radio frequency emitting particles near light speed also block formation new stars aging galaxies however radio emissions around jets may also trigger star formation


fragments collapsing gas releases gravitational potential energy heat temperature pressure increase fragment condenses rotating ball superhot gas known protostar filamentary structures truly ubiquitous molecular cloud dense molecular filaments fragment gravitationally bound cores precursors stars continuous accretion gas geometrical bending magnetic fields may control detailed fragmentation manner filaments supercritical filaments observations revealed quasi periodic chains dense cores spacing comparable filament inner width embedded two protostars gas outflows

Natural science
Space science
Stellar astrophysics
Stellar evolution


fuse hydrogen slowly remain main sequence hundreds billions years longer whereas massive hot type stars leave main sequence million years mid sized yellow dwarf star like sun remain main sequence billion years sun thought middle main sequence lifespan mature stars main sequence stars convection zones arrowed cycles radiative zones red flashes left '''low mass''' red dwarf center '''mid sized''' yellow dwarf right


contracts although way main sequence migrates horizontal branch hertzsprung russell diagram gradually shrinking radius increasing surface temperature core helium flash stars evolve red end horizontal branch migrate higher temperatures gain degenerate carbon oxygen core start helium shell burning stars often observed red clump stars colour magnitude diagram cluster hotter less luminous red giants higher mass stars larger helium cores move along horizontal branch


star cools white dwarf expelled gas relatively rich heavy elements created within star may particularly oxygen carbon enriched depending type star gas builds expanding shell called circumstellar envelope cools moves away star allowing dust particles molecules form high infrared energy input central star ideal conditions formed circumstellar envelopes maser excitation possible thermal pulses produced post asymptotic giant branch evolution begun producing


system supernovae ejection elements red giants required explain observed abundance heavy elements isotopes thereof energy transferred collapse core rebounding material generates heavy elements provides acceleration well beyond escape velocity thus causing type ib type ic type ii supernova current understanding energy transfer still satisfactory although current computer models type ib type ic type ii supernovae account part energy transfer able account enough energy transfer


inputs luminosity surface temperature constraints model formulae based upon physical understanding star usually assumption hydrostatic equilibrium extensive computer calculations run determine changing state star time yielding table data used determine evolutionary track star across hertzsprung russell diagram along evolving properties ref name aass ref accurate models used estimate current age star comparing physical properties stars along matching evolutionary


supply chain management field operations complex dynamic supply demand networks ref name wieland wallenburg cf andreas wieland carl marcus wallenburg ''supply chain management st rmischen zeiten'' berlin ref cf wieland wallenburg efficient supply chain agreements aligned commerce '' 'supply chain management''' '''scm''' management flow goods services businesses locations includes movement storage raw materials work process inventory finished goods well end end order fulfillment point origin point consumption interconnected interrelated interlinked networks channels node businesses combine provision

Applied science
Military sciences
Logistics
Supply chain management


characteristics era supply chain management include need large scale changes engineering downsizing driven cost reduction programs widespread attention japanese management practices however term became widely adopted publication seminal book ''introduction supply chain management'' robert b handfield ernest l nichols jr published copies translated japanese korean chinese russian integration era era supply chain management studies highlighted development electronic data interchange edi systems developed introduction


planning scheduling supporting manufacturing operations work process storage handling transportation time phasing components inventory manufacturing sites maximum flexibility coordination geographical final assemblies postponement physical distribution operations physical distribution concerns movement finished product service customers physical distribution customer final destination marketing channel availability product service vital part channel participant 's marketing effort also physical distribution process time space customer


maintaining competitive advantage measuring logistics performance becomes increasingly important difference profitable unprofitable operations becomes narrower kearney consultants noted firms engaging comprehensive performance measurement realized improvements overall productivity according experts internal measures generally collected analyzed firm including cost customer service productivity asset measurement quality external performance measured customer perception measures best practice benchmarking warehousing management reduce company 's cost expenses warehousing management concerned storage reducing manpower cost dispatching authority time delivery loading unloading facilities


multinationals expect select suppliers based upon carbon performance future suppliers could lose places 'green supply chains' adequate performance records carbon us dodd frank wall street reform consumer protection act signed law president obama july contained supply chain sustainability provision form conflict minerals law law requires sec regulated companies conduct third party audits supply chains order determine whether tin tantalum tungsten gold together referred


material energy loops minimise resource input waste emission leakage system improve operative effectiveness efficiency generate competitive advantages reducing resource input waste leakage along supply chain configure enable recirculation resources different stages product service lifecycle potential economic environmental benefits achieved comprise eg decrease material waste management cost reduced emissions resource consumption components management components scm components third element four square circulation framework level integration


technology supply chain still early stages conceptual literature argued considerably long time highest performance efficacy expected potential automatic contract creation empirical evidence contradicts hypothesis highest potential expected arenas verified customer reviews certifications product quality standards addition technological features blockchains support transparency traceability information well high levels reliability immutability records systems value supply chain systems configure value organize networks value


dna rna considered biological storage mediums ref name rna ref various electronic storage devices phonograph cylinder storage medium phonograph may considered storage device especially machines vintage able record blank cylinders reel reel tape recorder sony tc recorder data storage equipment magnetic tape data storage medium '''data storage''' recording storing information data '' 'storage medium''' handwriting phonographic recording magnetic tape optical discs examples storage media authors even propose dna natural

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Data storage


population takes part shinto buddhist activities especially festivals reflecting common view japanese culture beliefs practices different religions need exclusive aspects shinto also incorporated various japanese new religious movements definition yobito jinja abashiri city hokkaido universally agreed definition shinto however authors joseph cali john dougill stated one single broad definition shinto could put forward would shinto belief supernatural entities centre


quite unsatisfactory misleading various scholars urge translating english japanese often said eight million term connotes infinite number shinto practitioners believe present everywhere regarded omnipotent omniscient necessarily immortal term conceptually fluid vague imprecise japanese often applied power phenomena inspire sense wonder awe beholder kitagawa referred nature stating thought somewhat analogous


followed including brother sister izanagi izanami instructed izanagi izanami create land earth end siblings stirred briny sea jewelled spear onogoro island formed izanagi izanami descended earth latter gave birth one fire whose birth killed izanami izanagi descended netherworld retrieve sister saw body putrefying embarrassed seen state chased closed


''kojiki'' ''nihon shoki'' portray multiple realms shinto cosmology present universe divided three parts plain high heaven live phenomenal manifested world humans dwell nether world unclean spirits reside mythological texts nevertheless draw firm demarcations realms shinto includes belief human spirit soul called contains four aspects although indigenous ideas afterlife probably well developed prior arrival buddhism contemporary japanese people often adopt buddhist


arguing religion readily become pawn wishing use legitimise authority power throughout japanese history notion ' 'saisei itchi'' union religious authority political authority long prominent cali dougill noted shinto long associated insular protective view japanese society added modern world shinto tends toward conservatism nationalism late bocking noted apparently regressive nationalism still seems natural ally central elements shinto result


''jinja gappei'' act transferring kami one building another called ' 'sengu'' shrines may legends foundation known ''en gi'' sometimes also record miracles associated shrine heian period ''en gi'' often retold picture scrolls known ''emakimono'' priesthood ''miko'' miwa shrine sakurai nara shrines may cared priests local communities families whose property shrine found shinto priests known japanese meaning proprietor alternatively


supplications individual worship known broadly ritual prayers called coins offered shrine individuals offering prayers necessarily praying specific worshipper may know name residing shrine many believed dwell unlike certain religions shinto shrines weekly services practitioners expected attend kami shinto practitioners offer prayers directly rather request


instruments used include three reeds three drums musical styles performed shrines limited focus shrines harano shrine kyoto eastern entertainment music performed april also kyoto various festivals make use style music dance originated rice planting songs rituals people visiting shrine expected sit style legs tucked beneath bottom avoid cramps individuals hold position lengthy


contain stand place offerings daily offerings rice salt water placed sake items also offered special days domestic rituals often take place early morning prior conducting practitioners often bathe rinse mouth wash hands form purification household shinto focus attention perceived ancestral extended kinship group small shrine ancestors household known small village shrines containing tutelary kami


mirrors played important role based ritual yayoi period early period japan unified state kofun period divided among clans tutelary korean migration kofun period brought confucianism buddhism japan buddhism particular impact cults migrant groups japanese increasingly aligned foreign influences built buddhist temples various parts japanese islands several rival clans hostile foreign influences began adapting shrines


closely resemble new buddhist structures late th century yamato clan leader ryaku declared ' 'dai '' great king established hegemony much japan early th century ce style ritual favored yamato began spreading shrines around japan yamato extended territorial influence buddhism also growing according ''nihon shoki'' emperor mei converted buddhism sponsorship buddhism spread page th century shinpukuji manuscript ''kojiki'' written th century mid th


introduced imperial national shrines top hereditary priesthoods abolished new state sanctioned system appointing priests introduced jingikan closed replaced kyobusho ministry edification coordinated campaign whereby national evangelists sent country promote japan 's great teaching included respect obedience emperor campaign discontinued thousands village shrines merged small communities single shrine rites honor emperor could


string scale string look like ordinary particle mass charge properties determined vibrational state string way different elementary particles may viewed vibrating strings string theory one vibrational states string gives rise graviton quantum mechanical particle carries gravitational force thus string theory theory quantum gravity ref name becker becker pp becker becker schwarz pp ref one main developments past several decades string theory

Natural science
Physics
Mathematical physics
String theory


right properties describe nature viable model particle physics compact extra dimensions must shaped like calabi yau manifold ref name yau nadis ch calabi yau manifold special space typically taken six dimensional applications string theory named mathematicians eugenio calabi shing tung yau another approach reducing number dimensions called brane world scenario approach physicists assume observable universe four dimensional subspace higher dimensional space models force carrying bosons particle physics arise


example duality relationship quantum field theories ads cft correspondence example duality relates string theory quantum field theory two theories related duality means one theory transformed way ends looking like theory two theories said ' 'dual'' one another transformation put differently two theories mathematically different descriptions phenomena branes open strings attached pair branes string


theory related theories brane physical object generalizes notion point particle higher dimensions instance point particle viewed brane dimension zero string viewed brane dimension one also possible consider higher dimensional branes dimension ''p'' called ''p'' branes word brane comes word membrane refers two dimensional brane ref name moore p branes dynamical objects propagate spacetime according rules quantum mechanics mass


physics matrix model particular kind physical theory whose mathematical formulation involves notion matrix important way matrix model describes behavior set matrices within framework quantum mechanics ref name banks one important example matrix model bfss matrix model proposed tom banks willy fischler stephen shenker leonard susskind theory describes behavior set nine large matrices original paper authors showed among things low energy limit matrix model described


name hawking bekenstein 's work yielded precise formula entropy black hole bekenstein hawking formula expresses entropy math frac c ka hbar g math speed light boltzmann 's constant reduced planck constant newton 's constant surface area event horizon like physical system black hole entropy defined terms number different microstates lead macroscopic features bekenstein hawking entropy formula gives expected value entropy black hole


looks like minkowski space model spacetime used nongravitational physics one therefore consider auxiliary theory spacetime given boundary anti de sitter space observation starting point ads cft correspondence states boundary anti de sitter space regarded spacetime quantum field theory claim quantum field theory equivalent gravitational theory string theory bulk anti de sitter space sense dictionary translating entities calculations one


theory counterparts theory example single particle gravitational theory might correspond collection particles boundary theory addition predictions two theories quantitatively identical two particles percent chance colliding gravitational theory corresponding collections boundary theory would also percent chance colliding applications quantum gravity discovery ads cft correspondence major advance physicists' understanding string theory quantum gravity one reason


correspondence provides formulation string theory terms quantum field theory well understood comparison another reason provides general framework physicists study attempt resolve paradoxes black holes ref name de haro et al p stephen hawking published calculation suggested black holes completely black emit dim radiation due quantum effects near event horizon ref name hawking first hawking 's result posed problem theorists suggested black holes destroy information precisely hawking 's


result physicists study string theory often guided physical intuition conjecture relationships seemingly different mathematical structures used formalize different parts theory conjectures later proved mathematicians way string theory serves source new ideas pure mathematics ref name deligne mirror symmetry clebsch cubic example kind geometric object called algebraic variety classical result enumerative geometry states exactly straight lines lie entirely surface calabi yau manifolds entered


stephen shenker showed diverged much faster field theory suggesting new non perturbative objects missing joseph polchinski joseph polchinski discovered theory requires higher dimensional objects called branes identified black hole solutions supergravity understood new objects suggested perturbative divergences opened new field rich mathematical structure quickly became clear branes p branes strings formed matter content string theories physical interpretation strings branes revealed


produced denotational semantics meanings modelled mathematical objects represent effect executing constructs thus ''only'' effect interest obtained axiomatic semantics specific properties effect executing constructs expressed ''assertions'' thus may aspects executions ignored semantic models semantic web refers extension world wide web via embedding added semantic metadata using semantic data modeling techniques resource description framework rdf web ontology language owl semantic web terms ' 'semantic network''

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Semantics


features unique particulars experience term episodic memory introduced tulving schacter context declarative memory involved simple association factual objective information concerning object word meaning measured company keep ie relationships among words semantic network memories may transferred intergenerationally isolated one generation due cultural disruption different generations may different experiences similar points time lines may create vertically heterogeneous semantic net certain words otherwise homogeneous culture


fixed static meaning words derrida following nietzsche talked slippages fixed meanings systems categories objectively ''out there'' world rooted people 's experience categories evolve learned concepts world nbsp meaning objective truth subjective construct learned experience language arises grounding conceptual systems shared embodiment bodily experience ref name lakoffjohnson ref corollary conceptual categories ie lexicon identical different cultures indeed every individual


example works biologist ludwig von bertalanffy linguist b la h b n thy sociologist talcott parsons study ecological systems howard odum eugene odum fritjof capra 's study organizational theory study management peter senge interdisciplinary areas human resource development works richard swanson works educators debora hammond alfonso montuori transdisciplinary interdisciplinary multiperspectival endeavor systems theory brings together principles concepts ontology philosophy science physics computer science biology engineering well geography sociology

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems theory


political science psychotherapy especially family systems therapy economics systems theory promotes dialogue autonomous areas study well within systems science respect possibility misinterpretations von bertalanffy believed general theory systems important regulative device science guard superficial analogies useless science harmful practical consequences others remain closer direct systems concepts developed original systems theorists example ilya prigogine center complex quantum systems university texas studied emergent properties suggesting


necessary understand whole impact new human computer interaction hci information system overlooking developing software without insights input future users mediated user experience designers serious design flaw lead complete failure information systems increased stress mental illness users information systems leading increased costs huge waste resources currently surprisingly uncommon organizations governments investigate project management decisions leading serious design flaws lack usability institute electrical electronics engineers estimates roughly


systems theory archaeology systems theory political science psychology systems psychology branch psychology studies human behaviour experience complex systems received inspiration systems theory systems thinking well basics theoretical work roger barker gregory bateson humberto maturana others makes approach psychology groups individuals receive consideration systems homeostasis systems psychology includes domain engineering psychology addition seems concerned societal systems study motivational affective cognitive group behavior holds


systems approach sharing frame reference similar pre socratic philosophy heraclitus ludwig von bertalanffy traced systems concepts philosophy gw leibniz nicholas cusa 's ''coincidentia oppositorum'' modern systems seem considerably complicated may embed history figures like james joule sadi carnot represent important step introduce ' 'systems approach'' rationalist hard sciences th century also known energy transformation thermodynamics century rudolf clausius josiah gibbs others established ' 'system'' reference model formal scientific object


organizational sciences bertalanffy 's idea develop theory systems began early interwar period publishing outline general systems theory ''british journal philosophy science'' von bertalanffy along anatol rapoport ralph w gerard kenneth boulding came together center advanced study behavioral sciences palo alto discuss creation society advancement general systems theory december year meeting around people held berkeley form society


parsons since niklas luhmann since blockquote elements systems thinking also seen work james clerk maxwell particularly control theory general systems research systems inquiry many early systems theorists aimed finding general systems theory could explain systems fields science ludwig von bertalanffy began developing 'general systems theory' via lectures via publications ref name von bertalanffy karl ludwig ''robots men minds psychology modern world'' st ed translated h j flechtner sseldorf econ verlag gmbh p


systems inquiry thus knowledgeable action system types fields theoretical fields chaos theory complex system control theory dynamical systems theory earth system science ecological systems theory living systems theory sociotechnical system systemics urban metabolism world systems theory cybernetics cybernetics study communication control regulatory feedback living lifeless systems organisms organizations machines combinations focus anything digital mechanical biological controls behavior processes information reacts information changes changed better accomplish three primary tasks terms ' 'systems theory''


identified 'systems theory' general warning necessary incautious expansion fields concepts made ref name gst blockquote cybernetics catastrophe theory chaos theory complexity theory common goal explain complex systems consist large number mutually interacting interrelated parts terms interactions cellular automata neural networks artificial intelligence artificial life related fields try describe general universal complex singular systems best context compare different c theories complex systems historical emphasizes different


tools methodologies pure mathematics beginning pure computer science today since beginning chaos theory edward lorenz accidentally discovered strange attractor computer computers become indispensable source information one could imagine study complex systems without use computers today system types biological anatomical systems nervous sensory ecological systems living systems complex complex adaptive system conceptual coordinate deterministic philosophy digital ecosystem experimental writing coupled human environment database deterministic science mathematical dynamical system formal system economic energy holarchical information legal measurement imperial metric multi agent nonlinear operating


go wrong system hazard may occur quantitative methods aim providing estimations probabilities rates severity consequences complexity technical systems improvements design materials planned inspections fool proof design backup redundancy decreases risk increases cost risk decreased alara low reasonably achievable alapa low practically achievable levels traditionally safety analysis techniques rely solely skill expertise safety engineer last decade model based approaches become prominent contrast traditional methods model based techniques try

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Safety Engineering


models used hardware components apply temperature age manufacturing variability affect resistor affect software failure modes identical effects combined summarized failure mode effects summary combined criticality analysis fmea known failure mode effects criticality analysis fmeca pronounced fuh mee kuh fault tree analysis fault tree analysis fta top deductive analytical method fta initiating primary events component failures human errors external events traced boolean logic gates undesired top event


aircraft crash nuclear reactor core melt intent identify ways make top events less probable verify safety goals achieved fault tree diagram fault trees logical inverse success trees may obtained applying de morgan 's theorem success trees directly related reliability block diagrams fta may qualitative quantitative failure event probabilities unknown qualitative fault trees may analyzed minimal cut sets example minimal cut set contains single base event top event may


psv vessel next stage analysis relates sensing devices shutdown valves esvs trip systems emergency support systems form safety analysis function evaluation safe chart ref name class wikitable colspan rowspan safety analysis function evaluation safe chart close inlet valve close outlet valve alarm esv esv b identification service device sac reference rowspan v rowspan hp separator psh x x lsh x x lsl e x x psv c


torop lotman k kull ''' ''' sebeok 's ''semiotic prologues'' ottawa legas volume gathers together part prologues ie introductions prefaces forewords etc sebeok wrote peoples' books part prologues people wrote sebeok ref first expansion human use signs ''anthroposemiosis'' include also generically animal sign usage ''zo semiosis'' ref group lower alpha see sebeok thomas communication animals men review article covers three books martin lindauer ''communication among social bees'' harvard books biology cambridge harvard university press

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Semiotics


coin word refer ''thing'' see lexical words community must agree simple meaning denotative meaning within language word transmit meaning within language 's grammatical structures codes see syntax semantics codes also represent values culture able add new shades connotation every aspect life explain relationship semiotics communication studies communication defined process transferring data meaning source receiver hence communication theorists construct models based


cheap trinkets park financial failure code violated expectations european culture ways offensive ref name brannen ref hand researchers suggested possible successfully pass sign perceived cultural icon coca cola mcdonald 's logos one culture another may accomplished sign migrated economically developed less developed culture ref name brannen intentional association product another culture called foreign consumer culture positioning fccp products also may marketed using


investigations cognitive semiotics initially developed center semiotics aarhus university denmark important connection center functionally integrated neuroscience cfin aarhus hospital amongst prominent cognitive semioticians per aage brandt svend stergaard peer bundg rd frederik stjernfelt mikkel wallentin kristian tyl n riccardo fusaroli jordan zlatev zlatev later co operation g ran sonesson established center cognitive semiotics ccs lund university sweden comics semiotics study various codes signs comics understood computational semiotics attempts engineer process semiosis


study design human computer interaction mimic aspects human cognition artificial intelligence knowledge representation see also ''cybercognition'' cultural literary semiotics examines literary world visual media mass media advertising work writers roland barthes marcel danesi juri lotman eg tartu moscow semiotic school '''''' built two already generated interdisciplinary approaches cybernetics systems theory including information theory science peircean semiotics including phenomenology pragmatic aspects linguistics attempts make two interdisciplinary paradigms going beyond mechanistic pure constructivist ideas complement


signs structuralist semiotics universal language social semiotics references footnotes citations bibliography atkin albert http platostanfordedu entries peirce semiotics peirce 's theory signs ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' barthes roland ''mythologies'' new york hill wang barthes roland ''elements semiology'' translated annette lavers colin smith london jonathan cape chandler daniel ''semiotics basics'' london routledge clarke ''principles semiotic'' london routledge kegan paul clarke ''sign levels'' dordrecht kluwer culler jonathan ''structuralist poetics structuralism linguistics study literature'' london routledge


edward mills purcell led development nuclear magnetic resonance nmr currently solid state nmr widely used field structural biology determine structure dynamic nature proteins protein nmr richard henderson produced first three dimensional high resolution image bacteriorhodopsin using cryogenic electron microscopy cryo em recently computational methods developed model study biological structures example molecular dynamics md commonly used analyze dynamic movements biological molecules first simulation biological folding process using md published nature recently

Natural science
Biology
Structural Biology


protein structure prediction significantly improved new machine learning method called alphafold claim computational approaches starting lead field structural biology research techniques biomolecules small see detail even advanced light microscopes methods structural biologists use determine structures generally involve measurements vast numbers identical molecules time methods include mass spectrometry macromolecular crystallography neutron diffraction proteolysis nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy proteins nmr electron paramagnetic resonance epr cryogenic electron microscopy cryoem electron crystallography microcrystal electron


also developing new antimicrobials mycobacterial infections using structure driven drug discovery ref name see also primary structure secondary structure tertiary structure quaternary structure structural domain structural motif protein subunit molecular model cooperativity chaperonin structural genomics stereochemistry resolution electron density proteopedia collaborative encyclopedia proteins molecules protein structure prediction references external links http wwwnaturecom nsmb ''nature structural molecular biology'' magazine website http wwwjournalselseviercom journal structural biology journal structural biology http biochemwebfenteanycom structuralshtml structural biology virtual library biochemistry molecular biology cell biology http wwwstructuralbiologyeu ''structural biology europe'' molecular biology protein structure biophysics


gathering comparative data nationally internationally approved unesco general conference th session november though may dated provide universal set definitions remain unchanged update start '''lower secondary education''' characterised transition single class teacher delivers content cohort pupils one content delivered series subject specialists educational aim complete provision basic education thereby completing delivery basic skills lay foundations

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Secondary education


boys would prepared enter schools private tutors home girls would received tuition home england provides good case study augustine canterbury brought christianity schools existed needed trained priests conduct church services boys sing choir create grammar schools taught latin enable english study priesthood song schools choir schools trained 'sons gentlefolk' sing cathedral choirs case canterbury rochester


preferably vernacular stimulated foundation free grammar schools searched less constrained curriculum colonialisation required navigation mensuration languages administrative skills la ty wanted taught sons gutenberg ref name man ref mastered moveable metal type printing tyndale translated bible english latin became skill reserved catholic church sons conservative nobility schools started set sons merchants europe colonies example boston latin grammar school comenius moravian protestant proposed new


workers needed completed basic education france louis xiv wrestled control education jesuits condorcet set coll ges universal lower secondary education throughout country napoleon set regulated system lycee england robert peel 's factory act required employer provide instruction reading writing arithmetic least first four years seven years apprenticeship state accepted responsibility basic education poor provision school places remained inadequate order council dated april


boys small tenant farmers small tradesmen superior artisans resulted endowed schools act advocated girls enjoy education boys newcastle commission inquired state public education england consider report measures required extension sound cheap elementary instruction classes people produced newcastle report led elementary education act forster act school boards set elementary education act forster act stopped


country hence provided job shadowing yet done secondary schools however country country developed form education appropriate attempt compare effectiveness using results pisa third year assesses scholastic performance mathematics science reading representative sample fifteen year olds country see also education index secondary education country secondary education individual countries list colleges universities country list oldest schools world list


still subject criticism including question sustained sustainable development argued thing sustainable use non renewable resource since positive rate exploitation eventually lead exhaustion earth 's finite stock ref name kt ref perspective renders industrial revolution whole unsustainable ref name ngr ref ref name jr ref ref name hd sustainable development debate based assumption societies need manage three types capital economic social natural may non substitutable whose consumption might

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Sustainability studies
Sustainable development


multi functionality many natural resources forests example provide raw material paper substituted quite easily also maintain biodiversity regulate water flow absorb requirements sustainable development central capacities six interdependent capacities deemed necessary successful pursuit sustainable development ref name ref capacities measure progress towards sustainable development promote equity within generations adapt shocks surprises transform system onto sustainable development pathways link knowledge action sustainability devise governance arrangements


imply increase human death rate population falls degraded environment support class wikitable consumption natural resources state environment sustainability nature 's ability replenish environmental degradation sustainable equal nature 's ability replenish environmental equilibrium steady state economy less nature 's ability replenish environmental renewal environmentally sustainable integral elements sustainable development research innovation activities example european environmental research innovation policy aims


uncertainty long term outcomes sustainable development guide ecological economic analysis valuation ref name faber ref early concept sustainability used describe economy equilibrium basic ecological support systems scientists many fields highlighted ''the limits growth'' economists presented alternatives example 'steady state economy' address concerns impacts expanding human development planet ref name hd ref economist edward barbier published study ''the concept sustainable economic development'' recognised goals environmental conservation economic development conflicting


corporate giving creation employment negative eg work accidents mobbing employees human rights abuses eco efficiency socio efficiency concerned primarily increasing economic sustainability process instrumentalise natural social capital aiming benefit win win situations however dyllick hockerts ref name dyllick point business case alone sufficient realise sustainable development point towards eco effectiveness socio effectiveness sufficiency eco equity four criteria need met sustainable development reached architecture construction sustainable architecture recent movements new


culture around world ref name uspto cmos complementary mos process developed chih tang sah frank wanlass fairchild semiconductor ref name computerhistory ref first report floating gate mosfet made dawon kahng simon sze finfet fin field effect transistor type multi gate mosfet developed digh hisamoto team researchers hitachi central research laboratory see also deathnium semiconductor device fabrication semiconductor industry semiconductor characterization techniques transistor count references reading g b abdullayev dzhafarov torstveit translator ''atomic diffusion semiconductor structures''

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Electrical Engineering
Semiconductors


conceptual framework consumers stakeholders strategy determined primarily factors outside firm strategy ploy specific maneuver intended outwit competitor strategy perspective executing strategy based theory business natural extension mindset ideological perspective organization strategies game theory game theory ' 'strategy'' refers rules player uses choose available actionable options every player non trivial game set possible strategies use choosing moves make

Applied science
Military sciences
Strategy


holes may also square greater precision area disk outlined black displays region scanned facsimile transmission systems still photographs pioneered methods mechanical scanning images early th century alexander bain introduced facsimile machine frederick bakewell demonstrated working laboratory version willoughby smith discovered photoconductivity element selenium year old german university student paul julius gottlieb nipkow proposed patented nipkow disk spinning disk spiral pattern holes


sufficient clearly transmit individual letters alphabet updated image transmitted several times second boris rosing student vladimir zworykin created system used mechanical mirror drum scanner transmit zworykin 's words crude images wires braun tube cathode ray tube crt receiver moving images possible scanner sensitivity enough selenium cell laggy edouard belin sent first image via radio waves belinograph ref name corporation ref baird


televisor equipment dummies james stooky bill '' right '' amplification made television practical scottish inventor john logie baird employed nipkow disk prototype video systems march baird gave first public demonstration televised silhouette images motion selfridge 's department store london since human faces inadequate contrast show primitive system televised ventriloquist 's dummy named stooky bill whose painted face higher contrast talking moving january demonstrated transmission image face motion


ended stations run lot public universities united states electronic english physicist j j thomson able three well known experiments deflect cathode rays fundamental function modern cathode ray tube crt earliest version crt invented german physicist ferdinand braun also known braun tube cold cathode diode modification crookes tube phosphor coated screen germans max dieckmann gustav glage produced raster images first time


television system mechanical parts year farnsworth transmitted first live human images system including three half inch image wife elma pem eyes closed possibly due bright lighting required vladimir zworykin demonstrates electronic television meanwhile vladimir zworykin also experimenting cathode ray tube create show images working westinghouse electric began develop electronic camera tube demonstration image dim low contrast poor definition stationary zworykin 's imaging


tube never got beyond laboratory stage rca acquired westinghouse patent asserted patent farnsworth 's image dissector written broadly would exclude electronic imaging device thus rca basis zworykin 's patent application filed patent interference suit farnsworth us patent office examiner disagreed decision finding priority invention farnsworth zworykin farnsworth claimed zworykin 's system would unable produce electrical image type challenge patent zworykin received patent


commercial manufacturing television equipment rca agreed pay farnsworth us nbsp million ten year period addition license payments use patents ref name everson everson george ''the story television life philo farnsworth'' new york ww norton co pp ref rca introduced improved camera tube relied tihanyi 's charge storage principle ref name newyorktimes ref called iconoscope zworykin new tube light sensitivity lux thus claimed much sensitive farnsworth 's image dissector however farnsworth overcome power


issues image dissector invention completely unique multipactor device began work demonstrated ref name thehistoryoftv abramson albert ''the history television '' jefferson nc albert abramson p ref ref name everson everson george ''the story television life philo farnsworth'' new york ww norton co pp ref small tube could amplify signal reportedly th power better ref name everson everson george ''the story television life philo farnsworth'' new york ww norton co p ref


patent new device called emitron ref name gb ref ref name us ref formed heart cameras designed bbc november line broadcasting service employing emitron began studios alexandra palace transmitted specially built mast atop one victorian building 's towers alternated short time baird 's mechanical system adjoining studios reliable visibly superior world 's first regular high definition television service ref name burns burns rw ''television international history formative years'' iee


television emerged digital television 's roots tied closely availability inexpensive high performance computers digital television became possible digital television previously practically possible due impractically high bandwidth requirements uncompressed digital video ref name lea ref ref name barbero ref requiring around mbit standard definition television sdtv signal ref name lea gbit high definition television hdtv ref name barbero digital television became practically possible early due major technological development discrete cosine transform dct video compression ref name lea ref name barbero dct coding lossy compression technique


shaped corner reflector programming broadcast television stations sometimes called channels stations licensed governments broadcast assigned channels television band first terrestrial broadcasting way television could widely distributed bandwidth limited ie small number channels available government regulation norm us federal communications commission fcc allowed stations broadcast advertisements beginning july required public service programming commitments requirement license contrast united kingdom chose


satellite dbs launched may ref name ats ref transmitted nbsp mhz using wideband fm modulation two sound channels transmissions focused indian subcontinent experimenters able receive signal western europe using home constructed equipment drew uhf television design techniques already use ref name tvdx long distance television reception tv dx enthusiast roger w bunney ref first series soviet geostationary satellites carry direct home television ekran launched october used nbsp mhz uhf downlink frequency transmissions could


mass distribution higher resolution video files could overwhelm computer servers take long download many mobile phones portable devices apple 's ipod nano sony 's playstation portable use ldtv video higher resolution files would excessive needs small screens pixels respectively current generation ipod nanos ldtv screens first three generations ipod touch iphone first years existence youtube offered one low definition resolution x p fps less standard consumer grade videotape considered


also found art films psychological realism narrative complexity ambiguous plotlines nonfiction television programs television scholars broadcasting advocacy groups argue quality television include range serious noncommercial programming aimed niche audience documentaries public affairs shows funding around world broadcast television financed government advertising licensing form tax subscription combination protect revenues subscription television channels usually encrypted ensure subscribers receive decryption codes see signal unencrypted channels known free


broadcast ensure paying subscribers access decryption codes watch pay television specialty channels subscription services also funded advertising taxation license television services countries may funded television licence form taxation means advertising plays lesser role role example channels may carry advertising little including australia abc television belgium rtbf denmark dr ireland rt japan nhk norway nrk sweden svt switzerland srg ssr republic china taiwan


matter second law defines existence quantity called entropy describes direction thermodynamically system evolve quantifies state order system used quantify useful work extracted system thermodynamics interactions large ensembles objects studied categorized central concepts thermodynamic ' 'system'' ' 'surroundings'' system composed particles whose average motions define properties properties turn related one another equations state


however follow design nevertheless based papin 's designs engineer thomas savery built first engine followed thomas newcomen although early engines crude inefficient attracted attention leading scientists time fundamental concepts heat capacity latent heat necessary development thermodynamics developed professor joseph black university glasgow james watt employed instrument maker black watt performed experiments together watt conceived idea external


classical thermodynamics interpretation microscopic interactions individual particles quantum mechanical states field relates microscopic properties individual atoms molecules macroscopic bulk properties materials observed human scale thereby explaining classical thermodynamics natural result statistics classical mechanics quantum theory microscopic level chemical thermodynamics chemical thermodynamics study interrelation energy chemical reactions physical change state within confines laws thermodynamics primary objective chemical thermodynamics determining spontaneity


even system equalizing processes gone completion said state thermodynamic equilibrium thermodynamic equilibrium system 's properties definition unchanging time systems equilibrium much simpler easier understand systems equilibrium often analysing dynamic thermodynamic process simplifying assumption made intermediate state process equilibrium producing thermodynamic processes develop slowly allow intermediate step equilibrium state said


military buildups diplomatic standoffs case proxy wars superpower supported respective allies conflicts forces aligned superpower vietnam war soviet invasion afghanistan yugoslav wars nato conducted strikes electrical grid enemy territory using graphite bombs nato claimed objective strikes disrupt military infrastructure communications see also bomber always get conventional warfare economic warfare industrial warfare roerich pact total defence war crime war economy war annihilation world war references '''notes'''

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
Total war


l way tradition p oji w tao sup sup chiao sup sup mi gr dawjiaw myr ujy u bpmf nbsp nbsp nbsp showflag p wuu doh sup sup goh sup sup j dou gaau ci douhgaau poj k u tl k u hanja hangul rr mr kanji hiragana romaji qn chuhan mc w k w oc bs altname


tao'' also referred ''taotsang'' originally compiled jin tang song dynasties extant version published ming dynasty ming ''taotsang'' includes almost texts following example buddhist tripi aka divided three ' 'dong'' caves grottoes arranged highest lowest ''zhen'' real truth grotto includes shangqing texts ''xuan'' mystery grotto includes lingbao scriptures ''shen'' divine grotto includes texts predating maoshan revelations ''taoist'' generally consult published


objects lives yin receptive yang active principle seen forms change difference annual season cycles natural landscape formation men women characters sociopolitical history almost taoist organizations make use principles influenced confucian neo confucian pan chinese theory one see symbol decorative element taoist organization flags logos temple floors stitched clerical robes according song dynasty sources originated around th century ce ref name little p ref previously


reestablished headquarters association ''baiyunguan'' white cloud temple beijing belonging longmen branch quanzhen taoism since many taoist monasteries temples reopened rebuilt belonging zhengyi quanzhen schools clergy ordination resumed taoist literature art influenced cultures korea japan vietnam organized taoism seems attracted large non chinese following modern times taiwan million people population identify taoists ref name moi ref data collected religious demographics


art influenced taoist thought notable painters influenced taoism include wu wei huang gongwang mi fu muqi fachang shitao ni zan t'ang mi wang tseng tsu taoist arts represents diverse regions dialects time spans commonly associated taoism ancient taoist art commissioned aristocracy however scholars masters adepts also directly engaged art political aspects taoism never unified political theory huang lao 's positions justified strong emperor legitimate ruler primitivists like chapters zhuangzi argued strongly radical anarchism


comparison teachings lao tzu jesus nazareth done several authors martin aronson toropov hansen believe parallels ignored opinion j isamu yamamoto main difference christianity preaches personal god taoism yet number authors including lin yutang argued moral ethical tenets religions similar neighboring vietnam taoist values shown adapt social norms formed emerging sociocultural beliefs together


another temperature calorimetry measurement heat changes performed using calorimetry usually enclosed chamber within change examined occurs temperature chamber monitored either using thermometer thermocouple temperature plotted time give graph fundamental quantities calculated modern calorimeters frequently supplied automatic devices provide quick read information one example differential scanning calorimeter systems several thermodynamic definitions useful thermochemistry system specific portion universe studied everything outside

Natural science
Chemistry
Thermochemistry


system considered surroundings environment system may completely isolated system exchange neither energy matter surroundings insulated bomb calorimeter thermally isolated system exchange mechanical work heat matter insulated closed piston balloon mechanically isolated system exchange heat mechanical work matter '''un'''insulated bomb calorimeter closed system exchange energy matter '''un'''insulated closed piston balloon open system exchange


order perform rigorous study computation computer scientists work mathematical abstraction computers called model computation several models use commonly examined turing machine ref name hodges ref computer scientists study turing machine simple formulate analyzed used prove results represents many consider powerful possible reasonable model computation see church turing thesis might seem potentially infinite memory capacity unrealizable attribute decidable problem ref name monk ref solved turing machine

Formal science
Computer science
Theory of computation


asymptotic behavior problems become large previous example might say problem requires math n math steps solve perhaps important open problem computer science question whether certain broad class problems denoted np solved efficiently discussed complexity classes p np p versus np problem one seven millennium prize problems stated clay mathematics institute http wwwclaymathorg sites default files pvsnppdf official problem description given turing award winner stephen cook models


paradoxes making foundations mathematics economic conceptually eliminating notion variables thus clarifying role mathematics recursive functions computation consists mu recursive function ''ie'' defining sequence input value sequence recursive functions appearing defining sequence inputs outputs thus defining sequence recursive function math f x math functions math g x math math h xy math appear terms form 'g ' 'h ' might appear entry sequence needs application basic function follow entries


using composition primitive recursion recursion instance math f x h xg x math 'f ' appear terms like 'g ' 'h ' must occur computation terminates final term gives value recursive function applied inputs markov algorithm string rewriting system uses grammar like rules operate strings symbols register machine theoretically interesting idealization computer several variants register hold natural number unlimited size instructions simple number eg


distinct areas god theophanic revelation systematic study nature divine generally religious belief spiritual path christian theology study christian belief practice concentrates primarily upon texts old testament new testament well christian tradition christian theologians use biblical exegesis rational analysis argument theology might undertaken help theologian better understand christian tenets make comparisons christianity traditions defend christianity objections criticism facilitate reforms christian church assist


aspects recent decades study hinduism also taken number academic institutions europe oxford centre hindu studies bhaktivedanta college religions shinto japan term ''theology'' ascribed shinto since edo period publication mano tokitsuna 's ''kokon shingaku ruihen'' modern times terms used denote studies shinto well buddhist belief ''ky gaku'' ' 'sh gaku'' modern paganism english academic graham harvey commented pagans rarely indulge theology nevertheless theology


particular denominations protestant roman catholic faculties offer denominationally bound '' konfessionsgebunden '' degrees denominationally bound public posts amongst faculty well contributing development growth christian knowledge provide academic training future clergy teachers religious instruction german schools united states several prominent colleges universities started order train christian ministers harvard georgetown boston university yale duke university princeton theological training clergy primary purpose foundation seminaries bible colleges continued alliance


stringent weights evidence requirements applied animal studies statistical analysis potent chemical hits specific biochemical targets toxcast revealed positive negative associations stm response providing insights mechanistic underpinnings targeted endpoint biological domain cases shifts away animal studies mandated law regulation european union eu prohibited use animal testing cosmetics dose response complexities chemicals display classic dose response curve nbsp low dose threshold

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Toxicology


one deity exists modern day monotheistic religions include christianity judaism islam bah faith sikhism zoroastrianism eckankar polytheism polytheism belief one god practice polytheism belief multiple gods usually includes belief existence specific pantheon distinct deities within polytheism ''hard'' ' 'soft'' varieties hard polytheism views gods distinct separate beings example would certain schools hinduism well hellenismos greek egyptian religions soft polytheism views gods

Humanities Philosophy Metaphysics Theism


name mwdictionary ref ''theft'' name statutory offence california canada england wales hong kong ref name hk ref northern ireland republic ireland australian states south australia ref name criminal law sa theft receiving ref victoria ref name crimes act vic theft ref elements ''actus reus'' theft usually defined unauthorized taking keeping using another 's property must accompanied ''mens rea'' dishonesty intent permanently deprive owner rightful possessor property use example x goes restaurant

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Theft


tangible property including money intangible property ref name crimes act vic definitions ref information held property belonging another section ''crimes act'' vic provides property belongs another person ownership possession proprietary interest property property belong one person sections deal situations accused receives property obligation mistake ref name crimes act vic mens rea '''south australia''' whether person 's conduct dishonest question fact


acting honestly belief legal claim right belief owner would consented belief owner could found ref name crimes act vic canada section criminal code provides general definition theft canada sections provide specific instances exclusions theft oyster beds theft bailee things seizure exception agent pledging goods theft telecommunications service possession device


part allows maximum imprisonment years instead robbery caused death victim article consists following part prohibits poaching dutch ' 'stroperij'' defined taking away without violence following clay sand earth raw wood fallen vegetables see source complete list maximum imprisonment one month fine second category ref name c ref part increases maximum imprisonment months crime committed less years first time article increases maximum imprisonment fine category


cash owner lends car b ltd company b ltd possession c employee b ltd uses car control c uses car unauthorized way c steal car b ltd means possible steal one 's property r v turner owner removed car forecourt garage left collection repair intended avoid paying bill appropriation


missouri stealing felony value stolen property exceeds also felony actor physically takes property appropriated person victim stolen property vehicle legal document credit card firearm explosive us flag display livestock animal fish value exceeding captive wildlife controlled substance ammonia stealing excess usually class b felony sentence years felony stealing including felonies burglary robbery involve chemicals class c felony


supports predicted shape molecular modelling methods modelling molecular structures without necessarily referring quantum mechanics examples molecular docking protein protein docking drug design combinatorial chemistry fitting shape electric potential driving factor graphical approach molecular dynamics application classical mechanics simulating movement nuclei assembly atoms molecules rearrangement molecules within ensemble controlled van der waals forces promoted temperature molecular mechanics modeling intra inter molecular interaction potential energy surfaces via potentials latter usually parameterized

Natural science
Chemistry
Theoretical chemistry


methods like molecular mechanics range application extended chemical systems relevant fields chemistry physics including biochemistry condensed matter physics nanotechnology molecular biology see also list unsolved problems chemistry bibliography attila szabo neil ostlund ''modern quantum chemistry introduction advanced electronic structure theory'' dover publications new ed edition robert g parr weitao yang ''density functional theory atoms molecules'' oxford science publications first published j tannor v kazakov v orlov control


warn users stale spoiled food ubiquitous computing presents challenges across computer science systems design engineering systems modelling user interface design contemporary human computer interaction models whether command line menu driven gui based inappropriate inadequate ubiquitous case suggests natural interaction paradigm appropriate fully robust ubiquitous computing yet emerge although also recognition field many ways already living ubicomp world see also main article natural user interfaces contemporary devices lend support

Formal science
Computer science
Computer communications (networks)
Ubiquitous computing


voiding necessary diagnose treat disorders depending cause individual problem medical surgical treatment solution field practice heavily overlaps urogynecologists physicians sub discipline gynecology done three year fellowship four year obgyn residency ref name sufuorgcom journals organizations number peer reviewed journals publications urology including ''the journal urology'' ''european urology'' ''african journal urology'' ''british journal urology international'' '' https bmcurolbiomedcentralcom bmc urology '' indian journal urology'' ''nature reviews urology'' ''urology''

Applied science
Medicine and health
Urology


social sciences '''value theory''' involves various approaches examine degree humans value things whether object subject valuing person idea object anything else within philosophy also known ethics axiology traditionally philosophical investigations value theory sought understand concept good today work value theory trended towards empirical sciences recording people value attempting understand value context psychology sociology economics ecological economics value theory


various objectivist oriented theories general level difference moral natural goods moral goods conduct persons usually leading praise blame natural goods hand objects persons example statement mary good person uses 'good' differently statement good food ethics mainly focused moral goods rather natural goods economics concern economically good society individual person


spread nuclear contamination '''victimology''' study victimization including psychological effects victims relationship victims offenders interactions victims criminal justice system police courts corrections officials connections victims social groups institutions media businesses social movements victim crime criminology criminal law victim crime identifiable person harmed individually directly perpetrator rather society whole however may always


victim impact statement form community based restorative justice crime victims relatives friends deceased crime victims meet defendant conviction tell convict criminal activity affected hope rehabilitation deterrence consequences crimes emotional distress result crime recurring theme victims crime common problems affecting three quarters victims psychological problems including fear anxiety nervousness self blame anger shame difficulty sleeping ref name sebba sebba l third parties victims


victim spread fear community victim proneness environmental theory environmental theory posits location context crime bring victim crime perpetrator together studies early showed crimes negatively correlated trees urban environments trees area congruent lower victimization rates violent crime rates ref name trees ref ref name big trees ref ref name trees ref ref name portland ref ref name baltimore ref relationship established studies portland oregon baltimore maryland ref name trees ref name big


name trees ref name portland baltimore study led scientists university vermont united states department agriculture usda conservative spatially adjusted model indicated increase tree canopy associated roughly decrease crime found inverse relationship continued contexts magnitude greater public private lands ref name baltimore quantification victim proneness studies recently quantify real existence victim proneness contrary popular belief women


world phenomenon belief people get deserve deserve get first theorized melvin lerner attributing failures dispositional causes rather situational causes unchangeable uncontrollable satisfies need believe world fair control life motivated see world reduces perceived threats gives us sense security helps us find meaning difficult unsettling circumstances benefits us psychologically ref name correspondence gilbert dt malone ps ''the correspondence bias psychological bulletin'' '' ''


court jodhpur december see also references reading https booksgooglecom books wounds bindhtmlid zjaaaaamaaj acker james r karp daniel r ''wounds bind victim based perspectives death penalty'' carolina academic press croall h ''understanding white collar crime open university press '' croall h victims white collar crime lindgren ed ''white collar crime research old views future potentials'' national council crime prevention sweden noted http wwwgcalacuk lss global contactmaps staff law hcroallhtml glasgow caledonian university website page hazel croall professor criminology school law social sciences lisak david understanding


consists creation networks inclusion private veterinary practices randomized controlled trials studies exist effect community animal health services improving household wealth health status low income farmers see also animal drug animal science federation veterinarians europe lists animal diseases national office animal health one health pet orthotics technology veterinary medicine wikivet country veterinary medicine united kingdom veterinary medicine united states history veterinary medicine pennsylvania history veterinary medicine philippines veterinary council india veterinary council

Applied science
Medicine and health
Veterinary medicine


metabolism move depend host cell reproduction often debated question whether alive matter definition affect biological reality viruses viral diseases host defenses one main motivation study viruses fact cause many important infectious diseases among common cold influenza rabies measles many forms diarrhea hepatitis dengue fever yellow fever polio smallpox aids herpes simplex causes cold sores genital herpes investigation possible factor alzheimer 's ref name herpesalzheimers ref


mosaic disease experiments showed crushed leaf extracts infected tobacco plants remained infectious filtration ivanovsky reported minuscule infectious agent toxin capable passing filter may produced bacterium ref name collier ref martinus beijerinck repeated ivanovski 's work went passed filterable agent plant plant found action undiminished concluded infectiousreplicating hostand thus mere toxin called ''contagium vivum fluidum'' ref name pennazio ref question whether agent living fluid particle however still open


suggested first time transduction viruses might cause cancer bang ellerman showed filterable virus could transmit chicken leukemia data largely ignored till leukemia became regarded cancerous ref name epps peyton rous reported transmission chicken sarcoma solid tumor virus thus rous became father tumor virology ref name epps ref virus later called rous sarcoma virus understood retrovirus several cancer causing retroviruses since described existence viruses infect bacteria bacteriophages first recognized


baltimore first retrovirus infecting humans identified robert gallo later found reverse transcriptase specific retroviruses retrotransposons code reverse transcriptase abundant genomes eukaryotes ten forty percent human genome derives retrotransposons functioning oncoviruses clarified considerably time thought viruses carried certain genes called oncogenes inserted host 's genome would cause cancer michael bishop harold varmus showed oncogene rous sarcoma virus fact


host 's genome interrupt genes potentially causes cancer sputnik virophage described first known ''virophage'' uses machinery helper virus reproduce inhibits reproduction helper virus sputnik reproduces amoeba infected mamavirus relative mimivirus mentioned largest known virus date endogenous retrovirus erv viral element genome derived retrovirus whose genome incorporated germ line genome organism therefore copied reproduction organism


since rise state years ago military activity occurred much globe advent gunpowder acceleration technological advances led modern warfare according conway w henderson one source claims wars taken place bc late th century costing billion lives leaving years peace beer unfavorable review estimate mentions following regarding one proponents estimate addition perhaps feeling war casualties figure improbably high changed 'approximately

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
War


primitive societies finding supported researchers keeley explains early war raids well organized participants formal training scarcity resources meant defensive works cost effective way protect society enemy raids ref name keeley page keeley lawrence h ''war civilization myth peaceful savage'' p ref william rubinstein wrote pre literate societies even organised relatively advanced way renowned studied cruelty'archaeology yields evidence prehistoric massacres severe recounted ethnography ie coming europeans '


japanese samurai attacking mongol ship th century western europe since late th century conflicts battles taken place ref name war http wwwralphmagorg cg world war one html world war one new kind war part ii '' understanding great war'' st phane audoin rouzeau annette becker ref th century war resulted dramatic intensification pace social changes crucial catalyst emergence political left force reckoned ref name kolko xviitoxviii war century became


essential precondition emergence numerically powerful left moving margins center european politics world affairs ref finnish soldiers winter war view rapidly increasingly destructive consequences modern warfare particular concern consequences costs newly developed atom bomb albert einstein famously stated know weapons world war iii fought world war iv fought sticks stones ref name einsteinwwiv nuclear age peace foundation paper ref


conquest ming dynasty ref name userserols second sino japanese war conquests tamerlane dungan revolt ref name lu ref russian civil war foreign intervention military personnel military personnel subject combat war often suffer mental physical injuries including depression posttraumatic stress disorder disease injury death world war ii research conducted us army brigadier general sla marshall found average american riflemen wwii combat fired enemy ref


events attributed youth bulges role played historically large youth cohorts rebellion revolution waves early modern europe including french revolution effect economic depression upon largest german youth cohorts ever explaining rise nazism germany rwandan genocide also analyzed following massive youth bulge youth bulge theory subjected statistical analysis world bank population action international berlin institute population development youth bulge theories


enemy trucks shau valley april rationalism international relations theory framework rationalism neorealism international relations operate assumption states international actors rational seek best possible outcomes desire avoid costs war ref name ref one game theory approach rationalist theories posit actors bargain would better war occur likewise seek understand war nonetheless reoccurs another rationalist game theory without bargaining peace war game optimal strategies still found depend upon number


namely seek advance good curtail evil fourth belligerent must reasonable chance success fifth war must last resort sixth ends sought must proportional means used ''jus bello'' right war set ethical rules conducting war two main principles proportionality discrimination proportionality regards much force necessary morally appropriate ends sought injustice suffered ref name moseley ref principle discrimination determines legitimate targets war


regulations legitimate war ref name deforrest fascism ideals encompasses pragmatism racism social darwinism hold violence good pragmatism holds war violence good serves ends people without regard universal morality racism holds violence good master race established purge inferior race earth social darwinism asserts violence sometimes necessary weed unfit society civilization flourish broad archetypes general position ends justify


used commercials game ''street fighter iv'' computing write read data hazard war file format ''web application archive'' file format used package java applications early versions decwar pioneering multi user computer game war dialing act detecting online modem accessible systems computer dial set numbers wardriving act detecting wireless networking systems detecting driving around wi fi equipped device warchalking notices drawn alert people presence wi fi networks organizations white aryan resistance indiana neo nazi white supremacist organization wyatt archaeological research organization


industrialization spread capitalism analyse large scale changes like affected different parts world like branches history writing second half twentieth century world history scope far beyond historians' traditional focus politics wars diplomacy taking panoply subjects like gender history social history cultural history environmental history ref name auto organizations ''h world'' website online network used among practitioners world history allows discussions among scholars announcements syllabi bibliographies book reviews international society comparative


cultural values views historical event criticism reflective history later formalized anthropologists franz boa coined cultural relativism alain locke lenses considered partially flawed hegel hegel termed lens advocated view world history philosophical history order view history lens one must analyze events civilizations periods objectively done fashion historian extract prevailing theme studies lens differs rest void


disintegration european american civilization violent age caesarism arguing detailed analogies civilizations deepened post world war pessimism europe warmly received intellectuals china india latin america hoped predictions collapse european empires would soon come true toynbee 's ten volume ''a study history'' came three separate installments followed spengler taking comparative topical approach independent civilizations toynbee said displayed striking parallels origin growth decay toynbee rejected spengler 's biological model civilizations


history borrowing critical skills one another thus precipitating still change adjustment traditional old borrowed new knowledge practice became necessary mcneill took broad approach organized around interactions peoples across earth interactions become numerous continual substantial recent times network communication cultures eurasia term areas interaction differ one world historian another include ''world system'' ''ecumene'' whatever called importance intercultural contacts begun


recognized many scholars history education united states early american historical association advocated study past world scale walter wallbank alastair taylor co authored ''civilization past present'' first world history textbook published united states additional authors successful work went numerous editions first decade twenty first century according golden anniversary edition ongoing objective ''civilization past present'' present survey world cultural history treating development growth


tellier canadian ''urban world history'' puq pages http wwwpuqca catalogue themes urban world history html online edition arnold j toynbee british ''a study history'' eric voegelin ''order history'' immanuel wallerstein world systems theory giano rocca ultimate meaning human existence scientific method applied human condition book see also history globalization political history world references bibliography surveys world history bayly christopher alan ''the birth modern world global connections comparisons'' blackwell bullet richard et al ''the earth peoples'' th ed vol university


data web publication max roser university oxford visualises living standards around world changed historically makes data available covers wide range topics historical trends health food provision growth distribution incomes violence rights wars energy use education environmental changes many aspects empirically analysed visualised open access web publication http chnmgmuedu worldhistorymatters world history matters http wwwtimemapscom history timemap world history world history atlas http wwwhistoryworldnet historyworld http worldhistoryforusallsdsuedu world history us nbsp christian world history model curriculum erik ringmar http wwwirhistoryinfo history international relations


either directly studying interactions molecules right cell biology developmental biology indirectly molecular techniques used infer historical attributes populations species fields evolutionary biology population genetics phylogenetics also long tradition studying biomolecules ground molecularly biophysics ref name tian ref see also animal science biology domesticated animals astrobiology cognitive zoology evolutionary biology list zoologists outline zoology palaeontology timeline zoology zoological distribution notes references external links http wwwgutenbergorg browse loccs ql books zoology project


'''zoroastrianism''' '''mazdayasna''' iranian religion one world 's oldest continuously practiced organized faiths based teachings iranian speaking prophet zoroaster also known ''zara u tra'' avestan ''zartosht'' modern persian dualistic cosmology good evil eschatology predicts ultimate conquest evil good zoroastrianism exalts uncreated benevolent deity wisdom known ''ahura mazda'' supreme ref name ref unique historical features zoroastrianism monotheism ref name dastur ref ref name mehr ref ref name russell ref ref name karaka ref messianism belief judgement death conception


ahura mazda ref name boyce ref additionally life force originates ahura mazda known ''asha'' truth cosmic order ref name ref name ref stands opposition ''druj'' falsehood deceit ref name ref ahura mazda considered good evil emanating deity ref name ahura mazda works ''g g'' visible material realm ''m n g'' invisible spiritual mental realm ref name ref seven six excluding spenta mainyu amesha spentas ref name ref direct emanations ahura mazda zoroastrianism entirely uniform theological philosophical thought especially historical modern influences significant impact


good words good deeds ref name also heavy emphasis spreading happiness mostly charity ref name respecting spiritual equality duty men women ref name zoroastrianism 's emphasis protection veneration nature elements led proclaim world 's first proponent ecology avesta texts call protection water earth fire air making effect ecological religion surprising mazdaism called first ecological religion reverence yazatas divine spirits emphasizes preservation


takhti sangin tajikistan greco bactrian kingdom rd nd century bce classical antiquity tomb cyrus great pasargadae iran roots zoroastrianism thought lie common prehistoric indo iranian religious system dating back early nd millennium bce prophet zoroaster though traditionally dated th century bce thought many modern historians reformer polytheistic iranian religion lived th century bce ref name atlas patrick karl o'brien ed https booksgooglecom booksid ffzy tdjaukc pg pa dq ''atlas world history'' concise edn ny oxford ref zoroastrianism religion firmly established several


nations acknowledged usurper especially granted remission taxes three years ref name perseustuftsedu darius later achaemenid emperors acknowledged devotion ahura mazda inscriptions attested several times behistun inscription appear continued model coexistence religions whether darius follower teachings zoroaster conclusively established indication note worship ahura mazda exclusively zoroastrian practice according later zoroastrian legend ''denkard'' ''book arda viraf'' many sacred


muslim iranians majority many instances showed severe disregard mistreated local zoroastrians example th century deeply venerated cypress tree khorasan parthian era legend supposed planted zoroaster felled construction palace baghdad away th century day tower silence completed much trouble expense muslim official contrived get onto call ''adhan'' muslim call prayer walls turned


appear partly iranian religion one example legend husayn son fourth caliph ali grandson islam 's prophet muhammad married captive sassanid princess named shahrbanu wholly fictitious figure ref name boyce ref said borne husayn son historical fourth shi'a imam claimed caliphate rightly belonged descendants umayyads wrongfully wrested alleged descent sassanid house counterbalanced arab nationalism umayyads iranian national association zoroastrian past disarmed


restored faith orthodox form hellenistic arsacids allowed zoroastrianism become corrupt among migrations cities margins great salt deserts particular yazd kerman remain centers iranian zoroastrianism day yazd became seat iranian high priests mongol il khanate rule best hope survival non muslim inconspicuous ref name boyce ref crucial present day survival zoroastrianism migration northeastern iranian town sanjan south western khorasan ref name boyce ref gujarat western


p estimates possibly million https booksgooglecom booksid l jmaaaamaaj dq f q million pgis cook p estimates exactly million https archiveorg details psychologyaccoun cook page ref scholars believe key concepts zoroastrian eschatology demonology influenced abrahamic religions ref name blackrowley b ref ref name duchesne guillemin ref hand zoroastrianism inherited ideas belief systems like practiced religions accommodates degree syncretism ref name boyce eg ref zoroastrianism sogdia kushan empire armenia china places incorporating local foreign practices deities zoroastrian influences hungarian slavic ossetian turkic mongol mythologies also noted bearing extensive light dark dualisms


avesta possession greeks shapur ii arderbad mahrespandand revised canon ensure orthodox character khosrow avesta translated pahlavi compilation avesta authoritatively traced however sasanian empire fraction survive today middle persian literature correct ref name later manuscripts date fall sasanian empire latest years fall sasanian empire texts remain today gathas yasna visperad vendidad


fall winter angra mainyu 's fearsome miscreant azi dahaka break free terrorize world ref name cavendish according legend final savior world known saoshyant born virgin impregnated seed zoroaster bathing lake saoshyant raise dead including afterworlds final judgment returning wicked hell purged bodily sin next wade river molten metal righteous burn impure completely purified forces


yasna considered purview mobeds corpus individual communal rituals prayers included khordeh avesta ref name zoroastrian welcomed faith navjote sedreh pushi ceremony traditionally conducted later childhood pre teen years aspirant though defined age limit ritual ref name ref name ref ceremony zoroastrians encouraged wear sedreh ritual shirt kusti ritual girdle daily spiritual reminder mystical protection though reformist zoroastrians tend wear


continuing concentration western india central iran southern pakistan zoroastrians diaspora primarily located united states great britain former british colonies particularly canada australia usually anywhere strong iranian gujarati presence ref percentages pagr south asia india parsi ''navjote'' ceremony rites admission zoroastrian faith india considered home single largest zoroastrian population world islamic armies


first caliphs invaded persia locals unwilling convert islam sought refuge first mountains northern iran regions yazd surrounding villages later ninth century ce group sought refuge western coastal region india also scattered regions world following fall sassanid empire ce many zoroastrians migrated among several groups ventured gujarat western shores indian subcontinent finally settled descendants refugees today known


leaders repeating claim speculating even zoroastrians region practicing faith secretly however confirmed independent sources surge kurdish muslims converting zoroastrianism largely attributed disillusionment islam experiencing violence oppression perpetrated isis area ref name france ref western world north america thought home zoroastrians south asian iranian background live australia mainly sydney population zoroastrians usa making third largest zoroastrian population


edition misprints title zoroastrians zoroastians may lead catalogue errors second edition published isbn pp nbsp pp nbsp pp nbsp external links https wwwiranicaonlineorg articles zoroastrianism parent encyclopedia iranica zoroastrianism https fezanaorg fezana federation zoroastrian associations north america https wwwbbccouk programmes p bc v zoroastrianism bbc radio discussion vesta sarkhosh curtis farrokh vajifdar alan williams ''in time'' nov zoroastrianism iranian religions indian religions religion sasanian empire religion iran religion india religion kurdistan ethnic groups middle east


computation occur instant single clock cycle contrast concurrent computing consists process ''lifetimes'' overlapping execution need happen instant goal model processes outside world happen concurrently multiple clients accessing server time structuring software systems composed multiple concurrent communicating parts useful tackling complexity regardless whether parts executed parallel example concurrent processes executed one core interleaving execution steps process via time sharing

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Concurrent programming


original balance sorts problems shared resources benefit use concurrency control non blocking algorithms advantages advantages concurrent computing include increased program throughput parallel execution concurrent program allows number tasks completed given time increase proportionally number processors according gustafson 's law high responsiveness input output input output intensive programs mostly wait input output operations complete concurrent programming allows time would spent waiting used another task appropriate program structure problems problem domains well suited


health physics diagnostic imaging highly specialized intricately operating equipment including x ray machines mri pet scanners many devices provide modern medicine 's diagnostic capability along disclosing subtle treatment options gallery file x ray skulljpg '''x ray image male skull''' file mri head sidejpg '''magnetic resonance imaging mri scan human head''' file pet imagejpg '''pet scan taken ecat exact hr pet scanner''' gallery nuclear materials nuclear materials research focuses two main subject areas nuclear fuels irradiation induced modification nuclear materials improvement nuclear fuels crucial obtaining increased efficiency nuclear reactors irradiation effects studies

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Process design
Nuclear engineering


ensure sufficient number teachers classrooms meet demand number new teachers needed sub saharan africa alone equaled extant teaching force region ref name autogenerated ref gender gap children education narrowed number girls education worldwide decreased percent percent however regions percentage increased ref name autogenerated according united nations many things regions already accomplished although enrollment sub saharan area africa

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Elementary education


following decades reform efforts stolypin reforms constitution state duma attempted open liberalize economy political system emperor refused relinquish autocratic rule resisted sharing power combination economic breakdown war weariness discontent autocratic system government triggered russian revolution overthrow monarchy initially brought office coalition liberals moderate socialists failed policies led seizure power communist bolsheviks october november


northern crusades russia west despite becoming grand prince alexander declared vassal golden horde strength resist power grand duchy moscow rise moscow dmitry donskoy battle kulikovo daniil aleksandrovich youngest son alexander nevsky founded principality moscow known muscovy english ref name curtis first cooperated ultimately expelled tatars russia well situated central river system russia surrounded protective forests marshes moscow first vassal vladimir


series attacks opened way complete defeat declining golden horde divided several khanates hordes ivan successors sought protect southern boundaries domain attacks crimean tatars hordes achieve aim sponsored construction great abatis belt granted manors nobles obliged serve military manor system provided basis emerging cavalry based army way internal consolidation accompanied outward expansion state th century rulers