processes medicine health care ref name x ray scan archival science databases healthcare archival clinical informaticians use knowledge patient care combined understanding informatics concepts methods health informatics tools assess information knowledge needs health care professionals patients families characterize evaluate refine clinical processes develop implement refine clinical decision support systems lead participate procurement customization development implementation management evaluation continuous improvement clinical information systems clinicians collaborate health care information technology professionals develop health informatics

Applied science
Medicine and health
Health informatics


released ref name ref commonly used definition tbi lengthy could found amia website simpler terms tbi could defined collection colossal amounts health related data biomedical genomic translation data individually tailored clinical entities ref name today tbi field categorized four major themes briefly described clinical big data collection electronic health records used innovations evidence based approach currently practiced medicine suggested merged practice based medicine achieve better


vista graphical user interface known computerized patient record system cprs allows health care providers review update patient 's electronic medical record va 's health care facilities morris collen physician working kaiser permanente 's division research developed computerized systems automate many aspects multi phased health checkups systems became basis larger medical databases kaiser permanente developed american college medical informatics acmi since annually bestowed morris f collen md medal outstanding contributions


software floss health care another stream research currently focuses aspects big data health information systems background information data related aspects health informatics see eg book biomedical informatics andreas holzinger asia oceania asia australia new zealand regional group called asia pacific association medical informatics apami established consists member regions asia pacific region australia australasian college health informatics achi professional association health informatics asia pacific region represents


interests broad range clinical non clinical professionals working within health informatics sphere commitment quality standards ethical practice achi academic institutional member international medical informatics association imia full member australian council professions achi sponsor e journal health informatics indexed peer reviewed professional journal achi also supported australian health informatics education council ahiec since founding although number health informatics organizations australia health informatics society australia hisa


one first dedicated journals health informatics early journals included ''computers medicine'' published american medical association ''journal clinical computing'' published gallagher printing ''journal medical systems'' published plenum press ''md computing'' published springer verlag lippincott published first nursing specific journal titled ''journal computers nursing'' known ''computers informatics nursing'' ''cin'' september roughly informatics journals listed national library medicine nlm catalog journals ''journal citation reports'' gives top three


iso iec applied since comprehensive business approach total quality management tqm operated continuously improve production process automotive products components companies implemented tqm include ford motor company motorola toyota motor company job functions development engineer development engineer responsibility coordinating delivery engineering attributes complete automobile bus car truck van suv motorcycle etc dictated automobile manufacturer governmental regulations customer buys product much like systems engineer development engineer concerned

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Automotive engineering


system ergonomic placement controls need evaluated sound quality seating positions needs provided acceptable levels manufacturing engineer manufacturing engineers responsible ensuring proper production automotive components complete vehicles development engineers responsible function vehicle manufacturing engineers responsible safe effective production vehicle group engineers consist process engineers logistic coordinators tooling engineers robotics engineers assembly planners automotive industry manufacturers playing larger role development stages


increase understanding cultures assert superiority although politicians others outside field sometimes used works purpose french school early part th century wwii field characterised notably empiricist positivist approach termed french school scholars like paul van tiegham examined works forensically looking evidence origins influences works different nations often termed rapport des faits thus scholar might attempt trace particular literary idea motif traveled nations

Humanities
Languages and literature
Comparative literature


time french school comparative literature study influences mentalities dominates today french school practices nation state approach discipline although also promotes approach european comparative literature publications school include ''la litt rature compar e'' c pichois rousseau ''la critique litt raire'' j c carloni jean filloux ''la litt rature compar e'' yves cheverel translated english ''comparative literature today methods perspectives'' german school like french school german comparative literature origins late th century


''religious studies'' journal various religious symbols '''religious studies''' also known '' 'study religion''' academic field devoted research religious beliefs behaviors institutions describes compares interprets explains religion emphasizing systematic historically based cross cultural perspectives theology attempts understand transcendent supernatural forces deities religious studies tries study religious behavior belief outside particular religious viewpoint religious studies draws upon multiple disciplines methodologies including anthropology sociology psychology philosophy history religion religious studies originated nineteenth century scholarly historical


understanding sectarian tensions religious violence etymology term religion originated latin noun ' 'religio'' nominalized one three verbs ' 'relegere'' turn constantly observe conscientiously ' 'religare'' bind oneself back ' 'reeligere'' choose three different potential meanings etymological analysis alone resolve ambiguity defining religion since verb points different understanding religion medieval period term religious used noun describe someone joined monastic order religious defining religion totem poles


reflect beliefs indigenous peoples pacific northwest coast religious studies scholars argue term religion western centric encompass beliefs practices communities throughout history religious studies many attempts define term religion many ''monothetic'' seeking determine key essential element religions share used define religion category must necessary order something classified religion two forms monothetic definition


pick result integrating religious studies disciplines forming programs study mixed discipline utilitarian study philosophy religion uses philosophical tools evaluate religious claims doctrines western philosophy traditionally employed english speaking scholars cultures philosophical traditions including indian muslim jewish common issues considered western philosophy religion existence god belief rationality cosmology logical inferences logical consistency sacred texts although philosophy long used evaluation religious


sociology religion distinguished philosophy religion set assess validity religious beliefs though process comparing multiple conflicting dogmas may require peter l berger described inherent methodological atheism whereas sociology religion broadly differs theology assuming invalidity supernatural theorists tend acknowledge socio cultural reification religious practise may said modern formal discipline sociology ''began'' analysis religion durkheim 's study suicide rates amongst catholic protestant populations works


worldview growing modern natural science technology spreading northern europe since renaissance positively speaking phenomenologists tend justify cognition also evaluation action reference edmund husserl called evidenz awareness matter disclosed clear distinct adequate way something kind phenomenologists tend believe objects natural cultural worlds also ideal objects numbers even conscious life made evident thus known phenomenologists tend hold inquiry


theology stands contrast philosophy religion religious studies generally scholar first foremost believer employing logic ''and'' scripture evidence theology according understanding fits definition anselm canterbury gave eleventh century credo ut intelligam faith seeking understanding literally believe may understand theologian traditionally seen task making intelligible clarifying religious commitments however many contemporary scholars theology assume dichotomy instead scholars understand


multiplicative identity article make assumption unless stated otherwise examples examples rings commutative follow matrix ring ''n'' ''n'' matrices real numbers hamilton 's quaternions group ring made group abelian free ring math mathbb z langle x ldotsx n rangle math generated finite set example two non equal elements math x x x x neq x x math weyl algebra math n mathbb c math ring polynomial differential operators defined affine space example math mathbb c cong mathbb c langle x rangle xy yx

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Noncommutative algebra


clear interest rings differential operators interpretation example adjoining formal inverse ''d'' sup minus sup differentiation operator ''d'' done many contexts methods differential equations large mathematical theory named microlocalization connecting numerous branches ''micro '' tag connections fourier theory particular morita equivalence morita equivalence relationship defined rings preserves many ring theoretic properties named japanese mathematician kiiti morita defined equivalence similar notion duality


condition right annihilators subsets ''r'' goldie 's theorem states semiprime right goldie rings precisely semisimple artinian right classical ring quotients structure ring quotients completely determined artin wedderburn theorem particular goldie 's theorem applies semiprime right noetherian rings since definition right noetherian rings ascending chain condition ''all'' right ideals sufficient guarantee right noetherian ring right goldie converse hold every right ore domain right goldie domain hence


lines solar spectrum corresponded bright lines spectra known gases specific lines corresponding unique chemical elements kirchhoff deduced dark lines solar spectrum caused absorption chemical elements solar atmosphere way proved chemical elements found sun stars also found earth among extended study solar stellar spectra norman lockyer detected radiant well dark lines solar spectra working chemist edward frankland investigate spectra

Natural science
Space science
Astrophysics


astrophysics journals http masterobspmfr master science astronomy astrophysics http wwwastrouclaedu wright cosmologhtm ned wright 's cosmology tutorial ucla https wwwunlvedu degree ms astronomy unlv astronomy astrophysics department http wwwocaeu stee page page page html hot active stars research astrophysicist philippe stee 's homepage astronomical sub disciplines


mercury vapor lamp photochemical reactions require light source emits wavelengths corresponding electronic transition reactant early experiments everyday life sunlight light source although polychromatic mercury vapor lamps common laboratory low pressure mercury vapor lamps mainly emit nbsp nm polychromatic sources wavelength ranges selected using filters alternatively laser beams usually monochromatic although two wavelengths obtained using nonlinear optics leds relatively narrowband efficiently used well rayonet lamps get approximately monochromatic

Natural science
Chemistry
Photochemistry


randomization isolation unwanted variables laboratory experimentation psychology reliability validity reliability reliability measures consistency repeatability observation example one way assess reliability test retest method done measuring group participants one time testing second time see results consistent first test may alter results second test methods often used example split half measure group participants divided random two comparable sub groups reliability

Social science
Psychology
Experimental psychology


controversy selection appropriate criteria given measure addition conclusion valid extent observations upon based reliable several types validity distinguished follows internal validity internal validity refers extent set research findings provides compelling information causality high internal validity implies experimental design study excludes extraneous influences one confidently conclude variations independent variable caused observed changes dependent variable external validity


torg torgerson w theory methods scaling new york wiley ref ref name stevens stevens mathematics measurement psychophysics stevens ed handbook experimental psychology new york wiley ref almost psychological experiments involve sort measurement determine reliability validity results course measurement essential results relevant quantitative theories rule assigning numbers property object event called scale following basic scales used psychological measurement ref name stevens nominal


several notable irish writers clockwise top left jonathan swift wb yeats oscar wilde james joyce colm toib n seamus heaney samuel beckett gb shaw '''irish literature''' comprises writings irish latin english scots ulster scots languages island ireland earliest recorded irish writing dates seventh century produced monks writing latin early irish addition scriptural writing monks ireland recorded poetry mythological tales large surviving body irish mythological writing including tales mad king

Humanities
Languages and literature
Irish Literature


given irish writers wrote english forefront modernist movement notably james joyce whose novel ''ulysses'' considered one influential works century playwright samuel beckett addition large amount prose fiction wrote number important plays including ''waiting godot'' several irish writers excelled short story writing particular edna o'brien frank o'connor lord dunsany william trevor notable irish writers twentieth century include poets eavan boland patrick kavanagh dramatists tom murphy brian


many swift 's works reflected support ireland times political turmoil england including ''proposal universal use irish manufacture'' ''drapier 's letters'' ''a modest proposal'' earned status irish patriot oliver goldsmith born county longford moved london became part literary establishment though poetry reflects youth ireland best known novel ''the vicar wakefield'' pastoral poem ''the deserted village'' plays ''the good natur 'd man'' ''she stoops conquer'' first


political cultural nationalism took interest literature irish language one young protestant scholar called samuel ferguson studied language privately discovered poetry began translate preceded james hardiman published first comprehensive attempt collect popular poetry irish attempts supplied bridge literatures two languages anglo irish tradition maria edgeworth furnished less ambiguous foundation anglo irish literary tradition though irish birth came


essayist lay theologian christian apologist born belfast held academic positions oxford university cambridge university best known fictional work especially ''the screwtape letters'' ''the chronicles narnia'' ''the space trilogy'' non fiction christian apologetics ''mere christianity'' ''miracles'' ''the problem pain'' faith profound effect work wartime radio broadcasts subject christianity brought wide acclaim louis macneice poet playwright part generation thirties poets


quite commonplace great houses ireland following thirty years werburgh street theatre dublin generally identified first custom built theatre city pre restoration playhouse outside london first irish playhouse werburgh street theatre established john ogilby least perhaps early earliest irish born dramatists note william congreve author ''the way world'' one interesting writers restoration comedies london oliver goldsmith author ''the good natur 'd man''


'reading ireland contemporary irish writers context place' films media group jeffares norman ''a pocket history irish literature'' o'brien press welsh robert ed stewart bruce ed ''the oxford companion irish literature'' clarendon press wright julia ''irish literature anthology'' blackwell press caerwyn williams je agus n mhuir osa ir n ''traidisi n liteartha na ngael'' cl chomhar tta baile tha cliath revival corkery daniel ''the hidden ireland study gaelic munster eighteenth century'' mh son ltd dublin c itinn seathr n eag de barra


tta baile tha cliath rahilly thomas f ed reprint ''d nta gr dha anthology irish love poetry '' cork university press external links http wwwnliie national library ireland premier cultural institution holding irish literary collections http wwwuccie celt celt online resource irish history literature politics http wwwirishplayographycom irish playography database european literature english language literature


typically involves direct indirect observation researched subject eg laboratory field documents methodology results conclusions experiment set experiments offers novel interpretation previous results analytical work typically new example mathematical results produced new way approaching existing problem subjects typically carry experimentation analysis kind originality particular way existing understanding changed interpreted based outcome work researcher

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Research methods


quantitative study gain additional insights ref name creswell book ref big data brought big impacts research methods many researchers put much effort data collection furthermore methods analyze easily available huge amounts data also developed types research method observatory research method correlation research method switching topics indications last decades scientists switched scientific topics frequently non empirical research non empirical theoretical research approach involves development theory opposed using observation


meta research low rates reproducibility across large number fields widespread difficulty reproducing research termed replication crisis methods research many disciplines western methods conducting research predominant researchers overwhelmingly taught western methods data collection study increasing participation indigenous peoples researchers brought increased attention scientific lacuna culturally sensitive methods data collection western methods data collection may accurate relevant research non western societies example hua oranga created criterion


form self regulation qualified members profession within relevant field peer review methods employed maintain standards quality improve performance provide credibility academia scholarly peer review often used determine academic paper 's suitability publication usually peer review process involves experts field consulted editors give review scholarly works produced colleague unbiased impartial point view usually done free charge tradition peer reviews done


grants research funds grants necessary researchers carry research also source merit social psychology network provides comprehensive list us government private foundation funding sources see also advertising research european charter researchers funding bias internet research list countries research development spending list words ending ''ology'' market research marketing research open research operations research participatory action research psychological research methods research integrity research intensive cluster research proposal research university scholarly research secondary research social research society artistic


poetry twelve millennia old modern linguistic scholarship places poems rd century bce nd century ce sangam age considered tamil people golden era tamil language period tamil country ruled three 'crowned kings' cheras pandyas cholas land peace major external threats asoka 's conquests impact tamil land people able indulge literary pursuits poets much casual relationship rulers

Humanities
Languages and literature
Tamil Literature


established various hindu sects began play prominent role educating people numerous authors either saiva vaishnava sects vijayanagar kings nayak governors ardent hindus patronised ''mathas'' although kings governors vijayanagar empire spoke kannada telugu encouraged growth tamil literature find slowing literary output period large output works philosophical religious nature ''sivananabodam'' meykandar


end th century svarupananda desikar wrote two anthologies philosophy ''advaita'' ''sivaprakasapperundirattu'' arunagirinathar lived tiruvannamalai th century wrote ''tiruppugal'' around verses unique lilt set unique metres poems god muruga madai tiruvengadunathar official court madurai nayak wrote ''meynanavilakkam'' advaita vedanta siva prakasar early th century wrote number works saiva philosophy notable among ''nanneri'' deals moral instructions considerable par religious philosophical literature


''kuruntokai'' etc published books wrote ''en caritham'' autobiography tamil novel novel genre literature arrived tamil third quarter th century century became popular english writers emergence perhaps facilitated growing population tamils western education exposure popular english fiction mayavaram vedanayagam pillai wrote first tamil novel ''prathapa mudaliar charithram'' romance assortment fables folk tales even greek roman stories written entertainment


reader principal motive followed ''kamalambal charitram'' b r rajam iyer ''padmavathi charitram'' madhaviah two portray life brahmins th century rural tamil nadu capturing customs habits beliefs rituals although primarily powerful narration common man 's life realistic style spiced natural humour rajam iyer 's novel spiritual philosophical undertone madhaviah tells story realistic way searching criticism upper caste society particularly sexual exploitation girls


tamil nadu since popular authors years independence included kurumbur kuppusami vaduvur duraisami iyengar tamilvanan 's detective hero shankarlal carried readers variety foreign locales using pure tamil hindi english loan words writers often extremely prolific hundreds even thousands short novels credit one short novel published monthly periodical indra soundar rajan another popular modern author writes supernatural crime thrillers usually based around hindu mythology kalki


''desabhaktan'' another tamil daily began tv kalyansundara menon editor succeeded vvs iyer colleague savarkar brothers two editors scholars natural highly readable polished style writing freedom movement advent gandhi also impacted tamil journalism navasakthi tamil periodical edited tamil scholar freedom fighter v kalyanasundaram crajagopalachari began vimochanam tamil journal devoted propagating prohibition gandhi ashram tiruchengode salem district p varadarajulu naidu conducting tamil news cum views weekly 'tamil nadu' started daily


air across sharp edge splits airstream split air stream acts upon air column contained within flute 's hollow causing vibrate produce sound examples open flutes transverse flute panpipes shakuhachi ancient flutes variety including bamboo flutes often made tubular sections plants grasses reeds bamboo hollowed tree branches later flutes made metals tin copper bronze modern concert flutes usually made high grade metal alloys usually containing nickel silver copper gold

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Woodwinds


produce sound closed flute player required blow air duct duct acts channel bringing air sharp edge open flutes air split causes column air within closed flute vibrate produce sound examples type flute include recorder ocarina organ pipes reed instruments reed instruments produce sound focusing air mouthpiece causes reed reeds vibrate similarly flutes reed pipes also


likewise unique since sound produced 'free reeds' small metal tongues arranged rows within metal wooden frame airflow necessary instruments sound generated either player 's breath eg harmonica bellows eg accordion modern orchestra concert band woodwinds modern orchestra 's woodwind section typically includes flutes oboes clarinets bassoons piccolo cor anglais bass clarinet e flat clarinet contrabassoon commonly used supplementary woodwind instruments section may also occasion expanded addition saxophone concert band 's woodwind section


''i ching'' ''book changes'' made later translation translated english european languages establishment people 's republic china study china developed along diverging lines rise area studies role china watchers growth university graduate programs changed role sinology funding chinese taiwanese studies may come variety sources one prominent source chiang ching kuo foundation ref name brown ref area studies approach especially united states challenged dominance classical

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Sinology


vibrating element produces sound string instruments guitar harp piano piano wire members violin family strings lengths flexible material musical instrument holds tension vibrate freely controllably strings may plain consisting single material like catgut nylon steel wound strings core one material overwinding materials make string vibrate desired pitch maintaining low profile sufficient flexibility playability invention wound

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Strings


thread strung points form geometric patterns representational designs ship 's sails sometimes artist material comprising remainder work thread wire string wound around grid nails hammered velvet covered wooden board though straight lines formed string slightly different angles metric positions strings intersect gives appearance b zier curves mathematical concept envelope family straight lines quadratic b zier curve obtained strings based two intersecting segments forms string art


mass grave found today forensic anthropology well established discipline within forensic field anthropologists called upon investigate remains help identify individuals bones physical characteristics could used identify body longer exist forensic anthropologists work conjunction forensic pathologists identify remains based skeletal characteristics victim found lengthy period eaten scavengers flesh markers used identification would destroyed making normal identification difficult impossible forensic anthropologists provide physical characteristics

Social science
Archaeology
Forensic anthropology


impossible ref name college anthropologists also helped identify victims genocide countries around world often long actual event war crimes anthropologists helped investigate include rwandan genocide ref name nuwer srebrenica genocide ref name elson organizations forensic anthropology society europe british association forensic anthropology american society forensic anthropologists continue provide guidelines improvement forensic anthropology development standards within discipline history early history earnest hooton one pioneers field physical anthropology use


use development medial end clavicle traditionally undertaking age estimation living adopt imaging techniques plain radiographies ct scans carry age estimation however lately due ethical issues surrounding use ionising medical imaging modalities non medical purposes eg forensic purposes magnetic resonance imaging radiation free medical imaging modality investigated develop new methodologies estimate age living individuals determination ancestry determination individual 's ancestry typically grouped three historical groups caucasoid mongoloid negroid however


qualified however able determine type trauma experienced gun shot wound blunt force sharp force mixture thereof also possible determine fracture occurred ante mortem death peri mortem time death post mortem death ante mortem fractures show signs healing depending long death fracture occurred peri post mortem fractures peri mortem fractures incorporate quite large range time ante mortem trauma unrelated directly death may time begin


body affects environment geotaphonomy examinations include soil disturbed ph alteration surrounding area either acceleration deceleration plant growth around body ref name csi examining characteristics examiners begin piece together timeline events death potentially help determine time since death whether trauma skeleton result perimortem postmortem activity well scattered remains result scavengers deliberate attempt conceal remains assailant ref


ref name college ref ref name nuwer ref ref name elson ref ref name ncic ref ref name interpol ref ref name ident skel remains ref ref name fosci outreach ref ref name hawks ref ref name juniordentist ref ref name fonsfaw ref ref name smithsonian ref ref name sfu ref ref name mall ref ref name hawks ref ref name redwoods ref ref name teeth age ref ref name young old ref ref name adult age ref ref name skel evid ref ref name nlm ref ref name westport ref ref name activity ancestry ref ref name observation ref ref name smith ashley ref ref name chicora ref ref name nawrocki arch ref ref name sfu arch ref ref name tap manual ref ref name forbes ref ref name csi ref ref name nawrocki ref ref name hall edu ref ref name fase ref ref name abfa exam ref ref name abfa ref ref name swganth ref ref name abfa ethics ref ref name sue black ref ref name karen burns ref ref name finnegan ref


knowledge true comparative psychology could develop however broader use term comparative psychology enshrined names learned societies academic journals mention minds psychologists specialisms label field never likely disappear completely persistent question comparative psychologists faced relative intelligence different species animal indeed early attempts genuinely comparative psychology involved evaluating well animals different species could learn different tasks attempts floundered retrospect

Social science
Psychology
Comparative psychology


gardner harry f harlow donald hebb richard herrnstein lt hobhouse clark l hull linus kline wolfgang k hler konrad lorenz emil wolfgang menzel jr neal e miller c lloyd morgan hobart mowrer robert lockhard ivan pavlov irene pepperberg george romanes thorleif schjelderup ebbe sara shettleworth bf skinner willard small edward c tolman edward l thorndike margaret floy washburn john b watson wilhelm wundt many active fields animal psychology characteristic comparative psychologists related fields fields psychology disciplines draw upon overlap comparative psychology include animal cognition behavioral ecology


french naval hospital toulon louis alexis normand researching ailments french soldiers returning vietnam discovered known helminth without treatment capable indefinitely reproducing within host causes disease strongyloidiasis patrick manson discovered life cycle elephantiasis caused nematode worms transmitted mosquitoes manson predicted malaria parasite ''plasmodium'' mosquito vector persuaded ronald ross investigate ross confirmed prediction correct time giovanni battista grassi others described


collection circles corresponding unit disk graph '''discrete geometry''' '''combinatorial geometry''' branches geometry study combinatorial properties constructive methods discrete geometric objects questions discrete geometry involve finite discrete sets basic geometric objects points lines planes circles spheres polygons forth subject focuses combinatorial properties objects intersect one another may arranged cover larger object discrete geometry large overlap convex geometry computational geometry

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Discrete geometry


new study '''topological combinatorics''' lov sz 's proof used borsuk ulam theorem theorem retains prominent role new field theorem many equivalent versions analogs used study fair division problems topics area include sperner 's lemma regular maps lattices discrete groups '' 'discrete group''' group ''g'' equipped discrete topology topology ''g'' becomes topological group '' 'discrete subgroup''' topological group ''g'' subgroup ''h'' whose relative topology discrete one example integers '''z''' form


appeared academic literature period found five key themes particular featured prominently definitions ' 'states consciousness'' ''higher ultimate potential'' ''beyond ego personal self'' ''transcendence'' ''the spiritual'' based upon study authors proposed following definition transpersonal psychology ''transpersonal psychology concerned study humanity 's highest potential recognition understanding realization unitive spiritual transcendent states consciousness'' review previous definitions walsh vaughan ref name walsh vaughan suggested transpersonal psychology

Social science
Psychology
Transpersonal psychology


someone commentators ref name elmer macdonald friedman elmer lori macdonald douglas friedman harris l transpersonal psychology physical health mental health theory research practice ''the humanistic psychologist'' ref also mention psychedelic movement psychological study religion parapsychology interest eastern spiritual systems practices influences shaped early field transpersonal psychology another important figure establishment transpersonal psychology abraham maslow already published work regarding human peak experiences maslow credited presented outline fourth force psychology named transhumanistic psychology


sofia university ''san francisco chronicle'' published online tuesday july ref institute founded robert frager james fadiman ref name sf chronicle ref name prweb prweb press release ''sofia university announces inauguration first president neal king phd'' palo alto ca prweb september ref response academic climate included transpersonal spiritual approaches psychology ref name sf chronicle soon institutions transpersonal psychology programs followed among saybrook graduate school california institute asian studies california institute integral studies jfk university naropa ref name lukoff lu lukoff david


special issue leicester british psychological society ref ref name daniels mcnutt daniels michael mcnutt brendan questioning role transpersonal psychology ''transpersonal psychology review'' vol preprint version ref second half decade commentators remarked field transpersonal psychology grown steadily ref name chinen rapidly ref name miller later developments beginning marked revisionary project jorge ferrer considered important contribution field ref name rowan rowan john transpersonal psychology psychotherapy counselling book review ''therapy today'' june vol


difference transpersonal psychology broader category transpersonal theories sometimes called transpersonal studies according friedman ref name friedman category might include several approaches transpersonal lie outside frames science however according ferrer field transpersonal psychology situated within wider umbrella transpersonal studies transpersonal psychology may also sometimes associated new age beliefs pop psychology ref name friedman ref name sutcliffe sutcliffe steven category formation history 'new age' ''culture religion interdisciplinary journal'' ref ref name vermont business magazine casey retiring burlington college


psychology spirituality still generally considered clear distinction two much focus psychology religion concerned issues would n't considered 'transcendent' within transpersonal psychology two disciplines quite distinct focus research theory clinical aspects research interests methodology transpersonal perspective spans many research interests following list adapted ''textbook transpersonal psychiatry psychology'' ref name scotton chinen battista includes contributions spiritual traditions taoism hinduism yoga buddhism kabbalah christian mysticism shamanism native


favour new model calls integral however psychological model still remains influential practice development transpersonal psychology ref name elmer macdonald friedman transpersonal themes remain central part work central theory consciousness synthesis eastern western psychologies models human development ref name walsh walsh roger developmental evolutionary synthesis recent writings ken wilber ''revision'' ref wilber 's model consciousness consists three broad developmental categories prepersonal pre egoic personal egoic transpersonal


physical pain agony dying death biological birth aging disease decrepitude transpersonal levels corresponding theories cg jung area number spiritual paranormal transcendental experiences including esp phenomena ego transcendence states expanded consciousness order bring structure psychodynamic perinatal levels grof introduces two governing systems organizing principles coex system governing system psychodynamic level basic perinatal matrices represent birthing stages governing system perinatal level ref name paulson ref name grof grof applies


come foreground shifting emphasis transpersonal approach clinical practice outlined psychoanalyst robin brown ref name auto draws relational psychoanalysis analytical psychology participatory theory within contemporary psychoanalysis suggested clinical point view postulating transcendent dimension human experience theoretically necessary promoting non reductive approaches therapy first book survey field spiritually oriented psychotherapy published ''american psychological association'' included chapter transpersonal integrative approach therapy ref name sperry shafranske sperry len ed shafranske edward p ed


name turner et al beginning group psychologists psychiatrists affiliated field transpersonal psychology saw need new psychiatric category involving religious spiritual problems ref name lukoff lu ref name hartelius friedman pappas hartelius friedman pappas calling spiritual psychology chapter friedman hartelius editors wiley blackwell handbook transpersonal psychology west sussex john wiley sons ref ref name chinen concern possibility misdiagnosis problems ref name turner et al ref name lukoff lu ref name lukoff lu turner ref name lukoff based


forward cultural sensitivity dsm manual greyson ref name greyson greyson bruce near death experience focus clinical attention ''the journal nervous mental disease'' volume may pp ref representing field near death studies concludes diagnostic category ''religious spiritual problem'' permits differentiation near death experiences similar experiences mental disorders study milstein colleagues discussed construct validity new dsm iv category religious spiritual problem v ref name milstein et al according commentators ref name elmer macdonald friedman transpersonal psychology recognizes


team jiaap review wiley blackwell handbook transpersonal psychology ''journal indian academy applied psychology'' vol jan ref one latest updated introductions field transpersonal psychology ref name rowan ref name leitner guthrie leitner larry guthrie leland transpersonal psychology big picture book review ''psyccritiques'' vol american psychological association ref although perspectives transpersonal psychology spread number interest groups across us europe origins california field always strongly associated institutions west


profession however believe transpersonal psychology could contribute areas pastoral theology pastoral counseling elkins ref name elkins lu elkins david humanistic approach spiritually oriented psychotherapy spiritually oriented psychotherapy edited l sperry e p shafranske american psychological association ref writing field spiritually oriented psychotherapy considered transpersonal psychology grown away roots humanistic movement established theories perspectives taylor ref name taylor representing field humanistic psychology presented balanced review transpersonal psychology early nineties


made argument favor understanding mania form spiritual emergency ref name whitney whitney edward personal accounts mania spiritual emergency ''psychiatric services'' december american psychiatric association ref g see dsm iv conditions may focus clinical attention religious spiritual problem code v ref name american psychiatric association references reading davis john v ''transpersonal psychology'' taylor b kaplan j eds encyclopedia religion nature bristol england thoemmes continuum gripentrog stephanie mapping boundaries science religion psychology psychiatry near death experiences l ddeckens


curator exhibit designer dress mannequin exhibit '''curator''' meaning take care ref name eb ref manager overseer working cultural organizations curator typically collections curator exhibitions curator multifaceted tasks dependent particular institution mission recent years role curator evolved alongside changing role museums term curator may designate head given division recently new kinds curators started emerge community curators literary curators digital curators biocurators collections

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Curator


collecting institutions multiple curators assigned specific collecting area eg curator ancient art curator prints drawings etc often operating direction head curator organizations physical care collection may overseen museum collections managers museum conservators documentation administrative matters personnel insurance loans handled museum registrar france term collections curator translated ''conservateur'' two kinds ''conservateurs'' heritage curators ''conservateurs du patrimoine'' five specialities archeology archives museums historical monuments


curatorial platform references reading burcaw g introduction museum work rd edition lanham md altamira press ferguson b greenburg r nairne thinking exhibitions glaser j zenetou museums place work routledge lord g b lord manual museum management lanham md altamira press kuoni carin words wisdom curator 's vade mecum contemporary art new york independent curators international ici marincola p curating imaginative practice public responsibility obrist h brief history curating rugg j


identify domains expertise highly valued complex diagnosing infectious diseases mycin identifying unknown organic molecules dendral idea intelligent systems derive power knowledge possess rather specific formalisms inference schemes use feigenbaum said time significant step forward since past research focused heuristic computational methods culminating attempts develop general purpose problem solvers foremostly conjunct work allen newell herbert simon expert systems became first truly successful forms artificial

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Expert systems


performed human counterparts rules contradicted others top level control parameters speed area provided tie breaker program highly controversial used nevertheless due project budget constraints terminated logic designers vax project completion years middle expectations expert systems accomplish many fields tended extremely optimistic beginning early studies researchers hoping develop entirely automatic ie completely computerized expert systems expectations people computers


architecture date jun p ref expert system example knowledge based system expert systems first commercial systems use knowledge based architecture knowledge based system essentially composed two sub systems knowledge base inference engine knowledge base represents facts world early expert systems mycin dendral facts represented mainly flat assertions variables later expert systems developed commercial shells knowledge base took structure used concepts object oriented programming world represented classes subclasses


could use r ask user socrates man use new information accordingly use rules explicitly represent knowledge also enabled explanation abilities simple example system used r assert socrates mortal user wished understand socrates mortal could query system system would look back rules fired cause assertion present rules user explanation english user asked socrates mortal


inference engines termed classifiers although highly used expert systems classifiers powerful unstructured volatile domains key technology internet emerging semantic web advantages goal knowledge based systems make critical information required system work explicit rather implicit traditional computer program logic embedded code typically reviewed specialist expert system goal specify rules format intuitive easily


satisfiability problem assume binary variables say n corresponding search space size math n math thus search space grow exponentially also questions prioritize use rules order operate efficiently resolve ambiguities instance many else sub structures within single rule problems related overfitting overgeneralization effects using known facts trying generalize cases described explicitly knowledge base


ongoing research '''glucose control''' mentioned insulin secretion reduced exercise play major role maintaining normal blood glucose concentration exercise counter regulatory hormones appear increasing concentrations principle among glucagon epinephrine growth hormone hormones stimulate liver hepatic glucose output among functions instance epinephrine growth hormone also stimulate adipocyte lipase increases non esterified fatty acid nefa release oxidizing fatty acids spares glucose utilization helps maintain blood sugar level exercise '''exercise diabetes''' exercise particularly potent

Human physical performance and recreation


environment effects hypohydration may vary depending whether induced diuretics sauna exposure substantially reduce plasma volume prior exercise much less impact plasma volume hypohydration reduces aerobic endurance effects muscle strength endurance consistent require study intense prolonged exercise produces metabolic waste heat removed sweat based thermoregulation male marathon runner loses hour around l cool weather l warm losses females lower ref name cheuvront ref people heavy


brain glucose uptake ref name pmid ref rest energy adult brain normally provided glucose brain compensatory capacity replace lactate research suggests raised person rests brain scanner higher percentage occurring hypoglycemia intense exercise lactate estimated provide third brain 's energy needs ref name pmid ref name dalsgaard k ref evidence brain might however spite alternative sources energy still suffer


woman 's marathon los angeles summer olympics race 's final meters stopping occasionally shown signs heat exhaustion though fell across finish line released medical care two hours later central governor tim noakes based earlier idea nobel prize physiology medicine winner archibald hill proposed existence central governor brain continuously adjusts power output muscles exercise regard safe level exertion neural calculations factor prior length


engineers spending time engaged technical social work technical non social non technical social non technical non social engineering also information intensive field research finding engineers spend time engaged various different information behaviours including actively information people information repositories documents databases ref name robinson jasist time engineers spend engaged activities also reflected competencies required engineering roles addition engineers core technical competence research also demonstrated

Applied science
Military sciences
Organization
Engineers


engineer would design body actuators electrical engineer would design power systems sensors electronics embedded software electronics control circuitry finally software engineer would develop software makes robot behave properly engineers aspire management engage study business administration project management organizational business psychology often engineers move management hierarchy managing projects functional departments divisions eventually ceos multi national corporation class wikitable sortable branch focus related sciences products aerospace engineering focuses development


forestry renewable energy crops agricultural machinery tractors combine harvesters forage harvesters etc agricultural technology incorporates things robotics autonomous vehicles architectural engineering building engineering focuses building construction architecture architectural technology buildings bridges biomedical engineering focuses closing gap engineering medicine advance various health care treatments biology physics chemistry medicine prostheses medical devices regenerative tissue growth various safety mechanisms genetic engineering chemical engineering focuses manufacturing chemicals extraction chemical species natural resources chemistry


engineering designs plans specifications incorporated fixed works systems facilities property others made available public individuals prohibited offering engineering services directly public businesses engage practice engineering unless business entity registered state 's board engineering practice carried supervised directly engineers licensed engage practice engineering instances positions sanitation engineer basis engineering sciences although


years responsibility significant engineering work continuous professional development highly qualified pes able become international professional engineers int pe engineers must meet highest level professional competencies peer reviewed process intpe title awarded engineer gain easier admission national registers number members jurisdictions international practice canada engineering self regulated profession profession province governed engineering association instance province british columbia engineering graduate four years post


use pre nominal title ingegnere ingegnera female cases often abbreviated ing lieu signore signorina signora mr miss mrs respectively manner someone holding doctorate would use pre nominal title doctor spanish speaking countries certain spanish speaking countries follow italian convention engineers using pre nominal title case ingeniero ingeniera female like italy usually abbreviated ing spain practice followed engineering profession enjoys high prestige spain ranking close medical doctors


one area focus reality game studies encompasses types gaming including sports board games etc video games game studies rooted primarily anthropology however development spread video games games studies diversified methodologically include approaches sociology psychology fields number strands within game studies social science approaches explore games function society interactions human psychology often using empirical methods surveys controlled lab experiments humanities based approaches emphasise games generate meanings reflect

Journalism, media studies and communication


resolved help cause establishing computer games study autonomous independent academic field areas research common academic disciplines number specialized areas sub domains study video game pre history emerging field study looks pre history video games suggesting origins modern digital games lie fairground attractions sideshows shooting games early coney island style pleasure parks elements large roller coasters haunted house simulations nineteenth century landscape


subculture gamers often form communities languages attend conventions dress favorite characters gaming competitions one conventions gamescom record attendance estimated attendees esports making significant impact gaming culture newzoo marketing analytics company reported million people watch esports year many gamers seek form communities meet new people share love games newzoo reported gamers attend esport part


spline interpolation used piecewise polynomial functions fit time intervals fit smoothly together different problem closely related interpolation approximation complicated function simple function also called regression main difference regression interpolation polynomial regression gives single polynomial models entire data set spline interpolation however yield piecewise continuous function composed many polynomials model data set extrapolation process estimating beyond original observation range value variable basis

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Time Series


range target set ''g'' finite set one dealing classification problem instead related problem ''online'' time series approximation summarize data one pass construct approximate representation support variety time series queries bounds worst case error extent different problems regression classification fitness approximation received unified treatment statistical learning theory viewed supervised learning problems prediction forecasting statistics prediction part statistical inference one particular approach inference known


states hmm considered simplest dynamic bayesian network hmm models widely used speech recognition translating time series spoken words text notation number different notations use time series analysis common notation specifying time series ''x'' indexed natural numbers written ''x'' ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub another common notation ''y'' ''y sub sub '' ''t'' ''t'' ''t'' index set conditions two sets conditions much theory built stationary process ergodic process however


solar waves two locations solar surface inhomogeneities near ray path connecting two locations perturb travel time two points inverse problem must solved infer local structure dynamics solar interior ref name jensen ref '''helioseismic holography''' introduced detail charles lindsey doug braun purpose far side magnetic imaging special case phase sensitive holography idea use wavefield visible disk learn active regions far side sun basic idea helioseismic

Natural science
Space science
Stellar astrophysics
Helioseismology


greek philosopher aristotle ranked dancing poetry said certain dancers rhythm applied gesture could express manners passions actions eminent greek sculptors studied attitude dancers art imitating passion cultural traditions asia shiva nataraja lord dance indian classical dance early manuscript describing dance ''natya shastra'' based modern interpretation classical indian dance eg bharathanatyam reign last mughals nawabs oudh dance fell status 'nautch' unethical sensuous thing

Humanities
Performing arts
Dance
History of dance


circumstance firmly fixed place early th century ballet contemporary dance since ballets russes began revolutionizing ballet early th century continued attempts break mold classical ballet currently artistic scope ballet technique accompanying music jumper multimedia encompassing ever boundaries classify work classical ballet constantly stretched muddied blurred perhaps remains today traces technique idioms turnout explosion new thinking exploration early th


sub saharan africa many based traditional rhythms music traditions region modern african dance styles deeply rooted culture tradition many tribes role solely purpose passing tribe 's dance traditions dances passed centuries often unchanged little room improvisation ref name ref ref name ref tribe developed unique style dance falling three categories based purpose first religious dancing many tribes purport enhances peace health prosperity ref name ref religious dances often involved masqueraders


'''human biology''' interdisciplinary area academic study examines humans influences interplay many diverse fields genetics evolution physiology anatomy epidemiology anthropology ecology nutrition population genetics sociocultural influences closely related biomedical sciences biological anthropology biological fields tying various aspects human functionality n't th century biogerontologist raymond pearl founder journal ''human biology'' phrased term human biology way describe separate subsection apart biology also portmanteau term describes biological


aspects human body typically using human body type organism mammalia context basis many undergraduate university degrees modules aspects human biology identical similar general mammalian biology particular examples humans maintain body temperature internal skeleton circulatory system nervous system provide sensory information operate coordinate muscular activity reproductive system bear live young produce milk endocrine system produce eliminate hormones


complex range tools upright stance bipedal locomotion unique humans humans species rely almost exclusively mode locomotion resulted significant changes structure skeleton including articulation pelvis femur articulation head comparison mammals humans long lived average age death developed world nearly years old humans also longest childhood mammal sexual maturity taking


knowledge base medicine number sub disciplines include anatomy cytology histology morphology medicine capabilities human brain human dexterity making using tools enabled humans understand biology scientific experiment including dissection autopsy prophylactic medicine turn enable humans extend life span understanding mitigating effects diseases understanding human biology enabled fostered wider understanding mammalian biology extension biology living organisms nutrition human nutrition typical mammalian omnivorous nutrition requiring


viral pathogens many organisms associated human biology specialised biome large intestine biotic flora skin pharyngeal nasal region many biotic assemblages help protect humans harm assist digestion known complex effects mood well social behaviour humans civilizations social animals use language skills tool making skills communicate communication skills enable civilizations grow allow production art literature music development


technology wholly dependent human biological specialisms deployment skills allowed human race dominate terrestrial biome detriment species references external links http wwwhumbioorg human biology association https biologydictionarynet human biology biology dictionary


specific record type implies specific set fields present values type may contain additional fields record fields ''x'' ''y'' ''z'' would thus belong type records fields ''x'' ''y'' would record fields ''x'' ''y'' ''r'' rationale passing ''x''''y''''z'' record function expects ''x''''y'' record argument work since function find fields requires within record many ways practically implementing records programming languages would trouble allowing

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Recording


complex number fields called code real code code imag code assigned point record variable fields code x code code code alternative two operands still required sequence field types languages may also require corresponding types size encoding well whole record assigned uninterpreted bit string languages may flexible regard require value field legally assigned corresponding variable field example


short integer field assigned long integer field vice versa languages cobol may match fields values names rather positions possibilities apply comparison two record values equality languages may also allow order comparisons ' lt 'and ' gt ' using lexicographic order based comparison individual fields pl allows preceding types assignment also allows ' 'structure expressions'' code code record structure pl terminology algol 's distributive field selection


algol code pts code array records integer fields code x code code code one could write code '''of''' pts code obtain array integers consisting code code fields elements code pts code result statements code '''of''' pts code code '''of''' pts code would effect pascal 's statement pascal programming language command code r code would execute command sequence code code fields record code r code declared variables instead writing code ptx


syntaxhighlight go syntaxhighlight lang go type date struct year int month timemonth day int syntaxhighlight pascal syntaxhighlight lang pascal type tdate record year integer month day end syntaxhighlight rust syntaxhighlight lang rust struct date year u month u day u syntaxhighlight swift syntaxhighlight lang swift struct date year int month int day int syntaxhighlight haskell syntaxhighlight lang haskell data date date year integer month integer day integer syntaxhighlight julia syntaxhighlight lang julia struct date year int month int day int end syntaxhighlight standard ml syntaxhighlight lang sml type date year int month int day int syntaxhighlight cobol syntaxhighlight lang cobol ws date


organism mutation neutral ie neither harm benefit also harmful beneficial sometimes '''genetic drift''' genetic drift variational process happens result sampling errors one generation another generation random event happens chance nature changes influences allele frequency within population '''gene flow''' gene flow transfer genetic material gene pool one population another population migration occurs one species another resulting change frequency '''natural selection''' survival

Natural science
Biology
Evolutionary biology


reproductive rate species depends adaptability species environment process called natural selection species certain traits population higher survival reproductive rate others pass genetic features offsprings evolutionary developmental biology evolutionary developmental biology different processes development play role specific organism reaches current body plan genetic regulation ontogeny phylogenetic process allows kind understanding biology possible looking different processes


especially recur throughout lifetime greater risk antibiotic resistance others overuse drug high dosage cause patient 's immune system weaken illness evolve grow stronger example cancer patients need stronger stronger dosage medication low functioning immune system journals scientific journals specialise exclusively evolutionary biology whole including journals ''evolution'' ''journal evolutionary biology'' ''bmc evolutionary biology'' journals cover sub specialties within evolutionary biology


pure gift given altruistically emerges societies well developed market ideology ref name parry px mauss' concept total prestations developed later th century annette weiner revisited malinowski 's fieldsite trobriand islands publishing critique twofold weiner first noted trobriand island society matrilineal kinship system consequence women hold great deal economic political power inheritance passed mother daughter female lines malinowski missed insight work ignoring women 's exchanges research

Social science
Anthropology
Economic Anthropology


universal validity anthropologists substantivist position go far enough stephen gudeman example argues processes making livelihood culturally constructed therefore models livelihoods related economic concepts exchange money profit must analyzed locals' ways understanding rather devising universal models rooting western economic terminologies applying indiscriminately societies scholars must come understand 'local model' stephen gudeman culturalist approach work livelihoods gudeman seeks present people 's economic construction ref name gudeman ref


trade zones newly industrializing third world others focused former industrialized rust belt economies daromir rudnyckyj analyzed neo liberal economic discourses utilized indonesian muslims operating krakatau steel company create spiritual economy conducive globalization enhancing islamic piety workers george marcus called anthropologists study focus corporate elites edited series called ''late editions cultural studies end century'' see also charity practice cultural economics na economic sociology money palace economy society economic anthropology references


accesses uses accumulated theories knowledge methods techniques specific state business client driven purpose applied research contrasted pure research basic research discussion research ideals methodologies programs projects applied research usually specific commercial objectives related products procedures services comparison pure research applied research provides basic framework direction businesses follow applied research deals solving practical problems generally employs empirical methodologies applied research resides messy real world strict research protocols may need relaxed example may


style individual supported research suggesting learner responsible model effective teacher responsible one ron miller identified five elements common educational alternatives respect person balance decentralization authority noninterference among political economic cultural spheres society holistic worldview modern times least localities legal right provide educational alternatives become established alongside duty provide education school age children localities canada education canada falls jurisdiction provincial government alternative education

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Alternative education


teaching match stages child development gradual integration child adult society planned experiential learning sources stimulus would philosopher john dewey united states post ww new schools great britain steiner waldorf schools europe libertarian tradition focuses rights parents children make educational life choices noted levin rooted belief uphold individual freedom innate goodness child institutional social conformity


forest school housed unconventional campus follows creative fluid curriculum ref name ref schools charge expensive tuition fees personalized instruction ref name also alternative education caters learners special needs taipei county 's seedling elementary school opened ref name ref school caters native students need different less stressful learning environment integrates traditional courses strategies focus enhancing learner 's bond nature aboriginal culture ref name another example called third way education serves


alternative education public law education us bennett law oregon compulsory education act ''meyer v nebraska'' references reading churchill christian j gerald e levy '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwtempleedu tempress titles reghtml enigmatic academy class bureaucracy religion american education '' philadelphia pa temple university press external links http mapreevoorg l en us map alternative education schools projects reevo alternative education network http wwwedrevorg alternative education resource organization aero https webarchiveorg web http wwwlearningalternativesnet international association learning alternatives https mygreexampreparationcom informal education http wwwericdigestsorg specialhtm special education alternative education programs eric digest e https webarchiveorg web http ncacsorg national coalition alternative community schools http wwwnalsasorg national association


legal support alternative schools https webarchiveorg web http wwwreggiochildrenit identita reggio emilia approach lang en reggio children foundation https webarchiveorg web http wwweklavyain go eklavya indian educational ngo http wwwiaaenet iowa association alternative education http wwwotacinfo oklahoma technical assistance center https webarchiveorg web http wwwlearningforacauseorg learning cause japanese school types education


record human societies denoting various distinctive ways living built group people consideration cultural history involves aggregate past cultural activity ceremony class practices interaction locales description many current cultural historians claim new approach cultural history referred nineteenth century historians swiss scholar renaissance history jacob burckhardt cultural history overlaps approaches french movements ''histoire des mentalit s'' philippe poirrier called new history us


closely associated field american studies originally conceived practiced th century burckhardt relation italian renaissance cultural history oriented study particular historical period entirety regard painting sculpture architecture economic basis underpinning society ro social institutions daily life echoes burkhardt 's approach th century seen johan huizinga 's ''the waning middle ages'' often focus phenomena shared non elite groups


''dictionary concepts history'' greenwood press salmi h cultural history possible principle plenitude ''history theory'' may schlereth j ''cultural history material culture everyday life landscapes museums american material culture folklife'' ann arbor mich umi research press schwarz georg ''kulturexperimente im altertum'' berlin si symposion spang rebecca paradigms paranoia modern french revolution ''american historical review'' https wwwjstororg stable jstor van young eric new cultural history comes old mexico ''writing mexican history'' stanford pp external links http wwwculthistorg


later used magazine article earlier uses term major historical precedents familiar americans europeans anti slavery forces united states developed free soil strategy containment stop expansion slavery later collapsed historian james oakes explains strategy blockquote federal government would surround south free states free territories free waters building called 'cordon freedom' around slavery hemming system 's internal weaknesses forced slave states one one abandon slavery blockquote

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
Containment


reacted attack pearl harbor germany invaded soviet union world war ii us soviet union found allied germany used rollback defeat axis powers germany italy japan origin key state department personnel grew increasingly frustrated suspicious soviets war drew close averell harriman us ambassador moscow confirmed optimist regarding us soviet relations ref name larson larson deborah welch ''origins containment psychological explanation'' p ref disillusioned saw soviet betrayal


according kennan soviets perceived state perpetual war capitalism soviets would use controllable marxists capitalist world allies soviet aggression aligned views russian people economic reality historic russian xenophobia paranoia soviet government 's structure prevented objective accurate pictures internal external reality kennan 's cable hailed state department appreciation situation long needed ref name larson larson p ref kennan attributed enthusiastic reception timing six months earlier


soviet actions poland iran turkey elsewhere awakened american public new danger freedom truman responded ref name larson larsen deborah welch ''origins containment'' p ref revisionist view william appleman williams truman 's speech expression longstanding american expansionism ref name larson realpolitik view lynn e davis truman naive idealist unnecessarily provoked soviets couching disputes terms like democracy freedom alien communist vision ref name larson larson p ref according psychological analysis deborah larson truman felt need prove


congress ref name larson larson p ref truman little involved drafting speech adopt hard line attitude suggested several months later ref name larsonxi larson p xi p ref british position weakened economic distress urgently called us take traditional british role greece undersecretary state dean acheson took lead washington warning congressional leaders late february united states take british result probably would soviet breakthrough might open three continents


bases areas around russia iceland germany turkey also much policy helped influence us foreign policy later years war terror dealing post cold war dictators iraq 's saddam hussein see also appeasement china containment policy domino theory tente marshall plan rollback truman doctrine dual containment iran iraq containment references reading corke sarah jane history historians naming foreign policy postmodern reflection american strategic thinking truman administration ''intelligence national security'' autumn vol issue pp nbsp felix


david ''kennan cold war unauthorized biography'' piscataway nj transaction publishers gaddis john lewis ''strategies containment critical appraisal american national security policy cold war'' hopkins michael f continuing debate new approaches cold war history ''historical journal'' kennan george f ''american diplomacy'' university chicago press ngoei wen qing '' https wwwjstororg stable jctvfc vc arc containment britain united states anticommunism southeast asia '' cornell university press wright steven ''the united states persian gulf security foundations war terror'' ithaca press


new knowledge skills taken fully learned starting emerge teacher older friend lends support child learning skill building block castle tying shoe writing one 's name child becomes capable steps activity adult older child withdraws supports gradually child competent completing process done within activity 's zone distance child potentially zone proximal

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Early childhood education


violence abuse child labour thus protecting young children violence exploitation part broad educational concerns due difficulties sensitivities around issue measuring monitoring child protection violations gaps defining collecting analysing appropriate indicators ref name unicef ''state world 's children children disabilities'' new york unicef ref data coverage area scant however proxy indicators used assess situation example ratification relevant international conventions indicates countries commitment child protection april countries ratified crc ratified


medical center group seattle popularized intramedullary fixation without opening fracture x ray hip replacement modern total hip replacement pioneered sir john charnley expert tribology wrightington hospital england ref name wroblewski ref found joint surfaces could replaced implants cemented bone design consisted stainless steel one piece femoral stem head polyethylene acetabular component fixed bone using pmma acrylic bone cement two decades charnley low friction arthroplasty derivative designs used

Applied science
Medicine and health
Surgery
Orthopedic surgery


like spokes bicycle equipment achieved healing realignment lengthening degree unheard elsewhere ilizarov apparatus still used today one distraction osteogenesis methods modern orthopedic surgery musculoskeletal research sought make surgery less invasive make implanted components better durable hand since emergence opioid epidemic orthopedic surgeons identified one highest prescribers opioid medications ref name armstrong ref future orthopedic surgery likely focus finding ways profession


popular technique knee arthroscopy one common operations performed orthopedic surgeons today often combined meniscectomy chondroplasty majority upper extremity outpatient orthopedic procedures performed arthroscopically ref name pmid ref arthroplasty arthroplasty orthopedic surgery articular surface musculoskeletal joint replaced remodeled realigned osteotomy procedure elective procedure done relieve pain restore function joint damage arthritis rheumasurgery type trauma well standard total knee replacement surgery


trauma orthopedics index trauma orthopedics articles bone grafting orthotics list orthopedic implants references external links surgical specialties


exercise among factors photo shows rich froning jr four time winner fittest man earth title '''physical fitness''' state health well specifically ability perform aspects sports occupations daily activities physical fitness generally achieved proper nutrition moderate vigorous physical exercise sufficient rest along formal recovery plan industrial revolution fitness defined capacity carry day 's activities without undue fatigue lethargy however automation changes lifestyles physical fitness considered measure body 's


led interrelation human fitness physical attractiveness mobilized global fitness fitness equipment industries regarding specific function fitness attributed persons possess significant aerobic anaerobic ability ie endurance strength well rounded fitness program improves person aspects fitness compared practicing one cardio respiratory endurance weight training comprehensive fitness program tailored individual typically focuses one specific skills age health related needs bone health many sources also cite mental social emotional health


exercise health benefits gained person exercises beyond minutes sedentary time time spent standing chair bed bad person 's health amount exercise negate effects sitting long guidelines much line used us also includes recommendations muscle building bone strengthening activities lifting weights yoga exercise aerobic exercise sports lawn tennis common way maintain improve physical fitness image shows


recommendations include following lean possible without becoming underweight week adults engage least minutes moderate intensity physical activity minutes vigorous intensity physical activity children engage least one hour moderate vigorous physical activity week physically active least thirty minutes every day avoid sugar limit consumption energy packed foods balance one 's diet variety vegetables grains fruits legumes etc limit sodium intake consumption red meats processed meats limit alcoholic drinks two men


system flow drinking water well questions addressed simulation hydrologic system using numerical models analytic equations accurate simulation aquifer system requires knowledge aquifer properties boundary conditions therefore common task hydrogeologist determining aquifer properties using aquifer tests order characterize aquifers aquitards primary derived physical properties introduced aquifers broadly classified either confined unconfined water table aquifers either saturated unsaturated type aquifer affects properties control flow

Natural science
Earth science
Hydrogeology


''h'' cause water move one place another water flows locations high h locations low h hydraulic head composed pressure head '' '' elevation head ''z'' head gradient change hydraulic head per length flowpath appears darcy 's law proportional discharge hydraulic head directly measurable property take value arbitrary datum involved ''z'' term '' '' measured pressure transducer value negative eg suction positive


none pores connected example phenomenon pumice unfractured state make poor aquifer porosity directly affect distribution hydraulic head aquifer strong effect migration dissolved contaminants since affects groundwater flow velocities inversely proportional relationship darcy 's law commonly applied study movement water fluids porous media constitutes basis many hydrogeological analyses water content water content '' '' also directly measurable property


fraction total rock filled liquid water also fraction must also less equal total porosity water content important vadose zone hydrology hydraulic conductivity strongly nonlinear function water content complicates solution unsaturated groundwater flow equation hydraulic conductivity hydraulic conductivity ''k'' transmissivity ''t'' indirect aquifer properties cannot measured directly ''t'' ''k'' integrated vertical thickness ''b'' aquifer ''t kb''


longitudinal dispersivity sub l sub sides pure advective groundwater flow leading transverse dispersivity sub sub dispersion groundwater arises water particle passing beyond soil particle must choose go whether left right water particles solute gradually spread directions around mean path microscopic mechanism scale soil particles important long distances macroscopic inhomogeneities aquifer regions larger smaller permeability


effect phenomenon soluble species cover long distances retardation factor depends chemical nature contaminant aquifer history development henry darcy whose work set foundation quantitative hydrogeology henry darcy th century henry darcy french scientist made advances flow fluids porous materials conducted experiments studied movement fluids sand columns experiments led determination darcy 's law describes fluid flow medium high levels porosity darcy 's work considered


beginning quantitative hydrogeology oscar edward meinzer th century oscar edward meinzer american scientist often called father modern groundwater hydrology standardized key terms field well determined principles regarding occurrence movement discharge proved flow water obeys darcy 's law also proposed use geophysical methods recorders wells well suggested pumping tests gather quantitative information properties aquifers meinzer also highlighted importance studying geochemistry water well impact high


due effects pumping one number pumping wells thiem equation solution steady state groundwater flow equation laplace 's equation flow well unless large sources water nearby river lake true steady state rarely achieved reality equations used aquifer tests pump tests hooghoudt equation groundwater flow equation applied subsurface drainage pipes tile drains ditches alternative subsurface drainage method drainage wells groundwater flow equations also available calculation


include mesh free methods like analytic element method aem boundary element method bem closer analytic solutions approximate groundwater flow equation way bem aem exactly solve groundwater flow equation perfect mass balance approximating boundary conditions methods exact much elegant solutions like analytic methods seen widespread use outside academic research groups yet water wells water well mechanism bringing groundwater surface drilling digging


deep wells bring water surface using mechanical pumps artesian wells water flows naturally without use pump mechanical device due top well located water table water well design construction water well kerala india one important aspects groundwater engineering hydrogeology water well design construction proper well design construction important maintain health groundwater people use well factors must considered well


versatile maintains alignment fast advance rate ref name well design well screens ensure water makes surface sediments remain beneath earth 's surface screens placed along shaft well filter sediment water pumped towards surface screen design impacted nature soil natural pack designs used maximize efficiency ref name well design construction well testing must done assess productivity efficiency yield well well determine impacts


shortage water people began drill wells within range normally served municipal water system solution people high socioeconomic standing left much underprivileged population without access water new municipal policy created drilled wells assist could afford drill wells city charge drilling new wells better plan future sustainability groundwater region carefully placing wells taking growing populations consideration ref


considered father modern groundwater hydrology sahysmod spatial agro hydro salinity model groundwater flow polygonal network spring hydrology water supply network subjects hydrogeologist concerned water cycle hydrosphere water resources larger concepts hydrogeology part references reading general hydrogeology domenico pa schwartz w ''physical chemical hydrogeology'' second edition wiley good book consultants many real world examples covers additional topics eg heat flow multi phase unsaturated flow driscoll fletcher ''groundwater wells''


porous media flow'' george allen unwin london book biem sometimes called bem examples makes good introduction method external links https iahorg international association hydrogeologists worldwide association groundwater specialists http wwwgroundwaterukorg uk groundwater forum groundwater uk http wwwgroundwatercomau centre groundwater studies groundwater education research http wwwepagov safewater epa drinking water standards maximum contaminant levels mcl dissolved species us drinking water http waterusgsgov us geological survey water resources homepage good place find free data us surface water


well especially women consequence theories age aging need reconceptualized cumulative advantage disadvantage theory according theory developed beginning derek price robert merton elaborated several researchers dale dannefer ref name dennefer ref inequalities tendency become pronounced throughout aging process paradigm theory expressed adage rich get richer poor get poorer advantages disadvantages early life stages profound effect throughout life span however advantages disadvantages

Applied science
Social work 2
Gerontology


elderly persons particular experiencing substantial memory loss types cognitive impairment unlikely able adequately monitor adhere scheduled pharmacological administration one study hutchinson et al found participants studied admitted skipping doses cutting half self reported noncompliance adherence medication schedule reported striking one third participants development methods might possibly help monitor regulate dosage administration scheduling area deserves attention another important area potential improper administration

Applied science
Medicine and health
Geriatrics


use potentially inappropriate medications possibility errors could result dangerous drug interactions polypharmacy often predictive factor cannon et al research done home community health care found nearly medical regimens contain potential medication error choi et al ethical medico legal issues elderly persons sometimes cannot make decisions may previously prepared power attorney advance directives provide guidance unable understand happening whether due long term dementia


beneficial elderly patients learn set limits relatives psychiatric disorders without causing conflict leads abuse see also aging place aging associated diseases alliance aging research commission certification geriatric pharmacy elderly care gero informatics gerri nosokinetics life extension geriatric medicine egypt transgenerational design ''physical occupational therapy geriatrics'' journal gerontological nursing references bibliography society certified senior advisors working seniors health financial social issues reading external links http wwwmerckcom mrkshared mm geriatrics homejsp merck manual geriatrics http wwwpogoeorg minimum geriatric competencies minimum geriatric competencies portal geriatric online


updated disabilities education improvement act ability identify special needs children give appropriate education environment improved students forms special needs assessed determine specific strengths weaknesses ref name goodman earlier students special needs assessed faster get accommodations need better education placement resources goals determined basis student 's needs accommodations modifications regular program may include changes curriculum supplementary aids

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Special education


student accommodations may classified whether change presentation response setting scheduling lessons ref name ofqual ref example school may accommodate student visual impairments providing large print textbook presentation accommodation ''modification'' changes adapts material make simpler ref name jisc ref modifications may change learned difficult material level mastery student expected achieve whether student assessed aspect curriculum ref name code ref example school may modify reading assignment


university special schools often favorable student teacher ratio facilities schools special needs children germany attend special school educated mainstream school hauptschule gesamtschule comprehensive school students special educational needs may exempted standardized tests given modified tests ref name ofqual greece greek students special needs may attend either mainstream schools special schools ref name ofqual students whose disabilities certified may exempted standardized tests given alternative tests ref name ofqual accommodations responsive


students' needs example students visual impairments may take oral tests students hearing impairments take written tests accommodations modifications noted certificate achievement hungary special education regulated centrally ref name ofqual according act public education students special educational needs may exempted standardized tests given modified tests ref name ofqual right extra time choice formats tests eg oral rather written equipment normally use school day ref name ofqual students


categorized three time periods period neglect period diagnosis planning emergence special education period planning ran years year ministry colombia implemented national plan development special education called plan nacional para el desarrollo de la educaci n especial purposes plan create national diagnosis special education initiate programs individuals disabilities ministry education put first law action introduce special classes


athari movement clear meaning qur'an especially prophetic traditions sole authority matters belief engage rational disputation ''kalam'' even one arrives truth absolutely forbidden ref name tcsi halverson ''theology creed sunni islam'' ref atharis engage amodal reading quran opposed one engaged ''ta'wil'' metaphorical interpretation attempt conceptualize meanings quran rationally believe real meaning consigned god alone ''tafwid'' ref name tcsi halverson ''theology creed sunni islam''


reconciled maturidi school theology asserted god grants human beings agency remove otherwise alter time muhakkima groups seceded ali 's army end arbitration incident constituted branch ''muhakkima'' mainly divided two major sects called kharijites ibadis khawarij kharijites considered caliphate abu bakr umar rightly guided believed uthman ibn affan deviated path justice truth last days


caliphate hence liable killed displaced also believed ali ibn abi talib committed grave sin agreed arbitration mu wiyah battle siffin ali acceded muawiyah 's suggestion stop fighting resort negotiation large portion ali 's troops later became first kharijites refused concede agreement considered ali breached qur'anic verse states ''the decision allah'' qur'an kharijites interpreted mean outcome


whole population country estimate turkish alevi population varies seven eleven million ref name cia ref ref name pew ref population hand overwhelmingly constitute maturidi aqidah hanafi fiqh ash'ari aqidah shafi'i fiqh sunni followers '' aq dah'' alevi islam n services differences mark alevis shi'a islam non observance five daily prayers prostrations bow twice presence spiritual leader ramadan hajj '' consider pilgrimage mecca


bakt sh wal '' murid mal mat qal nd r sheikh qutb ad n haydar introduced ahmad yasavi 's doctrine '' four doors forty stending '' tariqah bakt shi islamic school divinity bektashiyyah shia sufi order founded th century haji bektash veli dervish escaped central asia found refuge seljuks anatolia time mongol invasions order gained great following rural areas later developed two branches '' elebi clan'' claimed physical descendants haji bektash veli


give spiritual guidance ''irshad'' ''baba'' rank ''halife baba'' ' 'dede'' grandfather traditionally twelve senior ' 'dedebaba'' great grandfather ' 'dedebaba'' considered highest ranking authority bektashi order traditionally residence ' 'dedebaba'' pir evi saint 's home located shrine hajji bektash wali central anatolian town hac bekta '' solucakarah k '' ithn 'ashariyyah twelvers believe twelve imams twelfth imam believed occultation appear ''qiyamah''


iraq began combination sufi shia akhbari doctrines mid th century many shaykhis converted b b bah religions regard shaykh ahmad highly ghul imamis alawism alawites also called nusayris nusairis namiriya ansariyya madhhab established ibn nusayr aqidah developed al kha b follow ''cill '' aqidah '' maym n ibn abu l q sim sulaiman ibn ahmad ibn tabar n fiqh '' alawis ref name meym n muhammad ibn liyy l cill aqidah maym n ibn abu l q sim sulaiman ibn ahmad ibn tabar n fiqh laiman affandy ''al b k rat laiman yyah family tree nusayri


software psychophysical experimentation overviewed strasburger ref name software overview strasburger h software visual psychophysics overview http wwwvisionsciencecom documents strasburger strasburgerhtml visionsciencecom ref classical psychophysical methods psychophysical experiments traditionally used three methods testing subjects' perception stimulus detection difference detection experiments method limits method constant stimuli method adjustment ref name gescheiderchap ref method limits ascending method limits property stimulus starts level low stimulus could detected level gradually increased participant reports aware


'difference thresholds' constant comparison stimulus varied levels friedrich hegelmaier described method constant stimuli paper ref name laminglaming ref method allows full sampling psychometric function result lot trials several conditions interleaved method adjustment method adjustment subject asked control level stimulus alter barely detectable background noise level another stimulus adjustment


staircases usually begin high intensity stimulus easy detect intensity reduced observer makes mistake point staircase 'reverses' intensity increased observer responds correctly triggering another reversal values last 'reversals' averaged many different types staircase procedures using different decision termination rules step size rules spread underlying psychometric function dictate psychometric function converge ref name treutwein threshold values obtained staircases fluctuate wildly care must


services distributed participants economy ''see also'' consumer surplus consumer welfare standard fundamental theorems field welfare economics associated two fundamental theorems first states given certain assumptions competitive markets price equilibria transfers eg walrasian equilibria ref name mas ref produce pareto efficient outcomes ref name ipe assumptions required generally characterised weak specifically existence competitive equilibrium implies price taking behaviour complete markets additional assumption local non satiation agents' preferences consumers would like margin slightly

Social science
Economics
Welfare economics


third fundamental theorem ref name feldman social welfare maximization utility functions derived points contract curve numerous utility functions derived one point production possibility frontier pq diagram social utility frontier also called grand utility frontier obtained outer envelope utility functions point social utility frontier represents efficient allocation economy 's resources pareto optimum factor allocation production consumption interaction production consumption


contribute thrive ecosystems gives knowledge ecology behind ref name ref mammals often used business industries agriculture kept pets studying mammals habitats source energy led aiding survival domestication small mammals also helped discover several different diseases viruses cures ref name ref mammalogist mammalogist studies observes mammals studying mammals observe habitats contributions ecosystem interactions anatomy physiology mammalogist broad variety things within realm mammals mammalogist

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Mammalogy


society japan ''hystrix italian journal mammalogy'' italian theriological association quarterly yes none ''galemys spanish journal mammalogy'' spanish society mammalogists annually yes none ''lutra'' dutch mammal society biannually yes none ''australian mammalogy'' australian mammal society biannually


three years done months meant reliability tools tasks closely tied development process many ways reliability became part everyday life consumer expectations overview objective objectives reliability engineering decreasing order priority apply engineering knowledge specialist techniques prevent reduce likelihood frequency failures identify correct causes failures occur despite efforts prevent determine ways coping

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Reliability Theory


system also addressed plan link reliability maintainability maintenance strategy influence reliability system eg preventive predictive maintenance although never bring inherent reliability reliability plan clearly provide strategy availability control whether availability also cost ownership important depends use system example system critical link production system eg big oil platform normally allowed high cost ownership


improvement reliability prediction combines creation proper reliability model see page estimation justification input parameters model eg failure rates particular failure mode event mean time repair system particular failure estimation output reliability parameters system part level ie system availability frequency particular functional failure emphasis quantification target setting eg mtbf might imply limit achievable reliability however inherent limit development higher reliability need


rely language pinpoint risks enable issues solved language used must help create orderly description function item system complex surrounding relates failure functions items systems systems engineering much finding correct words describe problem related risks readily solved via engineering solutions jack ring said systems engineer 's job language project ring et al part system failures reliability engineers concentrate rather predicting understanding


probability hit systems probability failure demand pfd reliability measure actually unavailability number pfd derived failure rate frequency occurrence mission time non repairable systems repairable systems obtained failure rate mean time repair mttr test interval measure may unique given system measure depends kind demand addition system level requirements reliability requirements may specified critical subsystems cases reliability parameters specified appropriate statistical


needed select best combination requirements eg cost effectiveness reliability testing may performed various levels component subsystem system also many factors must addressed testing operation extreme temperature humidity shock vibration environmental factors like loss signal cooling power catastrophes fire floods excessive heat physical security violations myriad forms damage degradation systems must last many years accelerated life tests may needed accelerated testing purpose accelerated life testing alt test


due maintenance repair actions logistics spare parts etc example replacement repair faulty channel oo voting system system still operating although one failed channel actually become oo system contributing basic unreliability mission unreliability example failure tail light aircraft prevent plane flying considered mission failure need remedied related cost contribute basic unreliability levels detectability common cause


reliability operational assessment systems parts produced reliability engineering attempts monitor assess correct deficiencies monitoring includes electronic visual surveillance critical parameters identified fault tree analysis design stage data collection highly dependent nature system large organizations quality control groups collect failure data vehicles equipment machinery consumer product failures often tracked number returns systems dormant storage standby necessary establish formal surveillance program inspect test random samples