pp ix winthrop n kellogg porpoises sonar chicago il university chicago press pp xiv john c lilly ''man dolphin'' garden city new york doubleday ''language'' ref expansion semiosis include vegetative world ''phytosemiosis'' would initially based work martin krampen takes advantage peirce 's point interpretant third item within sign relation need mental peirce 's distinguished interpretant interpreter interpretant internal mental representation


properties symbol systems specifically reference linguistic signs syntax referred '' 'syntactics''' peirce 's definition term semiotic study necessary features signs also effect distinguishing discipline linguistics study contingent features world 's languages happen acquired course evolutions subjective standpoint perhaps difficult distinction semiotics philosophy language sense difference lies separate traditions rather subjects different authors called philosopher language semiotician

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Semiotics


subtheories semiotics include c nbsp peirce john deely umberto eco cognitive semiotics combining methods theories developed disciplines semiotics humanities providing new information human signification manifestation cultural practices research cognitive semiotics brings together semiotics linguistics cognitive science related disciplines common meta theoretical platform concepts methods shared data cognitive semiotics may also seen study meaning making employing integrating methods theories developed cognitive sciences involves conceptual textual analysis well experimental investigations


branding according cultural code disney 's international theme park business disney fits well japan 's cultural code japanese value cuteness politeness gift giving part culture code tokyo disneyland sells souvenirs disney theme park contrast disneyland paris failed launched euro disney company research codes underlying european culture storybook retelling european folktales taken elitist insulting strict appearance standards employees resulted discrimination lawsuits france disney souvenirs perceived


spelled meaning dreams rests blend images effects sounds words kinesthetic sensations chapter means representation showed abstract sorts meaning logical relations represented spatial relations two images sequence may indicate despite freud thought dream started dream thoughts like logical verbal sentences believed dream thought nature taboo wish would awaken dreamer order safeguard sleep mindbrain converts


sign also influenced later philosophers theorists jacques derrida roland barthes jean baudrillard ferdinand de saussure coined term ' 's miologie'' teaching landmark course general linguistics university geneva saussure posited word inherently meaningful rather word signifier ie representation something must combined brain signified thing order form meaning imbued sign saussure believed dismantling signs real science come


see protein structure prediction applications flowchart structural biology plays role drug discovery structural biologists made significant contributions towards understanding molecular components mechanisms underlying human diseases example cryo em ssnmr used study aggregation amyloid fibrils associated alzheimer 's disease parkinson 's disease type ii diabetes new alzheimer 's disease treatment called aducanumab released first drug prevent amyloid aggregation associated alzheimer 's disease addition amyloid proteins scientists used cryo em produce high resolution models

Natural science
Biology
Structural Biology


basic education level lower secondary second stage basic education level upper secondary education level post secondary non tertiary education level first stage tertiary education level second stage tertiary education within system levels primary education lower secondary together form '''basic education''' beyond national governments may attach label '' 'secondary education''' levels together levels together level alone level definitions put together statistical purposes allow

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Secondary education


created committee privy council education universal education considerable opposition idea children classes receive basic education initiatives industrial schools sunday schools initially private church initiative great exhibition became clear far behind english education system fallen three reports commissioned examine education upper middle labouring class children clarendon commission sought improve nine great public schools taunton commission looked endowed grammar schools


freedoms affirmed peoples world without distinction race sex language religion charter united nations blockquote universal declaration human rights declared elementary fundamental education right enjoyed could define either elementary fundamental education blockquote article everyone right education education shall free least elementary fundamental stages elementary education shall compulsory technical professional education shall made generally available higher education shall equally accessible


research group prepared ten days hearings growth implication future roundtable press us congress first hearings ever held sustainable development international union conservation nature published world conservation strategy included one first references sustainable development global priority introduced term sustainable development ref name sachs ref two years later united nations world charter nature raised five principles conservation human conduct affecting nature guided judged united nations world commission

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Sustainability studies
Sustainable development


interest preserving ecosystem writes angle 'sustainable development' looks like cover operation thing meant sustained really 'development' tolerance capacity ecosystem human societies world bank leading producer environmental knowledge continues advocate win win prospects economic growth ecological stability even economists express doubts herman daly economist bank writes blockquote authors ''wdr'' ' highly influential ''world development report'' featured environment drafting


leave thermal equilibrium create non equilibrium situation introduces electrons holes system interact via process called ambipolar diffusion whenever thermal equilibrium disturbed semiconducting material number holes electrons changes disruptions occur result temperature difference photons enter system create electrons holes process creates annihilates electrons holes called generation recombination respectively ref name neamen light emission certain semiconductors excited electrons relax emitting light instead producing heat semiconductors

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Electrical Engineering
Semiconductors


thermal energy well absence external energy source electron hole pairs also apt recombine conservation energy demands recombination events electron loses amount energy larger band gap accompanied emission thermal energy form phonons radiation form photons states generation recombination electron hole pairs equipoise number electron hole pairs steady state given temperature determined quantum statistical mechanics precise quantum mechanical mechanisms


generation recombination governed conservation energy conservation momentum probability electrons holes meet together proportional product numbers product steady state nearly constant given temperature providing significant electric field might flush carriers types move neighbor regions containing meet together externally driven pair generation product function temperature probability getting enough thermal energy produce pair increases temperature


copper alexandre edmond becquerel reported observation voltage solid liquid electrolyte struck light photovoltaic effect willoughby smith observed selenium resistors exhibit decreasing resistance light falls karl ferdinand braun observed conduction rectification metallic sulfides although effect discovered much earlier peter munck af rosenschold sv writing annalen der physik und chemie ref name ref arthur schuster found copper oxide layer wires rectification properties ceases wires


johan koenigsberger classified solid materials like metals insulators variable conductors although student josef weiss already introduced term '''''halbleiter''''' semiconductor modern meaning phd thesis felix bloch published theory movement electrons atomic lattices b gudden stated conductivity semiconductors due minor concentrations impurities band theory conduction established alan herries wilson concept band gaps developed walter h schottky nevill francis mott developed models potential


became commercially important alternative vacuum tube rectifiers ref name jtit ref name first semiconductor devices used galena including german physicist ferdinand braun 's crystal detector bengali physicist jagadish chandra bose 's radio crystal detector ref name computerhistory timeline ref ref name computerhistory ref years preceding world war ii infrared detection communications devices prompted research lead sulfide lead selenide materials devices used detecting ships aircraft infrared rangefinders voice communication systems point contact crystal detector became vital microwave radio systems since available vacuum tube devices could serve


prevented electricity reliably penetrating surface reach semiconducting silicon layer ref name atalla ref ref name kahng ref breakthrough silicon semiconductor technology came work egyptian engineer mohamed atalla developed process surface passivation thermal oxidation bell labs late ref name kooi ref name black ref ref name heywang discovered formation thermally grown silicon dioxide layer greatly reduced concentration electronic states silicon surface ref name black silicon oxide layers could used electrically stabilize silicon surfaces ref name lecuyer ref atalla first published findings bell memos


build first working silicon field effect transistor ref name atalla ref name kahng led invention mosfet mos field effect transistor mohamed atalla dawon kahng ref name lojek ref first truly compact transistor could miniaturised mass produced wide range uses ref name moskowitz scalability much lower power consumption higher density bipolar junction transistors mosfet became common type transistor computers electronics ref name kahng communications technology smartphones ref name uspto ref us patent trademark office calls mosfet groundbreaking invention transformed life


strategic thinking ref name mintzberg quinn ref henry mintzberg mcgill university defined strategy pattern stream decisions contrast view strategy planning ref name charlesw ref henrik von scheel defines essence strategy activities deliver unique mix value choosing perform activities differently perform different activities rivals ref name source henrik von scheel prof mark von rosing importance business model pp applying real world bpm sap environment ref max mckeown argues strategy shaping future

Applied science
Military sciences
Strategy


reported ''the times'' journal r ntgen society ref name swinton braid ref ref name swinton rontgen https booksgooglecom booksid olxszdt huqc printsec frontcover dq early television bibliographic guide cd v onepage q swinton rontgen f false shiers george may ''early television bibliographic guide '' new york garland p retrieved june ref letter ''nature'' published october campbell swinton also announced results successful experiments conducted g minchin j c stanton attempted generate electrical signal projecting image onto selenium coated metal plate simultaneously scanned cathode ray beam ref name swinton et ref ref name burns swinton ref experiments


public demonstration electronic television system using live camera franklin institute philadelphia august ten days afterwards ref name burns burns rw ''television international history formative years'' iee history technology series london iee p ref mexican inventor guillermo gonz lez camarena also played important role early television experiments television known telectroescop first began led patent trichromatic field sequential system color television britain emi engineering team led isaac shoenberg applied


affected patent war zworykin farnsworth dieckmann hell priority germany invention image dissector submitted patent application ''lichtelektrische bildzerlegerr hre f r fernseher'' ''photoelectric image dissector tube television'' germany ref name de ref two years farnsworth united states ref name us ref image iconoscope superikonoskop became industrial standard public broadcasting europe replaced vidicon plumbicon tubes indeed representative european tradition electronic tubes


selenium photoelectric cell transmitter electromagnet controlling oscillating mirror moving prism receiver system contained means analyzing spectrum colors transmitting end could worked described another inventor hovannes adamian also experimented color television early first color television project claimed patented germany march patent britain april patent france patent russia


television flexible convenient proposition mosfet metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor mos transistor invented mohamed atalla dawon kahng bell labs ref name computerhistory ref presented mid rca using mosfets consumer television products ref name harrison ref rca laboratories researchers wm austin ja dean dm griswold op hart described use mosfet television circuits including rf amplifier low level video chroma agc circuits power mosfet later widely adopted television receiver circuits sales color sets finally surpassed sales


smart tv advent digital television allowed innovations like smart television sets smart television sometimes referred connected tv hybrid tv television set set top box integrated internet web features example technological convergence computers television sets set top boxes besides traditional functions television sets set top boxes provided traditional broadcasting media devices also provide internet tv online interactive media top content well demand streaming media home networking access tvs come pre loaded operating system ref name techcrunchcom ref name businessinsider ref


different route imposing television license fee owners television reception equipment fund british broadcasting corporation bbc public service part royal charter wrgb claims world 's oldest television station tracing roots experimental station founded january broadcasting general electric factory schenectady ny call letters '''w xb''' popularly known wgy television sister radio station later general electric started second facility one new york city call letters w xbs


today known wnbc two stations experimental nature regular programming receivers operated engineers within company image felix cat doll rotating turntable broadcast hours every day several years new technology tested engineers november bbc began transmitting world 's first public regular high definition service victorian alexandra palace north london therefore claims birthplace television broadcasting know widespread


carry cable television signals cathode ray tube flat panel television sets cable television system broadcasting television programming paying subscribers via radio frequency rf signals transmitted coaxial cables light pulses fiber optic cables contrasts traditional terrestrial television television signal transmitted air radio waves received television antenna attached television fm radio programming high speed internet telephone service similar non television services may also provided cables abbreviation catv sometimes used cable television


launched july world 's first commercial communications satellite called intelsat nicknamed early bird launched geosynchronous orbit april first national network television satellites called orbita created soviet union october based principle using highly elliptical molniya satellite rebroadcasting delivering television signals ground downlink stations first commercial north american satellite carry television transmissions canada 's geostationary anik launched november ats world 's first experimental educational direct broadcast


source electrons electron emitter fluorescent screen used view images ref name crthistory means accelerate deflect electron beam onto screen create images images may represent electrical waveforms oscilloscope pictures television computer monitor radar targets others crt uses evacuated glass envelope large deep ie long front screen face rear end fairly heavy relatively fragile matter safety face typically made thick lead glass highly shatter resistant block x ray emissions


performers interview segments reality television series regular people ie actors facing unusual challenges experiences ranging arrest police officers ''cops'' significant weight loss ''the biggest loser'' derived version reality shows depicts celebrities mundane activities going everyday life ''the osbournes'' ''snoop dogg 's father hood'' regular jobs ''the simple life'' fictional television programs television scholars broadcasting advocacy groups argue quality television include series ''twin peaks'' ''the sopranos'' kristin thompson argues television series exhibit traits


consequently rates charged advertisers air within given network television program time day called daypart many countries including united states television campaign advertisements considered indispensable political campaign countries france political advertising television heavily restricted countries norway completely ban political advertisements first official paid television advertisement broadcast united states july new york station wnbt wnbc baseball game brooklyn dodgers philadelphia phillies announcement bulova


seiko also displayed clock current time united states since inception us television commercials become one effective persuasive popular methods selling products many sorts especially consumer goods programs hosted single advertisers turn gave great creative license advertisers content show perhaps due quiz show scandals networks shifted magazine concept introducing advertising breaks advertisers us advertising rates determined primarily nielsen


article focused mainly classical thermodynamics primarily studies systems thermodynamic equilibrium non equilibrium thermodynamics often treated extension classical treatment statistical mechanics brought many advances field thermodynamicists representative original eight founding schools thermodynamics schools lasting effect founding modern versions thermodynamics berlin school particularly established rudolf clausius textbook ''the mechanical theory heat'' vienna school statistical mechanics ludwig boltzmann gibbsian school yale university american engineer willard gibbs'


used model exchanges energy work heat based laws thermodynamics qualifier ''classical'' reflects fact represents first level understanding subject developed th century describes changes system terms macroscopic empirical large scale measurable parameters microscopic interpretation concepts later provided development ' 'statistical mechanics'' statistical mechanics statistical mechanics also known statistical thermodynamics emerged development atomic molecular theories late th century early th century supplemented


called barometer may also constructed sample ideal gas held constant temperature calorimeter device used measure define internal energy system thermodynamic reservoir system large state parameters appreciably altered brought contact system interest reservoir brought contact system system brought equilibrium reservoir example pressure reservoir system particular pressure imposes


product force applied body resulting displacement conjugate variables pairs thermodynamic concepts first akin force applied thermodynamic system second akin resulting displacement product two equaling amount energy transferred common conjugate variables pressure volume mechanical parameters temperature entropy thermal parameters chemical potential particle number material parameters potentials thermodynamic potentials different quantitative measures stored energy system potentials used measure energy changes systems evolve


german labour front pressed hitler october take action hitler outwardly agreeing continued dither finally holidays hitler sent powerful personal secretary martin bormann discuss question goebbels hans lammers head reich chancellery result bormann told goebbels go ahead draw draft necessary decree signed january hitler signed decree january almost year goebbels first discussed concept decree set

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
Total war


early years war inventories industry consumers' possession high helped cushion economy effects bombing plant machinery plentiful incompletely used thus comparatively easy substitute unused partly used machinery destroyed foreign labour slave labour labour neighbouring countries joined anti comintern pact germany used augment german industrial labour pressure conscription ''wehrmacht'' armed forces soviet union leningrad 's siege million civilians died soviet


axis powers germany italy japan ref name soscasablanca ref prior declaration individual regimes axis powers could negotiated armistice similar end world war conditional surrender perceived war lost unconditional surrender major axis powers caused legal problem post war nuremberg trials trials appeared conflict articles geneva convention usually trials held would held auspices


fought large decisive war ref name gwuniversitywwii ref likely due availability nuclear weapons whose destructive power quick deployment render full mobilization country 's resources world war ii logistically impractical strategically irrelevant weapons developed maintained relatively modest peacetime defense budgets end ideological stand cold war western world soviet union resulted thousands nuclear weapons aimed side strategically equal balance destructive power possessed


humility roots taoism go back least th century bce early taoism drew cosmological notions school yinyang naturalists deeply influenced one oldest texts chinese culture ''i ching'' expounds philosophical system keep human behavior accordance alternating cycles nature legalist shen buhai c c bce may also major influence expounding realpolitik ''wu wei'' qualified inaction ''tao te ching'' book containing teachings attributed lao tzu


''wu'' connected shamanic culture northern china ''fangshi'' probably derived archivist soothsayers antiquity one supposedly lao tzu even though later taoists insisted case ref name robinet p ref terms used designate individuals dedicated nbsp magic medicine divination methods longevity ecstatic wanderings well exorcism case ''wu'' shamans sorcerers often used translation ref name robinet p ''fangshi'' philosophically close school naturalists relied much


result one complete copy tao tsang still remained white cloud monastery beijing today taoism one five official recognized religions people 's republic china government regulates activities chinese taoist association however taoism practiced without government involvement taiwan claims millions adherents world heritage sites mount qingcheng mount longhu thought among birthplaces taoism doctrines ethics taoism tends emphasize various themes ''tao te ching'' ''zhuangzi'' naturalness spontaneity simplicity detachment desires


tao also something individuals find immanent active expression tao called ''te'' also spelled pronounced ''teh'' even ''de'' often translated ''virtue'' ''power'' sense te results individual living cultivating tao wu wei ambiguous term ''wu wei'' constitutes leading ethical concept taoism ref name voorst ref ''wei'' refers intentional deliberated action ''wu'' carries meaning lacking without common translations nonaction effortless action action without intent ref name voorst meaning sometimes emphasized using


paradoxical expression wei wu wei action without action ancient taoist texts wu wei associated water yielding nature taoist philosophy accordance ''i ching'' proposes universe works harmoniously according ways someone exerts world manner rhythm cycles change may disrupt harmony unintended consequences may likely result rather willed outcome taoism identify one 's root problem rather asserts one must place harmony


important element taoism rituals exercises substances aiming aligning oneself spiritually cosmic forces undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys improving physical health thereby extending one 's life ideally point immortality enlightened immortal beings referred xian characteristic method aiming longevity taoist alchemy already early taoist scriptures like ''taiping jing'' ''baopuzi'' alchemical formulas achieving immortality outlined number martial arts traditions particularly ones falling category neijia like t'ai chi ch'uan pa kwa chang xing yi


affiliation taoist practices ref name csls furthermore million people claim taoists term traditionally used exclusively initiates priests experts taoist rituals methods ref name csls chinese people many others influenced way taoist traditions since creation people 's republic china government encouraged revival taoist traditions codified settings chinese taoist association formed administer activities registered taoist orders received official approval disbanded cultural revolution mao zedong


moderate position presented inner chapters zhuangzi political life presented disdain kind pluralism perspectivism preferred syncretist position texts like huainanzi outer chapters zhuangzi blended taoist positions confucian ones relations religions philosophies ''confucianism taoism buddhism one'' painting ''litang style'' portraying three men laughing river stream th century song dynasty many scholars believe taoism arose countermovement confucianism philosophical terms ''tao'' ''de''


confucianism see also baopuzi chinese ritual mastery traditions dragon gate taoism five precepts taoism ten precepts taoism chinese culture taiji bagua taoist coin charm hong kong taoist association lingbao school neidan pu taoism qingjing jing quanzhen taoism shangqing school tao te ching taoism hong kong taoism singapore taoism malaysia taoism vietnam taoist church italy taoist diet taoist tai chi taoist music taoist schools way celestial masters way five pecks rice yao taoism zhengyi taoism zhizha references citations sources reading https wwwshambhalacom thomas clearys taoist translations guide


'''thermochemistry''' study heat energy associated chemical reactions phase changes melting boiling reaction may release absorb energy phase change may thermochemistry focuses energy exchange system surroundings form heat thermochemistry useful predicting reactant product quantities throughout course given reaction combination entropy determinations also used predict whether reaction spontaneous non spontaneous favorable unfavorable endothermic reactions absorb heat exothermic reactions

Natural science
Chemistry
Thermochemistry


must computed computability theory computability theory deals primarily question extent problem solvable computer statement halting problem cannot solved turing machine one important results computability theory example concrete problem easy formulate impossible solve using turing machine much computability theory builds halting problem result another important step computability theory rice 's theorem states non trivial properties

Formal science
Computer science
Theory of computation


solved two major aspects considered time complexity space complexity respectively many steps take perform computation much memory required perform computation order analyze much time space given algorithm requires computer scientists express time space required solve problem function size input problem example finding particular number long list numbers becomes harder list numbers grows larger say


applications regular expressions example specify string patterns many contexts office productivity software programming languages another formalism mathematically equivalent regular expressions finite automata used circuit design kinds problem solving context free grammars specify programming language syntax non deterministic pushdown automata another formalism equivalent context free grammars primitive recursive functions defined subclass recursive functions different models computation ability different tasks one way measure power computational model study class formal languages


combination ''theos'' 'god' ''logia'' 'utterances sayings oracles' latter word relating greek ''logos'' 'word discourse account reasoning' term would pass latin ''theologia'' french ''th ologie'' eventually becoming english ''theology'' several variants eg ''theologie'' ''teologye'' english ''theology'' evolved current form sense word english depends large part sense latin greek equivalents acquired patristic medieval christian usage although english term spread beyond christian contextsplato left aristotle raphael 's


aberdeen religious studies religious studies contemporary contexts distinction made theology seen involving level commitment claims religious tradition studied religious studies contrast normally seen requiring question truth falsehood religious traditions studied kept outside field religious studies involves study historical contemporary practices traditions' ideas using intellectual tools frameworks specifically tied religious tradition normally understood


early fifth century bc reputed exiled athens agnosticism existence gods said concerning gods cannot know either exist exist form might much prevent one 's knowing ''obscurity subject'' shortness man 's life baron holbach since least eighteenth century various authors criticized suitability theology academic discipline ref name loughlin ref baron d'holbach labeled theology continual insult


non animistic religion cannot demonstratively proved utterances nature god nonsensical jewish atheist philosopher walter kaufmann essay theology sought differentiate theology religion general ref name kaufmann walter ''the faith heretic'' garden city ny anchor books pp ref blockquote theology course religion great deal religion emphatically anti theological attack theology therefore taken necessarily involving attack religion religion often untheological even anti theological blockquote however kaufmann found christianity inescapably theological


protection agency studied chemical drug substances toxcast program part comptox chemicals dashboard using ''in silica'' modelling human pluripotent stem cell based assay predict ''in vivo'' developmental intoxicants based changes cellular metabolism following chemical exposure major findings analysis toxcast stm dataset published include chemicals yielded prediction developmental toxicity assay performance reached accuracy high specificity modest sensitivity compared ''in vivo'' animal models human prenatal developmental toxicity sensitivity improved

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Toxicology


theft cattle theft certain emergency occasions theft night residence someone without knowledge permission owner theft organized people theft thief got access means violence climbing using false keys disguise terroristic theft part theft committed situation punishment maximum imprisonment years fine fifth category ref name c ref article consists following

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Theft


gain made thief benefit sections theft act effect regards interpretation operation section act except otherwise provided act sections act apply purposes section act appropriates section provides see r v hinks lawrence v metropolitan police commissioner property section provides edward griew said section could without changing meaning reduced omitting words sections provide


given way generalized non specific beliefs law might permit defence intention permanently depriving section intent permanently deprive sufficiently flexible include situations property later returned '''alternative verdict''' offense created section theft act twoc available alternative verdict indictment theft '''visiting forces''' theft offence property purposes section visiting forces act '''mode trial sentence'''


theft triable either way person guilty theft liable conviction indictment imprisonment term exceeding seven years summary conviction imprisonment term exceeding six months fine exceeding prescribed sum '''aggravated theft''' offence aggravated theft robbery contrary section theft act '''stolen goods''' purposes provisions theft act relate stolen goods goods obtain england wales elsewhere blackmail fraud


vermont grand larceny value goods exceed vsa virginia grand larceny value goods exceed virginia code washington state theft goods valued second degree theft class c felony theft goods valued search rescue dog duty public records public office official metal wire utility access device class b felony theft motor vehicle firearm west indies british west indies especially grenada


ab initio calculations mathematical chemistry discussion prediction molecular structure using mathematical methods without necessarily referring quantum mechanics topology branch mathematics allows researchers predict properties flexible finite size bodies like clusters theoretical chemical kinetics theoretical study dynamical systems associated reactive chemicals activated complex corresponding differential equations cheminformatics also known '''chemoinformatics''' use computer informational techniques applied crop information solve problems field chemistry chemical engineering application chemistry industrial processes conduct research development

Natural science
Chemistry
Theoretical chemistry


additional forms conceptualized ref name poslad ''dust'' miniaturized devices without visual output displays eg micro electro mechanical systems mems ranging nanometres micrometers millimetres see also smart dust ''skin'' fabrics based upon light emitting conductive polymers organic computer devices formed flexible non planar display surfaces products clothes curtains see oled display mems device also painted onto various surfaces variety physical world structures act networked surfaces mems ''clay'' ensembles mems formed

Formal science
Computer science
Computer communications (networks)
Ubiquitous computing


useful tasks perform ref name referencea network robots link ubiquitous networks robots contributing creation new lifestyles solutions address variety social problems including aging population nursing care issues privacy easily often cited criticism ubiquitous computing ubicomp may greatest barrier long term success ref name honglanday ref public policy problems often preceded long shadows long trains activity emerging slowly decades even course century need long term view guide policy decision making


advanced computing pakistan centre research ubiquitous computing cruc karachi pakistan sweden mobile life centre stockholm university united kingdom mixed reality lab university nottingham see also ambient media computer accessibility human centered computing mobile interaction smart city ubiquitous city ubiquitous commerce ubiquitous learning ubiquitous robot wearable computer references reading adam greenfield 's book ''everyware dawning age ubiquitous computing'' john tinnell 's book ''actionable media digital communication beyond desktop'' oxford university press salim flora abowd gregory ''ubicomp iswc ' adjunct proceedings acm international joint conference pervasive


genitourinary disorders urology combines management medical ie non surgical conditions urinary tract infections benign prostatic hyperplasia management surgical conditions bladder prostate cancer kidney stones congenital abnormalities traumatic injury stress incontinence urological techniques include minimally invasive robotic laparoscopic surgery laser assisted surgeries scope guided procedures urologists receive training open minimally invasive surgical techniques employing real time ultrasound guidance fiber optic endoscopic equipment various lasers treatment multiple benign malignant conditions urology closely related urologists often collaborate practitioners oncology nephrology

Applied science
Medicine and health
Urology


robotic equipment de facto monopoly one publicly held corporation fuels cost effectiveness controversy urologic oncology urologic oncology concerns surgical treatment malignant genitourinary diseases cancer prostate adrenal glands bladder kidneys ureters testicles penis well skin subcutaneous tissue muscle fascia areas particular subspecialty overlaps dermatological oncology related areas oncology treatment genitourinary cancer managed either urologist oncologist depending treatment type surgical medical urologic oncologists western countries


good eg radio instrumentally good order hear music intrinsically valuable thing contrast worth means something else intrinsic instrumental goods constitute mutually exclusive categories things found good simultaneously good getting things value prominent argument environmental ethics made writers like aldo leopold holmes rolston iii wild nature healthy ecosystems intrinsic value prior apart instrumental value resources


thing need emergent property whole state affairs order good example salt food far better part prepared meal words goods good certain conditions met contrast goods may considered good wider variety situations kant hypothetical categorical goods thinking immanuel kant greatly influenced moral philosophy thought moral value unique universally identifiable property absolute value rather relative value


exception act cannot performed without exception therefore fails categorical imperative contrast golden rule subjective individual following logic golden rule wanted someone kill would acceptable kill others would others would want done important keep mind kant 's categorical imperative avoids flaw axioms kant developed moral system would apply praiseworthy person ref


abnormally high incidence violent crime committed crimes go frequently unresolved victimological studies matter fundamental attribution error social psychology fundamental attribution error also known ''correspondence bias'' ''attribution effect'' describes tendency value dispositional personality based explanations observed behaviors others valuing situational explanations behaviors term coined lee ross years classic experiment edward e jones victor harris ref name jonesharris ref fundamental attribution error visible people explain


decline ref name ncvs serial killings waning particular according ''aba journal'' report 's large part people less vulnerable past ref name serial ref turn due several societal changes according experts news reports cited ''aba journal'' people n't hitchhike anymore means reaching emergency situation using cellphones cameras everywhere parents today less likely allow children leave home unsupervised interventions help troubled children might reform potential killers example


loss harms suffered victim criminal procedure code though provisions made section provide compensation victims suffered loss harms consequence commission offence provided indian law compensatory measure victims crimes enough aspect needs reviewed legislature frame enact necessary law sufficiently compensate victims crimes provide safeguards victims crimes besides compensating monetary terms sp sharma advocate rajasthan high


veterinary technician ethiopia shows owner ailing donkey sanitize site infection '''veterinary medicine''' branch medicine deals prevention control diagnosis treatment disease disorder injury animals along deals animal rearing husbandry breeding research nutrition product development scope veterinary medicine wide covering animal species domesticated wild wide range conditions affect different species veterinary medicine widely practiced without professional supervision professional care

Applied science
Medicine and health
Veterinary medicine


long living veterinary scientists often collaborate epidemiologists health natural scientists depending type work ethically veterinarians usually obliged look animal welfare veterinarians diagnose treat help keep animals safe healthy history premodern era archeological evidence form cow skull upon trepanation performed shows people performing veterinary procedures neolithic bce fragments ''kahun papyrus'' veterinary medicine early nd millennium bce egyptian ''papyrus kahun'' twelfth dynasty egypt first extant record veterinary medicine


middle ages farriers combined work horseshoeing general task horse doctoring arabic tradition ''bay ara'' ''shiy al khayl'' originates treatise ibn akh hiz fl late th century lord mayor london concerned poor standard care given horses city requested farriers operating within mile km radius city london form fellowship regulate improve practices ultimately led establishment worshipful company farriers meanwhile carlo ruini 's book


neurology laboratory animal medicine internal medicine healthcare professionals vets face ethical decisions care patients current debates within profession include ethics purely cosmetic procedures animals declawing cats docking tails cropping ears debarking dogs wide range surgeries operations performed various types animals carried vets case iran instance eye surgeon managed perform successful cataract surgery rooster first time


human medicine practitioners dealing musculoskeletal disorders including osteopaths chiropractors physiotherapists roles specific animals parallels human society animal grooming animal massage roles specific species group animals farriers involved shoeing horses many cases major role play ensuring medical fitness horses veterinary research eye examination kitten underway prior kitten 's adoption veterinary research includes prevention control diagnosis treatment diseases animals


transfection modified retroviruses often used purpose integrate genes host 's chromosomes approach using viruses gene vectors pursued gene therapy genetic diseases obvious problem overcome viral gene therapy rejection transforming virus immune system phage therapy use bacteriophages combat bacterial diseases popular research topic advent antibiotics recently seen renewed interest oncolytic viruses viruses preferably infect cancer cells early efforts employ viruses


massive civilian non combatant suffering casualties war studies scholars consider war universal ancestral aspect human nature others argue result specific socio cultural economic ecological circumstances ref name sage publications ref etymology mural war gari melchers english word ''war'' derives th century old english words ''wyrre'' ''werre'' old french ''werre'' also ''guerre'' modern french turn frankish ''werra'' ultimately deriving proto germanic ''werz '' 'mixture confusion' word related old saxon ''werran'' old high german ''werran'' german

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
War


held war oftena mass discharge accumulated internal rage inner fears mankind discharged mass destruction ref name meerloo meerloo md ''the rape mind'' p progressive press ref psychoanalysts efm durban john bowlby argued human beings inherently violent aggressiveness fueled displacement projection person transfers grievances bias hatred races religions nations ideologies theory nation state preserves order local society creating outlet


come power times crisis populace opts decisive leader leads nation war ref evolutionary women priests retrieve dead bodies swabian soldiers outside city gates constance battle schwaderloh '' luzerner schilling '' several theories concern evolutionary origins warfare two main schools one sees organized warfare emerging mesolithic result complex social organization greater population density competition resources sees human warfare ancient practice derived common


strong nation whatever weak cannot hold force centrist capitalist world leaders including presidents united states us generals expressed support economic view war marxist marxist theory war quasi economic states modern wars caused competition resources markets great imperialist powers claiming wars natural result capitalism marxist economists karl kautsky rosa luxemburg rudolf hilferding vladimir lenin theorized imperialism result capitalist countries needing new markets expansion means production possible


'''world history''' '''global history''' field historical study examines history global perspective emerged centuries ago leading practitioners included voltaire hegel karl marx arnold j toynbee field became much active terms university teaching text books scholarly journals academic associations late th century confused comparative history like world history deals history multiple cultures nations global scale world history looks common patterns emerge


study civilizations iscsc approaches world history standpoint comparative civilizations founded conference salzburg austria attended othmar anderlie pitirim sorokin arnold j toynbee international association scholars publishes journal ''comparative civilization review'' hosts annual meeting cities around world ''journal global history'' scholarly journal established published cambridge university press world history association wha established predominantly american phenomenon since publishes ''journal


early attempts determine genetic relationships end th century saw fall spontaneous generation rise germ theory disease though mechanism inheritance remained mystery early th century rediscovery mendel 's work led rapid development genetics combination population genetics natural selection modern synthesis created evolutionary biology research cell biology interconnected fields genetics biochemistry medical microbiology immunology cytochemistry sequencing dna molecule francis


early necessity identify organisms group according characteristics differences relationships field taxonomist originally thought species immutable arrival darwin 's theory evolution field cladistics came studying relationships different groups clades systematics study diversification living forms evolutionary history group known phylogeny relationship clades shown diagrammatically cladogram ref name ruppert ref although someone made scientific


cells including behavior interactions environment done microscopic molecular levels single celled organisms bacteria well specialized cells multicellular organisms humans understanding structure function cells fundamental biological sciences similarities differences cell types particularly relevant molecular biology anatomy considers forms macroscopic structures organs organ systems focuses organs organ systems work together bodies humans animals addition work


particular organisms mammalogy ornithology herpetology entomology use organisms systems answer general questions evolution evolutionary biology partly based paleontology uses fossil record answer questions mode tempo evolution ref name jablonski ref partly developments areas population genetics evolutionary theory following development dna fingerprinting techniques late th century application techniques zoology increased understanding animal populations developmental biology entered evolutionary biology initial exclusion


whose book ''the expression emotions man animals'' influenced many future ethologists ref name black ref subfield ethology behavioral ecology attempts answer nikolaas tinbergen 's four questions regard animal behavior proximate causes behavior developmental history organism survival value phylogeny behavior another area study animal cognition uses laboratory experiments carefully controlled field studies investigate animal 's intelligence learning biogeography biogeography studies spatial distribution organisms earth focusing topics like plate tectonics climate change


current number zoroastrians world around ref name roshan majority living india iran north america number thought declining important texts zoroastrianism contained within ''avesta'' includes chiefly writings zoroaster known ''gathas'' well poems within ''yasna'' define teachings zoroaster serve basis worship religious philosophy zoroaster divided early iranian gods proto indo iranian tradition ''ahuras'' ' 'daevas'' latter considered


nature avesta yasnas yashts however particular assertion undermined fact early zoroastrians duty exterminate evil species dictate longer followed modern zoroastrianism practices th century tang dynasty chinese clay figurine sogdian man wearing distinctive cap face veil possibly camel rider even zoroastrian priest engaging ritual fire temple since face veils used avoid contaminating holy fire breath saliva museum oriental art turin italy religion states active


arabic words written difficult pahlavi script hence adoption term pahlavi name variant language genre zoroastrian books read aloud books would still intelligible laity many texts responses tribulations time include exhortations stand fast religious beliefs denkard doctrinal defenses religion others explanations theological aspects bundahishn 's practical aspects eg explanation rituals


million https booksgooglecom booksid uwn zmvac pg pa dq meyer million persian empire lr pollack p estimates million https archiveorg details persianpuzzlecon poll page jones p estimates million https booksgooglecom booksid uey rqtymc pg pa dq persian empire million square miles lr v onepage q persian empire million square miles f false safire p estimates million https booksgooglecom booksid bigv vioqcc pg pa dq persian empire million square miles lr v onepage q persian empire million square miles f false dougherty p estimates million https booksgooglecom booksid hm zxxj lh c pg pt dq million persian empire ppt richard p estimates nearly million https booksgooglecom booksid toji z wac c pg pa dq persian empire million square miles lr v onepage q persian empire million square miles f false mitchell p estimates million https booksgooglecom booksid jqeipyqm occ pg pa dq million persian empire lr hanson p estimates almost million https archiveorg details carnageculturela hans west p estimates million https archiveorg details bub gb rwyaaaaayaaj page n zenos p estimates exactly million https archiveorg details bub gb ezabaaaayaaj page n cowley


include cognates avestan word ''ahura'' ahura mazda vedic sanskrit word ''asura'' demon evil demigod well ''daeva'' demon ''deva'' god descend common proto indo iranian religion manichaeism zoroastrianism often compared manichaeism nominally iranian religion origins middle eastern gnosticism superficially comparison seems apt dualistic manichaeism adopted many yazatas pantheon gherardo gnoli ''the encyclopaedia religion'' says assert manichaeism roots iranian religious tradition relationship


years even rise islam loss direct influence zoroastrianism remained part cultural heritage iranian language speaking world part festivals customs also ferdowsi incorporated number figures stories avesta epic ''sh hn me'' pivotal iranian identity one notable example incorporation yazata sraosha angel venerated within shia islam iran religious text avesta avesta collection central religious texts zoroastrianism written old iranian dialect avestan history


otherwise opined zoroastrianism totally monotheistic dualistic elements ref name mehr throughout zoroastrian history shrines temples focus worship pilgrimage adherents religion early zoroastrians recorded worshiping th century bce mounds hills fires lit open skies wake achaemenid expansion shrines constructed throughout empire particularly influenced role mithra aredvi sura anahita verethragna tishtrya alongside traditional yazata hymns within avesta also local deities culture heroes today


festivals ceremonies prayers ref name ref name incorporation cultural local rituals quite common traditions passed historically zoroastrian communities herbal healing practices wedding ceremonies like ref name traditionally zoroastrian rituals also included shamanic elements involving mystical methods spirit travel invisible realm involving consumption fortified wine haoma mang ritual aids ref name historically zoroastrians encouraged pray five daily g hs maintain celebrate various holy festivals zoroastrian calendar differ community


community zoroastrian prayers called manthras conducted usually hands outstretched imitation zoroaster 's prayer style described gathas reflectionary supplicant nature believed endowed ability banish evil ref name devout zoroastrians known cover heads prayer either traditional topi scarves headwear even hands however full coverage veiling traditional islamic practice part zoroastrianism zoroastrian women iran wear head coverings displaying hair faces defy mandates islamic republic


computing include edsger dijkstra per brinch hansen car hoare introduction concept concurrent computing frequently confused related distinct concept parallel computing ref name waza pike rob concurrency parallelism ''waza conference'' january retrieved http talksgolangorg wazaslide slides http vimeocom video ref although described multiple processes executing ' 'during period time'' parallel computing execution occurs physical instant example separate processors multi processor machine goal speeding computations parallel computing impossible one core single processor one

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Concurrent programming


hidden programmer eg using futures others must handled explicitly explicit communication divided two classes shared memory communication concurrent components communicate altering contents shared memory locations exemplified java c style concurrent programming usually needs use form locking eg mutexes semaphores monitors coordinate threads program properly implements said thread safe message passing communication concurrent components communicate exchanging messages exemplified mpi go scala erlang occam exchange


prosecution victim crime pursues claim compensation civil criminal action ref name law france italy many countries besides victim crime known injured party may awarded damages criminal court judge standards proof higher criminal action civil one since loser risks financial penalties also sent prison countries execution english law prosecution must prove guilt criminal beyond reasonable doubt

Humanities
Law
Criminal law
Criminal procedure


known colloquially little bible new england ref name pt england beginning compulsory state education ref name shaw ref elementary schools england wales publicly funded schools provided basic standard education children aged six set enable children receive manual training elementary instruction provided restricted curriculum emphasis reading writing arithmetic three rs schools operated monitorial system whereby one teacher supervised large class assistance team monitors

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Elementary education


continues lowest region worldwide still increased percentage points percent percent also progress southern asia north africa areas saw increase enrollment example southern asia increased percent north africa percent last decade major advances made even poorest countries like abolition primary school fees burundi increase primary school enrollment reached percent also tanzania


millennium russia monument veliky novgorod unveiled september expansion russia soviet union '''history russia''' begins histories east slavs traditional start date specifically russian history establishment rus' state north ruled varangians staraya ladoga novgorod became first major cities new union immigrants scandinavia slavs finns prince oleg novgorod seized kiev thereby uniting northern southern lands eastern slavs one authority


building socialism however varied different periods soviet history mixed economy diverse society culture command economy repressions joseph stalin era era stagnation period soviet union one victors world war ii recovering massive surprise invasion previously secretly cooperative partner nazi germany became superpower competing fellow new superpower united states western countries cold war ussr


successful space program launching first artificial satellite first man space mid weaknesses soviet economic political structures becoming acute mikhail gorbachev embarked major reforms eventually led overthrow communist party breakup ussr leaving russia marking start history post soviet russia russian soviet federative socialist republic renamed russian federation became one several successors soviet union russian federation post soviet republic assume


population emerged multiethnic multiconfessional state also around period mercantile stroganov family established firm foothold urals recruited russian cossacks colonise siberia later part reign ivan divided realm two zone known ''oprichnina'' ivan 's followers carried series bloody purges feudal aristocracy suspected treachery betrayal prince kurbsky culminating massacre novgorod combined military losses epidemics poor harvests weakened russia crimean tatars


dynasty restore peace fortunately moscow major enemies polish lithuanian commonwealth sweden engaged bitter conflict provided russia opportunity make peace sweden sign truce polish lithuanian commonwealth recovery lost territories began mid th century khmelnitsky uprising ukraine polish rule brought treaty pereyaslav concluded russia ukrainian cossacks according treaty russia granted protection cossacks state left bank ukraine formerly polish control triggered


territories amur region rather risk estates civil war boyars cooperated first romanovs enabling finish work bureaucratic centralization thus state required service old new nobility primarily military return tsars allowed boyars complete process enserfing peasants preceding century state gradually curtailed peasants' rights move one landlord another state fully sanctioning serfdom runaway peasants became state fugitives power landlords


peter continued intensified predecessors' requirement state service nobles time powerful persian safavid empire south heavily declining taking advantage profitable situation peter launched russo persian war known persian expedition peter great russian histographers order first russian emperor establish russian influence caucasus caspian sea region considerable success capture many provinces cities caucasus northern mainland persia safavids forced hand territories


queen regnant catherine enthusiastically supported ideals enlightenment thus earning status enlightened despot patronized arts science learning contributed resurgence russian nobility began death peter great catherine promulgated charter gentry reaffirming rights freedoms russian nobility abolishing mandatory state service seized control church lands drastically reduced size monasteries put surviving clergy tight budget catherine spent heavily promote expansive foreign policy extended russian political


major universities saint petersburg state university moscow state university opened capitals russian exploration siberia far east continued great northern expedition laid foundation development alaska russians end th century alaska became russian colony russian america early th century alaska used base first russian circumnavigation russian sailors discovered antarctica antarctic expedition russia continuous state financial crisis revenue rose million rubles million


iranian territories comprise modern day azerbaijan dagestan also became involved caucasian war caucasian imamate war persia concluded russian victory forcing qajar iran cede swaths territories caucasus russia drastically increased territory region south west russia attempted expand expense ottoman empire using georgia base caucasus anatolian front european policy alexander switched russia back forth four times neutral peacemaker anti napoleon


tsar dressed like soldier surrounded officers gloried victory napoleon took pride smartness parade cavalry horses example trained parade formations poorly battle glitter braid masked weaknesses see put generals charge civilian agencies regardless qualifications army became vehicle upward social mobility noble youths non russian areas poland baltic finland georgia hand many miscreants petty


france napoleon iii fell joined germany austria league three emperors stabilized european situation russian empire expanded siberia caucasus made gains expense china faced uprising poland stripped land separate constitution incorporated directly russia counter rise revolutionary anarchistic movements sent thousands dissidents exile siberia proposing additional parliamentary reforms assassinated late russia


party primary exponent marxism russia gathering support radical intellectuals urban working class advocated complete social economic political revolution october manifesto granting civil liberties establishing first parliament rsdlp split two wings radical bolsheviks led vladimir lenin relatively moderate mensheviks led yuli martov mensheviks believed russian socialism would grow gradually peacefully tsar 's regime succeeded democratic republic socialists would cooperate liberal bourgeois parties


name curtisaut russian masses aroused massacre general strike declared demanding democratic republic marked beginning russian revolution soviets councils workers appeared cities direct revolutionary activity october nicholas reluctantly issued october manifesto conceded creation national duma legislature called without delay ref name curtisaut right vote extended law go force without confirmation duma moderate groups satisfied ref name curtisaut socialists rejected concessions insufficient


th century stalinist repression first five marshals soviet union november clockwise top left semyon budyonny vasily blyukher alexander ilyich yegorov kliment voroshilov mikhail tukhachevsky budyonny voroshilov would survive stalin 's great purge nkvd gathered tens thousands soviet citizens face arrest deportation execution six original members politburo survived lenin purged stalin old bolsheviks loyal comrades lenin high officers red army directors industry liquidated great purges ref


partition poland nkvd executed captured polish officers katyn massacre late first half stalinist government carried massive deportations various nationalities number ethnic groups deported settlement central asia soviet union international stage soviet union viewed accession fervently anti communist hitler 's government power germany great alarm onset especially since hitler proclaimed drang nach osten one major objectives vision german strategy


threatened republic chechnya attempted break away leading first second chechen wars economic reforms also consolidated semi criminal oligarchy roots old soviet system advised western governments world bank international monetary fund russia embarked largest fastest privatization world ever seen order reform fully nationalized soviet economy mid decade retail trade services small industry private hands big enterprises acquired old managers engendering new rich russian tycoons league criminal mafias


united states putin created system guided democracy russia subjugating parliament suppressing independent media placing major oil gas companies state control vladimir putin dmitri medvedev international observers alarmed moves late tighten presidency 's control parliament civil society regional officeholders ref name bbc putin elections ref dmitri medvedev former gazprom chairman putin 's head staff elected new president russia putin medvedev switched places putin became president prompting massive protests moscow russia 's long term problems


power russia '' https wwwamazoncom dp b ycwc excerpts hughes lindsey ''russia age peter great'' yale comprehensive topical survey https archiveorg details russiainageofpet hugh online kahan arcadius ''the plow hammer knout economic history eighteenth century russia'' kahan arcadius ''russian economic history nineteenth century'' gatrell peter review russian economic history legacy arcadius kahan ''slavic review'' pp https wwwjstororg stable online lincoln w bruce ''the romanovs autocrats russias'' https archiveorg details romanovsautocr linc online sweeping narrative history lincoln w bruce ''the great reforms autocracy bureaucracy politics change


pre colonial african states different time periods contemporary political map africa includes sub saharan africa north africa obelisk temple luxor egypt c bc baguirmi knight full padded armour suit '''history africa''' begins emergence hominids archaic humans least years ago anatomically modern humans ''homo sapiens'' east africa continues unbroken present patchwork diverse politically developing nation states earliest known recorded history arose ancient egypt later nubia sahel maghreb horn africa following desertification


site nataruk turkana county kenya remains individuals died result intentional attack another group years ago suggest inter human conflict much longer history emergence agriculture desertification sahara vegetation water bodies early holocene top years ago eemian bottom around bc red sea hills northern ethiopian highlands nuts grasses tubers collected food bc people began collecting wild grains spread western


nsukka region southeast nigeria igboland dating bc site lejja eze uzomaka ref name eze uzomaka ref ref name holl ref bc site opi holl ref name holl site gbabiri central african republic also yielded evidence iron metallurgy reduction furnace blacksmith workshop earliest dates bc bc respectively ref name eggert antiquity ancient history north africa inextricably linked ancient near east particularly true ancient egypt nubia horn africa


inhabited world described herodotus th century bc ruins qa'ableh early center somali civilization macrobia ancient kingdom situated horn africa present day somalia mentioned th century bc according herodotus' account persian emperor cambyses ii upon conquest egypt bc sent ambassadors macrobia bringing luxury gifts macrobian king entice submission macrobian ruler elected based least part stature replied instead challenge persian counterpart form


mauretanian mountains followed crisis third century towns also suffered economic difficulties building activity almost ceased towns roman north africa substantial jewish population jews deported judea palestine st nd centuries ad rebelling roman rule others come earlier punic settlers addition number berber tribes converted judaism christianity arrived nd century soon gained converts towns among slaves eighty bishops distant frontier regions


right orthodox christian rulers use force schismatics heretics although dispute resolved decision imperial commission carthage donatist communities continued exist late th century decline trade weakened roman control independent kingdoms emerged mountainous desert areas towns overrun berbers previously pushed edges roman empire returned vandalic war belisarius general byzantine emperor justinian based constantinople landed north africa men within year


similarities nok terracottas bronze figurines yoruba kingdom ife bini kingdom benin believed continuations traditions earlier nok culture bantu expansion ''' b''' western bantu br ''' ''' bc urewe nucleus eastern bantu br ''' ''' ''' ''' southward advance br ''' ''' bc congo nucleus br ''' ''' ce last phase bantu expansion involved significant movement people african history settling continent people speaking bantu languages


friendly relationship established ottoman empire via tripoli ''mai'' exchanged gifts ottoman sultan major states middle africa th th centuries much known bornu th century became center islamic learning however bornu 's army became outdated importing new arms ref name shillington pp kamembu also begun decline power ''mai'' undermined droughts famine becoming intense internal rebellion pastoralist north growing hausa power importation firearms


considered unorthodox hostile authority abbasid caliphate numerous kharijite kingdoms came fell th th centuries asserting independence baghdad early th century shi'ite groups syria claiming descent muhammad 's daughter fatimah founded fatimid dynasty maghreb conquered maghreb egypt immediately broken away baghdad attempt bring purer form islam among sanhaja berbers abdallah ibn yasin founded almoravid movement present day mauritania western sahara


rashidun caliphate conquered byzantine egypt ref name shillington pp egypt fatimid caliphate prosperous dams canals repaired wheat barley flax cotton production increased egypt became major producer linen cotton cloth mediterranean red sea trade increased egypt also minted gold currency called fatimid dinar used international trade bulk revenues came taxing fellahin peasant farmers taxes high tax collecting leased berber overlords soldiers taken part fatimid conquest ad


ruled ''changamire'' title derived founder changa later became rozwi empire portuguese tried gain foothold thrown region changamire dombo th century period peace prosperity rozwi empire fell ruins invading nguni natal namibia herero nama territories ad southern africa established states northwestern namibia ovambo engaged farming herero engaged herding cattle numbers increased herero moved southward central namibia


center learning commerce book trade increased book copying became respectable profitable profession timbuktu djenn became important centers learning within islamic world reign mansa suleyman mali began spiral downward mossi cavalry raided exposed southern border tuareg harassed northern border order retake timbuktu fulani fulbe eroded mali 's authority west establishing independent imamate futa toro successor kingdom takrur serer wolof alliances broken songhai empire took niani


great center islamic learning muhammad ture expanded empire pushing tuareg north capturing r east capturing salt producing taghaza brought hausa states songhay trading network centralized administration empire selecting administrators loyal servants families assigning conquered territories responsible raising local militias centralization made songhay stable even dynastic disputes leo africanus left vivid descriptions empire askiya muhammad askiya muhammad deposed son much rivalry muhammad ture 's last


son askiya daoud assumed throne morocco invaded songhai empire ahmad al mansur saadi dynasty order secure goldfields sahel battle tondibi songhai army defeated moroccans captured djenne gao timbuktu unable secure whole region askiya nuhu songhay army regrouped dendi heart songhai territory spirited guerrilla resistance sapped resources moroccans dependent upon constant resupply morocco songhai split several states th century morocco


teach write handed empire son muhammed bello sokoto caliphate lasted british conquered northern nigeria forest empires states akan kingdoms emergence asante empire ashanti kente cloth patterns akan speak kwa language speakers kwa languages believed come east central africa settling sahel th century akan kingdom bonoman bono state established th century gold mines modern day mali started dry bonoman later akan states began


rise prominence major players gold trade bonoman akan kingdoms like denkyira akyem akwamu predecessors later emergence empire ashanti ashante got present location debatable known th century akan people identified living state called kwaaman location state north lake bosomtwe state 's revenue mainly derived trading gold kola nuts clearing forest plant yams built towns


th century oyo added western region niger hills togo yoruba ketu dahomey fon nation governing council served empire clear executive divisions acquired region assigned local administrator families served king making capacities oyo northern yoruba kingdom served middle man north south trade connecting eastern forest guinea western central sudan sahara north africa yoruba manufactured cloth ironware pottery exchanged salt leather importantly horses


sudan maintain cavalry oyo remained strong two hundred years became protectorate great britain fragmenting warring factions oyo state ceased exist sort power benin benin bronze brass kwa niger congo speaking edo people established benin empire middle th century engaged political expansion consolidation beginning ''oba'' king ewuare c ad state organized conquest solidified central authority initiated years war


neighbors death benin empire extended dahomey west niger delta east along west african coast yoruba towns north ewuare 's grandson ''oba'' esigie eroded power ''uzama'' state council increased contact trade europeans especially portuguese provided new source copper court art ''oba'' ruled advice ''uzama'' council consisting chiefs powerful families town chiefs different guilds later authority diminished establishment


mfecane period succession invading peoples south africa entered country although bangwaketse able defeat invading bakololo time major chiefdoms botswana attacked weakened impoverished bakololo amandebele raided repeatedly took large numbers cattle women children batswana driven desert sanctuary areas hilltops caves amandebele moved western zimbabwe threat subside trade cape colony based merchants opened


quinine medical innovations helped make conquest colonization africa possible strong motives conquest africa play raw materials needed european factories europe early part th century undergoing industrial revolution nationalist rivalries prestige play acquiring african colonies would show rivals nation powerful significant factors culminated scramble africa david livingstone early european explorer interior africa attacked lion french explorer paul du chaillu confirmed existence pygmy peoples


recognised europeans provided effective occupation series treaties colonial boundaries completely drawn sub saharan africa claimed european powers except ethiopia abyssinia liberia european powers set variety different administrations africa reflecting different ambitions degrees power areas parts british west africa colonial control tenuous intended simple economic extraction strategic power part long term development plan areas europeans encouraged settle creating settler states european minority dominated settlers


ability reinforce resupply surrounded allied possessions italian east africa conquered mainly british south african forces north africa italians soon requested help germans sent substantial force general rommel german help axis forces regained upper hand unable break british defenses two tries el alamein late allied forces mainly americans canadians invaded french north africa operation torch vichy french forces initially surprised resistance convinced stop fighting


north africa ref name mohamed origin term haratin remains speculative term may date much earlier th century ce involuntarily assigned darker skinned maghrebians ref name mohamed prior modern use term haratin identifier utilized contrast bidan bayd white sumr asmar suud aswad sudan sudani black brown arabic terms utilized identifiers darker skinned maghrebians modern period ref name mohamed haratin considered offensive term darker skinned maghrebians intended identify example people


made way changes latter behaviors toward dark skinned africans ref name mohamed ii result changing behaviors toward dark skinned africans darker skinned maghrebians forcibly recruited army ismail ibn sharif black guard based claim descended enslaved peoples times saadian invasion ref name mohamed ii shurafa historians modern period would later utilize events narratives manumission enslaved hartani vague term merit needing definition implicit evidence historicity questionable ref name mohamed


north africans north africa islamic world ref name mohamed caravans equated slave ships amount forcibly enslaved africans transported across sahara alleged numerically comparable considerably large amount forcibly enslaved africans transported across atlantic ocean ref name mohamed simulated narrative comparable numbers contradicted limited presence darker skinned north africans present day maghreb ref name mohamed part simulated narrative post classical egypt also characterized plantations ref name mohamed another part simulated narrative orientalist


sub saharan africa ref name merolla historic development occurred within longer time frame epistemic development eg form content present day racialized conceptual separation africa came result berlin conference scramble africa ref name merolla african berber literary studies scholarship remained largely separate one another ref name merolla conceptual separation africa studies may due editing policies studies anglophone francophone world affected international politics anglophone francophone world ref name merolla studies


martin phyllis o'meara patrick ''africa'' rd ed bloomington indiana university press shillington kevin ''history africa'' revised nd ed new york city palgrave macmillan reading byfield judith et al eds ''africa world war ii'' cambridge clark j desmond ''the prehistory africa'' thames hudson davidson basil ''the african past'' penguin harmondsworth devermont judd world coming sub saharan africa united states center strategic international studies csis http dehaiorg dehai assets dehai world coming sub saharan africa united statespdf online duignan p l h gann ''the united states


human origins allison hopper ''scientific american'' july https webarchiveorg web http wwwworldtimelinesorguk world africa worldtimelinesorguk africa british museum http historyscopercom africahistoryscopehtml historyscoper http africanhistoryaboutcom od countryhistoryatoz u peopleplaceshtm aboutcom african history http wwwbbccouk worldservice africa features storyofafrica indexshtml story africa bbc world service https wwwpbsorg wonders fr wnhtm wonders african world pbs http wwwwsuedu dee civafrca abouthtm purpose civilization africa richard hooker washington state university http wwwmetmuseumorg toah hi te indexaspi africa african art chunk historical data metropolitan museum art https webarchiveorg web http wwwafricankingdomscom african kingdoms khaleel muhammad https webarchiveorg web http webupacza defaultaspipkcategoryid f mapungubwe museum university pretoria http wwwomarviktorcom project diaspora project diaspora http wwwkushcomcouk history africa programme information kush communications media production company london


textile market sidewalks karachi pakistan magnified view plain tabby weave textile fabric shop canal town mukalla yemen late antique textile egyptian dumbarton oaks collection cond nast wearing silk fortuny tea gown traditional tablecloth maramure romania '''textile''' flexible material made creating interlocking bundle yarns threads produced spinning raw fibers either natural synthetic sources long twisted lengths textiles formed weaving knitting crocheting knotting tatting felting bonding braiding yarns together related

Applied science
Family and consumer science
Textiles


word 'fabric' also derives latin roots proto indo european language stemming recently middle french 'building thing made' earlier latin 'workshop art trade skillful production structure fabric' noun stems latin 'artisan works hard materials' derived proto indo european ' 'dhabh '' meaning 'to fit together' cloth word 'cloth' derives old english meaning 'cloth woven felted material wrap around ones body' proto germanic similar old frisian


'bast' fibres hemp fiber yellowish brown fiber made hemp plant fiber characteristics coarser harsher strong lightweight hemp fiber used primary make twine rope cordage mineral '''asbestos''' '''basalt fibre''' used vinyl tiles sheeting adhesives transite panels siding acoustical ceilings stage curtains fire blankets '''glass fibre''' used production ironing board mattress covers ropes cables reinforcement fibre composite materials insect netting flame retardant protective fabric soundproof fireproof insulating fibres glass fibres woven coated teflon produce beta


emphasis space x constructed simpler ones modern standard tool construction cw complex growing emphasis investigating topological spaces finding correspondences algebraic groups led change name algebraic topology combinatorial topology name still sometimes used emphasize algorithmic approach based decomposition spaces algebraic approach one finds correspondence spaces groups respects relation homeomorphism general homotopy spaces allows one recast

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Algebraic topology


much deeply existence mappings one first mathematicians work different types cohomology georges de rham one use differential structure smooth manifolds via de rham cohomology ech sheaf cohomology investigate solvability differential equations defined manifold question de rham showed approaches interrelated closed oriented manifold betti numbers derived simplicial homology betti numbers derived de rham cohomology extended samuel eilenberg


strong acceptance combination extensive evidence something occurring combined underlying theory successful making predictions whose assumptions lead logically conclusion something impossible impossibility assertion natural science never absolutely proved could refuted observation single counterexample counterexample would require assumptions underlying theory implied impossibility examined branches natural science biology onion ''allium'' cells different phases cell cycle growth 'organism' carefully controlled regulating cell


study matter properties well discovery design new materials originally developed field metallurgy study properties materials solids expanded materials field covers chemistry physics engineering applications materials including metals ceramics artificial polymers many others core field deals relating structure materials properties forefront research science engineering important part forensic engineering investigation materials products structures components


large '' term developed original meaning referred literally going market buy sell goods services marketing tactics include advertising well determining product pricing rise technology marketing divided class called digital marketing marketing products services using digital technologies research development research development refer activities connection corporate government innovation research development constitute first stage development potential new service product research development difficult


partnership partly governed partnership agreement one created partly law jurisdiction partnership located paperwork filing necessary create partnership without agreement relationships legal rights partners entirely governed law jurisdiction partnership located single person owns runs business commonly known ' 'sole proprietor'' whether person owns directly formally organized entity depending business needs adviser decide


kind proprietorship suitable relevant factors consider deciding operate business include general partners partnership limited liability partnership plus anyone personally owns operates business without creating separate legal entity personally liable debts obligations business generally corporations required pay tax like real people tax systems give rise called double taxation first corporation pays tax profit corporation distributes


bodies regulations implemented enforced china securities regulation commission csrc china singapore regulatory authority monetary authority singapore mas hong kong securities futures commission sfc proliferation increasing complexity laws governing business forced increasing specialization corporate law unheard certain kinds corporate transactions require team five ten attorneys due sprawling regulation commercial law spans general corporate law employment labor law health care law securities law mergers acquisitions tax law


name kendall equilibrium ''equilibrium fractionation'' occurs chemicals phases equilibrium equilibrium fractionation phases heavier phases prefer heavier isotopes two phases b effect represented factor math mathrm b frac r mathrm r mathrm b math liquid vapor phase transition water degrees celsius sup sup sup sup h general fractionation greater lower temperatures nbsp c factors ref name kendall kinetic equilibrium phases chemical compounds ''kinetic fractionation'' occur example


photosphere determined fitting absorption lines spectrum models sun 's atmosphere ref name palme ref far largest two elements fraction total mass hydrogen helium remaining elements contributing general trend exponential decrease abundance increasing atomic number although elements even atomic number common odd numbered neighbors oddo harkins rule compared overall trend lithium boron beryllium depleted iron anomalously enriched pattern elemental abundance mainly due two


bioavailable inorganic complexes copper could toxic sea life high concentrations unlike copper zinc toxicity marine phytoplankton low advantage increasing organic binding zn sup sup high nutrient low chlorophyll regions iron limiting nutrient dominant species strong organic complexes fe iii ref name bruland see also biogeochemical cycle geochemical cycle important publications geochemistry petrology tephrochronology references reading external links http wwwgeokemcom ''the geochemistry igneous rocks'' gunn interactive ltd earth sciences


scholasticism laid boethius logical theological essays ref name cambridgedict later forerunners companions scholasticism islamic ilm al kal literally science discourse ref name wolfson winter tim j introduction introduction cambridge companion classical islamic theology cambridge cambridge print ref jewish philosophy especially jewish kalam early scholasticism first significant renewal learning west came carolingian renaissance early middle ages charlemagne advised peter pisa alcuin york attracted scholars england ireland decree ad established

Humanities
History
Philosophical history
Scholasticism


ravages reformation french revolution napoleonic occupation repeated legislation general chapters beginning death st thomas well constitutions order required dominicans teach doctrine st thomas philosophy theology thomistic scholasticism scholastic thomism identifies philosophical theological tradition stretching back time st thomas focuses exegesis historical aquinas also articulation rigorous system orthodox thomism used


scholasticism renewed interest scholastic way philosophy recently awoken confines analytic philosophy attempts emerged combine elements scholastic analytic methodology pursuit contemporary philosophical synthesis proponents various incarnations approach include anthony kenny peter king thomas williams david oderberg analytical thomism seen pioneer part movement scholastic method cornelius o'boyle explained scholasticism focuses acquire knowledge communicate effectively may acquired others thought


http wwwalcuinde alcuin regensburger infothek der scholastik huge database information biography text chronology editions philosophical schools traditions philosophical traditions christian theological movements catholicism middle ages christianity middle ages thomas aquinas trinitarianism christian terminology western christianity western culture western philosophy


control via email monitoring call monitoring bureaucratic control via procedures leave sickness etc added gain interests capitalist class versus workers duncan gallie shown important approach question skill social class perspective study majority non manual intermediate skilled manual workers believed work come demand higher level skill majority manual worker felt responsibility skill needed work either remained constant declined means braverman 's claims ca n't

Social science
Sociology
Industrial sociology


mathematics logic computer science '''type theory''' formal system every term type type type theory role similar type programming language dictates operations performed term variables possible values might replaced type theories serve alternatives set theory foundation mathematics two influential type theories proposed foundations alonzo church 's typed calculus per martin l f 's intuitionistic type theory computerized proof writing systems use

Formal science
Computer science
Logic in computer science
Type theory


type theory foundation common one thierry coquand 's calculus inductive constructions type theory closely related cases overlaps type systems programming language feature used reduce bugs facilitate certain compiler optimizations type theory type systems overlap experts use phrase type system refer specific formal system phrase type theory refer academic study history type theory created avoid paradox mathematical foundation based naive set theory


type entities given type built exclusively entities types lower hierarchy thus preventing entity defined using types always used logic techniques avoid russell 's paradox ref name seperp ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' https platostanfordedu entries russell paradox erp rev mon oct russell paradox early responses paradox ref types gain hold used one particular logic alonzo church 's lambda calculus famous early example alonzo church 's simply typed lambda calculus church 's theory types ref name church ref helped formal


demonstrated homotopy type theory introduction type theory many type theories describing difficult section covers features many major type theories introduction unfamiliar type theory section ''not'' trying complete categorization type theories exhaustive description basics terms types type theory every term type term type often written together ''term'' ''type'' common type include


possible define function called add take two natural numbers thus terms types add nat add nat add add add nat last term parentheses added indicate order operations technically type theories require parentheses present every operation practice written authors assume readers use precedence associativity know similar ease common notation


b similarly injectionright b takes b b returns canonical term type b type defined function match type c functions f math math c g b math math c match injectionleft c f g math twoheadrightarrow math f match injectionright b c f g math twoheadrightarrow math g b sum type used logical union natural numbers natural numbers usually implemented style peano arithmetic canonical term


false disproven part intuitionistic logic proposition'' intuitionistic interpretation common types act logical operators class wikitable logic name logic notation type notation type name true math top math math top math unit type false math bot math math bot math empty type math neg math math bot math function empty type implication math b math math b math function math land b math math times b math product type


math bot math math bot math math math note intuitionistic logic allow math lnot lnot lnot lnot math term type math bot math math bot math math bot math math math math bot math thus logic types intuitionistic logic type theory often cited implementation brouwer heyting kolmogorov interpretation possible include law excluded middle double negation type theory rule assumption however terms may compute canonical terms interfere ability determine


theory depth including polymorphic dependent type extensions gives categorical semantics provides historical survey developments theory types focus decline theory foundation mathematics four decades following publication second edition 'principia mathematica' intended type theory counterpart paul halmos 's ''na set theory'' good introduction simple type theory computer scientists system described exactly church 's stt though http wwwiwuedu htiede papers pdf jolli reviewpdf book review references systems formal logic hierarchy


dynamics fundamentals case studies natural phenomena'' springer new york pai shih ''magnetogasdynamics plasma dynamics'' springer verlag vienna roberts paul h ''an introduction magnetohydrodynamics'' longmans green london rosa richard j ''magnetohydrodynamic energy conversion'' nd edition hemisphere publishing washington dc sritharan sundar p stochastic magneto hydrodynamic system ''infinite dimensional analysis quantum probability related topics'' e journal pp nbsp stern david p http pwggsfcnasagov earthmag sunspotshtm sun 's magnetic cycle ''in'' stern david p ''the great magnet earth'' united states national aeronautics space administration sutton george w sherman arthur ''engineering

Natural science
Space science
Numerical simulations
Magnetohydrodynamics


production eg accounting design finance human resources marketing purchasing sales statistical process control spc use control charts monitor individual industrial process feed back performance operators responsible process inspired control systems company wide quality control cwqc japanese style total quality control ref name ishikawa ref total quality management tqm quality movement originating united states department defense uses part techniques statistical quality control drive continuous organizational improvement six sigma

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Quality Control


ref france united kingdom us far fewer deaths caused terrorism women killed partners home another problem perception common assumption mere presence security system armed forces antivirus software implies security example two computer security programs installed device prevent working properly user assumes benefits twice protection one program would afford security theater critical term measures

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Security


relations'' also called ''presentation'' group given set ''f'' generators math g math free group generated ''f'' surjects onto group ''g'' kernel map called subgroup relations generated subset ''d'' presentation usually denoted math langle f mid rangle math example group presentation math langle ab mid aba b rangle math describes group isomorphic math mathbb z times mathbb z math string consisting generator symbols inverses called ''word'' combinatorial group theory studies groups perspective generators relations particularly useful finiteness

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Group theory


group isomorphism problem asks whether two groups given different presentations actually isomorphic example group presentation math langle xy mid xyxyx e rangle math isomorphic additive group '''z''' integers although may immediately apparent cayley graph lang x rang free group rank geometric group theory attacks problems geometric viewpoint either viewing groups geometric objects finding suitable geometric objects group acts first idea made precise means cayley graph whose vertices


groups example symmetries restricted geometrical objects include algebraic objects well instance equation math x math two solutions math sqrt math math sqrt math case group exchanges two roots galois group belonging equation every polynomial equation one variable galois group certain permutation group roots axioms group formalize essential aspects symmetry symmetries form group closed take symmetry object apply another symmetry


result still symmetry identity keeping object fixed always symmetry object existence inverses guaranteed undoing symmetry associativity comes fact symmetries functions space composition functions associative frucht 's theorem says every group symmetry group graph every abstract group actually symmetries explicit object saying preserving structure object made precise working category maps preserving structure morphisms


resolve incompleteness statistical interpretations mechanics developed willard gibbs relating summing infinite number probabilities yield meaningful solution chemistry materials science chemistry materials science point groups used classify regular polyhedra symmetries molecules space groups classify crystal structures assigned groups used determine physical properties chemical polarity chirality spectroscopic properties particularly useful raman spectroscopy infrared spectroscopy circular dichroism spectroscopy magnetic circular dichroism spectroscopy uv vis spectroscopy fluorescence spectroscopy construct


seen early surgical definition plastic first appeared preceding modern engineering material made petroleum sense years history statue sushruta father plastic surgery royal australasian college surgeons melbourne australia plates vi vii edwin smith papyrus rare book room new york academy medicine sushruta considered ''father plastic surgery'' many scholars treatments plastic repair broken nose first mentioned ancient egypt medical text called edwin smith papyrus ref name cossurg ref ref

Applied science
Medicine and health
Surgery
Plastic surgery


date localization urethral meatus described detail sabuncuoglu also detailed description classification ambiguous genitalia mid th century europe heinrich von pfolspeundt described process make new nose one lacks entirely dogs devoured removing skin back arm suturing place however dangers associated surgery form especially involving head face th th centuries surgery became common joseph carpue successfully performed operative


cosmetic appearance reconstructed nose another case plastic surgery nose reconstruction bellevue hospital described scientific american american otorhinolaryngologist john roe presented example work young woman reduced dorsal nasal hump cosmetic indications robert weir experimented unsuccessfully xenografts duck sternum reconstruction sunken noses james israel urological surgeon germany george monks united states described successful use heterogeneous free bone grafting reconstruct saddle nose defects


extensive burns serendipitous discovery drawn observation differential healing rates pilots come land sea radical experimental treatments led formation guinea pig club queen victoria hospital sussex among better known members club richard hillary bill foxley jimmy edwards sub specialties plastic surgery broad field may subdivided united states plastic surgeons board certified american board plastic surgery subdisciplines plastic surgery may include aesthetic surgery aesthetic surgery central


year old patient reconstructive plastic surgery performed correct functional impairments caused burns traumatic injuries facial bone fractures breaks congenital abnormalities cleft palates cleft lips developmental abnormalities infection disease cancer tumors goal reconstructive plastic surgery restore form function common reconstructive procedures tumor removal laceration repair maxillofacial surgery scar revision hand surgery breast reduction plasty according american society plastic surgeons number reconstructive breast reductions women decreased percent year


million cosmetic procedures performed five common surgeries breast augmentation liposuction breast reduction eyelid surgery abdominoplasty american society aesthetic plastic surgery looks statistics different cosmetic procedures nineteen procedures surgical rhinoplasty facelift nonsurgical procedures include botox laser hair removal survey revealed total procedures united states procedures surgical p nbsp also found large majority procedures done caucasian people p nbsp american