completing course engineering trade like fitter industrial training institute itis receive iti trade certificate also pass india trade test aitt engineering trade conducted national council vocational training ncvt one awarded national trade certificate similar system used nepal mechanical engineers go pursue postgraduate degree master engineering master technology master science master engineering management mengmgt mem doctor philosophy engineering engd phd


element method fem also entered biomedical sector highlighting engineering aspects biomechanics fem since established alternative vivo surgical assessment gained wide acceptance academia main advantage computational biomechanics lies ability determine endo anatomical response anatomy without subject ethical restrictions led fe modelling point becoming ubiquitous several fields biomechanics several projects even adopted open source philosophy eg biospine computational fluid dynamics computational fluid dynamics usually abbreviated cfd

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering


germany wikibooks engineering mechanics engineering thermodynamics engineering acoustics fluid mechanics heat transfer microtechnology nanotechnology pro engineer proe cad strength materials solid mechanics references reading external links engineering disciplines mechanical designers


education vce since become continues strong component vce notable figures development victorian secondary school curriculum long time rusden college media teacher peter greenaway british film director trevor barr authored one first media text books ''reflections reality'' later john murray authored ''the box corner'' ''in focus'' '' lessons film appreciation'' today australian states territories teach media studies secondary level australian capital territory northern territory queensland

Journalism, media studies and communication


important members toronto school communication time recently school montreal founder james r taylor significantly contributed field organizational communication focusing ontological processes organizations carleton university university western ontario prospectively created journalism specific programs schools journalism specific program also created ryerson first communication programs canada started ryerson concordia universities radio television arts program ryerson started film


university brno masaryk university olomouc palack university another nine private universities colleges media studies department france one prominent french media critic sociologist pierre bourdieu wrote among books ''on television'' new press bourdieu 's analysis television provides far less autonomy freedom think view market implies hunt higher advertising revenue imposes uniformity banality also form invisible censorship example television producers pre interview participants news public affairs programs ensure


external force idea dissented aristotelian view later described impetus john buridan influenced ibn sina 's ''book healing'' ref name ibn sina buridan sayili aydin ibn sina buridan motion projectile annals new york academy sciences vol p ref question body subject constant uniform force th century jewish arab scholar hibat allah abu'l barakat al baghdaadi born nathanel iraqi baghdad stated constant force imparts constant acceleration according shlomo pines al baghdaadi 's theory motion oldest negation aristotle 's


regarding orbit attitude rotation described relativistic theory classical mechanics analogous movements atomic nucleus described quantum mechanics sub disciplines following two lists various subjects studied mechanics note also theory fields constitutes separate discipline physics formally treated distinct mechanics whether classical fields quantum fields actual practice subjects belonging mechanics fields closely interwoven thus instance forces act particles frequently derived fields electromagnetic


theoretical applied mechanics see also applied mechanics dynamics engineering index engineering science mechanics articles kinematics kinetics non autonomous mechanics statics wiesen test mechanical aptitude wtma references reading robert stawell ball https booksgooglecom booksid cpo aaaamaaj experimental mechanics google books external links https webarchiveorg web http imechanicaorg imechanica web mechanics mechanicians http wwwjaredzoneinfo definition mechanicshtml mechanics definition http rodsalgadoblogspotcom mechanics blog purdue university professor https webarchiveorg web http wwwesmvtedu mechanics program virginia tech https webarchiveorg web http wwwphysclipsunsweduau physclips mechanics animations video clips university new south wales https webarchiveorg web http www nationalacademiesorg usnctam us national committee theoretical


philosophy first half th century saw explosion fundamental results accompanied vigorous debate foundations mathematics early history theories logic developed many cultures history including china india greece islamic world greek methods particularly aristotelian logic term logic found ''organon'' found wide application acceptance western science mathematics millennia stoics especially chrysippus began development predicate logic th century europe attempts treat operations formal logic symbolic algebraic way

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Mathematical logic


ernst zermelo gave proof every set could well ordered result georg cantor unable obtain achieve proof zermelo introduced axiom choice drew heated debate research among mathematicians pioneers set theory immediate criticism method led zermelo publish second exposition result directly addressing criticisms proof paper led general acceptance axiom choice mathematics community skepticism axiom choice reinforced recently discovered paradoxes naive set theory cesare


used completeness theorem prove compactness theorem demonstrating finitary nature first order logical consequence results helped establish first order logic dominant logic used mathematicians g del published ''on formally undecidable propositions principia mathematica related systems'' proved incompleteness different meaning word sufficiently strong effective first order theories result known g del 's incompleteness theorem establishes severe limitations axiomatic foundations mathematics striking strong blow hilbert 's program showed impossibility providing consistency proof arithmetic within formal theory


arithmetic hilbert however acknowledge importance incompleteness theorem time g del 's theorem shows consistency proof sufficiently strong effective axiom system cannot obtained system system consistent weaker system leaves open possibility consistency proofs cannot formalized within system consider gentzen proved consistency arithmetic using finitistic system together principle transfinite induction gentzen 's result introduced ideas cut elimination proof theoretic ordinals became key tools proof theory


unsolvability halting problem result far ranging implications recursion theory computer science many known examples undecidable problems ordinary mathematics word problem groups proved algorithmically unsolvable pyotr novikov independently w boone busy beaver problem developed tibor rad another well known example hilbert 's tenth problem asked algorithm determine whether multivariate polynomial equation integer coefficients solution integers partial progress made julia robinson martin davis hilary putnam


model elliptic geometry satisfies axioms plane geometry except parallel postulate development formal logic hilbert asked whether would possible prove axiom system consistent analyzing structure possible proofs system showing analysis impossible prove contradiction idea led study proof theory moreover hilbert proposed analysis entirely concrete using term ''finitary'' refer methods would allow precisely defining project known hilbert 's program


zf set theory use axiom choice called constructive many mathematicians limited versions constructivism limit natural numbers number theoretic functions sets natural numbers used represent real numbers facilitating study mathematical analysis common idea concrete means computing values function must known function said exist early th century luitzen egbertus jan brouwer founded intuitionism part philosophy mathematics philosophy poorly understood


teilung zwei b nde angezeigt erschien blockquote translation blockquote style margin padding carrying plan hilbert exposition proof theory mathematical logic experienced essential delay stage exposition already near conclusion occurred altered situation area proof theory due appearance works herbrand g del necessitated consideration new insights thus scope book grown division two volumes seemed advisable blockquote certainly hilbert aware importance g del 's work


english translation new proof possibility well ordering external links http wwwquantrelogse pvlmatrix index mainhtm polyvalued logic quantity relation logic '' http wwwfecunditycom logic forall x introduction formal logic '' free textbook '' http euclidtrentuca math sb pcml problem course mathematical logic '' free textbook stefan bilaniuk detlovs vilnis podnieks karlis university latvia '' http wwwltnlv podnieks mlog mlhtm introduction mathematical logic '' hyper textbook stanford encyclopedia philosophy http platostanfordedu entries logic classical classical logic stewart shapiro http platostanfordedu entries modeltheory fo first order model theory wilfrid hodges http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg london philosophy study guide http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg mathlogichtm mathematical logic http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg settheoryhtm


term ''myth'' varied ways broad sense word refer traditional story popular misconception imaginary entity however myth folklore genres may overlap myth often thought differ genres legend folktale neither considered sacred narratives ref name salamon goldberg ref kinds folktales fairy stories considered true anyone may seen distinct myths reason main characters myths usually gods demigods supernatural humans ref name mythfolk ref name oflaherty legends generally feature humans


main characters ref name oxford literary ref however many exceptions combinations exist ''iliad'' ''odyssey'' ''aeneid'' moreover stories spread cultures faiths change myths come considered folktales divine characters recast either humans demihumans giants elves faeries ref name mythfolk conversely historical literary material may acquire mythological qualities time example matter britain legendary history great britain especially focused king arthur knights round table matter france seem distantly originate


analyse narratives abrahamic religions myths theologians rudolf bultmann argued modern christianity needed demythologize religious scholars embraced idea mythical status abrahamic narratives legitimate feature importance appendix ''myths dreams mysteries'' ''the myth eternal return'' eliade attributed modern humans anxieties rejection myths sense sacred christian theologian conrad hyers wrote twenty first century th century research tended see existing records stories folklore imperfect


math math ary function symbols also known constant symbols math math math times math binary function symbols math math unary function symbol math math binary relation symbol symbols interpreted correspond usual meaning math q math eg math math function math q math math q math math math subset math q math one obtains structure math q sigma math structure math mathcal n math said model set first order sentences math math given language sentence math math

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Mathematical logic
Model theory


varphi p math single formulas math varphi math called ''stone space n types a'' topology explains terminology used model theory compactness theorem says stone space compact topological space type ''p'' isolated ''p'' isolated point stone topology types algebraically closed fields correspond spectrum polynomial ring topology type space constructible topology set types basic open iff form math p f x


p math form math p f x neq p math finer zariski topology categoricity theory originally called ''categorical'' determines structure isomorphism turns definition useful due serious restrictions expressivity first order logic l wenheim skolem theorem implies theory ''t'' infinite model infinite cardinal number model size sufficiently large cardinal number since two models different sizes cannot possibly isomorphic finite structures


described categorical theory however weaker notion categoricity cardinal become key concept model theory theory ''t'' called '' categorical'' two models ''t'' cardinality isomorphic turns question categoricity depends critically whether bigger cardinality language ie math aleph math nbsp nbsp cardinality signature finite countable signatures means fundamental difference math omega math cardinality cardinality uncountable categoricity math omega math categorical theories


characterised properties type space complete first order theory ''t'' finite countable signature following conditions equivalent ''t'' math omega math categorical every type ''s sub n sub '' ''t'' isolated every natural number ''n'' ''s sub n sub '' ''t'' finite every natural number ''n'' number formulas phi ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub n sub ''n'' free variables equivalence modulo ''t'' finite theory math mathbb q math also theory math mathbb r math math omega math categorical every ''n'' type math p x dots x n math empty set isolated pairwise order relation math x math


oligomorphic equivalent charcaterisations subsection due independently engeler ryll nardzewski svenonius sometimes referred ryll nardzewski theorem combinatorial signatures common source math omega math categorical theories fra ss limits obtained limit amalgamating possible configurations class finite relational structures uncountable categoricity michael morley showed one notion ''uncountable categoricity'' theories countable languages morley 's categoricity theorem first order theory ''t'' finite countable signature kappa categorical uncountable cardinal kappa ''t'' kappa categorical


model theory compactness theorem rely axiom choice exactly boolean prime ideal theorem results model theory depend set theoretic axioms beyond standard zfc framework example continuum hypothesis holds every countable model ultrapower saturated cardinality similarly generalized continuum hypothesis holds every model saturated elementary extension neither results provable zfc alone finally questions arising model theory compactness infinitary logics


introduction good old fashioned model theory '' notes introductory course postgraduates exercises j barwise feferman editors http projecteuclidorg euclidpl model theoretic logics perspectives mathematical logic volume new york springer verlag model metalogic


math monotonically non increasing sequence math x f x n math math mu math measurable sets least one finitely math mu math measurable element math x f x geq bigcap n x f x n math continuity shows math mu x f x geq lim n uparrow mu x f x n math right hand side equals math mu x f x math math math point continuity additivity measures required countably additive however condition strengthened follows set math math set nonnegative math r ii math define

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Probability theory
Measure theory


union entire real line alternatively consider real numbers counting measure assigns finite set reals number points set measure space finite every set finite measure contains finitely many points would take uncountably many sets cover entire real line finite measure spaces convenient properties finiteness compared respect lindel f property topological spaces also thought vague generalization idea


term '''positive measure''' used positive measures closed conical combination general linear combination signed measures linear closure positive measures another generalization ''finitely additive measure'' also known content measure except instead requiring ''countable'' additivity require ''finite'' additivity historically definition used first turns general finitely additive measures connected notions banach limits dual ''l'' sup sup stone ech compactification linked one way another


managers organization example corporation historically use term often contrasted term labor referring managed present era concept management identified wide areas frontiers pushed broader range apart profitable organizations even non profit organizations apply management concepts concept uses constrained management whole process planning organizing coordinating leading controlling levels organizations three management levels first level middle level top level managers first line


business administration management typically require one two years full time study note manage technological areas one often needs undergraduate degree stem area graduate graduate level students aiming careers managers executives may choose specialize major subareas management business administration entrepreneurship human resources international business organizational behavior organizational theory strategic management accounting corporate finance entertainment global management healthcare management investment management sustainability real estate master business administration mba popular professional degree master 's level


one finds managers trying place theories regarded thoroughly scientific basis see scientism perceived limitations belief examples include henry r towne 's ''science management'' frederick winslow taylor 's ''the principles scientific management'' lillian gilbreth 's ''psychology management'' frank lillian gilbreth 's ''applied motion study'' henry l gantt 's charts j duncan wrote first college management textbook yoichi ueno introduced taylorism japan became first management consultant japanese management style son ichiro ueno pioneered japanese


decisions made mid lower level management may add plans business 's strategies see also engineering management outline business management references external links leadership organizational theory majority minority relations


processes mineral origin formation classification minerals geographical distribution well utilization history page ''treatise mineralogy'' friedrich mohs moon mineralogy mapper spectrometer mapped lunar surface ref name jpl ref early writing mineralogy especially gemstones comes ancient babylonia ancient greco roman world ancient medieval china sanskrit texts ancient india ancient islamic world ref name needham ref books subject included ''naturalis historia'' pliny elder described many different minerals also explained many properties kitab al

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Mineralogy


henry bragg william lawrence bragg ref name ness recently driven advances experimental technique neutron diffraction available computational power latter enabled extremely accurate atomic scale simulations behaviour crystals science branched consider general problems fields inorganic chemistry solid state physics however retains focus crystal structures commonly encountered rock forming minerals perovskites clay minerals framework silicates particular field made great advances understanding relationship atomic scale structure minerals


earth 's surface various possible methods formation include ref name ramsdell sublimation volcanic gases deposition aqueous solutions hydrothermal brines crystallization igneous magma lava recrystallization due metamorphic processes metasomatism crystallization diagenesis sediments formation oxidation weathering rocks exposed atmosphere within soil environment biomineralogy biomineralogy cross field mineralogy paleontology biology study plants animals stabilize minerals biological control sequencing mineral replacement minerals deposition uses techniques chemical mineralogy especially


http wwwminersocorg mineralogical society great britain ireland http wwwminsocamorg mineralogical society america


model weather latter half th century significant breakthroughs weather forecasting achieved important branch weather forecasting marine weather forecasting relates maritime coastal safety weather effects also include atmospheric interactions large bodies water meteorological phenomena observable weather events explained science meteorology meteorological phenomena described quantified variables earth 's atmosphere temperature air pressure water vapour mass flow variations interactions variables change time different spatial

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Meteorology


aristotle wrote ''meteorology'' aristotle considered founder meteorology one impressive achievements described ''meteorology'' description known hydrologic cycle ref name aristotle ref book de mundo composed bc bc noted ref name demundo ref flashing body set fire rushes violently earth called thunderbolt half fire violent also massive called ''meteor'' entirely free fire called smoking bolt


geographer roman empire formalized climatic zone system according toufic fahd around th century al dinawari wrote ''kitab al nabat'' ''book plants'' deals application meteorology agriculture arab agricultural revolution describes meteorological character sky planets constellations sun moon lunar phases indicating seasons rain ''anwa'' heavenly bodies rain atmospheric phenomena winds thunder lightning snow floods valleys rivers lakes ref name fahd ref early attempts predicting weather often related prophecy divining


nive sexangula new year 's gift hexagonal snow evangelista torricelli invented mercury barometer ref name jacobson sir christopher wren invented mechanical self emptying tipping bucket rain gauge gabriel fahrenheit created reliable scale measuring temperature mercury type thermometer anders celsius swedish astronomer proposed centigrade temperature scale predecessor current celsius scale first hair hygrometer demonstrated horace b n dict de saussure luke howard wrote ''on modification clouds'' assigns cloud types latin names francis beaufort introduced


new system chemistry'' described combines matter especially gases proposed heat capacity gases varies inversely atomic weight sadi carnot analyzed efficiency steam engines using caloric theory developed notion reversible process postulating thing exists nature laid foundation second law thermodynamics research cyclones air flow general circulation earth 's atmosphere westerlies trade winds part earth 's atmospheric circulation christopher columbus experienced tropical cyclone led


weather observations wide area data could used produce maps state atmosphere region near earth 's surface study states evolved time make frequent weather forecasts based data required reliable network observations smithsonian institution began establish observation network across united states leadership joseph henry similar observation networks established europe time reverend william clement ley key understanding cirrus clouds


potential flash flooding typically range knowledge required overlaps climatology mesoscale synoptic meteorology geosciences multidisciplinary nature branch result technical challenges since tools solutions individual disciplines involved may behave slightly differently optimized different hard software platforms use different data formats initiatives drihm project trying address issue nuclear meteorology nuclear meteorology investigates distribution radioactive aerosols gases atmosphere maritime meteorology maritime meteorology


'''marine biology''' scientific study biology marine life organisms sea given biology many phyla families genera species live sea others live land marine biology classifies species based environment rather taxonomy large proportion life earth lives ocean exact size ''large proportion'' unknown since many ocean species still discovered ocean complex three dimensional world covering approximately earth 's surface habitats studied


plankton diversity morphology nutritional sources motility metabolism productivity plays role global carbon cycle distribution predation life cycle ref name lalli parsons biological oceanography also investigates role microbes food webs humans impact ecosystems oceans ref name lalli parsons ref name mills ref marine habitats marine habitats divided coastal open ocean habitats coastal habitats found area extends shoreline edge continental shelf marine life found coastal habitats even though shelf


zone 's energy supplied open ocean form detritus deep sea trenches deep sea chimaera snout covered tiny pores capable detecting animals perturbations electric fields deepest recorded oceanic trench measured date mariana trench near philippines pacific ocean depths water pressure extreme sunlight life still exists white flatfish shrimp jellyfish seen american crew bathyscaphe ''trieste'' dove bottom


''historia fucorum'' first work dedicated marine algae first book marine biology use new binomial nomenclature linnaeus included elaborate illustrations seaweed marine algae folded leaves british naturalist edward forbes generally regarded founder science marine biology pace oceanographic marine biology studies quickly accelerated course th century pioneer expedition observations made first studies marine biology fueled age discovery exploration followed time vast


historic engine raised turned hand uluburun late bronze age shipwreck th century bc condura croatica th century port nin croatia queen anne 's revenge blackbeard 's flagship th century frigate beaufort nc references external links uk resource access information wrecks mapped thematically wide variety search criteria us us affiliated texas university underwater archaeology maritime history

Social science
Archaeology
Maritime archaeology


art performing arts may also considered multimedia considering performers props multiple forms content media modern times multimedia device referred electronic device smartphone videogame system computer example everyone devices main function also uses beyond intended purpose reading writing recording video streaming listening music playing video games lend called multimedia devices previous media always local many handled web

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Multimedia


work education existed prevalence internet takes form images audio video curriculum first introduced social work education seabury maple multimedia technology utilized teach social work practice skills including interviewing crisis intervention group work comparison conventional teaching method including face face courses multimedia education shortens transportation time increases knowledge confidence richer authentic context learning generates interaction online users enhances understanding conceptual materials novice students attempt examine impact multimedia


applied would movie interstellar executive director kip thorne helped create one realistic depictions blackhole film visual effects team paul franklin took kip thorne 's mathematical data applied visual effects engine called double negative gravitational renderer dngr aka gargantua create real blackhole used final cut later visual effects team went onto publish blackhole study medicine multimedia used heavily modern medicine doctors trained using videos virtual demonstrations medical students use online resources


fields times regarded part musicology proper background th century philosophical trends led establishment formal musicology education german austrian universities combined methods systematization evolution models established field physical anthropology also cultural anthropology influenced hegel 's ideas ordering phenomena simple complex stages evolution classified primitive developed stages history ancient modern comparative methods became widespread diverse disciplines anatomy indo european linguistics

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Musicology


bmus psychology music education individuals may hold med edd musicologists work instructors lecturers professors colleges universities conservatories job market tenure track professor positions competitive entry level applicants must hold completed phd equivalent degree applicants senior professor positions must strong record publishing peer reviewed journals phd holding musicologists able find insecure positions sessional lecturers job tasks musicologist professor


phd princeton university described ''harvard gazette'' one world 's accomplished admired music historians susan mcclary born musicologist associated new musicology incorporates feminist music criticism work mcclary holds phd harvard university one best known works ''feminine endings'' covers musical constructions gender sexuality gendered aspects traditional music theory gendered sexuality musical narrative music gendered discourse issues affecting women musicians notable women scholars include eva badura skoda margaret bent suzanne cusick ursula


musicology ''empirical musicology review'' kerman joseph ''musicology'' london fontana mcclary susan robert walser start making sense musicology wrestles rock ''on record'' ed frith goodwin pp nbsp mcclary susan women music verge new millennium special issue feminists millennium ''signs'' summer middleton richard ''studying popular music'' philadelphia open university press moore f ''rock primary text'' nd ed parncutt richard https webarchiveorg web http www gewiuni grazat staff parncutt publications pa systematicmusicologypdf systematic musicology history future western musical scholarship ''journal interdisciplinary music studies''


popular music'' pp nbsp mass media music scholar 's press tagg philip analysing popular music theory method practice ''popular music'' vol theory method pp nbsp van der merwe peter ''origins popular style antecedents twentieth century popular music'' winkler peter toward theory pop harmony ''in theory only'' pp nbsp cited external links https wwwmusicologyorg international musicological society ims wikipedia entry http wwwams netorg american musicological society wikipedia entry https wwwamsmusicologyorg page wwwmusicology ams web sites interest musicologists http wwwamerican musicorg society american music http wwwiaspmnet international association


integrated well made story serious dramatic goals able evoke genuine emotions laughter ref name rubin rubin sol rzano p ref three main components book musical ''music'' ''lyrics'' ''book'' book script musical refers story character development dramatic structure including spoken dialogue stage directions also refer dialogue lyrics together sometimes referred ''libretto'' italian little book music lyrics together form ' 'score'' musical include songs incidental music

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Musical theatre


actors' singing voices way would generally disapproved operatic context works eg george gershwin leonard bernstein stephen sondheim made musical theatre operatic productions similarly older operettas light operas ''the pirates penzance'' gilbert sullivan produced modern adaptations treat musicals works production styles almost important work 's musical dramatic content defining art form piece falls sondheim said really think something plays broadway


's musical plays opera house 's opera 's 's terrain countryside expectations audience make one thing another remains overlap form lighter operatic forms musically complex ambitious musicals practice often difficult distinguish among various kinds musical theatre including musical play musical comedy operetta light opera like opera singing musical theatre generally accompanied instrumental ensemble called pit orchestra located lowered area front


pp accessed august ref best known composers operetta jacques offenbach johann strauss ii ref name kenrickshort offenbach 's fertile melodies combined librettists' witty satire formed model musical theatre followed ref name lubbock adaptations french operettas played mostly bad risqu translations musical burlesques music hall pantomime burletta dominated london musical stage ref name bond bond jessie https wwwgsarchivenet books bond introhtml introduction ''the life reminiscences jessie bond'' reprinted ''the gilbert sullivan archive'' accessed march


performances broadway record held ref name hellz kenrick john http wwwmusicals com bway htm hellzapoppin history musical stage part iii revues musicals com accessed october ref british theatre public supported far longer runs like ''the maid mountains'' performances especially ''chu chin chow'' run performances twice long previous musical setting record stood nearly forty years ref name salad http wwwguidetomusicaltheatrecom shows salad dayshtm salad days history story roles musical numbers guidetomusicaltheatrecom accessed march ref revues like ''the bing boys here'' britain


musical style aptly suited twentieth century society vernacular idiom america direct style emerged america able flourish developing society less hidebound nineteenth century tradition france ''com die musicale'' written early decades century stars yvonne printemps ''show boat'' great depression progressing far beyond comparatively frivolous musicals sentimental operettas decade broadway 's ''show boat'' represented even complete integration book score princess


name kenrick rodgers hart 's ''i 'd rather right'' political satire george cohan president franklin roosevelt kurt weill 's ''knickerbocker holiday'' depicted new york city 's early history good naturedly satirizing roosevelt 's good intentions motion picture mounted challenge stage silent films presented limited competition end films like ''the jazz singer'' could presented synchronized sound talkie films low prices effectively killed vaudeville early despite economic woes competition film musical


gifted writers create musical plays ref name history two collaborators created extraordinary collection musical theatre 's best loved enduring classics including ''carousel'' ''south pacific'' ''the king i'' ''the sound music'' musicals treat serious subject matter earlier shows villain ''oklahoma '' suspected murderer psychopath fondness lewd post cards ''carousel'' deals spousal abuse thievery suicide afterlife ''south pacific'' explores miscegenation even thoroughly ''show boat'' hero


performances formula golden age musicals reflected one four widely held perceptions american dream stability worth derives love relationship sanctioned restricted protestant ideals marriage married couple make moral home children away city suburb small town woman 's function homemaker mother americans incorporate independent pioneering spirit success self made julie andrews richard burton ''camelot'' crucial


begin singing dancing musical theatre style episode several episodes ''the simpsons'' '' rock'' ''hannah montana'' ''south park'' ''bob 's burgers'' ''family guy'' television series extensively used musical format included ''cop rock'' ''flight conchords'' ''glee'' ''smash'' ''crazy ex girlfriend'' also musicals made internet including ''dr horrible 's sing along blog'' low rent super villain played neil patrick harris written wga writer 's strike since reality tv shows used help market musical revivals holding talent


competition cast usually female leads examples ''how solve problem like maria'' ''grease 're one want '' ''any dream do'' ''legally blonde musical search elle woods'' ''i 'd anything'' ''over rainbow'' ''schmigadoon '' parody homage golden age musicals theatre shutdown marquee heart beast theatre minneapolis minnesota covid pandemic covid pandemic caused closure theatres theatre festivals around world early


streamed live presented outdoors socially distanced ways sometimes allowing audience members interact cast radio theatre festivals broadcast virtual even crowd sourced musicals created ''ratatouille musical'' filmed versions major musicals like ''hamilton'' released streaming platforms andrew lloyd webber released recordings musicals youtube due closures loss ticket sales many theatre companies placed financial peril governments offered emergency aid arts ref name ref musical theatre markets began reopen fits starts early


performed female takarazuka revue currently fields five performing troupes elsewhere asia indian bollywood musical mostly form motion pictures tremendously successful beginning tour ''les mis rables'' various western musicals imported mainland china staged english ref name zhou zhou xiaoyan ''taking stage'' ''beijing review'' p ref attempts localizing western productions china began ''fame'' produced mandarin full chinese cast central academy drama beijing since western productions staged china


determiners words concept pivot theoretical construct relevant discussion speaker kwak'wala sentence contain words 'him otter' 'with club' instead markers ''i da'' span style font variant small caps text transform lowercase pivot span 'the' referring man attaches noun ''b gwan ma'' man verb markers '' a'' span style font variant small caps text transform lowercase accusative span 'the' referring ''otter'' attach ''b gwan ma'' instead ''q'asa'' 'otter' etc words speaker kwak'wala perceive sentence consist phonological words kwix id

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Morphology (linguistics)


variety languages make use hybrid linguistic unit clitic possessing grammatical features independent words prosodic phonological lack freedom bound morphemes intermediate status clitics poses considerable challenge linguistic theory inflection vs word formation given notion lexeme possible distinguish two kinds morphological rules morphological rules relate different forms lexeme rules relate different lexemes rules first kind inflectional rules second kind rules word formation generation


morphology others agglutinative whose words tend many easily separable morphemes others yet inflectional fusional inflectional morphemes fused together leads one bound morpheme conveying multiple pieces information standard example isolating language chinese agglutinative language turkish latin greek prototypical inflectional fusional languages clear classification clearcut many languages latin greek among neatly fit one types fit one way continuum


scan january issue ''state magazine'' published united states department state '''magazine''' periodical publication printed gloss coated matte paper magazines generally published regular schedule contain variety content generally financed advertising purchase price prepaid subscriptions combination three definition technical sense ''journal'' continuous pagination throughout volume thus ''business week'' starts issue anew page one magazine ''journal business communication''


continues sequence pagination throughout coterminous year journal professional trade publications also peer reviewed example ''journal accountancy'' non peer reviewed academic professional publications generally ''professional magazines'' publication calls ''journal'' make journal technical sense ''the wall street journal'' actually newspaper etymology word magazine derives middle french meaning warehouse depot store italian arabic plural meaning storehouse ref name etymonlinecom origin meaning magazine online etymology dictionary website wwwetymonlinecom language en access date


archive url https webarchiveorg web https wwwetymonlinecom word magazine archive date august url status live ref original sense word magazine referred storage space device ref name etymonlinecom case written publication refers collection written articles explains magazine publications share word gunpowder magazines artillery magazines firearm magazines french russian adopted french retailers department stores distribution german print magazines print magazines distributed mail sales newsstands bookstores vendors free distribution selected pick locations electronic distribution methods include social media email


disseminated weekly news music dance parisian society verse called ''gazette burlesque'' assembled three volumes ''la muse historique'' french press lagged generation behind british catered needs aristocracy newer british counterparts oriented toward middle working classes periodicals censored central government paris totally quiescent politically often criticized church abuses bureaucratic ineptitude supported monarchy played small role


chronicle'' ''pennsylvania magazine'' edited thomas paine ran short time influential publication revolutionary war final issue containing text declaration independence published ref name vogue ref late th century ''harper 's monthly'' literary political force late th century mid monthly magazines gained popularity general interest begin containing news vignettes poems history political events social discussion unlike newspapers monthly record current events along entertaining stories poems pictures first


periodicals branch news ''harper 's'' ''the atlantic'' focused fostering arts ref name biagi biagi shirley media impact introduction mass media update cengage publishing textbook ref ''harper 's'' ''the atlantic'' persist day harper 's cultural magazine atlantic focusing mainly world events early publications harper 's even held famous works early publications ''moby dick'' famous events laying world 's first transatlantic telegraph cable however majority early content trickle british events development


time major quaker schism continually published renamed ''friends journal'' rival quaker groups formally reconciled mid several catholic magazines launched turn th century still remain circulation including ''st anthony messenger'' founded published franciscan friars ofm st john baptist province cincinnati ohio los angeles based ''tidings'' founded renamed ''angelus'' published jointly tidings corporation roman catholic archdiocese los angeles ''maryknoll'' founded foreign mission society


america brings news organization 's charitable missionary work countries catholic magazines published united states thousands globally range scope inspirational messages specific religious orders faithful family life global issues facing worldwide church jehovah 's witnesses' primary magazine ''the watchtower'' started charles taze russell july title ''zion 's watch tower herald christ 's presence'' public edition magazine one widely distributed magazines world average printing approximately


metals historically important studied branch materials science named ''physical metallurgy'' also chemical physical methods also used synthesize materials polymers ceramics thin films etc early st century new methods developed synthesize nanomaterials graphene thermodynamics phase diagram binary system displaying eutectic point thermodynamics concerned heat temperature relation energy work defines macroscopic variables internal energy entropy pressure partly describe body matter radiation

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Materials engineering


states behavior variables subject general constraints common materials general constraints expressed four laws thermodynamics thermodynamics describes bulk behavior body microscopic behaviors large numbers microscopic constituents molecules behavior microscopic particles described laws thermodynamics derived statistical mechanics study thermodynamics fundamental materials science forms foundation treat general phenomena materials science engineering including chemical reactions magnetism polarizability elasticity


weight ratios case magnesium ability provide electromagnetic shielding materials ideal situations high strength weight ratios important bulk cost aerospace industry certain automotive engineering applications semiconductors study semiconductors significant part materials science semiconductor material resistivity metal insulator electronic properties greatly altered intentionally introducing impurities doping semiconductor materials things diodes transistors light emitting diodes leds analog digital electric circuits


higher electron mobility saturation velocity compared silicon material choice high speed electronics applications superior properties compelling reasons use gaas circuitry mobile phones satellite communications microwave point point links higher frequency radar systems semiconductor materials include germanium silicon carbide gallium nitride various applications relation fields materials science evolved starting recognized create discover design new materials one approach unified manner thus materials science engineering emerged many ways renaming


'''neurology''' string nerve suffix logia study branch medicine dealing disorders nervous system neurology deals diagnosis treatment categories conditions disease involving central peripheral nervous systems subdivisions autonomic somatic nervous systems including coverings blood vessels effector tissue muscle neurological practice relies heavily field neuroscience scientific study nervous system '''neurologist''' physician specializing neurology trained investigate diagnose treat neurological

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Neurology


parkinson 's disease tourette 's syndrome multiple sclerosis head trauma sleep disorders neuromuscular diseases various infections tumors nervous system neurologists also asked evaluate unresponsive patients life support confirm brain death treatment options vary depending neurological problem include referring patient physiotherapist prescribing medications recommending surgical procedure neurologists specialize certain parts nervous system specific procedures example clinical neurophysiologists specialize use eeg intraoperative monitoring diagnose certain neurological disorders neurologists specialize use


generally accepted roman physician galen follower hippocrates physician roman gladiators observed patients lost mental faculties sustained damage brains abulcasis averroes avicenna avenzoar maimonides active medieval muslim world described number medical problems related brain renaissance europe vesalius ren descartes thomas willis jan swammerdam also made several contributions neuroscience golgi stain first allowed visualization individual neurons luigi galvani 's pioneering work late set stage studying


brain became sophisticated invention microscope development staining procedure camillo golgi late procedure used silver chromate salt reveal intricate structures individual neurons technique used santiago ram n cajal led formation neuron doctrine hypothesis functional unit brain neuron golgi ram n cajal shared nobel prize physiology medicine extensive observations descriptions categorizations neurons throughout brain parallel


glands termination points nervous ' 'system'' emerges assemblage neurons connected vertebrate nervous system split two parts central nervous system defined brain spinal cord peripheral nervous system many species including vertebrates nervous system complex organ system body complexity residing brain human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons one hundred trillion synapses consists thousands distinguishable substructures connected


repaired analysis nervous system therefore performed multiple levels ranging molecular cellular levels systems cognitive levels specific topics form main foci research change time driven ever expanding base knowledge availability increasingly sophisticated technical methods improvements technology primary drivers progress developments electron microscopy computer science electronics functional neuroimaging genetics genomics major drivers progress perhaps one main unsolved problems modern neuroscience called cell types problem


discovery therapeutic value leucotomy certain psychoses ref name nobel chemistry px scope row data sort value du vigneaud vincent vincent du vigneaud united states work biochemically important sulphur compounds especially first synthesis polypeptide hormone oxytocin physiology px scope row data sort value bovet daniel daniel bovet italy discoveries relating synthetic compounds inhibit action certain body substances especially action vascular system


skeletal muscles ref name nobel ref physiology px scope row data sort value von b k sy georg georg von b k sy united states discoveries physical mechanism stimulation within cochlea ref name nobel ref rowspan rowspan physiology px scope row data sort value eccles john john carew eccles australia rowspan discoveries concerning ionic mechanisms involved excitation inhibition peripheral central portions nerve cell membrane rowspan ref name nobel ref px scope row data sort value hodkin alan alan


lloyd hodgkin united kingdom px scope row data sort value huxley andrew andrew fielding huxley united kingdom rowspan rowspan physiology px scope row data sort value granit ragnar ragnar granit finland br sweden rowspan discoveries concerning primary physiological chemical visual processes eye rowspan ref name nobel ref px scope row data sort value hartline haldan haldan keffer hartline united states px scope row data sort value wald george george wald united states rowspan rowspan


physiology scope row data sort value axelrod julius axelrod united states rowspan discoveries concerning humoral transmittors nerve terminals mechanism storage release inactivation rowspan ref name nobel x px scope row data sort value von euler ulf von euler sweden scope row data sort value katz bernard katz united kingdom rowspan rowspan physiology px scope row data sort value von frisch karl karl von frisch austria rowspan discoveries concerning organization elicitation individual social behaviour patterns rowspan ref name nobel ref


new biological principle infection ref name nobel ref chemistry px scope row data sort value skou jens jens c skou denmark first discovery ion transporting enzyme na sup sup k sup sup atpase ref name n ref rowspan rowspan physiology px scope row data sort value carlsson arvid carlsson sweden rowspan discoveries concerning signal transduction nervous system rowspan ref name nobel ref px scope row data sort value greengard paul greengard united states px scope row data sort value kandel eric r kandel united states


chemistry roderick mackinnon scope row data sort value mackinnon roderick roderick mackinnon united states discoveries concerning channels cell membranes structural mechanistic studies ion channels ref name nobel ref rowspan rowspan physiology px scope row data sort value axel richard axel united states rowspan discoveries odorant receptors organization olfactory system rowspan ref name nobel ref px scope row data sort value buck linda b buck united states rowspan rowspan physiology px scope row data sort value o'keefe john


px scope row data sort value rosbash michael michael rosbash united states px scope row data sort value young michael michael w young united states rowspan rowspan physiology px scope row data sort value julius david julius united states rowspan discoveries receptors temperature touch rowspan ref name nobel ref scope row data sort value patapoutian ardem patapoutian lebanon see also list neuroscience databases list neuroscience journals list neuroscience topics list neuroscientists neuroplasticity neurophysiology noogenesis outline brain mapping outline human brain list


important algorithms like newton 's method lagrange interpolation polynomial gaussian elimination euler 's method facilitate computations hand large books produced formulas tables data interpolation points function coefficients using tables often calculated decimal places functions one could look values plug formulas given achieve good numerical estimates functions canonical work field nist publication edited abramowitz stegun plus page book large number commonly used formulas

Formal science
Mathematics
Numerical analysis


grow large error ref name stab original problem algorithm used solve problem 'well conditioned' 'ill conditioned' combination possible algorithm solves well conditioned problem may either numerically stable numerically unstable art numerical analysis find stable algorithm solving well posed mathematical problem instance computing square root roughly well posed problem many algorithms solve problem starting initial approximation ''x'' sub sub math sqrt math instance ''x'' sub sub


method x ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub observe babylonian method converges quickly regardless initial guess whereas method x converges extremely slowly initial guess ''x'' sub sub diverges initial


trajectory black euler method red differential equation fans set blow air one end room feather dropped wind happens feather follow air currents may complex one approximation measure speed air blowing near feather every second advance simulated feather moving straight line speed one second measuring wind speed called euler


technique fits larger subfield nanolithography molecular beam epitaxy allows bottom assemblies materials notably semiconductor materials commonly used chip computing applications stacks gating nanowire lasers top approaches seek create smaller devices using larger ones direct assembly many technologies descended conventional solid state silicon methods fabricating microprocessors capable creating features smaller nbsp nm falling definition nanotechnology giant magnetoresistance based hard drives already market fit description atomic layer deposition ald techniques peter gr nberg albert fert

Natural science
Chemistry
Nanotechnology


self assembly techniques employing di block copolymers precursors techniques preceded nanotech era extensions development scientific advancements rather techniques devised sole purpose creating nanotechnology results nanotechnology research ref name pmid ref top approach anticipates nanodevices must built piece piece stages much manufactured items made scanning probe microscopy important technique characterization synthesis nanomaterials atomic force microscopes scanning tunneling microscopes used look surfaces move atoms around


manufacturer identified nanotech products publicly available new ones hitting market pace per week ref name emergingnano project lists products publicly accessible online database applications limited use first generation passive nanomaterials includes titanium dioxide sunscreen cosmetics surface coatings food products carbon allotropes used produce gecko tape silver food packaging clothing disinfectants household appliances zinc oxide sunscreens cosmetics surface coatings paints outdoor furniture varnishes cerium oxide fuel catalyst ref name americanelements applications allow


table source numerical examples school problems ref group note controversial see plimpton robson 's article written polemically view perhaps knocking plimpton pedestal time settles conclusion blockquote question tablet calculated answer question problems tablet set first answered satisfactorily reciprocal pairs first suggested half century ago second sort right triangle problems blockquote robson

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Number theory


blockquote pregnant woman whose age gestation period months determine sex unborn child ''answer'' male br ''method'' put add gestation period subtract age remainder take away representing heaven earth man four seasons five phases six pitch pipes seven stars dipper eight winds nine divisions china yu great remainder odd sex


''number theory'' come mean one plato 's dialogues namely ''theaetetus'' know theodorus proven math sqrt sqrt dots sqrt math irrational theaetetus like plato disciple theodorus 's worked distinguishing different kinds incommensurables thus arguably pioneer study number systems book x euclid 's elements described pappus largely based theaetetus 's work euclid devoted part ''elements'' prime numbers divisibility topics belong unambiguously number theory basic books vii ix euclid 's


know equations first successfully treated indian school known whether archimedes method solution diophantus title page edition diophantus 's ''arithmetica'' translated latin claude gaspard bachet de ziriac little known diophantus alexandria probably lived third century ce five hundred years euclid six thirteen books diophantus 's ''arithmetica'' survive original greek four survive arabic translation ''arithmetica'' collection worked problems task


arabic qusta ibn luqa part treatise ''al fakhri'' al karaj ca builds extent according rashed roshdi al karaj 's contemporary ibn al haytham knew would later called wilson 's theorem western europe middle ages treatise squares arithmetic progression fibonacci traveled studied north africa constantinople number theory speak done western europe middle ages matters started change europe late renaissance thanks renewed study works greek antiquity


catalyst textual emendation translation latin diophantus' ''arithmetica'' early modern number theory fermat pierre de fermat pierre de fermat never published writings particular work number theory contained almost entirely letters mathematicians private marginal notes notes letters scarcely wrote proofs models area lifetime fermat made following contributions field one fermat 's first interests perfect numbers appear euclid ''elements'' ix amicable numbers ref group note perfect especially amicable numbers


continued fractions pell 's equation ''first steps towards analytic number theory'' work sums four squares partitions pentagonal numbers distribution prime numbers euler pioneered use seen analysis particular infinite series number theory since lived development complex analysis work restricted formal manipulation power series however notable though fully rigorous early work would later called riemann zeta function ''quadratic forms'' following fermat 's lead euler


increasingly central place toolbox analytic number theory one may ask analytic questions algebraic numbers use analytic means answer questions thus algebraic analytic number theory intersect example one may define prime ideals generalizations prime numbers field algebraic numbers ask many prime ideals certain size question answered means examination dedekind zeta functions generalizations riemann zeta function key analytic object roots subject


e shown transcendental diophantine geometry confused geometry numbers collection graphical methods answering certain questions algebraic number theory ''arithmetic geometry'' however contemporary term much domain covered term ''diophantine geometry'' term ''arithmetic geometry'' arguably used often one wishes emphasise connections modern algebraic geometry instance faltings 's theorem rather techniques diophantine approximations subfields areas date earlier mid twentieth century even


may compared computational number theory lehmer sieve primitive digital computer used find primes solve simple diophantine equationswhile word ''algorithm'' goes back certain readers al khw rizm careful descriptions methods solution older proofs methods algorithms old recognisable mathematics ancient egyptian babylonian vedic chinese whereas proofs appeared greeks classical period early case call euclidean algorithm basic form namely algorithm computing greatest common divisor appears proposition


sparkling layer outside ceramics used containing silver copper metallic nanoparticles th th centuries damascus saber blades crafted using techniques resulted nanotubes cementite nanowires victor la mer robert dinegar created process used create specialized papers paints thin films industrial level growing monodisperse colloidal materials richard feynman gave first lecture molecular technology engineering nanoengineering gerd binnig heinrich rohrer invented first atomic level microscope called scanning tunneling microscope allowed scientists see individual

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Nanoengineering


automated online assistant providing customer service web page example application natural language processing major component ref name kongthon ref '''natural language processing''' '''nlp''' subfield linguistics computer science artificial intelligence concerned interactions computers human language particular program computers process analyze large amounts natural language data goal computer capable understanding contents documents including contextual nuances language within technology accurately extract information insights contained documents

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Natural language processing


early premise symbolic nlp well summarized john searle 's chinese room experiment given collection rules eg chinese phrasebook questions matching answers computer emulates natural language understanding nlp tasks applying rules data confronts ''' s''' georgetown experiment involved fully automatic translation sixty russian sentences english authors claimed within three five years machine translation would solved problem however real progress much slower alpac report found


small knowledge base eliza might provide generic response example responding head hurts say head hurts ''' s''' many programmers began write conceptual ontologies structured real world information computer understandable data examples margie schank sam cullingford pam wilensky talespin meehan qualm lehnert politics carbonell plot units lehnert time first many chatterbots written eg parry ''' s''' early mark hey day symbolic methods nlp focus areas


attaching real valued weights features making input data cache language models upon many speech recognition systems rely examples statistical models models generally robust given unfamiliar input especially input contains errors common real world data produce reliable results integrated larger system comprising multiple subtasks since neural turn statistical methods nlp research largely replaced neural networks however continue relevant contexts statistical interpretability transparency required neural


individual morphemes identify class morphemes difficulty task depends greatly complexity morphology ''ie'' structure words language considered english fairly simple morphology especially inflectional morphology thus often possible ignore task entirely simply model possible forms word ''eg'' open opens opened opening separate words languages turkish meitei highly agglutinated indian language however approach possible dictionary entry thousands possible word forms part speech tagging


stream text determine items text map proper names people places type name eg person location organization although capitalization aid recognizing named entities languages english information cannot aid determining type named entity case often inaccurate insufficient example first letter sentence also capitalized named entities often span several words capitalized furthermore many languages non western scripts eg chinese


gliomas brain stem cancer astrocytoma pontine glioma medulloblastoma spinal cancer tumors meninges intracranial spaces secondary metastases brain spine nerves peripheral nervous system tumors skull base surgery spinal neurosurgery peripheral nerve surgery pediatric neurosurgery cancer seizures bleeding stroke cognitive disorders congenital neurological disorders neuropathology thumb neuropathology specialty within study pathology focused disease brain spinal cord neural tissue includes central nervous system peripheral nervous system tissue analysis comes either surgical biopsies post mortem autopsies common tissue samples

Applied science
Medicine and health
Surgery
Neurosurgery


access brain techniques involving smaller openings aid microscopes endoscopes used well methods utilize small craniotomies conjunction high clarity microscopic visualization neural tissue offer excellent results however open methods still traditionally used trauma emergency situations ref name neurosurgeryorg cybermuseum microneurohall jhardy ref name neurosurgery surgical power tool ''microsurgery'' utilized many aspects neurological surgery microvascular techniques used ec ic bypass surgery restoration carotid endarterectomy clipping aneurysm performed microscopic vision minimally invasive spine surgery utilizes microscopes endoscopes procedures microdiscectomy laminectomy


methods gamma knife cyberknife novalis radiosurgery used well ref name brown bi neurology http biomedbrownedu courses bi bi groups neurologyhtml ref ''endovascular surgical neuroradiology'' utilize endovascular image guided procedures treatment aneurysms avms carotid stenosis strokes spinal malformations vasospasms techniques angioplasty stenting clot retrieval embolization diagnostic angiography endovascular procedures common procedure performed neurosurgery placement ventriculo peritoneal shunt vp shunt pediatric practice often implemented cases congenital hydrocephalus common indication procedure adults normal pressure hydrocephalus nph ''neurosurgery spine'' covers cervical


tissue surgery chronic pain sub branch functional neurosurgery techniques include implantation deep brain stimulators spinal cord stimulators peripheral stimulators pain pumps surgery peripheral nervous system also possible includes common procedures carpal tunnel decompression peripheral nerve transposition numerous types nerve entrapment conditions problems peripheral nervous system treated well conditions conditions treated neurosurgeons include limited meningitis central nervous system infections including abscesses spinal disc herniation cervical spinal stenosis lumbar spinal


incarcerated henry marsh leading english neurosurgeon pioneer neurosurgical advancements ukraine robert j white established vatican 's commission biomedical ethics appointment pontifical academy sciences famous head transplants living monkeys see also walter e dandy neurosurgical society american association neurological surgeons congress neurological surgeons polyaxial screw list neurologists neurosurgeons references external links http wwwesquirecom features henry molaison brain brain changed everything luke dittrich esquire november http wwweansorg european association neurosurgical societies website https webarchiveorg web http mediwikiscom wiki indexphp neurological system mediwikis website


angle ie path derived defined initial bearing upon taking initial bearing one proceeds along bearing without changing direction measured relative true magnetic north methods navigation modern navigation relies primarily positions determined electronically receivers collecting information satellites modern techniques rely finding intersecting lines position lop ref name mal maloney ref line position refer two different things either line chart line observer object real life ref name mal maloney ref

Human physical performance and recreation


position ref name mal fix intersection two lops ref name mal one line position available may evaluated dead reckoning position establish estimated position ref name mal maloney ref lines circles position derived variety sources celestial observation short segment circle equal altitude generally represented line terrestrial range natural man made two charted points observed line ref name mal maloney ref compass bearing charted object radar range


colspan traditional navigation methods include valign top px marine navigation dead reckoning dr one advances prior position using ship 's course speed new position called dr position generally accepted course speed determine dr position correcting dr position leeway current effects steering error result estimated position ep inertial navigator develops extremely accurate ep ref name bow used times valign top px marine navigation pilotage involves navigating restricted coastal waters frequent determination position relative


greater accuracy ref name bow maintained gmt directly radio time signals ref name bow eliminates chronometer error watch error corrections ref name bow second hand error readable amount reset electrically ref name bow basic element time generation quartz crystal oscillator ref name bow quartz crystal temperature compensated hermetically sealed evacuated envelope ref name bow calibrated adjustment capability provided adjust aging crystal ref name bow chronometer designed operate minimum year


tazartes '' international symposium inertial sensors systems isiss '' laguna beach ca usa ref advantages inss led use aircraft missiles surface ships submarines example us navy developed ships inertial navigation system sins polaris missile program ensure reliable accurate navigation system initial missile guidance systems inertial navigation systems wide use satellite navigation systems gps became available inss still common use submarines since gps reception fix sources possible submerged long range missiles electronic navigation upright


involves creating line screen parallel ship 's course offset left right distance ref name nima parallel line allows navigator maintain given distance away hazards ref name nima techniques developed special situations one known contour method involves marking transparent plastic template radar screen moving chart fix position ref name nima national imagery mapping agency ref another special technique known franklin continuous radar plot technique involves drawing path radar object


ground fixed position also used calculate precise time reference scientific experiments october united states navstar global positioning system gps russian glonass fully globally operational gnsss european union 's galileo positioning system next generation gnss final deployment phase became operational china indicated may expand regional beidou navigation system global system two dozen gps satellites medium earth orbit transmitting signals allowing gps receivers determine receiver 's location


speed direction since first experimental satellite launched gps become indispensable aid navigation around world important tool map making land surveying gps also provides precise time reference used many applications including scientific study earthquakes synchronization telecommunications networks developed united states department defense gps officially named navstar gps navigation satellite timing ranging global positioning system satellite constellation managed united states air force th space wing cost maintaining system approximately us million per


bridge concepts driving future navigation system planning ref name bow integrated systems take inputs various ship sensors electronically display positioning information provide control signals required maintain vessel preset course ref name bow navigator becomes system manager choosing system presets interpreting system output monitoring vessel response ref name bow land navigation navigation cars land based travel typically uses maps landmarks recent times computer navigation satnav short satellite navigation well means available water computerized navigation commonly relies gps current location information navigational map database roads


navigation land sea air space founded forum mariners pilots engineers academics compare experiences exchange information us institute navigation ion non profit professional organisation advancing art science positioning navigation timing ref name ion ref publications numerous nautical publications available navigation published professional sources world uk united kingdom hydrographic office witherby publishing group nautical institute provide numerous navigational publications including comprehensive admiralty manual


'''nuclear''' may refer physics relating nucleus atom nuclear engineering nuclear physics nuclear power nuclear reactor nuclear weapon nuclear medicine radiation therapy nuclear warfare mathematics nuclear space nuclear operator nuclear congruence nuclear c algebra biology relating nucleus cell nuclear dna society nuclear family family consisting pair adults children music nuclear band group music nuclear ryan adams song nuclear song mike oldfield ''man rocks'' album ''nuclear'' ep south korean girl group clc see also nucleus disambiguation nucleolus nucleation nucleic

Applied science
Military sciences
Military weapons
Nuclear


https wwwnlmnihgov medlineplus ency article htm bone biopsy bone biopsies unusual training '''india''' become nephrologist india one complete mbbs years degree followed md dnb years either medicine paediatrics followed dm dnb years course either nephrology paediatric nephrology australia new zealand nephrology training australia new zealand typically includes completion medical degree bachelor medicine bachelor surgery years internship year basic physician training years minimum successful completion royal australasian college physicians written clinical examinations

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Nephrology


accepted specialist register general medical council gmc specialty trainees often interrupt clinical training obtain research degrees md phd achieving cct registrar st may apply permanent post consultant renal medicine subsequently consultants practice nephrology alone others work area intensive care icu general internal acute medicine united states nephrology training accomplished one two routes first pathway internal medicine pathway leading internal medicine nephrology specialty sometimes known adult nephrology second


obtain small sample kidney tissue kidney tissue examined microscope allowing direct visualization changes occurring within kidney additionally pathology may also stage problem affecting kidney allowing degree prognostication circumstances kidney biopsy also used monitor response treatment identify early relapse transplant kidney biopsy may also performed look rejection kidney treatment treatments nephrology include medications blood products surgical interventions urology vascular surgical procedures renal replacement therapy dialysis kidney transplantation


n phrologie' continuation older society uk 's renal association founded second society nephrologists first president arthur osman met first time london th march societ di nefrologia italiana founded first national society incorporate phrase nephrologia nephrology name word 'nephrology' appeared first time conference september premier congr international de n phrologie evian geneva first meeting international society


classify fully within four preceding conceptions view argues moral correctness evolves similarly kinds knowledge socially course many lifetimes norms principles moral criteria likely improved result inquiry charles sanders peirce william james john dewey known founders pragmatism recent proponent pragmatic ethics james wallace role ethics based concept family roles morality binding force unclear means say person ought

Humanities
Philosophy
Ethics
Normative ethics


x moral whether like morality sometimes presumed kind special binding force behaviour though philosophers believe used way word ought seems wrongly attribute magic powers morality instance g e anscombe worries ought become word mere mesmeric force british ethicist philippa foot elaborates morality seem special binding force clarifies people behave morally motivated factors foot says people talk instance


second entity ontologically independent entities hand exist example surface apple cannot exist without apple depends ontologically entities often characterized ontologically dependent include properties depend bearers boundaries depend entity demarcate surroundings ref name tahko ref examples suggest ontological dependence distinguished causal dependence effect depends existence cause often important draw distinction two types ontological dependence rigid generic ref

Humanities Philosophy Metaphysics Ontology


exemplified object time called process philosophy process ontology ascribes ontological primacy changes processes opposed emphasis static traditionally dominant substance metaphysics reality things word 'real' derived latin word ' 'res'' often translated 'thing' word 'thing' often used ontological discourse presupposed meaning needing explicit philosophical definition belongs ordinary language nevertheless thing real substantial concerns ontology ref name erices ref name


hand exist ref name smith descartes' substance dualism asserts every finite substance either thinking substance extended substance position entail minds bodies ''actually are'' separated would defy intuition body mind instead implies minds bodies ''can'' least principle separated since distinct substances therefore capable independent existence ref name skirry longstanding problem substance dualism since inception explain minds bodies


existence something correct ref name hirsch position contradict view things exist points different 'languages' different rules assigning property ref name hirsch ref name hirsch ref determine 'fitness' 'language' world becomes subject investigation common indo european copula languages double use verb stating entity x exists x well stating x property x p sometimes argued third use also


real derives reality reference many actual occasions actual entity actual occasion concrete entity terms 'man' abstractions many concrete relevant entities according whitehead actual entity must earn philosophical status fundamental ontological priority satisfying several philosophical criteria follows going behind actual entity find something fundamental fact efficacy criterion regarded expressing axiom postulated distinguished doctrine actual entity must completely


fats alkalis separated acids combination alkali produced soap since individual compounds demonstrated possible make chemical change various fats traditionally come organic sources producing new compounds without vital force friedrich w hler produced ''organic'' chemical urea carbamide constituent urine ''inorganic'' starting materials salts potassium cyanate ammonium sulfate called w hler synthesis although w hler cautious claiming disproved vitalism first time

Natural science
Chemistry
Organic chemistry


organic chemistry biochemistry close biochemistry might regarded essence branch organic chemistry although history biochemistry might taken span four centuries fundamental understanding field began develop late th century actual term ''biochemistry'' coined around start th century research field increased throughout twentieth century without indication slackening rate increase may verified inspection abstraction indexing services biosis previews biological abstracts began


bonds means every carbon atom ring sp hybridized allowing added stability important example benzene structure formulated kekul first proposed delocalization resonance principle explaining structure conventional cyclic compounds aromaticity conferred presence n delocalized pi electrons n integer particular instability antiaromaticity conferred presence n conjugated pi electrons heterocyclic compounds characteristics cyclic hydrocarbons altered heteroatoms present exist either


starches animals celluloses plants main classes amino acids monomer building blocks peptides proteins carbohydrates includes polysaccharides nucleic acids include dna rna polymers lipids besides animal biochemistry contains many small molecule intermediates assist energy production krebs cycle produces isoprene common hydrocarbon animals isoprenes animals form important steroid structural cholesterol steroid hormone compounds plants form terpenes terpenoids alkaloids class hydrocarbons called biopolymer polyisoprenoids present latex


compound also precursor multiple syntheses see also important publications organic chemistry list organic reactions molecular modelling references external links http ocwmitedu courses chemistry organic chemistry spring mitedu opencourseware organic chemistry http wwwhaverfordedu wintnerorganicchem haverfordedu organic chemistry lectures videos text https wwworganic chemistryorg organic chemistryorg organic chemistry portal recent abstracts name reactions http wwworgsynorg orgsynorg organic chemistry synthesis journal https wwwclutchprepcom organic chemistry clutchprepcom organic chemistry video lectures practice problems https wwwkhanacademyorg science organic chemistry khanacademyorg khan academy organic chemistry chemistry chemistry


known law reflection flat mirrors law reflection implies images objects upright distance behind mirror objects front mirror image size object size law also implies mirror images parity inverted perceive left right inversion images formed reflection two even number mirrors parity inverted corner reflectors produce reflected rays travel back direction incident rays came ref name geoptics


situations snell 's law describes resulting deflection light ray math n sin theta n sin theta math math theta math math theta math angles normal interface incident refracted waves respectively ref name geoptics index refraction medium related speed light medium math n c v math speed light vacuum snell 's law used predict deflection light rays pass linear media long indexes refraction geometry media


known example propagation light prism results light ray deflected depending shape orientation prism materials index refraction varies frequency light taking account snell 's law used predict prism disperse light spectrum discovery phenomenon passing light prism famously attributed isaac newton ref name geoptics media index refraction varies gradually position therefore light rays medium curved


thin films create strong reflection light range wavelengths narrow broad depending design coating films used make dielectric mirrors interference filters heat reflectors filters colour separation colour television cameras interference effect also causes colourful rainbow patterns seen oil slicks ref name interference diffraction optical resolution diffraction two slits separated distance math math bright fringes occur along lines black lines intersect black lines white lines intersect white lines fringes


sources case young 's experiments two slits math theta math angular separation central fringe math math th order fringe central maximum math math ref name diffraction chapter ref equation modified slightly take account variety situations diffraction single gap diffraction multiple slits diffraction diffraction grating contains large number slits equal spacing ref name diffraction complicated models diffraction require working mathematics fresnel fraunhofer diffraction ref name phyoptics ref x ray diffraction makes use fact


left right figure effect individual waves travel phase velocity escape wave packet travels group velocity material dispersion often characterised abbe number gives simple measure dispersion based index refraction three specific wavelengths waveguide dispersion dependent propagation constant ref name hecht kinds dispersion cause changes group characteristics wave features wave packet change frequency amplitude electromagnetic wave group velocity


retina human eye functions focusing light onto layer photoreceptor cells called retina forms inner lining back eye focusing accomplished series transparent media light entering eye passes first cornea provides much eye 's optical power light continues fluid behind cornea anterior chamber passes pupil light passes lens focuses light allows adjustment focus light passes main body


differs object imaged optical illusions result variety phenomena including physical effects create images different objects make physiological effects eyes brain excessive stimulation eg brightness tilt colour movement cognitive illusions eye brain make unconscious inferences cognitive illusions include result unconscious misapplication certain optical principles example ames room hering ller lyer orbison ponzo sander wundt illusions rely suggestion appearance distance using converging


eyepiece lens contrast microscope objective lens telescope designed large focal length avoid optical aberrations objective focuses image distant object focal point adjusted focal point eyepiece much smaller focal length main goal telescope necessarily magnification rather collection light determined physical size objective lens thus telescopes normally indicated diameters objectives rather magnification


available given sufficiently large never happens every neighborhood query returns entire database resulting math n math runtime hence parameter required cut density clusters longer interesting speed algorithm parameter strictly speaking necessary simply set maximum possible value spatial index available however play practical role regards complexity optics abstracts dbscan removing parameter least extent


raise cost neighborhood query linear complexity particular choosing math varepsilon max xy xy math larger maximum distance data set possible leads quadratic complexity since every neighborhood query returns full data set even spatial index available comes additional cost managing heap therefore math varepsilon math chosen appropriately data set extensions optics outlier detection algorithm based optics main use extraction outliers existing run optics low cost compared using different


java implementations optics optics deli clu hisc hico dish available elki data mining framework index acceleration several distance functions automatic cluster extraction using xi extraction method java implementations include weka extension support xi cluster extraction r package dbscan includes c implementation optics traditional dbscan like xi cluster extraction using k tree index acceleration euclidean distance python implementations optics available https pyclusteringgithubio pyclustering library scikit learn hdbscan available https hdbscanreadthedocsio hdbscan library references


containing organic ligand regardless presence direct c bond status compounds canonical anion negative charge shared delocalized carbon atom atom electronegative carbon eg enolates may vary nature anionic moiety metal ion possibly medium absence direct structural evidence carbon metal bond compounds considered organometallic ref name instance lithium enolates often contain li bonds organometallic zinc enolates reformatsky reagents contain

Natural science
Chemistry
Organometallic chemistry


became classified book physics th century growth modern research universities led academic philosophy disciplines professionalize specialize since various areas investigation traditionally part philosophy become separate academic disciplines namely social sciences psychology sociology linguistics economics today major subfields academic philosophy include metaphysics concerned fundamental nature existence reality epistemology studies nature knowledge belief ethics concerned moral value logic studies rules inference


one general sense philosophy associated wisdom intellectual culture search knowledge sense cultures literate societies ask philosophical questions live nature reality broad impartial conception philosophy finds reasoned inquiry matters reality morality life world civilizations western philosophy statue aristotle bce major figure ancient greek philosophy aristotle 's park stagira western philosophy philosophical tradition western world dating back


hegel key figure german idealism kierkegaard developed foundations existentialism nietzsche famed anti christian john stuart mill promoted utilitarianism karl marx developed foundations communism american william james th century saw split analytic philosophy continental philosophy well philosophical trends phenomenology existentialism logical positivism pragmatism linguistic turn see contemporary philosophy middle eastern philosophy pre islamic philosophy regions fertile crescent iran arabia home earliest known philosophical wisdom literature today


termed ' 'shamanism'' another feature indigenous american worldviews extension ethics non human animals plants ref name reproutledgecom mesoamerica nahua philosophy intellectual tradition developed individuals called ''tlamatini'' 'those know something' ideas preserved various aztec codices fragmentary texts philosophers known name nezahualcoyotl aquiauhtzin xayacamach tochihuitzin coyolchiuhqui cuauhtencoztli ref name leonardo esteban figueroa helland '' https coreacuk download pdf pdf indigenous philosophy world politics cosmopolitical contributions across americas '' arizona state university ref ref name maffie james '' https citeseerxistpsuedu viewdoc downloaddoi rep rep type pdf care nezahualcoyotl veritism nahua philosophy '' philosophy


incan philosophy well broader category andean thought held universe animated single dynamic life force sometimes termed ''camaquen'' ''camac'' well ''upani'' ''amaya'' ref name maffie james pre columbian philosophies nuccetelli susana schutte ofelia bueno ot vio ''a companion latin american philosophy'' wiley blackwell ref singular force also arises set dual complementary yet opposite forces ref name complementary opposites called yanantin masintin expressed various polarities dualities male female dark light life death interdependently contribute


without loses identity accident property object without object still retain identity particulars objects said exist space time opposed abstract objects numbers universals properties held multiple particulars redness gender type existence universals abstract objects issue debate logic logic study reasoning argument deductive reasoning given certain premises conclusions unavoidably implied rules inference


used infer conclusions modus ponens given b b must concluded sound reasoning essential element sciences social sciences humanities disciplines logic became formal science sub fields include mathematical logic philosophical logic modal logic computational logic non classical logics major question philosophy mathematics whether mathematical entities objective discovered called mathematical realism invented called mathematical antirealism mind language philosophy language explores nature origins use language philosophy mind explores nature


philosophy'' charlottesville philosophy documentation center popkin rh ''the columbia history western philosophy'' new york columbia university press bullock alan oliver stallybrass ''jt eds'' ''the harper dictionary modern thought'' new york harper row xix p ''nb'' first published england title ''the fontana dictionary modern thought'' reese wl ''dictionary philosophy religion eastern western thought'' atlantic highlands nj humanities press iv p external links http platostanfordedu ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' http wwwieputmedu ''internet encyclopedia philosophy'' https webarchiveorg web https inphocogsindianaedu indiana philosophy ontology project http philpapersorg philpapers comprehensive


court poetry empires nile niger volta river valleys earliest written poetry africa occurs among pyramid texts written th century bce earliest surviving western asian epic poetry ''epic gilgamesh'' written sumerian early poems eurasian continent evolved folk songs chinese ''shijing'' well religious hymns sanskrit ''rigveda'' zoroastrian ''gathas'' ''hurrian songs'' hebrew ''psalms'' need retell oral epics egyptian ''story sinuhe'' indian epic poetry

Humanities
Languages and literature
Poetry


homeric epics ''iliad'' ''odyssey'' ancient greek attempts define poetry aristotle 's ''poetics'' focused uses speech rhetoric drama song comedy later attempts concentrated features repetition verse form rhyme emphasized aesthetics distinguish poetry objectively informative prosaic writing poetry uses forms conventions suggest differential interpretations words evoke emotive responses devices assonance alliteration onomatopoeia rhythm may convey musical incantatory effects use ambiguity symbolism irony stylistic elements poetic diction often leaves


specifically refer scanning poetic lines show meter rhythm robinson jeffers methods creating poetic rhythm vary across languages poetic traditions languages often described timing set primarily accents syllables moras depending rhythm established though language influenced multiple approaches japanese mora timed language latin catalan french leonese galician spanish called syllable timed languages stress timed languages include english russian generally german varying intonation also affects rhythm perceived languages rely either pitch tone


accents reinforce meter occur occurs much lesser extent english alexander pushkin common metrical patterns notable examples poets poems use include iambic pentameter john milton ''paradise lost'' william shakespeare ''sonnets'' dactylic hexameter homer ''iliad'' virgil ''aeneid'' iambic tetrameter andrew marvell coy mistress alexander pushkin ''eugene onegin'' robert frost ''stopping woods snowy evening'' ref name tetra ref trochaic octameter edgar allan poe raven trochaic tetrameter henry wadsworth longfellow ''the song hiawatha'' finnish national epic ''the kalevala'' also trochaic tetrameter


many cultures prominent west classical times late middle ages renaissance ''aesop 's fables'' repeatedly rendered verse prose since first recorded bce perhaps richest single source allegorical poetry ages notables examples include ''roman de la rose'' th century french poem william langland 's ''piers ploughman'' th century jean de la fontaine 's ''fables'' influenced aesop 's th century rather fully allegorical however poem may contain symbols allusions deepen meaning effect


words without constructing full allegory another element poetic diction use vivid imagery effect juxtaposition unexpected impossible images example particularly strong element surrealist poetry haiku vivid images often endowed symbolism metaphor many poetic dictions use repetitive phrases effect either short phrase homer 's rosy fingered dawn wine dark sea longer refrain repetition add somber tone poem laced irony context words changes forms


point originally general term ''waka'' japanese poetry came used exclusively tanka tanka still widely written today haiku haiku popular form unrhymed japanese poetry evolved th century ''hokku'' opening verse renku generally written single vertical line haiku contains three sections totalling ''on'' morae structured pattern traditionally haiku contain kireji cutting word usually placed end one poem 's three sections kigo season word famous exponent


epode strophe antistrophe ode possess similar metrical structures depending tradition similar rhyme structures contrast epode written different scheme structure odes formal poetic diction generally deal serious subject strophe antistrophe look subject different often conflicting perspectives epode moving higher level either view resolve underlying issues odes often intended recited sung two choruses individuals first reciting strophe second antistrophe


literature genre often defined lengthy poems concerning events heroic important nature culture time recounts continuous narrative life works heroic mythological person group persons examples epic poems homer 's ''iliad'' ''odyssey'' virgil 's aeneid ''nibelungenlied'' lu de cam es' ''os lus adas'' ''cantar de mio cid'' ''epic gilgamesh'' ''mahabharata'' l nnrot 's ''kalevala'' valmiki 's ''ramayana'' ferdowsi 's ''shahnama'' nizami nezami 's khamse five books ''epic king gesar'' composition epic poetry long poems


immediate way inner feelings soul wassily kandinsky often used musical terms identify works called spontaneous paintings improvisations described elaborate works compositions kandinsky theorized music ultimate teacher subsequently embarked upon first seven ten ''compositions'' hearing tones chords painted kandinsky theorized example yellow color middle c brassy trumpet black color closure end things combinations colors produce vibrational frequencies akin chords played piano

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Painting


gouache differs watercolor particles larger ratio pigment water much higher additional inert white pigment chalk also present makes gouache heavier opaque greater reflective qualities like watermedia diluted water ref name wash gou cohn marjorie b ''wash gouache'' fogg museum ref enamel jean de court attributed painted limoges enamel dish detail mid th century waddesdon bequest british museum enamels made painting substrate typically metal powdered glass minerals called color oxides provide coloration firing temperature


war ii art movement combined emotional intensity self denial german expressionists anti figurative aesthetic european abstract schools futurism bauhaus cubism image rebellious anarchic highly idiosyncratic feel nihilistic action painting sometimes called ''gestural abstraction'' style painting paint spontaneously dribbled splashed smeared onto canvas rather carefully applied resulting work often emphasizes physical act painting essential aspect finished work concern artist style widespread


mysore painting important form classical south indian painting originated around town mysore karnataka encouraged nurtured mysore rulers mysore paintings known elegance muted colours attention detail themes paintings hindu gods goddesses scenes hindu mythology ''krishna radha'' might work nih l chand master kishangarh school rajput painting rajasthani painting evolved flourished royal courts rajputana northern india mainly th century artists trained tradition


identify believers non believers overview ''pythagoreans celebrate sunrise'' fyodor bronnikov pythagoreanism one example greek philosophy also included religious elements philosopher william l rowe characterized philosophy religion critical examination basic religious beliefs concepts philosophy religion covers alternative beliefs god gods varieties religious experience interplay science religion nature scope good evil religious treatments birth history death ref name sep field also includes ethical implications religious commitments

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of religion


relation faith reason experience tradition concepts miraculous sacred revelation mysticism power salvation term ''philosophy religion'' come general use west nineteenth century pre modern early modern philosophical works included mixture religious themes non religious philosophical questions asia examples include texts hindu upanishads works daoism confucianism buddhist texts greek philosophies like pythagoreanism stoicism included religious elements theories deities medieval philosophy strongly influenced big three monotheistic abrahamic religions


epistemology disagreement example important topic epistemology religion religious disagreement issue means intelligent individuals epistemic parity disagree religious issues religious disagreement seen possibly posing first order higher order problems religious belief first order problem refers whether evidence directly applies truth religious proposition higher order problem instead applies ''whether one rationally assessed'' first order evidence one example first order problem argument


scientific conclusions based blockquote contra russell j e mctaggart argues people scientific proof mind dependent body particular way rowe notes fact mind depends functions body one alive necessarily proof mind cease functioning death person trapped room depending windows see outside world might continue see even room ceases exist buddhism one religion affirming postmortem existence rebirth