term found christian writers arabic expression ''shar h'' span lang ar dir ltr span god law common translation god law hebrew god law greek new testament rom muslim literature '' ar ah'' designates laws message prophet god contrast ''fiqh'' refers scholar 's interpretation thereof older english language law related works late th early th centuries word used sharia '''' 'sheri''''' along french variant ''ch ri'' used


norms must formally grounded scriptural sources elements classical legal theory work ''al risala'' preceded body islamic law based primacy muhammad 's hadiths origin hadith remains subject scholarly controversy theory goldziher schacht given rise objections modern historians generally adopt cautious intermediate positions generally accepted early islamic jurisprudence developed combination administrative popular practices shaped religious ethical precepts islam continued aspects


rulings basis principles principles jurisprudence ''u l al fiqh'' classical jurists held human reason gift god exercised fullest capacity however believed use reason alone insufficient distinguish right wrong rational argumentation must draw content body transcendental knowledge revealed quran sunnah muhammad traditional theory islamic jurisprudence elaborates scriptures interpreted standpoint linguistics rhetoric also comprises methods establishing authenticity hadith


short lived sunni madhhabs zahiri school commonly identified extinct continues exert influence legal thought development shia legal schools occurred along lines theological differences resulted formation twelver zaidi ismaili madhhabs whose differences sunni legal schools roughly order differences among sunni schools ibadi legal school distinct sunni shia madhhabs predominant oman transformations islamic legal institutions modern era profound implications madhhab system legal practice


doctrines particular madhhab training legal disputation finally write dissertation earned license teach issue fatwas courts judge qadi charge qadi 's court ''mahkama'' also called sharia court qadis trained islamic law though necessarily level required issue fatwas court personnel also included number assistants performing various roles judges theoretically independent decisions though appointed ruler often experienced pressure members ruling elite interests


predecessors successors said abolished jizya according ottoman records non muslim women took cases sharia court expected favorable outcome marital divorce property questions christian jewish courts time non muslims ottoman empire could less likely use islamic courts example islamic court galata two percent cases involved non muslims whereas non muslims part thirty percent cases''' '''ottoman court records also reflect


armies built centrally administered states along lines western models ottoman empire first changes legal sphere involved placing formerly independent waqfs state control reform passed enriched public treasury expense waqfs thereby depleting financial support traditional islamic legal education second half th century new hierarchical system secular courts established supplement eventually replace religious courts students hoping pursue legal careers new court system increasingly preferred attending secular schools


traditional path legal education dimming financial prospects tanzimat reforms th century saw reorganization islamic civil law sultanic criminal law model napoleonic code codification civil law procedure excepting marriage divorce called ''mecelle'' produced use sharia secular courts adopted turkish language benefit new legal class longer possessed competence arabic idiom traditional jurisprudence code based hanafi law authors


scholars feminist activists result praised international rights groups example progressive legislation achieved within islamic framework islamization islamic revival late th century brought topic sharia international attention form numerous political campaigns muslim world calling full implementation sharia number factors contributed rise movements classified rubric islamism political islam including failure authoritarian secular regimes meet expectations citizens desire muslim


populations return culturally authentic forms socio political organization face perceived cultural invasion west islamist leaders ayatollah khomeini drew leftist anticolonialist rhetoric framing call sharia resistance struggle accused secular leaders corruption predatory behavior claimed return sharia would replace despotic rulers pious leaders striving social economic justice arab world positions often encapsulated slogan islam solution ''al islam huwa al hall'' full implementation sharia theoretically refers expanding


criminal justice systems however retained fundamental influences earlier westernizing reforms practice changes largely symbolic aside cases brought trial demonstrate new rules enforced hudud punishments tended fall disuse sometimes revived depending local political climate supreme courts sudan iran rarely approved verdicts stoning amputation supreme courts pakistan nigeria never done nonetheless islamization campaigns also repercussions several areas law leading curtailment rights


solemn procedure performed final part evidence process diya classical jurisprudence monetary compensation bodily harm ' 'diya'' blood money assessed differently different classes victims example muslim women amount half assessed muslim man ''diya'' death free muslim man twice high jewish christian victims according maliki hanbali madhhabs three times high according shafi'i rules ref name ame several legal schools assessed ' 'diya'' magians ''majus'' one fifteenth value free muslim


world 's attention although scholars argued qualify one together later militant fatwas contributed popular misconception fatwa religious death warrant modern fatwas marked increased reliance process ''ijtihad'' ie deriving legal rulings based independent analysis rather conformity opinions earlier legal authorities ''taqlid'' issued individuals possess qualifications traditionally required mufti notorious examples fatwas militant extremists osama


advocacy democratic ideas often accompanied belief compatible islam play public role within democratic system exemplified many protestors took part arab spring uprisings support democratic procedures elections combined religious moral objections toward aspects western democracy seen incompatible sharia exemplified islamic scholars like yusuf al qaradawi rejection democracy western import advocacy traditional islamic institutions shura consultation ijma consensus exemplified supporters absolute monarchy radical islamist


apostasy becomes mechanism public disobedience disorder ''fitna'' oliver leaman ''the qur'an encyclopedia'' pp ref according khaled abou el fadl moderate muslims believe apostasy requires punishment ref name gtwife ref critics argue death penalty punishment apostasy islam violation universal human rights issue freedom faith conscience ref name hassanibrahim twenty three muslim majority countries penalized apostasy islam criminal laws apostasy islam capital offense afghanistan brunei mauritania qatar saudi arabia sudan united arab emirates yemen ref


hanafi limits boys girls marriage age competence permissible proof sexual maturity accepted court marriage minimum age forbidden th century countries middle east followed ottoman precedent defining age competence raising minimum age boys girls marriage age competence subject approval judge legal guardian adolescent egypt diverged pattern setting


united arab emirates rape victims press charges risk prosecuted extramarital sex ''zina'' ref name unicef women 's property rights islamic law granted muslim women certain legal rights property rights women west possess comparatively recent times ref name feldman ref starting th century western legal systems evolved expand women 's rights women 's rights muslim world varying degree remained tied quran hadiths traditional interpretations islamic jurists ref name alik sharia grants women right inherit property family members rights detailed


quran woman 's inheritance unequal less man 's dependent many factors ref name davidpowers instance daughter 's inheritance usually half brother 's ref name davidpowers ref slavery sharia recognizes basic inequality master slave free women slave women believers non believers well unequal rights ref name blbr bernard lewis went wrong pp brunschvig 'abd encyclopedia islam brill nd edition vol pp ref sharia authorized institution slavery using words ''abd'' slave phrase ''ma malakat aymanukum''


appeared english common law ref name makdisi ref ref name devichand ref similarities exist royal english contract protected action debt islamic ''aqd'' english assize novel disseisin islamic ''istihqaq'' english jury islamic ''lafif'' classical maliki jurisprudence ref name makdisi law schools known inns court also parallel madrasahs ref name makdisi methodology legal precedent reasoning analogy ''qiyas'' also similar islamic common law systems english trust agency institutions islamic ''waqf'' ''hawala'' institutions respectively ref name devichand elements


''the oxford encyclopedia islam politics'' via bridging cultures national endowment humanities george mason university http wwwoxfordislamicstudiescom article opr e ''law'' norman calder et al ''the oxford encyclopedia islamic world'' via oxford islamic studies https webarchiveorg web https wwwunaaorgau brunei implements sharia lawhtml brunei implements sharia law unaa united nations https webarchiveorg web http yulrorg sharia law international legal sphere sharia law international legal sphere yale university http bostonreviewnet john bowen private arrangements sharia england private arrangements 'recognizing sharia' britain anthropologist john r bowen explains working britain 's sharia courts ''boston review'' article http wwwquraanicstudiescom error qur division inheritance according quran division inheritance according qur'an http wwwwdlorg en item explanation reward omnipotent


security among issues instances cooperation regimes commonly cited definition regimes comes stephen krasner defines regimes principles norms rules decision making procedures around actor expectations converge given issue area approaches regime theory however liberal neoliberal realist scholars like joseph grieco developed hybrid theories take realist based approach fundamentally liberal theory realists say cooperation ''never'' happens norm difference degree constructivism constructivist framework rests fundamental

Social science
Political science
International relations


establishment rational institutions emphasis critical component theory derived significantly attempt overcome limits positivism modern day proponents andrew linklater robert w cox ken booth focus need human emancipation nation state hence critical mainstream ir theories tend positivist state centric ''dependency theory'' linked marxist theories dependency theory core periphery model argue developed countries pursuit power appropriate developing states international banking security trade agreements


highly masculinized culture within defence establishment contributed divorcing war human emotion feminist ir emerged largely late onwards end cold war evaluation traditional ir theory opened space gendering international relations feminist ir linked broadly critical project ir large feminist scholarship sought problematize politics knowledge construction within discipline often adopting methodologies deconstructivism associated postmodernism poststructuralism however growing influence feminist women centric approaches within


take place throughout world history instances groups lacking losing sovereignty african nations prior decolonization occupation iraq iraq war still need sovereignty terms assessing international relations power concept power international relations described degree resources capabilities influence international affairs often divided concepts hard power soft power hard power relating primarily coercive power use force soft power commonly covering


man immoral society'' joseph nye ''soft power means success world politics'' public affairs ltd paul raskin ''the great transition today report future'' benno teschke myth new york verso press j ann tickner ''gender international relations'' new york columbia university press kenneth waltz ''man state war'' kenneth waltz ''theory international politics'' examines foundation bar michael walzer ''just unjust wars'' alexander wendt ''social theory international politics'' j martin rochester ''fundamental principles international relations'' westview press


''an introduction international relations theory'' james c hsiang ''anarchy order interplay politics law international relations'' lynne rienner pub textbooks history international relations kissinger henry ''diplomacy'' memoir interpretive history international diplomacy since late th century krasner stephen westphalia judith goldstein robert keohane eds ''ideas foreign policy'' ithaca ny cornell pp nbsp ''new cambridge modern history'' vol thorough coverage ringmar erik http wwwirhistoryinfo history international relations open textbook project cambridge


large array radio interferometer new mexico united states '''radio astronomy''' subfield astronomy studies celestial objects radio frequencies first detection radio waves astronomical object karl jansky bell telephone laboratories reported radiation coming milky way subsequent observations identified number different sources radio emission include stars galaxies well entirely new classes objects radio galaxies quasars pulsars masers discovery cosmic microwave background radiation regarded evidence

Natural science
Space science
Astronomy
Radio astronomy


big bang theory made radio astronomy radio astronomy conducted using large radio antennas referred radio telescopes either used singularly multiple linked telescopes utilizing techniques radio interferometry aperture synthesis use interferometry allows radio astronomy achieve high angular resolution resolving power interferometer set distance components rather size components history chart jocelyn bell burnell first recognised evidence pulsar exhibited cambridge university library jansky observed


producing second c third c cambridge catalogues radio sources techniques opacity various wavelengths electromagnetic radiation radio astronomers use different techniques observe objects radio spectrum instruments may simply pointed energetic radio source analyze emission image region sky detail multiple overlapping scans recorded pieced together mosaic image type instrument used depends strength signal amount detail needed observations earth 's surface limited wavelengths pass


almost meters authors determined solar radiation burst phase much smaller solar disk arose region associated large sunspot group australia group laid principles aperture synthesis ground breaking paper published use sea cliff interferometer demonstrated numerous groups australia iran uk world war ii observed interference fringes direct radar return radiation reflected signal sea incoming aircraft cambridge group ryle vonberg observed


early years radio astronomy reflections fifty years jansky 's discovery'' cambridge england cambridge university press woodruff sullivan iii ''cosmic noise history early radio astronomy'' cambridge university press woodruff sullivan iii ''classics radio astronomy'' reidel publishing company dordrecht external links http wwwnraoedu nraoedu national radio astronomy observatory https archivetoday http webhaystackmitedu education radiohisthtml history radio astronomy http wwwcrnpsgov history online books butowsky astro ohtm reber radio telescope national park services https webarchiveorg web http edmallgsfcnasagov aacps news radio telescopehtml radio telescope developed brief history nasa goddard space flight center http wwwradio astronomyorg society amateur radio astronomers http wwwogleearthcom xml comihtml visualization radio telescope data using google


music specifically string quartet music four rational people conversing conversational paradigm refers way one instrument introduces melody motif instruments subsequently respond similar motif thread woven history chamber music composition end th century present analogy conversation recurs descriptions analyses chamber music compositions history earliest beginnings medieval period present chamber music reflection changes technology society

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Chamber music


instrument performance even though pianoforte invented bartolomeo cristofori beginning become widely used end century technical improvements construction made effective instrument unlike harpsichord pianoforte could play soft loud dynamics sharp sforzando attacks depending hard soft performer played keys improved pianoforte adopted mozart composers began composing chamber ensembles piano playing leading role piano become dominant


medium express conflict reconcile essentially lyric themes feeling dramatic utterance within form provided possibility extreme color contrasts string quintet c example conflict expressed music slow introduction first theme first movement fiery dramatic leads bridge rising tension peaking suddenly breaking second theme lilting duet lower voices alternating sturm und drang relaxation continue throughout movement contending forces expressed


theme first movement theme last movement schumann mendelssohn following example set beethoven revived fugue fallen favor since baroque period however rather writing strict full length fugues used counterpoint another mode conversation chamber music instruments many schumann 's chamber works including three string quartets piano quartet contrapuntal sections interwoven seamlessly overall compositional texture composers first half th century acutely aware conversational paradigm established


music became cheaper thus accessible domestic music making gained widespread popularity composers began incorporate new elements techniques works appeal open market since increased consumer desire chamber music improvements instruments led public performances chamber music remained much type music played much performed amateur quartet societies sprang throughout europe middling sized city germany france without one societies sponsored house concerts compiled music libraries encouraged playing quartets


monet impressionist music art sought similar effects ethereal atmospheric exploration tonality structure begun brahms continued composers french school c sar franck 's piano quintet f minor composed established cyclic form first explored schumann mendelssohn reusing thematic material three movements claude debussy 's string quartet op considered watershed history chamber music quartet uses cyclic structure constitutes final divorce rules classical harmony sounds combination


five beats bar britain composers ralph vaughan williams william walton benjamin britten drew english folk music much chamber music vaughan williams incorporates folksongs country fiddling first string quartet american composer charles ives wrote music distinctly american ives gave programmatic titles much chamber music first string quartet example called salvation army quotes american protestant hymns several places serialism polytonality polyrhythms painting pierrot object schoenberg 's atonal suite ''pierrot lunaire'' painted antoine watteau


second direction search new tonality twelve tone serialism arnold schoenberg developed twelve tone method composition alternative structure provided diatonic system method entails building piece using series twelve notes chromatic scale permuting superimposing create composition schoenberg arrive immediately serial method first chamber work string sextet verkl rte nacht mostly late german romantic work though bold use modulations first work frankly atonal


chamber works also polymeter first string quartet writes section first violin viola play math tfrac math time second violin cello play math tfrac math neoclassicism plethora directions music took first quarter th century led reaction many composers led stravinsky composers looked music preclassical europe inspiration stability stravinsky 's neoclassical works ''double canon string quartet'' sound contemporary modeled baroque early classical forms


increase growth home music making adults approaching retirement would really look demographics baby boomers said interview people starting look something matters nbsp nothing makes feel good playing music study european music office suggests older people playing music number adolescents today done music almost doubled comparison born study shows growth popular music


exaggeration say opened enchanted world writes walter willson cobbett devoted amateur musician editor ''cobbett 's cyclopedic survey chamber music'' ensembles develop close intimacy shared musical experience concert stage moments true intimacy occur writes steinhardt performance progress four us together enter zone magic somewhere music stands become conduit messenger missionary nbsp experience personal talk yet colors every aspect relationship


sax sax sax b sax sax sax sax b sax examples eug ne bozza paul creston alfred desenclos pierre max dubois philip glass alexander glazunov david maslanka florent schmitt jean baptiste singel e iannis xenakis flute quartet fls fl vln vla vlc examples include friedrich kuhlau anton reicha eug ne bozza florent schmitt joseph jongen th century shigeru kan percussion quartet percussion twentieth century composers include john cage david lang paul lansky see percussion wind instrument string trio


cl vln vla vc pno prokofiev 's overture hebrew themes op copland 's sextet align center septet wind string septet cl hrn bsn vln vla vc cb popularized beethoven 's septet op berwald 's many others rowspan align center rowspan octet wind string octet cl hrn bsn vln vla vc cb cl hrn vln vla vc cb schubert 's octet inspired beethoven 's septet spohr 's octet op string octet vln vla


baritone saxophone bsn bassoon hrn horn tr trumpet trm trombone ref references notes bibliography reading ''the new grove dictionary music musicians'' ed stanley sadie external links http wwwchamber musicorg chamber music america https wwwearsenseorg earsense chamberbase online database chamber works https wwwfischofforg fischoff national chamber music association sponsor chamber music competitions supporter chamber music education https acmpnet associated achember music players acmp new york city http facultywashingtonedu gerhart dwqbibliography annotated bibliography double wind quintet music musical forms history classical music classical music styles musical terminology


around world forms escape performance '''hidden''' style escape performance popularised late harry houdini involved much performance taking place behind form screen inside cabinet order protect secrets performer style escape performance popular majority escape artists end th century still preferred many performers today disadvantage audiences may wrongly believe concealed assistant released escapologist may seen struggle '''full view'''

Human physical performance and recreation


protagonists' ghost traps could hold minute adam phillips 's essay houdini 's box uses houdini well young victim sexual abuse examples discuss escapology console video game exit focuses around exploits self proclaimed escapologist known mr esc movie ''the prestige'' deals two magicians employ increasingly difficult escape illusions competitive one upmanship tragic results film ''now see me'' isla fisher plays escape artist named henley reeves interview says watched


'''liturgy''' customary public worship performed religious group especially christian group religious phenomenon liturgy represents communal response participation sacred activities reflecting praise thanksgiving remembrance supplication repentance forms basis establishing relationship divine agency well participants liturgy technically speaking liturgy forms subset ritual word ''liturgy'' sometimes equated english service refers formal ritual may may elaborate enacted understand participating

Applied science
Divinity
Field ministry
Liturgy


yarnold eds ''the study liturgy'' london spck marini piero ''a challenging reform realizing vision liturgical renewal'' liturgical press scotland n ''eucharistic consecration first four centuries implications liturgical reform'' series ''latimer studies'' latimer house http wwwquakerinfoorg quakerism beliefshtml quakers believe quaker information center philadelphia pa external links http wwwnewadventorg cathen ahtm catholic encyclopedia article https webarchiveorg web http wwwsaintsconstantineandelenaorg liturgy liturgy htm orthodox tradition liturgy http jewishencyclopediacom viewjspartid letter l search liturgy jewish encyclopedia liturgy http wwwliturgyconz contemporary christian liturgy website history theory practice https webarchiveorg web http wwwconfiteordeoinfo latin masseshtm indult tridentine rite mass http dsjliturgyblogspotcom work people http wwwliturgixcom eastern


technicians military personnel military personnel obtain weapons equipment training achieve specific strategic goals military science also used establish enemy capability part technical intelligence military history military science used period industrial revolution general term refer matters military theory technology application single academic discipline including deployment employment troops peacetime battle military education military science often name department education institution administers officer candidate education

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
Military science


however education usually focuses officer leadership training basic information employment military theories concepts methods systems graduates military scientists completion studies rather junior military officers history class telephony enlisted men u army telephone modern warfare robbed battle much picturesqueness romance glamor dashing dispatch rider foam flecked steed antiquated message sent telephone annihilates space time whereas dispatch rider would cases annihilated shrapnel published even


leading battlefield stagnant advantages defensive position destroying troop morale willingness fight offensive could bring victory lack firepower blamed defeat imperial russian army russo japanese war foch thought strategy well tactics one attacks many ways military science born result experiences great war military implements changed armies beyond recognition cavalry virtually disappear next years supply army would become


science logistics wake massive armies operations troops could fire ammunition faster could produced first time using vehicles used combustion engine watershed change military organisation would longer linear warfare assault teams battalions becoming multi skilled introduction machine gun mortar first time forcing military commanders think terms rank file force structure tactics changed infantry first time segregated horse mounted troops


later khalid ibn al walid battle walaja ce via study history military seeks avoid past mistakes improve upon current performance instilling ability commanders perceive historical parallels battle capitalize lessons learned main areas military history includes history wars battles combats history military art history specific military service military strategy doctrines nato esdp military strategy many ways centerpiece military science studies specifics planning


canadian forces principles war military science defined land forces doctrine training system lfdts focus ''principles command'' ''principles war'' ''operational art campaign planning'' ' 'scientific principles'' russian federation armed forces derive principles war predominantly developed existence soviet union although based significantly second world war experience conventional war fighting substantially modified since introduction nuclear arms strategic considerations soviet afghan war first second chechen wars modified principles soviet theorists


society state political ethnic movement part topics often included within purview military society include veterans women military military families enlistment retention reserve forces military religion military privatization civil military relations civil military cooperation military popular culture military media military disaster assistance military environment blurring military police functions recruitment retention volunteer military armed forces relies market forces careful recruiting fill ranks thus important understand factors


especially extra galactic astronomy new observations may complicate prior models findings mechanisms emitting gamma rays diverse mostly identical emitting x rays higher energies including electron positron annihilation inverse compton effect cases also decay radioactive material gamma decay space reflecting extreme events supernovae hypernovae behaviour matter extreme conditions pulsars blazars may press release china 's large high altitude air shower observatory lhaaso reported detection dozen ultra high energy gamma rays energies exceeding

Natural science
Space science
Astronomy
Gamma ray astronomy


central black holes created gamma ray emissions detected lat one third sources detected wavelengths ref name gamma ray census ground based gamma ray observatories include hawc magic hess veritas ground based observatories probe higher energy range space based observatories since effective areas many orders magnitude larger satellite recent observations april largest catalog yet high energy gamma ray sources space published stellar diameters measured using gamma ray intensity interferometry ref name gamma interferometry https wwwcfaharvardedu news ''gamma ray scientists dust intensity interferometry upgrade technology digital electronics larger telescopes


improved sensitivity'' ref see also cosmic ray observatory galactic center gev excess gamma ray burst coordinates network history gamma ray burst research steven boggs american astrophysicist develops flies gamma ray telescopes ultra high energy cosmic ray references notes citations external links http heasarcgsfcnasagov docs history history gamma ray astronomy including related discoveries http hawc observatoryorg high altitude water cherenkov observatory http wwwmpi hdmpgde hfm ct cthtml hegra atmospheric cherenkov telescope system http wwwmpi hdmpgde hfm hess hesshtml hess ground based gamma ray experiment http magicmppmumpgde magic telescope project http veritassaoarizonaedu veritas ground based gamma ray experiment http integralesacesaint integralhtml space borne integral observatory http swiftgsfcnasagov nasa 's swift gamma ray burst mission http heasarcgsfcnasagov docs hete hete html nasa hete satellite http tevcatuchicagoedu tevcat tev gamma ray sources catalog


name duboishorvath dubois sylvie horvath barbara https webstanfordedu eckert pdf duboishorvath pdf let 's tink dat interdental fricatives cajun english language variation change pp ref social network may apply macro level country city also interpersonal level neighborhoods single family recently social networks formed internet online chat rooms facebook groups organizations online dating services differences according class sociolinguistics field distinct dialectology pioneered study language variation urban areas whereas dialectology studies geographic distribution

Social science
Sociology
Sociolinguistics


strong bonds speakers explicit verbal communication often rendered unnecessary individual expression irrelevant however simplification sign lack intelligence complexity within code rather communication performed extraverbal means facial expression touch etc order affirm speakers' bond bernstein notes example young man asking stranger dance established manner asking yet communication performed physical graces exchange glances implied meaning plays greater role code elaborated code


partner language another form bilingual education type dual language program students study two different ways variety academic subjects taught students' second language specially trained bilingual teachers understand students ask questions native language always answer second language native language literacy classes improve students' writing higher order language skills first language research shown many skills learned native language transferred easily second language later

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Bilingual education


full cognizance place context role systems engineering early development instructional design demonstrated world war ii considerable amount training materials military developed based principles instruction learning human behavior tests assessing learner 's abilities used screen candidates training programs success military training psychologists began view training system developed various analysis design evaluation procedures ref name trendsissues edgar dale outlined hierarchy instructional methods organized intuitively

Applied science
Education
Educational Technology
Instructional design


equal formal training ref name result research emphasis placed creating knowledge bases supports self directed learning ref name instructional design history class wikitable instructional media history ref name trendsissues era media characteristics outcome visual media school museum supplementary material first school museum opened st louis materials viewed supplementary curriculum materials district wide media center modern equivalent visual media films slides photographer visual instruction movement effect


visual instruction limited teacher resistance change quality file cost etc mid radio broadcasting sound recordings sound motion pictures radio audiovisual instruction movement education large affected world war ii training films overhead projector slide projector audio equipment simulators training devices military industry time strong demand training growth audio visual instruction movement school slow audiovisual device used extensively military services industry post


performance teacher asks learners respond demonstrating learning providing feedback teacher gives informative feedback learners' performance assessing performance teacher requires learner performance gives feedback reinforce learning enhancing retention transfer teacher provides varied practice generalize capability educators believe gagn 's taxonomy learning outcomes events instruction oversimplify learning process prescribing however using part complete instructional package assist many educators becoming organized staying focused instructional goals influence robert gagn 's work


problem ref name internettimecom gagn offered alternative view developed idea different learners required different learning strategies ref name internettimecom understanding designing instruction based learning style defined individual brought new theories approaches teaching ref name internettimecom gagn 's understanding theories human learning added significantly understanding stages cognitive processing instructions ref name internettimecom example gagn argued instructional designers must understand characteristics functions short term long term memory facilitate meaningful learning ref name internettimecom idea encouraged instructional designers include cognitive needs


prototyping adaptation addie model used sometimes practice known rapid prototyping proponents suggest iterative process verification design documents saves time money catching problems still easy fix approach novel design instruction appears many design related domains including software design architecture transportation planning product development message design user experience design etc ref name piskurich gm ref name saettler ref ref name stolovitch keeps ref fact proponents design prototyping assert sophisticated understanding problem incomplete


addresses instruction entire system focusing interrelationship context content learning instruction ref name forest ref according dick carey components instructor learners materials instructional activities delivery system learning performance environments interact work together bring desired student learning outcomes ref name dickcarey components systems approach model also known dick carey model follows identify instructional goal goal statement describes skill knowledge attitude ska learner expected acquire conduct instructional analysis identify learner


practice items practice problems develop instructional strategy pre instructional activities content presentation learner participation assessment develop select instructional materials design conduct formative evaluation instruction designers try identify areas instructional materials need improvement revise instruction identify poor test items identify poor instruction design conduct summative evaluation model components executed iteratively parallel rather linearly ref name dickcarey guaranteed learning instructional design model guaranteed learning formerly known instructional development learning system idls ref name esseff esseff ref model originally published peter


frontispiece alfred russel wallace 's book ''the geographical distribution animals'' '''biogeography''' study distribution species ecosystems geographic space geological time organisms biological communities often vary regular fashion along geographic gradients latitude elevation isolation habitat area ref name brown university brown university biogeography accessed february ref phytogeography branch biogeography studies distribution plants zoogeography branch studies distribution animals mycogeography branch studies distribution fungi mushrooms knowledge spatial variation numbers

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Biogeography


writer david quammen put biogeography ask ''which species'' ''where'' also asks ''why'' sometimes crucial ''why not'' modern biogeography often employs use geographic information systems gis understand factors affecting organism distribution predict future trends organism distribution often mathematical models gis employed solve ecological problems spatial aspect biogeography keenly observed world 's islands habitats often much manageable areas study condensed larger ecosystems


territories noticed species perpetual believed developed mountain explanation explain distribution biodiversity noah 's ark landed mount ararat waters receded animals dispersed throughout different elevations mountain showed different species different climates proving species constant ref name cox linnaeus' findings set basis ecological biogeography strong beliefs christianity inspired classify living world gave way additional accounts secular views geographical distribution ref name browne argued structure


earth 's surface reference causes operation london john murray volume ref uniformitarianism also introduced idea earth actually significantly older previously accepted using knowledge lyell concluded possible species go extinct since noted earth 's climate changes realized species distribution must also change accordingly lyell argued climate changes complemented vegetation changes thus connecting environmental surroundings varying species largely influenced charles darwin development theory evolution ref name browne charles darwin natural theologist studied around


species genetic diversity biogeography applied biodiversity conservation planning projecting global environmental changes species biomes projecting spread infectious diseases invasive species supporting planning establishment crops technological evolving advances allowed generating whole suit predictor variables biogeographic analysis including satellite imaging processing earth ref name watts new biogeography niche physical geography watts geography vol annual conference november pp ref two main types satellite imaging important within modern biogeography


best known roman army engineers due writings surviving ancient times military engineers responsible siege warfare building field fortifications temporary camps roads notable engineers ancient times romans chinese constructed huge siege machines catapults battering rams siege towers romans responsible constructing fortified wooden camps paved roads legions many roman roads still use today years fall roman empire practice military engineering barely evolved west fact

Applied science
Military sciences
Military engineering


artillery formed body organization served together office 's predecessor board ordnance disbanded comparison older weapons cannon significantly effective traditional medieval fortifications military engineering significantly revised way fortifications built order better protected enemy direct plunging shot new fortifications also intended increase ability defenders bring fire onto attacking enemies fort construction proliferated th century europe based ''trace italienne'' design french sappers battle berezina th


even combat units national troopsthe french engineering arm laying bridge brazil brazilian army engineers part quadro de egenheiros militares members trained professionalized traditional instituto militar de engenharia ime '' military institute engineering '' arma de engenharia members trained academia militar das agulhas negras aman '' agulhas negras military academy '' brazil 's navy engineers occupy corpo de engenheiros da marinha quadro complementar de oficiais da armada quadro complementar de oficiais fuzileiros navais officers


sky need military engineering sects branches increased branch united states military expanded technology adapted fit respective needs united states army corps engineers air force civil engineer support agency rapid engineer deployable heavy operational repair squadron engineers red horse prime base engineer emergency force prime beef united states navy construction battalion corps better known seabees civil engineer corps united states marine corps combat engineer battalions nations department engineer troops armed forces armenia royal australian engineers


body composition skill related parameters eg power agility coordination speed reactivity observe gather relevant information needed develop effective exercise program support client goal attainment assessments may performed beginning exercise program measure client progress toward improved physical fitness also provide education many aspects wellness including general health nutrition guidelines helping clients reach full potential various aspects life requires comprehensive client centered approach along belief clients resourceful capable change qualified personal


transition function math delta q math last symbol math n math read leaving machine ''final state'' run math q n math similarly step automaton emits output symbol according output function math lambda q math transition function math delta math extended inductively math overline delta q times sigma q math describe machine 's behavior fed whole input words empty string math varepsilon math math overline delta q varepsilon q math states math q math strings math wa math math math last symbol math w math possibly empty rest string math overline delta q wa

Formal science
Computer science
Theory of computation
Automata theory


''accepting word'' automaton math overline delta q w f math consuming whole string math w math machine accept state recognized language language math l subseteq sigma math ' 'recognized'' automaton set words accepted automaton math l w sigma overline delta q w f math recognizable languages recognizable languages set languages recognized automaton ''finite automata'' recognizable languages regular languages different types automata recognizable languages different variant definitions


difficulties motivating one party agent act best interests another principal rather interests scientific management mainly following frederick w taylor theory management analyses synthesizes workflows social entrepreneurship process pursuing innovative solutions social problems transaction cost theory idea people begin organize production firms transaction cost coordinating production market exchange given imperfect information greater within firm weber 's ideal bureaucracy refer max weber 's chapter bureaucracy

Applied science
Military sciences
Organization


component needs analyzed principles contact mechanics tribology used determine wear performance implant lubrication effects synovial fluid additional aspects biotribology include analysis subsurface damage resulting two surfaces coming contact motion ie rubbing evaluation tissue engineered cartilage ref name whitney g ref comparative biomechanics chinstrap penguin leaping water comparative biomechanics application biomechanics non human organisms whether used gain greater insights humans physical anthropology functions ecology


groundbreaking translations french classical works russian language turning point course russian literature translation paul tallemant 's work ''voyage isle love'' first use russian vernacular opposed formal outdated church slavonic introduction set precedent secular works composed vernacular sacred texts would remain church slavonic however work often incredibly theoretical scholarly focused promoting versification language spoke trediakovsky 's approach writing often described highly erudite

Humanities
Languages and literature
Russian Literature


silver age anna akhmatova marina tsvetaeva osip mandelstam boris pasternak silver age considered development th century russian literature tradition avant garde poets tried overturn velimir khlebnikov david burliuk aleksei kruchenykh vladimir mayakovsky though silver age famous mostly poetry produced first rate novelists short story writers aleksandr kuprin nobel prize winner ivan bunin leonid andreyev fedor sologub aleksey remizov yevgeny zamyatin alexander belyaev dmitry merezhkovsky andrei bely though wrote poetry well prose gallery widths px


opera less developed since state censors serious writers watched unfavorably nevertheless moderately successful attempts adapt space westerns soviet soil first alexander kolpakov griada came sergey snegov men like gods among others specific branch science fiction children 's books appeared mid soviet era children 's science fiction meant educate children entertaining star genre bulychov along adult books created children 's space adventure series alisa selezneva teenage girl future others include


image boris strugatsky seminar jpg boris strugatsky gallery post soviet era end th century proved difficult period russian literature relatively distinct voices although censorship lifted writers could freely express thoughts political economic chaos affected book market literature heavily book printing industry descended crisis number printed book copies dropped several times comparison soviet era took decade revive among discussed authors period victor pelevin gained popularity first


russian renowned contemporary authors writing russian born live ukraine andrey kurkov h l oldie maryna serhiy dyachenko baltic states garros evdokimov max frei ukrainian fantasy science fiction authors write russian ref name pentacle ref gives access much broader audience usually publish books via russian publishers eksmo azbuka ast number prominent russian authors novelists mikhail shishkin rub n gallego julia kissina svetlana martynchik dina rubina poets alexei tsvetkov bakhyt kenjeev though born ussr live work


large number simple mathematical operations algorithm computer used perform operations compute approximated solution respective error ref name thijssenbook status physics debate status computation within scientific method ref name ercolessi http wwwfisicauniudit ercolessi md md molecular dynamics primer furio ercolessi university udine italy http wwwfisicauniudit ercolessi md mdpdf article pdf ref sometimes regarded akin theoretical physics others regard computer simulation computer experiments ref name ercolessi yet still others consider intermediate different branch theoretical experimental physics third way supplements theory experiment

Natural science
Physics
Computational physics


using eg finite difference method relaxation method matrix eigenvalue problem using eg jacobi eigenvalue algorithm power iteration methods several others used calculate physical properties modeled systems computational physics also borrows number ideas computational chemistry example density functional theory used computational solid state physicists calculate properties solids basically used chemists calculate properties molecules furthermore computational physics encompasses tuning software hardware structure solve problems problems usually


source code simple computer program written c programming language gray lines comments help explain program humans natural language compiled run give output hello world '''programming language''' formal language comprising set strings produce various kinds machine code output programming languages one kind computer language used computer programming implement algorithms programming languages consist instructions computers programmable machines use set specific instructions rather

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages


different goal expressing computer programs generically designated computer languages instance markup languages sometimes referred computer languages emphasize meant used programming another usage regards programming languages theoretical constructs programming abstract machines computer languages subset thereof runs physical computers finite hardware resources john c reynolds emphasizes formal specification languages much programming languages languages intended execution also argues textual even graphical input formats affect


program running dynamic type checking resulting run time exception many languages allow function called exception handler handle exception example always return result special case typed languages ' 'single typed'' languages often scripting markup languages rexx sgml one data type commonly character strings used symbolic numeric data contrast ''untyped language'' assembly languages allows operation performed data generally sequences bits various lengths ref


less tied complexity computer programs computing less effort programmer lets write functionality per time unit natural language programming proposed way eliminate need specialized language programming however goal remains distant benefits open debate edsger w dijkstra took position use formal language essential prevent introduction meaningless constructs dismissed natural language programming foolish alan perlis similarly dismissive idea hybrid approaches


landowners worth less less time often led numerous confrontations noble impoverished samurai well peasants none however proved compelling enough seriously challenge established order arrival foreign powers korean dynasty general yi seong gye established joseon dynasty largely bloodless coup yi seong gye moved capital korea location modern day seoul dynasty heavily influenced confucianism also played large role shaping korea 's strong cultural identity ref name ref king sejong great one

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history
Early modern


political geographic divisions christianity established international law treaty westphalia legally ended concept single christian hegemony ie one holy catholic apostolic church nicene creed government determined religion state christians living states denomination ''not'' established church guaranteed right practice faith public allotted hours private treaty westphalia wars religion came end treaty


war britain recognised former thirteen colonies' independence atlantic world waldseem ller map joint sheets recent development early modern history creation atlantic world category term generally encompasses western europe west africa north south america caribbean islands seeks show local regional development connections various geographical regions religion science philosophy education eastern philosophies concerning development eastern philosophies much eastern philosophy advanced state development study previous


mainly involved reading texts ancient writers ancient times natural philosophers made observations nature came explanations never conducted experiments test explanations creating artificial situation considered invalid way discover rules nature scientific method testing hypotheses first recorded th century ibn al haytham alhazen inspiring roger bacon begin experimenting th century europe time revolution methods resulted accumulation knowledge overturned ideas inherited ancient greece primarily aristotelian physics includes modern domains


enlightenment consider earliest part enlightenment era philosophy extending era two centuries era includes isaac newton 's ''principia'' ren descartes' think therefore th century saw beginning secularization europe rising notability wake french revolution immanuel kant classified predecessors two schools rationalists empiricists three main rationalists normally taken ren descartes baruch spinoza gottfried leibniz roger williams founded providence plantations new england based principle


italian humanism study antique coinage legal history composing detailed commentary justinian 's code although royal absolutist republican like early italian ''umanisti'' bud active civic life serving diplomat francis helping found coll ge des lecteurs royaux later coll ge de france meanwhile marguerite de navarre sister francis poet novelist religious mystic gathered around protected circle vernacular poets writers including cl ment marot pierre de ronsard fran ois rabelais death


ideas challenged absolute monarchies th century alt toward middle latter stages age revolution french political social revolutions radical change saw french governmental structure transform previously absolute monarchy feudal privileges aristocracy catholic clergy changed forms based enlightenment principles citizenship inalienable rights first revolution led government national assembly second legislative assembly third directory changes accompanied violent turmoil included trial execution


theory predicts time dilation could interpreted time travel theory states relative stationary observer time appears pass slowly faster moving bodies example moving clock appear run slow clock approaches speed light hands appear nearly stop moving effects sort time dilation discussed popular twin paradox although results experimentally observable intrinsic aspect einstein' theory equation applicable operation gps satellites high tech systems used

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of physics


large focus contemporary philosophy physics specifically concerning correct interpretation quantum mechanics broadly much philosophical work done quantum theory trying make sense superposition states property particles seem one determinate position one time somewhere 'here' also 'there' time radical view turns many common sense metaphysical ideas head much contemporary philosophy quantum mechanics aims make sense empirically successful formalism quantum mechanics tells us


natural motions different sorts matter upward downward uniform circular motion defined terms center universe ref movement defined change place ref name maudlinppst ie space ref name maudlinppst tim maudlin ''philosophy physics space time space time'' princeton foundations contemporary philosophy p princeton university press kindle edition aristotle adopts concept space correlative concept motion intuitively employ ref newtonian physics implicit axioms aristotelian physics respect movement matter space superseded


newtonian physics newton 's first law motion ref name maudlinppst tim maudlin ''philosophy physics space time space time'' princeton foundations contemporary philosophy pp princeton university press kindle edition newtonian physics implicit first law motion law every body perseveres state either rest uniform motion straight line except insofar compelled change state impressed forces single law smashes aristotelian universe smithereens ref every body includes moon apple includes types


''n'' definition ''v'' sub ''n'' sub ''y'' value obtained state ''y'' last time ''n'' values ''v'' sub ''i'' sub earlier times ''i'' nbsp nbsp ''n'' nbsp minus nbsp ''n'' nbsp minus nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp found working backwards using recursive relationship called bellman equation ''i'' nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp ''n'' ''v'' sub ''i'' minus sub state ''y'' calculated ''v'' sub ''i'' sub maximizing simple function usually sum gain decision time ''i'' nbsp minus nbsp function ''v'' sub ''i'' sub new state system decision made since ''v'' sub ''i'' sub already calculated needed states operation yields ''v'' sub ''i'' minus sub states

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Dynamic programming


currentfib '' 'repeat''' n '''times''' '' loop skipped n '' '''var''' newfib previousfib currentfib previousfib currentfib currentfib newfib '' 'return''' currentfib examples calculate code fib code one time use calculate code fib code code fib code instead computing every time either evaluated method actually takes math omega n math time large n addition two integers math omega n math bits takes math omega n math time ''n'' sup th sup fibonacci number math omega n math bits also closed form


fibonacci sequence known binet 's formula math n math th term computed approximately math n log n math time efficient dynamic programming technique however simple recurrence directly gives matrix form leads approximately math n log n math algorithm fast matrix exponentiation type balanced matrix consider problem assigning values either zero one positions matrix even row column contains exactly zeros ones ask many different assignments


given math n math example five possible solutions math begin bmatrix end bmatrix text begin bmatrix end bmatrix text begin bmatrix


example definition derive straightforward recursive code code q nbsp j code following pseudocode code n code size board code c j code cost function code min code returns minimum number values '''function''' mincost j '''if''' j lt '''or''' j n '' 'return''' infinity '''else if''' '' 'return''' c j '''else''' '' 'return''' '''min''' mincost j mincost j mincost j c j function computes path cost actual path discuss actual path like fibonacci numbers example horribly slow


one way drop egg first floor window survives drop second floor window continue upward breaks worst case method may require droppings suppose eggs available lowest number egg droppings guaranteed work cases derive dynamic programming functional equation puzzle let '' 'state''' dynamic programming model pair nk ''n'' number test eggs available ''n'' ''n'' nbsp minus nbsp ''k'' number


surprising find matrices large dimensions example therefore task multiply matrices matrix multiplication commutative associative multiply two matrices time multiply chain matrices many different ways example numerous ways multiply chain matrices produce final result however take less time compute based particular matrices multiplied matrix dimensions n


bellman appeared wilson became secretary defense also comment speech http c org awards richard e bellman control heritage award harold j kushner harold j kushner remembers bellman quoting kushner speaks bellman hand asked question replied trying upstage dantzig 's linear programming adding dynamic perhaps motivations true algorithms use dynamic programming recurrent solutions lattice models protein dna binding backward induction solution method finite horizon discrete time dynamic optimization problems method undetermined coefficients used


beauty meaningfulness specifically painting sculpture drawing watercolor graphics architecture sense conceptual differences fine arts decorative arts applied arts two terms covering largely media far consumer art concerned perception aesthetic qualities required refined judgment usually referred good taste differentiated fine art popular art entertainment ref name stanford ref kazimir malevich ''black square'' oil linen x cm tretyakov gallery moscow word fine much denote quality


art cultures especially east asia set fine arts sometimes also called major arts minor arts equating decorative arts would typically medieval ancient art origins history development according writers concept distinct category fine art invention early modern period west larry shiner ''the invention art cultural history'' locates invention th century traditional system arts


decorated many periods distinguished coarse wares basic utilitarian pots used mass population kitchen rather formal purposes even porcelain figurines piece pottery practical purpose making typically collaborative semi industrial one involving many participants different skills gallery widths px heights px baltimore painter volute krater walters side ajpg ancient greek volute krater bc ceramic height walters art museum baltimore us david vasesjpg david vases yuan dynasty porcelain


de emphasize omit elements music performed vast range instruments vocal techniques ranging singing rapping solely instrumental pieces solely vocal pieces songs without instrumental accompaniment pieces combine singing instruments word derives greek ''mousike'' art muses vaslav nijinsky dancing faun ''l'apr midi d'un faune'' dance dance art form generally refers movement body usually rhythmic music used form expression social interaction presented spiritual


lebanese academy fine arts prestigious fine arts college originally founded group young classical musicians beirut merged university balamand alba considered pioneering institute region exceptional educational expertise world renowned lecturers instructors europe south america brazil institute arts brazilia departments theater visual arts industrial design music united states united states academic course study fine art may include bachelor arts fine


galton whose works prompted decades research ''heroes hero worship'' carlyle identified talents skills physical characteristics men rose power galton 's ''hereditary genius'' examined leadership qualities families powerful men showing numbers eminent relatives dropped focus moved first degree second degree relatives galton concluded leadership inherited words leaders born developed notable works lent great initial support notion leadership rooted characteristics leader cecil rhodes believed

Applied science
Military sciences
Leadership


conducted made investigations findings positively correlated behaviors leadership effectiveness although similar findings ohio state studies also contributed additional behavior identified leaders participative behavior also called servant leadership allowing followers participate group decision making encouraged subordinate input entails avoiding controlling types leadership allows personal interactions leaders subordinates managerial grid model also based behavioral theory model developed robert blake jane mouton suggests five different


employee showing time every day employee actually shows work time result employee comes work time often employee likes praised example praise stimulus positive reinforcer employee employee arrives work time behavior frequently praised showing work time positive reinforcement coined skinner enables behavior repeated positive manner hand negative reinforcer repeated way


situations used normative decision model leadership styles connected situational variables defining approach suitable situation approach novel supported idea manager could rely different group decision making approaches depending attributes situation model later referred situational contingency theory path goal theory leadership developed robert house based expectancy theory victor vroom according house essence theory meta proposition leaders


technically psychologically leaders three levels model public private personal leadership first two public private leadership outer behavioral levels behaviors address scouller called four dimensions leadership dimensions shared motivating group purpose action progress results collective unity team spirit individual selection motivation public leadership focuses behaviors involved influencing two people simultaneously private leadership covers behaviors needed influence individuals one one third


group group agrees follow lead accomplish predetermined goal exchange something else power given leader evaluate correct train subordinates productivity desired level reward effectiveness expected outcome reached leader member exchange theory leader member exchange lmx theory addresses specific aspect leadership process evolved earlier theory called vertical dyad linkage vdl model models focus interaction leaders individual followers similar transactional approach interaction viewed


group members group members perceived leader experienced competent willing assume responsibility followers leader begins rely individuals help especially challenging tasks follower responds well leader rewards extra coaching favorable job assignments developmental experiences follower shows high commitment effort followed additional rewards parties develop mutual trust influence support one another research shows group members usually receive higher performance evaluations leader higher satisfaction faster promotions group members ref name howell jon


arrived home england would receive true hero 's welcome modern society press blogs sources report views leaders may based reality may also based political command payment inherent interest author media leader therefore one argue perception leaders created fact reflect true leadership qualities hence historical function belief example royal blood proxy belief


tactful flexible interpersonally competent trait enables leaders accepted well public use diplomatic measures solve issues well hold ability adapt social persona situation hand according howell mother teresa exceptional example embodies integrity assertiveness social abilities diplomatic dealings leaders world ref name howell jon p great leaders encompass traits listed many ability apply number succeed front runners organization situation ontological phenomenological


future fulfills fundamental concerns relevant parties indicates future n't going happen idea leader rather emerges digging deep find underlying concerns impacted leadership contexts organizations organization established instrument means achieving defined objectives referred sociologists ''formal organization'' design specifies goals subdivided reflected subdivisions organization divisions departments sections positions jobs tasks make work structure


organizations lead team achieve success '''''according national school boards association usa ''''' group leaderships leadership teams specific characteristics '''characteristics team''' must awareness unity part members must interpersonal relationship members must chance contribute learn work others members must ability act together toward common goal '''ten characteristics well functioning teams ''' purpose members proudly share sense team exists invested accomplishing mission goals


using several examples instance according baumeister et al bystander effect failure respond offer assistance tends develop within groups faced emergency significantly reduced groups guided leader moreover documented group performance creativity efficiency tend climb businesses designated managers ceos however difference leaders make '''not''' always positive nature leaders sometimes focus fulfilling agendas expense others including followers eg pol pot josef stalin leaders focus personal gain


available government revenue insufficient support interest payments bonds nation may default debts usually foreign creditors public debt borrowing refers government borrowing public impossible government default equity since total returns available investors taxpayers limited point total current year tax liability investors dipping prior surpluses fiscal surplus often saved future use may invested either local currency financial instrument may

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy
Fiscal policy


fiscal policy making european union assessment current practice challenges routledge hansen bent economic theory fiscal policy volume routledge anderson j e http deepbluelibumichedu bitstream handle wp pdfsequence isallowed fiscal reform firm level effects eastern europe central asia working papers series wp william davidson institute university michigan harries roger fenton crimean war schmidt look fiscal monetary policy dotdash pettinger difference monetary fiscal policy econmicshelporg amadeo k fiscal policy types objectives tools dotdash kramer l


guided munitions military forces often claim gone great lengths minimize collateral damage critics use term collateral damage see euphemism dehumanizes non combatants killed injured combat used reduce perceived culpability military leadership failing prevent non combatant casualties ref name olsthoorn ref ref name shabo ref collateral damage include civilian casualties caused military operations intended terrorize kill enemy civilians eg bombing chongqing world war ii etymology word collateral comes medieval latin word ''collateralis'' ''col '' together

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Collateral damage


usaf intelligence targeting guide attachment collateral damage doi j v n cid last reynolds first jefferson title collateral damage st century battlefield enemy exploitation law armed conflict struggle moral high ground journal air force law review date january volume pages https webarchiveorg web http wwwfriendsjournalorg contents april featurehtml faces collateral damage charlie clements friends journal april https webarchiveorg web http wwwzmagorg znet viewarticle collateral damage military euphemism murder camillo mac bica znet april military terminology linguistic controversies euphemisms war casualties civilian casualties


starring arnold schwarzenegger ''collateral damage'' film canadian short drama film directed leonard farlinger collateral damage sixth dc heroclix set produced wizkids collateral damage instrumental solo muse album ''the resistance'' collateral damage song brutal truth album ''extreme conditions demand extreme responses''


returning europe th century islamic world ali baba maxfield parrish well known fiction islamic world ''the book one thousand one nights'' ''arabian nights'' compilation many earlier folk tales told persian queen scheherazade epic took form th century reached final form th century number type tales varied one manuscript another ref name arabiannights john grant john clute ''the encyclopedia fantasy'' arabian fantasy p ref arabian fantasy tales often

Humanities
Languages and literature
History of literature


sinbad ali baba however medieval arabic source traced aladdin incorporated ''the book one thousand one nights'' french translator antoine galland heard arab syrian christian storyteller aleppo popularity work may part due greater popular knowledge history geography since written meant plausibility great marvels set greater distance time long ago place far away process continues finally culminates fantasy


copy ''diamond sutra'' key buddhist text found sealed cave china early th century oldest known dated printed book printed date method used block printing scientist statesman general shen kuo ad author ''dream pool essays'' large book scientific literature included oldest description magnetized compass song dynasty also enormous historical work ''zizhi tongjian'' compiled volumes million written chinese characters


forerunner novel geoffrey chaucer 's ''canterbury tales'' indication future directions literature arrival printing press process begins folk yarns legends collected within frame story mass published renaissance focus learning learning 's sake causes outpouring literature petrarch popularized sonnet poetic form giovanni boccaccio 's ''decameron'' made romance acceptable prose well poetry fran ois rabelais rejuvenates satire ''gargantua pantagruel'' michel de montaigne single handedly invented essay used catalog


age enlightenment important authors voltaire jean jacques rousseau immanuel kant adam smith second half century sees beginnings romanticism goethe th century britain th century dominated victorian era characterized romanticism romantic poets william wordsworth lord byron samuel taylor coleridge genres gothic novel charles dickens perhaps famous novelist history english literature active time contributed novel 's emergence leading literary genre victorian england


subgroups abelian groups automatically normal therefore define ''n''th '''homology group''' ''h'' sub ''n'' sub ''c'' factor group ''n'' cycles ''n'' boundaries math h n c z n b n operatorname ker n operatorname im n math chain complex called '''acyclic''' '''exact sequence''' homology groups zero chain complexes arise abundance algebra algebraic topology example ''x'' topological space singular chains ''c'' sub ''n'' sub ''x'' formal linear combinations continuous maps standard ''n'' simplex ''x'' ''k'' simplicial complex simplicial chains

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Homological algebra


groups homomorphisms may either finite infinite similar definition made certain algebraic structures example one could exact sequence vector spaces linear maps modules module homomorphisms generally notion exact sequence makes sense category kernels cokernels short exact sequence common type exact sequence '' 'short exact sequence''' exact sequence form math overset f hookrightarrow b overset g twoheadrightarrow c math fnof monomorphism ''g'' epimorphism


functoriality continuous map topological spaces gives rise homomorphism ''n''th homology groups ''n'' basic fact algebraic topology finds natural explanation certain properties chain complexes since common study several topological spaces simultaneously homological algebra one led simultaneous consideration multiple chain complexes '''morphism''' two chain complexes math f c bullet bullet math family homomorphisms abelian groups math f n c n n math commute differentials sense math f n circ n c n circ f n math


'' 'respiratory therapist''' specialized healthcare practitioner trained critical care cardio pulmonary medicine order work therapeutically people suffering acute critical conditions cardiac pulmonary disease respiratory therapists graduate college university degree respiratory therapy passed national board certifying examination nbrc national board respiratory care profit organization responsible credentialing seven areas respiratory therapy united states seven areas respiratory therapy include december crt certified respiratory therapist rrt registered respiratory therapist cpft

Applied science
Medicine and health
Respiratory therapy


clinic outpatient setting respiratory therapists assist diagnosis serve educator patients suffering cardiac respiratory illness united states respiratory therapists certification registered respiratory therapists evaluate treat patients great deal autonomy direction pulmonologist ref name pmid ref facilities maintain critical care transport teams respiratory therapists preferred addition types surface air transport ref name pmid ref public education settings respiratory therapists found schools asthma educators working teachers coaches childhood symptoms


full provisional member provincial licensing body provinces called regulated provinces provinces one may work provisionally upon graduating writing passing exam jurisdictions licensing body profession respiratory care canadian society respiratory therapy registration full member optional respiratory therapists living regulated provinces however respiratory therapists living non regulated provinces registration full member csrt compulsory registration provincial regulatory body csrt non regulated provinces confers upon


respiratory therapist title registered respiratory therapist rrt canada united states recognize cardio pulmonary education structure equal however qualifying exam must written order practice either nation pressure program become degree like therapies physical therapy occupational therapy require master 's degree greater however places alberta canada cardio pulmonary course work offered technical schools unable grant formal degree france respiratory therapy sub specialty physical therapy france


respiratory therapists singapore established national professional organization respiratory therapists working singapore services care provided respiratory therapists found public hospitals country united states respiratory therapist teaches students dangers smoking united states respiratory therapist clinician minimum completed associate science respiratory care degree along certification process satisfactorily completing required examinations either administered national board respiratory care directly individual


metabolic needs cardiac surgical patient cardiac surgeon may operate still unbeating heart perfusionist certifications maintained awarded american board cardiovascular perfusion extra corporeal membrane oxygenation respiratory therapist takes blood sample day old preparation transfer extracorporeal membrane oxygenation unit extracorporeal membrane oxygenation ecmo modified cardiopulmonary bypass technique used treatment life threatening cardiac respiratory failure ecmo clinical specialist technical specialist trained manage ecmo system including blood pump tubing artificial


moving cylinders compressed gas administering oxygen via nasal catheter oxygen tent ref name amp smith ga respiratory care evolution profession lenexa kansas amp ref oxygen technicians trained job although brief training programs began appear late ref name pmid ref ref name historyofrespcare weilacher rr history respiratory care profession hess dr macintyre nr mishoe sc galvin wf adams ab saposnick ab editors respiratory care principles practice philadelphia saunders ref today profession hardly resembles respiratory therapists provide


licensure certification respiratory therapist bachelor science respiratory therapy bsrt ref name pmid ref aarc task force also recommended american respiratory care foundation change scholarship policies award assistance grants working toward bachelor 's degree committee accreditation respiratory care coarc asked aarc task force change accreditation standards longer accredit associates level respiratory care programs ref name pmid coarc replied press release rejecting recommendation ref name coarc coarc memorandum communities interest regarding recommendations


persistent carriers ref name urlwho hepatitis b ref liver cancers attributed either hepatitis b hepatitis c virus terms mortality former second smoking among known agents causing cancer widespread implementation vaccination strict screening blood transfusion lower infection rates expected future many countries however overall alcohol consumption increasing consequently number people cirrhosis related complications commensurately increasing schematic diagram hepato biliary system scope specialty many medical specialties patients

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Hepatology


fit one taxi maximizing profit rather minimizing cost formal definition formal definition '''assignment problem''' '''linear assignment problem''' given two sets ''a'' ''t'' equal size together weight function ''c'' ''a'' times ''t'' rarr '''r''' find bijection ''f'' ''a'' rarr ''t'' cost function math sum c af math minimized usually weight function viewed square real valued matrix ''c'' cost function written math sum c af math problem linear cost function optimized well

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Assignment problem


solve problems using simplex algorithm specialization small solution space thus efficient algorithms designed take advantage special structure balanced assignment balanced assignment problem parts bipartite graph number vertices denoted ''n'' one first polynomial time algorithms balanced assignment hungarian algorithm ''global'' algorithm nbsp based improving matching along augmenting paths alternating paths unmatched vertices run time complexity using fibonacci heaps math mn n log n math


math display inline x j math similar considerations move one vertex another collecting edges fractional values since graph finite point must cycle without loss generality assume cycle ends vertex ''i'' last fractional variable cycle math display inline x j math number edges cycle ''m'' nbsp must even since graph bipartite suppose add certain constant ''e'' even variables cycle remove constant ''e'' odd variables


time scales sometimes called hydroclimatology particular studying effects climate change water cycle ref name methods study contemporary climates incorporates meteorological data accumulated many years records rainfall temperature atmospheric composition knowledge atmosphere dynamics also embodied models either statistical mathematical help integrating different observations testing fit together modeling used understanding past present potential future climates climate research made difficult large scale long time periods complex processes

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Climatology


earth single point averages outgoing energy expanded vertically radiative convective models horizontally coupled atmosphere ocean sea ice global climate models discretise solve full equations mass energy transfer radiant exchange earth system models include biosphere additionally available different resolutions ranging km km high resolutions global climate models computational demanding global datasets exists examples icon mechnistically downscaled data chelsa climatologies high resolution earth 's land surface areas topics research


atmosphere stratosphere also capable creating variability importantly madden julian oscillation mjo cycle approximately days interdecadal pacific oscillation create changes pacific ocean lower atmosphere decadal time scales climatic change climate change occurs changes earth 's climate system result new weather patterns remain place extended period time length time short decades long millions years climate system receives nearly


led design parallel hardware software well high performance computing frequency scaling dominant reason improvements computer performance mid runtime program equal number instructions multiplied average time per instruction maintaining everything else constant increasing clock frequency decreases average time takes execute instruction increase frequency thus decreases runtime compute bound programs however power consumption ''p'' chip given equation ''p'' ''c'' ''v'' sup sup ''f''

Formal science
Computer science
Parallel computing


law applies cases problem size fixed practice computing resources become available tend get used larger problems larger datasets time spent parallelizable part often grows much faster inherently serial work case gustafson 's law gives less pessimistic realistic assessment parallel performance math text latency p sp math amdahl 's law gustafson 's law assume running time serial part program independent number processors amdahl 's law assumes


hbn hynes ''the ecology running waters'' jacob kalff ''limnology'' prentice hall b moss ''ecology fresh waters'' blackwell robert g wetzel gene e likens ''limnological analyses'' rd ed springer verlag patrick e o'sullivan colin reynolds ''the lakes handbook limnology limnetic ecology'' hydrography lakes rivers systems ecology aquatic ecology water


devices team public safety bomb disposal public safety dive teams maritime units canine units mdash drug detection explosive detection cadaver detection arson accelerant detection search rescue evidence search suspect apprehension handler protection aviation units mdash law enforcement firefighting emergency medical services technical rescue emergency management functions fire fighting units hazardous materials mdash hazardous materials mitigation search rescue responds emergencies someone need assistance mountain rescue cave rescue coastguard responds emergencies ocean large bodies water often also providing law enforcement wildland firefighting military incident response team

Applied science
Public administration
Emergency services


incorporated intelligence collection analysis dissemination areas study may include operational environment hostile friendly neutral forces civilian population area combat operations broader areas interest intelligence activities conducted levels tactical strategic peacetime period transition war war governments maintain military intelligence capability provide analytical information collection personnel specialist units arms services military civilian intelligence capabilities collaborate inform spectrum political military activities

Applied science
Military sciences
Military intelligence


maintain satellites intercept cell phone pager traffic usually referred echelon system analysis bulk traffic normally performed complex computer programs parse natural language phone numbers looking threatening conversations correspondents extraordinary cases undersea land based cables tapped well exotic secret information encryption keys diplomatic message traffic policy orders battle usually restricted analysts need know basis order protect sources methods foreign traffic analysis analysis analysis consists assessment adversary 's


responsibility intelligence though helps analyst know capabilities common types military units generally policy makers presented list threats opportunities approve basic action professional military personnel plan detailed act carry hostilities begin target selection often moves upper end military chain command ready stocks weapons fuel depleted logistic concerns often exported civilian policy makers dissemination processed intelligence information disseminated database systems intel bulletins briefings


'''social work''' academic discipline practice based profession concerns individuals families groups communities society whole effort meet basic needs enhance social functioning self determination collective responsibility optimal health overall well social functioning defined ability individual perform social roles within self immediate social environment society large social work applies areas sociology psychology human biology political science health community development law economics work individuals across lifespan engage client systems


discriminate persons disabilities general lack directives requires ensure proper implementation act mental health india developing stages enough professionals support demand according indian psychiatric society around psychiatrists country january going figure india psychiatrists per population desirable number least psychiatrists per number psychiatrists increased since still far healthy ratio lack


fictional social workers media class wikitable width bgcolor ddddff name width bgcolor ddddff portrayed width bgcolor ddddff title width bgcolor ddddff year ann vickers irene dunne ''ann vickers'' ray fremick edward platt ''rebel without cause'' neil brock george c scott ''east side west side'' edith keeler joan collins ''star trek original series city edge forever'' germain cazeneuve jean gabin


thumb economic study public sector '''economic social development''' process economic well quality life nation region local community individual improved according targeted goals objectives term used frequently th st centuries concept existed west far longer modernization westernization especially industrialization terms often used discussing economic development historically economic development policies focused industrialization infrastructure since increasingly focused poverty reduction ref

Social science
Sociology
Social transformation
Economic development


priority west half people world living conditions approaching misery food inadequate victims disease economic life primitive stagnant poverty handicap threat prosperous areas first time history humanity possesses knowledge skill relieve suffering people believe make available peace loving peoples benefits store technical knowledge order help


literacy rates life expectancy poverty rates may causes economic development rather consequences specific economic development programs example health education improvements closely related economic growth causality economic development may obvious case important expect particular economic development programs able fix many problems would establishing unsurmountable goals highly unlikely achieve development policy set limited goals gradual approach avoid falling victim something


retain existing business wealth numerous organizations whose primary function economic development work partnership economic developers include news media foundations utilities schools health care providers faith based organizations colleges universities education research institutions development indicators indices various types macroeconomic sociocultural indicators metrics used economists geographers assess relative economic advancement given region nation world bank 's world development indicators compiled annually officially recognized international sources include national regional global estimates


evolutionary computation similar name confused unlike computational biology evolutionary computation concerned modeling analyzing biological data instead creates algorithms based ideas evolution across species sometimes referred genetic algorithms research field applied computational biology evolutionary computation inherently part computational biology computational evolutionary biology subfield computational biology used help sequence human genome create accurate models human brain assist modeling biological systems ref name hogeweg

Natural science
Biology
Computational biology


causing cancer understanding human genome relates causation tumors cancer computational pharmacology computational pharmacology computational biology perspective study effects genomic data find links specific genotypes diseases screening drug data pharmaceutical industry requires shift methods analyze drug data pharmacologists able use microsoft excel compare chemical genomic data related effectiveness drugs however industry reached referred excel barricade arises limited number cells


kramer initiative lesbian gay studies yale university ref name kramer initiative ref says 're asking 'what causes homosexuality' also 'what causes heterosexuality' 'why sexuality central people 's perspective' ref name yale founding scholar discipline late eve kosofsky sedgwick queer studies queer theory analytical viewpoint within queer studies centered literary studies philosophy challenges putatively socially constructed categories sexual identity ref name yale background though new discipline growing number colleges begun offering academic programs related

Social science
Sociology
Sexology
Queer studies


unl course taught louis crompton led introduction state legislature bill eventually defeated would banned discussion homosexuality state 's universities colleges ref name mcnaron according harvard university city university new york began first university program gay lesbian studies ref name bostoncom ref ref name nyt ref city college san francisco claims first queer studies department us ref name ccsf ref english instructor dan allen developing one first gay literature courses country fall


recently also developed parts world instance since emergent field queer african studies leading scholars stella nyanzi uganda keguro macharia kenya zethu matebeni south africa sn nyeck cameroon kwame e otu ghana gibson ncube zimbabwe contributing development field work critiques eurocentric orientation western queer studies examines longstanding traditions sexual gender diversity ambiguity fluidity african cultures societies queer studies non us universities brazil universidade federal de minas gerais ufmg


cultural signs queerness disability new york university press external links http wwwpeoplekuedu jyounger lgbtqprogshtml university queer programs https webarchiveorg web http ujsdssautorontoca undergraduate journal sexual diversity studies university toronto http rockwayalliantedu rockway institute lgbt research public interest alliant international university http wwwglbthistoryorg gay lesbian bisexual transgender historical society http wwwtriksternet trikster nordic queer journal http hallcarpentertripodcom univhtml lesbian gay research uk universities colleges compiled https webarchiveorg web http soci anthlouisianaedu minors lgbt lgbt homehtml lgbt studies minor university louisiana lafayette queer postmodernism post structuralism queer theory lgbt education gender education


aj ana c rv ka however methods classification vidyaranya instance identifies sixteen schools hindu indian philosophy including belong aiva rase vara traditions ref name cowell cowell eb gough ae sarva darsana sangraha madhava acharya review different systems hindu philosophy new delhi indian books centre sri satguru publications p xii ref ref name nicholson nicholson pp ref school hindu philosophy extensive epistemological literature called ''pramana sastras'' ref name kp karl potter presuppositions india 's philosophies motilal banarsidass pp ref ref name pbil p bilimoria pram epistemology recent developments asian philosophy volume editor g

Humanities
Philosophy
Philosophical traditions and schools
Eastern philosophy


floistad springer pp ref hindu history distinction six orthodox schools current gupta period golden age hinduism disappearance vaisheshika became obsolete later middle ages various sub schools vedanta dvaita dualism advaita vedanta non dualism others began rise prominence main divisions religious philosophy nyaya survived th century ''navya nyaya'' neo nyaya samkhya gradually lost status independent school tenets absorbed yoga vedanta mkhya yoga mkhya dualist philosophical


living householder 's life instead monasticism truthful action dharam righteousness moral duty equality human beings believing god 's grace key concepts include ''simran'' ''sewa'' three pillars sikhism five thieves modern indian philosophy left right virchand gandhi anagarika dharmapala swami vivekananda possibly g bonet maury parliament world religions response colonialism contact western philosophy th century indians developed new ways thinking termed neo vedanta hindu modernism ideas focused universality indian philosophy particularly vedanta unity different religions


han dynasty bce ce gradual silk road transmission gradually developed distinct chinese forms chan zen confucianism confucius confucianism ''k ngji o'' confucius' doctrine also known ruism ''r ji o'' doctrine scholars chinese philosophical system ritual moral religious applications tradition developed around teachings confucius ''k ng f z '' master kong bce saw transmitting values theology ancestors influential classical confucian philosophers include mencius xun kuang famously disagreed innate moral nature humans confucianism focuses


major school thought rival confucianism taoism spring autumn warring states periods c bce main text school ''mozi'' book administrative thought mohism later absorbed legalism ethics absorbed confucianism books also merged taoist canon mohism disappeared independent school qin dynasty era mohism best known idea impartial care chinese pinyin ''ji n i'' literally inclusive love care according master mo persons care equally


norms ritual opposed confucianism attainment immortality external alchemy waidan internal alchemy neidan important goal many taoists historically early forms taoism developed th century bce influenced cosmological theories school naturalists ''i ching'' school naturalists yin yang another philosophical school synthesized concepts yin yang five elements zou yan considered founder ''dao de jing'' ''tao te ching'' c th century bce traditionally attributed laozi ''nan hua jing'' ''zhuang zi'' considered


work kyoto school ultimately may read heidegger 's philosophy attempt 'turn eastwards' response crisis western civilization however interpretation th century hindu guru sri aurobindo influenced german idealism integral yoga regarded synthesis eastern western thought german phenomenologist jean gebser 's writings history consciousness referred new planetary consciousness would bridge gap followers two authors often grouped together term integral thought following xinhai revolution


'''deception''' '''falsehood''' act statement misleads hides truth promotes belief concept idea true often done personal gain advantage deception involve dissimulation propaganda sleight hand well distraction camouflage concealment also self deception bad faith also called varying subjective implications beguilement deceit bluff mystification ruse subterfuge deception major relational transgression often leads feelings betrayal distrust relational partners deception violates relational rules considered

Applied science
Military sciences
Strategy
Deception


fraudulent misrepresentation deliberate give rise criminal prosecution fraud also forms vital part psychological warfare denial deception types ''deception woman self portrait'' stanis aw ignacy witkiewicz national museum warsaw communication deception includes several types communications omissions serve distort omit whole truth examples deception range false statements misleading claims relevant information omitted leading receiver infer false conclusions example claim 'sunflower oil beneficial brain health due presence omega fatty


socially polite relationally beneficial telling white lies avoid hurting partner although less common partner focused motives using deception evoke jealous reactions partner may damaging effects relationship ref name '''self focused motives''' using deception enhance protect one 's self image maintain establish autonomy avoid constrictions unwanted activities impositions shield anger embarrassment criticism resolve argument ref name cole ref name ref name another common self focused motive deception continuation deception order avoid


likely commit infidelity emotionally unsatisfied relationship whereas men likely commit infidelity sexually unsatisfied current relationship ref name ref women likely commit emotional infidelity men men likely commit sexual infidelity women however mutually exclusive categories men women engage emotional sexual infidelity ref name executive control part executive functions allows individuals monitor control behavior thinking managing


engage sex someone ref name ref individuals less restrictive sociosexual orientation likely partake casual sex likely engage infidelity ref name ref name individuals personality traits including high neuroticism low agreeableness low conscientiousness likely commit infidelity ref name men generally speculated cheat women unclear result socialization processes acceptable men cheat compared women due actual increase behavior men ref name ref research conducted