sugar starch cotton linen hemp types rope wood particle boards papyrus paper vegetable oils wax natural rubber examples commercially important materials made plant tissues secondary products charcoal pure form carbon made pyrolysis wood long history metal smelting fuel filter material adsorbent artist 's material one three ingredients gunpowder cellulose world 's abundant organic polymer converted energy fuels materials chemical feedstock products made cellulose include rayon cellophane


bacteria fix nitrogen plant plant ecology science functional relationships plants habitats nbsp environments complete life cycles plant ecologists study composition local regional floras biodiversity genetic diversity fitness adaptation plants environment competitive mutualistic interactions species ecologists even rely empirical data indigenous people gathered ethnobotanists ref name teachethnobotany ref information relay great deal information land thousands years ago


distinctive genetic differences plants organisms species boundaries plants may weaker animals cross species hybrids often possible familiar example peppermint ''mentha'' ''piperita'' sterile hybrid ''mentha aquatica'' spearmint ''mentha spicata'' many cultivated varieties wheat result multiple inter intra specific crosses wild species hybrids angiosperms monoecious flowers often self incompatibility mechanisms operate pollen stigma pollen either fails reach stigma fails germinate produce male gametes one


several methods used plants promote outcrossing many land plants male female gametes produced separate individuals species said dioecious referring vascular plant sporophytes dioicous referring bryophyte gametophytes unlike higher animals parthenogenesis rare asexual reproduction may occur plants several different mechanisms formation stem tubers potato one example particularly arctic alpine habitats opportunities fertilisation flowers animals rare plantlets bulbs may develop instead flowers replacing sexual reproduction asexual


commonly incorrectly known blue green algae thought derived ancient endosymbiotic relationship ancestral eukaryotic cell cyanobacterial resident algae polyphyletic group placed various divisions closely related plants others many differences features cell wall composition biochemistry pigmentation chloroplast structure nutrient reserves algal division charophyta sister green algal division chlorophyta considered contain ancestor true plants charophyte class charophyceae land plant sub kingdom embryophyta together form


could induced form roots shoots controlling concentration growth hormones key steps development plant biotechnology genetic modification venus 's fly trap ''dionaea muscipula'' showing touch sensitive insect trap action cytokinins class plant hormones named control cell division especially cytokinesis natural cytokinin zeatin discovered corn ''zea mays'' derivative purine adenine zeatin produced roots transported shoots xylem promotes cell division bud development greening chloroplasts


usually nonphotosynthetic root system depends shoot system food usually photosynthetic shoot system depends water minerals root system cells system capable creating cells producing adventitious shoots roots stolons tubers examples shoots grow roots roots spread close surface willows produce shoots ultimately new plants event one systems lost often regrow fact possible grow entire


process needs automated genomes large annotate hand mention desire annotate many genomes possible rate sequencing ceased pose bottleneck annotation made possible fact genes recognisable start stop regions although exact sequence found regions vary genes first description comprehensive genome annotation system published ref name pmid team institute genomic research performed first complete sequencing analysis genome


us appeared called encode project collaborative data collection functional elements human genome uses next generation dna sequencing technologies genomic tiling arrays technologies able automatically generate large amounts data dramatically reduced per base cost accuracy base call error fidelity assembly error gene function prediction genome annotation primarily based sequence similarity thus homology properties sequences used predict function genes fact ''gene'' function prediction methods focus ''protein'' sequences


informative feature rich instance distribution hydrophobic amino acids predicts transmembrane segments proteins however protein function prediction also use external information gene protein expression data protein structure protein protein interactions computational evolutionary biology evolutionary biology study origin descent species well change time informatics assisted evolutionary biologists enabling researchers trace evolution large number organisms measuring changes dna rather physical taxonomy physiological observations alone compare entire genomes permits


somatic mutations genes second cancer contains driver mutations need distinguished passengers breakthroughs next generation sequencing technology providing field bioinformatics cancer genomics could drastically change new methods software allow bioinformaticians sequence many cancer genomes quickly affordably could create flexible process classifying types cancer analysis cancer driven mutations genome furthermore tracking patients disease progresses may possible future sequence cancer samples another type data requires novel informatics


biojs bioruby bioclipse emboss net bio orange bioinformatics add apache taverna ugene genocad maintain tradition create opportunities non profit open bioinformatics foundation ref name obf main supported annual bioinformatics open source conference bosc since ref name obf bosc ref alternative method build public bioinformatics databases use mediawiki engine https wwwmediawikiorg wiki extension wikiopener ''wikiopener'' extension system allows database accessed updated experts field web services bioinformatics soap rest based interfaces developed wide variety bioinformatics applications allowing application running


centers non profit entities including human variome project european federation medical informatics research institutions including stanford new york genome center george washington university decided biocompute paradigm would form digital 'lab notebooks' allow reproducibility replication review reuse bioinformatics protocols proposed enable greater continuity within research group course normal personnel flux furthering exchange ideas groups us fda funded work information pipelines would transparent


mid biofets developed including gas sensor fet gasfet pressure sensor fet pressfet chemical field effect transistor chemfet reference isfet refet enzyme modified fet enfet immunologically modified fet imfet ref name bergveld early biofets dna field effect transistor dnafet gene modified fet genfet cell potential biofet cpfet developed ref name schoning factor influencing biotechnology sector 's success improved intellectual property rights legislation enforcement worldwide well strengthened demand medical pharmaceutical products cope ageing ailing us population rising demand biofuels expected good


preservation ref name branch involves production vaccines antibiotics regenerative therapies creation artificial organs new diagnostics diseases ref name well development hormones stem cells antibodies sirna diagnostic tests ref name white biotechnology also known industrial biotechnology biotechnology applied industrial processes example designing organism produce useful chemical another example using enzymes industrial catalysts either produce valuable chemicals destroy hazardous polluting chemicals white biotechnology tends consume less resources traditional processes used produce


addition studying chromosomes level individual genes genetic testing broader sense includes biochemical tests possible presence genetic diseases mutant forms genes associated increased risk developing genetic disorders genetic testing identifies changes chromosomes genes proteins time testing used find changes associated inherited disorders results genetic test confirm rule suspected genetic condition help determine person 's chance developing passing genetic disorder several hundred genetic


crops include resistance certain pests ref name newsgooglecouk https newsgooglecom newspapersid yyaaaaibaj sjid joyfaaaaibaj pg dq bacillus thuringiensis potato approved hl genetically altered potato ok 'd crops lawrence journal world may ref diseases stressful environmental conditions resistance chemical treatments eg resistance herbicide reduction spoilage ref name haroldsen ref improving nutrient profile crop examples non food crops include production pharmaceutical agents biofuels industrially useful goods well bioremediation ref name diaz ref farmers widely adopted gm technology total surface area land cultivated gm crops increased factor nbsp km sup sup million acres ref name james


control food 's genetic structure previously afforded methods selective breeding mutation breeding commercial sale genetically modified foods began calgene first marketed flavr savr delayed ripening tomato ref name james ref date genetic modification foods primarily focused cash crops high demand farmers soybean corn canola cotton seed oil engineered resistance pathogens herbicides better nutrient profiles gm livestock also experimentally developed november none available market


europe white biotechnology application biotechnology industrial purposes including industrial fermentation includes practice using cells microorganisms components cells like enzymes generate industrially useful products sectors chemicals food feed detergents paper pulp textiles biofuels current decades significant progress done creating genetically modified organisms gmos enhance diversity applications economical viability industrial biotechnology using renewable raw materials produce variety chemicals fuels industrial biotechnology actively advancing towards lowering greenhouse


approved import processing ref name wesseler ref cultivation gmos triggered debate coexistence gm non gm crops depending coexistence regulations incentives cultivation gm crops differ ref name beckman ref learning prompting united states congress national institute general medical sciences national institutes health nigms instituted funding mechanism biotechnology training universities nationwide compete funds establish biotechnology training programs btps successful application generally funded five years must competitively renewed graduate students turn compete acceptance


hobbesian state nature requires working legal system define allocate enforce property rights davis claims common law theory generally favors view property essentially 'right thing' rather separable bundle rights subsisting persons may vary according context object stake ref name davies common parlance property rights involve bundle rights including occupancy use enjoyment right sell devise give lease part rights custodians property obligations

Applied science
Business
Business ethics


protections rather reproducible good service boldrin levine argue government ordinarily enforce monopolies producers goods widely recognized monopoly creates many social costs intellectual monopoly different respect question address whether also creates social benefits commensurate social costs international standards relating intellectual property rights enforced agreement trade related aspects intellectual property rights us ip copyrights regulated united states patent trademark office us constitution


possible conceive human institutional contractual arrangement artificial scarcity hand outcome arrangements artificial scarcity hardly serve justification legal framework causes scarcity argument would completely circular contrary artificial scarcity needs justification corporations fund much ip creation acquire ip create menon others objected andersen claims ipr increasingly become instrument eroding public domain ethical legal issues include patent infringement copyright infringement trademark infringement patent


international differences outsourcing production eg clothes services eg call centers low wage countries permissibility international commerce pariah states foreign countries often use dumping competitive threat selling products prices lower normal value lead problems domestic markets becomes difficult markets compete pricing set foreign markets international trade commission researching anti dumping laws dumping often seen ethical issue larger companies taking advantage less economically advanced companies issues ethical issues


policy 'umbrella' ethics play major role personal development decision making processes people make respect ethical behavior ethics company individuals heavily influenced state country country heavily plagued poverty large corporations continuously grow smaller companies begin wither forced adapt scavenge method survival result leadership company often tempted participate unethical methods obtain new business opportunities additionally social media arguably


addition traditional environmental 'green' sustainability concerns business ethics practices expanded include social sustainability social sustainability focuses issues related human capital business supply chain worker 's rights working conditions child labor human trafficking incorporation considerations increasing consumers procurement officials demand documentation business' compliance national international initiatives guidelines standards many industries organizations dedicated verifying ethical delivery products start finish kimberly process aims stop flow conflict diamonds international markets


philosophical political ethical underpinnings business economics business ethics operates premise example ethical operation private business possible dispute premise libertarian socialists contend business ethics oxymoron definition outside domain business ethics proper philosophy economics also deals questions social responsibilities business business management theory theories individualism vs collectivism free among participants marketplace role self interest invisible hand theories


majoring bme without expressed intention also obtain master 's degree apply medical school afterwards graduate programs bme like scientific fields highly varied particular programs may emphasize certain aspects within field may also feature extensive collaborative efforts programs fields university 's medical school engineering divisions owing interdisciplinary nature bme ms phd programs typically require applicants undergraduate degree bme ''another engineering'' discipline plus certain life science coursework ''life science'' plus

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Biomedical engineering


recognizing moving correct deficiencies bme education also high technology endeavors usually marks developed nations areas world prone slower development education including bme licensure certification learned professions state certain fairly similar requirements becoming licensed registered professional engineer pe us industry license required employee engineer majority situations due exception known industrial exemption effectively applies vast majority american


registration certain private sector professional industrial organizations also offer certifications varying degrees prominence one example certified clinical engineer cce certification clinical engineers career prospects biomedical engineers employed us field predicted grow faster average biomedical engineering highest percentage female engineers compared common engineering professions notable figures earl bakken invented first transistorised pacemaker co founder medtronic forrest bird deceased aviator pioneer invention mechanical ventilators yc fung deceased


well field artificial organs robert langer institute professor mit runs largest bme laboratory world pioneer drug delivery tissue engineering john macleod deceased one co discoverers insulin case western reserve university alfred e mann physicist entrepreneur philanthropist pioneer field biomedical engineering j thomas mortimer emeritus professor biomedical engineering case western reserve university pioneer functional electrical stimulation fes robert nerem professor emeritus georgia institute technology pioneer regenerative tissue biomechanics author


purposes historically ciphers often used directly encryption decryption without additional procedures authentication integrity checks generally two kinds cryptosystems '' 'symmetric''' '''asymmetric''' symmetric systems ones known key secret key used encrypt decrypt message data manipulation symmetric systems faster asymmetric systems part generally use shorter key lengths asymmetric systems use '''public key''' encrypt message related '''private key''' decrypt use asymmetric systems enhances

Formal science
Computer science
Computer security
Cryptography


''the codebreakers'' modern cryptology originated among arabs first people systematically document cryptanalytic methods ref name yyb ref al khalil wrote ''book cryptographic messages'' contains first use permutations combinations list possible arabic words without vowels ref name lb ref first page book al kindi discusses encryption messages ciphertexts produced classical cipher modern ciphers reveal statistical information plaintext information often used break cipher discovery frequency analysis perhaps arab mathematician polymath


described public key cryptography revolutionary new concept field since polyalphabetic substitution emerged renaissance ref name l tc ref public key cryptosystems public key may freely distributed paired private key must remain secret public key encryption system ''public key'' used encryption ''private'' ' 'secret key'' used decryption diffie hellman could find system showed public key cryptography indeed possible presenting diffie hellman key exchange protocol solution widely used secure communications allow two parties


computational complexity hard problems often number theory example hardness rsa related integer factorization problem diffie hellman dsa related discrete logarithm problem security elliptic curve cryptography based number theoretic problems involving elliptic curves difficulty underlying problems public key algorithms involve operations modular multiplication exponentiation much computationally expensive techniques used block ciphers especially typical key sizes result public key cryptosystems commonly hybrid cryptosystems fast high quality


applications cryptology cryptool team pdf nbsp mb july http wwwcscornelledu courses cs fa lecnotespdf course cryptography raphael pass abhi shelat offered cornell form lecture notes use cryptographic elements fiction see https wwwlocgov rr rarebook coll html george fabyan collection library congress early editions works seventeenth century english literature publications relating cryptography banking technology formal sciences applied mathematics


talmudist mathematician levi ben gerson better known gersonides arithmetical triangle graphical diagram showing relationships among binomial coefficients presented mathematicians treatises dating far back th century would eventually become known pascal 's triangle later medieval england campanology provided examples known hamiltonian cycles certain cayley graphs permutations renaissance together rest mathematics sciences combinatorics enjoyed rebirth works pascal newton jacob bernoulli euler became foundational emerging field modern times

Formal science
Mathematics
Applied mathematics
Combinatorics


boundaries combinatorics parts mathematics theoretical computer science time led partial fragmentation field approaches subfields combinatorics enumerative combinatorics five binary trees three vertices example catalan numbers enumerative combinatorics classical area combinatorics concentrates counting number certain combinatorial objects although counting number elements set rather broad mathematical problem many problems arise applications relatively simple combinatorial description fibonacci numbers basic example


analysis considered part combinatorics independent field incorporates bijective approach various tools analysis analytic number theory connections statistical mechanics graph theory petersen graph graphs fundamental objects combinatorics considerations graph theory range enumeration eg number graphs ''n'' vertices ''k'' edges existing structures eg hamiltonian cycles algebraic representations eg given graph ''g'' two numbers ''x'' ''y'' tutte polynomial ''t'' sub ''g'' sub ''x''''y'' combinatorial interpretation although strong connections


graph theory combinatorics sometimes thought separate subjects combinatorial methods apply many graph theory problems two disciplines generally used seek solutions different types problems design theory design theory study combinatorial designs collections subsets certain intersection properties block designs combinatorial designs special type area one oldest parts combinatorics kirkman 's schoolgirl problem proposed solution problem special case steiner system systems play


important role classification finite simple groups area connections coding theory geometric combinatorics finite geometry finite geometry study geometric systems finite number points structures analogous found continuous geometries euclidean plane real projective space etc defined combinatorially main items studied area provides rich source examples design theory confused discrete geometry combinatorial geometry order theory hasse diagram powerset xyz ordered inclusion order theory study


partially ordered sets finite infinite various examples partial orders appear algebra geometry number theory throughout combinatorics graph theory notable classes examples partial orders include lattices boolean algebras matroid theory matroid theory abstracts part geometry studies properties sets usually finite sets vectors vector space depend particular coefficients linear dependence relation structure also enumerative properties belong matroid theory matroid theory introduced hassler whitney studied


arose interplay number theory combinatorics ergodic theory harmonic analysis combinatorial estimates associated arithmetic operations addition subtraction multiplication division additive number theory sometimes also called additive combinatorics refers special case operations addition subtraction involved one important technique arithmetic combinatorics ergodic theory dynamical systems infinitary combinatorics infinitary combinatorics combinatorial set theory extension ideas combinatorics infinite sets part set theory area mathematical logic uses tools


part design theory early combinatorial constructions error correcting codes main idea subject design efficient reliable methods data transmission large field study part information theory discrete computational geometry discrete geometry also called combinatorial geometry also began part combinatorics early results convex polytopes kissing numbers emergence applications discrete geometry computational geometry two fields partially merged became separate field study remain many connections geometric


going six times fast going right limit process described performed point domain squaring function defines ' 'derivative function'' squaring function ' 'derivative'' squaring function short computation similar one shows derivative squaring function doubling function leibniz notation common notation introduced leibniz derivative example math begin align x frac dy dx x end align math approach based

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Calculus


limits symbol interpreted quotient two numbers shorthand limit computed leibniz however intend represent quotient two infinitesimally small numbers infinitesimally small change caused infinitesimally small change applied also think differentiation operator takes function input gives another function derivative output example math frac dx x x math usage denominator read respect


finding formulae antiderivatives also prototype solution differential equation differential equations relate unknown function derivatives ubiquitous sciences applications logarithmic spiral nautilus shell classical image used depict growth change related calculus calculus used every branch physical sciences actuarial science computer science statistics engineering economics business medicine demography fields wherever problem mathematically modeled optimal solution desired allows one go non constant rates change


total change vice versa many times studying problem know one trying find physics makes particular use calculus concepts classical mechanics electromagnetism related calculus mass object known density moment inertia objects well total energy object within conservative field found use calculus example use calculus mechanics newton 's second law motion historically stated expressly uses term change


calculus mathworld wolfram web resource howard anton irl bivens stephen davis calculus john willey sons pte ltd larson ron bruce h edwards ''calculus'' th ed brooks cole cengage learning mcquarrie donald ''mathematical methods scientists engineers'' university science books stewart james ''calculus early transcendentals'' th ed brooks cole cengage learning thomas george b maurice weir joel hass frank r giordano ''calculus'' th ed addison wesley online books crowell b ''calculus'' light matter fullerton retrieved may http wwwlightandmattercom calc calcpdf http wwwlightandmattercom calc calcpdf garrett p ''notes first year


bound together covalent bonds structure electrically neutral valence electrons paired electrons either bonds lone pairs thus molecules exist electrically neutral units unlike ions rule broken giving molecule charge result sometimes named molecular ion polyatomic ion however discrete separate nature molecular concept usually requires molecular ions present well separated form directed beam vacuum mass spectrometer charged polyatomic collections residing solids example


many organic compounds like alcohol sugar gasoline various pharmaceuticals however substances chemical compounds consist discrete molecules indeed solid substances make solid crust mantle core earth chemical compounds without molecules types substances ionic compounds network solids organized way lack existence identifiable molecules ''per se'' instead substances discussed terms formula units unit cells smallest repeating structure within substance examples substances


one chemical substance another depends ' 'size'' energy quanta emitted one substance however heat energy often transferred easily almost substance another phonons responsible vibrational rotational energy levels substance much less energy photons invoked electronic energy transfer thus vibrational rotational energy levels closely spaced electronic energy levels heat easily transferred substances relative light forms electronic energy example ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation transferred much efficacy one


oxford university press atkins pw ''atkins' molecules'' cambridge university press kean sam ''the disappearing spoon true tales periodic table'' black swan london levi primo ''the periodic table'' penguin books translated italian raymond rosenthal stwertka ''a guide elements'' oxford university press introductory undergraduate textbooks atkins pw overton rourke j weller armstrong f ''shriver atkins inorganic chemistry'' th edition oxford university press chang raymond ''chemistry'' th ed boston james smith voet voet ''biochemistry'' wiley advanced undergraduate level


graduate textbooks atkins p w ''physical chemistry'' oxford university press atkins p w et al ''molecular quantum mechanics'' oxford university press mcweeny r ''coulson 's valence'' oxford science publications pauling l ''the nature chemical bond'' cornell university press pauling l wilson eb ''introduction quantum mechanics applications chemistry'' dover publications smart moore ''solid state chemistry introduction'' chapman hall stephenson g ''mathematical methods science students'' longman external links http wwwsaylororg site textbooks general chemistry principles patterns applicationspdf general chemistry principles patterns applications


legal systems world common law countries several shades pink corresponding variations common law systems law '''common law''' also known judicial '''precedent''' judge made law '''case law''' body law created judges similar quasi judicial tribunals virtue stated written opinions ref name garnerusagedef ref ref name blacks thdef ''black 's law dictionary'' used legal dictionary used among legal professionals us ref ref name holmessouthernpacificbrooding common law brooding omnipresence sky articulate voice sovereign quasi sovereign identified ''southern


statutes either silent ambiguous question judges authority duty resolve issue one party win disagreements law judges make decision court states opinion gives reasons decision reasons agglomerate past decisions precedent bind future judges litigants common law body law made judges ref name holmessouthernpacificbrooding ref name carpentercolumbiacourtdecisions common law court decisions law rather rules courts lay making decisions constitute law ref stands contrast


first treatises blackstone coke universal among lawyers judges earliest times mid th century ref name carpentercolumbiacourtdecisions however years lawyers judges recognized ancient unwritten universal custom view accord facts origin growth law held within legal profession today ref name carpentercolumbiacourtdecisions ref name blacks thdefremoved ancient unwritten universal custom definition given th century editions ''black 's law dictionary'' common law comprises body principles rules action


post coach failed injured winterbottom sued wright ''winterbottom'' court recognized would absurd outrageous consequences injured person could sue person peripherally involved knew draw line somewhere limit causal connection negligent conduct injury court looked contractual relationships held liability would flow far person immediate contract privity negligent party first exception rule arose case ''thomas v winchester'' new


upon death united states power federal judiciary review invalidate unconstitutional acts federal executive branch stated constitution article iii sections judicial power united states shall vested one supreme court inferior courts congress may time time ordain establish judicial power shall extend cases law equity arising constitution laws united states treaties made shall made authority first


strong allegiance large body precedent parties less ''a priori'' guidance unless written law clear kept updated must often leave bigger safety margin unexploited opportunities final determinations reached far larger expenditures legal fees parties reason ref name eisenbergmillernewyork frequent choice law state new york commercial contracts even neither entity extensive contacts new york remarkably often even neither party contacts united states ref name eisenbergmillernewyork theodore eisenberg


geoffrey p miller flight new york empirical study choice law choice forum clauses held companies contracts new york university law economics working papers paper http lsrnellcoorg nyu lewp based survey contracts new york law plays role major corporate contracts similar role delaware law plays limited setting corporate governance disputes new york 's dominance striking choice law approximately percent contracts merger contracts excluded half ref commercial contracts almost always include


choice law clause reduce uncertainty somewhat surprisingly contracts throughout world example contracts involving parties japan france germany states united states often choose law new york even relationship parties transaction new york quite attenuated history united states' commercial center new york common law depth predictability yet available jurisdictions united states similarly american corporations often formed delaware corporate law american contracts


large landholders also held manorial seigniorial courts needed degree common law drew earlier anglo saxon traditions jury ordeals penalty outlawry writs incorporated norman common law still subject much discussion additionally catholic church operated court system adjudicated issues canon law main sources history common law middle ages plea rolls year books plea rolls official court records


forms reasoning two quite different nonetheless considerable cross fertilization ideas two traditions sets foundational principles remain distinct time rediscovery roman law europe th th centuries common law already developed far enough prevent roman law reception occurred continent however first common law scholars notably glanvill bracton well early royal common law judges well accustomed roman law often clerics trained


instance appeal follow principle party presentation rely parties frame issues decision assign courts role neutral arbiter matters parties present principle applies force issues criminal matters factual issues courts seldom engage fact gathering initiative decide facts evidence presented even exceptions legislative facts opposed adjudicative facts hand issues law courts regularly raise new issues


congress constitution us supreme court ''erie railroad co v tompkins'' http caselawlpfindlawcom scripts getcaseplnavby case court us vol page us overruled earlier precedent held federal general common law thus confining federal courts act interstitial interpreters law originating elsewhere ''eg'' ''texas industries v radcliff'' without express grant statutory authority federal courts cannot create rules intuitive justice example right contribution co conspirators post federal courts deciding issues arise state law required defer state court interpretations state statutes


period british colonial influence period british raj ancient india represented distinct tradition law historically independent school legal theory practice ''arthashastra'' dating bce ''manusmriti'' ce influential treatises india texts considered authoritative legal guidance manu 's central philosophy tolerance pluralism cited across southeast asia early period finally culminated creation gupta empire relations ancient greece rome infrequent appearance similar fundamental institutions international law


law systems anglo saxon law brehon law irish law doom book code alfred great time immemorial stages common law trials arraignment grand jury jury trial common law specific areas common law applied matrimony alimony common law marriage employment faithless servant slavery slavery common law references reading chapters crane elaine forman ''witches wife beaters whores common law common folk early america'' ithaca ny cornell university press milsom sfc ''a natural history common law''


contracted translations expression automatic information eg informazione automatica italian information mathematics often used eg ''informatique'' french ''informatik'' german ''informatica'' italian dutch ''inform tica'' spanish portuguese ''informatika'' slavic languages hungarian ''pliroforiki'' '' '' means informatics greek similar words also adopted uk school informatics university edinburgh us however informatics linked applied computing computing context another domain folkloric quotation often attributed almost certainly first formulated edsger dijkstra states computer science


issue muddied disputes term software engineering means computer science defined david parnas taking cue relationship engineering science disciplines claimed principal focus computer science studying properties computation general principal focus software engineering design specific computations achieve practical goals making two separate complementary disciplines academic political funding aspects computer science tend depend whether department formed mathematical emphasis


solid ccc text align center margin auto cellspacing px px math x x x math px automata theory formal languages computability theory computational complexity theory px px file xnor ansi labelledsvg px models computation quantum computing theory logic circuit theory cellular automata information coding theory information theory closely related probability statistics related quantification information developed claude shannon find fundamental limits signal processing operations compressing data


complexity data structures algorithms data structures algorithms studies commonly used computational methods computational efficiency style border px solid ccc text align center margin auto cellspacing px px px px px analysis algorithms algorithm design data structures combinatorial optimization computational geometry randomized algorithms programming language theory formal methods programming language theory branch computer science deals design implementation analysis characterization classification programming languages individual features falls within discipline


adjunct software testing since help avoid errors also give framework testing industrial use tool support required however high cost using formal methods means usually used development high integrity life critical systems safety security utmost importance formal methods best described application fairly broad variety theoretical computer science fundamentals particular logic calculi formal languages automata theory program semantics also type systems algebraic data types problems software hardware specification


earth every direction speeds proportional distance fact known hubble 's law though numerical factor hubble found relating recessional velocity distance factor ten due knowing types cepheid variables given cosmological principle hubble 's law suggested universe expanding two primary explanations proposed expansion one lema tre 's big bang theory advocated developed george gamow explanation fred hoyle 's steady state model new matter created galaxies move away

Natural science
Space science
Cosmology
Physical cosmology


instead cosmologists propose new form energy called dark energy permeates space one hypothesis dark energy vacuum energy component empty space associated virtual particles exist due uncertainty principle ref name frieman ref clear way define total energy universe using widely accepted theory gravity general relativity therefore remains controversial whether total energy conserved expanding universe instance photon travels intergalactic space loses energy due redshift effect


big bang nucleosynthesis cosmic microwave background must cluster haloes like baryons dark matter strong observational evidence dark energy total energy density universe known constraints flatness universe amount clustering matter tightly measured much less case dark energy strengthened measurements demonstrated expansion universe begun gradually accelerate ref name perlmutter ref apart density clustering properties nothing known dark energy ''quantum field


ideas quantum field theory applied condensed matter problems included recognition collective excitation modes solids important notion quasiparticle russian physicist lev landau used idea fermi liquid theory wherein low energy properties interacting fermion systems given terms termed landau quasiparticles ref name coleman landau also developed mean field theory continuous phase transitions described ordered phases spontaneous breakdown symmetry theory also introduced notion order parameter distinguish ordered phases ref name kadanoff ref eventually john bardeen leon cooper

Natural science
Physics
Condensed matter physics


john schrieffer developed called bcs theory superconductivity based discovery arbitrarily small attraction two electrons opposite spin mediated phonons lattice give rise bound state called cooper pair ref name coleman quantum hall effect components hall resistivity function external magnetic field ref name von klitzing study phase transitions critical behavior observables termed critical phenomena major field interest ref name fisher rmp ref leo kadanoff benjamin widom michael fisher developed ideas critical exponents


heat measuring transport via thermal heat conduction image x ray diffraction pattern protein crystal scattering several condensed matter experiments involve scattering experimental probe x ray optical photons neutrons etc constituents material choice scattering probe depends observation energy scale interest visible light energy scale electron volt ev used scattering probe measure variations material properties dielectric constant refractive index x rays energies order kev hence able


used experimentally realize bose einstein condensate novel state matter originally predicted n bose albert einstein wherein large number atoms occupy one quantum state ref name nytimes bec ref applications computer simulation ''nanogears'' made fullerene molecules hoped advances nanoscience lead machines working molecular scale research condensed matter physics ref name given rise several device applications development semiconductor transistor ref name marvincohen laser technology ref name nrc several phenomena studied context nanotechnology ref name committee ref methods scanning tunneling microscopy


structured systems means organized specifically adding taking away element system may disrupt critique evolutionism anthropology concerned lives people different parts world particularly relation discourse beliefs practices addressing question ethnologists th century divided two schools thought like grafton elliot smith argued different groups must learned one another somehow however indirectly words argued cultural traits spread one place another diffused

Social science
Anthropology
Cultural anthropology


action extra european nations highlighting role ethics modern anthropology accordingly anthropologists showed less interest comparing cultures generalizing human nature discovering universal laws cultural development understanding particular cultures cultures' terms ethnographers students promoted idea cultural relativism view one understand another person 's beliefs behaviors context culture lived lives others claude l vi strauss influenced american cultural anthropology french durkheimian


reactions world second make sense unfamiliar culture principle cultural relativism thus forced anthropologists develop innovative methods heuristic strategies boas students realized conduct scientific research cultures would need employ methods would help escape limits ethnocentrism one method ethnography basically advocated living people another culture extended period time could learn local language enculturated


demonstrate biological race immutable human conduct behavior resulted nurture rather nature influenced german tradition boas argued world full distinct ''cultures'' rather societies whose evolution could measured much little civilization believed culture studied particularity argued cross cultural generalizations like made natural sciences possible fought discrimination immigrants blacks indigenous peoples americas many american anthropologists adopted agenda


generation students included alfred kroeber robert lowie edward sapir ruth benedict produced richly detailed studies indigenous north american cultures provided wealth details used attack theory single evolutionary process kroeber sapir 's focus native american languages helped establish linguistics truly general science free historical focus indo european languages publication alfred kroeber 's textbook ''anthropology'' marked turning point american anthropology three decades amassing material boasians felt growing urge generalize obvious


'culture personality' studies carried younger boasians margaret mead ruth benedict influenced psychoanalytic psychologists including sigmund freud carl jung authors sought understand way individual personalities shaped wider cultural social forces grew though works mead 's ''coming age samoa'' benedict 's ''the chrysanthemum sword'' remain popular american public mead benedict never impact discipline anthropology expected boas planned ruth benedict succeed


sahlins george dalton challenged standard neoclassical economics take account cultural social factors employed marxian analysis anthropological study england british social anthropology 's paradigm began fragment max gluckman peter worsley experimented marxism authors rodney needham edmund leach incorporated l vi strauss 's structuralism work structuralism also influenced number developments including cognitive anthropology componential analysis keeping times much anthropology became politicized algerian war independence opposition vietnam war marxism became increasingly


anthropology'' pp walnut creek ca altamira press ref interactions ethnographer cultural informant must go ways ethnographer may naive curious culture members culture may curious ethnographer establish connections eventually lead better understanding cultural context situation anthropologist must open becoming part group willing develop meaningful relationships members ref name one way find small area common experience anthropologist


world comparison across cultures includies industrialized de industrialized west cultures traditional standard cross cultural sample small scale societies class wikitable africa nama hottentot kung san thonga lozi mbundu suku bemba nyakyusa ngonde hadza luguru kikuyu ganda mbuti pygmies nkundo mongo banen tiv igbo fon ashanti twi mende bambara tallensi massa azande otoro nuba shilluk mao maasai wolof songhai wodaabe fulani hausa fur kaffa konso somali amhara bogo kenuzi nubian teda tuareg riffians egyptians fellah hebrews babylonians rwala bedouin turks gheg albanians romans basques irish sami lapps russians abkhaz armenians kurd


illegal networks capitalism well rumours urban legends circulate impoverished communities child kidnapping organ theft sociocultural anthropologists increasingly turned investigative eye western culture example philippe bourgois margaret mead award ''in search respect'' study entrepreneurs harlem crack den also growing popular ethnographies professional communities laboratory researchers wall street investors law firms information technology computer employees topics cultural anthropology kinship family kinship refers anthropological study ways


procreation concerned although anthropologists found biology acknowledged every cultural relationship procreation differences ways cultures assess constructs parenthood example nuyoo municipality oaxaca mexico believed child partible maternity partible paternity case child would multiple biological mothers case born one woman breastfed another child would multiple biological fathers case mother sex multiple men following commonplace belief


event subspecialty preventive cardiology sports cardiology pediatric cardiology tetralogy fallot helen b taussig known founder pediatric cardiology became famous work tetralogy fallot congenital heart defect oxygenated deoxygenated blood enters circulatory system resulting ventricular septal defect vsd right beneath aorta condition causes newborns bluish tint cyanosis deficiency oxygen tissues hypoxemia worked alfred blalock vivien thomas johns hopkins hospital experimented dogs look

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Cardiology


heartbeat often treated blood thinners reduce risk complications severe symptoms arrhythmia may receive urgent treatment jolt electricity form cardioversion defibrillation ref name nih tx arrhythmias ref arrhythmia affects millions people ref name nih risk ref europe north america atrial fibrillation affects population ref name zoni ref atrial fibrillation atrial flutter resulted deaths ref name gdb ref sudden cardiac death cause half deaths due cardiovascular disease


tests cardiology methods identifying heart conditions associated healthy vs unhealthy pathologic heart function starting point obtaining medical history followed auscultation blood tests electrophysiological procedures cardiac imaging ordered analysis electrophysiological procedures include electrocardiogram cardiac monitoring cardiac stress testing electrophysiology study cardiology community associations american college cardiology american heart association european society cardiology heart rhythm society canadian cardiovascular society indian heart association national heart foundation australia cardiology society india journals acta cardiologica american journal


president colorado heart association initiated one first jogging programs promoting cardiac health max holzmann co founder swiss society cardiology president samuel levine recognized sign known levine 's sign well current grading intensity heart murmurs known levine scale henry joseph llewellyn barney marriott ecg interpretation ''practical electrocardiography'' bernard lown born original developer defibrillator woldemar mobitz described classified two types second degree atrioventricular block often called mobitz type mobitz


name goertzel ref name douglas radicalization ideological reinforcement extremist groups ref name douglasuscinski ref name brotherton negative consequences economy ref name douglasuscinski conspiracy theories limited fringe audiences become commonplace mass media internet social media ref name andrade emerging cultural phenomenon late th early st centuries ref name camp ref name goldberg ref name fenster widespread around world often commonly believed even held majority population ref name van prooijendouglas ref name sunsteinvermeule ref name brotherton interventions reduce occurrence conspiracy beliefs include maintaining open society improving

Journalism, media studies and communication


belief identifies modern technology form sorcery created goal harming controlling people ref name van prooijendouglas china one widely published conspiracy theory claims number events including rise hitler asian financial crisis climate change planned rothschild family may led effects discussions china 's currency policy ref name sunsteinvermeule ref name byford ref conspiracy theories limited fringe audiences become commonplace mass media contributing conspiracism emerging cultural phenomenon united states late th early


single events covering multiple incidents entire countries regions periods history ref name barkun according ruseell muirhead nancy rosenblum historically traditional conspiracism entailed theory time conspiracy theory become decoupled modern conspiracism often without kind theory behind walker 's five kinds jesse walker identified five kinds conspiracy theories enemy outside refers theories based figures alleged scheming community without enemy within finds conspirators lurking inside nation indistinguishable ordinary citizens enemy involves powerful


believed perpetrators terrorist attacks used justification timothy mcveigh anders breivik brenton tarrant well governments nazi germany soviet union ref name douglasuscinski aids denialism government south africa motivated conspiracy theories caused estimated deaths aids ref name thresher andrews ref name simelelaventer ref ref name burtongiddy ref belief conspiracy theories genetically modified foods led government zambia reject food aid famine ref name goertzel time million people country suffering hunger ref name brossardshanahan ref conspiracy theories significant obstacle


improvements public health ref name goertzel ref name glickbooth people believe health related conspiracy theories less likely follow medical advice likely use alternative medicine instead ref name douglasuscinski conspiratorial anti vaccination beliefs conspiracy theories pharmaceutical companies result reduced vaccination rates linked outbreaks vaccine preventable diseases ref name thresher andrews ref name goertzel ref ref name prematungecorace ref ref name glickbooth ref health related conspiracy theories often inspire resistance water fluoridation contributed impact lancet mmr autism fraud ref name goertzel ref name glickbooth conspiracy theories fundamental component wide range radicalized extremist groups may play


important characteristics accounts attempt unveil real hidden power relations social groups ref name turkay nefes ref name nefes term conspiracism popularized academic frank p mintz according mintz conspiracism denotes belief primacy conspiracies unfolding history ref name mintz ref research suggests psychological level '''conspiracist ideation''' belief conspiracy theories harmful pathological ref name freeman ref name barron highly correlated psychological projection well paranoia predicted degree person 's machiavellianism propensity


point supported research roland imhoff professor social psychology johannes gutenberg university mainz research suggests smaller minority believing specific theory attractive conspiracy theorists humanistic psychologists argue even posited cabal behind alleged conspiracy almost always perceived hostile often remains element reassurance theorists consolation imagine difficulties human affairs created humans remain within human control cabal implicated may


good critical mind asks latour matter position take 're always right latour notes social criticism appropriated describes conspiracy theorists including climate change denialists truth movement maybe taking conspiracy theories seriously worried detect mad mixtures knee jerk disbelief punctilious demands proofs free use powerful explanation social neverland many weapons social critique fusion paranoia michael kelly ''the washington post'' journalist critic anti war movements


addressed role paranoia conspiracism throughout us history essay paranoid style american politics bernard bailyn 's classic ''the ideological origins american revolution'' notes similar phenomenon could found north america time preceding american revolution conspiracism labels people 's attitudes well type conspiracy theories global historical proportion harry g west others noted conspiracy theorists may often dismissed fringe minority certain evidence suggests wide range us maintains


david hays founding member association computational linguistics acl international committee computational linguistics iccl translate one language another observed one understand grammar languages including morphology grammar word forms syntax grammar sentence structure understand syntax one also understand semantics lexicon 'vocabulary' even something pragmatics language use thus started effort translate languages evolved entire discipline devoted understanding

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Computational linguistics


clear understanding linguistic development humans well throughout evolutionary time fantastically improved advances computational linguistics ability model modify systems affords science ethical method testing hypotheses would otherwise intractable structural approaches create better computational models language understanding language 's structure crucial end english language meticulously studied using computational approaches better understand language works structural level one important pieces able study linguistic


projects still trying solve problem first started computational linguistics field first place however methods become refined consequently results generated computational linguists become enlightening improve computer translation several models compared including hidden markov models smoothing techniques specific refinements apply verb translation model found produce natural translations german french words refined alignment model first order dependence fertility model also provide efficient training


film ''wargames'' features young computer hacker interacts artificially intelligent supercomputer film ''conceiving ada'' focuses ada lovelace considered one first computer programmers well themes computational linguistics ''her'' film depicts man 's interactions world 's first artificially intelligent operating system film ''the imitation game'' follows life computer scientist alan turing developer turing test film ''ex machina'' centers around human interaction artificial intelligence film ''arrival'' based ted chiang 's story life takes whole


seemed unrealistic comprehensively list human knowledge form usable symbolic computer program late saw rise neural networks connectionism research paradigm point view often attributed james mcclelland david rumelhart mind could characterized set complex associations represented layered network critics argue phenomena better captured symbolic models connectionist models often complex little explanatory power recently symbolic connectionist models

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Cognitive science


combined making possible take advantage forms explanation connectionism symbolic approaches proven useful testing various hypotheses exploring approaches understanding aspects cognition lower level brain functions neither biologically realistic therefore suffer lack neuroscientific plausibility connectionism proven useful exploring computationally cognition emerges development occurs human brain provided alternatives strictly domain specific domain general approaches example scientists jeff elman liz bates annette karmiloff smith posited networks brain


memory one example could mental processes person go retrieve long lost memory differentiates cognitive process recognition seeing hints something remembering memory context recall retrieving memory fill blank perception action necker cube example optical illusion optical illusion square exactly shade gray square b see checker shadow illusion perception ability take information via senses process way vision


university york germany university karlsruhe u verdix later acquired rational delivered verdix ada development system vads army vads provided set development tools including compiler unix vads could hosted variety unix platforms dec ultrix sun solaris targeted motorola army cecom evaluation soon many ada compilers available passed ada validation tests free software foundation gnu project developed gnu compiler collection gcc provides core capability

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Compilers


design language feature may require compiler perform one pass source instance consider declaration appearing line source affects translation statement appearing line case first pass needs gather information declarations appearing statements affect actual translation happening subsequent pass disadvantage compiling single pass possible perform many sophisticated optimizations needed generate high quality code difficult


input program intermediate representation ir processing middle end ir usually lower level representation program respect source code ''middle end'' performs optimizations ir independent cpu architecture targeted source code machine code independence intended enable generic optimizations shared versions compiler supporting different languages target processors examples middle end optimizations removal useless dead code elimination unreachable code reachability analysis discovery propagation constant values constant propagation relocation


computation less frequently executed place eg loop specialization computation based context eventually producing optimized ir used back end ''back end'' takes optimized ir middle end may perform analysis transformations optimizations specific target cpu architecture back end generates target dependent assembly code performing register allocation process back end performs instruction scheduling orders instructions keep parallel execution units busy filling delay slots although optimization problems np hard heuristic techniques


done character level token level ''syntax analysis'' also known ''parsing'' involves parsing token sequence identify syntactic structure program phase typically builds parse tree replaces linear sequence tokens tree structure built according rules formal grammar define language 's syntax parse tree often analyzed augmented transformed later phases compiler ''semantic analysis'' adds semantic information parse tree builds symbol table phase performs semantic checks type checking checking


produced machine code ref name hjort blindell gabriel ref middle end contains optimizations independent cpu architecture targeted main phases middle end include following analysis gathering program information intermediate representation derived input data flow analysis used build use define chains together dependence analysis alias analysis pointer analysis escape analysis etc accurate analysis basis compiler optimization control flow graph every compiled function call graph program usually also built analysis phase optimization


cpu architecture compiler targets prominent example peephole optimizations rewrites short sequences assembler instructions efficient instructions ''code generation'' transformed intermediate language translated output language usually native machine language system involves resource storage decisions deciding variables fit registers memory selection scheduling appropriate machine instructions along associated addressing modes see also sethi ullman algorithm debug data may also need generated facilitate debugging compiler correctness compiler correctness branch


hot meaning executed frequently jit compiler invoked compile hot code increased performance languages java applications first compiled using bytecode compiler delivered machine independent intermediate representation bytecode interpreter executes bytecode jit compiler translate bytecode machine code increased performance necessary hardware compilers also known synthesis tools compilers whose input hardware description language whose output description form netlist otherwise hardware configuration


extending every real analytic function unique way getting complex analytic function whose domain whole complex plane finite number curve arcs removed many basic special complex functions defined way including complex exponential function complex logarithm functions trigonometric functions holomorphic functions complex functions differentiable every point open subset math omega math complex plane said ''holomorphic on'' context complex analysis derivative math f math math z math defined math f' z

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Complex analysis


definition functions riemann zeta function initially defined terms infinite sums converge limited domains almost entire complex plane sometimes case natural logarithm impossible analytically continue holomorphic function non simply connected domain complex plane possible extend holomorphic function closely related surface known riemann surface refers complex analysis one variable also rich theory complex analysis


multi level stack interchange buildings houses park shanghai china '''civil engineering''' professional engineering discipline deals design construction maintenance physical naturally built environment including public works roads bridges canals dams airports sewage systems pipelines structural components buildings railways civil engineering traditionally broken number sub disciplines considered second oldest engineering discipline military engineering ref name csce ref defined distinguish non military engineering military engineering ref name eb ref civil engineering take place public sector municipal public works departments

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering


federal government agencies private sector locally based firms global fortune companies ref name sector ref history civil engineering discipline civil engineering application physical scientific principles solving problems society history intricately linked advances understanding physics mathematics throughout history civil engineering broad profession including several specialized sub disciplines history linked knowledge structures materials science geography geology soils hydrology environmental science mechanics project management fields ref name baveystock ref throughout ancient medieval history


architectural design construction carried artisans stonemasons carpenters rising role master builder knowledge retained guilds seldom supplanted advances structures roads infrastructure existed repetitive increases scale incremental ref name saouma ref one earliest examples scientific approach physical mathematical problems applicable civil engineering work archimedes rd century bc including archimedes principle underpins understanding buoyancy practical solutions archimedes' screw brahmagupta indian mathematician used arithmetic th


clear distinction civil engineering architecture term engineer architect mainly geographical variations referring occupation often used interchangeably construction pyramids egypt circa bc first instances large structure constructions ancient historic civil engineering constructions include qanat water management system oldest older years longer nbsp km parthenon iktinos ancient greece bc appian way roman engineers c bc great wall china general meng t'ien orders ch'in emperor


must also comply numerous rules regulations building codes environmental law sub disciplines akashi kaiky bridge japan currently world 's longest suspension span number sub disciplines within broad field civil engineering general civil engineers work closely surveyors specialized civil engineers design grading drainage pavement water supply sewer service dams electric communications supply general civil engineering also referred site engineering branch civil engineering primarily focuses converting tract land one usage another site engineers spend time


operation vehicles machinery subject applied commonly civil law cases although may use criminal law cases generally purpose forensic engineering investigation locate cause causes failure view improve performance life component assist court determining facts accident also involve investigation intellectual property claims especially patents geotechnical engineering phase diagram soil indicating weights volumes air soil water voids ''geotechnical engineering'' studies rock soil


suz zy ka j jyu sup sup gaa sup sup h g ci tl j ka l ka mc nyu k oc bs qn chuhan hangul hanja rr kanji kana romaji temple confucius jiangyin wuxi jiangsu ''w nmi o'' say temple confucius worshipped ''w nd '' god culture gates ''w nmi o'' datong shanxi '''confucianism''' also known '''ruism''' system thought behavior


huang lao official ideology emperors mixed realist techniques legalism ref name lin ref confucian revival began tang dynasty ce late tang confucianism developed response buddhism taoism reformulated neo confucianism reinvigorated form adopted basis imperial exams core philosophy scholar official class song dynasty abolition examination system marked end official confucianism intellectuals new culture movement early twentieth century blamed confucianism china 's


''ru'' learning p k ngji confucius 's doctrine p k ngji di n kong family 's business pejorative phrase used new culture movement cultural revolution three use ''r '' names use name confucius instead focus ideal confucian man use term confucianism avoided modern scholars favor ruism ruists instead robert eno argues term burdened ambiguities irrelevant traditional associations ruism states faithful original chinese name school ref


yang characterises thing life creation therefore continuous ordering ''creation ''ex nihilo'''' yin yang invisible visible receptive active unshaped shaped characterise yearly cycle winter summer landscape shady bright sexes female male even sociopolitical history disorder order confucianism concerned finding middle ways yin yang every new configuration world '''' confucianism conciliates inner outer polarities spiritual cultivation say self cultivation world


possible give one translation english confucius used term mystical way wrote ''analects'' tian gave life tian watched judged confucius says person may know movements tian provides sense special place universe confucius says tian spoke though words scholar ronnie littlejohn warns tian interpreted personal god comparable abrahamic faiths


respect heaven explains religious rituals produce meaningful experiences one offer sacrifices person acting presence otherwise sacrificed rites sacrifices gods ethical importance generate good life taking part leads overcoming self analects tells confucius always took small part food placed sacrificial bowls offering ancestors movements mohism later absorbed taoism developed


correctly performed rituals move society alignment earthly heavenly astral forces establishing harmony three realms heaven earth humanity practice defined centring ''y ng'' ''zh ng'' among things creation humans central ability cultivate centre natural forces ''li'' embodies entire web interaction humanity human objects nature confucius includes discussions ''li'' diverse topics learning tea drinking titles mourning governance xunzi cites songs laughter weeping lamentation rice millet fish meat


wearing ceremonial caps embroidered robes patterned silks fasting clothes mourning clothes spacious rooms secluded halls soft mats couches benches vital parts fabric ''li'' confucius envisioned proper government guided principles ''li'' confucians proposed human beings may pursue perfection learning practising ''li'' overall confucians believe governments place emphasis ''li'' rely much less penal punishment govern loyalty loyalty ''zh ng'' particularly relevant social class confucius 's students belonged


well obtain material means support parents well carry sacrifices ancestors rebellious show love respect support wife filial piety must obey husband absolutely take care whole family wholeheartedly display courtesy ensure male heirs uphold fraternity among brothers wisely advise one 's parents including dissuading moral unrighteousness blindly following parents' wishes considered ''xiao'' display sorrow sickness death carry sacrifices death filial piety considered key virtue chinese


part well reciprocity responsibility ' 'renqing'' extends beyond filial piety involves entire network social relations even respect rulers shown story duke jing qi asks confucius government meant proper administration bring social harmony duke jing qi asked confucius government confucius replied government prince prince minister minister father father son son source ''analects'' legge translation particular duties arise one 's particular situation relation others


population lost faith official tradition longer perceived effective way communicate heaven traditions nine fields ''yijing'' flourished chinese thinkers faced challenge legitimacy diverged hundred schools thought proposing theories reconstruction zhou moral order confucius bce appeared period political decadence spiritual questioning educated shang zhou theology contributed transmit reformulate giving centrality self cultivation agency humans educational power


development bell ideal according china reform reformed follows simple structure aspiring rulers first pass hyper selective examinations rule well local level promoted positions provincial level excel provincial level access positions national level system aligns harvard historian james hankins calls virtue politics idea build institutions select competent virtuous rulers opposed institutions concerned first foremost


distinct western style liberalism tseng suffers excessive individualism lack moral vision traditional confucianism tseng historically suffered rigid hierarchies sclerotic elites defenders political meritocracy tseng claims fusion confucian democratic institutions conserve best worlds producing communal democracy draws rich ethical tradition addresses abuses power combines popular accountability clear attention cultivation virtue elites influence th century europe ''life works confucius''


confucian hypothesis debated component encompassing asian development model exists among political scientists economists theory confucianism plays large latent role ostensibly non confucian cultures modern day east asia form rigorous work ethic endowed cultures scholars held confucianism 's influence cultures many people east asia region would able modernise industrialise quickly singapore malaysia hong kong taiwan japan south korea even china


done example impact vietnam war vietnam devastating last decades vietnam developing fast pace scholars attribute origins idea futurologist herman kahn 's ''world economic development beyond'' studies example cristobal kay 's ''why east asia overtook latin america agrarian reform industrialization development'' attributed asian growth factors example character agrarian reforms state craft state capacity interaction agriculture industry chinese martial arts confucianism become official 'state religion'


th th centuries earliest european arrivals china christian jesuits considered confucianism ethical system religion one compatible christianity ref name elman ref jesuits including matteo ricci saw chinese rituals civil rituals could co exist alongside spiritual rituals catholicism ref name elman early th century initial portrayal rejected dominicans franciscans creating dispute among catholics east asia known rites controversy ref name gunn ref dominicans franciscans argued chinese ancestral worship form idolatry


page analects example spirituality confucius said chi lu one students yet able serve men serve spirits ref name sinaiko ref attributes ancestor worship ritual sacrifice advocated confucius necessary social harmony attributes may traced traditional chinese folk religion scholars recognise classification ultimately depends one defines religion using stricter definitions religion confucianism described moral science philosophy using broader definition frederick streng 's


morphism second result defines category ''of categories functors'' objects categories morphisms categories functors studying categories functors studying class mathematical structures morphisms rather ' 'relationships various classes mathematical structures'' fundamental idea first surfaced algebraic topology difficult ''topological'' questions translated ''algebraic'' questions often easier solve basic constructions fundamental group fundamental groupoid topological space expressed functors

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Category theory


morphisms ''a'' ''b'' binary operation called ''composition morphisms'' three objects ''a'' ''b'' ''c'' composition written ''gf'' computer scientists using category theory commonly write governed two axioms associativity identity every object ''x'' exists morphism called ''identity morphism x'' every morphism axioms proved


sub sub fast twice overall reaction first equation plus twice second reaction catalyst regenerated participate net reaction overall rate rate slow step ref name steinfeld v k sub sub sup sup sub sub example detailed mechanism heterogeneous catalysis surface oxygen hydrogen combine surface titanium dioxide tio ''titania'' produce water scanning tunneling microscopy showed molecules undergo adsorption dissociation diffusion reacting intermediate reaction states ho

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Catalysis


catalysts however organometallic illustrated use cobalt salts catalyze oxidation p xylene terephthalic acid organocatalysis whereas transition metals sometimes attract attention study catalysis small organic molecules without metals also exhibit catalytic properties apparent fact many enzymes lack transition metals typically organic catalysts require higher loading amount catalyst per unit amount reactant expressed mol amount substance transition metal ion based catalysts catalysts usually commercially available bulk helping reduce costs


excited state starting material undergo reactions ordinarily could directly illuminated example singlet oxygen usually produced photocatalysis photocatalysts also main ingredient dye sensitized solar cells enzymes biocatalysts biology enzymes protein based catalysts metabolism catabolism biocatalysts enzymes non protein based classes biomolecules also exhibit catalytic properties including ribozymes synthetic deoxyribozymes biocatalysts thought intermediate homogeneous heterogeneous catalysts although strictly speaking soluble enzymes homogeneous catalysts membrane bound enzymes heterogeneous several factors affect activity


center enabling new technologies catalysis nsf center chemical innovation usa http wwwsciencenewsorg view generic id title bubbles turn chemical catalysts bubbles turn chemical catalysts science news magazine online april chemical kinetics articles containing video clips


intersect orientation preserving transformations produce mirror reflections possible nature mathematical formulation model math kappa cdot math also assumed twice continuously differentiable differential equations describing motion may formulated forces continuum continuum mechanics deals deformable bodies opposed rigid bodies solid deformable body possesses shear strength ' 'sc'' solid support shear forces forces parallel material surface act fluids hand sustain shear forces study mechanical behavior

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Continuum mechanics


v ddot mathbf x frac mathbf x dt frac partial chi mathbf xt partial math continuity lagrangian description expressed spatial temporal continuity mapping reference configuration current configuration material points physical quantities characterizing continuum described way sense function math chi cdot math math p ij ldots cdot math single valued continuous continuous derivatives respect space time whatever order required usually second third eulerian description continuity allows inverse math chi cdot math trace backwards particle currently located math mathbf x math


volume must arise three causes physical quantity flows surface bounds volume source physical quantity surface volume source physical quantity inside volume let math omega math body open subset euclidean space let math partial omega math surface boundary math omega math let motion material points body described map math mathbf x boldsymbol chi mathbf x mathbf x mathbf x math math mathbf x math position point


speed bounding surface math partial omega math moving math u n math direction math mathbf n math balance laws expressed general form math cfrac dt left int omega f mathbf x text dv right int partial omega f mathbf x u n mathbf x mathbf v mathbf x cdot mathbf n mathbf x text da int partial omega g mathbf x text da int omega h mathbf x text dv math functions math f mathbf x math math g mathbf x math math h mathbf x math scalar valued vector valued tensor valued depending physical quantity balance equation deals internal boundaries body jump discontinuities also need specified balance laws take eulerian


judicial review parliament legislature power effect law result structure judiciary differs significantly two common law judiciaries adversarial civil law judiciaries inquisitorial common law judicatures consequently separate judiciary prosecution ref name hale ref ref name richards ref ref name care ref thereby establishing courts completely independent legislature law enforcement human rights law countries result largely built legal precedent courts' interpretation constitutional law whereas civil law countries almost exclusively composed


long time phase space behavior molecules case conformational studies proteins protein ligand binding thermodynamics classical approximations potential energy surface used typically molecular mechanics force fields computationally less intensive electronic calculations enable longer simulations molecular dynamics furthermore cheminformatics uses even empirical computationally cheaper methods like machine learning based physicochemical properties one typical problem cheminformatics predict binding affinity drug molecules given target problems include predicting binding specificity target effects toxicity pharmacokinetic properties history

Natural science
Chemistry
Computational chemistry


therefore 'computational chemistry' finally reality widely different methods began seen part new emerging discipline ''computational chemistry'' ''journal computational chemistry'' first published computational chemistry featured several nobel prize awards notably walter kohn development density functional theory john pople development computational methods quantum chemistry received nobel prize chemistry martin karplus michael levitt arieh warshel received nobel prize chemistry


development multiscale models complex chemical systems ref name bio ref fields application term ''theoretical chemistry'' may defined mathematical description chemistry whereas ''computational chemistry'' usually used mathematical method sufficiently well developed automated implementation computer theoretical chemistry chemists physicists mathematicians develop algorithms computer programs predict atomic molecular properties reaction paths chemical reactions computational chemists contrast may simply apply existing computer programs methodologies specific chemical questions computational chemistry two different aspects computational


treated quantum mechanically qm remainder treated approximately mm methods one molecular formula represent one molecular isomer set isomers isomer local minimum energy surface called potential energy surface created total energy ie electronic energy plus repulsion energy nuclei function coordinates nuclei stationary point geometry derivative energy respect displacements nuclei zero local energy minimum stationary point


directly theoretical principles inclusion experimental data nbsp called ''ab initio methods'' imply solution exact one approximate quantum mechanical calculations means particular approximation rigorously defined first principles quantum theory solved within error margin qualitatively known beforehand numerical iterative methods must used aim iterate full machine accuracy obtained best possible finite word length computer within mathematical physical approximations made diagram illustrating


various ''ab initio'' electronic structure methods terms energy spacings scale simplest type ''ab initio'' electronic structure calculation hartree fock method hf extension molecular orbital theory correlated electron electron repulsion specifically taken account average effect included calculation basis set size increased energy wave function tend towards limit called hartree fock limit many types calculations termed post hartree fock methods begin hartree fock calculation subsequently correct electron electron repulsion referred also electronic correlation


methods pushed limit approach exact solution non relativistic schr dinger equation obtain exact agreement experiment necessary include relativistic spin orbit terms far important heavy atoms approaches along choice method necessary choose basis set set functions usually centered different atoms molecule used expand molecular orbitals linear combination atomic orbitals lcao molecular orbital method ansatz ab initio methods


need define level theory method basis set hartree fock wave function single configuration determinant cases particularly bond breaking processes inadequate several configurations must used coefficients configurations basis functions optimized together total molecular energy evaluated function molecular geometry words potential energy surface surface used reaction dynamics stationary points surface lead predictions different isomers transition structures


wavefunction qtaim analysis molecular wavefunctions implemented example aimall software package software packages many self sufficient computational chemistry software packages exist include many methods covering wide range others concentrate specific range even one method details found biomolecular modelling programs proteins nucleic acid molecular mechanics programs quantum chemistry solid state physics software supporting several methods molecular design software semi empirical programs valence bond programs see also citations general bibliography c j cramer ''essentials computational


chemistry'' john wiley sons clark ''a handbook computational chemistry'' wiley new york ak hartmann https webarchiveorg web http worldscibookscom physics html practical guide computer simulations world scientific f jensen ''introduction computational chemistry'' john wiley sons ki ramachandran g deepa krishnan namboori pk ''computational chemistry molecular modeling principles applications'' springer verlag gmbh p v r schleyer editor chief '' http euwileycom wileycda wileytitle productcd xhtml encyclopedia computational chemistry '' wiley ''' ''' sherrill http vergilchemistrygatechedu notes notes quantum mechanics computational chemistry j simons ''an introduction theoretical chemistry'' cambridge szabo ns ostlund ''modern quantum chemistry'' mcgraw hill


technology roadmap computational chemistry https webarchiveorg web http wwwwtecorg molmodel mm finalpdf applications molecular materials modelling http booksnapedu openbookphprecord id page impact advances computing communications technologies chemical science technology cstb report http wwwnvidiacom object tesla bio workbenchhtml md computational chemistry applications gpus computational fields study theoretical chemistry


cell culture cell fractionation allowed currently used discoveries research pertaining cells function ultimately giving insight understanding larger organisms knowing components cells cells work fundamental biological sciences also essential research biomedical fields cancer diseases research cell biology interconnected fields genetics molecular genetics molecular biology medical microbiology immunology cytochemistry history cells first seen th century europe invention compound microscope

Applied science
Medicine and health
Clinical laboratory sciences
Cytology


archaea lack enclosed cell nucleus eukaryotic cells found plants animals fungi protists range diameter dna contained within membrane bound nucleus eukaryotes organisms containing eukaryotic cells four eukaryotic kingdoms '''animalia plantae fungi protista''' reproduce binary fission bacteria prominent type several different shapes although spherical rod shaped bacteria classed either gram positive gram negative depending cell wall composition gram positive bacteria thicker peptidoglycan layer gram negative bacteria bacterial structural features include


substances referred phagocytosis notable cell biologists jean baptiste carnoy peter agre g nter blobel robert brown geoffrey cooper christian de duve robert hooke h robert horvitz marc kirschner anton van leeuwenhoek ira mellman peter mitchell rudolf virchow paul nurse george emil palade keith r porter ray rappaport michael swann roger tsien edmund beecher wilson kenneth r miller matthias jakob schleiden theodor schwann yoshinori ohsumi jan evangelista purkyn see also american society cell biology cell biophysics cell disruption cell physiology cellular adaptation cellular microbiology institute molecular cell biology disambiguation meiomitosis organoid outline cell


living cells microorganisms energy useful forms products chemical engineers involved many aspects plant design operation including safety hazard assessments process design analysis modeling control engineering chemical reaction engineering nuclear engineering biological engineering construction specification operating instructions chemical engineers typically hold degree chemical engineering process engineering practicing engineers may professional certification accredited members professional body bodies include institution chemical engineers icheme american institute chemical engineers aiche degree chemical engineering directly linked

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering


started experience greater focus along novel concepts process systems engineering pse second paradigm defined transport phenomena gave analytical approach chemical engineering pse focused synthetic elements control system process design developments chemical engineering world war nbsp ii mainly incited petrochemical industry however advances fields made well advancements biochemical engineering example found application pharmaceutical industry allowed mass production various antibiotics including penicillin streptomycin meanwhile progress


natural gas processing nuclear reprocessing oil exploration oil refinery paper engineering petroleum engineering pharmaceutical engineering plastics engineering polymers process control process design process development process engineering process miniaturization safety engineering semiconductor device fabrication separation processes see also separation mixture crystallization processes distillation processes membrane processes syngas production textile engineering thermodynamics transport phenomena unit operations water technology associations american institute chemical engineers chemical institute canada european federation chemical engineering indian institute chemical engineers institution chemical engineers national organization professional advancement black chemists chemical engineers references bibliography lccn


widely diverging outcomes dynamical systems rendering long term prediction behavior impossible general happen even though systems deterministic meaning future behavior follows unique evolution ref name ref fully determined initial conditions random elements involved words deterministic nature systems make predictable ref name werndlcharlotte ref behavior known '' 'deterministic chaos''' simply '''chaos''' theory summarized edward lorenz chaotic behavior exists many natural systems including fluid flow heartbeat irregularities weather climate ref name lorenz ref name

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Chaos theory


also occurs spontaneously systems artificial components stock market road traffic ref name safonovtomer ref ref name behavior studied analysis chaotic mathematical model analytical techniques recurrence plots poincar maps chaos theory applications variety disciplines including meteorology ref name anthropology ref name ref sociology environmental science computer science engineering economics ecology pandemic crisis management ref name ct ref ref ref name ct ref ref theory formed basis fields study complex dynamical systems edge chaos theory self assembly processes introduction chaos theory concerns deterministic systems whose


span style white space nowrap ''x'' ''x'' ''x'' span span style white space nowrap ''y'' ''x'' ''y '' mod span displays sensitivity initial x positions two series ''x'' ''y'' values diverge markedly time tiny initial difference common usage chaos means state disorder however chaos theory term defined precisely although universally accepted mathematical definition chaos exists commonly used definition originally formulated robert l devaney says classify dynamical system chaotic must properties must sensitive


initial conditions must topologically transitive must dense periodic orbits cases last two properties shown actually imply sensitivity initial conditions discrete time case true continuous maps metric spaces cases often practically significant property sensitivity initial conditions need stated definition attention restricted intervals second property implies two alternative generally weaker definition chaos uses first two properties


tornado texas'' flapping wing represents small change initial condition system causes chain events prevents predictability large scale phenomena butterfly flapped wings trajectory overall system could vastly different consequence sensitivity initial conditions start limited amount information system usually case practice beyond certain time system would longer predictable prevalent case weather generally


predictable week ahead ref name rgw ref mean one cannot assert anything events far future restrictions system present example know temperature surface earth naturally reach fall earth current geologic era cannot predict exactly day hottest temperature year mathematical terms lyapunov exponent measures sensitivity initial conditions form rate exponential divergence perturbed initial conditions


periodic sequences repelling rather attracting meaning evolving variable outside sequence however close enter sequence fact diverge thus almost initial conditions variable evolves chaotically non periodic behavior topological mixing six iterations set states math xy math passed logistic map first iterate blue initial condition essentially forms circle animation shows first sixth iteration circular initial conditions seen ''mixing'' occurs progress iterations


math math f k u cap v neq emptyset math topological transitivity weaker version topological mixing intuitively map topologically transitive given point ''x'' region ''v'' exists point ''y'' near ''x'' whose orbit passes ''v'' implies impossible decompose system two open sets ref name devaney ref important related theorem birkhoff transitivity theorem easy see existence dense orbit implies topological transitivity birkhoff transitivity theorem states ''x'' second countable complete metric space


simple electronic circuits model solutions circuits known jerk circuits one interesting properties jerk circuits possibility chaotic behavior fact certain well known chaotic systems lorenz attractor r ssler map conventionally described system three first order differential equations combine single although rather complicated jerk equation another example jerk equation nonlinearity magnitude math x math math frac mathrm x mathrm frac mathrm x mathrm frac mathrm x mathrm x math ''a'' adjustable parameter equation chaotic solution ''a''


implemented following jerk circuit required nonlinearity brought two diodes center circuit resistors equal value except math r r r math capacitors equal size dominant frequency math pi r c math output op amp correspond x variable output corresponds first derivative x output corresponds second derivative similar circuits require one diode diodes see also well known chua 's circuit one basis chaotic


fit fractal model december new york academy sciences organized first symposium chaos attended david ruelle robert may james yorke coiner term chaos used mathematics robert shaw meteorologist edward lorenz following year pierre coullet charles tresser published rations d'endomorphismes et groupe de renormalisation mitchell feigenbaum 's article quantitative universality class nonlinear transformations finally appeared journal years referee rejections ref name feigenbaum thus feigenbaum coullet tresser discovered universality chaos permitting


categories listed examples means comprehensive list new applications appearing cryptography chaos theory used many years cryptography past decades chaos nonlinear dynamics used design hundreds cryptographic primitives algorithms include image encryption algorithms hash functions secure pseudo random number generators stream ciphers watermarking steganography ref name akhavan ref majority algorithms based uni modal chaotic maps big portion algorithms use control parameters initial condition


chaotic maps keys wider perspective without loss generality similarities chaotic maps cryptographic systems main motivation design chaos based cryptographic algorithms ref name akhavan one type encryption secret key symmetric key relies diffusion confusion modeled well chaos theory another type computing dna computing paired chaos theory offers way encrypt images information many dna chaos cryptographic algorithms proven either secure technique applied suggested


building group development increasingly researched inherently unpredictable system uncertainty different individuals meeting first time makes trajectory team unknowable say chaos metaphor used verbal theories grounded mathematical models psychological aspects human behavior provides helpful insights describing complexity small work groups go beyond metaphor red cars blue cars take turns move red ones move upwards blue ones move rightwards every time cars colour try move one


step car front model self organized somewhat geometric pattern traffic jams areas cars move top speed traffic forecasting may benefit applications chaos theory better predictions traffic occur would allow measures taken disperse would occurred combining chaos theory principles methods led accurate short term prediction model see plot bml traffic model right chaos theory applied


isabelle stengers ''order chaos'' bantam david ruelle ''chance chaos'' princeton university press ivars peterson ''newton 's clock chaos solar system'' freeman manfred schroeder ''fractals chaos power laws'' freeman ian stewart ''does god play dice mathematics chaos '' blackwell publishers steven strogatz ''sync emerging science spontaneous order'' hyperion yoshisuke ueda ''the road chaos'' aerial pr mitchell waldrop ''complexity emerging science edge order chaos'' simon schuster antonio sawaya ''financial time series analysis chaos


'''canon law''' 'straight measuring rod ruler' set ordinances regulations made ecclesiastical authority church leadership government christian organization church members internal ecclesiastical law operational policy governing catholic church latin church eastern catholic churches eastern orthodox oriental orthodox churches individual national churches within anglican communion way church law legislated interpreted times adjudicated varies widely among four bodies churches three traditions


canon originally ref name ref rule adopted church council canons formed foundation canon law etymology greek arabic hebrew 'straight' rule code standard measure root meaning languages 'reed' see also romance language ancestors english word ''cane'' fourth century first council nicaea calls canons disciplinary measures church term canon means greek rule early distinction rules enacted church


admonition parliament protest centered standard defense canon law could retained long contradict civil law according polly ha reformed church government refuted claiming bishops enforcing canon law years lutheranism book concord historic doctrinal statement lutheran church consisting ten credal documents recognized authoritative lutheranism since th century however book concord confessional document stating orthodox belief rather book ecclesiastical rules discipline like canon


law lutheran national church establishes system church order discipline though referred canons united methodist church book discipline contains laws rules policies guidelines united methodist church last edition published see also abrogation old covenant laws akribeia canon law church england canon law episcopal church united states canonical inquisition collections ancient canons ''decretum gratiani'' doctor laws economy religion fetha nagast ''halakha'' ''ius remonstrandi'' list canon lawyers religious law rule according higher law sharia state