assurance specialty engineering organization may include reliability maintainability quality safety human factors logistics etc case reliability engineer reports product assurance manager specialty engineering manager cases company may wish establish independent reliability organization desirable ensure system reliability often expensive time consuming unduly slighted due budget schedule pressures cases reliability engineer works project day day actually employed paid separate organization within company reliability engineering critical


many professional conferences industry training programs available reliability engineers several professional organizations exist reliability engineers including american society quality reliability division asq rd ieee reliability society american society quality asq society reliability engineers sre group engineers provided list useful tools reliability engineering include ptc windchill software ram commander software relcalc software military handbook mil hdbk plus navmat p manual analyzing failures successes coupled quality standards process also provides systemized information making informed engineering designs see

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Reliability Theory


way understanding analyzing complexity people human experiences society ref name ref associated third wave feminism kimberl williams crenshaw 's theory intersectionality become key theoretical framework various feminist scholars discuss relationship one 's social political identities gender race age sexual orientation received societal discrimination ref name cooper ref intersectionality posits relationships must considered order understand hierarchies power privilege well effects manifest individual 's life ref name carastathis ref though events conditions social

Social science
Sociology
Gender studies
Women's studies


political life often thought shaped one factor intersectionality theorizes oppression social inequality result powerful individuals view combination various factors emphasizing discrimination accounted power personal identity ref name ref name cooper standpoint theory standpoint theory also classified feminist standpoint theory ref name ref developed way critically examining production knowledge resulting effects practices power standpoint theory operates idea knowledge socially situated underrepresented groups minorities


faculty members programs included policing insensitive language championing research methods deemed congenial women qualitative quantitative methods conducting classes therapy sessions ref name patai ref since women 's studies students analyze identity markers including gender race class sexuality often results dissecting institutionalized structures power result pedagogies women 's studies students leave university tool set make social change something power inequalities society notable women 's studies scholars include charlotte bunch patricia hill collins bell hooks angela davis cherr e moraga audre lorde


york basicbooks fausto sterling anne ''sexing body gender politics construction sexuality'' new york basic books fausto sterling anne ''sex gender biology social world'' new york routledge grewal inderpal caren kaplan ''an introduction women 's studies gender transnational world'' ginsberg alice e ''the evolution american women 's studies reflections triumphs controversies change'' palgrave macmillan http wwwinsidehigheredcom news women online interview ginsberg griffin gabriele rosi braidotti eds ''thinking differently reader european women 's studies'' london etc zed books howe florence ed ''the politics


association college research libraries defines '''information literacy''' set integrated abilities encompassing reflective discovery information understanding information produced valued use information creating new knowledge participating ethically communities learning american library association ala presidential committee information literacy formally defined information literacy il attributes individual stating information literate person must able recognize information needed ability locate evaluate use effectively needed information

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Information literacy


way thinking information literacy defined set skills information literacy defined social practice ref name addison ref ref name historical development definitio ref concept waves academic world led adoption ''metaliteracy'' mechanism il concepts creation threshold concepts knowledge dispositions eventually leading creation ala 's information literacy framework ref name historical development definitio ref name addison phrase information literacy first appeared print report written behalf national commission libraries information science paul g zurkowski


resources use classrooms unesco publishes studies information literacy many countries looking information literacy currently taught differs different demographics raise awareness also publish pedagogical tools curricula school boards teachers refer use specific aspects information literacy liberal art jeremy j shapiro shelley k hughes advocated holistic approach information literacy education one encouraged merely addition information technology courses adjunct existing curricula rather radically


e l lehmann revival subjective probability theory work frank ramsey bruno de finetti leonard savage others extended scope expected utility theory situations subjective probabilities used time von neumann morgenstern 's theory expected utility proved expected utility maximization followed basic postulates rational behavior work maurice allais daniel ellsberg showed human behavior systematic sometimes important departures expected utility maximization prospect theory daniel kahneman amos tversky renewed empirical study economic behavior

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Decision Theory


games one player viewed playing impersonal background situation emerging field socio cognitive engineering research especially focused different types distributed decision making human organizations normal abnormal emergency crisis situations complex decisions areas decision theory concerned decisions difficult simply complexity complexity organization make individuals making decisions limited resources ie time intelligence therefore boundedly rational issue thus deviation real optimal behaviour


difficulty determining optimal behaviour first place one example model economic growth resource usage developed club rome help politicians make real life decisions complex situations decisions also affected whether options framed together separately known distinction bias heuristics heuristics decision making ability making decisions based unjustified routine thinking quicker step step processing heuristic thinking also likely involve fallacies inaccuracies ref name ref main use heuristics daily routines


thereby making successful decisions klebanov lev b svetlozat rachev frank j fabozzi eds ''non robust models statistics'' new york nova scientific publishers inc rational presentation probabilistic analysis reprinted shafer pearl '' also normative decision theory '' http psychclassicsyorkuca peirce small diffshtm ramsey frank plumpton truth probability https webarchiveorg web http cepanewschooledu het texts ramsey ramsesspdf pdf chapter vii ''the foundations mathematics logical essays'' statistical inference risk control theory formal sciences epistemology science mathematical quantitative methods economics


reacting system probe pulse change continually scanning time delay pump probe pulses observing response workers reconstruct progress reaction function time examples bromine dissociation femtochemistry used show time resolved electronic stages bromine dissociation ref name li visualizing ref dissociated nbsp nm laser pulse electrons completely localize onto individual atoms nbsp fs br atoms separated nbsp nbsp fs see also attophysics attosecond sup sup femtotechnology ultrafast laser spectroscopy ultrashort pulse flash photolysis references reading http wwwworldscientificcom worldscibooks femtochemistry ultrafast

Natural science
Chemistry
Femtochemistry


stratigraphy seen southeastern utah '''lithology''' rock unit description physical characteristics visible outcrop hand core samples low magnification microscopy physical characteristics include colour texture grain size composition ref name agi dict lithology ref ref name oxford dict lithology ref lithology may refer either detailed description characteristics summary gross physical character rock examples lithologies second sense include sandstone slate basalt limestone ref name heritage ref lithology basis subdividing rock sequences individual lithostratigraphic units purposes

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Lithology


schist gneiss textures slate gneiss define continually increasing extent metamorphism ref name yardley ref metamorphic facies defined pressure temperature fields particular minerals form additional metamorphic rock names exist greenschist metamorphosed basalt extrusive igneous rock quartzite metamorphosed quartz sand grain clast size claystone finest grained sedimentary rock deposited glacial lake missoula montana igneous metamorphic rocks grain size measure sizes crystals rock igneous rock used determine rate material cooled large crystals


due either flow settling particular mineral phases crystallisation forming cumulates texture porphyritic basalt characterized olivine augite phenocrysts texture rock describes relationship individual grains clasts make rock sedimentary textures include degree sorting grading shape roundness clasts metamorphic textures include referring timing growth large metamorphic minerals relative phase deformation nbsp deformation porphyroclast nbsp deformation porphyroblast igneous textures include properties grain shape varies crystals ideal


still must used verification model updating accurately define loads boundary conditions final prototype sign future cae product development process even though cae built strong reputation verification troubleshooting analysis tool still perception sufficiently accurate results come rather late design cycle really drive design expected become problem modern products become ever complex include smart systems leads increased need multi physics analysis including controls contain

Formal science
Mathematics
Computer-aided engineering


connect product design product use absolute must smart products enhanced engineering process also referred predictive engineering analytics see also list finite element software packages computer representation surfaces finite element analysis fea fem computational fluid dynamics cfd computational electromagnetics cem multibody dynamics mbd electronic design automation eda multidisciplinary design optimization mdo comparison cad editors cae virtual prototyping finite element updating predictive engineering analytics references ref reading b raphael ifc smith '' fundamentals computer aided engineering'' john wiley


external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwfunctionbayde multibody dynamics simulationhtml need cae software numerical simulations http caejournalcom computer aided engineering journal wp linkrot fea cad http wwwiospressnl journal integrated computer aided engineering integrated computer aided engineering journal https webarchiveorg web http engfearu ansys lsdyna avigalleryhtml cae avi gallery compmechlab site russia http wwwwileycom bw journalaspref computer aided civil infrastructure engineering https wwwplmautomationsiemenscom en us plm predictive engineering analyticsshtml predictive engineering analytics computer aided engineering software product lifecycle management engineering disciplines


texts ref name kay forty four drugs diluents flavouring agents emollients mentioned dioscorides still listed official pharmacopoeias europe ref name blunt puritans took gerard 's work united states influenced american indigenous medicine ref name kay francisco hern ndez physician philip ii spain spent years gathering information mexico wrote ''rerum medicarum novae hispaniae thesaurus'' many versions published including one francisco xim nez hernandez ximenez fitted aztec ethnomedicinal information european concepts disease warm cold

Applied science
Medicine and health
Traditional medicine


institute technology ibm uk scientific centre peterlee successor prtv common definition rdbms product presents view data collection rows columns even based strictly upon relational theory definition rdbms products typically implement codd 's rules second school thought argues database implement codd 's rules current understanding relational model expressed christopher j date hugh darwen

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Relational databases


relations usually defined using expressions result boolean value indicating whether data satisfies constraint constraints apply single attributes tuple restricting combinations attributes entire relation since every attribute associated domain constraints '' 'domain constraints''' two principal rules relational model known '''entity integrity''' '' 'referential integrity''' primary key relation table primary key consequence relation set primary key uniquely specifies tuple within table natural attributes attributes


first four operators based traditional mathematical set operations union operator combines tuples two relations removes duplicate tuples result relational union operator equivalent sql union operator intersection operator produces set tuples two relations share common intersection implemented sql form intersect operator set difference operator acts two relations produces set tuples first relation exist second relation difference implemented sql


levant damascus iraq kufa basra ref name literary production poetry particular period served spread islam ref name also poetry praise brave warriors inspire soldiers ''jihad'' ''rith '' nowiki ' mourn fell battle ref name notable poets rite include ka'b ibn zuhayr hasan ibn thabit n bigha al ja ref name also poetry entertainment often form ''ghazal'' ref name notables movement jamil ibn ma'mar layla al akhyaliyya umar ibn abi rabi'ah ref name

Humanities
Languages and literature
Arabic Literature


ummayad first fitna created shia sunni split rightful caliph great impact arabic literature ref name whereas arabic literature along arab society greatly centralized time muhammad rashidun became fractured beginning period umayyad caliphate power struggles led tribalism ref name arabic literature time reverted state ''al jahiliyyah'' markets kinasa near kufa near basra poetry praise admonishment political parties tribes recited ref name poets


th century individual authors syria lebanon egypt created original works imitating classical narrative genres ahmad faris shidyaq ''leg upon leg'' khalil khoury ''yes frank'' francis marrash ''the forest truth'' salim al bustani ''at loss levantine gardens'' muhammad al muwaylihi ''isa ibn hisham 's tale'' ref name logan ed p logan ed p ref trend furthered jurji zaydan author many historical novels khalil gibran mikha'il na'ima muhammad husayn haykal author ''zaynab'' meanwhile female writer zaynab fawwaz 's first


novel '' usn al 'aw qib aw gh dah al z hirah'' ''the happy ending'' also influential according authors ''encyclopedia novel'' blockquote almost works claimed first arabic novel goes suggest arabic novel emerged several rehearsals multiple beginnings rather one single origin given arabic word ''riwaya'' used exclusively reference novel traditionally conjured tangle narrative genres might unfair contend arabic novel owes early formation


dramas works naguib mahfuz depict life cairo cairo trilogy describing struggles modern cairene family across three generations nobel prize literature first arabic writer win prize plays musical plays lebanese maroun naccache mid considered birth theatre lebanon also modern arab theatre modern arabic drama began written th century chiefly egypt mainly influenced imitation french works th century


fictional legendary tales like ''the thousand one nights'' ref name zaouali ref texts predate ibn sayyar al warraq 's ''kitab al tabikh'' earliest known book medieval arabic cuisine persian language '' usraw kaw n ud r dak w'' translated arabic conquest sasanian empire arab armies th century guide sophisticated culinary court culture time written fictionalized narrative orphan descended priestly roots learns ways khosrow 's court early authors appear familiar earlier works


single topic covers subjects diverse house garden women gate crashers blind people envy animals misers last three compilations written al jahiz acknowledged master form collections important ''nadim'' companion ruler noble whose role often involved regaling ruler stories information entertain advise type work closely allied collection manual writers like ibn qutaybah offered instruction subjects like etiquette rule bureaucrat even


tales ''one thousand one nights'' also love stories involve romantic love central theme includes frame story scheherazade many stories narrates including aladdin ebony horse three apples tale j al mul k princess duny lover loved adi bin zayd princess hind di'ibil al khuza'i lady muslim bin al walid three unfortunate lovers others several elements courtly love developed arabic literature namely notions love love 's sake exaltation


beloved lady traced back arabic literature th th centuries notion ennobling power love developed early th century persian psychologist philosopher ibn sina known avicenna europe arabic treatise ''risala fi'l ishq'' '' http wwwmuslimphilosophycom sina works avicenna lovepdf treatise love '' final element courtly love concept love desire never fulfilled also times implicit arabic poetry murder mystery earliest known example whodunit murder mystery three apples one tales narrated


medieval islamic world ref name moreh live theatre drama visible part arabic literature modern era may much longer theatrical tradition probably regarded legitimate literature mostly went unrecorded ancient tradition public performance amongst shi'i muslims play depicting life death al husayn battle karbala ce also several plays composed shams al din muhammad ibn daniyal th century mentions older plays getting stale offers


william shakespeare works featured moorish characters peele 's ''the battle alcazar'' shakespeare 's ''the merchant venice'' ''titus andronicus'' ''othello'' featured moorish othello title character works said inspired several moorish delegations morocco elizabethan england beginning th century ignoring fact ''the merchant venice'' ''titus andronicus'' penned th century opera singer actor david serero performed othello moroccan adaptation new york philosophical novels arab islamic philosophers


ibn tufail abubacer ref name jon mcginnis reisman p ref ibn al nafis pioneers philosophical novel wrote earliest novels dealing philosophical fiction ibn tufail wrote first arabic novel ''hayy ibn yaqdhan'' ''philosophus autodidactus'' response al ghazali 's ''the incoherence philosophers'' followed ibn al nafis wrote fictional narrative ''theologus autodidactus'' response ibn tufail 's ''philosophus autodidactus'' narratives protagonists hayy ''philosophus autodidactus'' kamil ''theologus autodidactus'' autodidactic individuals spontaneously generated cave living seclusion


prophets religious laws resurrection body transitoriness world presents rational arguments bodily resurrection immortality human soul using demonstrative reasoning material hadith corpus prove case later islamic scholars viewed work response metaphysical claim avicenna ibn tufail bodily resurrection cannot proven reason view earlier criticized al ghazali ibn al nafis' work later translated latin english ''theologus autodidactus'' early th century latin translation


main purpose behind science fiction work explain islamic religious teachings terms science philosophy example novel ibn al nafis introduces scientific theory metabolism makes references scientific discovery pulmonary circulation order explain bodily resurrection novel later translated english ''theologus autodidactus'' early th century number stories within ''one thousand one nights'' ''arabian nights'' also feature science fiction elements one example adventures bulukiya protagonist bulukiya 's quest


poetry al malaika 's poetry characterised thematic variations use imagery also wrote ''the case contemporary poets'' considered major contribution arab literary criticism major post war poetic voices include fadwa touqan palestine rab b al k im iraq b jal la ri egypt salma khadra jayyusi palestine lami'a 'abbas 'amara iraq b poetry saniya salih syria appeared many well known magazines time particularly ''shi r'' ''mawaqif'' remained shadow work husband poet muhammad al maghout later poems often address


careers order highlight improve female condition arab society concept embodied female figures mona eltahawy egyptian columnist international public speaker best known unconventional comments arab muslim issues involvement global feminism released book ''headscarves hymens'' argues need sexual revolution middle east another writer egypt basma abdel aziz published dystopian novels called queue ''here body'' well


critical acclaim western scholars alaa al aswany 's ''the yacoubian building'' rajaa al sanea 's ''girls riyadh'' attracted significant western media attention first decade st century see also arabic short story riddles arabic arabic music arabian mythology literary arabic islamic golden age references sources allen roger ''the arabic novel historical critical introduction'' nd ed syracuse university press allen roger ''the arabic literary heritage development genres criticism'' cambridge university press ashtiany julia johnstone latham j serjeant r b smith g


arabian nights city brass ''bulletin school oriental african studies'' volume xxxiv hashmi alamgir ed ''the worlds muslim imagination'' gulmohar hassan nawal muhammad ''hayy bin yaqzan robinson crusoe study early arabic impact english literature'' al rashid house publication irwin robert ''the arabian nights companion'' tauris parke paperbacks jayyusi salma khadra ''trends movements modern arabic poetry'' volume brill jayyusi salma khadra romantic poets badawi mohammed mustafa ''modern arabic literature'' cambridge university press jones alan foreword


era carried abbasid samanid courts every major iranian dynasty qasida perhaps famous form panegyric used though quatrains omar khayyam 's ruba'iyyat also widely popular khorasani style whose followers mostly associated greater khorasan characterized supercilious diction dignified tone relatively literate language chief representatives lyricism asjadi farrukhi sistani unsuri manuchehri panegyric masters rudaki known love nature verses abounding evocative descriptions courts system patronage emerged

Humanities
Languages and literature
Persian Literature


ehsan yarshater notes rule beloved woman young man early centuries islam raids central asia produced many young slaves slaves also bought received gifts made serve pages court households affluent soldiers bodyguards young men slaves also served wine banquets receptions gifted among could play music maintain cultivated conversation love toward young pages soldiers novices trades professions


aufi regarded reliable chronological source many experts well ata malik juvayni 's famous ''tarikh jahangushay juvaini'' spans mongolid ilkhanid era iran attar 's ''tazkerat ol owliya'' biographies saints also detailed account sufi mystics referenced many subsequent authors considered significant work mystical hagiography literary criticism oldest surviving work persian literary criticism islamic conquest persia ''muqaddame ye shahname ye abu mansuri'' written samanid period work deals myths legends ''shahnameh''


centuries later however practise usage region would strongly revived branch seljuks sultanate rum took persian language art letters anatolia adopted persian language official language empire ottomans roughly seen eventual successors took tradition persian official court language empire time official language empire educated noble class ottoman empire spoke persian sultan selim despite safavid iran 's archrival


honor kabir saw poetry general type poetry developed qajar period detrimental progress modernization iranian society believed dire need change concerns also expressed others fath 'ali akhundzadeh mirza aqa khan kermani mirza malkom khan khan also addressed need change persian poetry literary terms well always linking social concerns life certain sores slowly erode mind solitude like kind canker ''the blind owl''


literature parviz natel khanlari gholamhossein yousefi belong nafisi 's generation also involved modern literature critical writings natel khanlari distinguished simplicity style follow traditionalists advocate new instead approach accommodated entire spectrum creativity expression persian literature another critic ahmad kasravi experienced authority literature attacked writers poets whose works served despotism contemporary persian literary criticism reached maturity sadeq hedayat ebrahim golestan houshang golshiri abdolhossein zarrinkoub shahrokh meskoob among figures zarrinkoub held academic positions


draws criticisms including information sociological research cannot compared contrasted hence one never truly understand society changes data reliable gathered information interpreted hence name interpretivist sociologist therefore objective despite criticisms interactionist methods allow flexibility fact hypothesis means sociologist rooted attempt prove dogma theory instead researchers react discover assuming anything society entirely true hypotheses many studies using interactionist methods researcher


may inclined observe certain events happening ignoring bigger picture still bias results studies well conducted arguably theorists turned method also shows human behaviour affected altered interactions ie socialization case studies field experiments rosenhan experiment david rosenhan found normal researchers carry study hospitals treatment mental health california critics argue method unethical vast majority interactionists concur unstructured interviews aaron


condoms control spread sexually transmitted diseases significant disparity access health care public health initiatives developed countries developing countries well within developing countries developing countries public health infrastructures still forming may enough trained health workers monetary resources cases sufficient knowledge provide even basic level medical care disease prevention ref name ref name jamison major public health concern developing countries poor maternal child health exacerbated malnutrition poverty beginnings

Applied science
Medicine and health
Public health


according world health organization health state complete physical mental social well merely absence disease infirmity ref name related terms predominant agency associated global health public health related global health health populations worldwide context defined area study research practice places priority improving health achieving equity health people worldwide ref name koplan ref international health field health care usually public health


care system many interventions public health interest delivered outside health facilities food safety surveillance distribution condoms needle exchange programs prevention transmissible diseases public health plays important role disease prevention efforts developing world developed countries local health systems non governmental organizations public health requires geographic information systems gis risk vulnerability exposure involve geographic aspects priority areas original focal areas public health initiatives began emerge england modern times th century onwards three core


strands public health related statecraft supply clean water sanitation example london sewerage system control infectious diseases including vaccination quarantine evolving infrastructure various sciences eg statistics microbiology epidemiology sciences engineering ref name great britain leader development public health time period necessity great britain first modern urban nation half population lived settlements people ref name led certain type distress led


main objective attainment peoples highest possible level health 's broad mandate includes advocating universal healthcare monitoring public health risks coordinating responses health emergencies promoting human health well played leading role several public health achievements notably eradication smallpox near eradication polio development ebola vaccine current priorities include communicable diseases particularly hiv aids ebola covid malaria tuberculosis non communicable diseases heart disease cancer healthy diet nutrition food security occupational health


private foundations bill melinda gates foundation bilateral donors multilateral donors world bank unicef ref name result sharp rise uncoordinated fragmented funding ever increasing number initiatives projects promote better strategic cooperation coordination partners particularly among bilateral development agencies funding organizations swedish international development cooperation agency sida spearheaded establishment essence initiative facilitate dialogue donors funders allowing identify synergies essence brings together wide range funding agencies coordinate funding efforts


health aid oecd amounted billion amounted total bilateral aid ref name ref multilateral donors found spend total aid bettering public healthcare ref name international health aid debates debates exist questioning efficacy international health aid supporters aid claim health aid wealthy countries necessary order developing countries escape poverty trap opponents health aid claim international health aid actually disrupts developing countries' course development causes dependence aid many cases


aid fails reach recipients ref name example recently health aid funneled towards initiatives financing new technologies like antiretroviral medication insecticide treated mosquito nets new vaccines positive impacts initiatives seen eradication smallpox polio however critics claim misuse misplacement funds may cause many efforts never come achievement ref name economic modeling based institute health metrics evaluation world health organization shown link international health aid developing countries reduction


goals entirety encompass entire spectrum development across nations however goals directly address health disparities primarily developing countries ref name un ref six goals address key issues global public health poverty hunger food security health education gender equality women 's empowerment water sanitation ref name un public health officials use goals set agenda plan smaller scale initiatives organizations goals designed lessen burden disease inequality faced developing countries lead healthier future links


topography wind conditions exposure sun properties availability water food humans nonhuman animals diverse authors medical architectural engineering military manuals explained apply theories groups different origins different circumstances crucial since galenism bodily constitutions thought heavily shaped material environments balance required specific regimens traveled different seasons climate zones complex pre industrialized societies interventions designed reduce health risks could initiative different stakeholders instance


edwin chadwick pivotal influence early public health campaign first attempts sanitary reform establishment public health institutions made thomas southwood smith physician london fever hospital began write papers importance public health one first physicians brought give evidence poor law commission along neil arnott james phillips kay smith advised government importance quarantine sanitary improvement limiting spread infectious diseases cholera


offer variety degrees generally fall two categories professional academic two major postgraduate degrees master public health mph master science public health msph doctoral studies field include doctor public health drph doctor philosophy phd subspecialty greater public health disciplines drph regarded professional degree phd academic degree professional degrees oriented towards practice public health settings master public health doctor public health doctor health science dhsc dhs master


poorest slums glasgow received obe jonas salk developed one first polio vaccines campaigned vigorously mandatory vaccinations country examples canada canada public health agency canada national agency responsible public health emergency preparedness response infectious chronic disease control prevention cuba since cuban revolution cuban government devoted extensive resources improvement health conditions entire population via universal access health care infant mortality plummeted cuban medical


name ref studies conducted apes monkeys dogs birds wolves tortoises focused two different tasks follow ing another 's gaze distant space follow ing another 's gaze geometrically around visual barrier eg repositioning follow gaze cue faced barrier blocking view broad range animals proven exhibit latter however apes dogs wolves corvids ravens able follow another 's gaze distant space marmosets ibis unable demonstrate geometric gaze following researchers yet clear picture

Journalism, media studies and communication


threat usually determined long sentry whistles sentry continues whistle alarm entirety pack gone safety point sentry returns burrow olfactory flehmen response tiger despite oldest method communication chemical communication one least understood forms due part sheer abundance chemicals environment difficulty detecting measuring chemicals sample ref name url http dxdoiorg journal quarterly review biology volume issue pages doi issn ref ability detect chemicals environment serves


detect seismic waves animals use form communication vibrations may combined sorts communication thermal python top rattlesnake illustrating positions pit organs red arrows indicate pit organs whereas black arrows indicate nostril number different snakes ability sense infrared ir thermal radiation allows reptiles derive thermal images radiant heat emitted predators prey wavelengths accuracy sense blind rattlesnake target strike


indeed survival animal human caretaker may stake example human fails recognize signal imminent attack also important take account non human animal species may interpret signals humans differently humans instance pointing command refers location rather object dogs since late one scientist sean senechal developing studying using learned visible expressive language dogs horses teaching animals gestural human made american sign language like language


mellon university prominently supported march simon ref name march simon goes modern organizations actually information handling decision making one crucial factor information handling decision making individual 's ability process information make decisions limitations might derive context person 's age situational complexity lack requisite quality information hand exacerbated rapid advance technology new kinds system enables especially social

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Information management


'''business strategy''' although long way workaday issues managing information organisations strategy organisations simply informed information technology information systems opportunities whether address poor performance improve differentiation competitiveness strategic analysis tools value chain critical success factor analysis directly dependent proper attention information could managed ref name ward peppard information management processes even full capability competency within six knowledge areas argued things still go wrong


contribute strategy good information management moves business forwards corporate governance human resource management product development marketing important role play strategic ways must see one domain activity alone sole source strategic success hand corporate governance human resource management product development marketing dependent effective information management final analysis competency manage information well broad basis offered said predominant operationalising


providing one title definition conference helped get school psychologists recognized nationally since consensus reached regarding standards training major functions school psychologist public assured school psychologists receiving adequate information training become practitioner essential school psychologists meet qualifications receive appropriate training nationwide essential standards first addressed thayer conference thayer conference participants felt order hold title school psychologist

Social science
Psychology
School psychology


special education classrooms children emergence special education classrooms came need experts help assist process child selection special education thus school psychology founded important contributors founding lightner witmer lightner witmer acknowledged founder school psychology witmer student wilhelm wundt james mckeen cattell wundt believed psychology deal average typical performance cattell 's teachings emphasized individual differences witmer followed cattell 's teachings focused learning individual child 's needs witmer opened first


gertrude hildreth psychologist lincoln school teacher 's college columbia brooklyn college new york authored many books including first book pertaining school psychology titled psychological service school problems written book discussed applying science psychology address perceived problems schools main focus book applied educational psychology improve learning outcomes hildreth listed problems solved applying psychological techniques including instructional problems classroom assessment achievement interpretation test results instructional groupings students


also proposed mtss multi tiered systems support may address concerns national association school psychologists nasp recognizes need evidence based prevention intervention practices address student learning social emotional development behavioral performance instructional methodology school practices classroom management areas salient school based services improving student outcomes national association school psychologists nasp https wwwnasponlineorg intervention prevention research needs address range questions related efficacy effectiveness also feasibility given resources eg time money staffing acceptability eg teacher student community attitudes toward intervention strategies social


probability placed specific disability category ref name systemic prejudice believed one root causes mischaracterization minority children disabled problematic research disproportionality us context posited two overlapping types rationales believed disproportionate representation linked poverty health outcomes versus believed systemwide racist practices contributed representation minority students united states congress recently received annual report implementation idea stated proportionally native americans


reading cite id refcrsppp american psychological association commission recognition specialties proficiencies professional psychology nd archival description school psychology retrieved december https wwwapaorg ed graduate specialize school american psychological association cite ''curtis mj castillo jm cohen rm best practices systems level change communique online ''' ''' archived original retrieved '' cite id reffagan fagan k witmer 's contributions school psychological services american psychologist cite cite id reffagan fagan k wise p school psychology past present future rd ed bethesda md national association school psychologists cite


used growing rice wild rice fodder floating planters employed regions constituting modern provinces jiangsu zhejiang fujian floating planters known either translates framed paddy brassica paddy respectively agricultural work also references earlier chinese texts indicated floating raft rice cultivation used early tang dynasty th century northern song dynasty th century periods chinese history floating aquaponics systems polycultural fish ponds installed china recent years


iron added addition fish waste serves main source nutrients plants ref name srac good way deal solids buildup aquaponics use worms liquefy solid organic matter utilized plants animals system worm growing method please see vermiponics operation five main inputs system water oxygen light feed given aquatic animals electricity pump filter oxygenate water spawn fry may


added replace grown fish taken system retain stable system terms outputs aquaponics system may continually yield plants vegetables grown hydroponics edible aquatic species raised aquaculture typical build ratios square foot grow space every aquaculture water system water support fish stock depending aeration filtration ref name purdue ref ten primary guiding principles creating successful aquaponics systems issued dr james rakocy director


aquaponics research team university virgin islands based extensive research done part ''agricultural experiment station'' aquaculture program use feeding rate ratio design calculations keep feed input relatively constant supplement calcium potassium iron ensure good aeration remove solids careful aggregates oversize pipes use biological pest control ensure adequate biofiltration control ph feed source aquaculture based systems stock feed often consists fish meal derived lower value species ongoing depletion wild fish stocks makes practice unsustainable organic fish feeds may prove


man made energy technological solutions environmental control achieve recirculation water ambient temperatures however system designed energy conservation mind using alternative energy reduced number pumps letting water flow downwards much possible highly energy efficient careful design minimize risk aquaponics systems multiple 'single points failure' problems electrical failure pipe blockage lead complete loss fish stock fish stocking order aquaponic systems financially successful


soil n't needed little bit water required aquaponic systems set areas traditionally poor soil quality contaminated water ref name importantly aquaponic systems usually free weeds pests diseases would affect soil allows consistently quickly produce high quality crops sell ref name research pertaining aquaponic systems economic viability still limited compared conventional hydroponic systems research available economic viability aquaponic businesses must determined case case


used provide nutrients hydroponic plant system two systems operate autonomously unlike sraps grower add synthetic fertilizer draps system without hurting fish draps tomato systems use fertilizers addition fish waste provide level production conventional hydroponic systems reducing fertilizer usage sraps systems able mimic results additional research shows support aquaponic systems use less fertilizer hydroponic systems despite reduction grower determine cost


home called aquaponic machine revenue generated selling produce tourists effort reduce growing dependence imported foodvegetable production part low cost backyard aquaponics system developed bangladesh agricultural university asia bangladesh world 's densely populated country farmers use agrochemicals enhance food production storage life though country lacks oversight safe levels chemicals foods human consumption combat issue team led salam department aquaculture bangladesh agricultural university created plans low cost aquaponics system provide


become somewhat minor field practical applications nonetheless proponents hoped might prove useful future ref name hunter doi access free ref important milestone development systems biology become international project physiome associated disciplines overview signal transduction pathways according interpretation systems biology using large data sets using interdisciplinary tools typical application metabolomics complete set metabolic products metabolites system organism cell tissue level ref name ref items may computer database include


phenomics organismal variation phenotype changes life span genomics organismal deoxyribonucleic acid dna sequence including intra organismal cell specific variation ie telomere length variation epigenomics epigenetics organismal corresponding cell specific transcriptomic regulating factors empirically coded genomic sequence ie dna methylation histone acetylation deacetylation etc transcriptomics organismal tissue whole cell gene expression measurements dna microarrays serial analysis gene expression interferomics organismal tissue cell level transcript correcting factors ie rna interference proteomics organismal tissue cell level measurements proteins peptides via two dimensional gel electrophoresis mass spectrometry multi dimensional protein


capture dynamic changes mrna proteins post translational modifications mechanobiology forces physical properties scales interplay regulatory mechanisms ref name mechanicalsystemsbiology ref biosemiotics analysis system sign relations organism biosystems physiomics systematic study physiome biology cancer systems biology example systems biology approach distinguished specific object study tumorigenesis treatment cancer works specific data patient samples high throughput data particular attention characterizing cancer genome patient tumour samples tools immortalized cancer cell


values could analyzed individualism collectivism uncertainty avoidance power distance strength social hierarchy masculinity femininity task orientation versus person orientation refined several times since widespread access people internet high influence online social networks daily life users behavior websites become new resource perform cross cultural comparative studies study twitter examined usage emoticons users countries found positive correlation individualism collectivism dimension hofstede 's cultural dimensions theory people 's use mouth oriented emoticons recent study proposed

Social science
Sociology
Cultural studies
Cross-cultural studies


cultures structure dynamics ejournal anthropological related sciences https webarchiveorg web http wwwtranstextsnet transtext e stranscultures trilingual journal global cultural studies social evolution history associations https webarchiveorg web http wwwsccrorg descriptionhtml society cross cultural research https webarchiveorg web http wwwietteu institut d' tudes transtextuelles et transculturelles iett institute transtextual transcultural studies lyons france social anthropology subfields political science


''specialty guidelines forensic psychologists'' revised include subfields psychology eg social clinical experimental counseling neuropsychology apply scientific technical specialized knowledge psychology law ref name ref ref name addition forensic psychology legal psychology practiced within umbrella term psychology law recognized division apa american psychology law society legal psychology whole focuses many aspects forensic psychology centers around psychology applied legal field subfields often used interchangeably

Social science
Psychology
Forensic psychology


students drawn subject misconception forensic psychology primarily used criminal profiling tv shows movies criminal minds mindhunter silence lambs widely popularized practice criminal profiling particularly within federal bureau investigation 's fbi behavioral analysis unit bau ref name ref despite excitement given idea career criminal profiling students show interest particular aspect forensic psychology come find practice criminal profiling rarely used outside bau ref name ref also find


sentencing parole hearings often regarding potential intellectual disability prevents sentencing one 's risk recidivism family court including child custody parental termination cases civil court involving personal injury competence decide ref name important note forensic psychologist responsible assessing reporting results evaluation responsibility ends decisions made based reports forensic psychologists legal professionals also means assessment made evaluator considered counselling session therefore whatever said


setting psychologist dealing voluntary client forensic psychologist evaluates clients order judge behest attorney '''autonomy''' voluntary clients latitude autonomy regarding assessment 's objectives assessment usually takes concerns account objectives forensic examination confined applicable statutes common law elements pertain legal issue question '''threats validity''' client therapist working toward common goal although unconscious distortion may occur forensic context substantially greater likelihood


individuals forensic psychology field pay range entry level year year median pay range year ref name ref also pay differences men women men paid higher annually women pay forensic psychologist also vary state forensic psychologist works ref name notable research forensic psychology stern w psychology testimony ''the journal abnormal social psychology'' ''' ''' doi h issn nbsp x stewart destin n jacquin kristine juror perceptions


sexual abuse trial ''journal child sexual abuse'' ''' ''' doi j v n issn nbsp kassin wrightsman l prior confessions mock juror verdicts ''journal applied social psychology'' smalarz laura madon stephanie yang yueran guyll max buck sarah perfect match criminal stereotypes bias forensic evidence analysis ''law human behavior'' ''' ''' doi lhb issn nbsp x harris paige b boccaccini marcus murrie daniel c rater differences psychopathy measure scoring predictive validity ''law human behavior'' ''' ''' doi lhb issn nbsp x khurshid ayesha jacquin kristine november expert testimony


'' 'sampling theory''' may mean nyquist shannon sampling theorem digital signal processing dsp statistical sampling fourier sampling

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Sampling Theory


weights applied data adjust sample design particularly stratified sampling results probability theory statistical theory employed guide practice business medical research sampling widely used gathering information population acceptance sampling used determine production lot material meets governing specifications population definition successful statistical practice based focused problem definition sampling includes defining population sample drawn population defined including people items characteristic one


might study rats order get better understanding human health one might study records people born order make predictions people born time spent making sampled population population concern precise often well spent raises many issues ambiguities questions would otherwise overlooked stage sampling frame straightforward case sampling batch material production acceptance sampling lots would desirable identify measure every single item


population ' 'does'' probability selection known 'equal probability selection' eps design designs also referred 'self weighting' sampled units given weight probability sampling includes simple random sampling systematic sampling stratified sampling probability proportional size sampling cluster multistage sampling various ways probability sampling two things common every element known nonzero probability sampled involves random selection point nonprobability sampling '''nonprobability sampling''' sampling method elements


population ''no'' chance selection sometimes referred 'out coverage' 'undercovered' probability selection ca n't accurately determined involves selection elements based assumptions regarding population interest forms criteria selection hence selection elements nonrandom nonprobability sampling allow estimation sampling errors conditions give rise exclusion bias placing limits much information sample provide population information relationship sample population limited making difficult extrapolate


representative sample also simple random sampling cumbersome tedious sampling large target population cases investigators interested research questions specific subgroups population example researchers might interested examining whether cognitive ability predictor job performance equally applicable across racial groups simple random sampling cannot accommodate needs researchers situation provide subsamples population sampling strategies stratified sampling used instead systematic sampling visual representation selecting random sample


subgroups may lost generalized random sample second utilizing stratified sampling method lead efficient statistical estimates provided strata selected based upon relevance criterion question instead availability samples even stratified sampling approach lead increased statistical efficiency tactic result less efficiency would simple random sampling provided stratum proportional group 's size population third sometimes case data readily available individual pre existing strata within


complexity sample selection well leading increased complexity population estimates second examining multiple criteria stratifying variables may related others complicating design potentially reducing utility strata finally cases designs large number strata specified minimum sample size per group stratified sampling potentially require larger sample would methods although cases required sample size would larger would required simple random sampling


relevant stratification variables difficult useful homogeneous subgroups expensive implement poststratification stratification sometimes introduced sampling phase process called poststratification ref name robert groves et al approach typically implemented due lack prior knowledge appropriate stratifying variable experimenter lacks necessary information create stratifying variable sampling phase although method susceptible pitfalls post hoc approaches provide several benefits right situation implementation usually


republican win presidential election went badly awry due severe bias https wwwwsjcom articles sb two million people responded study names obtained magazine subscription lists telephone directories appreciated lists heavily biased towards republicans resulting sample though large deeply flawed see also data collection gy 's sampling theory german tank problem horvitz thompson estimator official statistics ratio estimator replication statistics random sampling mechanism resampling statistics sampling case studies sampling error sortition design effect notes textbook groves et alia provides overview


series iso series astm astm e standard practice probability sampling materials astm e standard practice calculating sample size estimate specified tolerable error average characteristic lot process astm e standard practice acceptance evidence based results probability sampling astm e standard terminology relating sampling astm e standard practice use process oriented aoql ltpd sampling plans astm e standard practice sampling stream product attributes indexed aql ansi asq ansi asq z us


example seamanship training establishment glasgow college nautical studies uk '''seamanship''' art knowledge competence operating ship boat craft water ref name asa ref oxford dictionary states seamanship skill techniques practice handling ship boat sea involves topics development specialised skills including navigation international maritime law regulatory knowledge weather meteorology forecasting watchkeeping ship handling small boat handling operation deck equipment anchors cables ropework line handling communications sailing engines execution evolutions

Applied science
Transportation
Marine transportation
Seafaring


pilot assumes command vessel classed advisor instances may crossing sill drydock port russia ex soviet states distinction important pilot command master take action limited advising pilot circumstance creates considers dangerous situation regulatory knowledge working knowledge relevant rules regulations including international maritime organization good seamanship ensures compliance international flag port state


requirements example international regulations preventing collisions sea principal international rules navigation vessels sea rule ref name colregs ref sets responsibility save navigation stating ordinary practice seaman seen equivalent wording seamanship ref name knight ref accepted practices seamanship relating colregs include maintaining proper look rule proceeding safe speed rule taking correct actions avoid collision rule ref name colregs maintenance dry docking preparation painting ship needle gun remove previous paint layers seamanship involves


known six pack license allows fishing guides operate six passengers united kingdom seafarers deck officers crew must complete efficient deck hand edh course approved training provider direction uk merchant navy training board crew large ship typically organized divisions departments specialty example deck department responsible navigation ship handling general maintenance engineering division responsible propulsion mechanical systems crew start


reference br ''seamanship guide divers'' kris pedder bsac ''seamanship techniques'' butterworth heinemann p '' st century seamanship'' witherby publishing group external links http wwwwdlorg en item benefits knowing basics rules seafaring collection eight documents seafaring ibn jid al julf r al sa th century skills maritime culture


romans utilized water powered machinery reverse overshot water wheels used extensively copper mines rio tinto spain one sequence comprised wheels arranged pairs lifting water black powder first used mining bansk tiavnica kingdom hungary present day slovakia allowed blasting rock earth loosen reveal ore veins much faster fire setting industrial revolution saw advances mining technologies including improved explosives steam powered pumps lifts drills long remained safe education colorado

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Mining engineering


reserve total value reserve investment future projects property owner owners' contract addition environmental impact reclamation possible legal ramifications government permitting considered steps analysis determine whether mining company proceed extraction minerals whether project abandoned mining company may decide sell rights reserve third party rather develop decision proceed extraction may postponed indefinitely market conditions become favourable mining operation mining engineers working


engineering'' https webarchiveorg web http statsblsgov oco ocos htm us department labor ''mining geological engineers'' http wwwbgsacuk laboratories mineralogy industrialhtml british geological survey mineral processing https webarchiveorg web http wwwmadenmuhendisleriorg turk sh mining engineers https webarchiveorg web http wwwturkishminingnet mineral exploration properties turkey https webarchiveorg web https wwwdataminesoftwarecom datamine datamine provider technology services required seamlessly plan manage mining operations ''mining software'' http wwwrichardson geosciencecom mineral exploration mapping http wwwrudmetru catalog journals mining science technologies russia engineering disciplines


studies slavic studies slavonic studies slavistics russian studies ukrainian studies belarusian studies czech studies bohemistics polish studies polonistics bosnian studies bulgarian studies croatian studies serbian studies serbistics united kingdom studies anglo saxon studies cornish studies also celtic studies manx studies also celtic studies scottish studies also celtic studies welsh studies also celtic studies pacific studies australian studies new zealand studies due increasing interest studying translocal transregional transnational transcontinental phenomena potsdam based research network recently coined term transarea studies http wwwuni potsdamde tapoints points potsdam international network transarea studies interdisciplinary research


encourage scholars pursue communication research social science ref name association launched journal communication year founding like many communication associations founded around decade name association changed field name changed international communication association ica ref name scope topics communication studies integrates aspects social sciences humanities social science discipline overlaps sociology psychology anthropology biology political science economics public policy ref name humanities perspective communication


term clinical psychology defined study individuals observation experimentation intention promoting change ref name compass compas bruce gotlib ian ''introduction clinical psychology'' new york ny mcgraw hill higher education ref field slow follow witmer 's example similar clinics us ref name evans ref even clinical psychology growing working issues serious mental distress remained domain psychiatrists neurologists ref name routh ref however clinical psychologists continued make inroads area due increasing skill psychological assessment psychologists' reputation assessment

Social science
Psychology
Clinical psychology


settings including private practices hospitals mental health organizations schools businesses non profit agencies clinical psychologists provide clinical services may also choose specialize specializations codified credentialed regulatory agencies within country practice united states specializations credentialed american board professional psychology abpp training certification practice clinical psychologists study generalist program psychology plus postgraduate training clinical placement supervision length training differs across world ranging four years plus post bachelors supervised practice doctorate three six years


internship passing written examination states oral examination us state canadian province licensing boards members association state provincial psychology boards asppb created maintains examination professional practice psychology eppp many states require examinations addition eppp jurisprudence ie mental health law examination oral examination ref name asppb states also require certain number continuing education credits per year order renew license obtained various means taking audited classes


specific kinds cognitive functioning often referred iq comparison norming group tests wisc iv wais attempt measure traits general knowledge verbal skill memory attention span logical reasoning visual spatial perception several tests shown predict accurately certain kinds performance especially scholastic ref name groth tests category include wraml wiat '''personality tests''' tests personality aim describe patterns behavior thoughts feelings generally fall within two categories objective projective objective measures mmpi


explored claim mechanical formal algorithmic methods data combination could outperform clinical eg subjective informal clinician 's head methods combinations used arrive prediction behavior meehl concluded mechanical modes combination performed well better clinical modes ref name meehl subsequent meta analyses studies directly compare mechanical clinical predictions born meehl 's conclusions ref name grove ref ref name white ref survey practicing clinical psychologists found clinicians almost exclusively use clinical judgment make behavioral predictions patients including diagnosis prognosis ref name grove ref intervention psychotherapy involves


long term therapy ref name gabbard ref name laroche ref four main schools many clinical psychologists integrative eclectic draw evidence base across different models therapy integrative way rather using single specific model uk clinical psychologists show competence least two models therapy including cbt gain doctorate british psychological society division clinical psychology vocal need follow evidence base rather wedded single model therapy us intervention applications research dominated training practice


increased understanding cultural gender spiritual sexual orientation issues clinical psychologists beginning look various strengths weaknesses orientation also working related fields neuroscience behavioural genetics evolutionary biology psychopharmacology result growing practice eclecticism psychologists learning various systems efficacious methods therapy intent provide best solution given problem professional ethics field clinical psychology countries strongly regulated code ethics us professional ethics largely defined


apa ''code conduct'' often used states define licensing requirements apa code generally sets higher standard required law designed guide responsible behavior protection clients improvement individuals organizations society ref name apa apa '' http wwwapaorg ethics code html ethical principles psychologists code conduct '' retrieved july ref code applicable psychologists research applied fields apa code based five principles beneficence nonmaleficence fidelity responsibility integrity justice respect people 's rights dignity ref


future order cope impacts large scale commercial fishing competition resources threats impact fishing communities ref name svein ref however limits empowerment fisheries management process empowerment maintains involvement part state fisheries management matter empowered stakeholders success fisheries n't possible without legislative powers financial resources educational support research government provides ref name svein concept accepted communities individuals argue state withdraw completely let

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Environmental management
Fisheries management


domino effect socioeconomic systems interconnected produce effects local level way global level see also socioeconomic status social mobility behavioral strategy economic sociology political economy notes https booksgooglecom booksid cx kyllcnsuc pg pa preview http wwwe elgarcouk bookentry mainlassoid description br nbsp nbsp ''international journal social economics'' http infoemeraldinsightcom products journals journalshtmphpsessid qst u chcifb vp id ijse description br nbsp nbsp ''socio economic review'' ref ref name elsevier 'relation economics social values' corresponding title jel ''journal economic literature'' classification codes br nbsp nbsp jess benhabib alberto bisin matthew jackson ed ''handbook social economics'' elsevier br nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp vol part social preferences ch


therapist another theory function counseling relationship known secure base hypothesis related attachment theory hypothesis proposes counselor acts secure base clients explore check secure attachment one 's counselor secure attachment general found related client exploration insecure attachment styles found related less session depth securely attached clients cultural variables counseling psychologists interested culture relates help seeking counseling process outcome standard surveys exploring

Social science
Psychology
Counseling psychology


biases male female identity roles behavior emotional expression apa guidelines multicultural competence outline expectations taking culture account practice research counseling ethics regulation perceptions ethical behaviors vary depending upon geographical location ethical mandates similar throughout global community ethical standards created help practitioners clients community avoid possible harm potential harm standard ethical behaviors centered harm preventing harm counselors cannot share confidential information obtained counseling process without specific written


human relations training model norman kagan 's interpersonal process recall allen ivey 's microcounseling skills modern training models include gerard egan 's skilled helper model clara e hill 's three stage model exploration insight action recent analysis studies counselor training found modeling instruction feedback common training models seem medium large effects trainees supervision models research like models clients therapists interact also models interactions therapists supervisors edward bordin proposed model supervision working alliance similar


supervisor arise supervisors demonstrate disrespect lack support blaming ref name ladanyinman vocational development career counseling vocational theories several types theories vocational choice development types include trait factor theories social cognitive theories developmental theories two examples trait factor theories also known person environment fit holland 's theory theory work adjustment john holland hypothesized six vocational personality interest types six work environment types realistic investigative artistic social enterprising conventional person 's vocational interests match work environment


theory assessments skills abilities values also commonly assessed career counseling professional journals united states scholarly journals profession ''journal counseling psychology'' ''the counseling psychologist'' australia counseling psychology articles published counseling psychology section ''australian psychologist'' europe scholarly journals profession include ''european journal counselling psychology'' auspices european association counselling psychology ''counselling psychology review'' auspices british psychological society ''counselling psychology quarterly'' international interdisciplinary publication routledge


ecovillage torvetua norway '''environmental sociology''' study interactions societies natural environment field emphasizes social factors influence environmental resource management cause environmental issues processes environmental problems socially constructed define social issues societal responses problems environmental sociology emerged subfield sociology late response emergence environmental movement represents relatively new area inquiry focusing extension earlier sociology inclusion physical context

Social science
Sociology
Environmental sociology


media attention words environmental problems real ontological status despite knowledge awareness stemming social processes processes various conditions constructed problems scientists activists media social actors correspondingly environmental problems must understood via social processes despite material basis may external humans interactiveness broadly accepted many aspects debate continue contemporary research field events modern environmentalism '''united states''' built strong cultural momentum environmental causes giving birth


less suicide environmental climate change led lack ability adapt lack elite willingness adapt even faced signs much earlier nearing ecological problems time societal successes diamond included new guinea tikopia island whose inhabitants lived sustainably years john dryzek et al argue ''green states social movements environmentalism united states united kingdom germany norway'' may common global green environmental social movement though specific outcomes nationalist falling


row sigmund freud g stanley hall carl jung back row abraham brill ernest jones ndor ferenczi sigmund freud gave explanations genesis religion various writings ''totem taboo'' applied idea oedipus complex involving unresolved sexual feelings example son toward mother hostility toward father postulated emergence primordial stage human development ''moses monotheism'' freud reconstructed biblical history general theory ideas also developed ''the future illusion'' freud spoke religion

Social science
Psychology
Psychology of religion


allport characterized person whose approach religion dynamic open minded able maintain links inconsistencies contrast immature religion self serving generally represents negative stereotypes people religion recently distinction encapsulated terms intrinsic religion referring genuine heartfelt devout faith extrinsic religion referring utilitarian use religion means end church attendance gain social status dimensions religion measured religious orientation scale allport ross third form


exhibits intricate processes structures plausible think result evolutionary processes working vast periods time like biological systems mind optimised promote survival reproduction evolutionary environment view specialised cognitive functions broadly serve reproductive ends steven pinker universal propensity toward religious belief genuine scientific puzzle thinks adaptationist explanations religion meet criteria adaptations alternative explanation religious psychology product many parts mind originally evolved


religion'' yale university press jung c g ''psychology religion'' yale univ press jung c g ''psychology western religion'' princeton univ press hood r w ''the construction preliminary validation measure reported mystical experience'' journal scientific study religion leuba j h ''the psychology religious mysticism'' new york harcourt brace leuba j h ''the psychological origin nature religion'' wikisource text levin j god faith spirituality exploring spirituality health connection new york wiley paloutzian r f park c l handbook


volumes brain evolutionary studies alter understanding religion'' westport ct praeger greenwood paloutzian r ''invitation psychology religion'' nd ed new york allyn bacon meissner w ''psychoanalysis religious experience'' london new yale university press roberts b hruby p j religion psychoactive sacraments entheogen chrestomathy online archive https webarchiveorg web http csporg chrestomathy tsakiridis george evagrius ponticus cognitive science look moral evil thoughts eugene pickwick publications wulff ''psychology religion classic contemporary'' nd ed new york john wiley


universe infrared ultraviolet x ray gamma ray parts electromagnetic spectrum well observing cosmic rays interferometer arrays produced first extremely high resolution images using aperture synthesis radio infrared optical wavelengths orbiting instruments hubble space telescope produced rapid advances astronomical knowledge acting workhorse visible light observations faint objects new space instruments development expected directly observe planets around stars perhaps even earth like worlds addition telescopes astronomers begun using instruments make observations instruments neutrino astronomy

Natural science
Space science
Astronomy
Observational astronomy


spectrographs employed banks prisms split light broad spectrum later grating spectrograph developed reduced amount light loss compared prisms provided higher spectral resolution spectrum photographed long exposure allowing spectrum faint objects distant galaxies measured stellar photometry came use means measuring stellar colors technique measured magnitude star specific frequency ranges allowing determination overall color therefore temperature star internationally standardized system


engineers focus exclusively one subfield also many focus combination subfields '''signal processing''' deals analysis manipulation signals signals either analog case signal varies continuously according information digital case signal varies according series discrete values representing information analog signals signal processing may involve amplification filtering audio signals audio equipment modulation demodulation signals telecommunications digital signals signal processing may involve compression error checking

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Electrical Engineering
Electronic engineering


chart impedance matching pulse excitation waveguides modes rectangular waveguides boundary conditions cut frequencies dispersion relations antennas dipole antennas antenna arrays radiation pattern reciprocity theorem antenna gain network analysis network graphs matrices associated graphs incidence fundamental cut set fundamental circuit matrices solution methods nodal mesh analysis network theorems superposition thevenin norton 's maximum power transfer wye delta transformation steady state sinusoidal analysis using phasors linear constant coefficient differential equations time domain analysis simple rlc circuits solution network equations using laplace transform frequency domain analysis rlc circuits port network parameters driving point transfer


include institute electrical electronics engineers ieee institution electrical engineers iee renamed institution engineering technology iet members institution engineering technology miet recognized professionally europe electrical computer technology engineers ieee claims produce percent world 's literature electrical electronic engineering members holds ieee sponsored cosponsored conferences worldwide year smieee recognised professional designation united states project engineering engineers involved cutting edge


lewis clark '''encounter resources''' ''eg minerals trade routes spices furs communities'' ''to tax conscript fertile agricultural zones strategic'' ''geography etc'' ''' military''' invasion force '''control resources''' ''implement martial law metropolitan may'' ''exploit resources establish fort cities eg fort'' ''lauderdale fort worth etc facilitate metropolitan'' ' 'settlement'' ''' politicians''' socialize space new province metropolitan '''social engineering''' ''acculturize space region metropolitan'' ''through saturation symbol legend myth'' ''establish laws norms promote metropolitan'' '' invading system dominant culture

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
American studies


encyclopedia american studies sophisticated short articles experts http wwwiasaweborg international american studies association iasa https webarchiveorg web http wwwiasaweborg rias rias journal http americanaejournalhu americana e journal american studies hungary http repositoriescdliborg acgcc jtas journal transnational american studies http wwwdartmouthedu futures futures american studies institute dartmouth college http crossroadsgeorgetownedu american studies crossroads project http baasacuk british association american studies http wwwtheasanet american studies association http musejhuedu journals american quarterly ''american quarterly'' project muse http wwwasjournalorg ''american studies journal'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwwsuedu amerstu tm theory method resources v reed washington state university https journalskuedu indexphp amerstud ''american studies'' journal http midamerica asanet mid america american studies association http wwwasakorkr american studies association korea asak http southernamericanstudiesassociationorg southern american


surveyor 's shed showing equipment used geomatics '''geomatics''' defined iso tc series standards discipline concerned collection distribution storage analysis processing presentation geographic data geographic information another definition consists products services tools involved collection integration management geographic data includes '''geomatics engineering''' geodesy geoinformatics engineering formerly known surveying engineering related geospatial science also geospatial engineering geospatial technology although many definitions ''geomatics'' appear encompass entire discipline relating geographic

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Geomatics


june instituting standing committee geomatics government term popularised english french canadian surveyor michel paradis ''the little geodesist could'' article keynote address centennial congress april claimed end th century needs geographical information would reach scope without precedent history order address needs necessary integrate new discipline traditional disciplines land surveying new tools


heart disease stroke pain pins needles hands feet chronic kidney failure foot ulcers cognitive impairment gastroparesis ref name ref name kit ref name sa onset duration types causes risks '''type ''' family history ref name change ref br '''type ''' obesity lack exercise genetics ref name ref name nih cause ref diagnosis high blood sugar ref name differential

Applied science
Medicine and health
Diabetology


exclusively type diabetes may also experience diabetic ketoacidosis dka metabolic disturbance characterized nausea vomiting abdominal pain smell acetone breath deep breathing known kussmaul breathing severe cases decreased level consciousness dka requires emergency treatment hospital ref name ada ref rarer dangerous condition hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state hhs common type diabetes mainly result dehydration caused high blood sugars ref name ada treatment related low blood sugar hypoglycemia common people type also type


present absent endogenous insulin low absent normal decreased br increased heritability prevalence age standardized per men women diabetes mellitus classified six categories type diabetes type diabetes hybrid forms diabetes hyperglycemia first detected pregnancy unclassified diabetes specific types hybrid forms diabetes contains slowly evolving immune mediated diabetes adults ketosis prone type diabetes hyperglycemia first detected pregnancy contains gestational diabetes mellitus diabetes mellitus


medications improve insulin sensitivity reduce liver 's glucose production ref name pmid ref type diabetes primarily due lifestyle factors genetics ref name fat ref number lifestyle factors known important development type diabetes including obesity defined body mass index greater lack physical activity poor diet stress urbanization ref name excess body fat associated cases people chinese japanese descent cases european african descent pima indians pacific islanders ref name green even


increase insulin antagonist hormone levels occurs time ref name however pregnancy approximately women gestational diabetes found another form diabetes commonly type ref name ndic stats gestational diabetes fully treatable requires careful medical supervision throughout pregnancy management may include dietary changes blood glucose monitoring cases insulin may required though may transient untreated gestational diabetes damage health fetus mother risks baby include macrosomia high birth weight congenital heart central nervous system abnormalities


demonstrated evidence improving glycemia individuals type diabetes cannot meet glycemic targets reducing anti glycemic medications priority low low carbohydrate diets viable approach ref name ada overweight people type diabetes diet achieves weight loss effective ref name em ref medications glucose control medications used treat diabetes act lowering blood sugar levels different mechanisms broad consensus people diabetes maintain tight glucose control keeping glucose levels blood within normal ranges


male pollination ability pollinate time hermaphroditic vines able sire offspring consistently hermaphroditic ref name johnson pg ref end th century bc greek historian thucydides wrote ref thucydides likely referencing time bc bc viticulture emerged force asia minor greece cyclades islands aegean sea period grape cultivation developed aspect local consumption important component international economies trade ref name johnson pp ref roman bc


noah grows farm genesis references wine made book proverbs book isaiah deuteronomy reports use wine jewish festivals christianity wine symbol last supper represents blood christ mentioned several times new testament parable kingdom heaven likened father starting engage laborers vineyard vine used symbol jesus christ based statement true vine


ref name unwin ideal winter temperatures necessary allow grape vines enter resting phase ref name unwin temperatures fall low crops injured '''spring fall ''' spring fall critical seasons grape development plants susceptible frost damage injure fruiting buds ref name unwin wet weather spring increase odds mildew formation prevent mildew farms introduce devices heaters large fans vineyards however solutions costly slope hillsides slopes preferred flatter


hours sunlight preferred warmer climes north facing slopes preferred southern hemisphere orientations reversed ref name sotheby pg ref soil quality soil important allow plants better root systems ref name vine ref growth health vine affected soil quality poor different grape species prefer various soil conditions although general quality factors ref name unwin ref favorable soil conditions include aeration loose texture good drainage moderate fertility ref name vine drainage factors cited important soil characteristic affect


grape vine growth ref name unwin root growth restricted due bad soil vine growth fruit yields lessen plant survival rates dip years ref name vine hazards downy powdery mildew grape leaf manual grape gathering viticulturist faces many hazards adverse effect wine produced grape kill vine vine flowering susceptible strong winds hail cold temperatures period lead onset ''millerandage'' produces clusters


american vines resistant excluding ''vitis vinifera'' fanleaf virus spread nematodes breed vine stem lead deformity yellowing leaves smaller crop yields ref name unwin ref cure plant best course action remove infected plants leave remaining roots rot ref name unwin frost phylloxera plant virus pests green harvest green harvest removal immature grape bunches typically purpose decreasing yield removal bunches still green induces vine


seventy percent zinfandel twenty percent petite sirah ten percent grenache carignan gemischter satz ''mixed set'' wine term german equivalent field blend means grapes different varieties planted harvested vinified together older times common practice almost stopped however specialty vienna see also ampelography annual growth cycle grapevines diurnal temperature variation global warming wine list vineyard soil types oenology precision viticulture references goldammer ''grape growers handbook guide viticulture wine production''


insular cortex risky decision making simulate potential negative consequences taking gamble addition importance specific brain areas decision process also evidence neurotransmitter dopamine may transmit information uncertainty throughout cortex dopaminergic neurons strongly involved reward process become highly active unexpected reward occurs monkeys level dopaminergic activity highly correlated level uncertainty activity increases uncertainty ref name fiorillo cd ref furthermore rats lesions nucleus accumbens


march laurence hunt benjamin hayden argued alternative viewpoint mechanistic model explain evaluate options choose best course action ref name hunt laurence hayden benjamin ref many accounts reward based choice argue distinct component processes serial functionally localized component processes typically include evaluation options comparison option values absence factors selection appropriate action plan monitoring outcome choice emphasized several features neuroanatomy may


days bars received days strong evidence last part humans animals hyperbolic discounting proposed alternative model model valuations fall rapidly small delay periods fall slowly longer delay periods better explains people would choose candy bar candy bars tomorrow would fact choose candy bars received days rather candy bar received days du assumes ref name annualreviewsorg neuroeconomic research


name kosfeld individuals higher cortisol levels tend impulsive exhibit future discounting ref name takahashi addition studying behavior normal individuals decision making tasks research involves comparing behavior normal individuals others damage areas brain expected involved certain behaviors humans means finding individuals specific types neural impairment example people amygdala damage seem exhibit less loss aversion normal controls ref name martino b also scores survey measuring


l smith fehr ernst webbildjpg ernst fehr george loewenstein jpg george loewenstein david laibson jpg david laibson gallery experiments typical behavioral economics experiment subject asked make series economic decisions example subject may asked whether prefer cents gamble chance win one dollar experimenter measure different variables order determine going subject 's brain make decision authors demonstrated neuroeconomics may useful describe experiments involving rewards


group example particular local community surfers ''method'' refers methods practices particular group employs everyday activities example related surfing ''ology'' refers systematic description methods practices focus investigation used example social order surfing ethnomethodological interest methods practices production maintenance social order essence ethnomethodology attempts create classifications social actions individuals within groups drawing experience groups directly

Social science
Sociology
Interpretive sociology
Ethnomethodology


without imposing setting opinions researcher regards social order case forms sociological investigation ref name lynch michael lynch scientific practice ordinary action ethnomethodology social studies science cambridge ref origin scope approach originally developed harold garfinkel attributed origin work investigating conduct jury members ref name garfinkel h pp interest describing common sense methods members jury produce jury room ''as jury'' thus methods


texts ref name garf references notes bibliography bar hillel 'indexical expressions' ''mind'' feyerabend paul ''against method'' london new left books garfinkel h ''studies ethnomethodology'' prentice hall garfinkel h liberman k ' https wwwjstororg stable introduction lebenswelt origins sciences ' ''human studies'' pp gurwitsch aron ''the field consciousness'' duquesne university press hammersley martyn ''the radicalism ethnomethodology'' manchester manchester university press kuhn thomas ''the structure scientific revolutions'' chicago chicago university press liberman ken ''more studies ethnomethodology suny press lynch michael


certain business schools may offer programs overlapping relevance ie engineering programs distinguished much intensely quantitative focus required engineering science electives core math science courses required engineering programs graduate curriculum class toccolours style float right margin left em font size line height em width px colspan style text align center ''' ''us news'' graduate rankings''' '''university''' '''rank''' colspan georgia institute technology university michigan northwestern university university california berkeley

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Industrial engineering


true random number generator motivation motivating example consider problem finding ''a'' array ''n'' elements '''input''' array ''n'' elements half ''a'' half ''b'' '''output''' find ''a'' array give two versions algorithm one las vegas algorithm one monte carlo algorithm las vegas algorithm syntaxhighlight lang pascal findinga lv array n begin repeat randomly select one element n elements 'a' found end syntaxhighlight algorithm succeeds probability number iterations varies

Formal science
Computer science
Algorithms
Randomized algorithms


specific examples problems randomization yields strict improvements based initial motivating example given exponentially long string sup ''k'' sup characters half 's half b 's random access machine requires sup ''k'' sup lookups worst case find index ''a'' permitted make random choices solve problem expected polynomial number lookups natural way carrying numerical computation embedded systems cyber physical systems provide result approximates correct one high probability probably approximately correct computation pacc hard


monte carlo algorithm las vegas algorithm bogosort principle deferred decision randomized algorithms zero sum games probabilistic roadmap hyperloglog count min sketch approximate counting algorithm karger 's algorithm notes references thomas h cormen charles e leiserson ronald l rivest clifford stein ''introduction algorithms'' second edition mit press mcgraw hill chapter probabilistic analysis randomized algorithms pp nbsp dirk draheim https wwwspringercom de book ''semantics probabilistic typed lambda calculus markov chain semantics termination behavior denotational semantics '' springer jon kleinberg va tardos ''algorithm design'' chapter randomized algorithms mitzenmacher e upfal ''probability computing randomized algorithms


hydraulic flood retention basin hfrb view church span bridge bern switzerland riprap lining lake shore '''hydraulic engineering''' sub discipline civil engineering concerned flow conveyance fluids principally water sewage one feature systems extensive use gravity motive force cause movement fluids area civil engineering intimately related design bridges dams channels canals levees sanitary environmental engineering hydraulic engineering application principles fluid mechanics problems dealing

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Hydraulic engineering


managerial economics include define problem first step making business decision understand problem entirety without correct analysis problem hand developing solution almost impossible task ref name lucidchart ref correctly defining problem sometimes root problem trying solved determine objective second step evaluating objective decision decision trying achieve step determining possible solution problem defined step step may provide

Social science
Economics
Managerial economics


ref name fernando ref law suggests price set producer quantity demanded consumer inversely proportional meaning increase price set met reduction demand consumer ref name fernando ref law describes sellers provide large quantity good sells high price ref name fernando ref production theory production theory describes quantity good business chooses produce due multiple factors factors include raw material inputs labor machinery costs capital etc production theory states


managerial economics taking derivative function maximum minimum values function easily determined setting derivative equal zero example finding quantity production maximizes profit firm concept important managers understand order minimize costs maximize profits managerial economics applied almost business decision analyzed managerial economics techniques commonly applied ''risk analysis'' various models used quantify risk asymmetric information


resources function incentives monetary incentives important aspect managerial economics used achieve particular business outcomes monetary incentives allow particular behavior appear attractive employees contractors example agent receives bonus reaching specific outcome usually determined objective measurement tool key performance indicator providing incentive allows business reach particular goals would otherwise achieved ref name ref providing monetary incentives also bring opposite effect dissuading agent


promotions behavior often lucrative therefore ideal business tournaments powerful incentivizing performance empirical research economics managements shown tournament like incentive structure increases individual performance workers managers workplace see also journals https wwwspringercom economics economic theory journal ''computational economics'' https wwwspringercom economics economic theory journal changeheader aims scope https webarchiveorg web http wwwblackwellpublishingcom journalaspref ''journal economics management strategy'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwkelloggnorthwesternedu research journals jems aims scope http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn ''managerial decision economics'' notes references alan hughes managerial capitalism ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' v pp nbsp edward lazear personnel economics ''the new palgrave dictionary


prisons state provisioned hospitals interdependent words patients become inmates draws penrose hypothesis theorized inverse relationship prisons population size number psychiatric hospital beds ref name ref means populations require psychiatric mental care transition institutions case includes state psychiatric hospitals criminal justice systems thus decrease available psychiatric hospital beds occurred time increase inmates ref name although skeptical due external factors others reason

Social science
Social work
Mental health


depression adolescence adulthood may substance abuse ref name ref name ref average age onset years depressive disorders ref name approximately children behavioral problems refer medical services ref name majority children go untreated ref name homeless population woman sitting steps broken shopping cart full papers left around trash floor looks dirty unsanitary mental illness thought highly prevalent among homeless populations though access proper diagnoses limited article


creation religious liberty task force july year also many providers practitioners united states beginning realize institution mental healthcare lacks knowledge competence many non western cultures leaving providers united states ill equipped treat patients different cultures occupations mental health social work social work mental health also called psychiatric social work process individual setting helped attain freedom overlapping internal external problems social economic situations family


victims advice guidance post discharge residence employment hospitalized care major life events regular life money self management relevant matters equip adapt daily life social workers provide individual home visits mentally ill welfare services available specialized training range procedural services coordinated home workplace school administrative relationship psychiatric social workers provides consultation leadership conflict management work direction psychiatric social workers provides assessment psychosocial interventions function clinician counselor municipal staff health


world health organization neuropsychiatric disorders leading causes disability worldwide accounting healthy life years lost disease disorders destructive low middle income countries due inability provide citizens proper aid despite modern treatment rehabilitation emotional mental health disorders even economically advantaged societies competing priorities budgetary constraints world mental health survey initiative suggested plan countries redesign mental health care systems best allocate resources first step documentation services used


finnish defence forces finnish border guard military jurisdiction encompasses military persons conscripts students training paid military position females serving voluntarily paid military personnel however military chaplains outside criminal military jurisdiction ref name vna rikoslaista reservists belong military jurisdiction activated voluntarily involuntarily military jurisdiction starts moment person reports duty liable report duty lasts moment person discharged service case conscripts involuntarily activated reservists also left

Applied science
Military sciences
Military law


sentenced ref name rikoslaki typically case reservist absent obligatory refresher exercise conscript commission crime declared unfit duty medical security reasons administrative punishment addition judicial dismissal defence forces border guard option administratively ending military person 's service person paid position happen even criminal charges pressed defence forces professional serviceman also administratively suspended period one six months similarly