ams ref simplified example see economy two possible states math q math math q math math q math two corresponding ie implied probabilities turn derived distribution measure measure place expected ie required return security portfolio equal riskless return plus adjustment risk ref name rubinstein ie security specific risk premium compensating extent cashflows unpredictable pricing models essentially variants given specific assumptions

Social science
Economics
Financial economics


proceeds using arbitrage arguments acts benchmark evaluating effects factors outside model affect value ref ref name mm ref mechanism determining corporate value provided ''the theory investment value'' proposes value asset calculated using evaluation rule present worth thus common stock intrinsic long term worth present value future net cashflows form dividends remains determined appropriate discount rate later developments show rationally ie


perfectly hedge option buying selling underlying asset right way consequently eliminate risk absenting risk adjustment pricing math v math value price option grows math r math risk free rate ref name rubinstein ref name cochrane culp hedge turn implies one right price arbitrage free sense option price returned black scholes option pricing formula formula hence price consistent equation formula solution equation since


terms corresponding math n math math n math per boxed description see extensions recent work generalizes extends models regards asset pricing developments equilibrium based pricing discussed portfolio theory derivative pricing relates risk neutral ie arbitrage free pricing regards use capital corporate finance theory relates mainly application models portfolio theory plot two criteria maximizing return minimizing risk financial portfolios pareto optimal points red examples bivariate copul used finance majority developments relate required


market returns without numerous economic assumptions useful simplifies estimation correlation securities significantly reducing inputs building correlation matrix required portfolio optimization arbitrage pricing theory apt similarly differs regards assumptions apt gives notion one right portfolio everyone world replaces explanatory model drives asset returns returns required expected return financial asset linear function various macro economic factors assumes arbitrage bring incorrectly priced assets


fully hedge turn built assumption credit risk free environment called question crisis addressing therefore issues counterparty credit risk funding costs costs capital additionally considered pricing credit valuation adjustment cva potentially ''valuation adjustments'' collectively xva generally added risk neutral derivative value related perhaps fundamental change discounting overnight index swap ois curve opposed libor used previously ref name youmbi post crisis overnight


also extended mirroring developments asset valuation decisioning longer need assume certainty monte carlo methods finance allow financial analysts construct stochastic probabilistic corporate finance models opposed traditional static deterministic models ref name damodaran risk see relatedly real options theory allows owner ie managerial actions impact underlying value incorporating option pricing logic actions applied distribution future outcomes changing time determine project 's valuation today ref name damodaran traditionally decision trees complementary used


correct state state treatment uncertainty see comments financial modeling accounting modern treatments ''expected'' cashflows mathematical sense small math sum p x sj math combined overall value per forecast period discounted ref name kruschwitz l ffler ref name welch http bookivo welchinfo read chap pdf capital budgeting applications pitfalls ch ivo welch ''corporate finance'' th edition ref ref name damodaran risk using capm extensions discounting risk free rate plus premium linked uncertainty entity project cash flows ref name damodaran risk essentially math math math r math combined


days maturity discussed assumptions market prices follow random walk asset returns normally distributed fundamental empirical evidence however suggests assumptions may hold practice traders analysts risk managers frequently modify standard models see kurtosis risk skewness risk long tail model risk fact benoit mandelbrot discovered already changes financial prices follow normal distribution basis much option pricing theory although observation slow find way mainstream financial economics ref


name taleb mandelbrot ref financial models long tailed distributions volatility clustering introduced overcome problems realism classical financial models jump diffusion models allow option pricing incorporating jumps spot price ref name holes ref risk managers similarly complement substitute standard value risk models historical simulations mixture models principal component analysis extreme value theory well models volatility clustering discussion see portfolio managers likewise modified optimization criteria algorithms see portfolio theory closely related volatility smile implied


surface edgeworth binomial trees allow specified ie non gaussian skew kurtosis spot price priced options differing strikes return differing implied volatilities tree calibrated smile required similarly purposed derived closed form models also developed discussed additional assuming log normality returns classical bsm type models also implicitly assume existence credit risk free environment one perfectly replicate cashflows fully hedge discount risk free rate therefore post crisis various x value adjustments must employed effectively correcting


seen common assumption financial decision makers act rationally see homo economicus recently however researchers experimental economics experimental finance challenged assumption empirically assumptions also challenged theoretically behavioral finance discipline primarily concerned limits rationality economic agents related criticisms corporate finance theory vs practice see consistent complementary findings various persistent market anomalies documented price return distortions eg size premiums appear contradict efficient market hypothesis calendar effects best known group


models correct see systemic risk inadequacy classic valuation models cascades financial networks flight quality areas research attempting explain least model phenomena crises include ref name doyne geanakoplos ref noise trading market microstructure heterogeneous agent models latter extended agent based computational economics price treated emergent phenomenon resulting interaction various market participants agents noisy market hypothesis argues prices influenced speculators momentum traders well insiders institutions often buy sell stocks reasons unrelated fundamental


gold gordon latter michael peskin society actuaries american academy actuaries actuarial science


disease microscopic findings asbestos bodies lungs gunpowder particles around gunshot wound collect interpret toxicological specimens body tissues fluids determine chemical cause accidental overdoses deliberate poisonings forensic pathologists work closely medico legal authority area concerned investigation sudden unexpected deaths coroner england wales procurator fiscal scotland coroner medical examiner united states serve expert witnesses courts law testifying civil criminal law cases autopsy forensic pathologist often

Natural science
Biology
Pathology
Forensic pathology


toxicology http forensicmedicinemedufledu forensic medicine online master 's degree university florida first fully online advanced degree program forensic medicine united states http forensicpathcareersdoodlekitcom home career forensic pathology educational website career pathways forensic pathology uk usa https wwwsfuca ganderso forensic sciencehtm want forensic scientist simon fraser university https webarchiveorg web http wwwnetautopsyorg billgrowhtm grow becoming pathologist g william moore md phd netautopsyorg http wwwstaffnclacuk frasercharlton pathology pathologist perspective uk pathologist fraser charlton http wwwitsgovcom forensic pathologyhtml forensic pathology resource http wwwrcpaeduau royal college pathologists australasia


'''historical linguistics''' also termed '' 'diachronic linguistics''' scientific study language change time principal concerns historical linguistics include describe account observed changes particular languages reconstruct pre history languages determine relatedness grouping language families comparative linguistics develop general theories language changes describe history speech communities study history words ie etymology historical linguistics founded uniformitarian principle defined linguist donald ringe history development western

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Historical linguistics


modern historical linguistics dates late th century grew earlier discipline philology study ancient texts documents dating back antiquity first historical linguistics served cornerstone comparative linguistics primarily tool linguistic reconstruction ref name routledge introduction editors' introduction foundations new historical linguistics https booksgoogleconz booksid e abaaaqbaj ''the routledge handbook historical linguistics'' routledge p nbsp ref scholars concerned chiefly establishing language families reconstructing unrecorded proto languages using comparative method internal reconstruction ref name routledge introduction focus initially well known indo european languages


ability explain linguistic constructions necessitates focus diachronic processes initially modern linguistics historical orientation even study modern dialects involved looking origins ferdinand de saussure 's distinction synchronic diachronic linguistics fundamental present day organization discipline primacy accorded synchronic linguistics '' 'diachronic linguistics''' defined study successive synchronic stages saussure 's clear demarcation however defenders critics practice purely synchronic linguistics possible period invention gramophone written records always


another language derivational morphology combining pre existing elements language hybrid two processes called phono semantic matching several minor ways languages long detailed history etymology makes use philology study words change culture culture time etymologists also apply methods comparative linguistics reconstruct information languages old direct information writing known analyzing related languages technique known comparative method linguists make inferences shared


parent language vocabulary way word roots traced way back origin instance indo european language family found although originating philological tradition much current etymological research done language families little early documentation available uralic austronesian dialectology dialectology scientific study linguistic dialect varieties language characteristic particular groups based primarily geographic distribution associated features contrast variations based social factors


latinate types unlike chinese characters based uniform square area european latin characters vary width wide slender l gutenberg developed adjustable mold could accommodate infinite variety widths least years later type started cutting punches would struck brass matrix matrix inserted bottom adjustable meld negative space formed mold cavity plus matrix acted master letter cast casting material

Applied science
Architecture and design
Visual communication
Type design


first canada comparison library british house commons founded sixteen years later library rare titles geography natural science letters books contained moved canadian parliament montreal two canadas lower upper united april dramatic event occurred canadian parliament burned furious people along thousands french canadian books hundred english books people still affirm today falsely early settlements

Humanities
Languages and literature
Canadian Literature


literatures'' guernica editions david stouck '' https booksgooglecom booksid r ttsya dz c lpg pp dq canadian pg pp v onepage q f true major canadian authors critical introduction canadian literature english '' univ nebraska press cynthia sugars eleanor ty eds ''canadian literature cultural memory'' oxford univ press pp scholarly essays cultural memory reflected canadian fiction poetry drama films etc elizabeth waterston '' https booksgooglecom booksid rieoaaaaqaaj lpg pa dq canadian literature pg pp v onepage q f true survey short history canadian literature '' methuen see also regional prairie novel quebec theatre author canadian women acadians aboriginal peoples canada irish canadians italian canadians south asian canadian literary period confederation poets canadian postmoderns canadian poets


europe industrial revolution began britain based coal steam textile mills political change continental europe spurred french revolution motto ''libert galit fraternit '' napoleon bonaparte took control made many reforms inside france transformed western europe rise stimulated nationalism reaction defeated old royal conservatives returned power period saw revolutionary attempts much europe apart britain failed however industrial work forces grew western europe socialism trade union activity developed


last vestiges serfdom abolished russia greece balkan nations began long slow road independence ottoman empire starting italy unified risorgimento franco prussian war otto von bismarck unified german states empire politically militarily dominant europe scrambled imperial colonies africa asia age empire britain france built largest empires diplomats ensured major wars europe apart


would leave territories forty years ussr claimed needed buffer states nascent nato west term iron curtain entered language united states launched marshall plan nato rebuilt industrial economies thriving france west germany took lead forming european economic community eventually became european union eu secularization saw weakening protestant catholic churches across europe except symbols reaction poland


kozarnika around bc europe witnessed appearance new culture known magdalenian possibly rooted old gravettian culture soon superseded solutrean area gravettian mainly france spain germany italy poland portugal ukraine hamburg culture prevailed northern europe th th millennium bc creswellian also termed british late magdalenian shortly british islands around bc w rm glaciation ended slowly following millennia temperatures sea levels rose changing environment prehistoric people nevertheless magdalenian culture persisted


beginning th century work british archaeologist arthur evans durant referred first link european chain minoans replaced mycenaean civilization flourished period roughly bc helladic culture mainland greece transformed influences minoan crete bc major mycenaean cities mycenae tiryns argolis pylos messenia athens attica thebes orchomenus boeotia iolkos thessaly crete mycenaeans occupied knossos mycenaean settlement sites also appeared epirus macedonia


islands aegean sea coast asia minor levant cyprus italy mycenaean artefacts found well outside limits mycenean world quite unlike minoans whose society benefited trade mycenaeans advanced conquest mycenaean civilization dominated warrior aristocracy around bc mycenaeans extended control crete centre minoan civilization adopted form minoan script called linear write early form greek linear b mycenaean civilization perished collapse bronze age civilization


beginning geometric period ''greek dark ages'' traditional historiography early antiquity period parthenon ancient athenian temple acropolis hill top city fell rome bc greeks romans left legacy europe evident european languages thought visual arts law ancient greece collection city states original form democracy developed athens powerful developed city cradle learning time pericles citizens' forums debated legislated policy state arose


local level levels violence extremely high modern standards medieval early modern europe typically small groups would battle neighbors using farm tools hand knives sickles hammers axes mayhem death deliberate vast majority people lived rural areas cities small size concentration population conducive violence long term studies places amsterdam stockholm venice zurich show trends rural areas across europe homicide trends including military actions show steady long term decline


however roman catholic church banned many leading scientific works led intellectual advantage protestant countries banning books regionally organised francis bacon advocates science tried create unity europe focusing unity nature sup sup th century end middle ages powerful sovereign states appearing built new monarchs centralising power france england spain hand parliament polish lithuanian commonwealth grew power taking legislative rights polish king new state


argues many wars almost never accomplished cost british historian g trevelyan argues treaty utrecht ushered stable characteristic period eighteenth century civilization marked end danger europe old french monarchy marked change less significance world large maritime commercial financial supremacy great britain prussia frederick great king prussia modernized prussian army introduced new tactical strategic concepts fought mostly successful wars silesian wars seven years' war doubled size


culture politics governments europe originating th century sparked philosophers francis bacon baruch spinoza john locke pierre bayle voltaire francis hutcheson david hume physicist isaac newton ruling princes often endorsed fostered figures even attempted apply ideas government known enlightened absolutism scientific revolution closely tied enlightenment discoveries overturned many traditional concepts introduced new perspectives nature man 's place within enlightenment flourished


united states western europe process continues industrialisation technological advancements notably utilization steam engine major catalysts industrialisation process started england scotland mid th century mechanisation textile industries development iron making techniques increased use coal main fuel trade expansion enabled introduction canals improved roads railways introduction steam power fuelled primarily coal powered machinery mainly textile manufacturing underpinned dramatic increases production capacity development


modern society extreme phase became radical much later revolutionary movements looked back predecessor role france decisive era french revolution subsequent napoleonic wars difficult time monarchs tsar paul russia assassinated king louis xvi france executed queen marie antoinette furthermore kings charles iv spain ferdinand vii spain gustav iv adolf sweden deposed ultimately emperor napoleon


holy roman empire fourth coalition set october napoleon defeated prussians battle jena auerstedt marched germany defeated russians june friedland treaties tilsit divided europe france russia created duchy warsaw napoleon 's army retreat russia berezina river june napoleon invaded russia grande arm e nearly troops measured victories smolensk borodino napoleon occupied moscow find burned retreating russian army


forced withdraw march back army harassed cossacks suffered disease starvation men survived campaign tide begun turn napoleon defeated seven nation army battle leipzig october forced abdicate six days' campaign occupation paris treaty fontainebleau exiled island elba returned france march see hundred days raised army finally defeated


quite successful roberts says napoleon fought battles losing seven france conquered belgium turned another province france conquered netherlands made puppet state took control german areas left bank rhine river set puppet regime conquered switzerland italy setting series puppet states result glory france infusion much needed money conquered lands also provided direct support french army however enemies france


new codes law abolition old feudal privileges napoleon 's cisalpine republic centered milan genoa became republic roman republic formed well small ligurian republic around genoa neapolitan republic formed around naples lasted five months later formed kingdom italy brother king addition france turned netherlands batavian republic switzerland helvetic republic new countries satellites france pay large subsidies paris well provide military support napoleon 's


europe otto von bismarck engineered german hegemony europe put france critical situation slowly rebuilt relationships seeking alliances russia britain control growing power germany way two opposing sides triple alliance germany austria hungary italy triple entente britain france russia formed europe improving military forces alliances year year fourth estate painting giuseppe pellizza da volpedo two world wars europe german american historian konrad jarausch asked agreed


european record past century one gigantic catastrophe argues true first half th century full internecine warfare economic depression ethnic cleansing racist genocide killed tens millions people period human history looking disasters creates incomplete perception second half century witnessed much positive development spite cold war defeat fascism peaceful revolution also liberated east communist control


nationalism among ethnic groups exploded august first world war started million european soldiers mobilised nbsp million soldiers civilians died nbsp million seriously wounded one side germany austria hungary ottoman empire bulgaria central powers triple alliance side stood serbia ''triple entente'' coalition france britain russia joined italy romania united states western front involved especially brutal combat without territorial gains either side


brought fall iron curtain german reunification end soviet control eastern european satellites worldwide network communist parties friendly chain reaction pan european picnic finals brought division soviet union non communist states italian historian federico romero reports observers time emphasized systemic ideological confrontation capitalism communism faded away geopolitical partition europe nuclear deterrence morphing less armed almost hypothetical version previous


united states eu gained new members estonia latvia lithuania part soviet union czech republic hungary poland slovakia slovenia five former communist countries malta divided island cyprus followed bulgaria romania russia 's regime interpreted expansions violations nato 's promise expand one inch east russia engaged number bilateral disputes gas supplies belarus ukraine endangered gas supplies europe russia also engaged minor war georgia


crimea june referendum united kingdom country 's membership european union voters voted leave eu leading complex brexit separation process negotiations led political economic changes uk remaining european union countries uk left eu january later year europe affected covid pandemic according ''wall street journal'' angela merkel stepped highly popular chancellort germany years blockquote ms merkel leaves


nation converting non christian population tengrism slavic paganism christianity officially founding bulgarian church unification norway bulgarian students cyril methodius sava kliment naum gorazd angelariy arrive back bulgaria creating preslav ohrid literary schools cyrillic alphabet developed th century ad preslav literary school first bulgarian empire becomes official bulgarian alphabet hungarian people led rp start settle carpathian basin battle achelous bulgaria defeats byzantine empire simeon


failed european international history '' steiner zara ''the triumph dark european international history '' taylor ajp ''the struggle mastery europe '' empires interactions bayly ca ed ''atlas british empire'' survey scholars heavily illustrated brendon piers ''the decline fall british empire '' wide ranging survey cotterell arthur ''western power asia slow rise swift fall '' popular history https wwwamazoncom western power asia slow swift dp excerpt darwin john ''after tamerlane rise fall global empires '' james lawrence ''the rise fall


robert erez manela great war global war imperial conflict reconfiguration world order ''diplomatic history'' https scholarharvardedu files manela files diplomatic history pdf online gerwarth robert erez manela eds ''empires war '' wide ranging essays scholars https wwwamazoncom empires war greater dp dp excerpt goldsworthy adrian john keegan ''roman warfare'' horne john ed ''a companion world war i'' keegan john ''a history warfare'' https archiveorg details historyofwarfare keeg online kennedy paul ''the rise fall great powers'' https archiveorg details risefallofgreatp kenn online muehlbauer matthew david j ulbrich eds ''the routledge history global


focuses estimation recoverable volume resource using detailed understanding physical behavior oil water gas within porous rock high pressure combined efforts geologists petroleum engineers throughout life hydrocarbon accumulation determine way reservoir developed depleted usually highest impact field economics petroleum engineering requires good knowledge many related disciplines geophysics petroleum geology formation evaluation well logging drilling economics reservoir simulation reservoir engineering well engineering artificial lift systems completions petroleum

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Process design
Petroleum engineering


graduate students according united states department labor 's bureau labor statistics petroleum engineers required bachelor 's degree engineering generally degree focused petroleum engineering preferred degrees mechanical chemical civil engineering satisfactory well ref name pet eng ref petroleum engineering education available many universities united states throughout world primarily oil producing regions ''us news world report'' maintains list best undergraduate petroleum engineering programs spe private companies offer training courses oil companies considerable house petroleum


engineering training classes petroleum engineering salaries petroleum engineering historically one highest paid engineering disciplines although tendency mass layoffs oil prices decline waves hiring prices rise united states department labor 's bureau labor statistics reported median pay petroleum engineers us roughly per hour ref name ref summary projects job growth field ref name spe annually conducts salary survey spe reported average spe professional


preventive measures avoid outbreaks fully accepted put practice death due prevailing miasma theory time model disease poor air quality blamed illness used rationalize high rates infection impoverished areas instead addressing underlying issues poor nutrition sanitation proven false work pioneers include danish physician peter anton schleisner related work prevention epidemic neonatal tetanus vestmanna islands iceland another

Applied science
Medicine and health
Epidemiology


bradford hill lent strong statistical support link tobacco smoking lung cancer late th century advancement biomedical sciences number molecular markers blood biospecimens environment identified predictors development risk certain disease epidemiology research examine relationship biomarkers analyzed molecular level disease broadly named molecular epidemiology specifically genetic epidemiology used epidemiology germline genetic variation disease genetic variation typically determined using dna peripheral blood leukocytes st century


highly relevant epidemiology therefore much could gained interdisciplinary approach infectious disease integrating epidemiology molecular evolution inform control strategies even patient treatment modern epidemiological studies use advanced statistics machine learning create predictive models well define treatment effects types studies epidemiologists employ range study designs observational experimental generally categorized descriptive involving assessment data covering time place person analytic aiming examine known associations hypothesized relationships experimental term often


n left frac ln right left frac sqrt sqrt right approx n left frac ln right math n ratio cases controls odds ratio approaches number cases required statistical significance grows towards infinity rendering case control studies useless low odds ratios instance odds ratio cases controls table shown would look like class wikitable cases controls exposed unexposed odds ratio class wikitable cases


epidemiological studies go prove agent could caused cause effect particular case blockquote epidemiology concerned incidence disease populations address question cause individual 's disease question sometimes referred specific causation beyond domain science epidemiology epidemiology limits point inference made relationship agent disease causal general causation magnitude excess risk attributed


instances causation disputed unclear presentation legal settings population based health management epidemiological practice results epidemiological analysis make significant contribution emerging population based health management frameworks population based health management encompasses ability assess health states health needs target population implement evaluate interventions designed improve health population efficiently effectively provide care members population way consistent community 's cultural policy health resource values modern population based health management


complex requiring multiple set skills medical political technological mathematical etc epidemiological practice analysis core component unified management science provide efficient effective health care health guidance population task requires forward looking ability modern risk management approaches transform health risk factors incidence prevalence mortality statistics derived epidemiological analysis management metrics guide health system responds current population health issues also health system managed better respond future potential population health


improve health population applied field epidemiology include investigating communicable non communicable disease outbreaks mortality morbidity rates nutritional status among indicators health purpose communicating results implement appropriate policies disease control measures humanitarian context surveillance reporting diseases health factors become increasingly difficult humanitarian crisis situations methodologies used report data compromised one study found less half nutrition surveys sampled humanitarian contexts correctly calculated prevalence malnutrition


one third surveys met criteria quality among mortality surveys met criteria quality nutritional status mortality rates help indicate severity crisis tracking reporting health factors crucial vital registries usually effective ways collect data humanitarian contexts registries non existent unreliable inaccessible mortality often inaccurately measured using either prospective demographic surveillance retrospective mortality surveys prospective demographic surveillance requires much manpower difficult implement spread population retrospective


study participation rates sackett cites example seltzer et al non smokers smokers returned mailed questionnaires ref name sackett bias analytic research j chron dis vol http wwwepidemiologych history pdf bg sackett dl bias analytic researchpdf ref important note difference response lead bias also associated systematic difference outcome two response groups information bias information bias bias arising systematic error assessment variable ref name rothman ref example recall bias


coming star realized light absorbed reached earth hartmann reported absorption k line calcium appeared extraordinarily weak almost perfectly sharp also reported quite surprising result calcium line nbsp nanometres share periodic displacements lines caused orbital motion spectroscopic binary star stationary nature line led hartmann conclude gas responsible absorption present atmosphere delta orionis instead located within

Natural science
Space science
Interstellar medium


distributed homogeneously first evidence multiple discrete clouds within ism light year long knot interstellar gas dust resembles caterpillar growing evidence interstellar material led comment interstellar absorbing medium may simply ether yet character selective absorption indicated kapteyn characteristic gas free gaseous molecules certainly since probably constantly expelled sun stars year victor hess 's discovery cosmic rays highly energetic charged particles rain onto earth space


read field naturalists' club victoria supplemented notes memoranda also appendix several outs nesting shooting etc'' j campbell melbourne victoria australia cover title ''oology australian birds'' ferguson oliver davie ''nests eggs north american birds'' fifth edition columbus alfred newton ''dictionary birds'' new york https booksgooglecom id qn faaaayaaj dq oologist ''the oologist'' journal episode ''midsomer murders'' birds prey surrounds illegal oology artist andy holden father ornithologist peter holden staged series exhibitions titled ''natural selection'' staged artangel


deeply tied buddhist spiritual practice ultimate aim extract skillful means reaching spiritual enlightenment nirvana central question buddhist hermeneutics buddhist teachings explicit representing ultimate truth teachings merely conventional relative biblical hermeneutics biblical hermeneutics study principles interpretation bible jewish christian biblical hermeneutics overlap distinctly different interpretive traditions early patristic traditions biblical exegesis unifying characteristics beginning tended toward unification later schools biblical hermeneutics augustine offers


practical discipline modifies classical theory oratory christian way underscores meaning diligent study bible prayer mere human knowledge oratory skills concluding remark augustine encourages interpreter preacher bible seek good manner life love god neighbor traditionally fourfold sense biblical hermeneutics literal moral allegorical spiritual anagogical literal encyclop dia britannica states literal analysis means biblical text deciphered according plain meaning expressed


jewish kabbalah attempts reveal mystical significance numerical values hebrew words letters judaism anagogical interpretation also evident medieval zohar christianity seen mariology ref name hermeneutics philosophical hermeneutics ancient medieval hermeneutics modern hermeneutics discipline hermeneutics emerged new humanist education th nbsp century historical critical methodology analyzing texts triumph early modern hermeneutics italian humanist lorenzo valla proved ''donation constantine'' forgery done intrinsic evidence


based understanding whole text understanding whole text dependent understanding individual part hermeneutics sociology also heavily influenced german philosopher hans georg gadamer criticism j rgen habermas criticizes gadamer 's hermeneutics unsuitable understanding society unable account questions social reality like labor domination murray rothbard hans hermann hoppe economists austrian school criticized hermeneutical approach economics see also allegorical interpretations plato authorial intentionalism biblical law christianity close reading gymnobiblism hermeneutics suspicion


moments less sensitive complex molecules even something relatively small like amino acids moreover methods completely blind molecules dipole example far common molecule universe h sub sub hydrogen gas dipole moment invisible radio telescopes moreover methods cannot detect species gas phase since dense molecular clouds cold molecules hydrogen frozen ie solid instead hydrogen molecules detected using wavelengths

Natural science
Chemistry
Astrochemistry


enough particles attenuate destructive uv radiation thin ice layers coat microscopic particles permitting low temperature chemistry occur since hydrogen far abundant molecule universe initial chemistry ices determined chemistry hydrogen hydrogen atomic h atoms react available c n atoms producing reduced species like h sub sub ch sub sub nh sub sub however hydrogen molecular thus reactive permits heavier atoms react remain bonded together producing co co sub sub cn etc


url status dead ref research progressing way interstellar circumstellar molecules form interact eg including non trivial quantum mechanical phenomena synthesis pathways interstellar particles research could profound impact understanding suite molecules present molecular cloud solar system formed contributed rich carbon chemistry comets asteroids hence meteorites interstellar dust particles fall earth ton every day sparseness interstellar interplanetary space results unusual chemistry since symmetry forbidden reactions


reported polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pahs subjected interstellar medium ism conditions transformed hydrogenation oxygenation hydroxylation complex organics step along path toward amino acids nucleotides raw materials proteins dna respectively ref name space ref ref name ajl ref result transformations pahs lose spectroscopic signature could one reasons lack pah detection interstellar ice grains particularly outer regions cold dense clouds upper molecular layers protoplanetary disks ref name space ref name ajl february nasa announced


learning prediction inference decision making language many forms organisms' interaction environments overview categorization '''categories''' distinct collections concrete abstract instances category members considered equivalent cognitive system using category knowledge requires one access mental representations define core features category members cognitive psychologists refer category specific mental representations concepts ref name markman b markman b ross b h category use category learning psychological bulletin ref categorization theorists categorization objects often considered using taxonomies

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Categorization


developed test theories humans represent use category information ref name kruschke j k accomplish categorization models fit experimental data see well predictions afforded model line human performance based model 's success explaining data theorists able draw conclusions accuracy theories theory 's relevance human category representations effectively capture humans represent use category information categorization models generally operate variations three basic assumptions ref name ashby f g ashby f g


maddox w relations prototype exemplar decision bound models categorization journal mathematical psychology ref ref name kruschke j k first model must make kind assumption internal representation stimulus eg representing perception stimulus point multi dimensional space ref name ashby f g second model must make assumption specific information needs accessed order formulate response eg exemplar models require collection available exemplars category ref name medin l third model


individual may consciously aware accomplish particular tasks opposite end spectrum explicit knowledge represents knowledge individual holds consciously mental focus form easily communicated others ref name bray ref name alavi knowledge spiral described nonaka takeuchi ikujiro nonaka proposed model seci socialisation externalisation combination internalisation considers spiraling interaction explicit knowledge tacit knowledge ref name nonaka ref model knowledge follows cycle implicit knowledge 'extracted' become explicit knowledge explicit knowledge 're internalised'

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Knowledge management


ref name rathau instance expert individual provide insights requestor personalisation ref name snowden talking strategic knowledge management form knowledge activities share defines concept codification personalization form knowledge means either tacit explicit data information considered explicit know considered tacit hansen et al defined two strategies codification personalisation codification strategy document centered strategy knowledge mainly codified people document method codification relies information infrastructure explicit knowledge carefully


content document management systems tools developing enterprise portals ref name gupta proprietary km technology products lotus notes defined proprietary formats email documents forms etc internet drove vendors adopt internet formats open source freeware tools creation blogs wikis enable capabilities used require expensive commercial tools ref name tlo ref name andrus ref km driving adoption tools enable organisations work semantic level ref name cap ref part semantic web commentators argued many years semantic


expect treatment common criminal may face execution mercenary soldiers may qualify pows cannot expect repatriation war 's end best known post world war ii example june end luanda trial angolan court sentenced three britons american death nine mercenaries prison terms ranging years four mercenaries sentenced death shot firing squad july ref name bbc june http newsbbccouk onthisday hi dates stories june newsid stm death sentence mercenaries bbc day

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Mercenary


state warring another state peace britain greek war independence british volunteers fought greek rebels could unlawful per foreign enlistment act unclear whether greek rebels 'state' law clarified state rebels state british government considered using act british subjects fighting international brigade spanish civil war fnla angolan civil war end chose occasions united


played instrumental role encouraging ten thousand greek army march north black sea epic fighting retreat sileraioi group ancient mercenaries likely employed tyrant dionysius syracuse bc persian empire hired athenian general iphicrates mercenaries egyptian campaign mania sub satrap used greek mercenaries order capture cities region memnon rhodes nbsp bc commander greek mercenaries working persian king darius iii alexander


given princess scota conducting successful campaign ancient egypt mithridates vi eupator recruited large number iranians along galatians pontic army mithridatic wars rome using leucosyri persians scythians illyrians hired across balkans known unreliability medieval warfare turkish mercenary byzantine service c byzantine emperors followed roman practice contracted foreigners especially personal corps guard called varangian guard chosen among war prone peoples varangians norsemen preferred mission


protect emperor empire since links greeks expected ready suppress rebellions one famous guards future king harald iii norway also known harald hardrada hard counsel arrived constantinople employed varangian guard participated eighteen battles promoted ''akolythos'' commander guard returning home killed battle stamford bridge army defeated english army commanded


composed british troops mere 'slaves' whipped obedience ruthless hessian mercenaries fighting money th st centuries south american wars independence spain british legions onward fought general sim n bol var ref name rodriguez ref british legionaries liberal idealists went south america fight war freedom others classic mercenaries mostly unemployed veterans napoleonic wars fought money south america especially colombia men british legions remembered heroes


stubborn opponents vietnamese rather chinese mercenaries black flag army commanded liu yongfu hired emperor c ref name karnow ref black flags killed french commander francis garnier attracting much attention france ref name karnow captain henri rivi leading another french expedition vietnam also killed black flags french conquest vietnam finally completed one peace terms disbandment black flag army th century warlord period china many american


armed forces colombia guerrillas ref name lynch result decree colombia pmcs operating anywhere else world ref name lynch increasingly colombian mercenaries hired american pmcs cheaper american mercenaries ref name lynch government united arab emirates hired colombian mercenaries fight war yemen ref name lynch africa ancient africa early recorded use foreign auxiliaries dates back ancient egypt thirteenth century bc pharaoh ramesses ii used mercenaries battles long established foreign corps


simba rebellion included european adventurers least twenty nationalities hoare later resurfaced shortly france albert ren 's ascension seychelles attempting carry coup d' tat behalf former president james mancham troops intercepted shortly debarking mah escaped hijacking air india boeing flew durban bob denard former french intelligence operative policeman dedicated anti communist saw action first indochina war algerian war independence ref name fig http wwwlefigarofr france www l ancien mercenaire bob denard est morthtml l'ancien mercenaire bob denard est mort ''le figaro'' october ref


dollars central intelligence agency ref name auto ref bufkin fact former us army soldier gone awol several times tried rape jail several times dollars supported cia instead con man stolen money paid ref name auto bufkin managed get dozen american mercenaries angola several killed action rest captured one leaders mercenaries costas georgiou


seemed depressed morale fnla side many mercenaries angola former professional soldiers claimed instead merely fantasists invented heroic war records fantasist mercenaries know use weapons properly often injured others attempted use weaponry fully understand leading executed psychopathic killer georgiou tolerate failure ref name axelrod alan p axelrod alan ''mercenaries guide private armies private military companies''


uses attested history first great school dermatology became reality famous h pital saint louis paris first textbooks willan 's atlases alibert 's appeared print around time ref name fitz freedberg et al ''fitzpatrick 's dermatology general medicine'' th ed mcgraw hill professional page ref training br employment field hospitals clinics related occupation united states earning medical degree md length training united states general dermatologist eligible

Applied science
Medicine and health
Dermatology


board certification american academy dermatology american board dermatology american osteopathic board dermatology four years training consists initial medical transitional surgical pediatric intern year followed three year dermatology residency ref name aadorg following training one two year post residency fellowships available immunodermatology phototherapy laser medicine mohs micrographic surgery cosmetic surgery dermatopathology pediatric dermatology dermatology fellowships offer additional subspecialty training many dermatologist proficiently provide services without subspecialty fellowship training past several years dermatology residency positions united states


overlap clinical histological presentation although diseases common may present features common skin disorders urticaria eczema chronic itch therefore diagnosis immunodermatological disease often delayed tests performed blood tissues sent various laboratories medical facilities referring physicians across united states mohs surgery dermatologic subspecialty called mohs surgery focuses excision skin cancers using technique allows intraoperative assessment peripheral deep tumor margins developed dr frederic


licensed landscape architects regulated governmental agencies possess expertise design wide range structures landforms human use landscape design licensed profession site planning stormwater management erosion control environmental restoration parks recreation urban planning visual resource management green infrastructure planning provision private estate residence landscape master planning design varying scales design planning management practitioner profession landscape architecture may called landscape architect however jurisdictions professional licenses required often

Applied science
Architecture and design
Landscape architecture


get better outcome customers project learn basics create project manner time require get license certain state allowed work students landscape architects learn interact clients learn explain design scratch giving final project landscape architecture taught university manchester since course manchester school architecture enables students gain various bachelor 's master 's


term landscape architecture invented gilbert laing meason john claudius loudon instrumental adoption term landscape architecture modern profession took term meason gave publicity encyclopedias book ''landscape gardening landscape architecture late humphry repton'' practice landscape architecture spread old new world term landscape architect used professional title frederick law olmsted united states andrew jackson downing another


profession regulated saclap established statutory council terms section south african council landscape architectural profession act act council evolved board control landscape architects boclasa functioned council architects terms architectural act act saclap 's mission establish direct sustain ensure high level professional responsibilities ethical conduct within art science landscape architecture honesty dignity integrity broad interest public health safety


saih ji japan file shigain monzeki jpg japanese garden tsu japan file chinese gardenjpg classical chinese garden file pinjore gardens nightjpg garden lighting pinjore india file henckelska g rden jpg topiary helsingborg sweden file crow asian sculpture garden jpg asian sculpture garden texas united states file monolithjpg vigeland sculpture garden oslo norway file giardini pensili jpg roof terrace garden ventimiglia italy file el escorial gardensjpg escorial formal palace garden madrid spain file medieval garden sainte agnesjpg mediterranean garden alpes maritimes france file herb garden geographorguk jpg herb garden warwickshire united kingdom file villa la magia jpg use steps villa la magia quarrata italy file lurie garden sunjpg lurie garden chicago united states


landscape architecture planting design principles intelligent urbanism soft landscape materials sustainable landscape architecture topocide urban forestry urban reforestation references external links architecture environmental social science


convolve test img x laplacian kernel figure imshow x show laplacian filtered title 'laplacian edge detection' syntaxhighlight affine transformations affine transformations enable basic image transformations including scale rotate translate mirror shear shown following examples ref name gonzalez class wikitable transformation

Formal science
Computer science
Computer graphics
Image processing


name affine matrix example '''identity''' align center math begin bmatrix end bmatrix math file checkerboard identitysvg '''reflection''' align center math begin bmatrix end bmatrix math file checkerboard reflectionsvg '''scale''' align center math begin bmatrix c x c end bmatrix math file checkerboard scalesvg '''rotate'''


coordinates pixel image x x row column pixel image matrix allows coordinate multiplied affine transformation matrix gives position pixel value copied output image however allow transformations require translation transformations dimensional homogeneous coordinates needed third dimension usually set non zero constant usually new coordinate x allows coordinate vector multiplied


zeros size image class image time ero image imread 'scene erojpg' col halfw c halfw row halfh r halfh pointdown row halfh pointup row halfh pointleft col halfw pointright col halfw neighbor ero image pointdown pointuppointleft pointright filter neighbor se extractmin row col min filter end end imwrite extractmin scene erojpg end syntaxhighlight '''opening''' align center math begin bmatrix end bmatrix math use matlab opening syntaxhighlight lang matlab imwrite extractmin scene openingjpg extractopen zeros size image class image


'''general method feature based method''' feature based method face detection using skin tone edge detection face shape feature face like eyes mouth etc achieve face detection skin tone face shape unique elements human face described features '''process explanation''' given batch face images first extract skin tone range sampling face images skin tone range skin filter structural similarity index measure ssim applied compare images terms extracting skin tone


commonwealth realms civil action ms sanchez mr smith would sanchez v smith started sanchez smith v sanchez started mr smith though order parties' names change case appealed countries make clear distinction civil criminal procedure example criminal court may force convicted defendant pay fine punishment crime legal costs prosecution defence victim crime generally pursues claim compensation

Humanities
Law
Civil law
Civil procedure


guilt suspect reason feeling intuition doubt civil case court weigh evidence decide probable civil procedural types civil procedure traditionally divided inquisitorial adversarial civil procedure country australia brazil canada england wales germany netherlands romania scotland south africa united states see also affirmative defense civil justice fairness act criminal procedure jurisdiction laches objection prejudice law statute limitations summary judgment time constraints trial de novo references external links http wwwdcagovuk civil procrules fin civil procedure rules applying england


create society without classes traditional socialist thinking identifies classes based ownership means production capitalism capitalist class proletarian class however albert hahnel identify third class created particular division labor tasks jobs desirable others also empowering hahnel albert argue empowering jobs accounting management provide access information skills formulate ideas plans decision making jobs cleaning provide thus workers disempowering jobs

Social science
Economics
Participatory economics


best ratify proposals empowered workers little reason participate collective decision making workers empowering jobs third class coordinator class means production power menial workers class exists current past capitalist socialist cooperative economies coordinator jobs include political office management law medicine accounting research distribute work equitably empower workers decisions workplace participatory economics worker tasks taken together result average desirability average empowerment among workers


proposed quantity outputs workplace indicative prices adding negative prices proposed pollution emissions summing social costs calculated multiplying quantity requested inputs indicative prices summing proposals benefits cost ratio one need make adjustments order gain approval next round either switching less polluting technology producing socially desirable set outputs using less costly inputs receiving revised proposals facilitation board updates list indicative prices several


pareto optimality two assumptions feature participatory planning differs modes democratic planning deliberation proposals occurs within councils take place councils parecon feasible economic plan constructed due iterative adjustment prices participatory planning based councils' self activity proposals rather owing procedure deliberation among delegates across workplaces industries potentially desirable cutting meeting time bureaucratic burdens needed converge annual plan facilitation boards proposed participatory


incentives completely different one important ways different central planning incentive compatible actors incentive report truthfully rather incentive misrepresent capabilities preferences unlike historical examples central planning parecon proposal advocates use adjustment price information reflecting marginal social opportunity costs benefits integral elements planning process hahnel argued emphatically milton friedman 's priori tendency deny possibility alternatives blockquote friedman assumes away best solution coordinating economic activities


incapable attaining accurate assessments social costs blockquote markets corrected pollution taxes lead efficient amount pollution satisfy polluter pays principle taxes set equal magnitude damage victims suffer markets incentive compatible polluters pollution victims markets provide reliable way estimate magnitudes efficient taxes pollutants ambiguity property right polluters pollution victims free rider problems among multiple victims transaction costs forming maintaining effective coalition pollution victims


affected small unequal degree combine render market systems incapable eliciting accurate information pollution victims damages suffer acting upon information even known blockquote class hierarchy advocates parecon say intention four main ingredients parecon implemented minimum hierarchy maximum transparency discussions decision making model designed eliminate secrecy economic decision making instead encourage friendly cooperation mutual support avoidance power hierarchies puts parecon


entry institutional features reward individual innovators limiting use new technologies hahnel notes contrast participatory economy innovations immediately made available enterprises never loss static efficiency innovation sometimes outcome cumulative creativity pareconomists believe may legitimately attributed individuals examples application workplace democracy archetypal workplace democracy model wobbly shop pioneered industrial workers world self managing norms grassroots democracy applied limitations participatory economics


architecture hydrostatics body plan ship showing hull form hydrostatics concerns conditions vessel subjected rest water ability remain afloat involves computing buoyancy displacement hydrostatic properties trim measure longitudinal inclination vessel stability ability vessel restore upright position inclined wind sea loading conditions hydrodynamics hydrodynamics concerns flow water around ship 's hull bow stern bodies propeller blades

Applied science
Military sciences
Naval science
Naval architecture


amount force bulkheads provide ref name arrangements arrangements involves concept design layout access fire protection allocation spaces ergonomics capacity construction construction depends material used steel aluminium used involves welding plates profiles rolling marking cutting bending per structural design drawings models followed erection launching joining techniques used materials like fibre reinforced plastic glass reinforced plastic process construction thought cautiously considering factors like safety strength structure hydrodynamics ship arrangement


ships hydrofoil craft workboats barges fishing boats anchor handling tug supply vessels platform supply vessels tug boats pilot vessels rescue craft yachts power boats recreational watercraft offshore platforms subsea developments scale model veteran class mt tanker florida vessels amongst largest supertankers complex aircraft carriers highly valued movable structures produced mankind typically efficient method transporting world 's raw materials products modern engineering scale essentially team activity conducted specialists


dealing navigational rights mineral rights jurisdiction coastal waters maritime relationships nations united nations convention law sea adopted countries ref see united states non ratification unclos european union disputes resolved itlos tribunal hamburg history seaborne transport one earliest channels commerce rules resolving disputes involving maritime trade developed early recorded history early historical records laws include rhodian law nomos rhodion nautikos primary written specimen survived


customs regulations modern era supreme court justice oliver wendell holmes admiralty lawyer ascending bench features matters dealt admiralty law include marine commerce marine navigation salvage maritime pollution seafarers rights carriage sea passengers goods admiralty law also covers land based commercial activities maritime character marine insurance lawyers prefer reserve term admiralty law wet law eg salvage collisions ship arrest towage liens limitation use maritime law dry law eg carriage goods people marine


pursue pirates high seas including pursuing country 's territorial waters nations signed onto united nations convention law sea dictates legal requirements pursuing pirates merchant vessels transiting areas increased pirate activity ie gulf aden somali basin southern red sea bab el mandeb straits advised implement self protective measures accordance recent best management practices agreed upon members merchant industry endorsed nato shipping centre maritime security centre horn africa mschoa individual countries common


admiralty court act vict c whilst pakistan statute admiralty jurisdiction high courts ordinance ordinance xlii also follows english case law one reason ordinance partly modelled old english admiralty law namely administration justice act current statute dealing admiralty jurisdiction england wales high court senior courts act ss provisions sections turn based international arrest convention countries


excavations trade believed first begun south west asia archaeological evidence obsidian use provides data material increasingly preferred choice rather chert late mesolithic neolithic requiring exchange deposits obsidian rare mediterranean region ref name john robb obsidian thought provided material make cutting utensils tools although since easily obtainable materials available use found exclusive higher status tribe using rich man 's flint interestingly obsidian held value

Humanities
Law
Legal management
Commercial law


first ocean going ships ref name meacham ref initiated animist indigenous peoples taiwan philippines maritime jade road extensive trading network connecting multiple areas southeast east asia primary products made jade mined taiwan animist taiwanese indigenous peoples processed mostly philippines animist indigenous filipinos especially batanes luzon palawan also processed vietnam peoples malaysia brunei singapore thailand indonesia cambodia also participated massive animist led trading network participants network time majority animist population


economic cooperation group trade promotion forum also joined world trade organization international trade international trade exchange goods services across national borders countries represents significant part gdp international trade present throughout much history see silk road amber road economic social political importance increased recent centuries mainly industrialization advanced transportation globalization multinational corporations outsourcing empirical evidence success trade seen contrast countries south korea adopted policy


fair trade standards governments may enforce combination employment commercial law proposed practiced fair trade policies vary widely ranging common prohibition goods made using slave labour minimum price support schemes coffee non governmental organizations also play role promoting fair trade standards serving independent monitors compliance labeling requirements form protectionism notes bibliography covers sea trading whole world ancient times r ssner philipp http ieg egoeu en threads backgrounds economy trade philipp roessner economy tradeset language en c ''economy trade'' http wwwieg egoeu ego european history


objects rapidly event emergency ref name cozzolino cozzolino alessandra humanitarian logistics supply chain management humanitarian logistics springer berlin heidelberg ref reason enlisting emergency logistics services could production delay anticipated production delay urgent need specialized equipment prevent events aircraft grounded also known aircraft ground aog ships delayed telecommunications failure humanitarian logistics involves governments military aid agencies donors non governmental organizations emergency logistics services typically sourced specialist provider ref name cozzolino term '''production logistics''' describes logistic processes within

Applied science
Military sciences
Logistics


states armed forces' categorical supply classification developed way categories supply similar consumption variables grouped together planning purposes instance peacetime consumption ammunition fuel considerably lower wartime consumption items whereas classes supply subsistence clothing relatively consistent consumption rate regardless war peace classes supply linear demand relationship troops added supply items needed equipment used fuel ammunition consumed classes supply


sequence black white bars varying width read laser translated digital sequence according fixed rules converted decimal number data sometimes information bar code transmitted radio frequency typically radio transmission used rfid tags rfid tag card containing memory chip antenna transmits signals reader rfid may found merchandise animals vehicles people well logistics profession organizations '''logistician''' professional logistics


law flight computer mode fly wire aircraft see also law enforcement agency law disambiguation


codifies consolidates law common law systems judges make binding case law precedent although occasion may overturned higher court legislature historically religious law influenced secular matters still used religious communities sharia law based islamic principles used primary legal system several countries including iran saudi arabia ref name sharia inc ref law 's scope divided two domains public law concerns government society including constitutional law administrative law criminal law private law deals legal disputes individuals organisations areas


presidential palace helsinki finland analytical jurisprudence several attempts produce universally acceptable definition law baron hampstead suggested definition could produced ref name jurisprudence third edition page dennis lloyd baron lloyd hampstead ''introduction jurisprudence'' third edition stevens sons london second impression p ref mccoubrey white said question law simple answer glanville williams said meaning word law depends context word used said example early


conditions prison ref name pleiade ref third part states hugo grotius founder purely rationalistic system natural law argued law arises social impulse aristotle indicated reason immanuel kant believed moral imperative requires laws chosen though hold universal laws nature jeremy bentham student austin following david hume believed conflated ought problem bentham austin argued law 's positivism real law entirely separate morality kant also criticised friedrich nietzsche


obey kelsen 's major opponent carl schmitt rejected positivism idea rule law accept primacy abstract normative principles concrete political positions decisions therefore schmitt advocated jurisprudence exception state emergency denied legal norms could encompass political experience ref name f finn ''constitutions crisis'' ref bentham 's utilitarian theories remained dominant law th century later th century h l hart attacked austin simplifications kelsen fictions ''the concept law'' hart argued


continental europe confused civil law sense common law topics distinct criminal law public law third type legal system accepted countries without separation church state religious law based scriptures specific system country ruled often determined history connections countries adherence international standards sources jurisdictions adopt authoritatively binding defining features legal system yet classification matter form rather substance since similar rules often prevail


process regulations issued executive branch doctrine precedent ' 'stare decisis'' latin stand decisions means decisions higher courts bind lower courts future decisions court assure similar cases reach similar results contrast civil law systems legislative statutes typically detailed judicial decisions shorter less detailed judge barrister writing decide single case rather set reasoning guide future courts common law originated england


inherited almost every country tied british empire except malta scotland us state louisiana canadian province quebec medieval england norman conquest law varied shire shire based disparate tribal customs concept common law developed reign henry ii late th century henry appointed judges authority create institutionalised unified system law common country next major step evolution common law came king john forced barons sign


document limiting authority pass laws great charter ''magna carta'' also required king 's entourage judges hold courts judgments certain place rather dispensing autocratic justice unpredictable places country concentrated elite group judges acquired dominant role law making system compared european counterparts english judiciary became highly centralised instance highest court france fifty one judges english court common pleas five powerful tight knit judiciary gave rise


civil law juris doctor degree higher academic degrees may also pursued examples include master laws master legal studies bar professional training course doctor laws constituted office legal forms appointment admitted bar titles respect signify famous lawyers esquire indicate barristers greater dignity doctor law indicate person obtained phd law many muslim countries developed similar rules legal education legal profession still


administrative law criminal law contract tort property law trusts regarded traditional core subjects although many disciplines international law providing constitution public international law united nations system agreed world war ii sir alberico gentili father international law international law refer three things public international law private international law conflict laws law supranational organisations public international law concerns relationships sovereign nations sources public international law development custom practice treaties sovereign nations


geneva conventions public international law formed international organisations united nations established failure league nations prevent world war ii international labour organisation world trade organisation international monetary fund public international law special status law international police force courts eg international court justice primary un judicial organ lack capacity penalise disobedience prevailing manner enforcing international law still essentially self help reaction


property sometimes called 'real estate' refers ownership land things attached personal property refers everything else movable objects computers cars jewelry intangible rights stocks shares right ''in rem'' right specific piece property contrasting right ''in personam'' allows compensation loss particular thing back land law forms basis kinds property law complex concerns mortgages rental agreements licences covenants easements statutory systems land registration regulations


use personal property fall intellectual property company law trusts commercial law example basic case property law ''armory v delamirie'' chimney sweep 's boy found jewel encrusted precious stones took goldsmith valued goldsmith 's apprentice looked sneakily removed stones told boy worth three halfpence would buy boy said would prefer jewel back apprentice gave without stones boy sued goldsmith


another 's expense event generates right restitution reverse gain space law relatively new field dealing aspects international law regarding human activities earth orbit outer space first addressing space relations countries via treaties increasingly addressing areas space commercialisation property liability issues law regulation new york stock exchange trading floor wall street crash tougher banking regulation introduced tax law involves regulations concern value added tax corporate tax income tax banking


peltier 's publication periglacial cycle erosion ref name twidalelageat climatic geomorphology criticized review article process geomorphologist dr stoddart ref name goudie ref name thomas ref criticism stoddart proved devastating sparking decline popularity climatic geomorphology late th century ref name goudie ref name thomas stoddart criticized climatic geomorphology applying supposedly trivial methodologies establishing landform differences morphoclimatic zones linked davisian geomorphology allegedly neglecting fact physical laws governing processes across globe ref name thomas addition conceptions climatic geomorphology like holds chemical

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Geomorphology


group mainly american natural scientists geologists hydraulic engineers including william walden rubey ralph alger bagnold hans albert einstein frank ahnert john hack luna leopold shields thomas maddock arthur strahler stanley schumm ronald shreve began research form landscape elements rivers hillslopes taking systematic direct quantitative measurements aspects investigating scaling measurements ref name 'bierman' ref name 'oldroydgrapes' ref name 'ritter' methods began allow prediction past future behavior landscapes present observations later develop modern trend


bedrock nanga parbat region pakistan deepest river canyon world nanga parbat world 's th highest mountain seen background geomorphically relevant processes generally fall production regolith weathering erosion transport material eventual deposition primary surface processes responsible topographic features include wind waves chemical dissolution mass wasting groundwater movement surface water flow glacial action tectonism volcanism exotic geomorphic processes might include periglacial freeze thaw processes salt mediated action changes seabed caused marine currents seepage


long term sediment production features deeper mantle dynamics plumes delamination lower lithosphere also hypothesised play important roles long term million year large scale thousands km evolution earth 's topography see dynamic topography promote surface uplift isostasy hotter less dense mantle rocks displace cooler denser mantle rocks depth earth marine processes marine processes associated action waves marine currents seepage fluids seafloor mass wasting submarine landsliding also important processes


philological discipline north america often regarded branch archaeology history first explorers first explorers ancient egyptians prompted dream thutmose iv restored sphinx dream inspired restoration carved famous dream stele less two centuries later prince khaemweset fourth son ramesses ii would gain fame identifying restoring historic buildings tombs temples including pyramids subsequently described first egyptologist graeco roman period first historical accounts egypt

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Egyptology


early egyptian considered founder egyptology ref name woods ref modern egyptology hieroglyphs depictions transcribed ippolito rosellini egyptology 's modern history begins invasion egypt napoleon bonaparte late th century rosetta stone discovered study many aspects ancient egypt became scientifically oriented publication ''m moires sur l' gypte'' comprehensive ''description de l'egypte'' recorded egyptian flora fauna history making numerous ancient egyptian source materials available europeans first time ref name saylor ref


ministry antiquities announced discovery shrine god osiris ptah neb dating back th dynasty temple karnak luxor according archaeologist essam nagy material remains area contained clay pots lower part sitting statue part stone panel showing offering table filled sheep goose symbols god amun july german egyptian researchers team head ramadan badry hussein university bingen reported discovery extremely rare gilded burial mask


skeletons red brown sewage water according archaeologist mostafa waziri skeletons looked like family burial middle aged woman two men researchers also revealed small gold artifact three thin sheets gold september sandstone sphinx statue discovered temple kom ombo statue measuring approximately nbsp cm nbsp width nbsp cm nbsp height likely dates ptolemaic dynasty september several dozen cache mummies dating years back found saqqara team polish archaeologists led kamil kuraszkiewicz faculty


encyclopedia egyptology see also artifact archaeology cultural tourism egypt egyptomania excavation archaeology list egyptologists archaeology ancient egypt champollion museum related disciplines mentioned article anthropology archaeoastronomy architecture art history assyriology biblical studies chronology coptology epigraphy ethnoarchaeology iranology language studies nubiology oriental studies philology social history references reading david rosalie ''religion magic ancient egypt'' penguin books chaney edward 'egypt england america cultural memorials religion royalty revolution' ''sites exchange european crossroads faultlines'' eds ascari corrado rodopi amsterdam new york


modelled combination two signals smooth spatially correlated rough noise signal practice surveyors first sample heights area use produce digital land surface model form tin dlsm used visualize terrain drape remote sensing images quantify ecological properties surface extract land surface objects note contour data sampled elevation datasets dlsm dlsm implies elevation available continuously location study area ie

Social science
Geography
Cartography
Topography


field attitudes foci ethnomusicologists evolved since initial studies area comparative musicology early field first came existence largely limited study non western music contrast study western art music focus conventional musicology fact field referred early existence comparative musicology defining western musical traditions standard musics compared though term fell use critics practices

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Ethnomusicology


long term participant observation therefore ethnomusicological work characterized featuring substantial intensive ethnographic component anthropological musicological approaches two approaches ethnomusicological studies common ''anthropological'' ''musicological'' ethnomusicologists using anthropological approach generally study music learn people culture practice musicological approach study people cultures learn music charles seeger differentiated two approaches describing anthropology music studying way music part culture social life musical anthropology studies social life performance examining


way music part construction interpretation social conceptual relationships processes charles seeger mantle hood two ethnomusicologists adopted musicological approach hood started one first american university programs dedicated ethnomusicology often stressing students must learn play music studied prompted college student 's personal letter recommended potential students ethnomusicology undertake substantial musical training field competency described ''bi musicality'' ref name hoodbimusicality ref explained measure intended combat ethnocentrism transcend problematic western


name analytical methodologies result debate ongoing ones like ethnomusicology yet establish standard method methods analysis say scholars attempted establish universal objective analytical systems bruno nettl acknowledges lack singular comparative model ethnomusicological study describes methods mieczyslaw kolinski b la bart k erich von hornbostel notable attempts provide model ref name nettl bruno ''the study ethnomusicology thirty one issues concepts'' chapter urbana university illinois ref perhaps first


objective systems development cent definitive unit pitch phonetician mathematician alexander j ellis ellis made notable contributions foundations comparative musicology ultimately ethnomusicology creation cents system fact ethnomusicologist hornbostel declared ellis true founder comparative scientific musicology prior invention pitches described using measurements frequency vibrations per second however method reliable since interval different reading time occurs across whole pitch spectrum hand


nettl bruno ''the study ethnomusicology thirty one issues concepts'' urbana chicago university illinois press p ref nettl recalls angry young man nigeria asked researcher could rationalize study cultures' music nettl could n't come easy answer posits ethnomusicologists need careful respect cultures study avoid treating valuable pieces culture music one many artifacts study ref name nettl bruno pp nettl bruno ''the study ethnomusicology thirty one issues concepts'' urbana chicago university


lengthy period fieldwork n't useful though without proper techniques ensuring researcher gets representative sampling music community worked blackfoot people nettl said n't concerned whether singer teaching blackfoot music good bad assume would representative blackfoot singers nettl soon gained new perspective longer assumed informants indigenous society would tell thing discarded idea essential homogeneity despite discarding assumption nettl acknowledges


interviewing one person relying heavily person 's ability articulate whole society 's culture musical traditions ref name b myriad ethical considerations arise field slobin attempts summarize explain 's come across heard ethnomusicologists may face dilemmas related roles archivists historians whether purchase rare one kind instrument preserve leave musicians created may encounter controversy whether allowed watch participate record various songs


dances allowed view videos products fieldwork researcher returned home ref name slobin mark theoretical issues debates universals musicologists long pondered existence universals music despite trope music universal language yet find anyone indisputably point concrete characteristics types music common one ascertain one multiple universals found music would create basis music defined would drastically change way


even near universal hard come many variables considering subjective topic like music music removed culture singular variable universal understanding music everywhere conversation universality music held omitting word music nbsp universals wachsmann thinks resemblance may main influencer call music n't approach instead finding universal create amalgam relations


universal grammar necessary giving ethnomusicology distinct identity felt ethnomusicology meeting ground anthropology music study music different cultures lacked distinguishing characteristic scholarship urged others field become aware inclusive non musical processes occur making music well cultural foundation certain properties music given culture vein alan merriam 's work musical languages identified suited linguistically focused analysis


although supply conclusions organization musicological data reflections history nature music cultural artifact understanding universal truth humanity relationship sound also generates great deal criticism regarding ethnocentrism place field insider outsider epistemology relevance implications insider outsider distinctions within ethnomusicological writing practice subject lengthy debate decades invoked bruno nettl timothy rice others question causes debate lies qualifications ethnomusicologist research


purpose applied ethnomusicology latter knowledge sake positive impact humanitarian issues thus part applied ethnomusicology advocacy opposed solely participating observer includes working community move social initiatives forward acting intermediary cultural insiders outsiders applied ethnomusicology became widely known many fieldworkers practicing long name established example david mcallester bruno nettl fieldwork enemy way music much example applied ethnomusicology ethical values


closely considered approach comprehensive designed share understanding betterment navajo nation example applied ethnomusicology goes considering music role within culture music conceived within culture clearly crucial part applied ethnomusicology fieldwork way fieldwork conducted well way fieldworker speaks acts towards subject matter post fieldwork interview david mcallester revealed saw role conducting fieldwork navajo


nation experience got among navajos caused drop anthropology dropped scientific point view large extent became um advocate navajos rather objective viewer certainly among ethnomusicology began value views people make music value trained scholars studying essence applied ethnomusicology find play research conduct conducting research ethnomusicology


musician physical appeal technical musical skill judging performance shows devaluation female musical expression favor objectification feminine physicality public gaze ref name ellen koskoff p koskoff recalls women musicians manage become popular mainstream culture may start take masculine coded musical qualities even expression femininity performance initially elicited acclaim since koskoff book published contemporary ethnomusicologists continued study practices dynamics cites detail sounds power overview


authorship ownership roots animals spirits owned entire communities american copyright laws ask single original author groups people animals spirits situations like seeger 's result indigenous people given credit sometime able access monetary wealth may come along published goods seeger also mentions cases copyright granted informant performer researcher producer organization funding research earns credit indigenous people deserve ref


music east los angeles ''cultural critique '' winter ref lipsitz suggests mexican community los angeles reoriented traditions fit postmodern present seeking unity disunity minority groups attempt find solidarity presenting sharing experience oppressed groups according lipsitz disunity creates disunity furthermore engenders historical bloc made numerous multifaceted marginalized cultures lipsitz noted bifocal nature rock group los lobos particularly exemplary paradox straddled line mixing traditional mexican folk elements white


also proposes capitalism turns historical traditions minority groups superficial icons images order profit perception exotic different therefore commodification icons images results loss original meaning minorities according lipsitz cannot fully assimilate completely separate dominant groups cultural marginality misrepresentation media makes aware society 's skewed perception ref name lipsitz george antonio gramsci suggests experts legitimization attempt legitimize dominant culture making look like


ethnic demographics evolving rapidly institutions around country demand new type curricula focused teaching students cultural differences grew stronger incorporating ethnomusicology american curriculum allows students explore cultures provides open space students varying cultural backgrounds thankfully recordings music around world began enter euro american music industry advancements made technology musical devices addition advancements many scholars receiving funding order go abroad perform research following end


cold war type research allowed scholars learn firsthand cultures n't familiar including hearing testimonies customs observing social cultural norms learning play instruments culture timothy taylor discusses arrival development new terminology face globalization term world music developed popularized way categorize sell non western music term world music began marketing term classify sell records parts world unified label different styles


world music began making appearances billboard charts grammy award nominations participation new immigrants looking get involved musicians audience members billboard charts grammy 's came used became great indicator trends happening music let people know selling billboard music charts thought marker day day activities music industry grammy awards thought indicator sells excels term world beat also employed


phenomenon impacts music called glocal bag model proposed book ''music glocalization'' issue appropriation come forefront discussions music 's globalization since many western european north american artists participated revitalization appropriation claiming sounds techniques cultures adding work without properly crediting origins music steven feld explores issue putting context colonialism admiration alone another culture 's music constitute appropriation combination power domination economic


los angeles noted culture mexico seems float around city culture never quite exists seem vanish manifestations mexican american culture los angeles found lipsitz called historical bloc historical bloc refers group different affinity groups relate counter hegemonic ref name lipsitz groups bond bifocal existence spaces juxtaposition multiple realities families resemblance particularly chicano music musicians culture strongly encouraged


experience without informational consciousness fales gone depth exploration humankind 's perceptual relation timbre noting musical elements perception timbre divergent physical acoustic signal sound growing concept also discusses paradox timbre idea perceived timbre exists mind listener objective world fales' exploration timbre discusses three broad categories timbre manipulation musical performance throughout world first timbral anomaly


western rhythms organized differently western rhythms may based ratio relationships african rhythms may organized additively view means western rhythms hierarchical nature african rhythms serial one study provides empirical support view published magill pressing researchers recruited highly experienced drummer produced prototypical rhythmic patterns magill pressing used wing kristofferson 's mathematical modeling test different hypotheses timing drummer one version model used metrical structure however authors found


topic discussion society ethnomusicology ref name referencee chavez luis russel skelchy decolonizable spaces ethnomusicology ''society ethnomusicology student news'' ref humanities education studies term decolonization used describe array processes involving social justice resistance sustainability preservation ref name referencee however ethnomusicology decolonization considered metaphor scholars ref name referencee linda tuhiwai smith professor indigenous studies new zealand offered look shift decolonization taken decolonization viewed formal process handing instruments government recognized


forms media scholarship hinders great deal potential contributors finding space disciplinary sphere ref name referencef kibbee brendan decolonizing sound ethnomusicology become audible ''society ethnomusicology student news'' ref possible influence western bias listening intellectual practice could reason lack diversity opinion background within field ref name referencef colonial aspect comes european prejudices regarding subjects' intellectual abilities derived kantian belief act listening seen danger autonomy


diverse distinct musical cultures melting pot communities us ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity music musical construction place'' edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref case colonialism colonizer colonized end repeatedly exchanging musical ideas ref name radano ronald p radano ronald michael et al introduction music race past presence ''music racial imagination'' ronald michael radano philip vilas bohlman university chicago press p ref


aristotle aristotle 's 'four causes' give special place telos final cause ''thing'' followed plato seeing purpose human subhuman nature etymology word ''teleology'' combines greek ''telos'' label none ref name ''logia'' label none lit speak of' 'study of' 'a branch learning german philosopher christian wolff would coin term latin work ''philosophia rationalis sive logica'' platonic plato dialogue ''phaedo'' socrates argues true explanations given physical phenomenon must teleological bemoans fail distinguish

Humanities Philosophy Metaphysics Teleology


would eventually 'sublate' form life leaves violent conflict behind goal oriented teleological notion historical process whole present variety th century authors although prominence declined drastically second world war ethics teleology significantly informs study ethics '''business ethics''' people business commonly think terms purposeful action example management objectives teleological analysis business ethics leads consideration full range stakeholders business decision including management staff customers shareholders


aristotle 's ''virtue'' ethics although formulations virtue ethics also often consequentialist derivation deontological ethics goodness badness individual acts primary larger desirable goal insufficient justify bad acts committed way goal even bad acts relatively minor goal major like telling small lie prevent war save millions lives requiring constituent acts good ' 'deontological ethics'' much rigid consequentialism varies circumstances '''practical ethics''' usually mix two


course using lundvall 's knowledge taxonomy applied research projects texas state university paper http ecommonstxstateedu arp txstateedu references external links http montagesblogspotcom outsourcing intelligencehtml outsourcing intelligence https webarchiveorg web http wwwnachrichtendienstech thesis marcel stuessi secret personal data gathering pdf proposal privacy protection guideline secret personal data gathering transborder flows data fight terrorism serious crime marcel stuessi http intellitmuskingumedu literature intelligence bibliography materials essays reviews comments http intelligence historyorg international intelligence history association https docupediade zg bergien intelligence history v en r diger bergien ''intelligence history'' version docupedia zeitgeschichte rd august

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Intelligence agency


healers leaders spiritual guides teachers cultural secrets keepers entertainers oral storytelling came various forms including songs poetry chants dance albert bates lord examined oral narratives field transcripts yugoslav oral bards collected milman parry texts epics odyssey lord found large part stories consisted text improvised telling process lord identified two types ' 'story vocabulary'' first called formulas rosy fingered dawn wine dark sea specific set phrases long known homer


rule three three brothers set three attempts made three riddles asked theme simple specific set sequence describing arming hero starting shirt trousers ending headdress weapons theme large enough plot component example hero proposes journey dangerous place disguises disguise fools everybody except common person little account crone tavern maid woodcutter immediately recognizes commoner


based stories human brain consists cognitive machinery necessary understand remember tell stories humans storytelling organisms individually socially lead storied lives stories mirror human thought humans think narrative structures often remember facts story form facts understood smaller versions larger story thus storytelling supplement analytical thinking storytelling requires auditory visual senses listeners one learn organize mental representation story recognize structure language express thoughts stories tend


storytelling makes impact lives children navajos according navajos interviewed storytelling one many main practices teaches children important principles live good life ref name indigenous communities stories way pass knowledge generation generation indigenous people experience separation physical world spiritual world thus indigenous people communicate children ritual storytelling dialogue community values learned storytelling help guide future generations aid identity


formation quechua community highland peru separation adults children allows children learn storytelling interpretations given story therefore children quechua community encouraged listen story told order learn identity culture sometimes children expected sit quietly listen actively enables engage activities independent learners teaching practice storytelling allowed children formulate ideas based experiences perspectives navajo communities children


characters message message delivered story finished cycles tale told retold story units recombine showing various outcomes person 's actions storytelling research storytelling assessed critical literacy skills learning theatre related terms nationally recognized storytelling creative drama organization neighborhood bridges minneapolis another storyteller researcher uk proposes social space created preceding oral storytelling schools may trigger sharing parfitt storytelling also studied way investigate archive cultural knowledge


encoding systematic across individuals languages encoding seems appear prominently default mode network serious storytelling storytelling serious application contexts eg therapeutics business serious games medicine education faith referred serious storytelling serious storytelling applies storytelling outside context entertainment narration progresses sequence patterns impressive quality part thoughtful progress storytelling political praxis approaches treat narratives politically motivated stories stories empowering certain groups stories giving people


artistic elements typically interact well developed stories elements include essential idea narrative structure identifiable beginnings middles endings exposition development climax resolution denouement normally constructed coherent plot lines strong focus temporality includes retention past attention present action protention future anticipation substantial focus characters characterization arguably important single component novel given heterogloss different voices dialogically play nbsp sound human voice many voices speaking variety accents rhythms registers possesses narrator narrator like voice


draws upon art forms acting oral interpretation performance studies richard wyche professor literature university tennessee created first organized storytellers league kind called national story league wyche served president years facilitated storytelling classes spurred interest art several storytelling organizations started us one organization national association perpetuation preservation storytelling napps national storytelling network nsn international storytelling center isc nsn


formal ref name poore poore http wwwhewettnorfolkschuk curric soc crime controhtm overview social control theories hewett school retrieved september ref sociologist edward ross argues belief systems exert greater control human behavior laws imposed government matter form beliefs take ref name ross ross ea http wwwtransactionpubcom title html ''social control control survey foundations order'' piscataway new jersey transaction publishers ref social control considered one foundations order within society ref name ea ross ref definition concept roodenburg identifies concept social control classical concept ref name h roodenburg ref


internalized thus becoming aspect individual 's personality informal sanctions check deviant behavior example negative sanction comes scene film ''pink floyd wall'' whereby young protagonist ridiculed verbally abused high school teacher writing poetry mathematics class another example movie ''about boy'' young boy hesitates jump high springboard ridiculed fear though eventually jumps behavior controlled shame reward punishment informal controls reward punish acceptable unacceptable