effects based operations ebo ebo asks question goal want achieve objective need reach rather tasks undertaken ebo concept enables managers manipulate decompose high level effects must assign lesser effects objectives subordinates achieve intention subordinates' actions cumulatively achieve overall effects desired words focus shifts scriptwriter tasks instead designer behaviours cases make

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems theory
Sociotechnical systems theory


technological possibilities internet provide response often forgotten issue one contributes significantly joint optimisation topics sociotechnical system sociotechnical system term usually given instantiation socio technical elements engaged goal directed behaviour sociotechnical systems particular expression sociotechnical theory although necessarily one thing sociotechnical systems theory mixture sociotechnical theory joint optimisation forth general systems theory term sociotechnical system recognises organizations boundaries transactions occur within system


name mumford social science scientific study human society social relationships ie people interact although structures changing within industry companies managers need dedicated motivation recognise essential achieve employees rights needs must always given high priority ref name mumford sustainability standalone incremental improvements sufficient address current let alone future sustainability challenges challenges require deep changes sociotechnical systems theories innovation systems sustainable innovations system thinking design sustainability transitions among others attempted describe


see beyond current practices found difficult anticipate things done differently motivation found another challenge process users interested participating wagner process improvement process improvement organizational development series actions taken identify analyze improve existing processes within organization meet new goals objectives actions often follow specific methodology strategy create successful results task analysis task analysis analysis task accomplished including detailed description manual


evidencing improved working practices joint agreements workers management contrasted much harsher economic climate principled practices one two notable exceptions gave way lean production downsizing cost cutting global economy partly reflecting impact information communications technology different future scenarios discussed socio technical principles might return different guise humanize potential impact technology world work consistent organizational economic change norm ref name mumford b laudon laudon kenneth


sociology sociotechnology systems theory systems science telecommuting references reading kenyon b de greene ''sociotechnical systems factors analysis design management'' jose luis mate andres silva ''requirements engineering sociotechnical systems'' enid mumford ''sociotechnical systems design evolving theory practice'' william pasmore john j sherwood ''sociotechnical systems sourcebook'' william pasmore ''designing effective organizations sociotechnical systems perspective'' pascal salembier tahar hakim benchekroun ''cooperation complexity sociotechnical systems'' sawyer jarrahi mh ''the sociotechnical perspective information systems information technology'' volume computing handbook set third


theorem states trade countries tends equalise product prices tends also equalise prices paid factors production theories sometimes taken mean trade industrialised country developing country would lower wages unskilled industrialised country noted conclusion depends upon unlikely assumption productivity two countries large numbers learned papers produced attempts elaborate h stolper samuelson theorems many

Social science
Economics
International economics


major change organisation international finance occurred latter years twentieth century economists still debating implications end second world war national signatories bretton woods agreement agreed maintain currencies fixed exchange rate united states dollar united states government undertaken buy gold demand fixed rate per ounce support commitments signatory nations maintained strict control nationals use foreign exchange upon


dealings international financial assets united states government announced suspending convertibility dollar followed progressive transition current regime ''floating exchange rates'' governments longer attempt control exchange rates impose controls upon access foreign currencies upon access international financial markets behaviour international financial system transformed exchange rates became volatile extended series damaging financial crises one study estimated end twentieth century


economic benefits receiving country relatively small ref name economic benefits immigration ref presence immigrants labour market results small reduction local wages ref name economic benefits immigration standpoint developing country emigration skilled workers represents loss human capital known brain drain leaving remaining workforce without benefit support effect upon welfare parent country extent offset remittances sent home emigrants


temporary skilled migration alongside migrant remittances unlike movement capital goods since government policies tried restrict migration flows often without economic rationale restrictions diversionary effects channeling great majority migration flows illegal migration false asylum seeking since migrants work lower wages often zero social insurance costs gain labour migration flows actually higher minimal gains calculated legal flows accompanying side effects significant however include political damage idea immigration lower unskilled wages host population increased policing


developed countries globalisation technological change equally responsible opposition globalisation seen contributing economic welfare economists professor joseph stiglitz school international public affairs columbia university advanced infant industry case protection developing countries criticised conditions imposed help international monetary fund professor dani rodrik harvard noted benefits globalisation unevenly spread led income inequalities damaging losses social capital


members general interest social economy enterprises organisations different sizes ranging smes large companies groups leaders markets operate economic sectors history third sector social economy studies relationship economy social behavior analyzes consumer behavior influenced social morals ethics humanitarian philosophies social economy examines activity related economics community exposes information community includes social enterprise voluntary sectors social economy develops need new


solutions issues social economic environmental satisfy needs ignored inadequately fulfilled private public sectors using solutions achieve profit aims social economy unique role creating strong sustainable prosperous inclusive society important companies able independently implement csr initiatives studies shown result much impactful government mandated csr initiatives successful social economy organisations play role fulfilling governmental policy objectives contributing socially inclusive wealth creation enabling individuals communities


purposes promotion social economy organisations reason created institute among members infes ceased operating year tasks assumed general directorate promotion social economy direcci n general del fomento de la econom social european social fund law cooperatives july incorporated council promotion social economy advisory consultative body activities related social economy regulations implemented royal decree march


effective meeting people centered objectives cooperative provides third highest employment private sector government jobs social economy attempts suitably blend economic feasibility social reality cooperatives india emphasize equitable distribution value amongst stakeholders see also civil society cost limit price mutualism movement online volunteering social innovation solidarity economy distributism volunteerism references external links http wwwchantierqcca le chantier de l' conomie sociale http wwwulgacbe ciriec ciriec international centre international de recherche et d'information sur l' conomie publique sociale et coop rative http wwweesceuropaeu en work publications work publications social economy european union european economic social committee study social economy european union http europaeuint comm enterprise entrepreneurship coop


could infuses values public sociology remind us world could different blockquote elsewhere burawoy articulated vision public sociology consonant pursuit democratic socialism ''critical sociology'' burawoy writes blockquote might say critical engagement real utopias today integral part project sociological socialism vision socialism places human society social humanity organizing center vision central marx often lost picked gramsci

Social science
Sociology
Applied sociology
Public sociology


capacity theories limited analyzes narrow aspect phenomenon nursing practice theories usually defined exact community discipline nursing models nursing models usually described representation reality simple way organising complex phenomenon nursing model consolidation concepts assumption combine meaningful arrangement model way presenting situation way shows logical terms order showcase structure original idea term nursing

Applied science
Medicine and health
Nursing Theory


boundaries separate disciplines metaparadigm intended help guide others conduct research utilize concepts academia within discipline nursing metaparadigm consist four main concepts person health environment nursing person patient environment health nursing goals roles functions theory regularly defined described nursing theorist main focal point nursing four various common concepts person patient ref name nursing theories overview notable nursing theorists theories anne casey casey 's model nursing betty neuman neuman systems model callista roy


however ''power edge'' 's radical ideas investigation pentagon since least ''uiaw'' concept peer peer activity combined traditional hierarchical flow data network introduced shortly thereafter pentagon began investing peer peer research telling software engineers november peer peer conference advantages gained redundancy robustness peer peer network topology battlefield network centric warfare operations cornerstone ongoing transformation effort department defense initiated former secretary defense donald rumsfeld

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Network-centric warfare


also one five goals office force transformation office secretary defense see revolution military affairs information known defense transformation transformation related technologies programs german army leopard incorporates systems designed used conjunction networked battlefield us dod mandated global information grid gig primary technical framework support us network centric warfare network centric operations directive advanced weapons platforms sensor systems command control centers


keen support military operations war activities international peacekeeping disaster response humanitarian aid etc supporting comments blockquote less half ground forces two thirds military aircraft used years ago desert storm achieved far difficult objective desert storm usually took two days target planners get photo target confirm coordinates plan mission deliver bomber crew near real time imaging targets photos coordinates transmitted


x px '''molecular virology''' study viruses molecular level viruses submicroscopic parasites replicate inside host cells ref name ref able successfully infect parasitize kinds life forms microorganisms plants animals result viruses biological diversity rest bacterial plant animal kingdoms combined ref name studying diversity key better understanding viruses interact hosts replicate inside cause diseases ref name viral replication viruses rely host replicate

Natural science
Biology
Virology
Molecular virology


structural proteins form virus 's nucleocapsid ref name release viruses could done two different mechanisms depending type virus lytic viruses burst cell 's membrane wall process called lysis order release hand enveloped viruses become released process called budding virus obtain lipid membrane buds cell membrane intracellular vesicle lysis budding processes highly damaging cell exception retroviruses often result cell 's death ref


host entire lifetime oftentimes host eventually eliminates virus ref name latent infection ultimate infection latent virus infections tend exist inside host entire lifetime well known example infection herpes simplex virus humans virus able stop replication restrict gene expression order stop recognition infected cell host 's immune system ref name prevention treatment viral vaccines contain inactivated viruses lost ability replicate vaccines prevent


drugs drug blocks virus 's replication cycle specificity antiviral drug key success drugs toxic virus host order minimize damage developed way toxic virus host efficiency antiviral drug measured chemotherapeutic index given ref name math frac hbox dose drug inhibits virus replication hbox dose drug toxic host math higher drug 's efficiency smaller


trainer renders service treatment direction physician regardless setting limitations restrictions athletic trainer treated large part determined regulatory statutes governing professional practice individual states referring patients clients need treatment consult people athletic trainer cases athletic trainer 's responsibility understand limits scope practice recognize situations referral necessary several support health services may used including school health

Human physical performance and recreation


application personal health relationship food use human body energy regulation structure optimal health discussion issues nutrition various stages life cycle specific chronic diseases addressed therapeutic modalities course looks background clinical application therapeutic modalities athletic training students comprehend underlying theories physiological effects indications contraindications various therapeutic modalities utilized treatment orthopedic injuries acute care injury illness course focuses emergency management techniques


commonly implemented dealing trauma illnesses suffered sport participation included field evaluation medical emergencies cessation breathing circulation shock concussion spinal injury athlete students review policies position statements issued nata ncaa acsm aap ama regarding prevention evaluation management acute athletic injuries illnesses physical examination lower extremities intense depth study lower extremities including physical examinations injury recognition treatment taping bracing care laboratory experiences emphasize methods techniques evaluating lower extremity injuries conditions physical examination


athletic trainers enhance health care athletic trainers receive care nata professional organization athletic trainers across nation region usa district nata within area agendas board members district also director serves nata board directors districts every state state athletic training association acts similar district associations board members state associations answer district associations


latter extra unit income robbins pp nbsp argues notion beyond positive science one cannot measure changes utility someone else required positive theory apologists interpersonal comparison utility argued robbins claimed much john harsanyi agrees full comparability mental states utility never possible believes however human beings able make interpersonal comparisons utility share common backgrounds cultural experiences etc example amartya sen p nbsp

Social science
Economics
Social choice theory


interpersonal comparisons utility comment ''economic journal'' sen amartya k ''collective choice social welfare'' new york elsevier http wwwciteulikeorg user rlai article description possibility social choice nobel prize lecture https wwwnobelprizeorg uploads sen lecturepdf social choice ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' v london palgrave pp nbsp social choice ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition london palgrave http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde q social choice topicid result number abstract comprehensive reference computational perspective see chapter http wwwmasfoundationsorg downloadhtml downloadable free online suzumura kotaro ''rational choice collective decisions social welfare'' cambridge cambridge university press


space education huge advances changes rapidly united kingdom computer technology helped elevate standards different schools confront various challenges uk adopted flipped classroom concept became popular united states idea reverse conventional teaching methods delivery instructions online outside traditional classrooms europe european commission espoused digital education plan january program consists initiatives support utilization technology digital capabilities education development commission also adopted action plan called

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Technology education


gift donor'' many others salih ibn isaq wrote account birnin garzargamu describing capital city borno reign mai ali ibn al hajj umar sheikh jibril ibn umar th century scholar author work ''shifa al ghalil'' attacked muslims mixed indigenous beliefs islam admixture animists practices islam one main reasons given jihad uthman dan fodio th century post colonial writers chinua achebe achieved fame first book ''things fall apart'' awarded

Humanities
Languages and literature
Nigerian Literature


chinelo okparanta sarah ladipo manyika chika unigwe ogaga ifowodo gift foraine amukoyo teju cole niyi osundare oyinkan braithwaite including ifowodo cole adichie based west ref name britishcouncil ref part established publishing industry part political repression home soyinka sentenced death absentia ken saro wiwa hanged environmental activism list influential nigerian writers year published december nigerian writers awards website see also list nigerian writers third generation


earth system science ref name ch history ecosystem ecology philosophically historically rooted terrestrial ecology ecosystem concept evolved rapidly last years important ideas developed frederic clements botanist argued specific definitions ecosystems physiological processes responsible development persistence although clements ecosystem definitions greatly revised initially henry gleason arthur tansley later contemporary ecologists idea physiological processes fundamental ecosystem structure function remains central ecology figure energy matter

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems ecology
Ecosystem ecology


since measurements began variations thought due seasonal uptake co sub sub summer months newly developed technique assessing ecosystem npp confirmed seasonal variation driven seasonal changes co sub sub uptake vegetation ref name b barford c c ea factors controlling long short term sequestration atmospheric co sub sub mid latitude forest ''science'' ref led many scientists policy makers speculate ecosystems managed ameliorate problems global warming type management may include reforesting altering forest


science needed avoid degradation restore ecosystem processes provide basic human needs see also biogeochemistry community ecology earth system science holon philosophy landscape ecology systems ecology musiasem references systems ecology global natural environment ecological processes


noncombat operations determined one belligerent military forces defeats opposing military force within constraints planned resource time cost allocations manner force terminates operations often influences public perception campaign 's success campaign may end conquest followed transition military authority civil authority redeployment forces permanent installation military authority occupied area military campaigns inside outside defined wars may exceed original even revised planning parameters

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Military campaign


scope time cost stalled campaigns example western front world war formerly called stalemates late th century metaphor ''quagmire'' often applied situation may arise various factors small hope victory poorly defined objectives clear exit strategy see also general military operations war concept encompass use military capabilities across range military operations short war campaign desk used officers staffs rear areas military campaign


science scale advances beyond worster 's recognition three broad clusters issues addressed environmental historians although historians recognize emphasis categories might vary according particular study clearly studies concentrate society human affairs others environment themes several themes used express historical dimensions traditional historical approach analyse transformation globe 's ecology themes like separation man nature neolithic revolution imperialism colonial expansion exploration agricultural change

Humanities
History
Environmental history


effects industrial technological revolution urban expansion environmental topics include human impact influences forestry fire climate change sustainability according paul warde ''the increasingly sophisticated history colonization migration take environmental aspect tracing pathways ideas species around globe indeed bringing increased use analogies colonial understandings processes within european history'' ref name warde see ref importance colonial enterprise africa caribbean indian ocean detailed richard grove ref name grove much


moral political inspiration environmental historians come american writers activists henry thoreau john muir aldo leopold rachel carson environmental history frequently promoted moral political agenda although steadily became scholarly enterprise ref name worster early attempts define field made united states roderick nash state environmental history works frontier historians frederick jackson turner james malin walter prescott webb analyzed process settlement work expanded second generation specialized environmental historians


subject engages environmental advocacy much common environmentalism increasing globalization impact global trade resource distribution concern never ending economic growth many human inequities environmental history gaining allies fields ecological environmental economics engagement sociological thinkers humanities limited cannot ignored beliefs ideas guide human action seen reason perceived lack support traditional historians ref name warde issues subject number areas


lively debate include discussion concerning subject matter appropriate whether environmental advocacy detract scholarly objectivity standards professionalism subject much outstanding work done non historians relative contribution nature humans determining passage history degree connection acceptance disciplines especially mainstream history paul warde sheer scale scope diffuseness environmental history endeavour calls analytical toolkit range common issues questions push forward collectively core problem sees


nature environmental history western worldview'' academica press bethesda md mackenzie john ''imperialism natural world'' manchester university press mccormick john ''reclaiming paradise global environmental movement'' bloomington indiana university press rajan ravi ''modernizing nature forestry imperial eco development '' oxford oxford university press redclift michael r ''frontier histories civil society nature'' cambridge mit press stevis dimitris globalizations environment ''globalizations'' vol williams michael ''deforesting earth prehistory global crisis abridgement'' chicago university chicago press white


king judson ''the conservation fight theodore roosevelt tennessee valley authority'' merchant carolyn ''american environmental history introduction'' columbia university press merchant carolyn ''the columbia guide american environmental history'' columbia university press merchant carolyn ''the death nature women ecology scientific revolution'' new york harper row nash roderick ''the rights nature history environmental ethics'' madison university wisconsin press nash roderick ''wilderness american mind'' th ed standard intellectual history rice james ''nature history potomac country hunter gatherers


press totman conrad ''pre industrial korea japan environmental perspective'' leiden brill ts'ui jung liu sediments time environment society chinese history cambridge university press liu ts'ui jung james beattie eds environment modernization development east asia perspectives environmental history basingstoke palgrave studies world environmental history tull malcolm r krishnan resource use environmental management japan jr mcneill ed environmental history pacific pacific rim aldershot hampshire ashgate publishing menzie nicholas ''forest land management late imperial china'' london macmillan


controversies guide policy decisions subject continues provide new perspectives offering cooperation scholars different disciplinary backgrounds providing improved historical context resource environmental problems seems little doubt increasing concern environmental future environmental history continue along path environmental advocacy originated ''human impact living systems planet bring us closer utopia instead crisis survival'' key themes population growth climate change conflict environmental policy different levels human organization extinction biological


empire physicians concern public health disappeared except largest cities ref name porter health public doctors remained byzantine empire ref name porter focusing preventing spread diseases small pox lead smaller mortality rate much western world ref name porter factors allowed modern rise population include better nutrition environmental reforms getting clean water supplies ref name porter present day sense health public concern state began middle ages ref name lindemann ref state interventions include maintaining clean towns enforcing quarantines

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of health and illness


coronary heart disease common treatment hypertension medication compliance treatment plan low ref name morgan ref study conducted uk examined differences 'white' patients first generation immigrants west indies differing reasons non compliance involve patients' perception beliefs diagnosis patients commonly believe high levels anxiety first diagnosed major cause think stress levels decline hypertension respondents uk based study varying beliefs concerning necessity medication


directly indirectly travel mexico well flu viruses directly transmitted via droplets sneezing coughing pigs people vice versa cross species infections occur commonly people close large numbers pigs barns livestock exhibits fairs slaughterhouses flu transmissible human human either directly via contaminated surfaces ref name miller south america many diseases affect south america two major conditions malaria hepatitis malaria affects every country south america except uruguay chile falkland


islands elevation major factor areas malaria found disease spread person person via mosquito bites people typically bitten mosquitoes dusk dawn symptoms disorder high fever chills sweating headaches body aches weakness vomiting diarrhea left untreated new symptoms occur people infected may experience seizures delirium coma severe cases may end death malaria cured symptoms may become noticeable months later three forms medication cure malaria infected person 's


chicago unfortunately thomas encountered political problems ending career academic however went produce important works new school social research working notable scholars harold laski result role origins humanistic sociology often understated znaniecki went distinguished academic career taking chair sociology university poznan founded polish sociological institute fortunately znaniecki outbreak world war ii visiting professor columbia university thus

Social science
Sociology
Humanistic sociology


mechanism dynamism hylomorphism atomism ultimate reason existence universe cosmos purpose see teleology existence consciousness purpose know know totality cosmos cosmological reasoning reveal metaphysical truths see epistemology historical cosmologies class wikitable name author date classification remarks hindu cosmology rigveda c bc cyclical oscillating infinite time primal matter remains manifest trillion years unmanifest equal length universe


middle becomes broad bottom babylonian cosmology babylonian literature c bc flat earth floating infinite waters chaos earth heavens form unit within infinite waters chaos earth flat circular solid dome firmament keeps outer chaos ocean eleatic cosmology parmenides c bc finite spherical extent universe unchanging uniform perfect necessary timeless neither generated perishable void impossible plurality change products epistemic


hierarchy matter endlessly recycled einstein universe cosmological constant albert einstein static nominally bounded finite matter without motion contains uniformly distributed matter uniformly curved spherical space based riemann 's hypersphere curvature set equal effect equivalent repulsive force counteracts gravity unstable de sitter universe willem de sitter expanding flat space steady state motion without matter apparently static based einstein 's general relativity space expands constant acceleration scale factor increases exponentially constant inflation


diminished number time significant strand critical accounting studies began develop marked publication tony tinker 's ''paper prophets'' appearance journal ''critical perspectives accounting'' contrasting dominant origin narrative account states along contributors cms intellectual traditions identified significant overlapping bloc among cms scholars extensive pre university experience workers managers inconsistencies experiences workplace claims mainstream managerialism

Social science
Sociology
Critical management studies


subdivide bourgeoisie petite bourgeoisie petite bourgeoisie work afford buy little labour power ie small business owners peasants landlords trade workers marxism predicts continual reinvention means production eventually would destroy petite bourgeoisie degrading middle class proletariat landlords historically important social class retain wealth power peasantry farmers scattered class incapable organizing effecting socio economic change would enter proletariat would become landlords class consciousness denotes awareness

Humanities
Philosophy
Social philosophy
Marxism


historians inside communist party great britain cpgb formed members group notably christopher hill e p thompson left cpgb hungarian revolution common points british marxist historiography continued works thompson 's ''the making english working class'' one works commonly associated group eric hobsbawm 's ''bandits'' another example group 's work c l r james also great pioneer 'history below' approach living britain wrote notable work ''the


began writing ''the communist manifesto'' based engels' ''the principles communism'' six weeks later published word pamphlet february march belgium expelled moved cologne published ''neue rheinische zeitung'' politically radical newspaper leave cologne london prussian authorities pressured british government expel marx engels prime minister lord john russell refused marx 's death engels became editor translator marx 's writings ''origins family private property state'' analysing monogamous


mao zedong 's death rivals seized political power leadership deng xiaoping many mao 's cultural revolution era policies revised abandoned much state sector privatised late early saw collapse socialist states professed marxist leninist ideology late early emergence new right neoliberal capitalism dominant ideological trends western politics championed united states president ronald reagan british prime minister margaret thatcher led west take aggressive stand


book ''hermeneutic communism'' new weak communism differs substantially previous soviet current chinese realization south american countries follow democratic electoral procedures also manage decentralize state bureaucratic system bolivarian missions sum weakened communism felt specter west media distortions also alternative represents democratic procedures west constantly professes cherish hesitant apply xi jinping general secretary communist party china since chinese


figure conflicting ideas acknowledging latent authoritarianism marx chomsky also points libertarian strains developed council communism rosa luxemburg anton pannekoek commitment libertarian socialism led characterize anarchist radical marxist leanings economic critiques come economic standpoint vladimir karpovich dmitriev writing ladislaus von bortkiewicz writing subsequent critics alleged marx 's value theory law tendency rate profit fall internally inconsistent words critics


less traditional field classical islamic studies subject historically regarded part oriental studies also included east asian studies egyptology specialisms ancient civilizations region growth field study west treated article many academic faculties still cover areas although academic programs combine middle eastern studies islamic studies based preponderance muslims region israel lebanon exceptions others maintain areas study separate disciplines contentious issues edward

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Middle Eastern studies


soil microbial population diversity change following fire depending severity fire depth microbes soil presence plant cover certain species fungi ''cylindrocarpon destructans'' appear unaffected combustion contaminants inhibit population burnt soil microorganisms therefore higher chance surviving fire disturbance recolonizing competing fungal species afterwards fire ecological succession fire behavior different every ecosystem organisms ecosystems adapted accordingly one sweeping generality

Applied science
Public administration
Fire ecology


main focus gender inequality men women along gender roles placed society men go work secure proper income family women stay home tend family along household chores emphasized differential socialization leads gender inequality agree biologically difference born female male parts parts research involved theoretical orientation multidimensional approach gender discusses depth book ''women economics'' due gender

Social science
Sociology
Feminist sociology


educational technology study ethical practice facilitating learning improving performance creating using managing appropriate technological processes resources ref name richey denoted instructional technology theory practice design development utilization management evaluation processes resources learning ref name garrison ref name januszewski ref name lowenthal educational technology refers valid reliable applied education sciences equipment well processes procedures derived scientific research given context may refer theoretical algorithmic heuristic processes necessarily imply physical technology educational technology

Applied science
Education
Educational Technology


process integrating technology education positive manner promotes diverse learning environment way students learn use technology well common assignments accordingly several discrete aspects describing intellectual technical development educational technology educational technology theory practice educational approaches learning educational technology technological tools media instance massive online courses assist communication knowledge development exchange usually people referring use


million students took courses online took courses online information concluded number students taking classes online steady increase multimedia space moldova alliance fran aise recent article shift happens online education new paradigm learning nbsp linda harasim covers overview history online education well framework understanding type need addresses concept distance learning already invented many centuries value online education found ability


established method distance learning rather power make type learning process efficient providing medium instructor students virtually interact one another real time topic online education started primarily late institutions businesses started make products assist students learning groups desired need develop educational services across globe primarily developing countries university illinois created system linked computer terminals known intranet give


students access recorded lectures course materials could watch use free time type concept called plato programmed logic automatic teaching operations rapidly introduced throughout globe many institutions adopted similar technique internet developmental phase ivan illich published hugely influential book ''deschooling society'' envisioned learning webs model people network learning needed saw notable contributions computer based learning murray turoff starr roxanne hiltz new jersey institute


networking education started mid educational institutions began take advantage new medium offering distance learning courses using computer networking information early e learning systems based computer based learning training often replicated autocratic teaching styles whereby role e learning system assumed transferring knowledge opposed systems developed later based computer supported collaborative learning cscl encouraged shared development knowledge videoconferencing important forerunner educational technologies known today work especially popular museum education even recent years videoconferencing risen


computer science another major influence field cognitive science noam chomsky today researchers concentrating topics like cognitive load information processing media psychology theoretical perspectives influence instructional design two separate schools cognitivism cognitivist social cognitivist former focuses understanding thinking cognitive processes individual latter includes social processes influences learning besides cognition ref name ref two schools however share view learning behavioral change rather mental process used


would otherwise separate people simplified social media gives students reach provides opportunities conversations allow grow communicators social technologies like twitter provide students archive free data goes back multiple decades many classrooms educators already taking advantage free resource example researchers educators university central florida used tweets posted relating emergencies like hurricane irene data points order teach students code data social media technologies also allow instructors ability show students


parents appropriate track various metrics lmss range systems managing training educational records software distributing courses internet offering features online collaboration creation maintenance comprehensive learning content require substantial initial ongoing investments human labor effective translation languages cultural contexts require even investment knowledgeable personnel ref name tarasowa csedu ref internet based learning management systems include canvas blackboard inc moodle types lms allow educators run learning system partially fully online asynchronously synchronously learning management systems also offer non linear presentation content


significantly expanded mit stanford princeton university offer classes global audience college credit university level programs like edx founded massachusetts institute technology harvard university offer wide range disciplines charge others permit students audit course charge require small fee accreditation moocs significant impact higher education declined initial expansion expected remain form lately moocs used smaller universities profile highly specialized courses special interest audiences


example course technological privacy compliance moocs observed lose majority initial course participants study performed cornell stanford universities student drop rates moocs attributed student anonymity solitude learning experience lack interaction peers teachers effective student engagement measures reduce drop outs forum interactions virtual teacher teaching assistant presence measures induce staff cost grows number participating students corporate professional e learning used companies


take granted winner writes blockquote far greatest latitude choice exists first time particular instrument system technique introduced choices tend become strongly fixed material equipment economic investment social habit original flexibility vanishes practical purposes initial commitments made sense technological innovations similar legislative acts political foundings establish framework public order endure many generations p blockquote adopting new technologies may one best chance get right


found bible early church ref name wilkins twenty first century additional traditions formed christian ethics based different interpretations divine attributes god communicates moral knowledge differing anthropological conclusions different ideas believer relate christian community outside world ref name wilkins one aspect differences focuses church mission developed wilkins calls ''prophetic ethics'' starting point social justice jesus' kingdom ideals rather individual morality recognizes group dimension sin tends critical


also sometimes intimate sometimes uneasy relationship greek roman philosophy taking aspects principles plato aristotle hellenic philosophers ref name wogaman ref historical background early christianity christian ethics began development early christian period generally defined begun ministry jesus c ad ended first council nicaea ref name kenney ref ref name long ref emerged heritage shared judaism christianity depended upon hebrew canon well important legacies greek hellenistic philosophy ref


th century ref name abulafia ref ref name bachrach ref middle ages marco da montegallo ''libro dei comandamenti di dio'' book commandments god centuries following fall western roman empire monks missionary journeys spread practices penance repentance using books known penitentials ref name long theologian christoph luthardt describes christian ethics middle ages listing capital sins works mercy sacraments principle virtues gifts spirit beatitudes commandments articles faith fruits faith ref name luthardt ref crusade historian jonathan riley smith says


agents applications persons make moral choices judge acts acts others state world ref name beckley metaphysical foundations christian metaphysic rooted biblical metaphysic god maker heaven earth ref name beach philosopher mark smith explains bible fundamental ontology embodied language power world beings derive reality power exist act power god theology philosophy professor jaco gericke says metaphysics found anywhere bible


may come serve evidence truths faith ref name taliaferro according gustafson christian epistemology built different assumptions philosophical epistemology says christian ethic assumes either condition piety least longing piety ref name gustafson defines piety attitude respect evoked human experiences dependence upon powers create cannot fully master ref name gustafson gustafson adds piety must open wide variety human experiences including data theories powers order life ref name gustafson ref says


suffering biological creatures belief loving almighty god logically compatible ref name robert john russell ref generally christians ethicists claim know answer evil plantinga stresses proffer theodicy defense logic theistic belief ref name self profile ref approach christian ethics pain evil summarized sarah pinnock asserts direct contact god answer job 's questions makes meaning acceptance suffering possible ref name sarah k pinnock ref inclusivity


points christians referred new testament elect romans matthew implying god chosen others salvation ref name foster christians non christians throughout much history faced significant moral legal questions concerning ethical tension ref name wogaman ref reformation christians pioneered concept religious freedom rests upon acceptance necessity value pluralism modern day concept often referred moral ecology ref name scribner law grace human rights christian ethics emphasizes morality law commandments set


rejected requirement celibacy pastors see primarily temporary abstinence joys future marriage modern day evangelicals desire positive understanding celibacy like paul 's focused devotion god rather future marriage lifelong vow church slavery race ''the hope world'' harold copping twenty first century christian organizations reject slavery historically christian views varied embracing support opposition slavery harsh inflexible first century christian


''novella '' justinian gave christian bishops priests power free slaves ritual church performed bishop priest involved known baptism required ritual several early figures saint patrick enslaved adolescent acacius amida made personal sacrifices free slaves bishop ambrose ad openly advocating abolition ordered church property sold get money buy free slaves gregory nyssa c went


recognize significance covenant relationships process decision making ref name battin rhodes silvers ref empathy toward another 's suffering tells us ' 'something'' ''what'' killing act mercy minimalist understanding mercy sufficient prevent unethical acts ref name battin rhodes silvers battin rhodes silvers conclude christian ethic asserts life flourishing gifts god ultimate good neither suffering death ultimate evils one need use one 's resources one


affirming one 's commitment buddhism layperson encouraged vow abstain negative actions buddhist monks nuns take hundreds vows see vinaya approach avoids basing buddhist ethics solely faith buddha 's enlightenment buddhist tradition may allow universal non buddhist access insights offered buddhist ethics buddha provided basic guidelines acceptable behavior part noble eightfold path initial percept non injury non violence living creatures lowest insect humans precept defines non violent attitude toward


virtues christian ethics includes questions regarding rich act toward poor women treated morality war christian ethicists like ethicists approach ethics different frameworks perspectives approach virtue ethics also become popular recent decades largely due work alasdair macintyre stanley hauerwas several different schema vice virtue aquinas adopted four cardinal virtues aristotle justice courage temperance prudence added christian virtues faith hope charity schema include seven


confucian system differs strongly kantian ethics rarely laws principles said true absolutely universally say never consideration given universalist ethics fact zhou dynasty china confucians' main opponents followers mozi argued universal love confucian view eventually held sway however continues dominate many aspects chinese thought many argued example mao zedong confucian communist confucianism especially type argued mencius


truthfulness ''akrodha'' freedom anger later verses list reduced five virtues scholar merging creating broader concept shorter list virtues became ''ahimsa'' non violence ''dama'' self restraint ''asteya'' non covetousness non stealing ''saucha'' inner purity ''satyam'' truthfulness persian historian al biruni visited lived india years early th century describes concept ethics virtuous behavior among hindus times ethical mandates among hindus literal translation persian language manuscript includes man shall kill lie


points reality god therefore regardless environment humans believed moral responsibility submit god 's follow islam demonstrated qur'an sunnah sayings muhammad ref name encethic ''islamic ethics'' encyclopedia ethics ref natural inclination according qur'an subverted mankind 's focus material success focus first presents need basic survival security tends manifest desire become distinguished among one 's peers ultimately focus materialism according islamic texts hampers


teaches five ethical duties calls five vows called ''anuvratas'' small vows jain laypersons ''mahavratas'' great vows jain mendicants moral precepts preface jain access ''guru'' teacher counsellor ' 'deva'' jina god doctrine individual free five offences doubts faith indecisiveness truths jainism sincere desire jain teachings recognition fellow jains admiration spiritual pursuits person undertakes following five vows jainism ''ahi '' intentional non violence noninjury first major vow taken


chemical cycles geobiological research synthesizes geologic record modern biologic studies deals process organisms affect earth vice versa well history earth life changed together much research grounded search fundamental understanding geobiology also applied case microbes clean oil spills ref name geobiology employs molecular biology environmental microbiology organic geochemistry geologic record investigate evolutionary interconnectedness life earth attempts understand earth changed since

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Geobiology


gordon research conference number geobiology textbooks published ref name ref many universities around world offer degree programs geobiology see external links major geobiological events chapter great oxygenation event ref perhaps profound geobiological event introduction oxygen atmosphere photosynthetic bacteria oxygenation earth 's primordial atmosphere called oxygen catastrophe great oxygenation event oxygenation oceans altered surface biogeochemical cycles types organisms evolutionarily selected subsequent major change advent multicellularity


co evolution life earth core concept geobiology life changes time evolution theory evolution postulates unique populations organisms species arose genetic modifications ancestral population passed drift natural selection along standard biological evolution life planet co evolve since best adaptations suit ecological niche organism lives physical chemical characteristics environment drive evolution life natural selection opposite also true every advent


interpreted clue rise oxygen since small amounts oxygen could reacted reduced ferrous iron fe ii oceans resulting deposition sediments containing fe iii oxide places like western australia however oxidizing environment including provided microbes iron oxidizing photoautotroph ''rhodopseudomonas palustris'' trigger iron oxide formation thus bif deposition ref name ref mechanisms include oxidation uv light indeed bifs occur across large swaths earth 's history may correlate one event ref name changes correlated rise


capabilities organisms genes basic unit inheritance function basic unit evolution means behind metabolism phylogeny predicts evolutionary history phylogenetic tree living things based rrna data proposed carl woese showing separation bacteria archaea eukaryotes linking three branches living organisms luca black trunk bottom tree phylogeny takes genetic sequences living organisms compares reveal evolutionary relationships much like family tree reveals individuals


another theory life originated system much like hydrothermal vents mid oceanic spreading centers fischer tropsch synthesis variety hydrocarbons form vent like conditions ideas include rna world hypothesis postulates first biologic molecule rna idea life originated elsewhere solar system brought earth perhaps via meteorite ref name methodology microbial mat growing acidic soil norris geyser basin yellowstone national park usa black top serves sort sunscreen look underneath


life 's biochemical processes distinct role life earth 's cycles primary goal link biological changes encompassing evolutionary modifications genes changes expression genes proteins changes temperature pressure composition geochemical processes understand metabolism evolved geobiochemistry founded notion life planetary response metabolic catalysis enables release energy trapped cooling planet environmental microbiology microbiology broad scientific discipline pertaining study life best viewed


subset geobiology geochemistry gmg seeks understand elemental biogeochemical cycles evolution life earth specifically asks questions microbes live local global abundance structural functional biochemistry evolved biomineralization preservation potential presence rock record many ways gmg appears equivalent geobiology differs scope geobiology focuses role life gmg strictly microbial regardless tiniest creatures dominated history life integrated time seem


antoine henri jomini published maxims war version didactic resume maxims war version carl von clausewitz wrote version building work earlier writers universally agreed upon principles war principles warfare tied military doctrine various military services doctrine turn suggests dictate strategy tactics historical principles arthashastra artha stra ancient indian sanskrit treatise statecraft military strategy among things biblical book deuteronomy prescribes israelite army

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Principles of war


field manual fm nbsp united states armed forces use following nine principles war ''objective'' nbsp direct every military operation toward clearly defined decisive attainable objective ultimate military purpose war destruction enemy 's ability fight fight ''offensive'' nbsp seize retain exploit initiative offensive action effective decisive way attain clearly defined common objective offensive operations means military force seizes holds initiative maintaining freedom action achieving decisive results fundamentally true across


levels war ''mass'' nbsp mass effects overwhelming combat power decisive place time synchronizing elements combat power decisive effect enemy force short period time achieve mass massing effects rather concentrating forces enable numerically inferior forces achieve decisive results limiting exposure enemy fire ''economy force'' nbsp employ combat power available effective way possible allocate minimum essential combat power secondary efforts economy force judicious employment distribution forces part


acquire unexpected advantage security enhances freedom action reducing vulnerability hostile acts influence surprise security results measures taken commander protect forces knowledge understanding enemy strategy tactics doctrine staff planning improve detailed planning adequate security measures ''surprise'' nbsp strike enemy time place manner unprepared surprise decisively shift balance combat power seeking surprise forces achieve success well proportion effort expended surprise tempo size force


humanitarian law commonly known laws war united states government stated undated department justice white paper entitled lawfulness lethal operation directed us citizen senior operational leader al qa ida associated force four fundamental law war principles governing use force necessity distinction proportionality humanity ie avoidance unnecessary suffering page ref name dojmemolawfulnesslethaloperatation ref ref name nbcisikoff ref debate within american military establishment adopt flexibility tenth principle war frost argues concept


feudal system vassals serfs produced people higher classes using ruler 's land resources although large part labor employed agriculture artisans contributed economic output formed guilds guild system operating mainly consisted two types merchant guilds bought sold goods craft guilds made goods although guilds regulated quality work performed resulting system rather rigid shoemakers example prohibited tanning hides services also performed middle ages servants

Applied science
Business
Operations management


bell stated future economy would provide gdp employment services manufacturing great effect society since sectors highly interconnected reflect less importance manufacturing agriculture mining shift type economic activity operations management although productivity benefited considerably technological inventions division labor problem systematic measurement performances calculation use formulas remained somewhat unexplored frederick taylor whose early work focused developing called


inventory control walter shewhart introduced control chart technical memorandum working bell labs central method distinction common cause special cause variation shewhart published economic control quality manufactured product ref name shewhart shewhart walter andrew economic control quality manufactured product new york van nostrand company pp p edition st lccn oclc lcc ts ref first systematic treatment ref name montgomery dc montgomery ''statistical quality control modern introduction'' th edition ref subject statistical process control spc


euler multipliers employed lagrange computers slowly developed first analog computers sir william thomson james thomson moving eletromechanical computers konrad zuse world war ii however development mathematical optimization went major boost development colossus computer first electronic digital computer programmable possibility computationally solve large linear programming problems first kantorovich working soviet government latter simplex


method dantzig methods known today belonging field operations research point curious development took place united states possibility applying computer business operations led development management software architecture mrp successive modifications ever sophisticated optimization techniques manufacturing simulation software post war japan series events toyota motor led development toyota production system tps lean manufacturing japan taiichi ohno arrived toyota motor company toyota evolved


process back room high customer service front room cleanliness courtesy fast service modeled manufacturing production food back room service front room defined oriented customer mcdonald 's operations system production service made difference mcdonald 's also pioneered idea franchising operation system rapidly spread business around country later world fedex provided first overnight delivery packages us based innovative idea


world 's largest company accomplished adhering system delivering goods service customers lowest possible cost operations system included careful selection merchandise low cost sourcing ownership transportation cross docking efficient location stores friendly home town service customer international organization standardization iso recognizing growing importance quality issued iso family standards related quality management systems standards apply manufacturing service organizations controversy regarding proper procedures follow


amount paperwork involved much improved current iso revisions coming internet amazon devised service system line retailing distribution innovative system customers able search products might like buy enter order product pay online track delivery product location two days required large computer operations dispersed warehouses efficient transportation system service customers including high merchandise assortment return


need design production systems becomes focus analysis modeling decision making also called configuring production system first possible distinction production systems technological classification continuous process production discrete part production manufacturing process production means product undergoes physical chemical transformations lacks assembly operations therefore original raw materials ca n't easily obtained final product examples include paper cement nylon petroleum products part production ex cars ovens comprises fabrication systems assembly systems first category find job shops manufacturing cells flexible


inventory power law distributed makes sense manage items differently based position revenue inventory level matrix classes constructed b c cumulative item revenues matrix item letter b c assigned revenue inventory method posits items away diagonal managed differently items upper part subject risk obsolescence items lower part subject risk stockout throughput variable quantifies number parts


produced unit time although estimating throughput single process maybe fairly simple entire production system involves additional difficulty due presence queues come machine breakdowns processing time variability scraps setups maintenance time lack orders lack materials strikes bad coordination resources mix variability plus inefficiencies tend compound depending nature production system one important example system throughput tied system design bottlenecks job shops bottlenecks typically dynamic dependent scheduling


considered practitioner arts metropolitan museum art manhattan museums constitute primary forum display visual arts increasing tendency privilege painting lesser degree sculpture arts feature western art well east asian art regions painting seen relying highest degree imagination artist furthest removed manual labour chinese painting highly valued styles scholar painting least theory practiced gentleman amateurs


tenebrism peter paul rubens flemish painter studied italy worked local churches antwerp also painted series marie de' medici annibale carracci took influences sistine chapel created genre illusionistic ceiling painting much development happened baroque protestant reformation resulting counter reformation much defines baroque dramatic lighting overall visuals impressionism impressionism began france th century loose association artists including claude monet pierre auguste renoir paul c zanne brought


landscape art mathematics art mixed media portraiture process art recording medium sketch drawing sound art vexillography video art visual arts theosophy visual impairment art visual poetry references bibliography barnes c ''the art painting'' rd ed harcourt brace world inc ny bukumirovic ''maga magazinovic'' biblioteka fatalne srpkinje knj br beograd narodna knj fazenda j ''between pictorial expression ideas plastic arts literature dance paula massano'' np ger n c ''enciclopedia de las artes pl sticas dominicanas '' th ed dominican republic sn


'''petrochemistry''' branch chemistry studies transformation crude oil petroleum natural gas products raw materials petrochemicals become major part chemical industry today origin may possible make petroleum kind organic matter suitable conditions concentration organic matter high original deposits petroleum natural gas evolved places favored retention sealed porous sandstones petroleum produced millions years natural changes organic materials accumulates beneath earth 's surface extremely

Natural science
Chemistry
Petrochemistry


receive academic credit music courses music history typically western art music music appreciation focuses listening learning different musical styles addition north american european universities offer music ensembles choir concert band marching band orchestra open students various fields study universities also offer degree programs music education certifying students primary secondary music educators advanced degrees dma phd lead university employment degrees awarded upon completion music theory

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Music education


various levels specializations pedagogy advocates use human resources ie culture bearers well deep continued listening archived resources smithsonian folkways recordings conversational solf ge influenced kod ly method gordon 's music learning theory conversational solf ge developed dr john feierabend former chair music education hartt school university hartford program begins immersing students musical literature culture case american music seen separate fundamental notation twelve learning


lowell mason george webb formed boston academy music purposes teaching singing theory well methods teaching music mason published ''manuel instruction'' based upon music education works pestalozzian system education founded swiss educator johann heinrich pestalozzi handbook gradually became used many singing school teachers boston school committee allowed lowell mason teach music hawes school demonstration regarded first time music education


music education programs public schools published recommended music educators follow ann arbor symposium emphasized impact learning theory music education areas auditory perception motor learning child development cognitive skills memory processing affect motivation becoming human music symposium wesleyan symposium perspectives social anthropology teaching learning music middletown connecticut august emphasized importance cultural context music education cultural implications rapidly changing demographics


overwhelming emphasis written musical literacy schools well known learning indigenous music actually philosophy teaching procedure different western formal training involves whole community indigenous songs history people colonization africa music became centered christian beliefs european folk songs rather improvised fluid indigenous music major changes education went first decade democratic government teachers trained classroom


music education timeline jazz education visual arts education vocal coach references bibliography anderson william patricia shehan campbell eds multicultural perspectives music education reston va music educators national conference campbell patricia shehan teaching music globally new york oxford university press debakey michael e md leading heart surgeon baylor college music kertz welzel alexandra singing muse three centuries music education germany ''journal historical research music education'' xxvi kertz welzel alexandra didaktik music german concept comparison american music pedagogy ''international


shown occur using soil particles labeled sup sup cs shown able move cracks soil normal background radioactivity present everywhere since formation earth according international atomic energy agency one kilogram soil typically contains following amounts following three natural radioisotopes bq sup sup k typical range bq bq sup sup ra typical range bq bq sup sup u typical range bq bq sup sup th typical range bq action microorganisms action micro organisms fix uranium

Natural science
Chemistry
Radiochemistry


fungi etc drugs specific certain genus species organism work organisms specificity medical microbiologists must consider effectiveness certain antimicrobial drugs making recommendations additionally strains organism may resistant certain drug class drug even typically effective species strains termed resistant strains present serious public health concern growing importance medical industry spread antibiotic resistance worsens antimicrobial resistance increasingly problematic issue leads millions

Applied science
Medicine and health
Clinical laboratory sciences
Clinical microbiology


also factors temperament trauma negative life events eg death sudden moving home physical sexual abuse genetics environment nurture correlate onset disorder research also shown child maltreatment may increase risk various forms psychopathology increases threat sensitivity decreases responsivity reward causes deficits emotion recognition understanding found role temperament etiology child psychopathology model etiology child psychopathology vasey dadds proposed four things important

Social science
Psychology
Psychopathology
Child psychopathology


marked learning disabilities mood disorders aggression though believed diagnosed adhd highly comorbid disorders depression obsessive compulsive disorder studies prefrontal cortex adhd children responsible regulation behavior cognition attention dopamine system identified hidden genetic polymorphisms specific repeat allele dopamine receptor gene responsible inhibited prefrontal cortex cognition less efficient receptors causes externalized behaviors aggression since child trouble thinking seemingly ordinary


agenesis corpus callosum causes problems sleep sleep critical development children lack sleep set grounds manifestation psychopathological disorders ref name coulombe ref children ages six eleven acc showed manifestation problems social function thought attention somatic grievances comparison children autism children acc showed less impairment almost scales anxiety depression attention abnormal thoughts social function versus autistic children however small percentage children acc showed traits may lead diagnosis autism


meeting american society cybernetics asc margaret mead participant macy conferences defining moment development mead characterised cybernetics way looking things language expressing one sees ref name mm calling cyberneticians assume responsibility social consequences language cybernetics development cybernetic systems ref name kk krippendorff k cybernetics reflexive turns cybernetics human knowing retrieved http repositoryupennedu asc papers ref mead 's paper concluded proposal directed asc

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Cybernetics
Second-order cybernetics


title perhaps emphasised concerns mead 's ref name rg foerster promoted second order cybernetics energetically developing means renewal cybernetics generally called unfinished revolution science ref name bcl ller albert karl h ller eds unfinished revolution heinz von foerster biological computer laboratory bcl vienna edition echoraum ref foerster developed second order cybernetics critique realism objectivity radically reflexive form science observers enter domains observation describing observing supposed causes


theoretical developments closely associated development second order cybernetics include autopoiesis biologists maturana varela atlan realized cybernetic metaphors program upon molecular biology based rendered conception autonomy living impossible consequently thinkers led invent new cybernetics one suited organization mankind discovers nature ref name dupuy conversation theory eigenform notion eigenform example self referential system produces stable form plays important role work


second order cybernetics contributed design areas including design computation design methods relationship design research theorists practitioners working intersection cybernetics design include delfina fantini van ditmar ranulph glanville klaus krippendorff john frazer paul pangaro enactivism embodied cognitive science enactivism position cognitive science argues cognition arises dynamic interaction acting organism environment education contributions education include pask 's work carried context development theories teaching


individual interacting environment provides new epistemological foundation science viewing observer dependent another characteristic new cybernetics contribution towards bridging micro macro gap links individual society geyer van der zouten also noted transition classical cybernetics new cybernetics involves transition classical problems new problems shifts thinking involve among things change emphasis system steered system steering factors guide steering decisions


rule classical conditioning first three laws deterministic nature later established relations fundamentally stochastic general theme evolution mathematical modeling psychological processes deterministic relations found classical physics inherently stochastic models influential mathematical psychologists john anderson richard c atkinson william h batchelder jerome busemeyer hans colonius c h coombs robyn dawes adele diederich ehtibar dzhafarov william kaye estes jean claude falmagne b f green daniel kahneman roger e kirk h krantz r j laming michael lee philip marcus levy r duncan

Social science
Psychology
Mathematical psychology


luce david marr james l mcclelland jeff miller jay myung louis narens allen newell robert nosofsky roger ratcliff david e rumelhart herbert simon roger shepard richard shiffrin philip l smith stanley stevens george sperling saul sternberg patrick suppes john swets joshua tenenbaum james townsend louis l thurstone amos tversky rolf ulrich dirk vorberg eric jan wagenmakers elke u weber thomas wickens important theories models sensation perception psychophysics stevens' power law weber fechner law stimulus detection discrimination signal detection theory stimulus identification accumulator models diffusion models neural network connectionist models race models random walk models


sports gambling board games known respectively existed least nine thousand six thousand four thousand years ref name soubeyrand ref folk process tabletop games played today whose descent traced ancient times include chess go pachisi backgammon mahjong mancala pick sticks rules games codified early modern times features gradually evolved changed time folk process given games considered designer result design process modern sense rise

Human physical performance and recreation


often immutable meta rules rules generally determine turn order rights responsibilities players player 's goals game components interact produce changes game 's state player rights may include may spend resources move tokens victory conditions common win conditions first amass certain quota points tokens settlers catan greatest number tokens end game monopoly relationship one 's game tokens one 's opponent chess 's checkmate reaching


puzzles recreations involve strategic behavior defined game theory expected reaction opponent possible move becomes factor choosing move make games opponents simulated artificial intelligence differ single player games algorithms used usually incorporate strategic behavior storyline plot stories told games may focus narrative elements communicated use mechanics player choice narrative plots games generally clearly defined simplistic structure mechanical choices part


gain self confidence required engage new experiences environments key ways young children learn include playing people active exploring new experiences talking communicating others meeting physical mental challenges shown new things practicing repeating skills fun play develops children 's content knowledge provides children opportunity develop social skills competencies disposition learn play based learning based vygotskian model scaffolding teacher pays attention specific elements play activity provides encouragement


feedback children 's learning ref name text martlew j stephen c ellis j play primary school classroom experience teachers supporting children 's learning new pedagogy early years ref children engage real life imaginary activities play challenging children 's thinking extend learning process sensitive intervention provided adult support necessary play based learning ref name text development process game design part game 's development concept final form typically development process iterative process repeated phases testing revision


'''land''' local area network denial attack dos denial service attack consists sending special poison spoofed packet computer causing lock security flaw first discovered someone using alias lt resurfaced many years later operating systems windows server windows xp sp mechanism attack involves sending spoofed tcp syn packet connection initiation target host 's ip address open port source destination causes machine reply

Applied science
Military sciences
Battlespace
Land


wind ref name physorg ref atmosphere oceans earth continuously shape land eroding transporting solids surface crust currently forms earth 's land created molten outer layer planet earth cooled form solid mass accumulated water vapor began act atmosphere land became capable supporting life biodiversity evolved hundreds million years expanding continually except punctuated mass extinctions ref name sahneybentonferry ref two models ref name williams santosh ref explain land mass propose either steady growth present day forms ref name science ref


ontology concerned meant system systems realized various levels world observation systems paradigms concerned developing worldviews takes humankind one species concrete actual system embedded encompassing natural hierarchies likewise concrete actual physical biological social systems systems axiology concerned developing models systems involve humanistic concerns views symbols values social entities cultures something real embeddedness cosmic order hierarchies applied systems philosophy

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Systems philosophy


''introduction systems philosophy'' published decision call new discipline systems philosophy joint one writing ''introduction systems philosophy'' took five years autobiography laszlo calls major work laszlo 's great idea made systems philosophy possible existence general system theory captures patterns recur across systemics capture patterns recur across specialized disciplines entails world organised whole thus underlying unity light nature 's special domains characterized specialized


separable content distinguishable intention perspective supported modern von bertalanffy scholars david pouvreau alternative perspective defends original intent behind gst considers systems philosophy endeavor distinct objective gst perspective follows implications ervin laszlo laid ''introduction systems philosophy'' regards systems philosophy following implication gst namely organized reality underlying phenomenal world gst guide us towards understanding systems philosophy


debate constructivism natural systems include ones exhibit values purposes intentionality unclear explain properties given known foundational nature natural systems debate therefore connected ones ''philosophy mind'' grounding consciousnesses ''axiology'' grounding values research centers http wwwsystemsphilosophyorg centre systems philosophy uk http www hullacuk hubs research centres systems studiesaspx centre systems studies university hull uk http clubofbudapestorg club budapest hungary leo apostel centre interdisciplinary studies clea free university brussels belgium http wwwvubacbe clea dissemination groups archive vzw worldviews worldviews belgium references


standardized framework central location remotely observe participate experiments use synchronized real time data video collaborate colleagues facilitate planning performance analysis publication research experiments conduct computational hybrid simulations may combine results multiple distributed experiments link physical experiments computer simulations enable investigation overall system performance resources jointly provide means collaboration discovery improve seismic design performance civil mechanical infrastructure systems earthquake simulation first '''earthquake simulations''' performed

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Earthquake engineering


lead rubber bearing tested ucsd caltrans srmd facility bearing made rubber lead core uniaxial test bearing also full structure load many buildings bridges new zealand elsewhere protected lead dampers lead rubber bearings te papa tongarewa national museum new zealand new zealand parliament buildings fitted bearings wellington sits active fault ref name tearagovtnz '''springs damper base isolator''' springs damper close springs damper base isolator installed


reinforced hollow masonry wall construction system steel reinforcement embedded mortar joints masonry placed holes filled concrete grout called '' 'reinforced masonry''' various practices techniques reinforce masonry common type reinforced ''hollow unit masonry'' achieve ductile behavior masonry necessary shear strength wall greater flexural strength ref name seismicmasonry ref effectiveness vertical horizontal reinforcements depends type quality masonry units mortar devastating


value recording writing history policies serbia 's early religious documents date back th th nbsp centuries th nbsp century saint sava developed art form religious writing worked bring artistic aspect writings also based earlier works notable medieval authors include among others saint sava jefimija stefan lazarevi constantine kostenets period produced several great works authors since become classics national literature medieval literature also influenced number modern poets desanka maksimovi miodrag pavlovi vasko popa

Humanities
Languages and literature
Serbian Literature


time patriotic wake turbulent events culminating struggle old serbia balkan wars world war nbsp writers backed serbian critics educated west example bogdan popovi pavle popovi ljubomir nedi slobodan jovanovi branko lazarevi vojislav jovanovi marambo jovan skerli skerli ''chef d'oeuvre'' historical survey serbian literature bogdan popovi refined western schooled aestheticism weighed writers' achievements also pointed directions modern world literature th nbsp century serbian literature flourished


notable authors include antonije isakovi mihailo lali selimovi milovan ilas branko opi dobrica osi starting wave experimental works trick novels found manuscripts milorad pavi borislav peki danilo ki slobodan seleni svetislav basara bo ko petrovi writer dragan veliki dobrica osi wrote works miodrag pavlovi one prominent authors world literature th nbsp century death josip broz tito start crisis yugoslavia island goli otok became new subject literature ''vanredna linija'' edo


'''comparative education''' discipline social sciences entails scrutiny evaluation different educational systems various countries professionals area endeavor absorbed advancing evocative terminologies guidelines education worldwide enhancing educational structures producing context success effectivity education programs initiatives assessed objectives scope according harold noah farooq joubish comparative education five purposes describe educational systems processes outcomes assist development educational institutions practices

Applied science
Education
Comparative education


international education international development education comparative sociology also efforts expand decolonize field philosophy education comparative education approach countries comparative education fully established distinct field educational research others might best regarded interdisciplinary field brings together scholars diverse specializations instance specialists math education social studies education various arts subjects may develop research designed enable meaningful comparisons national educational systems focus specific subject area expertise follows comparative


wide create sea discontent creating environment insurgent operate ref name eizenstat ref ''the insurgent archipelago'' john mackinlay puts forward concept evolution insurgency maoist paradigm golden age insurgency global insurgency start st century defines distinction maoist post maoist insurgency counterinsurgency theorists santa cruz de marcenado third marques santa cruz de marcenado probably earliest author dealt systematically writings counterinsurgency ''reflexiones militares'' published

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Counter-insurgency


discussed spot early signs incipient insurgency prevent insurgencies counter could warded strikingly santa cruz recognized insurgencies usually due real grievances state rarely rises without fault governors consequently advocated clemency towards population good governance seek people 's heart love ref name test excerpts santa cruz 's writings translated english beatrice heuser ''the strategy makers thoughts war society machiavelli clausewitz'' santa monica ca greenwood praeger pp ref b h liddell hart liddell hart


people long situation insurgency essentially cannot defeated regular forces david galula david galula gained practical experience counterinsurgency french army officer algerian war theory counterinsurgency primarily military combination military political social actions strong control single authority galula proposes four laws counterinsurgency aim war gain support population rather control territory population neutral conflict support


expectations future public goods service delivery trigger shift public attitudes away insurgency toward counterinsurgency political social economic programs usually valuable conventional military operations addressing root causes conflict undermining insurgency programs essential order gain support population programs designed make local population feel secure safe aligned counterinsurgency efforts enables citizens host nation trust goals purposes counterinsurgency efforts opposed


times need understanding influencing cognitive dimension local population essential winning counterinsurgency warfare people 's perception legitimacy host nation foreign country 's counterinsurgency efforts success determined free flow information present theaters via television telephone internet present conflicting messages quickly defeat intended effects coordination counterinsurgency operations host nation local media information presented public essential showing influencing local population perceives counterinsurgency efforts host nation


consequently modern counter insurgency requires attention focused insurgency 's ecosystem national local level order deprive insurgency support prevent future insurgent groups forming specific doctrines vietnam war vietnam war counterinsurgency initially formed part earlier war diem implemented poorly conceived strategic hamlet program similar model malayan emergency opposite effects leading increased recruitment viet cong similarly economic rural development formed key strategy part rural affairs development ref name ref earlier


service dst surrounded one suspected villages night drove population central location daybreak operation began often led westerling men would separated women children gathered information westerling exposed certain people terrorists murderers shot without investigation afterwards westerling forced local communities refrain supporting guerillas swearing quran established local self defence units members recruited former guerrillas deemed redeemable westerling directed eleven operations throughout campaign succeeded eliminating insurgency


raking regroupement relocating closely controlling suspect population tache d'huile' 'oil spot' strategy recruitment local leaders forces paramilitary organization militias much thinking informed work earlier leading french theoreticians colonial warfare counterinsurgency marshals bugeaud gallieni lyautey ref name porch mcclintock cites algerian governor jules cambon saying destroying administration local government also suppressing means action result today confronted sort human dust influence


movements take place unknown us cambon 's philosophy however seem survive algerian war independence sophisticated nlf pavn insurgent structure embedded population difficult root combat french us special forces green berets saw success organizing tribal peoples fight indochina post wwii doctrine indochina took drastic view ''guerre r volutionnaire'' presented ideological global war commitment total war countermeasures principle needed political military measure drastic


meet new threat revolution french forces taking control japanese seem negotiate seriously nationalist elements become vietnam reaped consequences overconfidence n bi n ph ref name fall ref occurred various commanders soldiers trained operate guerrillas would strong sense fight guerrillas partition french indochina french ''groupement de commandos mixtes roport s'' gcma led roger trinquier ref name trinquier ref took role drawing french experience jedburgh teams gcma operating tonkin laos


unleashing deplorable instincts longer knew limits issued open letter condemning danger army loss moral values fallacious pretext immediate expediency imprisoned sixty days ref name mcclintock french army protested parts increased intensity approach led attempted military coup french fourth republic massu general raoul salan led coup algiers demanding new republic charles de gaulle de gaulle 's policies toward algeria


warfare kilcullen 's pillars logical line operation low intensity conflict counter ied efforts '''specific ''' anti partisan operations world war ii bandenbek mpfung clear hold counter insurgency force counter insurgency operations second chechen war pacification manchukuo strategic hamlet fireforce '''us specific ''' seal team six special forces special activities division delta force th special tactics squadron cointelpro '''police adaptations ''' c policing references '''notes''' reading arreguin toft ivan ''how weak win wars theory asymmetric conflict'' new york cambridge university press arreguin toft ivan tunnel end light critique us counter terrorist grand strategy ''cambridge


'''geometry numbers''' part number theory uses geometry study algebraic numbers typically ring algebraic integers viewed lattice math mathbb r n math study lattices provides fundamental information algebraic numbers geometry numbers initiated geometry numbers close relationship fields mathematics especially functional analysis diophantine approximation problem finding rational numbers approximate irrational quantity minkowski 's results suppose math gamma math lattice math n math dimensional euclidean space math mathbb r n math math k math

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Number theory
Geometric number theory


survive adult functional illiteracy rate percentage people living median personal disposable income gdi gender related development index measures gender equality country terms life expectancy literacy rates school attendance income border cellpadding width hdi rank width country width gdp per capita ppp us width human development index hdi value australia brazil zimbabwe qualitative indicators qualitative indicators include descriptions living conditions people 's quality life useful analyzing features

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Development geography


fleury theodulphus bishop orl ans established school young noblemen recommended charlemagne mid ninth century library one comprehensive ever assembled west scholars lupus ferri res traveled consult texts later st abbo fleury abbot head reformed abbey school fleury enjoyed second golden age ref name schulman ref remigius auxerre beginning tenth century produced glosses commentaries classical texts donatus priscian boethius martianus capella carolingian period followed

Humanities
History
Philosophical history
Medieval philosophy


main contributors discussion aquinas scotus natural philosophy natural philosophy philosophy science medieval philosophers mainly influenced aristotle however fourteenth century onward increasing use mathematical reasoning natural philosophy prepared way rise science early modern period mathematical reasoning techniques william heytesbury william ockham indicative trend contributors natural philosophy albert saxony john buridan nicholas autrecourt see also article continuity thesis hypothesis


porphyry later new departments logical enquiry arose new logical semantic notions developed logical developments middle ages see articles insolubilia obligations properties terms syllogism sophismata great contributors medieval logic include albert saxony john buridan john wyclif paul venice peter spain richard kilvington walter burley william heytesbury william ockham philosophy mind medieval philosophy mind based aristotle 's de anima another work discovered latin west twelfth century regarded branch


philosophy nature topics discussed area include divine illumination doctrine divine illumination alternative naturalism holds humans need special assistance god ordinary thinking doctrine closely associated augustine scholastic followers reappeared different form early modern era theories demonstration mental representation idea mental states 'intentionality' ie ' 'despite state mind able represent things outside mind'' intrinsic modern philosophy mind


focus classical authors time periods rhetorical studies concentrate communication skills preparation specialization variety professional fields specific graduation requirements vary university university students expect study following courses '''courses writing composition''' academic professional writing stress analytical writing train students produce clear cohesive arguments '''courses british literature''' courses may focus time periods authors genres literary movements examples include shakespeare 's tragedies history theory british drama medieval english literature victorian novel

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
English studies


'''courses american literature''' depending upon university courses either broken time period nineteenth century gothic fiction authors classes hawthorne hemingway frost literary schools movements naturalism transcendentalism '''courses multicultural literature''' value bringing range cultural multidisciplinary perspectives study english literature increasingly recognized number universities examples include multi cultural literatures medieval england latina narratives studies jewish literature '''rhetorical courses''' focus techniques persuasive arguing written form


restore order immediate aftermath establish normality reconstruction rehabilitation shortly thereafter first immediate response called emergency response johns hopkins international federation red cross red crescent societies ifrc state word disaster implies sudden overwhelming unforeseen event household level disaster could result major illness death substantial economic social misfortune community level could flood fire collapse buildings earthquake destruction livelihoods epidemic displacement conflict

Applied science
Public administration
Disaster response


arrangements collaboration co ordination communication therefore vital response encompasses effort deal direct effects emergency eg fighting fires rescuing individuals also indirect effects eg disruption media interest ref name ukgov https wwwgovuk government publications emergency response recovery emergency response recovery cabinet office october ref common objectives responders saving protecting human life relieving suffering containing emergency limiting escalation spread mitigating impacts providing public businesses warnings advice information protecting health safety responding personnel safeguarding environment far reasonably


often affiliated american radio relay league arrl disaster response organizations addition response government great deal assistance wake disaster comes charities disaster response non governmental organizations biggest international umbrella organizations inter agency standing committee https wwwicvanetworkorg members international council voluntary agencies humanitarian osm team works update provide map areas struck disaster ref name vice ref disaster response technologies ad hoc infrastructure range infrastructures could restored ad hoc quickly disaster using technologies communications government


exemplary achievement smartamerica initiative challenges participants build cyber physical systems glimpse future save lives create jobs foster businesses improve economy sers primarily saves lives system provides survivors emergency personnel information locate assist disaster sers allows submit help requests matlab based mission center connecting first responders apps search rescue dogs feet tall humanoid robots drones autonomous aircraft ground vehicles command control center optimizes available resources serve every incoming requests generates action plan


humanitarian action shown improve health recovery populations affected natural man made disasters used humanitarian response facilitate coordinate aid various stages including preparedness response recovery emergencies specifically mobile health mhealth defined use communication devices mobile phones purpose health services information nowadays millions people use mobile phones means daily communication data transference live developing countries one important characteristics disasters


networks smaller proportion informed subjects suffered damage due human caused misinformation following disaster collective processing emotions leads greater resilience community engagement impacts disasters men women immediate aftermath disaster affected population number needs disaster response relief many actors tend focus addressing immediate needs first example united nations office coordination humanitarian affairs ocha emphasizes humanitarianresponse url https wwwhumanitarianresponseinfo en operations whole syria access date website wwwhumanitarianresponseinfo ref priorities addressing basic needs represent shared needs men


burden combination paid unpaid work one key forms unpaid labor care labor care labor also referred social reproduction encompasses tasks providing dependants children sick elderly rest us double burden exacerbates unequal impact disasters women lafreni sweetman thylin emphasize women operate unpaid carers keeping societies economies functioning nbsp poverty crisis make unpaid work even critical survival makes imperative humanitarian responders understand scope extent


supreme court building united states constitutional federal republic president head state head government congress judiciary share powers reserved national government federal government shares sovereignty state governments executive branch headed president independent legislature legislative power vested two chambers congress senate house representatives judicial branch judiciary composed supreme court lower federal courts exercises judicial power

Social science
Political science
American politics


term two years except nebraska unicameral legislature states bicameral legislature upper house usually called senate lower house called house representatives assembly something similar states senators serve four year terms members lower house serve two year terms constitutions various states differ details generally follow pattern similar federal constitution including statement rights people plan organizing government however state constitutions generally detailed


central council elected voters executive officer assisted various department heads manage city 's affairs cities west south usually nonpartisan local politics three general types city government mayor council commission council manager pure forms many cities developed combination two three mayor council seat mayor boston boston city hall boston mayor council government oldest form city government united states beginning


executive legislative power may lie entirely sole commissioner assisted boards supervise taxes elections new england states counties governmental function simply division land town village government thousands municipal jurisdictions small qualify city governments chartered towns villages deal local needs paving lighting streets ensuring water supply providing police fire protection waste management many states us term ''town''


eligible americans vote specific candidate federal government officials elected federal national state local levels national level president elected indirectly people instead elected electoral college modern times electors almost always vote popular vote state however rare occurrences may vote popular vote state becoming known faithless elector members congress offices state local levels directly elected federal state laws regulate