ad '' https booksgooglecom booksid irrxx apqc excerpt text search thompson edward gt garratt ''rise fulfilment british rule india'' pages scholarly survey https booksgooglecom booksid fnssiwvjoc excerpt text search tomlinson br ''the economy modern india '' new cambridge history india tomlinson br ''the political economy raj '' https archiveorg details politicaleconomy toml online wolpert stanley ''a new history india'' th ed https archiveorg details newhistoryofindi wolp online th edition historiography bose mihir india 's missing historians mihir bose discusses paradox india land history surprisingly weak tradition historiography ''history today''


professions focus work medical professions due medicines status ref name harry stock sullivan harry stack sullivan psychiatrist investigated treatment schizophrenia using approaches interpersonal psychotherapy working sociologists social scientists including lawrence k frank w thomas ruth benedict harold lasswell edward sapir ref name bloom argues sullivans work focus putative interpersonal causes treatment schizophrenia influenced ethnographic study hospital setting ref name related fields social medicine social medicine similar field

Social science
Sociology
Medical sociology


adopt methodologies anthropology qualitative research began focus patient medical anthropology started focus western medicine argued interdisciplinary communication could improve disciplines ref name theories medical profession profession medicine studied sociologists talcott parsons looked profession functionalist perspective focusing medics roles experts altruism support communities sociologists taken conflict theory perspective looking medical profession secures interests


broadly adopted us hospitals offering form ethical consultation social effects field bioethics studied medical sociologists informed consent roots biothetics process doctor patient agree particular intervention medical sociology study social processes influences times limit consent see also medical anthropology medicalization epidemiological transition health disparities social medicine sociology health illness stroke belt references references reading


nine areas specialist endorsement psychology practice australia europe someone specialist europsy certificate work organisational psychology fully qualified psychologist specialist work psychology field industrial organizational psychologists reaching europsy standard recorded register european psychologists psychology one three main psychology specializations europe south africa industrial psychology registration category profession psychologist regulated health professions council south africa hpcsa historical overview historical development psychology paralleled

Social science
Psychology
Occupational psychology


often part personnel selection process assessments include written tests aptitude tests physical tests psycho motor tests personality tests integrity reliability tests work samples simulations assessment centres ref name u occupational health well recent focus field health safety well employees topics include occupational stress workplace mistreatment occupational stress many features work stressful employees research identified number job stressors environmental conditions work contribute strains adverse behavioral emotional physical psychological reactions occupational stress


behave certain way ref name dec deckers l ''motivation biological psychological environmental'' rd ed pp boston massachusetts pearson ref motivation varies among individuals studying influence behavior must examined together ability environmental influences motivation 's role influencing workplace behavior performance many organizations structure work environment encourage productive behaviors discourage unproductive behaviors ref name jex ref name mitchell mitchell r daniels motivation borman w c ilgen r klimoski r j ''handbook psychology vol industrial organizational psychology'' pp new york wiley ref motivation involves three psychological processes arousal


appropriate team task design play key role team effectiveness job characteristic theory identifies core job dimensions affect motivation satisfaction performance etc dimensions include skill variety task identity task significance autonomy feedback dimensions map well team environment individual contributors perform team tasks challenging interesting engaging likely motivated exert greater effort perform better team members working tasks lack characteristics ref name jex organizational resources organizational support systems affect team effectiveness ref name sun sundstrom e de meuse k


work contribute organizational goals ref name campbell campbell j p ''modeling performance prediction problem industrial organizational psychology'' dunnette hough l eds ''handbook industrial organizational psychology'' vol nd ed pp palo alto california consulting psychologists press ref behaviors formally evaluated organization part employee 's responsibilities ref name campbell order understand ultimately predict job performance important precise defining term job performance behaviors within control employee results


motivate cwbs ref name spector fox forms counterproductive behavior empirical examination ineffective job performance absenteeism job turnover accidents less common potentially detrimental forms counterproductive behavior also investigated including violence sexual harassment leadership leadership defined process influencing others agree shared purpose work towards shared objectives distinction made leadership management managers process administrative tasks organize work environments although leaders may required undertake managerial duties well leaders typically focus inspiring


power french raven 's classic five bases coercive reward legitimate expert referent power plus informational power leader use several different tactics influence others within organization include rational persuasion inspirational appeal consultation ingratiation exchange personal appeal coalition legitimating pressure ref name jex jex britt w ''organizational psychology scientist practitioner approach'' nd ed new jersey john wiley sons ref contingency focused approaches approaches leadership contingency focused approaches prevalent past years contingency focused theories base leader 's effectiveness ability assess


us siop salary survey median annual salary phd io psychology master 's level io psychologist highest paid phd io psychologists self employed consultants median annual income highest paid private industry worked retail healthcare lowest earners found state local government positions averaging approximately academic positions colleges universites award doctoral degrees median salaries ethics


china ancient india historical timelines unfolded differently however th century due extensive world trade colonization histories civilizations become substantially intertwined process known globalization last quarter millennium rates growth population knowledge technology communications commerce weapon destructiveness environmental degradation greatly accelerated creating unprecedented opportunities perils confront planet 's human communities prehistory million years ago years ago early humans genetic measurements indicate ape lineage would lead ''homo sapiens'' diverged lineage would


th millennium bce cities earliest known form writing cuneiform script appeared around bce cuneiform writing began system pictographs whose pictorial representations eventually became simplified abstract cuneiform texts written using blunt reed stylus draw symbols upon clay tablets writing made administration large state far easier transport facilitated waterways rivers seas mediterranean sea juncture three continents fostered projection military power exchange goods ideas inventions


era also saw new land technologies horse based cavalry chariots allowed armies move faster fresco knossos minoan crete developments led rise territorial states empires mesopotamia prevailed pattern independent warring city states loose hegemony shifting one city another egypt contrast first dual division upper lower egypt shortly followed unification valley around bce followed permanent pacification crete minoan civilization entered bronze age bce


alexander great bce macedon founded empire conquest extending present day greece present day india empire divided shortly death influence hellenistic successors made extended hellenistic period bce throughout region asia maurya empire bce existed present day india rd century bce south asia united maurya empire chandragupta maurya flourished ashoka great rd century ce gupta dynasty oversaw period referred ancient india 's golden age th


empire dominating neighbours south arabia kush controlling red sea trade minted currency carved enormous monolithic steles obelisk axum mark emperors' graves successful regional empires also established americas arising cultures established early bce mesoamerica vast pre columbian societies built notable zapotec empire bce ce maya civilization reached highest state development mesoamerican classic period c ce continued throughout post classic period


region mediterranean hundreds technologies invented periods followed periods technological decay roman empire 's decline fall ensuing early medieval period declines falls resurgence ancient empires faced common problems associated maintaining huge armies supporting central bureaucracy costs fell heavily peasantry land owning magnates increasingly evaded centralized control costs barbarian pressure frontiers hastened internal dissolution china 's han dynasty fell civil war ce beginning three kingdoms period roman


later called holy roman empire comprising number states germany austria switzerland czech republic belgium italy parts france china dynasties would rise fall sharp contrast mediterranean european world dynastic unity would restored fall eastern han dynasty demise three kingdoms nomadic tribes north began invade th century eventually conquering areas northern china setting many small kingdoms sui dynasty successfully reunified whole china laid foundations


age commencement expansion arab slave trade followed mongol invasions middle east central asia eastern europe founding around ottoman empire south asia saw series middle kingdoms india followed establishment islamic empires india western africa mali empire songhai empire developed southeast coast africa arabic ports established gold spices commodities traded allowed africa join southeast asia trading system bringing contact asia along


th century middle east dominated byzantine empire sasanian empire frequently fought control several disputed regions also cultural battle byzantine christian culture competing persian zoroastrian traditions birth islam created new contender quickly surpassed empires new religion greatly affected political economic military history old world especially middle east great mosque kairouan tunisia founded ce centre arabian peninsula muslims began expansion early postclassical


western africa returned new discoveries inventions crusader ''krak des chevaliers'' syria crusading movement initially developed religious motivations european expansionism roll back muslim territory regain control holy land ultimately unsuccessful served weaken byzantine empire especially sack constantinople byzantine empire began lose increasing amounts territory ottoman turks arab domination region ended mid th century arrival seljuq turks migrating south turkic homelands central asia early th


genghis khan died central asia continued dominated successor state chagatai khanate timur turkic leader mongol military tradition conquered region founded timurid empire timur 's large empire collapsed soon death however region became divided smaller khanates established uzbeks including khanate bukhara khanate khiva aftermath byzantine sasanian wars caucasus saw armenia georgia flourish independent realms free foreign suzerainty byzantines sasanians became


trade flourish crop yields increase manorialism organization peasants villages owed rents labour service nobles feudalism political structure whereby knights lower status nobles owed military service overlords return right rents lands manors two ways organizing medieval society developed high middle ages kingdoms became centralized decentralizing effects break carolingian empire crusading movement attempted gain roman catholic control holy land muslims succeeded


witch hunting scientific revolution age enlightenment renaissance leonardo da vinci 's ''vitruvian man'' c renaissance italy europe 's renaissance rebirth classical culture beginning th century extending th comprised rediscovery classical world 's cultural scientific technological achievements economic social rise europe renaissance engendered culture inquisitiveness ultimately led humanism scientific revolution period saw social political upheavals revolutions many intellectual pursuits also celebrated artistic developments attainments


moon safely returned earth cold war ended peacefully pan european picnic subsequent fall iron curtain berlin wall collapse eastern bloc warsaw pact soviet union collapsed partly due inability compete economically united states western europe however united states likewise began show signs slippage geopolitical influence even private sector less inhibited claims public sector increasingly sought private advantage prejudice public


apply methods comparative linguistics reconstruct information forms old direct information available analyzing related languages technique known comparative method linguists make inferences shared parent language vocabulary way word roots european languages example traced way back origin indo european language family even though etymological research originally grew philological tradition much current etymological research done language families little early documentation available

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Etymology


word formation derivation compounding onomatopoeia sound symbolism ie creation imitative words click grunt origin newly emerged words often less transparent tends become obscured time due sound change semantic change due sound change readily obvious english word ' 'set'' related word ' 'sit'' former originally causative formation latter even less obvious ''bless'' related ''blood'' former originally derivative meaning


medications psychotherapy criminals court work forensic psychiatrists work courts evaluating individual 's competency stand trial defenses based mental disorders eg insanity defense sentencing recommendations two major areas criminal evaluations forensic psychiatry competency stand trial cst mental state time offense mso competency stand trial competency stand trial cst competency evaluation determine defendants mental capacity understand charges assist attorneys united states seated fifth amendment

Applied science
Medicine and health
Psychiatry
Forensic psychiatry


britain differing mental health law fitness plead mental state time offence indeed issues given consideration mental state time trial also major issue assessment commonly leads use mental health legislation detain people hospitals opposed getting prison sentence learning disabled offenders continuing risk others may detained learning disability hospitals specialised community based units similar regimen hospitals mostly closed includes commit serious


daubert standard delimiting admissibility scientific expert witness testimony ''rennie v klein'' right refuse treatment ''kansas v hendricks'' involuntary civil commitment sexual predators settled insanity ultimate issue twinkie defense bruneri canella case early landmark case introduced new forensic techniques juridic debate references external links https wwwgutenbergorg ebooks studies forensic psychiatry bernard glueck sr reprinted project gutenberg http wwwforensic psychcom articles artaskexp php role forensic psychiatrist legal proceedings harold j bursztajn md journal massachusetts academy trial attorneys permission harold j bursztajn md https wwwacademiaedu forensic psychiatry


illustration linear regression data set regression analysis important part mathematical statistics '''mathematical statistics''' application probability theory branch mathematics statistics opposed techniques collecting statistical data specific mathematical techniques used include mathematical analysis linear algebra stochastic analysis differential equations measure theory introduction statistical data collection concerned planning studies especially design randomized experiments planning surveys using random sampling initial analysis data often follows study protocol specified prior

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Mathematical statistics


regression function lie specified set functions may infinite dimensional nonparametric statistics '''nonparametric statistics''' values calculated data way based parameterized families probability distributions include descriptive inferential statistics typical parameters mean variance etc unlike parametric statistics nonparametric statistics make assumptions probability distributions variables assessed non parametric methods widely used studying populations take ranked order movie reviews receiving one four stars use non parametric methods may


methods may easier use due simplicity greater robustness non parametric methods seen statisticians leaving less room improper use misunderstanding statistics mathematics mathematical statistics mathematical statistics key subset discipline statistics statistical theorists study improve statistical procedures mathematics statistical research often raises mathematical questions statistical theory relies probability decision theory mathematicians statisticians like gauss laplace c peirce used decision theory probability distributions loss functions utility functions decision theoretic approach statistical


fact people getting infected sick number deaths occur vaccination made examples major epidemic disasters ebola black death asian flu major death tolls high numbers people infected natural disasters terrorist attacks common occurring types disasters affect human population physically mentally also types disasters detrimental morality society inflict lot mental stress fear people affected often

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of disaster


non perishables medical supplies clothes even preparing house positives disasters populations experience different types disasters promotes social change coming together communities order help one another community experiences disaster able learn prepared next possible disaster could happen epidemic positive one cure found people donate money getting rid disease everyone helped could gain sense pride accomplishment


facilitate way finding reduce crashes injuries significantly graphic design software example graphic arts created free tool paintnet graphic artists applying positions today 's job market expected familiar computers variety software programs create appealing date designs graphic art software includes applications adobe dreamweaver tool facilitates creation webpages dynamic internet content adobe illustrator software application allows artists manipulate vector graphics adobe indesign desktop publishing software used layout design

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Graphic arts


dialogue overall style script coverage freelance job held recent university graduates feed scripts system ready production already produced coverage way young screenwriters read ideas might make way executive famous producer result meet greets relations comers formed historically yielded ideas studios pursue production studio film distributor early stage attempts choose slate concepts likely

Humanities
Performing arts
Film
Filmmaking


audition either live front casting director front one cameras choreographer creates coordinates movement dance typically musicals films also credit fight choreographer director photography dop head photography entire film supervises cinematographers camera operators production sound mixer head sound department production stage filmmaking record mix audio set dialogue presence sound effects monaural ambience stereo work boom operator director da


location ''dim sum little bit heart'' indie film director wayne wang center clement street richmond district san francisco california spede pasanen finnish film director producer long strained relationship finnish film foundation government financed film funding organisation continuously refused fund movies many works independent films filmmaking also takes place outside mainstream commonly called independent filmmaking since introduction dv technology means production become democratized economically viable filmmakers conceivably shoot


edit film create edit sound music mix final cut home computer however means production may democratized financing traditional distribution marketing remain difficult accomplish outside traditional system past independent filmmakers relied film festivals sundance film festival venice film festival cannes film festival toronto international film festivals get films noticed sold distribution production however internet allowed relatively inexpensive distribution independent films websites youtube


dry media reactions bioengineering also seen promising technique achieving green chemistry goals number important process chemicals synthesized engineered organisms shikimate tamiflu precursor fermented roche bacteria click chemistry often cited style chemical synthesis consistent goals green chemistry concept 'green pharmacy' recently articulated based similar principles carbon dioxide blowing agent dow chemical greener reaction conditions award carbon dioxide blowing agent polystyrene

Natural science
Chemistry
Green chemistry


toxicity feedstocks superior adhesion properties dimensional stability ability recycled ecoworx compound also designed compatible nylon carpet fiber although ecoworx may recovered fiber type nylon provides significant advantage polyolefins compatible known nylon depolymerization methods pvc interferes processes nylon chemistry well known addressed first generation production inception ecoworx met design criteria necessary satisfy needs marketplace performance health environmental standpoint research indicated separation fiber


jacque fresco simple diagram fully connected mesh network example self organising self configuring network '''sociocybernetics''' interdisciplinary science sociology general systems theory cybernetics also basis organizational development od consultancy practice theories communication theories psychotherapies computer sciences international sociological association specialist research committee area rc publishes electronic ''journal sociocybernetics'' term socio name sociocybernetics refers social system defined among others talcott parsons niklas luhmann idea

Social science
Sociology
Sociocybernetics


study society system traced back origin sociology emergent idea functional differentiation applied first time society auguste comte basic goal sociocybernetics created production theoretical framework well information technology tools responding basic challenges individuals couples families groups companies organizations countries international affairs facing today analysis social forces one tasks sociocybernetics map measure harness find ways intervening parallel network social forces


fireworks press sudbury suffolk bloomfield books external links https wwwsociocyberneticsorg sociocybernetics research committee rc isa https wwwsocioinfocyberorg center sociocybernetics studies bonn http wwwifsrorg international federation systems research http wwwwellcom kbk dissertation cybernetic principles effective control complex organizations https papirounizares ojs indexphp rc jos index journal sociocybernetics cybernetics systems theory


fragments bound therapeutic targets enzymes receptors etc fragments serve starting points develop chemically complex forms synthesis finally hits also regularly originate ''en masse'' testing chemical compounds biological targets using biochemical chemoproteomics assays compounds may novel synthetic chemical libraries known particular properties kinase inhibitory activity diversity drug likeness etc historic chemical compound collections libraries created combinatorial chemistry number approaches toward identification development hits exist successful techniques based chemical biological intuition

Natural science
Chemistry
Medicinal chemistry


training range years college education however employment opportunities master 's level also exist pharmaceutical industry phd level opportunities employment academia government many medicinal chemists particularly academia research also earn pharmd doctor pharmacy pharmd phd researchers rphs registered pharmacists graduate level programs medicinal chemistry found traditional medicinal chemistry pharmaceutical sciences departments traditionally associated schools pharmacy chemistry departments however majority


working medicinal chemists graduate degrees ms especially phd organic chemistry rather medicinal chemistry preponderance positions discovery net necessarily cast widest broad synthetic activity occurs discovery small molecule therapeutics emphasis training provides breadth synthetic experience pace bench operations clearly present eg individuals pure synthetic organic natural products synthesis phd post doctoral positions ibid medicinal chemistry specialty areas associated design synthesis chemical libraries execution


degree synthetic areas see also bioisostere biological machines chemoproteomics drug design pharmacognosy pharmacokinetics pharmacology pharmacophore xenobiotic metabolism references external links cheminformatics


threshold typically neurons aggregated layers different layers may perform different transformations inputs signals travel first layer input layer last layer output layer possibly traversing layers multiple times training neural networks learn trained processing examples contains known input result forming probability weighted associations two stored within data structure net training neural network given example usually conducted determining difference processed output network often

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Artificial neural networks


rate high network typically must redesigned practically done defining cost function evaluated periodically learning long output continues decline learning continues cost frequently defined statistic whose value approximated outputs actually numbers error low difference output almost certainly cat correct answer cat small learning attempts reduce total differences across observations ref name zell ch learning models viewed straightforward application


policy defined conditional distribution actions given observations taken together two define markov chain mc aim discover lowest cost mc anns serve learning component applications dynamic programming coupled anns giving neurodynamic programming applied problems involved vehicle routing video games natural resource management medicine anns ability mitigate losses accuracy even reducing discretization grid density numerically approximating solution control problems tasks fall within paradigm reinforcement learning


behavior arise abstract neural modules represent complete subsystems studies considered long short term plasticity neural systems relation learning memory individual neuron system level theoretical properties computational power multilayer perceptron universal function approximator proven universal approximation theorem however proof constructive regarding number neurons required network topology weights learning parameters specific recurrent architecture rational valued weights opposed full precision real number valued weights power universal turing machine using


curiosity good computing systems human hand mind intervenes solutions found magic one seems learned anything one response dewdney neural networks handle many complex diverse tasks ranging autonomously flying aircraft detecting credit card fraud mastering game go technology writer roger bridgman commented ref biological brains use shallow deep circuits reported brain anatomy ref name vanessen j felleman c van essen https archivetoday http cercoroxfordjournalsorg content fullpdf html distributed hierarchical processing primate cerebral cortex ''cerebral cortex''


constructing non von neumann chips directly implement neural networks circuitry another type chip optimized neural network processing called tensor processing unit tpu practical counterexamples analyzing learned ann much easier analyzing learned biological neural network furthermore researchers involved exploring learning algorithms neural networks gradually uncovering general principles allow learning machine successful example local vs non local learning shallow vs deep architecture hybrid approaches advocates hybrid models combining neural networks symbolic approaches claim


outputs given position state direction outputs wheel based control values file two layer feedforward artificial neural networkpng two layer feedforward artificial neural network inputs x hidden outputs given position state direction environment values outputs thruster based control values file cmacjpg parallel pipeline structure cmac neural network learning algorithm converge one step gallery see also large width limits neural networks hierarchical temporal memory adaline adaptive resonance theory associative memory autoencoder beam robotics biological cybernetics biologically inspired computing blue brain project catastrophic interference cerebellar model articulation controller cmac cognitive architecture convolutional neural network


study pollen purposes volcanic ash contained layers used establish time layer 's formation volcanic event distributed ash unique set properties shape color particles chemical signature establishing ash 's source establish range time associate layer ice multinational consortium european project ice coring antarctica epica drilled ice core dome c east antarctic ice sheet retrieved ice roughly years ago international ice core community

Social science
Geography
Palaeoclimatology


conditions often include major shifts climate sclerochronology corals see also sclerochronology coral rings similar tree rings except respond different things water temperature freshwater influx ph changes wave action certain equipment used derive sea surface temperature water salinity past centuries sup sup coralline red algae provides useful proxy combined sea surface temperature sea surface salinity high latitudes tropics many traditional techniques limited ref name geology ref ref name cobb ref landscapes landforms within climatic geomorphology


line lower solar radiance compared today early sun described faint young sun paradox geological record however shows continually relatively warm surface complete early temperature record earth exception one cold glacial phase billion years ago late archaean eon oxygen containing atmosphere began develop apparently photosynthesizing cyanobacteria see great oxygenation event found stromatolite fossils billion years ago early basic carbon isotopy isotope ratio proportions much line


hypothesis proterozoic eon drew close earth started warm dawn cambrian phanerozoic life forms abundant cambrian explosion average global temperatures c phanerozoic climate changes oxygen ratios last million years indicating environmental change major drivers preindustrial ages variations sun volcanic ashes exhalations relative movements earth towards sun tectonically induced effects major sea currents watersheds ocean oscillations early phanerozoic increased atmospheric carbon dioxide


deal misconduct coaches often find efforts trumped coach 's powerful connections particularly established figure long term winning record however case severe coaching misconduct proven often athletic director terminated along offending coach last several years role athletic director changed dramatically athletic department overseen one school 's head coaches position attracts executives inside outside sports industry athletic directors negotiate multimillion dollar media deals manage

Human physical performance and recreation


school average salary ranging highest paid athletic director ncaa division level david williams vanderbilt paid however williams' salary time directly comparable division athletic directors vanderbilt 's unique administrative structure varsity athletics unlike division schools vanderbilt athletics governed directly university specifically within division student life rather administered separate athletic department effectively vanderbilt athletics treated student organization williams'


creation also studying film possible careers include critic production overall study film continues grow industry focuses academic journals publishing film studies work include ''sight sound'' ''film comment'' ''film international'' ''cineaction'' ''screen'' ''journal cinema media studies'' ''film quarterly'' ''journal film video'' history film studies academic discipline emerged twentieth century decades invention motion pictures confused technical aspects film production film studies exists creation film theory approaches film critically

Journalism, media studies and communication


first school world focus film united states usc school cinematic arts established first cinematic based school created agreement academy motion picture arts sciences also first offer major film without distinctions assumed film studies universities began implement different forms cinema related curriculum without however division abstract practical approaches ''deutsche filmakademie babelsberg'' ie german film academy babelsberg founded third


way limited films made united states wide variety films analyzed american film industry generating far highest global box office returns second worldwide india terms number filmgoers number productions attraction film studies high obtain degree united states person likely pursue careers production film especially directing producing films often classes united states combine new forms media television new media


outline film references reading bergan ronald ''film'' new york dk pub dix andrew ''beginning film studies'' manchester grant barry keith ''film study undergraduate curriculum'' new york modern language association america osborne richard ''film theory beginners'' london zidane press polan dana haidee wasson young art old colleges ''inventing film studies'' durham duke polan dana ''scenes instruction beginnings us study film'' uc press sikov ed ''film studies introduction'' new york columbia stam robert ''film theory introduction'' malden blackwell


statement remark could extend early times suppose meant sermon secondary fact may eastern writer deceived false accounts west may sermon western church occupy important place greek church ref name ce homiletics jewish tradition preaching regular part worship services judaism traced back time ezra instituted custom reading

Applied science
Divinity
Field ministry
Homiletics


portion torah written hebrew paraphrasing explaining vernacular time aramaic ref name ref tradition well established fourth century bce ref name destruction temple synagogues became central jewish worship role sermon increased regular structure arose speaker first quoted verse bible expounded finally closed summary prayer praise ref name sermons highly regarded rabbis period preserved midrash forming part


talmud homiletics taught part typical curriculum modern day rabbinical seminaries early church according middle second century writer justin martyr practice early church someone read memoirs apostles writings prophets meaning readings become christian bible discourse text followed reading practice synagogues new testament writings added except christian churches person read scripture also explained


bring hearing word god fear punishment disposed come piety synod trullo laid bishops preach days especially sundays synod bishops preached outside diocese reduced status priests desirous another 's harvest indifferent ut qui alien messis appetentes essent su incuriosi council arles bishops strongly exhorted preach council mainz year


texts ''ddc'' analysis styles ''ddc'' peculiar rules rhetoric sermons ''ddc'' essential part book iv deals three styles sermons ''genera tenue docere'' teach ''genera medium delectare'' amuse ''genera grande flectere'' persuade influenced cicero orator augustine stresses importance principle discipline time preachers need practice ''ddc'' use styles situation preaching ''ddc'' pay attention priority


treated second class citizens ruling arab elite end umayyad caliphate era islam initially associated ethnic identity arab required formal association arab tribe adoption client status ''mawali'' ref name astren half hearted policies late umayyads tolerate non arab muslims shias failed quell unrest among minorities however iran still arab control region daylam control daylamites tabaristan dabuyid paduspanid control

Humanities
History
Asian history
Iranian history


death genghis reached western azerbaijan pillaging burning many cities along way entering iran north east mongol invasion large disastrous iranians although mongol invaders eventually converted islam accepted culture iran mongol destruction iran regions islamic heartland particularly historical khorasan region mainly central asia marked major change direction region much six centuries islamic scholarship culture infrastructure destroyed invaders leveled cities burned


region founded ilkhanate breakaway state mongol empire would rule iran next eighty years become persian process hulagu khan seized baghdad put last abbasid caliph death westward advance forces stopped mamelukes however battle jalut palestine hulagu 's campaigns muslims also enraged berke khan golden horde convert islam hulagu berke fought demonstrating weakening unity mongol empire rule


majority iranian scholars masses remained sunni time safavids ref name motahhari ref domination sunnis mean shia rootless iran writers four books shia iranian well many great shia scholars domination sunni creed first nine islamic centuries characterized religious history iran period however exceptions general domination emerged form zayd tabaristan see alid dynasties northern iran buyids kakuyids rule sultan


muhammad khudabandah r shawwal shawwal sarbedaran ref name al islamorg ref apart domination existed firstly throughout nine centuries shia inclinations among many sunnis land secondly original imami shiism well zayd shiism prevalence parts iran period shia iran nourished kufah baghdad later najaf hillah ref name al islamorg shiism dominant sect tabaristan qom kashan avaj sabzevar many areas merged population shia sunni lived together th th centuries fatimids sent ismailis da'i missioners


iran well muslim lands ismailis divided two sects nizaris established base iran hassan sabbah conquered fortresses captured alamut ad nizaris used fortress mongol raid mongol raid fall abbasids sunni hierarchies faltered lose caliphate also status official madhhab loss gain shia whose centre n't iran time several local shia dynasties like sarbadars established time main change occurred beginning


first fought uzbeks recapturing herat mashhad lost predecessor mohammad khodabanda ottoman safavid war turned ottomans archrivals safavids recapturing baghdad eastern iraq caucasian provinces beyond following disobedience loyal georgian subjects teimuraz luarsab ii abbas carried punitive campaign territories georgia devastating kakheti tbilisi carrying away georgian captives towards mainland iran new army dramatically improved


advent robert shirley brothers following first diplomatic mission europe pitted first crushing victory safavids' archrivals ottomans mentioned war would surpass ottomans military strength also used new force dislodge portuguese bahrain hormuz aid english navy persian gulf expanded commercial links dutch east india company established firm links european royal houses initiated ismail earlier habsburg persian alliance thus abbas


russian invasion iran population iranian armenia muslims persians turkics kurds whereas christian armenians constituted minority result treaty gulistan treaty turkmenchay iran forced cede iranian armenia also constituted present day armenia russians russian administration took hold iranian armenia ethnic make shifted thus first time four centuries ethnic armenians started form majority one part historic armenia new russian


khamenei lacked khomeini 's charisma clerical standing developed network supporters within iran 's armed forces economically powerful religious foundations ref name referencea 's charge ervand abrahamian ''london review books'' november ref reign iran 's regime said least one observer resemble clerical oligarchy autocracy ref name referencea rafsanjani pragmatic conservativism succeeding khamenei president august pragmatic conservative ali akbar hashemi rafsanjani served two four year terms focused efforts rebuilding iran 's economy war damaged infrastructure though low


enjoyed particular support two groups population felt ostracized practices state women youth younger generations country young experience shah 's regime revolution ended resented restrictions placed daily lives islamic republic mohammad khatami 's presidency soon marked tensions reform minded government increasingly conservative vocal clergy rift reached climax july massive anti government protests erupted streets tehran disturbances lasted


plus germany https wwwbbccouk news world middle east agreed outlines understanding limit iran 's nuclear programs negotiators indicated sides prepared announcements iranian foreign minister mohammad javad zarif tweeted found solutions ready start drafting immediately european union foreign policy chief federica mogherini tweeted would meet press zarif final meeting seven nations nuclear talks wrote good news reading joint statement european union foreign policy chief federica mogherini hailed called decisive step decade work iranian foreign minister mohammad javad


withdrawing asylum threatened values throughout th century type theory modulated opposition disinterested pure autonomous art commercialized mass culture theory culture industry diametrically opposed aristocratic view would theory culture industry developed frankfurt school critical theorists theodor w adorno max horkheimer herbert marcuse view masses precisely dominated encompassing culture industry obeying logic consumer capitalism antonio gramsci 's concept hegemony see cultural hegemony domination society


strategy legitimation popular fiction basis use canonized literary fiction legitimized response certain members public consider views depicted present article instances thesis antithesis argument less known scholar blanca de lizaur manages finally produce synthesis sociological line mims lerner sees literature ''necessary'' social institution id est fulfilling essential social need explaining justifying promoting society 's world view


culture according postmodern sociologist baudrillard individual trained duty seeking relentless maximisation pleasure lest become asocial therefore enjoyment fun become indistinguishable need consume whereas frankfurt school believed consumers passive baudrillard argued consumers trained consume products form active labour order achieve upward social mobility thus consumers capitalism trained purchase products pop albums consumable fiction order signal devotion social trends fashions subcultures although consumption


may arise active choice choice still consequence social conditioning individual unconscious baudrillard says one permanently governed code whose rules meaning constraints like language part beyond grasp individuals contemporary thought marshall mcluhan caused wide irritation statement traditional book oriented intellectuals become irrelevant formulation cultural rules electronic age equally alive aristocratic apocalyptic view mass culture destruction genuine art andrew ross writes


electronic age say lost real political power humanist intellectuals hardly ever mean however losing control field field art restricted symbolical production pierre bourdieu th century intellectuals managed construct art proper closed domain crowd allowed judge seen autonomy become ever threatened th century mass society main factor quantitative expansion consumption culture intrusion


introduced qualify phenomenon dismiss threat authenticity high popular culture book clubs came mass production paperback format influence even wide ranging found thomas bonn 's book shows elaborate strategies respectable hardcover editors go order hide fact sixties paperback publishers taken control production serious literature possibility subversive popular culture question whether popular culture mass


relates messages individual existences mediation social groups family networks etc belong baudrillard 's understanding products capitalist popular culture give illusion rebellion since still complicit system controlled powerful baudrillard stated interview matrix paints picture monopolistic superpower like see today collaborates refraction basically dissemination world scale complicit film point worth recalling marshall mcluhan medium message message


likely route would moluccas new guinea given likely landfall regions around metres water last years unlikely timing ever established certainty oldest known sites human occupation australia arnhem land north continent dated bp population spread range different environments devil 's lair extreme south west continent occupied around bp tasmania bp


earliest known human remains australia found lake mungo dry lake southwest new south wales years old remains found mungo suggest one world 's oldest known cremations thus indicating early evidence religious ritual among humans spread population also altered environment evidence deliberate use fire shape australian environment years ago many parts australia firestick farming used clear vegetation make travel easier drive animals ambushes create open grasslands rich


mainland years ago years ago thousands islands torres strait around coast australia formed ref name josephine flood writes flooding loss land coastlines receded might led greater emphasis territorial boundaries separating groups stronger clan identity development rainbow serpent mythologies warmer climate associated new technologies small back bladed stone tools appeared thousand years ago wooden javelins boomerangs found dating years ago stone points


south place confident never seen viseted european us ''therefore rule belongs great brittan'' italicised words crossed original march marc joseph marion du fresne command two french ships reached van diemen 's land way tahiti south seas party became first recorded europeans encounter indigenous tasmanians kill one year french expedition led louis aleno de st alo arn became first europeans


governors new south wales show initial plans colony limited settlement self sufficient penal colony based subsistence agriculture trade shipping ship building banned order keep convicts isolated interfere trade monopoly british east india company plan economic development apart investigating possibility producing raw materials britain christopher maxwell stewart argue whatever government 's original motives establishing colony least achieved


imperial objective providing harbour vessels could careened resupplied colony new south wales establishment colony second fleet x pxthe territory new south wales claimed britain included australia eastward meridian east included half mainland australia reflected line division claims spain portugal established treaty tordesillas ref name robert j king terra australis new holland new south wales treaty tordesillas australia ''the globe''


permanent regiment british army relieve marines accompanied first fleet officers corps soon became involved corrupt lucrative rum trade colony governor william bligh tried suppress rum trade illegal use crown land resulting rum rebellion corps working closely newly established wool trader john macarthur staged successful armed takeover government australian history deposing bligh instigating brief period military rule prior arrival britain


indigenous inhabitants million sheep port phillip district separated new south wales colony victoria western australia ''the foundation perth '' george pitt morison governor new south wales ralph darling sent military garrison king george sound basis later town albany deter french establishing settlement western australia head expedition major edmund lockyer formally annexed western third continent british colony ref name srnsw ref swan


new south wales van diemen 's land western australia historian lloyd robson estimated perhaps two thirds thieves working class towns particularly midlands north england majority repeat offenders literacy rate convicts average brought range useful skills new colony including building farming sailing fishing hunting small number free settlers meant early governors also rely convicts emancipists professions lawyers architects surveyors teachers ''black eyed sue sweet poll plymouth england mourning


attracted high wages business opportunities available rural areas however system land grants later land sales led concentration land hands small number affluent settlers two thirds migrants australia period received assistance british colonial governments healthy young workers without dependants favoured assisted migration especially experience agricultural labourers domestic workers families convicts also offered free passage migrants selected english poor laws various special purpose charitable schemes


caroline chisholm john dunmore lang also provided migration assistance women businesswoman elizabeth macarthur helped establish merino wool industrycolonial australia characterised imbalance sexes women comprised per cent convicts transported first female convicts brought range skills including experience domestic workers dairy women farm workers due shortage women colony likely marry men tended choose older skilled men property husbands early colonial courts enforced property rights


semi arid regions australia brought conflict aboriginal tribes distant closely settled areas aboriginal casualty rates conflicts increased colonists made greater use mounted police native police units newly developed revolvers breech loaded guns civilian colonists often launched punitive raids aboriginal groups without knowledge colonial authorities conflict particularly intense nsw queensland central australia estimated aboriginal people population killed colonists


bennelong led survivors several clans sydney november months smallpox epidemic devastated aboriginal population bungaree kuringgai man joined matthew flinders circumnavigation australia playing important role emissary various indigenous peoples encountered portrait aboriginal explorer diplomat bungaree british dress sydney augustus earlegovernor macquarie hoped effect civilization aborigines reclaim barbarous practices ref name banivanua mar tracey edmonds penelope indigenous settler relations ''the cambridge history


gold miners'' thomas tyrwhitt balcombealthough gold found australia early surveyor james mcbrien gold rush began edward hargraves widely publicised discovery gold near bathurst new south wales february discoveries made later year victoria richest gold fields found british law minerals belonged crown governors new south wales victoria quickly introduced laws aimed avoiding disorder associated california gold rush colonies introduced gold mining licence


wales labor electoral league quarter seats elections held balance power free trade party protectionist party labor parties also seats south australian queensland elections world 's first labor government formed queensland lasted week mid colonial governments often labor support passed acts regulating wages working conditions coloured labour number industries intercolonial conference colonies agreed extend restrictions chinese immigration


force unified single gauge railway network defence purposes federal council australasia formed powers new south wales south australia declined joinsir henry parkes delivering first resolution federation conference melbourne march obstacle federation fear smaller colonies would dominated new south wales victoria queensland particular although generally favouring white australia policy wished maintain exception south sea islander workers sugar cane industry another major barrier


destroyers government 's surplus revenue act provided naval expenditure fisher labor government increased naval budget established royal australian navy october navy 's first battle cruiser ''australia'' arrived sydney harbour accompanied new light cruisers ''sydney'' ''melbourne'' deakin proposed compulsory military training home defence measure supported watson hughes labor party labor party adopted measure annual conference fisher government expanded system compulsory military


july fromelles diversionary attack battle somme aif suffered casualties hours costly single encounter australian military history ref name bill gammage ''the broken years'' pp penguin australia ref elsewhere somme australians killed wounded seven weeks attacks german positions spring germans retreated hindenburg line pursuing australian troops engaged first battle bullecourt second battle bullecourt suffering casualties summer autumn australian troops


camps war upright october fisher labor government introduced ''war precautions act'' gave power make regulations securing public safety defence commonwealth billy hughes replaced fisher prime minister october regulations act increasingly used censor publications penalise public speech suppress organisations government considered detrimental war effort business uncertainty enlistment young male workers disruption shipping export markets led decline economic output economy contracted per


major party save labor party generally operated coalition liberal party since becoming major party government australia particularly queensland significant effects war included ongoing industrial unrest included victorian police strike industrial disputes characterised australia major strikes occurred waterfront coalmining timber industries late union movement established australian council trade unions actu response nationalist government 's efforts change working conditions reduce power


unions consumerism entertainment culture new technologies characterised united states also found australia prohibition implemented australia though anti alcohol forces successful hotels closed nbsp pm closed altogether city suburbs fledgling film industry declined decade million australians attending cinemas weekly venues royal commission failed assist industry begun brightly release world 's first feature film story kelly gang atrophied


uk king george v king canada australia achieved independent sovereign nation status world war statute westminster formalised balfour declaration report resulting imperial conference british empire leaders london defined dominions british empire following way autonomous communities within british empire equal status way subordinate one another aspect domestic external affairs though united common allegiance crown freely associated members british commonwealth nations


however australia ratify statute westminster according historian frank crowley australians little interest redefining relationship britain crisis world war ii australia act removed remaining links british parliament australian states february june northern territory divided north australia central australia latitude new south wales one territory surrendered namely jervis bay territory comprising hectares external territories added norfolk island


saw shift agriculture manufacturing chief employer australian economy shift consolidated increased investment commonwealth government defence armaments manufacture lyons saw restoration australia 's exports key economic recovery phar lap c debate extent reached unemployment australia often cited peaking per cent trade union figures often quoted people thereregard figures wildly understating extent unemployment wrote historian wendy lowenstein collection


youngest three services navy included two heavy cruisers four light cruisers service best equipped war battle indian ocean november fearing japanese intentions pacific menzies established independent embassies tokyo washington receive independent advice developments ref name primeministersnaagovau ref gavin long argues labor opposition urged greater national self reliance buildup manufacturing emphasis army raaf chief general staff john lavarack also advocated november labor leader john curtin said dependence


election january menzies flew britain discuss weakness singapore 's defences arriving london blitz menzies invited winston churchill 's british war cabinet duration visit returning australia threat japan imminent australian army suffering badly greek crete campaigns menzies approached labor party form war cabinet unable secure support unworkable parliamentary majority menzies resigned prime minister coalition held office another month independents switched allegiance john curtin


philippines general douglas macarthur formulate pacific defence plan australia march curtin agreed place australian forces command general macarthur became supreme commander south west pacific curtin thus presided fundamental shift australia 's foreign policy macarthur moved headquarters melbourne march american troops began massing australia late may japanese midget submarines sank accommodation vessel daring raid sydney harbour june two japanese submarines briefly shelled sydney 's eastern suburbs city


meet defence requirements ref name john robertson p minister war organisation industry john dedman introduced degree austerity government control previously unknown extent nicknamed man killed father christmas may uniform tax laws introduced australia state governments relinquished control income taxation significance decision greater made throughout war added extensive powers federal government greatly reduced financial autonomy states manufacturing grew significantly war


politically robert menzies liberal party australia dominated much immediate post war era defeating labor government ben chifley part labor proposal nationalise banks following crippling coal strike led australian communist party menzies became country 's longest serving prime minister liberal party coalition rural based country party every federal election united states early allegations communist influence society saw tensions emerge politics refugees soviet dominated eastern europe


ill health arthur calwell succeeded leader young gough whitlam deputy menzies presided period sustained economic boom beginnings sweeping social change arrivals rock roll music television australian country music singer slim dusty would become musical embodiment rural australia australia 's first international music chart hit bush ballad pub beer rock roller johnny o'keefe 's wild one became first local recording reach national charts peaking ref name kent ref australian


inflation rate hit per cent government began negotiations us billion foreign loans order fund state development australia 's mineral energy resources minister rex connor conducted secret discussions loan broker pakistan treasurer jim cairns misled parliament issue arguing government incompetent following loans affair opposition liberal country party coalition delayed passage government 's money bills senate government would promise new election whitlam refused deadlock ended government controversially dismissed governor general john


boom commodity prices sharp increase real wages international recession collapse resources boom severe drought eastern australia saw unemployment rise government responded keynesian deficit spending budget unemployment annual inflation exceeded per cent federal elections march coalition government comfortably defeated labor popular new leader bob hawke labor government bob hawke soviet leader mikhail gorbachev hawke went become longest serving labor prime minister hawke government


pursued mixture free market reforms consensus politics featuring summits government representatives business leaders trade unions non government organisations order reach consensus key issues economic policy tax reform centrepiece policy mix accord trade unions wage demands would curtailed return increased social benefits welfare payments increased better targeted low incomes retirement benefits scheme superannuation extended employees new universal health insurance scheme medicare introduced ref name ref treasurer paul keating oversaw


aboriginal communities howard government launched northern territory intervention order create safe environment indigenous children government 's response criticised co chairs report received divided response indigenous community supported labor opposition honouring commitment made election campaign howard government set people 's convention australian republic resulting referendum republic failed howard avowed monarchist became australian prime minister publicly oppose constitutional amendment put people prime minister


government malcolm turnbull takes selfie tr n quang donald trump xi jinping november new turnbull government promised promote smart agile innovative australia jobs growth government announced national innovation science agenda delivered budget featuring cuts company tax however elections july saw government returned majority one minority senate making difficult secure passage government legislation following national postal plebiscite government legalised sex marriage december


rights privileges accepting responsibilities observing customs influenced beliefs hopes loyalties australians key decade indigenous rights demand change led indigenous activists organisations federal council advancement aborigines torres strait islanders menzies government 's ''commonwealth electoral act'' gave indigenous people right vote federal elections queensland became last state confer state voting rights aboriginal people ref name autogenerated ref yolngu people arnhem land sent


year year leases key issues indigenous communities recognised land rights included security title protection culturally significant sites right veto adequately compensated mining development land compensation previous dispossession land unresolved issue high court australia handed decision mabo case holding indigenous native title survived reception english law continued exist unless extinguished conflicting law interests land keating government passed native title act


sought trace origins distinctive democratic national ethos experiences convicts bushrangers gold diggers drovers shearers marxist historians bob gollan ian turner explored relationship labour movement radical nationalist politics rapid expansion university history departments saw increasing diversity interpretations specialisations australian history number academic historians still worked within imperial history tradition others explored contribution liberal conservative traditions australia 's distinctive political cultural economic


also revival aboriginal history notable works include charles rowley 's ''the destruction aboriginal society'' henry reynolds' ''the side frontier'' peter reid 's work aboriginal children removed parents indigenous settler relations remains important field reid states past decades historians indigenous australia increasingly explored local histories changing internal relations individuals family clan community academic history continued influenced british american european trends historical method modes interpretation post structuralist ideas


historians mckenna macintyre others point st century historical works created academic historians public conceptions australia 's history likely shaped popular histories historical fiction drama media internet museums public institutions popular histories amateur historians regularly outsell work academic historians internet developments digital technology mean individuals community groups readily research produce distribute historical works local histories family histories proliferated recent decades survey university


take view apologise howard repeated criticism black armband history context political controversies indigenous native title stolen generations stating contemporary australians held accountable wrongs committed past generations ref name number historians including henry reynolds elaine thompson watson responded publicly variously accusing prime minister seeking rewrite history exclude critical analysis australia 's past misrepresenting recent australian historiography political purposes however historian patrick


systematically reworking collection stating want people come feeling good australia ref name devineapr ref see also timeline australian history economic history australia immigration history australia military history australia australian telegraphic history history broadcasting australia territorial evolution australia australian archaeology list towns cities australia year foundation women australia history monarchy australia history oceania whaling australia list conflicts australia references reference books barker anthony ''what happened chronology australia '' allen unwin https wwwquestiacom pmqsta online edition bambrick susan


biography voc ship nijmegen sun dutch bontekoe willem ysbrandsz ''memorable description east indian voyage '' translated dutch cb bodde hodgkinson introduction notes pieter geyl london g routledge sons dash mike ''batavia 's graveyard true story mad heretic led history 's bloodiest mutiny'' new york crown day alan ''the z discovery exploration australia'' scarecrow press de vlamingh willem ''de ontdekkingsreis van willem hesselsz de vlamingh de jaren '' edited g nter schilder vols


'maritime archaeology behavior crisis wreck voc ship batavia ' john grattan robin torrence eds ''natural disasters cultural change'' new york routledge pp nbsp green jeremy n 'the voc ship batavia wrecked houtman abrolhos western australia' international journal nautical archaeology green jeremy n 'the dutch sailing blunders' nonja peters ed ''the dutch '' crawley university western australia press guy richard 'calamitous voyages social space shipwreck mutiny narratives dutch east india company'


unwin https wwwquestiacom pmqsta online edition crowley frank ed ''a documentary history australia'' vol melbourne wren ''v colonial australia v colonial australia v colonial australia v modern australia v modern australia '' daniels kay ed ''australia 's women documentary history selection personal letters diary entries pamphlets official records government police reports speeches radio talks'' nd ed u queensland press pp first edition entitled ''uphill way documentary history women australia'' teale ruth ed ''colonial eve sources women


behavior ref name mw agent based models less concerned predictive accuracy instead emphasize theoretical development mathematician political scientist robert axelrod evolutionary biologist wd hamilton published major paper ''science'' titled evolution cooperation used agent based modeling approach demonstrate social cooperation based upon reciprocity established stabilized prisoner 's dilemma game agents followed simple rules self interest axelrod hamilton demonstrated individual agents following simple rule set cooperate first turn thereafter replicate partner 's previous action able

Social science
Sociology
Social transformation
Computational sociology


develop norms cooperation sanctioning absence canonical sociological constructs demographics values religion culture preconditions mediators cooperation ref name cooperation throughout scholars like william sims bainbridge kathleen carley michael macy john skvoretz developed multi agent based models generalized reciprocity prejudice social influence organizational information processing nigel gilbert published first textbook social simulation ''simulation social scientist'' established relevant journal journal artificial societies social simulation data mining social network analysis independent developments computational models social


systems social network analysis emerged advances graph theory statistics studies social structure distinct analytical method articulated employed sociologists like james coleman harrison white linton freeman j clyde mitchell mark granovetter ronald burt barry wellman increasing pervasiveness computing telecommunication technologies throughout demanded analytical techniques network analysis multilevel modeling could scale increasingly complex large data sets recent wave computational sociology rather employing simulations uses network analysis advanced


levels readability possibility detect mood shifts vast population analysing twitter content demonstrated well analysis vast quantities historical newspaper content pioneered dzogang et al showed periodic structures automatically discovered historical newspapers similar analysis performed social media revealing strongly periodic structures challenges computational sociology field study faces set challenges ref name mcss conte rosaria et al https linkspringercom content pdf fepjst fe pdf manifesto computational social science european physical journal special topics ref challenges need


effective valuable innovations innovation form new data analytics tools better models algorithms advent innovation boom scientific community large impact society one major challenges computational sociology modelling social processes various law policy makers would able see efficient effective paths issue new guidelines mass general would able evaluate gain fair understanding options presented front enabling open


'''yiddish literature''' encompasses belles lettres written yiddish language ashkenazic jewry related middle high german history yiddish roots central europe locus centuries eastern europe evident literature generally described three historical phases old yiddish literature haskalah hasidic literature modern yiddish literature firm dates periods hard pin old yiddish said existed roughly haskalah hasidic literature modern yiddish

Humanities
Languages and literature
Yiddish Literature


result much earliest original writing yiddish owes much german theatre classic yiddish writers three classic writers still height first true movement modern yiddish literature sprang new york sweatshop poets school come called immigrant workers experienced first hand inhumane working conditions factories day leading members group morris rosenfeld morris winchevsky david edelstadt joseph bovshover work centers subject proletarian oppression


struggle uses styles victorian verse producing rhetoric highly stylized result little read understood today simultaneously warsaw group writers centered around l peretz took yiddish another level modern experimentation included david pinski ansky sholem asch im weissenberg later warsaw group di chaliastre gang included notables israel joshua singer peretz hirshbein melech ravitch uri zvi grinberg went write work hebrew like new york counterpart di yunge young


part yiddish poet generally taken based yankev glatshteyn yiddish critics complained excessive sex superstition singer work felt brought yiddish literature general disrepute addition singer habit presenting american press last yiddish writer irksome dozens writers still living working time spite squabbles extent continue years death protagonists scholars yiddish today would agree awarding


nobel prize singer brought unprecedented amount attention yiddish literature served heighten interest field generally many scholars believe justified prize basis part singer oeuvre available translation represents accomplished works contemporary writing yiddish influenced yiddish literature last prewar european born writers published still publishing early st century include canadian authors chava rosenfarb simcha simchovitch grunia slutzky kohn israeli writers including tzvi ayznman aleksander shpiglblat rivka


yiddish literature late th century little return flow english except bilingual writers chose write english anzia yezierska ab cahan poet irena klepfisz born polish speaking jewish parents nazi occupied poland learned yiddish school immigrating united states influenced language work also translates poetry yiddish currently many young writers little knowledge yiddish influenced yiddish literature translation nathan englander jonathan safran foer exception


der univ als ms gedr european literature literature


fire safety equipment construction site china property loss caused fire '''fire safety''' set practices intended reduce destruction caused fire fire safety measures include intended prevent ignition uncontrolled fire used limit development effects fire starts fire safety measures include planned construction building implemented structures already standing taught occupants building threats fire safety

Applied science
Public administration
Fire safety


provide specialized information case hospital fire provide information location things like nuclear medicine ward addition fire safety plans also greatly improve safety fire fighters according fema percent fire fighter deaths occurred due structural collapse fire fighter got lost fire safety plans outline possible structural hazards well give fire fighter knowledge building fire safety plans fire code north america alone


spitzer 's ''stilstudien'' ''style studies'' earliest example ' 'discourse analysis'' da michel foucault translated french however term first came general use following publication series papers zellig harris reporting work developed transformational grammar late formal equivalence relations among sentences coherent discourse made explicit using sentence transformations put text canonical form words sentences equivalent information appear column array work progressed next four

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Discourse analysis


'''substantive law''' set laws governs members society behave ref name scsp substantive law vs procedural law definitions differences studycom https wwwgooglecom searchsourceid navclient aq oq substantive law procedural ie utf rlz guea enus us q substantive law procedural gs l hp j l tsochl rhla gws rd ssl ref contrasted procedural law set procedures making administering enforcing substantive law ref name scsp substantive law defines rights responsibilities civil law crimes punishments criminal law ref name scsp may codified statutes exist precedent common law see also substantive rights notes references common law legal terminology american legal terminology


relate drug response based genetic influences pharmacogenetics focuses single drug gene interactions pharmacogenomics encompasses genome wide association approach incorporating genomics epigenetics dealing effects multiple genes drug response ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name pharmacogenetics pharmacogenomics factsheet ref pharmacogenomics aims develop rational means optimize drug therapy respect patients' genotype ensure maximum efficiency minimal adverse effects ref name pmid ref utilization pharmacogenomics hoped pharmaceutical drug treatments deviate dubbed one dose fits approach pharmacogenomics also attempts eliminate trial error method

Applied science
Medicine and health
Pharmaceutical sciences
Pharmacogenomics


ref enzyme fraction drug metabolism example drugs cyp c tolbutamide ibuprofen mefenamic acid tetrahydrocannabinol losartan diclofenac cyp c mephenytoin amitriptyline diazepam omeprazole proguanil hexobarbital propranolol imipramine cyp debrisoquine metoprolol sparteine propranolol encainide codeine dextromethorphan clozapine desipramine haloperidol amitriptyline imipramine cyp erythromycin ethinylestradiol nifedipine triazolam cyclosporine amitriptyline imipramine cyp erythromycin ethinylestradiol nifedipine triazolam cyclosporine amitriptyline aldosterone cyp b cyp b plays important role metabolism drugs including anti hiv


mercaptopurine gemcitabine cytarabine respectively described highly polymorphic strong body evidence suggests patients affected genetic polymorphisms experience severe lethal toxicities upon drug intake pre therapeutic screening help reduce risk treatment related toxicities adaptive dosing strategies ref name pmid ref applications list provides commonly known applications pharmacogenomics improve drug safety reduce adrs tailor treatments meet patients' unique genetic pre disposition identifying optimal dosing improve drug discovery targeted human disease improve proof principle efficacy trials pharmacogenomics may


increased function gene morphine elevate life threatening fatal amounts became evident death three children august polypharmacy potential role pharmacogenomics may play would reduce occurrence polypharmacy theorized tailored drug treatments patients need take several medications intended treat condition could potentially minimize occurrence adrs improved treatment outcomes save costs avoiding purchasing extraneous medications example


hl fhir references reading external links journals genomics pharmacology pharmacy


areas asian continent northern part continent covering much siberia also inaccessible steppe nomads due dense forests tundra areas siberia sparsely populated centre periphery kept separate mountains deserts caucasus himalaya karakum desert gobi desert formed barriers steppe horsemen could cross difficulty technologically culturally city dwellers advanced could little militarily defend mounted hordes steppe however lowlands


flooding era marks vedic period india lasted roughly bce period sanskrit language developed vedas written epic hymns told tales gods wars basis vedic religion would eventually sophisticate develop hinduism china vietnam also centres metalworking dating back neolithic age first bronze drums called dong son drums uncovered around red river delta regions vietnam southern china relate prehistoric dong son culture


turkey indus river central asia th th centuries bce persian politics included tolerance cultures highly centralized government significant infrastructure developments later darius great 's rule territories integrated bureaucracy developed nobility assigned military positions tax collection carefully organized spies used ensure loyalty regional officials primary religion persia time zoroastrianism developed philosopher zoroaster introduced early form monotheism area religion banned animal sacrifice use


th century using moveable type printing five hundred years gutenberg created press buddhism taoism confucianism dominant philosophies far east middle ages marco polo first westerner travel orient return amazing stories different culture accounts published late th early th centuries first widely read throughout europe western asia middle east byzantine sassanian empires ad arabian peninsula surrounding middle east near east regions saw dramatic change


plagued turko mongol timur ferocious raids another group turks arisen well ottomans central asia mongol empire turco mongol residual states domains th century mongol empire conquered large part asia th century area extending china europe medieval asia kingdom khans never person controlled much land genghis khan built power unifying separate mongol tribes expanding kingdom south west grandson kublai khan controlled lands china burma


non traditional ruling classes muslim conquest indian subcontinent mainly took place th century onwards though earlier muslim conquests include limited inroads modern afghanistan pakistan umayyad campaigns india time rajput kingdoms th century major economic military powers like delhi sultanate bengal sultanate seen established search wealth led voyages christopher columbus east asia china china saw rise fall sui tang song yuan dynasties therefore improvements bureaucracy


would fight control china five dynasties ten kingdoms period liao song jin dynasties china proper reunited song dynasty although lost territories north could defeat one nomadic tribes liao dynasty highly sinicized khitan people song would pay tribute avoid invasion thus set precedent nomadic kingdoms oppress song also saw revival confucianism form neo confucianism effect


dominated china 's bureaucracy born peasant uneducated nevertheless confucian scholars necessary china 's bureaucracy reestablished well reforms would improve exam systems make important entering bureaucracy ever exams became rigorous cut harshly cheating excelled highly appraised finally hongwu also directed power towards role emperor end corrupt influences bureaucrats society economy hongwu emperor perhaps sympathy common folk


goryeo joseon sejong great created hangul modern korean alphabet likewise joseon dynasty saw several improvements science technology like sun clocks water clocks rain measuring systems star maps detailed records korean small villages ninth king seongjong accomplished first complete korean law code culture people 's lives improved japan toyotomi hideyoshi invaded korea war imjin war war joseon long peace like pax romana joseon ready war joseon lost


japanese army conquered seoul whole korean peninsula danger yi sun sin renowned general korea defeated japanese fleet southern korea coast even ships vs ships incredible battle called battle myeongnyang ming dynasty helped joseon japan lost battle toyotomi hideyoshi 's campaign korea failed tokugawa shogunate later began korea hurt lot imjin war long manchurian people invaded joseon called qing invasion joseon first invasion sake qing


trade imperial control much india commercial colonization india commenced battle plassey nawab bengal surrendered dominions british east india company company granted ' 'diwani'' right collect revenue bengal bihar company established capital calcutta appointed first governor general warren hastings became directly involved governance robert clive mir jafar battle plassey francis hayman maratha states following anglo maratha wars eventually


lost british east india company third anglo maratha war rule lasted indian rebellion consequent government india act british government assumed task directly administering india new british raj ref name wdl ref stamford raffles established singapore key trading post britain rivalry dutch however rivalry cooled anglo dutch treaty demarcated respective interests southeast asia onwards pace colonization shifted significantly higher


british bombardment invasion emperor choice sue peace resulting exile lin making treaty nanking ceded british control hong kong opened trade diplomacy european countries including germany france usa inner manchuria northeast china came influence russia building chinese eastern railway harbin vladivostok empire japan replaced russian influence region result russo japanese war japan laid south manchurian railway


modern china fall rise great power present'' rd ed popular history gilbert marc jason '' south asia world history'' oxford goldin peter b ''central asia world history'' oxford holcombe charles ''a history east asia origins civilization twenty first century'' huffman james l ''japan world history'' oxford jansen marius b ''japan china war peace '' karl rebecca e creating asia china world beginning twentieth century ''american historical review''


regime fulgencio batista since principal autocrat cuba since cuban economy focused cultivation sugar sold american market twentieth century despite repeal platt amendment united states still considerable influence cuba politics everyday life fact cuba reputation brothel united states place americans could find sorts licit illicit pleasures provided cash despite socially advanced constitution

Humanities
History
Latin American history


cuba plagued corruption interruption constitutional rule autocrats like batista batista began final turn head government coup coalition formed revolutionaries hoped restore constitution reestablish democratic state free cuba american influence revolutionaries succeeded toppling batista january castro initially declared non socialist initiated program agrarian reforms nationalizations may alienated eisenhower administration resulted united states breaking diplomatic relations


augusto de queiroz national congress elected may considered conservative since democratization movement noting increase number parliamentarians linked conservative segments ruralists military police religious subsequent economic crisis investigations corruption scandals led right wing movement sought rescue ideas economic liberalism conservatism opposition left wing policies see also historiography latin america historiography colonial spanish america latin american economy latin america united kingdom relations list historians inclusive major historians list history journals latin america


studies'' halper n donghi tulio ''the contemporary history latin america'' durham duke university press herring hubert ''a history latin america beginnings present'' kaufman heidi slettedahl macpherson eds ''britain americas culture politics history'' vol pp encyclopedic coverage mignolo walter ''the idea latin america'' oxford wiley blackwell miller rory ''britain latin america nineteenth twentieth centuries'' london longman miller shawn william ''an environmental history latin america'' new york cambridge university press schwaller john frederick ''the history


way whole classes prototypes blocks modules etc designed specifically facilitate even enforce oo methods examples ruby scala smalltalk eiffel emerald jade self raku languages designed mainly oo programming procedural elements examples java python c c delphi object pascal vbnet languages historically procedural languages extended oo features examples php perl visual basic derived basic matlab cobol fortran abap ada pascal languages features objects classes methods inheritance distinctly original form examples oberon oberon

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Object-oriented programming


facilitates direct real world mapping see criticism section real world mapping even worthy goal bertrand meyer argues ''object oriented software construction'' ref name meyer meyer second edition p ref program model world model part world reality cousin twice removed time principal limitations oop noted example circle ellipse problem difficult handle using oop 's concept inheritance however niklaus wirth popularized adage known wirth 's law software getting slower rapidly hardware becomes


thus makes sense say anthropology always extent politics even evidently case today notable political anthropologists notable political anthropologists include marc ab l f g bailey georges balandier jeremy boissevain john borneman robert l carneiro pierre clastres e e evans pritchard meyer fortes ted c lewellen carolyn nordstrom joan vincent see also political sociology legal anthropology notes references http wwwpoliticalanthropologyorg journal international political anthropology ab l marc anthropologie de l' tat paris armand colin ab l marc la vie quotidienne au parlement europ en paris hachette ab l marc state alan barnard

Social science
Anthropology
Political Anthropology


bureaucratic power lesotho minneapolis university minnesota press fortes meyer e e evans pritchard eds african political systems oxford clarendon press hart keith political economy west african agriculture cambridge cambridge university press herzfeld michael social production indifference exploring symbolic roots western bureaucracy chicago university chicago press horvath b thomassen mimetic errors liminal schismogenesis political anthropology trickster international political anthropology leach edmund political systems highland burma study kachin social structure


compulsory education organizers believe military education bring benefits experiences cannot obtained normal class like setback education moreover participants able learn survival skills military education like co operations resilience help participants improve capabilities military personnel respective roles recruit training primary initial form military training recruit training makes use various conditioning techniques resocialize trainees military system ensure obey orders without hesitation teach basic military skills ref

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Military education and training


endodontics oral maxillofacial surgery ralph frederick sommer early developer endodontics regenerative endodontics root canal references external links organizations https wwwaaeorg american association endodontists https wwwaaeorg certboard american board endodontics http wwwbritishendodonticsocietyorguk british endodontic society http wwwcaendoca canadian academy endodontics http wwwe eeu european society endodontology http wwwiacdein indian association conservative dentistry endodontics http wwwifeaendoorg international federation endodontic associations publications http wwwendodonticsjournalcom journal endodontics research jofer https onlinelibrarywileycom journal international endodontic journal

Applied science
Medicine and health
Dentistry
Endodontics


securing germination order germinate seed requires suitable conditions temperature moisture aeration seeds many species light also necessary facilitates germination seeds species ref name schopmeyer ref spruces exacting light requirements germinate without light white spruce seed germinated nbsp f nbsp c nbsp f nbsp c continuous stratification one year longer developed radicles less long cold room ref name macarthur ref exposed light germinants developed chlorophyll normally phototropic continued elongation survival

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Silviculture


short medium terms germinant needs continuing supply moisture freedom lethal temperature enough light generate sufficient photosynthate support respiration growth enough generate lethal stress seedling freedom browsers tramplers pathogens stable root system shade important survival young seedlings ref name arn ref ref name ref longer term must adequate supply essential nutrients absence smothering undisturbed forest decayed windfallen stemwood provides favorable seedbed germination survival moisture supply dependable


suitable tree genetics good environmental fit planted seeded trees forest stand wrong genotype lead failed regeneration poor trees prone pathogens undesired outcomes artificial regeneration common method involving planting dependable natural regeneration planting involve using seedlings nursery un rooted cuttings seeds whichever method chosen assisted tending techniques also known intermediate stand treatments fundamental genetic consideration artificial regeneration seed planting stock must adapted


deneke fj parkerson rh case history excellent white spruce cone seed crop interior alaska cone seed production germination seedling survival usda serv pacific nw range exp sta portland gen tech rep pnw p ref ref name arm armson ka sadreika v forest tree nursery soil management related practices metric edition ont min nat resour div manage branch toronto p ref ref name simp simpson jd wang bsp daigle bi long term storage various canadian hardwoods conifers seed sci technol ref heit ref name heit heit ce laboratory


tree response competition terms absolute height basal area zedaker ref name zed zedaker sm growth development young douglas fir relation intra inter specific competition oregon state univ corvallis phd thesis cited morris macdonald orig seen ref brand ref name brand brand dg kehoe p connors coniferous afforestation leads soil acidification central ontario j res ref sought quantify crop tree size environmental influences using relative growth measures tending tending term applied pre harvest silvicultural treatment forest crop trees


varying feet ref name kittredge ref kittredge recommended fewer established trees per acre ha present early life plantation insure least trees per acre ha planted survival may expected least ac ha half expected live ref name toum toumey jw korstian cf seeding planting practice forestry rd ed wiley son new york ny p ref


operation artificially reduces number trees growing stand aim hastening development remainder goal thinning control amount distribution available growing space altering stand density foresters influence growth quality health residual trees also provides opportunity capture mortality cull commercially less desirable usually smaller malformed trees unlike regeneration treatments thinnings intended establish new tree crop create permanent canopy openings thinning greatly influences ecology micro meteorology


spruce whose first leaves shade base stem soil surface surface temperatures sandy soils occasion reach lethal temperatures nbsp c nbsp c common methods harvesting silvicultural regeneration methods combine harvest timber stand establishment forest proper practice sustainable forestry mitigate potential negative impacts harvest methods impacts land residual stand practice sustainable forestry limits impacts values forest maintained perpetuity silvicultural prescriptions


felled daylight night shift operations continue without danger trespassing beyond block productivity equipment maximized units work independently one another clearcutting even aged regeneration method employ either natural artificial regeneration involves complete removal forest stand one time clearcutting biologically appropriate species typically regenerate stand replacing fires major disturbances lodgepole pine ''pinus contorta'' alternatively clearcutting change dominating species stand introduction non native invasive species shown


blodgett experimental forest near georgetown california additionally clearcutting prolong slash decomposition expose soil erosion impact visual appeal landscape remove essential wildlife habitat particularly useful regeneration tree species douglas fir ''pseudotsuga menziesii'' shade intolerant addition general public 's distaste even aged silviculture particularly clearcutting likely result greater role uneven aged management public lands well across europe parts north america even aged production orientated intensively managed plantations beginning regarded way old


number size trees harvested determined reference data collected every tree every stand measured every seven years ref name bio biolley h l'am nagement des ts par la thode exp rimentale et sp cialement la thode du contr le paris attinger fr res p ref designed applied boreal mixedwoods described briefly illustrate degree sophistication applied european foresters management forests development management techniques allowed stand development monitored guided sustainable paths part


also problems associated clearcutting method suited light seeded species prone windthrow selection systems selection systems appropriate uneven stand structure desired particularly need retain continuous cover forest aesthetic environmental reasons outweighs management considerations selection logging suggested greater utility shelterwood systems regenerating old growth engelmann spruce sub alpine fir essf stands southern british columbia ref name weet weetman g vyse natural regeneration p ''in ''lavender dp parish r johnson cm montgomery g vyse willis


ra winston eds regenerating british columbia 's forests univ bc press vancouver bc cited coates et al ref areas selection logging favours regeneration fir light demanding spruce ref name alex alexander rr ecology silviculture management engelmann spruce subalpine fir type central southern rocky mountains usda serv washington dc agric handb p ref ref name coat ref name glew glew dr results stand treatment white spruce alpine fir type northern interior british columbia bc dep lands water resour bc serv victoria bc manage


upland area funnels floodplain area damage ravens unburned otherwise similar areas seeding trials manitoba aimed converting aspen stands spruce aspen mixedwoods scarification duck mountain provincial forest remained receptive natural seeding many years ref name dyck dyck jr converting aspen stands white spruce aspen mixedwoods planting seeding manitoba manitoba forestry demonstration areas manitoba partnership unumbered rep p ref shelterwood general terms shelterwood system series partial cuts removes


fredericton nb inf rep x p ref ref name alex alexander rr partial cutting old growth spruce fir usda serv rocky mountain range exp sta fort collins co research paper rm p ref single tree selection single tree selection method uneven aged regeneration method suitable shade tolerant species regeneration desired typical older diseased trees removed thus thinning stand allowing younger healthy trees grow single tree selection difficult implement dense sensitive stands residual stand damage occur method also disturbs


appears two three year old may well twenty years old ref name ball ball wj kolabinski vs aerial reconnaissance softwood regeneration mixedwood sites saskatchewan dep environ serv northern res centre edmonton ab inf rep x p ref however age seem determine ability advance growth spruce respond release ref name mccaughey ref name john ref name mccaughey mccaughey ww ferguson de response advance regeneration release inland mountain west summary p ''in ''schmidt wc compiler proc future forests


subalpine zone southeastern british columbia dep environ serv victoria bc report bc r p ref ref name stett stettler rf development residual stand interior spruce alpine fir first twenty eight years following cutting inch diameter limit serv victoria bc res note p coates et al ref ratio fir spruce large however greater responsiveness release fir may subject spruce competition severe enough negate much effect release treatment even temporary relief shrub competition increased height growth rates


portion stem inches diameter size distribution major factors influencing forest fire hazard harvested sites ref name kii kiil ad weight size distribution slash white spruce lodgepole pine chron ref forest managers interested application prescribed burning hazard reduction silviculture shown method quantifying slash load kiil ref name kii kiil ad weight fuel complex year old lodgepole pine stands different densities department forestry rural development forest research laboratory calgary alberta departmental publication p ref


quickest soil depths nbsp cm nbsp cm averaged nbsp c higher respectively control sunny days daytime surface temperature maxima mound organic mat reached nbsp c nbsp c depending soil wetness shading mounds reached mean soil temperatures nbsp c nbsp cm depth five days planting control reach temperature fifty eight days planting first growing season mounds three times many days mean soil temperature greater nbsp c control microsites draper et al 's ref name drap