conley colleagues suggests reasoning behind gender differences stems negative stigma associated women engage casual sex inferences sexual capability potential sexual partner study men women equally likely accept sexual proposal individual speculated high level sexual prowess additionally women likely men accept casual sexual proposal anticipate subjected negative stigma sexually permissible women slutty ref name online dating


experiment cannot reveal true purpose subject thereby making consent given subject misinformed p nbsp baumrind criticizing use deception milgram obedience experiment argues deception experiments inappropriately take advantage implicit trust obedience given subject subject volunteers participate p nbsp practical perspective also methodological objections deception ortmann hertwig note deception strongly affect reputation individual labs profession thus contaminating participant pool p nbsp subjects experiment suspicious

Applied science
Military sciences
Strategy
Deception


december lying laboratory deception human research psychological philosophical theological perspectives https webarchiveorg web http wwwasa org asa topics ethics jasa bassetthtml asa org baumrind thoughts ethics research reading milgram 's behavioral study obedience ''american psychologist '' retrieved february psycinfo database br der deception acceptable ''american psychologist '' retrieved february psycinfo database behrens roy r ''camoupedia compendium research art architecture camouflage'' bobolink books dresser r deception research hhs final regulations ''irb ethics human research


g w cameron donald clayton cameron presented independent approach nucleosynthesis informed hoyle 's example introduced computers time dependent calculations evolution nuclear systems clayton calculated first time dependent models ' 's'' process ''r'' process ref name seeger ref well burning silicon abundant alpha particle nuclei iron group elements ref name bodansky ref ref name bodansky b ref discovered radiogenic chronologies determining age elements cross section supergiant showing nucleosynthesis elements formed key reactions version

Natural science
Space science
Stellar astrophysics
Stellar nucleosynthesis


fusion two protons form deuterium nucleus one proton plus one neutron along ejected positron neutrino ref name bohm vitense complete fusion cycle proton proton chain reaction releases nbsp mev ref name bohm vitense proton proton chain reaction cycle relatively insensitive temperature rise temperature would increase energy production method hence hydrogen fusion process occur third star 's radius occupy half star 's mass stars sun 's mass ref name aaa energy flux toward surface sufficiently low


team radiologist medical doctor completed appropriate post graduate training interprets medical images communicates findings physicians means report verbally uses imaging perform minimally invasive medical procedures nurse involved care patients imaging procedures including administration medications monitoring vital signs monitoring sedated patients ref name pmid ref radiographer also known radiologic technologist countries united states canada specially trained healthcare professional uses sophisticated technology positioning

Applied science
Medicine and health
Radiology


interventionalist united states individual completes five year residency radiology one two year fellowship ir analysis images radiologist interprets medical images modern picture archiving communication system pacs workstation san diego california plain general radiography basic technique optical density evaluation ie histogram analysis described region different optical density eg cancer metastasis bone cause radiolucency development digital radiological subtraction consists overlapping two radiographs examined region


college wayne state university school medicine weill cornell medicine uniformed services university university south carolina school medicine offer introduction radiology respective md programs campbell university school osteopathic medicine also integrates imaging material curriculum early first year radiographic exams usually performed radiographers qualifications radiographers vary country many radiographers required hold degree veterinary radiologists veterinarians specialize use x rays ultrasound mri nuclear medicine diagnostic imaging treatment disease animals


test score certain threshold offered single interview london south east recruitment office ref name oriel ref later stage applicants declare programs prefer may cases placed neighbouring region ref name oriel training programme lasts total five years time doctors rotate different subspecialities paediatrics musculoskeletal neuroradiology breast imaging first year training radiology trainees expected pass first part fellowship royal college radiologists frcr exam comprises


residency program radiologists may elect complete one two year fellowship sub specialization fields interventional radiology '''slovenia''' finishing year study medicine passing emergency medicine internship mds apply radiology residency radiology year post graduate programme involves fields radiology final board exam specialty training interventional radiology united states training interventional radiology occurs residency portion medical education gone developments society interventional radiology sir created program named clinical pathway ir modified


rejected include enough diagnostic radiology dr training proposal reworked time overall dr training revamped new proposal would lead dual dr ir specialization presented abms accepted eventually implemented ref name dimarco ref field determined old ir fellowships would terminated ref name dimarco handful programs offered interventional radiology fellowships focus training treatment children europe europe field followed pathway


mentioned cave ecosystems fragile rarity position ecosystem threatened large number human activities dam construction limestone quarrying water pollution logging disasters devastate destroy underground biological communities areas cave science speleologists also work archaeologists studying underground ruins tunnels sewers aqueducts various inlets outlets cloaca maxima rome ref name nat geographic cloaca maxim ref see also references external links https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id bgaaqbaj oi fnd pg pt dq speleology ots tjxhcka w sig np fzvv v vojcybtl xotkq v onepage q speleology f false different types erosion http cavesorg national

Natural science
Earth science
Speleology


dynamic stock flow diagram model ''new product adoption'' model article john sterman '''system dynamics''' '''sd''' approach understanding nonlinear behaviour complex systems time using stocks flows internal feedback loops table functions time delays ref name sysdyn ref overview system dynamics methodology mathematical modeling technique frame understand discuss complex issues problems originally developed help corporate managers improve understanding industrial processes sd currently used throughout public private sector policy analysis design ref name ude convenient graphical

Applied science
Business
Systems science
System dynamics


user interface gui system dynamics software developed user friendly versions applied diverse systems sd models solve problem simultaneity mutual causation updating variables small time increments positive negative feedbacks time delays structuring interactions control best known sd model probably ''the limits growth'' model forecast exponential growth population capital finite resource sources sinks perception delays would lead economic collapse st century wide variety growth scenarios system


renewable nonrenewable resources sinks disposal pollutants world 's exponentially growing population bern meeting forrester asked system dynamics could used address predicament mankind answer course could plane back bern meeting forrester created first draft system dynamics model world 's socioeconomic system called model world upon return united states forrester refined world preparation visit mit members club rome forrester called


used successfully model world economic behaviour apparent stability great moderation sudden unexpected financial crisis example growth decline companies causal loop diagram model examining growth decline life insurance company ref name tay feedback figure causal loop diagram system dynamics model created examine forces may responsible growth decline life insurance companies united kingdom number figure 's features worth mentioning first model 's


statements known ''bi'' sometime associated considered southern china ''chuci'' ascribed qu yuan c bc follower song yu fl rd century bc distinguished emotionally intense affect often full despair descriptions fantastic sections ''chu ci '' uses six character per line meter dividing lines couplets separated middle strong caesura producing driving dramatic rhythm ''shijing'' ''chuci'' remained influential throughout chinese

Humanities
Languages and literature
Chinese Literature


free old style verse well tonally regulated new style verse ''jintishi'' regardless genre tang poets notably strove perfect style poetic subjects exposed evident often without directly referring emotional thrust hand poet du fu excelled regulated verse use seven character line writing denser poems allusions aged experiencing hardship writing parade great tang poets also includes chen zi'ang wang zhihuan meng haoran bai juyi li du mu


rise monetary economy urbanization beginning song dynasty growing professionalization entertainment fostered spread printing rise literacy education china europe novel gradually became autobiographical serious exploration social moral philosophical problems chinese fiction late ming dynasty early qing dynasty varied self conscious experimental china however counterpart th century european explosion revolution romanticism novels ming early qing dynasties represented pinnacle classical chinese fiction


highlights include four great classical novels ''the romance three kingdoms'' luo guanzhong ''the water margin'' also translated ''outlaws marsh'' shi naian ''the journey west'' wu cheng'en ''the dream red chamber'' cao xueqin two novels considered classics ''jin ping mei'' ''the plum golden vase'' scoffing scholar lanling spin ''water margin'' ''rulin waishi'' ''the unofficial history scholars'' wu jingzi notable classic long short fiction


main seat beijing percent publishers regional publishing houses situated capitals provinces universities also associated presses private publishing tolerated books published among publishers almost five times thirty years ago supervised ministries commissions army controlled agencies six even independent hand private bookstores bring half income book industry china 's state run general administration press publication screens chinese literature intended


davis definition effective calculation came first proofs problems mathematics cannot effectively decided church b turing inspired techniques used g del prove incompleteness theorems independently demonstrated entscheidungsproblem effectively decidable result showed algorithmic procedure correctly decide whether arbitrary mathematical propositions true false many problems mathematics shown undecidable initial examples established markov post published independent papers showing

Formal science
Computer science
Theory of computation
Computability theory


integers solution integers list undecidable problems gives additional examples problems computable solution study mathematical constructions effectively performed sometimes called '' 'recursive mathematics''' ''handbook recursive mathematics'' ershov ''et al'' covers many known results field turing computability main form computability studied computability theory introduced turing set natural numbers said ''computable set'' also called ' 'decidable'' ' 'recursive'' ''turing computable'' set turing machine


possible simulate program execution produce infinite list programs halt thus halting problem example ''computably enumerable ce set'' set enumerated turing machine terms computably enumerable include ' 'recursively enumerable'' ' 'semidecidable'' equivalently set ce range computable function ce sets although decidable general studied detail computability theory areas research beginning theory computable sets functions described


ask questions ''oracle'' particular set natural numbers oracle machine may ask questions form ''n'' oracle set question immediately answered correctly even oracle set computable thus oracle machine noncomputable oracle able compute sets turing machine without oracle cannot informally set natural numbers ''a'' ''turing reducible'' set ''b'' oracle machine correctly tells whether numbers ''a'' run ''b''


special properties constructed ''hyperimmune free degrees'' every function computable relative degree majorized unrelativized computable function ''high degrees'' relative one compute function ''f'' dominates every computable function ''g'' sense constant ''c'' depending ''g'' ''g x lt f x '' ''x gt c'' ''random degrees'' containing algorithmically random sets '' generic'' degrees generic sets degrees halting problem limit computable sets study arbitrary necessarily computably enumerable turing degrees involves study turing jump given


studied gold 's pioneering paper onwards generalizations turing computability computability theory includes study generalized notions field arithmetic reducibility hyperarithmetical reducibility recursion theory described sacks generalized notions include reducibilities cannot executed turing machines nevertheless natural generalizations turing reducibility studies include approaches investigate analytical hierarchy differs arithmetical hierarchy permitting quantification sets natural numbers addition quantification individual numbers areas linked theories well orderings trees


acro dance technology antennas aerial radio radio ''antenna'' transducer transmits receives electromagnetic waves aerial television air television reception antenna mechanical aerial fire apparatus firefighting rescue aerial work platform positioning workers optical aerial photography aerial telescope uses aerial georgia community united states ''aerial'' magazine poetry magazine ''aerials'' film emirati science fiction film ''aerial'' tv ident bbc two see also aerial bombing cities antenna disambiguation

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Aerial


travel http wwwclasufledu university florida college liberal arts sciences compilation history rel course accessed july ref holidays tourism ref name ufl vacationing ref name ufl research travel ref name ufl gathering information visiting people volunteer travel charity migration begin life somewhere else religious pilgrimages ref name ufl mission trips business travel ref name ufl trade ref name ufl commuting reasons obtain health care ref name ufl waging fleeing war enjoyment traveling travelers may use human powered transport walking bicycling vehicles public transport automobiles trains ferries boats cruise ships


traveling minstrels practiced never ending tour armies ranged far wide various crusades sundry wars ref name matador pilgrimages common european islamic world involved streams travelers locally canterbury tales style internationally late th century became fashionable young european aristocrats wealthy upper class men travel significant european cities part education arts literature known grand tour included cities london paris venice florence rome however french revolution brought


relation social world material environment ref name gross first english language use term ecology credited american chemist founder field home economics ellen swallow richards richards first introduced term oekology subsequently developed term human ecology ref name merchant term human ecology first appeared ellen swallow richards' ''sanitation daily life'' defined study surroundings human beings effects produce lives men richard 's use term recognized humans part


anti theory rather ongoing attempt formulate synthesize apply theory bridge widening schism man nature new human ecology emphasizes complexity reductionism focuses changes stable states expands ecological concepts beyond plants animals include people application epidemiology public health application ecological concepts epidemiology similar roots disciplinary applications carl linnaeus played seminal role however term appears come common use medical public health literature mid twentieth century


called technoecosystems containing technosols technodiversity exists within technoecosystems ref name odum ref name rossiter ref direct parallel concept ecosphere human civilization also created technosphere ref name stairs ref ref name adams ref ref name lugoa ref ref name zabel ref way human species engineers constructs technodiversity environment threads back processes cultural biological evolution including human economy ref name rowley conwy ref ref name jablonka ref ecosystem services bumblebee pollinating flower one example ecosystem service ref width align right ecosystems planet earth coupled human environments ecosystems regulate global geophysical cycles


blockquote nature resilient system ecosystems regenerate withstand forever adapting fluctuating environments ecological resilience important conceptual framework conservation management defined preservation biological relations ecosystems persevere regenerate response disturbance time however persistent systematic large non random disturbance caused niche constructing behavior human beings including habitat conversion land development pushed many earth 's ecosystems extent resilience thresholds three planetary thresholds already crossed including biodiversity loss climate change nitrogen cycles biophysical


emotional connections varies community place community way life community collective action ref name young early years human ecology still deeply enmeshed respective disciplines geography sociology anthropology psychology economics scholars present called greater integration scattered disciplines established formal ecological research ref name young ref name liu art early writers considered art fit human ecology sears posed idea long run human ecology fact


region thought passed china way india later taken mongols chinese passed turkish peoples central asia art shadow theater brought anatolia turkish people emigrating central asia scholars claim shadow theater came anatolia th century egypt advocates view claim shadow theatre found way ottoman palaces yavuz sultan selim conquered egypt saw shadow theatre performed party

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Puppetry


life lindau lindau marionette opera founded bernard leismueller ralf hechelmann company performs large number operas well marionette ballet ''swan lake'' augsburg historic augsburg marionette theatre founded walter oehmichen continues day along adjoining puppet museum grandsons founder klaus marschall juergen marschall much earlier nearby salzburg austria salzburg marionette theatre founded professor anton aicher world famous salzburg marionette theatre still continues tradition


famous th century czech puppeteer ref name dubska responsible communicating ideas national awareness ref name dubska jind ich vesel co founded czech association friends puppet theatre advocated publication oldest specialist puppet theatre magazine still published today ''loutk '' vesel played key role founding unima international puppetry association elected first president respectively josef skupa created famous puppet characters spejbl hurv nek comical father rascal son set first modern professional puppet theatre important


australia peter scriven founded marionette theatre australia staged beautiful marionette productions ''the tintookies'' ''little fella bindi'' ''the explorers'' ''the water babies'' phillip edmiston worked alongside peter scriven marionette theatre australia went mount lavish marionette production ''the grand adventure'' umbrella company theatrestrings marionettes production opened nambour civic hall may subsequently toured sydney melbourne brisbane musical composed eric gross book


traditions heinrich von kleist wrote essay 'on marionette theatre' admiring lack self consciousness puppet puppetry developed throughout th century variety ways supported parallel development cinema television filmed media reaches larger audience ever another development starting beginning century belief puppet theatre despite popular folk roots could speak adult audiences adult experimental voice reinvigorate high art tradition actors' theatre sergei obraztsov explored concept ''kukolnost''


kantor influenced new formalist generation directors richard foreman robert wilson concerned 'object' theatrical terms putting stage finding different ways looking foreman innovatory puppeteers tony sarg waldo lanchester john wright bil baird joan baixas sergei obratsov philipe genty peter schumann dattatreya aralikatte little players jim henson dadi pudumjee julie taymor also continued develop forms content puppetry phrase 'puppet theatre' longer limited traditional forms marionettes glove rod puppets directors


attempt focus philosophical reflection smaller problems lead answers bigger questions analytic philosophy often understood contrast philosophical traditions notably continental philosophies existentialism phenomenology hegelianism history '''history analytic philosophy''' taken narrower sense th st century analytic philosophy usually thought begin rejection british idealism neo hegelian movement british idealism taught philosophers f h bradley h green dominated english philosophy late th century since beginning basic goal analytic philosophy

Humanities
Philosophy
Philosophical traditions and schools
Analytic philosophy


subtopics analytic philosophy summarized following sections philosophy mind cognitive science motivated logical positivists' interest verificationism logical behaviorism prominent theory mind analytic philosophy first half th century behaviorists tended opine either statements mind equivalent ' 'statements about'' behavior dispositions behave particular ways mental states directly equivalent behavior dispositions behave behaviorism later became much less popular favor type physicalism functionalism theories identified mental states


mind consciousness general consensus global neuronal workspace model consciousness many opinions specifics best known theories daniel dennett 's heterophenomenology fred dretske michael tye 's representationalism higher order theories either david rosenthal advocates higher order thought hot model david armstrong william lycan advocate higher order perception hop model alternative higher order theory higher order global states hogs model offered robert van gulick ethics analytic philosophy due commitments empiricism symbolic logic early analytic


philosopher science karl popper suggested falsifiability criterion judge demarcation science non science discussions philosophy science last years dominated social constructivist cognitive relativist theories science thomas samuel kuhn formulation paradigm shifts paul feyerabend epistemological anarchism significant discussions philosophy biology also undergone considerable growth particularly due considerable debate recent years nature evolution particularly natural selection daniel dennett book ''darwin 's dangerous idea''


hand centuries missions missionaries encountered various cultures attitudes accepting gospel different peoples caused theologians reflect issues society christianity anthropology christianity communicating gospel comparing christian teaching religious secular teachings made task missionaries even difficult needed solid theoretical framework within could efficiently found mission succeed spreading christianity way missiology became christian theological discipline interacted many sciences anthropology history

Applied science
Divinity
Field ministry
Missiology


subject used researching extant primates extinct ancestors two main centers primatology western primatology japanese primatology two divergent disciplines stem unique cultural backgrounds philosophies went founding although fundamentally western japanese primatology share many principles areas focus primate research methods obtaining data differ widely ref name bezerademelodaly ref western primatology origins western primatology stems primarily research north american european scientists early primate study focused primarily medical research scientists also conducted civilizing

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Primatology


strictly elimination parasites ref name kappelerschaik ref primates grooming social activity strengthens relationships amount grooming taking place members troop strong indicator alliance formation troop solidarity robin dunbar suggests link primate grooming development human language size neocortex primate 's brain correlates directly number individuals keep track socially troop chimps tribe humans ref name lindenfors ref number referred monkeysphere population exceeds


approximate answer grey squares evidence basic cognitive modules uncovered undoubtedly form solid foundation upon complex behaviors understood contradiction neuroscientist jaak panksepp argued mind computer massively modular states evidence massive modularity brain digital computer gained actual neuroscience opposed psychological studies criticises psychologists use massive modularity thesis integrating neuroscience understanding primate theory


name schiebinger londa ref changing stereotypes attention darwin 's perception sexual selection perceived sexual selection acted differently females males early research emphasized male male competition females widely believed males tend woo females females passive years dominant interpretation emphasizing competition among dominant males controlled territorial boundaries maintained order among lesser males females hand described dedicated mothers small infants sexually available males order males' dominance rank female female competition ignored schiebinger proposed


failure acknowledge female female competitions could skew notions sexual selection ignore interactions males females go beyond strict interpretation sex reproduction ref name schibinger londa ref primatologists started looking females slowly changing stereotype passive female know females active participants even leaders within groups instance rowell found female baboons determine route daily foraging ref name despret ref similarly shirley strum found male investment special relationships females greater productive payoff comparison male 's rank


study psycholinguistics interdisciplinary field consists researchers variety different backgrounds including psychology cognitive science linguistics speech language pathology discourse analysis psycholinguists study people acquire use language according following main areas language acquisition children acquire language language comprehension people comprehend language language production people produce language second language acquisition people already know one language acquire another one researcher interested language comprehension may study word recognition reading examine processes involved

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Psycholinguistics


processes understands sounds morphology study word structures especially related words ' 'dog'' ' 'dogs'' formation words based rules plural formation syntax study words combined form sentences semantics deals meaning words sentences syntax concerned formal structure sentences semantics deals actual meaning sentences pragmatics concerned role context interpretation meaning history seeking understand properties language acquisition psycholinguistics roots debates


important sentence mind completely omits sentence supplies wrong word stead seen paris thethe spring common psychological test mind often skip second especially line break two language production language production refers people produce language either written spoken form way conveys meanings comprehensible others one effective ways explain way people represent meanings using rule governed languages observing


working memory particular errors involving exchanges imply one plans one 's sentence ahead regard significant ideas eg words constitute core meaning certain extent lexicon organized semantically phonologically substitution pronunciation errors show lexicon organized meaning also form morphologically complex words assembled errors involving blending within word reflect seems rule governing construction words production also likely mental lexicon words speakers generate


imaging techniques vary spatial temporal resolutions fmri resolution thousand neurons per pixel erp millisecond accuracy methodology advantages disadvantages study psycholinguistics computational modeling computational modelling drc model reading word recognition proposed max coltheart colleagues another methodology refers practice setting cognitive models form executable computer programs programs useful require theorists explicit hypotheses used generate accurate predictions


country country united kingdom instance crown national government employees referred civil servants whereas employees local authorities counties cities similar administrations generally referred local government civil service officers public servants civil servants civil servant public servant public servant necessarily civil servant study civil service part field public service staff members non departmental public bodies sometimes called quangos may also classed civil servants purpose

Applied science
Public administration
Civil service


architect majesty 's civil service established recommendations chancellor exchequer william gladstone commissioned sir stafford northcote charles trevelyan look operation organisation civil service influenced chinese imperial examinations northcote trevelyan report made four principal recommendations recruitment basis merit determined competitive examination candidates solid general education enable inter departmental transfers recruits graded hierarchy promotion achievement rather preferment patronage purchase


also type systems algebraic data types problems software hardware specification verification background '''semi formal methods''' formalisms languages considered fully '''formal''' defers task completing semantics later stage done either human interpretation interpretation software like code test case generators taxonomy formal methods used number levels '''level ''' formal specification may undertaken program developed informally dubbed ''formal methods lite'' may cost effective

Formal science
Computer science
Logic in computer science
Formal methods


vocabulary syntax feature systems support bidirectional english logic mapping direct execution logic made explain results english business scientific level formal methods notations variety formal methods notations available specification languages abstract state machines asms computational logic applicative common lisp acl actor model alloy ansi iso c specification language acsl autonomic system specification language assl b method cadp common algebraic specification language casl esterel java modeling language jml knowledge based software assistant kbsa lustre mcrl perfect developer petri


hip implant example application biomaterials thumb right '''biomaterial''' substance engineered interact biological systems medical purpose either therapeutic treat augment repair replace tissue function body diagnostic one science '''biomaterials''' fifty years old study biomaterials called '''biomaterials science''' '''biomaterials engineering''' experienced steady strong growth history many companies investing large amounts money development new products biomaterials science encompasses elements medicine biology chemistry

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Materials Science and Engineering
Biomaterials


good biocompatibility along good strength dissolution rates desirable commonly bioactivity biomaterials gauged surface biomineralization native layer hydroxyapatite formed surface days development clinically useful biomaterials greatly enhanced advent computational routines predict molecular effects biomaterials therapeutic setting based limited ''in vitro'' experimentation self assembly self assembly common term use modern scientific community describe spontaneous aggregation particles atoms molecules colloids micelles etc without influence


may traced heart valves united states valve replacement procedures performed annually involve mechanical valve implant widely used valve bileaflet disc heart valve st jude valve mechanics involve two semicircular discs moving back forth allowing flow blood well ability form seal backflow valve coated pyrolytic carbon secured surrounding tissue mesh woven fabric called dacron du pont 's trade name polyethylene terephthalate mesh allows


young moduli tissue device coupled must closely match optimal compatibility device body whether device implanted mounted externally matching elastic modulus makes possible limit movement delamination biointerface implant tissue well avoiding stress concentration lead mechanical failure important properties tensile compressive strengths quantify maximum stresses material withstand breaking may used set stress limits device may subject within


name ayatsguides ref professional singers usually build careers around one specific musical genre classical rock although singers crossover success singing one genre professional singers usually take voice training provided voice teachers vocal coaches throughout careers voices thumb physical aspect singing well defined technique depends use lungs act air supply bellows larynx acts reed vibrator chest head cavities skeleton function amplifier

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Singing


change pitch volume loudness timbre tone sound produced sound also resonates within different parts body individual 's size bone structure affect sound produced individual singers also learn project sound certain ways resonates better within vocal tract known vocal resonation another major influence vocal sound production function larynx people manipulate different ways produce different sounds different kinds laryngeal function described different kinds vocal registers ref


whereas classical performers often sing without amplification small mid size halls popular music microphone pa system amplifier speakers used almost performance venues even small coffee house use microphone several impacts popular music one facilitated development intimate expressive singing styles crooning would enough projection volume done without microphone well pop singers use microphones range vocal styles would project without amplification making whispering


paid engagements performance opportunities agent manager often paid receiving percentage fees singer gets performing onstage singing competitions singing competition texas many television shows showcase singing ''american idol'' launched first singing reality show ''sa ga pa'' launched zee tv ref name year ref ''american idol'' contestants audition front panel judges see move next round hollywood


immune function ref name kreutz ref multinational collaboration study connection singing health established called ''advancing interdisciplinary research singing'' airs ref name airs ref singing provides physical cognitive emotional benefits participants step stage many singers forget worries focus solely song singing becoming widely known method increasing individual 's overall health wellness turn helping battle diseases cancer effectively due decreased stress releasing endorphins increased lung capacity effect brain john daniel scott among


effect health patients study explores possibility singing could help put patients best mental physical shape receive treatment need reducing stress hormones increasing quantities cytokines proteins immune system increase body 's ability fight disease singing gives physical benefits like breath control muscle movement enunciation well learning benefits processing information says musical director accompanist study enunciation speech benefits tie language benefits detailed advocated


embryos many species often appear similar one another early developmental stages using four principles modern embryology research embryology central evolutionary developmental biology evo devo studies genetic control development process eg morphogens link cell signalling roles certain diseases mutations links stem cell research embryology key gestational surrogacy sperm intended father egg intended mother fused lab forming embryo embryo put surrogate carries

Natural science
Biology
Developmental biology
Embryology


predecessors well studying developing embryos taken animals well aborted miscarried human embryos aristotle believed female supplied matter development embryo formed menstrual blood whereas semen comes male shapes matter aristotle 's belief male female made contribution actual fetus goes prior beliefs according aeschylus egyptian traditions fetus solely develops male contribution female womb simply nourishes growing fetus hand


begins value although number christian authors continued classical discussions description development embryo jacob serugh ref name kour yousef kouriyhe jakob von sarug brief den erzdiakon mar julian edessa syrisch mekka ii tuk corpus coranicum https corpuscoranicumde kontexte index sure vers available ref passing reference embryo also appears eighth hymn ephrem syrian 's ''paradise hymns'' many patristic treatments embryology continued stream greek tradition earlier greek roman view reversed


pre natal infanticide condemned tertullian held soul present moment conception quinisext council concluded pay attention subtle division whether foetus formed unformed time roman practice child exposure came end unwanted yet birthed children usually females discarded parents die liberal traditions followed augustine instead viewed animation life began th day males th day females prior th day


embryo one male one female relative proportions determine whether develops male female tractate nidda mother said provide red seed allows development skin flesh hair black part eye pupil whereas father provides white seed forms bones nerves brain white part eye finally god thought provide spirit soul facial expressions capacity hearing vision movement comprehension intelligence strands


current institutions instrumental judgments create benefits according new criterion therefore inherently subversive line analysis fully explicitly developed clarence e ayres university texas austin seminal article armen alchian argued adaptive success firms faced uncertainty incomplete information replacing profit maximization appropriate modeling assumption kenneth boulding one advocates evolutionary methods social science evident kenneth boulding 's evolutionary perspective kenneth arrow ronald coase douglass north

Social science
Economics
Evolutionary economics


overextended banks ''see also money multiplier'' gold certificates used paper currency united states certificates freely convertible gold coins early th century gold standard undermined inflation late th century fiat dollar hegemony evolved banks proliferated engaged complex transactions able profit dealings globally moment 's notice practices became mandatory ensure limit ballooning money supply number central banks since abolished reserve requirements

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy
Monetary policy


paid banks differentiated according volume lending made commercial banks end maintenance period commercial banks achieve certain lending performance threshold get discount interest rate lower standard key interest rate reason economists described tltros dual interest rates policy china also applying form dual rate policy exchange requirements influence money supply central banks may require foreign exchange receipts generally exports exchanged local


faith local currency may also policy government usually rein inflation import credible monetary policy theoretically using relative purchasing power parity ppp rate depreciation home country 's currency must equal inflation differential rate depreciation home inflation rate foreign inflation rate implies home inflation rate foreign inflation rate rate depreciation anchor variable rate depreciation therefore rate inflation home must equal rate inflation foreign country plus rate


rational rational agent clear preferences models uncertainty via expected values variables functions variables always chooses perform action optimal expected outcome among feasible actions maximize utility monetary policy analysis decisions hence traditionally rely new classical approach ref name cuthbertson ref ref name favaretto masciandaro ref ref name hommes ref however studied field behavioral economics takes account concept bounded rationality people often deviate way neoclassical theories assume ref name yellen ref humans generally able react fully rational


objective analysis would indicate results little intervention overconfidence instance cause problems relying interest rates gauge stance monetary policy low rates might mean policy easy could also signal weak economy ref name calabria examples behavioral phenomena may substantial influence monetary policy monetary policy analyses thus account fact policymakers central bankers individuals prone biases temptations sensibly influence ultimate choices setting macroeconomic interest rate targets ref name favaretto


practice climatology study nature climates nbsp local regional global nbsp natural human induced factors cause climates change climatology considers past help predict future climate change phenomena climatological interest include atmospheric boundary layer circulation patterns heat transfer radiative convective latent interactions atmosphere oceans land surface particularly vegetation land use topography chemical physical composition atmosphere related disciplines include astrophysics atmospheric physics chemistry ecology physical geography geology geophysics glaciology hydrology oceanography volcanology aeronomy aeronomy

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Atmospheric science


shown losing atmospheres space due stellar radiation much like tails comets planets may vast differences temperature day night sides produce supersonic winds although day night sides hd b appear similar temperatures indicating planet 's atmosphere effectively redistributes star 's energy around planet ref name knutson references external links http wwwstuffintheaircom chasing stormshtml atmospheric fluid dynamics applied weather maps nbsp principles advection deformation vorticity https webarchiveorg web https wwwarchivesucaredu national center atmospheric research ncar archives documents history atmospheric


multivolume high school histories japan additionally adult market manga introduction economics pornography hentai manga represented percent annual publications end sales billion per year additionally light novels often illustrations many manga fan made cell phone novels appeared early st century written cell phone users novels typically romances read young women become popular online print ''love sky'' sold millions

Humanities
Languages and literature
Japanese Literature


k b abe toyoko yamasaki yukio mishima osamu tezuka akiyuki nosaka sawako ariyoshi ayako sono b hisashi inoue kenzabur e b michiko yamamoto b kenji nakagami haruki murakami b natsuo kirino b ry murakami b ko ogawa b banana yoshimoto b mieko kawakami b awards contests japan literary contests awards authors participate awarded akutagawa prize one prestigious literary awards receives wide attention media resources aston william george ''a


trade medieval period led emergence large workshops cities florence venice nuremberg bruges groups specialized craftsmen made objects common forms repetitive duplication models defined shared training technique competitive pressures early th century led emergence italy germany pattern books collections engravings illustrating decorative forms motifs could applied wide range products whose creation took place advance application use drawing specify something

Applied science
Architecture and design
Industrial design


body panels create wide array different vehicles using stampings responsible unique automotive designs pacer gremlin matador coupe jeep cherokee complete interior eagle premier milwaukee 's brooks stevens best known milwaukee road skytop lounge car oscar mayer wienermobile designs among others viktor schreckengost designed bicycles manufactured murray bicycles murray sears roebuck company engineer ray spiller designed first truck cab engine configuration design use day schreckengost also founded cleveland


''language shift cultural reproduction socialization self syncretism papua new guinea village'' cambridge cambridge university press ref explored use two languages around children gapun village traditional language taiap spoken anywhere village thus primordially indexical gapuner identity tok pisin widely circulating official language new guinea indexical points meanings beyond immediate context ref name silverstein silverstein michael shifters linguistic categories cultural description ''meaning anthropology'' k basso ha selby eds pp albuquerque school american research university

Social science
Anthropology
Linguistic anthropology


series studies linguistic anthropologists elinor ochs bambi schieffelin addressed anthropological topic socialization process infants children foreigners become members community learning participate culture using linguistic ethnographic methods discovered processes enculturation socialization occur apart process language acquisition children acquire language culture together amounts integrated process ochs schieffelin demonstrated baby talk universal direction adaptation whether child made adapt


new york berlin de gruyter mouton ref guardado goes argue ideologies heritage languages also contain expectations desires linguistic minority families regarding relevance languages children lives well ends languages used although arguably fledgling line language ideology research work poised contribute understanding ideologies language operate variety settings social space final example third paradigm group linguistic anthropologists


javanese royal courts became emissaries speak long courts ceased exist representing throughout java highest example refined speech work joel kuipers develops theme vis vis island sumba indonesia even though pertains tewa indians arizona rather indonesians paul kroskrity 's argument speech forms originating tewa kiva underground ceremonial space forms dominant model tewa speech seen direct parallel silverstein tries find maximum theoretical significance applicability idea exemplary centers feels


talking indian identity language revitalization chickasaw renaissance university arizona press dick h making immigrants illegal small town usa journal linguistic anthropology e e hill jane h language race white public space american anthropologist hill jane h everyday language white racism wiley blackwell garc nchez inmaculada language muslim immigrant childhoods politics belonging john wiley sons ibrahim awad rhizome blackness critical ethnography hip hop culture language identity politics becoming edition new york peter lang publishing inc


first anthropologists involved language documentation within north america supported development three key materials grammars texts dictionaries known boasian trilogy language revitalization practice bringing language back common use revitalization efforts take form teaching language new speakers encouraging continued use within community one example language revitalization project lenape language course taught swathmore college pennsylvania course aims educate indigenous non indigenous students lenape language


g ed ''language culture society book readings'' prospect heights il waveland bonvillain nancy ''language culture communication meaning messages'' englewood cliffs nj prentice hall brenneis donald ronald k macaulay ''the matrix language contemporary linguistic anthropology'' boulder westview duranti alessandro ''linguistic anthropology'' cambridge cambridge university press duranti alessandro ed ''linguistic anthropology reader'' malden blackwell giglioli pier paolo ''language social context selected readings'' middlesex penguin books salzmann zdenek james stanlaw nobuko adachi ''language culture society'' westview press external links http linguisticanthropologyorg


developed dr kenneth h cooper exercise physiologist col pauline potts physical therapist united states air force cooper exercise enthusiast puzzled people good muscular strength prone perform poorly activities long distance running swimming bicycling began using bicycle ergometer measure sustained performance terms person 's ability use oxygen published ''aerobics'' included exercise programs using running walking swimming bicycling time book published increasing awareness need

Human physical performance and recreation


particular wellington group rejected nationalism curnow caxton poets ref name james ref argued new zealand poets could focus universal themes rather new zealand identity ref name nz history james k baxter famous prolific poets widely regarded today definitive new zealand poet ref name james baxter controversial figure known incorporation european myths new zealand poems interest ori culture language religious experiences establishment commune jerusalem new zealand

Humanities
Languages and literature
New Zealand Literature


widely acclaimed ''once warriors'' became successful film never print ref name ori pacific ref notable pasifika pacific islander writers connections new zealand include albert wendt alastair campbell karlo mila john pule lani wendt young courtney sina meredith oscar kightley selina tusitala marsh ref name rodger ref wendt known ''sons return home'' describes experiences young samoan man new zealand later novels short story collections formed foundations pasifika literature english ref name ori pacific fiction words new


maurice shadbolt fiona kidman joy cowley poets james k baxter allen curnow ruth gilbert ruth france magazine privatised subsequently became lifestyle magazine although continues focus literary works ref name popular another important government founded magazine ''te ao hou new world'' quarterly magazine published english ori ori affairs department first national magazine ori ref name ocnzl te ao hou ref see also ori poetry new zealand writers guild list new zealand writers references


although us jury never find defendant innocent rather guilty decided adversarial system system two parties offer version events argue case court sometimes judge panel judges sometimes jury case decided favor party offers sound compelling arguments based law applied facts case prosecutor district attorney lawyer brings charges person persons corporate

Applied science
Public administration
Criminal justice


lawyer right make final decisions regarding number fundamental points including whether testify accept plea offer demand jury trial appropriate cases defense attorney 's duty represent interests client raise procedural evidentiary issues hold prosecution burden proving guilt beyond reasonable doubt defense counsel may challenge evidence presented prosecution present exculpatory evidence argue behalf client trial defense attorney may attempt offer rebuttal prosecutor 's


determination guilt innocence typically made third party supposed disinterested function may performed judge panel judges jury panel composed unbiased citizens process varies depending laws specific jurisdiction places panel judges jury required issue unanimous decision others majority vote required america process depends state level court even agreements prosecuting defending parties nations


delaware prison c modern criminal justice system evolved since ancient times new forms punishment added rights offenders victims policing reforms developments reflected changing customs political ideals economic conditions ancient times middle ages exile common form punishment middle ages payment victim victim 's family known wergild another common punishment including violent crimes could afford buy way punishment harsh penalties included various forms corporal punishment included mutilation


u'' x v x dx u' x v x int u' x v' x dx int u' x v' x dx equiv phi uv end align math used assumption math v v math weak form p integrate parts using form green 's identities see math u math solves p may define math phi uv math math v math math int omega fv ds int omega nabla u cdot nabla v ds equiv phi uv math math nabla math denotes gradient math cdot math denotes dot product two dimensional plane math phi math turned

Formal science
Mathematics
Finite element analysis


hilbert space detailed proof nontrivial hand left hand side math int f x v x dx math also inner product time lp space math l math application riesz representation theorem hilbert spaces shows unique math u math solving therefore p solution priori member math h math using elliptic regularity smooth math f math discretization function math h math zero values endpoints blue piecewise linear approximation red p p ready discretized leads common


define math v math math v v rightarrow mathbb r v mbox continuous v x kx k mbox linear k dotsn mbox v v math define math x math math x n math observe functions math v math differentiable according elementary definition calculus indeed math v v math derivative typically defined math x x k math math k ldotsn math however derivative exists every value math x math one use derivative purpose integration parts piecewise linear function two dimensions problem p need math v math


highly irregular non convex shape name ''virtual'' derives fact knowledge local shape function basis required fact never explicitly calculated link gradient discretization method types finite element methods conforming nonconforming mixed finite element methods particular cases gradient discretization method gdm hence convergence properties gdm established series problems linear non linear elliptic problems linear nonlinear degenerate parabolic problems hold well particular finite element methods comparison finite difference method


curry howard correspondence proofs algorithms one reason particular aspect intuitionistic logic valuable enables practitioners utilize wide range computerized tools known proof assistants tools assist users verification '''generation''' large scale proofs whose size usually precludes usual human based checking goes publishing reviewing mathematical proof use proof assistants agda coq enabling modern mathematicians logicians develop prove extremely complex systems beyond feasible create check

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Mathematical logic
Intuitionistic logic


allows reasoner infer permitting new inferences could made classical logic theorem intuitionistic logic theorem classical logic conversely many tautologies classical logic theorems intuitionistic logicin particular said one intuitionistic logic 's chief aims affirm law excluded middle vitiate use non constructive proof contradiction used furnish existence claims without providing explicit examples objects proves exist say affirm


propositional logic propositional logic inference rule modus ponens mp math phi math math phi psi math infer math psi math axioms math phi chi phi math math phi chi psi phi chi phi psi math math phi land chi phi math math phi land chi chi math math phi chi phi land chi math math phi phi lor chi math math chi phi lor chi math math phi psi chi psi phi lor chi


variable math math becomes bound math phi math pred math phi exists x phi x math restriction pred optional connectives negation one wishes include connective math lnot math negation rather consider abbreviation math phi bot math enough add ' math phi bot lnot phi math ' math lnot phi phi bot math number alternatives available one wishes omit connective math bot math false example one may replace three


chi phi chi math iff math phi leftrightarrow chi chi phi math iff math phi chi chi phi phi leftrightarrow chi math iff iff desired combined single axiom math phi leftrightarrow chi phi chi land chi phi math using conjunction relation classical logic system classical logic obtained adding one following axioms math phi lor lnot phi math law excluded middle may also formulated math phi chi


also b include equivalence list connectives connectives become definable others math phi leftrightarrow psi leftrightarrow phi psi land psi phi math math phi psi leftrightarrow phi lor psi leftrightarrow psi math math phi psi leftrightarrow phi land psi leftrightarrow phi math math phi land psi leftrightarrow phi psi leftrightarrow phi math math phi land psi leftrightarrow phi lor psi leftrightarrow psi leftrightarrow phi math particular complete bases intuitionistic connectives shown alexander v kuznetsov either following connectives first one ternary second one quinary functionally complete either one serve role sole sufficient operator intuitionistic


cap text value neg right complement right text int left left text value cap text int left text value complement right right complement right text int left left x cap text int left x complement right right complement right text int left emptyset complement right text int left x complement right subseteq x complement text int mathbf r mathbf r end align math valuation formula true indeed formula valid law excluded middle ''a'' ''a'' shown ''invalid'' using specific


valid formula infinite heyting algebra described results top element representing true valuation formula regardless values algebra assigned variables formula ref name u conversely every invalid formula assignment values variables yields valuation differs top element ref name r ref finite heyting algebra second two properties ref name u kripke semantics building upon work semantics modal logic saul kripke created another semantics intuitionistic logic known kripke semantics relational


sports female participation sports influenced patriarchal ideologies surrounding body well ideas femininity sexuality physical exertion inevitably leads development muscle connected masculinity contrast idea women presented modern consumer culture women enter sports early likely challenge stereotypes television networks corporations focus showcasing female athlete considered attractive trivializes achievements sportswomen women 's sports less covered news male sports sporting events camera focuses specifically

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of sport


pay rates procedures patron picking books requested interlibrary loan interlibrary loan resource sharing two operations borrowing lending borrowing library sends behalf patron borrowing request owning library original photocopy scan materials owning library fills request sending materials borrowing library requesting library supplies reason request cannot filled item sent borrowing library notifies patron item arrives interlibrary loan resource sharing variety systems

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Interlibrary loan


firms support upstream technologies history traditional arguments industrial policies go back far th century prominent early arguments favor selective protection industries contained ''report subject manufactures'' us economist politician alexander hamilton well work german economist friedrich list list 's views free trade explicit contradiction adam smith ''the wealth nations'' said advantageous method landed nation raise artificers manufacturers merchants

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy
Industrial policy


fmd semen infected bulls control measures include quarantine destruction infected livestock export bans meat animal products countries infected disease fmd rarely infects humans spreads rapidly among animals much greater threat agriculture industry human health farmers around world lose huge amounts money foot mouth epidemic large numbers animals destroyed revenues milk meat production go one difficulties vaccinating fmd huge variation

Applied science
Public administration
Agricultural policy


policies rather demands markets corporations believe come dominate global food system movement advocated number farmers peasants pastoralists fisherfolk indigenous peoples women rural youth environmental organizations policy tools agricultural subsidy governmental subsidy paid farmers agribusinesses manage agricultural industry one part various methods government uses mixed economy conditions payment reasons individual specific subsidies vary farm product size farm nature ownership country


production destroying local agriculture creating captive market process free trade advocates desire elimination market distorting mechanisms subsidies tariffs regulations argue free trade areas result aggregate benefit position particularly popular competitive agricultural exporting nations developed developing world banded together cairns group lobby canada 's department agriculture estimates developing nations would benefit billion annually subsidies developed world halved agricultural independence


cheap tech used grow crops previously unarable land rocky mountainous desert even arctic lands food grown reducing dependency countries food replacement crops also make nations agriculturally independent sugar example comes sugar cane imported polynesia instead buying sugar polynesia nation make sugar sugar beets maple sap sweetener stevia plant keeping profits circulating within nation 's economy paper clothes made hemp instead trees cotton tropical foods wo n't grow many


''the guardian'' june https wwwtheguardiancom guardianpolitics story html west accused concealing farm subsidies oxfam says eu us exploiting loopholes using creative accounting avoid real trade concessions developing countries sophia murphy ben lilliston mary beth lake february https webarchiveorg web http wwwtradeobservatoryorg librarycfmrefid wto agreement agriculture decade dumping institute agriculture trade policy kym anderson martin http siteresourcesworldbankorg intranettrade resources pubs tradenote pdf agriculture market access key doha success world bank june half gains developing countries global agricultural reforms would come liberalization developing countries https webarchiveorg web http wwwmeridorg fs agbiotech food security


environmental philosophy '''environmental ethics''' established field practical philosophy reconstructs essential types argumentation made protecting natural entities sustainable use natural resources main competing paradigms anthropocentrism physiocentrism called ecocentrism well theocentrism environmental ethics exerts influence large range disciplines including environmental law environmental sociology ecotheology ecological economics ecology environmental geography many ethical decisions human beings make respect environment example humans continue clear cut forests sake human consumption

Humanities
Philosophy
Ethics
Environmental ethics


natural world recent view relates anthropocentrism future life biotic ethics based human identity part gene protein organic life whose effective purpose self propagation implies human purpose secure propagate life ref name bioethics ref name seeding book humans central secure life beyond duration sun possibly trillions eons biotic ethics values life embodied biological structures processes humans special secure future life cosmological scales particular humans continue sentient life


france henri bergson roger martin du gard andr gide fran ois mauriac albert camus saint john perse jean paul sartre declined prize samuel beckett irish wrote english french claude simon j g le cl zio patrick modiano french literary awards grand prix de litt rature polici created crime detective fiction grand prix du roman de l'acad mie fran aise created prix cembre created prix femina created decided year

Humanities
Languages and literature
French Literature


lautr amont arthur rimbaud ''une saison en enfer'' paul val ry paul fort modernism charles p guy guillaume apollinaire ''alcools'' blaise cendrars saint john perse ''vents'' dada surrealism paul luard tristan tzara andr breton louis aragon henri michaux robert desnos ren char postmodernism jules supervielle jean cocteau francis ponge ''le parti pris des choses'' jacques pr vert raymond queneau n gritude l opold dar senghor birago diop aim c saire theatre pierre corneille ''le cid'' ''horace'' moli


complete system heliocentric cosmology anchored principle vortex motion cartesian physics whose widespread acceptance brought demise aristotelian physics descartes sought formalize mathematical reasoning science developed cartesian coordinates geometrically plotting locations space marking progressions along flow time older contemporary newton christiaan huygens first idealize physical problem set parameters first fully mathematize mechanistic explanation unobservable physical phenomena reasons huygens considered first theoretical physicist one

Natural science
Physics
Mathematical physics


axis time treating temporal axis like fourth spatial dimension altogether spacetime declared imminent demise separation space time einstein initially called superfluous learnedness later used minkowski spacetime great elegance general theory relativity extending invariance reference frames whether perceived inertial accelerated credited minkowski deceased general relativity replaces cartesian coordinates gaussian coordinates replaces newton 's claimed empty yet euclidean space traversed instantly newton 's vector hypothetical gravitational force instant action distance gravitational ''field''


unit group quadratic fields proved dirichlet unit theorem fundamental result algebraic number theory ref name kanemitsu ref first used pigeonhole principle basic counting argument proof theorem diophantine approximation later named dirichlet 's approximation theorem published important contributions fermat 's last theorem proved cases ''n'' nbsp nbsp ''n'' nbsp nbsp biquadratic reciprocity law ref name elstrodt dirichlet divisor problem found first results still unsolved problem number theory despite later contributions researchers dedekind richard dedekind 's study

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Number theory
Algebraic number theory


theory word ring introduced later hilbert appear dedekind 's work dedekind defined ideal subset set numbers composed algebraic integers satisfy polynomial equations integer coefficients concept underwent development hands hilbert especially emmy noether ideals generalize ernst eduard kummer 's ideal numbers devised part kummer 's attempt prove fermat 's last theorem hilbert david hilbert unified field algebraic number theory treatise ''zahlbericht'' literally report numbers also resolved significant number theory problem formulated waring


local class field theory results mostly proved work teiji takagi artin emil artin established artin reciprocity law series papers law general theorem number theory forms central part global class field theory term reciprocity law refers long line concrete number theoretic statements generalized quadratic reciprocity law reciprocity laws eisenstein kummer hilbert 's product formula norm symbol artin 's result provided partial solution hilbert 's ninth problem modern


ideal extended gaussian integers obtain may may prime example factorization implies math mathbf z mathbf z cdot mathbf z mathbf z math note ideals generated complete answer question ideals remain prime gaussian integers provided fermat 's theorem sums two squares implies odd prime number prime ideal prime ideal


therefore ideal class group makes two fractional ideals equivalent one close principal ideal class group generally denoted last notation identifying picard group algebraic geometry number elements class group called '''class number''' ''k'' class number means two ideal classes class principal fractional ideals class non principal fractional ideal


ideal class group another description terms divisors formal objects represent possible factorizations numbers divisor group defined free abelian group generated prime ideals group homomorphism non zero elements multiplication suppose satisfies math x mathfrak p e cdots mathfrak p e math defined divisor math operatorname div x sum e mathfrak p math kernel group units cokernel ideal class group language


european primitivism anthropologists considered various criteria defining religion ndash belief supernatural reliance ritual ndash claim criteria universally valid anthony f c wallace proposes four categories religion subsequent category subsuming previous however synthetic categories necessarily encompass religions individualistic basic simplest example vision quest shamanistic part time religious practitioner uses religion heal divine usually behalf client tillamook four categories shaman examples shamans spiritualists faith healers

Social science
Anthropology
Anthropology Of Religion


log log ''n'' time also discovered problem classes core problems computational geometry may classified different ways according various criteria following general classes may distinguished static problems problems category input given corresponding output needs constructed found fundamental problems type convex hull given set points find smallest convex polyhedron polygon containing points line segment intersection find intersections given set line segments delaunay triangulation voronoi diagram given set

Formal science
Computer science
Algorithms
Computational geometry


consequential processes act upon even determinists rule time time certain cataclysmic events occur change course history main point however events rare even apparently large shocks like wars revolutions often temporary effects evolution society philosophy neutrality question neutrality concerns foremost analysis historiography biases historical sources one prominent manifestation analysis idea history written victors

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of history


britain historico political discourse used bourgeoisie people aristocracy means struggle monarchy cf edward coke john lilburne france boulainvilliers nicolas fr ret siey augustin thierry cournot reappropriated form discourse finally end nineteenth century discourse incorporated racialist biologists eugenicists gave modern sense race even transformed popular discourse state racism nazism foucault also presents marxists seized discourse took different direction transforming


essentialist notion race historical notion class struggle defined socially structured position displacement discourse constitutes one bases foucault 's thought discourse tied subject rather subject construction discourse moreover discourse simple ideological mirror reflexion economic infrastructure product battlefield multiples forces may reduced simple dualist contradiction two energies foucault shows specifies discourse juridical philosophical discourse conception truth truth


later greatly criticized notably influenced field valuable contributions also came location theorists johann heinrich von th nen alfred weber influential theories include walter christaller 's central place theory theory core periphery fred k schaefer 's article exceptionalism geography methodological examination published american journal ''annals association american geographers'' critique regionalism made large impact field article became rallying point younger generation economic geographers intent reinventing discipline science quantitative methods began

Social science
Economics
Economic geography


evolutionary economics understand evolution cities regions economic systems ''critical economic geography'' approach taken point view contemporary critical geography philosophy ''behavioral economic geography'' examines cognitive processes underlying spatial reasoning locational decision making behavior firms individuals economic geography sometimes approached branch anthropogeography focuses regional systems human economic activity alternative description different approaches study human economic activity organized around spatiotemporal analysis analysis production consumption economic items analysis economic flow


clark university since ''journal economic geography'' published oxford university press since references reading barnes j peck j sheppard e adam tickell eds ''reading economic geography'' oxford blackwell combes p p mayer thisse jt ''economic geography integration regions nations'' princeton princeton university press https booksgooglecom booksid ssebz jl kc dq description scroll chapter preview https booksgooglecom booksid ssebz jl kc printsec frontcover dq economic geography combes source bl ots weq ppg vi sig mnhw dzz olp h gipsvysa hl en ei te ps p lmb lgep da sa x oi book result ct result resnum ved ca q aewag v onepage q f false links dicken p ''global shift reshaping global economic map st century'' new york guilford lee r wills j geographies economies london arnold massey


storage flow batteries synthesizing molecules high energy density electrolytes highly selective membranes grid scale energy storage systems lithium ion batteries creating new molecules use electrode binders electrolytes electrolyte additives even energy storage directly order improve energy density using materials graphene silicon nanorods lithium metal power density cycle life safety solar cells developing new materials efficient cost effective solar cells including organic quantum dot perovskite based photovoltaics photocatalytic water splitting enhancing production hydrogen fuel using solar energy advanced catalytic materials

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Molecular engineering


ever changing improving meantime advancements high performance computing greatly expanded use computer simulation study molecular scale systems computational theoretical approaches computational chemistry high performance computing molecular dynamics molecular modeling statistical mechanics theoretical chemistry topology emsl scientist using environmental transmission electron microscope pacific northwest national laboratory etem provides situ capabilities enable atomic resolution imaging spectroscopic studies materials dynamic operating conditions contrast traditional operation tem high vacuum emsl 's etem uniquely allows imaging within high temperature gas environments microscopy


name science politics cartwright nancy j cat l fleck uebel otto neurath philosophy science politics cambridge university press ref debate energy economic systems also traced back nobel prize winning radiochemist frederick soddy book ''wealth virtual wealth debt'' soddy criticized prevailing belief economy perpetual motion machine capable generating infinite wealth criticism expanded upon later ecological economists nicholas georgescu roegen herman daly european predecessors ecological economics include k william kapp karl polanyi romanian

Social science
Economics
Ecological economics


regenerative agriculture non traditional approaches ecological economics cultural heterodox applications economic interaction around world begun included ecological economic practices ef schumacher introduced examples non western economic ideas mainstream thought book ''small beautiful'' addresses neoliberal economics lens natural harmony buddhist economics ref name emphasis natural harmony witnessed diverse cultures across globe ''buen vivir'' traditional socio economic movement south america rejects western development model economics meaning g''ood life'' ''buen vivir'' emphasizes harmony


global south seen trends mass emigration due environmental changes climate refugees global south adversely affected changes environment scholars point global wealth inequality within current neoliberal economic system source issue cogent example different theories treat similar assets tropical rainforest ecosystems obviously yasuni region ecuador area substantial deposits bitumen also one diverse ecosystems earth estimates establish undiscovered medical substances


population growth intensifies energy demand increases world faces energy crisis economists scientists forecast global ecological crisis energy use contained ndash stern report example disagreement sparked vigorous debate issue discounting intergenerational equity gallery caption global geochemical cycles critical life widths px heights px perrow image nitrogen cyclesvg nitrogen cycle image water cyclepng water cycle image carbon cycle cute diagramsvg carbon cycle image oxygen cyclesvg oxygen cycle gallery ethics mainstream economics attempted become value free 'hard science' ecological economists argue value free economics generally realistic ecological


strictly economic standpoint suggests interdisciplinary approach combining social natural sciences means address thermoeconomics based proposition role energy biological evolution defined understood second law thermodynamics also terms economic criteria productivity efficiency especially costs benefits profitability various mechanisms capturing utilizing available energy build biomass work result thermoeconomics often discussed field ecological economics related


assumed conserving ecosystems always financially beneficial opposed alteration case introduction nile perch lake victoria ecological consequence decimation native fauna however event praised local communities gain significant financial benefits trading fish mccauley argues reasons trying convince decision makers conserve nature monetary reasons path followed instead appealing morality ultimate way campaign protection nature see also agroecology


econometrics environmental economics finance industrial organization input output model microeconomics macroeconomics operations research resource economics energy economics also draws heavily results energy engineering geology political sciences ecology etc recent focus energy economics includes following issues climate change climate policy demand response elasticity supply demand energy market energy economic growth energy derivatives energy elasticity energy forecasting energy markets electricity markets liberalisation de regulation economics energy infrastructure energy policy environmental policy risk analysis security supply sustainability institutions higher education universities recognise energy economics

Social science
Economics
Energy economics


weron michael gerald pollitt ugur soytas see also energy economists category cost electricity source ecological economics embodied energy energy accounting ''energy environment'' energy balance energy policy eroei industrial ecology international energy agency list energy storage projects list energy topics social metabolism sustainable energy thermoeconomics references reading http wwwscientificamericancom articlecfmid measure true cost fossil fuels ''how measure true cost fossil fuels'' march scientific american bhattacharyya energy economics concepts issues markets governance london springer verlag limited herberg mikkal '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwnbrorg publications issueaspxid energy security asia pacific course reader '' united states national bureau asian research zweifel


work care sustains lives pointing similar neglect natural environment also issued wake call issues ecological sustainability grown pressing time recent decades field feminist economics broadened widened encompass topics ref name nelson ref supported formation committee status women economics profession cswep gender based critiques traditional economics appeared subsequent emergence development alternatives women new era dawn

Social science
Economics
Feminist economics


founding international association feminist economics iaffe along journal ''feminist economics'' ref name intro ref name beyond encouraged rapid growth feminist economics disciplines initial emphasis feminist economists critique established theory methodology policy approaches critique began microeconomics household labor markets spread macroeconomics international trade ultimately extending areas traditional economic analysis ref name peterson ref feminist economists pushed produced gender aware theory analysis broadened focus economics sought pluralism methodology research methods


percentage men 's us age feminist economists say mainstream economics disproportionately developed european descended heterosexual middle upper middle class men led suppression life experiences full diversity world 's people especially women children non traditional families additionally feminist economists claim historical bases economics inherently exclusionary women mich le pujol points five specific historical assumptions women arose became embedded formulation economics continue used maintain women different


includes gender specific variables william darity developed two sector approach low income farm based economies darity shows subsistence farming depended labor women production income depended labor men women cash crop activities model shows men control production income seek maximize income persuading women put additional effort cash crop production causing increases cash crops come expense subsistence production ref name berik well many feminist economists argue economics focused less mechanisms like income theories utilitarianism


experiencing domestic violence employment makes little difference argue immovable property increases women 's self esteem economic security strengthens fall back positions enhancing options bargaining clout show property ownership important contributor women 's economic well reduces susceptibility violence order measure well generally amartya sen sakiko fukuda parr feminist economists helped develop alternatives gross domestic product human development index models interest feminist economists include labor theory value thoroughly developed ''das capital''


along ecological economics influenced modern human development theory see also entry gender social capital unpaid work unpaid work include domestic work care work subsistence work unpaid market labor voluntary work clear consensus definition categories broadly speaking kinds work seen contributing reproduction society domestic work maintenance home usually universally recognizable eg laundry care work looking relative friend needs support age physical learning


hour hourly wage maid within method two approaches first generalist replacement cost method examines would possible example take wage general domestic worker could perform variety tasks including childcare ref name mullan second approach specialist replacement cost method aims distinguish different household tasks choose replacements accordingly ref name mullan third method input output cost method looks costs inputs


replacement cost method also critics types jobs used substitutes example childcare activities calculated using wages daycare workers child psychiatrists ref name mullan relates problem depressed wages female dominated industries whether using jobs equivalent leads undervaluing unpaid work argued education levels ought comparable example value time college educated parent spends reading aloud child ascertained asking much would cost hire


hours per day domestic work widely seen women 's work majority performed women even women also participate labor force one study found adding time spent unpaid household work time spent engaging paid work married mothers accumulate hours work per week compared hours per week unmarried mothers hours per week fathers whether married efforts calculate true economic value unpaid work


changes include increased focus policy 's ability bring society toward social justice improve people 's lives specific goals including distributive fairness equity universal provisioning needs elimination poverty freedom discrimination protection human capabilities ref name berik ref name elsoncagatay ref human development index hdi feminist economists often support use human development index composite statistic order assess countries overall level human development opposed measures hdi takes account broad array measures beyond monetary considerations including life expectancy


paul report showed small increase world hdi comparison previous year 's report rise fueled general improvement developing world especially least developed countries group marked improvement bottom offset decrease hdi high income countries human poverty index reflect gaps human development index united nations came human poverty index hpi hpi measures deficiencies three indexes human development index long healthy life knowledge

Social science
Economics
Human development theory


typically divided different books book ''iman'' ''salah'' ''zakat'' ''taqwa'' ''hajj'' `economics` `economy` ref name roy brief works might contain almost nothing related matters property sales finance others gather questions economic issues one heading case ''tawzih al masa'il'' work fatawa ayatollah ruhollah khomeini although pioneer political islam approached subject economy blockquote classical ulamas chapter selling buying ''kharid forush'' comes

Social science
Economics
Islamic economics


conducted fair price allowing one party benefit exceedingly shares parallel philosophy karl marx das kapital seeking greater outcome community history pre modern muslim thought economics classical scholars muslim world however make valuable contributions islamic thought issues involving production consumption income wealth property taxation land ownership etc abu yusuf muhammad bin al hasan al mawardi ibn hazm sarakhsi tusi ghazali al dimashqi ibn rushd ibn taymiyyah


january kuala lumpur p ref despite lack scientific knowledge back claims made islamic finance ref name tahir tahir sayyid islamic finance undergraduate education ''islamic economic studies'' january ref enrollment subsided classes ref name siddiqi b http islamiccenterkaauedusa iecon indexhtml siddiqi muhammad nejatullah ''obstacles islamic economics research'' paper presented th international conference islamic economics king abdulaziz university april jeddah ref second third generation islamic economists scarce ref name haneef institutions lost real direction even closed ref name iqbal http islamiccenterkaauedusa iecon indexhtml iqbal munawar ''contributions last six conferences'' paper presented th


mineral deposits 'aqiq valley hassan b thabit afforded garden bayruha zubayr received oasis land khaybar banu nadir reign caliph umar vast expanse persian royal family terrain acquired lead successor caliph uthman accelerate allotment land individuals return portion crop yield markets according msnaz regulation markets among main functions ''hisbah'' ref name iestl zaman ''islamic economics survey '' p ref semi judicial institution operational earliest days islam charged


revisionist school saw cold war case american aggression latterly third school known neo orthodox whose prominent member american historian john lewis gaddis emerged holds united states borne responsibility cold war lion 's share responsibility goes soviet union recent trends europe diplomatic history fell favor late cold war era since collapse communism however renaissance led especially historians early modern era history


war world war ii gordon craig germany robert dallek us jean baptiste duroselle th century europe herbert feis world war ii international trade orlando figes born russian john lewis gaddis cold war lloyd gardner th century us felix gilbert renaissance george peabody gooch english historian modern diplomacy andreas hillgruber c germany akira iriye b us japan george f kennan russia paul kennedy th th century henry kissinger born nineteenth twentieth century walter lafeber th century us william l langer us historian


democracy must learned experience ref name googr ref name sudva ref name greenberg ref name sudv aristotle said '' things learn learn '' ref name oxsci adduce purpose schools must encourage ethical behavior personal responsibility order achieve goals schools must allow students three great freedoms freedom choice freedom action freedom bear results action constitute personal responsibility ref name sudv strongest political rationale democratic schools teach virtues democratic deliberation sake future citizenship ref name curr


'''r''' sup n sup zariski topology defined algebraically spectrum ring algebraic variety '''r''' sup ''n'' sup '''c''' sup ''n'' sup closed sets zariski topology solution sets systems polynomial equations linear graph natural topology generalises many geometric aspects graphs vertices edges many sets linear operators functional analysis endowed topologies defined specifying particular sequence functions converges zero function local field topology native

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
General topology


math ''x'' topological space ''s'' set without specified topology final topology ''s'' defined letting open sets ''s'' subsets ''a'' ''s'' ''f'' sup sup ''a'' open ''x'' ''s'' existing topology ''f'' continuous respect topology existing topology coarser final topology ''s'' thus final topology characterized finest topology ''s'' makes ''f'' continuous ''f'' surjective topology canonically identified


saying ''fr chet space'' context since another entirely different notion fr chet space functional analysis ''x'' ''hausdorff'' ''t sub sub '' ' 'separated'' two distinct points ''x'' separated neighbourhoods thus ''x'' hausdorff sub sub r sub sub hausdorff space must also sub sub ''x'' ''t sub sub '' ''urysohn'' two distinct points ''x'' separated closed neighbourhoods sub sub space must also hausdorff ''x'' ' 'regular'' ''t sub sub '' sub sub given point ''x'' closed set


prohibition women 's suffrage initially neutral world war united states declared war germany funded allied victory following year prosperous roaring twenties wall street crash marked onset decade long worldwide great depression president franklin roosevelt implemented new deal programs including relief unemployed support farmers social security minimum wage new deal defined modern american liberalism following japanese attack pearl harbor united states entered world war ii financed allied war effort


american fur trade growth slow first due mismanagement dutch native american conflicts dutch purchased island manhattan native americans reported price us land named new amsterdam became capital new netherland town rapidly expanded mid became important trading center port despite calvinists building reformed church america dutch tolerant religions cultures traded iroquois north colony served barrier


walter raleigh failed would twenty years another attempt early british colonies established private groups seeking profit marked starvation disease native american attacks many immigrants people seeking religious freedom escaping political oppression peasants displaced industrial revolution simply seeking adventure opportunity areas native americans taught colonists plant harvest native crops others attacked settlers virgin forests provided ample supply building material firewood natural inlets harbors lined coast providing easy


john winthrop governor early years roger williams opposed winthrop 's treatment native americans religious intolerance established colony providence plantations later rhode island basis freedom religion colonists established settlements connecticut river valley coasts present day new hampshire maine native american attacks continued significant occurring pequot war king philip 's war new england became center commerce industry due poor mountainous soil making agriculture difficult rivers harnessed


french indian war upper class emerged south carolina virginia wealth based large plantations operated slave labor unique class system operated upstate new york dutch tenant farmers rented land wealthy dutch proprietors van rensselaer family colonies egalitarian pennsylvania representative mid th century pennsylvania basically middle class colony limited respect small upper class writer ''pennsylvania journal'' wrote ref political integration autonomy ''join die''


bill rights comprising first ten amendments constitution guaranteed individual liberties freedom speech religious practice jury trials stated citizens states reserved rights specified president george washington george washington 's legacy remains among greatest american history commander chief continental army hero revolution first president united states gilbert charles stuart farewell address president george washington george washington renowned hero american revolutionary war commander chief continental army


uniform system tariffs taxes imports taxes pay debt provide financial infrastructure support programs hamilton created new political party first world based voters federalist party two party system depiction election day activities philadelphia john lewis krimmel thomas jefferson james madison formed opposition republican party usually called democratic republican party political scientists hamilton washington presented country jay treaty reestablished good relations britain jeffersonians vehemently protested


voters aligned behind one party thus setting first party system federalists promoted business financial commercial interests wanted trade britain republicans accused federalists plans establish monarchy turn rich ruling class making united states pawn british ref name jstor treaty passed politics became intensely heated challenges federal government serious challenges new federal government included northwest indian war ongoing cherokee american wars whiskey rebellion western settlers protested


reliance slavery northern states abolished slavery states upper south made manumission easier resulting increase proportion free blacks upper south percentage total non white population less one percent percent date total percent blacks united states free date demand slaves rise deep south 's expanding cotton cultivation number manumissions declined sharply internal us slave trade became


battle plattsburgh finally early andrew jackson decisively defeated major british invasion battle new orleans making famous war hero napoleon apparently gone causes war evaporated sides agreed peace left prewar boundaries intact americans claimed victory february news came almost simultaneously jackson 's victory new orleans peace treaty left prewar boundaries place americans swelled pride success second war independence naysayers antiwar federalist


use land development markets formation states explain tale conquest also one survival persistence merging peoples cultures gave birth continuing life america first settlers west spanish new mexico became us citizens hispanics california californios overwhelmed gold rush miners california grew explosively san francisco become economic hub entire pacific coast diverse population quarter million


defenders slavery argued sudden end slave economy would profound killing economic impact south reliance slave labor foundation economy also argued slaves freed would widespread unemployment chaos religious activists split slavery methodists baptists dividing northern southern denominations north methodists congregationalists quakers included many abolitionists especially among women activists catholic episcopal lutheran denominations largely ignored slavery issue compromise popular


states return making slavery central war goal energized republicans north well enemies anti war copperhead democrats ended chance british french intervention lee 's smaller army battles late spring pushed hard ignored union threat west lee invaded pennsylvania search supplies cause war weariness north perhaps turning point war lee 's army badly beaten july battle gettysburg barely made back virginia


age included civil service act mandated competitive examination applicants government jobs important legislation included interstate commerce act ended railroads' discrimination small shippers sherman antitrust act outlawed monopolies business twain believed age corrupted elements land speculators scandalous politics unethical business practices since days charles beard matthew josephson historians argued united states effectively plutocratic least part gilded age progressive era financiers industrialists


main episode spanish american war began spain refused american demands reform oppressive policies cuba splendid little war one official called involved series quick american victories land sea treaty paris peace conference united states acquired philippines puerto rico guam ref name harrington ref cuba became independent country close american tutelage although war widely popular peace terms proved controversial william jennings bryan led democratic party opposition control philippines denounced imperialism


creation federal reserve system arrival cooperative banking us founding first credit union progressive movement lasted active period women 's suffrage charlotte perkins gilman pictured wrote articles feminism ''atlanta constitution'' published december women 's suffrage movement began june national convention liberty party presidential candidate gerrit smith argued established women 's suffrage party plank one month later cousin elizabeth cady


nation lost approximately lives spanish flu pandemic manufacture sale import export alcohol prohibited eighteenth amendment prohibition result cities illegal alcohol became big business largely controlled racketeers second ku klux klan grew rapidly collapsed immigration laws passed strictly limit number new entries called roaring twenties due great economic prosperity period jazz became popular among younger generation thus decade also


ussr us senate bipartisan vote approved us participation united nations un marked turn away traditional isolationism us toward increased international involvement eisenhower button campaign primary american goal rescue europe devastation world war ii contain expansion communism represented soviet union us foreign policy cold war built around support western europe japan along policy containment stopping spread communism


us joined wars korea vietnam toppled left wing governments third world try stop spread truman doctrine provided military economic aid greece turkey counteract threat communist expansion balkans united states replaced piecemeal financial aid programs comprehensive marshall plan pumped money economy western europe removed trade barriers modernizing managerial practices businesses governments plan 's billion budget context us gdp billion


social reform feminism environmental movement became political forces progress continued toward civil rights americans counterculture revolution swept nation much western world late sixties early seventies dividing americans culture war also bringing forth liberated social views johnson succeeded republican richard nixon attempted gradually turn war south vietnamese forces negotiated peace treaty secured release pows led withdrawal