portrayed ''layers'' stack infrastructure platform software service need related example one provide saas implemented physical machines bare metal without using underlying paas iaas layers conversely one run program iaas access directly without wrapping saas infrastructure service iaas infrastructure service iaas refers online services provide high level apis used abstract various low level details underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources location data partitioning scaling security backup etc hypervisor runs virtual machines guests


application programming interfaces apis exposed applications custom software development kits sdks services include user management push notifications integration social networking services ref name pandodailyap ref relatively recent model cloud computing ref name williams ref baas startups dating later ref name tan ref ref name rowinski ref ref name mishra ref trends indicate services gaining significant mainstream traction enterprise consumers ref name builtio ref serverless computing function service faas serverless computing cloud computing code execution model cloud provider fully manages starting stopping virtual machines necessary serve requests requests billed

Formal science
Computer science
Computer communications (networks)
Cloud computing


capital intensive significant physical footprint requiring allocations space hardware environmental controls assets refreshed periodically resulting additional capital expenditures attracted criticism users still buy build manage thus benefit less hands management ref name iwpc ref essentially lacking economic model makes cloud computing intriguing concept public cloud cloud services considered public delivered public internet may offered paid subscription free charge architecturally differences public


server additionally eugene schultz chief technology officer emagined security said hackers spending substantial time effort looking ways penetrate cloud real achilles' heels cloud infrastructure making big holes bad guys get data hundreds thousands companies stored large cloud servers hackers theoretically gain control huge stores information single attack process called hyperjacking examples include dropbox security breach icloud leak ref name psghitachi solutionscom ref dropbox breached


unep national governments uk ideas natural capital full cost accounting banner 'green economy' could blur distinctions schools redefine variations green economics bretton woods institutions notably world bank international monetary fund via green fund initiative responsible global monetary policy stated clear intention move towards biodiversity valuation official universal biodiversity finance taking account targeting less radically zero emission waste

Social science
Economics
Green economics


recovery reinvestment act provide market incentives however experts argue green strategies highly profitable corporations understand business case sustainability market green products services beyond traditional green consumer united states seemed though nuclear industry coming end mid new nuclear power facilities built since one reason due economic reliance fossil fuel based energy sources additionally public fear nuclear energy due


economics energy policy environmental economics environmental ethics free market environmentalism green accounting green recovery greenwashing human ecology industrial ecology international journal green economics iso market governance mechanism natural resource economics outline green politics pigovian tax purple economy renewable energy commercialization restoration economy social ecology sustainable design world energy consumption references reading jeremy rifkin http wwwthethirdindustrialrevolutioncom third industrial revolution vii external links https wwwgreengrowthknowledgeorg green growth knowledge platform https iccwboorg publication icc green economy roadmap guide business policymakers society icc green economy roadmap https wwwgreeneconomycoalitionorg green economy coalition https wwwuneporg explore topics green economy unep green economy https greeneconomicsinstituteorguk green economics institute schools economic thought industrial ecology natural resources resource economics


research done four categories information studies shown way crises presented key predictor people react people hear personally help alleviate crisis conservation efforts simple actions personal energy use likely conserve however people told people around overusing energy increases selfish behavior causes people actually consume ref name saunders ref studies show people believe

Social science
Psychology
Conservation psychology


restored yet shame acknowledged instead negated repressed becomes rage rage may drive aggressive shaming actions feed back negatively self destructive situation social management emotions might fundamental dynamics social cooperation conflict around resources complexity conflict moral life well established sociological fact expression feeling emotion anger example strongly discouraged repressed girls women many cultures fear discouraged boys men cultures sub cultures encourage discourage happiness sadness jealousy excitedness

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of emotions


prospective service men women minimizing risk many areas including violence mishap injury potential types fitness evaluations include basic entry examinations career progression examinations conducted individuals seeking promotion higher classification clearance status specialized hazardous mission critical working conditions operational commanders become concerned impact continuous critical traumatic operations command often consult military psychologist military psychologists assess diagnose treat recommend duty status suitable optimal well individual group

Social science
Psychology
Military psychology


information operational intelligence value would enhance outcomes friendly military operations reduce friendly enemy casualties psychology 's scientific principles applied allow interviewer agent interrogator get much information possible non invasive means without need resort active measures risk violating rules engagement host nation agreements international military law crossing threshold geneva conventions' guidelines united states allies subscribe regardless status many modern belligerent countries international laws united nations


terrorism terrorism counterterrorism information management psychological warfare value added roles applied aspects military psychology developing instance contrary common myths stereotypes modern terrorists tend portray mentally disturbed individuals terrorists far typology according studies conducted behavioral social scientists either directly interviewed observed terrorists conducted meta analytic studies terrorism terrorists terrorists tended among well educated host countries often developed well thought


result small group psychologists raised concerns ethics practice supporters operational psychology responded providing ethical defense activity argue american psychological association 's ethical code sufficient support operational psychologists number activities include legal interrogation military law enforcement agencies ref name staal ref tactical psychology tactical psychology sharp focus soldiers contact enemyon front line soldier win battle combines psychology historical analysis


created make music final production generating way listen music also known product furthermore one argue even distribution music social act teachers trying non traditional ways teaching material using music connect students levels student relate well draw illustrations sociological concept among notable classical sociologists examine social aspects effects music georg simmel alfred schutz max weber

Social science
Sociology
Sociomusicology


recognized social determinant health lack housing poor quality housing negatively affect individual 's physical mental health housing attributes negatively affect physical health include dampness mold inadequate heating overcrowding mental health also affected inadequate heating overcrowding dampness mold well lack personal space housing affect health children exposure asthma triggers lead injuries due structural deficiencies eg lack window guards radiator covers see also affordable housing housing ministries housing association many articles specific

Applied science
Family and consumer science
Housing


x x cdot v math ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub lie bracket generalizes matrix commutator ''mn'' minus ''nm'' second way define representation focuses map '' '' sending ''g'' ''g'' linear map '' '' ''g'' ''v'' ''v'' satisfies math varphi g g varphi g circ varphi g quad text g g g math similarly cases approach concise abstract point view representation group ''g'' vector space ''v'' group homomorphism '' '' ''g'' gl ''v'''''f''' ref name

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Representation theory


map'' representations also case group occasion called map isomorphic representations practical purposes provide information group algebra represented representation theory therefore seeks classify representations isomorphism subrepresentations quotients irreducible representations math v psi math representation say group math g math math w math linear subspace math v math preserved action math g math sense math w w math math g g math math g cdot w w math serre calls math w math ' 'stable


under'' math g math ref name serre math w math called ' 'subrepresentation'' defining blockquote math phi g text aut w math blockquote math phi g math restriction math psi g math math w math math w phi math representation math g math inclusion math w hookrightarrow v math equivariant map quotient space math v w math also made representation math g math math v math exactly two subrepresentations namely trivial subspace math v math representation said '''''irreducible''''' math v math proper nontrivial subrepresentation representation said '''' 'reducible''''' definition irreducible representation implies schur 's lemma equivariant map blockquote math alpha


''v'''' '' ''w'''' '' representations say group ''g'' direct sum ''v'' ''w'' representation canonical way via equation math g cdot vw g cdot v g cdot w math direct sum two representations carries information group ''g'' two representations individually representation direct sum two proper nontrivial subrepresentations said decomposable otherwise said indecomposable complete reducibility favorable circumstances every finite dimensional representation direct sum irreducible representations representations


square integrable functions ''g'' representation space l sup sup functions unitary dual pontrjagin duality peter weyl theorem achieve abelian compact ''g'' respectively ref name peter weyl another approach involves considering unitary representations irreducible ones form category tannaka krein duality provides way recover compact group category unitary representations group neither abelian compact general theory known analogue plancherel theorem fourier inversion although alexander grothendieck extended tannaka krein duality relationship


interpretation infinitesimal symmetries ref name fulton harris important approach representation theory lie groups study corresponding representation theory lie algebras representations lie algebras also intrinsic interest lie algebras like lie groups levi decomposition semisimple solvable parts representation theory solvable lie algebras intractable general contrast finite dimensional representations semisimple lie algebras completely understood work lie cartan representation semisimple lie algebra analysed choosing cartan subalgebra essentially generic


different much less well understood requires different techniques since zariski topology relatively weak techniques analysis longer available invariant theory invariant theory studies actions algebraic varieties point view effect functions form representations group classically theory dealt question explicit description polynomial functions change ''invariant'' transformations given linear group modern approach analyses decomposition representations irreducibles invariant theory infinite groups inextricably linked development


linear algebra especially theories quadratic forms determinants another subject strong mutual influence projective geometry invariant theory used organize subject new life breathed subject david mumford form geometric invariant theory representation theory semisimple lie groups roots invariant theory ref name weyl strong links representation theory algebraic geometry many parallels differential geometry beginning felix klein 's erlangen program lie cartan 's connections place groups symmetry


sand dune stabilization submersion notes references external links proceedings international conference coastal engineering icce held since biannually since civil engineering coastal construction

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Coastal engineering


highest mortality rate dieting fad diets around centuries obsession thin slim recently became hot topic woman larger plump taken care showed wealth could afford eat opposed peasant luxury readily available meals desired woman stick thin notable change began era boyish figure became desired woman later going

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of food


common islamic attitudes western church similarly subordinated philosophy theology perhaps influential political philosopher medieval europe st thomas aquinas helped reintroduce aristotle 's works exception ''politics'' translated directly greek latin william moerbeke preserved muslim scholars along commentaries averroes aquinas 's use set agenda scholastic political philosophy dominated european thought centuries magna carta introduced concept constitutional rights nowiki habeas corpus islamic world rise

Humanities
History
Political history
History of political thought


region ideas spread cultures outside europe considerably later industrialization karl marx theory communism developed along friedrich engels proved one influential political ideologies th centurythe industrial revolution changed societies dramatically consequence karl marx friedrich engels became first theorists socialism communism ideas developed vladimir lenin leading ideology leninism joseph stalin ideas would developed marxism leninism put practice soviet union later


history political philosophy great political thinkers thucydides locke '' routledge matravers derek jonathan pike nigel warburton eds ''reading political philosophy machiavelli mill'' essays experts ryan alan ''on politics new history political philosophy'' vols pp herodotus present skinner quentin ''the foundations modern political thought'' vols strauss leo joseph cropsey eds '' https booksgooglecom booksid e mscxst uoc printsec frontcover dq history political philosophy hl en sa x ved ahukewia mebucnjahxtqd khdwjbluq aeikjaa history political philosophy '' university chicago press reprint external links http wwwcee portalat econ politicians watermarkjpg history political thought poster visual overview political thought


western church status nicene chalcedonian says worship one god trinity trinity unity neither confounding persons dividing substance scriptures christianity regards bible collection canonical books two parts old testament new testament authoritative believed christians written human authors inspiration holy spirit therefore many held inerrant word god protestants believe bible contains revealed truth necessary salvation

Humanities
Theology
Christian theology
Catholic theology


holy trinity ''holy trinity'' francesco cairo ''trinity'' refers belief one god three distinct persons hypostases trinity latin word tris unitas english three one one three ijohn kjv referred 'the father' creator source life 'the son' refers jesus christ 'the holy spirit' bond love father son present hearts humankind together three persons form single godhead word ''trias'' ''trinity'' derived first seen


three days later new testament mentions several resurrection appearances jesus different occasions twelve apostles disciples including five hundred brethren jesus' ascension jesus 's death resurrection essential doctrines christian faith commemorated christians good friday easter well sunday celebration eucharist paschal feast arguments death resurrection claims occur many religious debates interfaith dialogues paul apostle early christian convert wrote christ raised


particular judgment based deeds earthly life ref name schreck schreck ''the essential catholic catechism'' pp ref chapter ''gospel matthew'' underpins catholic belief day also come jesus sit universal judgment humankind ref name onefaith barry ''one faith one lord'' p quote come blessed father inherit kingdom prepared foundation world hungry gave food thirsty gave drink stranger welcomed naked


bishops bishops perform sacrament holy orders many bishops head diocese divided parishes parish usually staffed least one priest beyond pastoral activity priest may perform functions including study research teaching office work may also rectors chaplains titles functions held priests include archimandrite canon secular regular chancellor chorbishop confessor dean cathedral chapter hieromonk prebendary precentor etc permanent deacons seek priestly ordination preach teach may also baptize lead faithful


priestly celibacy contemporary issues catholic social teaching last judgment fresco sistine chapel michelangelo catholic social teaching based teaching jesus commits catholics welfare others although catholic church operates numerous social ministries throughout world individual catholics also required practice spiritual corporal works mercy corporal works mercy include feeding hungry welcoming strangers immigrants refugees clothing naked taking care sick visiting prison spiritual works require catholics share knowledge others


largely hold theological beliefs latin catholics eastern theology differs specific marian beliefs traditional eastern expression doctrine assumption mary instance dormition theotokos emphasizes falling asleep later assumed heaven doctrine immaculate conception teaching eastern origin expressed terminology western church eastern catholics though observe western feast immaculate conception difficulty affirming even dedicating churches virgin mary


psychological theory animal human behavior originated william powers contrast theories psychology behavior assume behavior function perception perceptual inputs determine cause behavior pct postulates organism 's behavior means controlling perceptions contrast engineering control theory reference variable negative feedback control loop control hierarchy set within system organism rather external agent changing setpoint controller ref name ct disfunctions engineering control theory also makes use

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems psychology


boys friends boys girls friends girls exception one boy said liked single girl feeling reciprocated network representation social structure found intriguing printed new york times april page sociogram found many applications grown field social network analysis probabilistic theory network science developed offshoot graph theory paul erd alfr r nyi 's eight famous papers random graphs social networks exponential random

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Network science


network connected plays large part networks analyzed interpreted networks classified four different categories ''clique'' ''complete graph'' completely connected network nodes connected every node networks symmetric nodes links links others ''giant component'' single connected component contains nodes network ''weakly connected component'' collection nodes exists path node ignoring directionality edges ''strongly connected component'' collection nodes


giant connected component infinite size ref name rest components finite sizes quantified notion size distribution probability math w n math randomly sampled node connected component size math n math given convolution powers degree distribution math display block w n begin cases frac mathbb e k n u n n n u n end cases math math u k math denotes degree distribution math u k frac k u k mathbb e k math giant component destroyed randomly removing critical fraction math p c math edges process called percolation random networks second


diseases interactome link analysis link analysis subset network analysis exploring associations objects example may examining addresses suspects victims telephone numbers dialed financial transactions partaken given timeframe familial relationships subjects part police investigation link analysis provides crucial relationships associations many objects different types apparent isolated pieces information computer assisted fully automatic computer based link analysis increasingly employed banks insurance agencies


nodes network measuring sum shortest distances geodesic paths node nodes network '''betweenness centrality''' determines relative importance node measuring amount traffic flowing node nodes network done measuring fraction paths connecting pairs nodes containing node interest group betweenness centrality measures amount traffic flowing group nodes '''eigenvector centrality''' sophisticated version degree centrality centrality node


general specififially different climatic conditions cause certain characteristics common among different people likens development laws presence absence civil liberty differences morality whole development different cultures climate respective people concluding environment determines whether people farms land determines way society built culture constituted montesquieu 's words general spirit nation time societies evolved simple complex however humans came governed less less

Social science
Sociology
Evolutionary sociology


comparison chambers ascribed development laws creation though also supposed whole development species way preordained preordination creator acted establishing laws discussed similar spencer later concept development thus chambers believed sophisticated theory progress driven developmental analogy herbert spencer mid th century revolution ideas antiquity human species took place paralleled extent independent darwinian revolution


social stages direct intervention beneficent deity moreover accepted conditions far less specific far modifiable far dependent conditions variable short messy biological process though spencer theories transcended label stagism appreciate biological complexity still accepted strongly fixed direction morality natural development spencer interference natural process evolution dangerous avoided costs views naturally coupled pressing political economic questions


ecology marxism world systems theory dependency theory marvin harris 's cultural materialism today anthropologists reject th century notions progress three assumptions unilineal evolution following steward take seriously relationship culture environment explain different aspects culture modern cultural anthropologists adopted general systems approach examining cultures emergent systems arguing one must consider whole social environment includes political economic relations among cultures result simplistic notions progressive evolution modern complex cultural evolution theories dual


individual societal body subjugated nullified dependent upon foucault denying genetic biological study inaccurate simply telling truth means notions newly discovered sciences extended include vast majority whole populations populations exercise regimes change foucault argues conceptual meaning middle ages canon law period geocentric model later superseded heliocentrism model placing position law right middle ages exclusive right


thomas jefferson university press kirksville mo harris marvin ''the rise anthropological theory history theories culture'' thomas crowell new york hatch elvin ''theories man culture'' columbia university press new york hays h r ''from ape angel informal history social anthropology'' alfred knopf new york johnson allen w earle timothy ''the evolution human societies foraging group agrarian state'' stanford university press kaplan david manners robert ''culture theory'' waveland press inc prospect heights illinois kuklick henrika ''the savage within social history


sa ra cycle death rebirth various principles practises lead state moksha including vedas tantras basic scriptures guidance along many others like upanishads puranas islam muslims believe everyone responsible actions even though muslims believe adam hawwa eve parents humanity committed sin eating forbidden tree thus disobeying god believe humankind responsible action believe god allah fair one


bondage free sa ra cycle birth death judaism contemporary judaism redemption hebrew ''ge'ulah'' god 's redeeming people israel various exiles includes final redemption present exile ref name ebj salvation judaism http wwwbritannicacom ebchecked topic salvation judaism accessed may ref judaism holds adherents need personal salvation christians believe jews believe original sin instead place high value individual morality defined law god embodied jews know torah law given moses god mount sinai summary


first principle population dynamics later became known malthusian growth model lotka volterra predator prey equations another famous example population dynamics overlap another active area research mathematical biology mathematical epidemiology study infectious disease affecting populations various models spread infections proposed analyzed provide important results may applied health policy decisions evolutionary game theory developed first john maynard smith george r price selection acts directly inherited phenotypes without genetic complications approach mathematically refined produce field

Natural science
Biology
Mathematical biology


period ref name mucha whose influence would also turn university pozna major sociological centre poland polish notable sociologists early th century include ludwik krzywicki ref name mucha jan stanis aw bystro ref name muchaza ecki stefan czarnowski ref name kwa niewicz well bronis aw malinowski sociologist anthropologist would gain international fame period ref name mucha first specialized research institutes created poland institute social economy warsaw headed krzywicki institute sociology poznan headed znaniecki first sociological journals

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Sociology in Poland


teaching sociology poland ''racjonalista'' su ek antoni nina kra ko http isssagepubcom cgi content abstract multifarious changing functions polish sociological association ''international sociology'' staszy ska katarzyna https webarchiveorg web http wwwbriefpl magazynartykul html historia bada polska socjologia powojenna research history post war polish sociology ''brief magazine'' sztompka piotr ed ''masters polish sociology'' wroc aw ossolineum https wwwjstororg pss lay summary ''jstor'' szacki jerzy ed ''sto lat socjologii polskiej od supi skiego szczepa skiego'' one hundred years polish sociology supi ski szczepa ski warszawa polish scientific publishers ''historia li socjologicznej'' history sociological thought new ed warszawa pa stwowe


stand ''bouquiniste'' french term second hand books resellers paris near cathedral notre dame paris '' 'sociology literature''' subfield sociology culture studies social production literature social implications notable example pierre bourdieu 's ''les r gles de l'art gen se et structure du champ litt raire'' translated susan emanuel ''rules art genesis structure literary field'' concise overview state art sociology literature look v classical sociology none 'founding fathers'

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of literature


sociology produced detailed study literature develop ideas subsequently applied literature others karl marx 's theory ideology directed literature pierre macherey terry eagleton fredric jameson max weber 's theory modernity cultural rationalisation applied music later applied arts literature included frankfurt school writers theodor adorno j rgen habermas emile durkheim 's view sociology study externally defined social facts redirected towards literature robert escarpit bourdieu 's work clearly indebted marx weber


sociology literature'' published french english translation ''the book revolution'' published french english durkheimian fashion escarpit aimed concern externally defined social facts literature especially registered book trade focus fell community writers understood aggregate generations teams extended definition literature include non functional writing also insisted literary success resulted convergence intentions author reader lewis coser


vision' textual structures pascal 's ''pens es'' racine 's plays social position seventeenth century 'noblesse de robe' goldmann 's structuralism 'genetic' sought trace genesis literary structures extra literary phenomena goldmann published ''pour une sociologie du roman'' translated alan sheridan ''towards sociology novel'' like luk cs goldmann sees novel revolving around problematic hero 's search authentic values degraded society goldmann also postulates 'rigorous homology' literary form novel economic form commodity


defined rules modern autonomous art rise novel one earliest english language contributions sociology literature ''the rise novel'' ian watt professor english stanford university watt novel 's 'novelty' 'formal realism' idea 'that novel full authentic report human experience' paradigmatic instances daniel defoe samuel richardson henry fielding watt argued novel 's concern realistically described relations ordinary individuals ran parallel general development philosophical realism middle class economic individualism


leo l wenthal ''a margine teoria critica e sociologia della letteratura'' cura di c bordoni chieti solfanelli georg luk cs ''the historical novel'' trans hannah stanley mitchell london merlin press georg luk cs ''the theory novel historico philosophical essay forms great epic literature'' trans bostock london merlin press pierre macherey ''a theory literary production'' trans g wall london routledge kegan paul peter h mann ''from author reader social study books'' london routledge kegan paul andrew milner ''john milton english revolution


solving skills applied execution tactical plan part operational plan tactical objectives commercial use represent performance targets established middle management achieving specific organisational outcomes firefighters tactical objectives historically focused life safety priority plan attending structure fires military tactics

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Tactical objective


cyberspace cyber identities similar research attracted many different names ''cyber sociology'' ' 'sociology internet'' ' 'sociology online communities'' ' 'sociology social media'' ' 'sociology cyberculture'' something else digital sociology differs terms wider scope addressing internet cyberculture also impact digital media devices emerged since first decade twenty first century since internet become pervasive linked everyday life references 'cyber' social

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of the Internet


barack obama became even increasingly social movements organizations use internet carry traditional new internet activism governments also getting online countries cuba iran north korea myanmar people 's republic china saudi arabia use filtering censoring software restrict people countries access internet united kingdom also use software locate arrest various individuals perceive threat countries including united states enacted laws making possession


facilitates direct dialogue lenders borrowers performance rating system borrowers web users worldwide fund loans little dollar leisure internet major source leisure since world wide web entertaining social experiments muds moos conducted university servers humor related usenet groups receiving much main traffic today many internet forums sections devoted games funny videos short cartoons form flash movies also popular million people use blogs message boards


ages origins enjoy fast paced world multiplayer games range mmorpg first person shooters role playing video games online gambling revolutionized way many people interact spend free time internet online gaming around since modern modes online gaming began services gamespy mplayer players games would typically subscribe non subscribers limited certain types gameplay certain games many use internet access download music movies works enjoyment


occupational settings jc quick le tetrick eds ''handbook occupational health psychology'' nd ed pp washington dc american psychological association ref world health organization international labour organization estimate exposure long working hours causes estimated workers die ischemic heart disease stroke mediated occupational stress historical overview origins industrial revolution prompted thinkers karl marx theory alienation concern nature work impact workers ref name schonfeld taylor 's ''principles scientific management'' ref

Social science
Psychology
Occupational health psychology


statistical methods used include structural equation modeling hierarchical linear modeling ref name raudenbush raudenbush sw bryk ''hierarchical linear models applications data analysis methods'' nd ed newbury park ca sage ref hlm also known multilevel modeling hlm better adjust similarities employees ref name raudenbush especially well suited evaluating lagged impact work stressors health outcomes research context hlm help minimize censoring well suited experience sampling studies ref name r schonfeld rindskopf hierarchical linear modeling organizational research longitudinal data outside


cardiovascular disease morbidity mortality random sample swedish male working population ''scandinavian journal work environment health '' ref context research heart disease extended model include social isolation johnson et al labeled combination high levels demands low levels control low levels coworker support iso strain resulting expanded model labeled demand control support dcs model research followed development model suggested one components dcs model high psychological workload low control


significant relation combination low levels decision latitude high workload cvd showed nonsignificant relation findings however clearer men women data sparse fishta back 's review reviews also links work related psychosocial stress elevated risk cvd men massive ''n'' longitudinal study combined data independent studies kivim ki et al found controlling risk factors high strain job baseline increased risk cvd initially healthy workers


behaviors characteristically rude discourteous displaying lack regard others p nbsp incivility distinct violence examples workplace incivility include insulting comments denigration target 's work spreading false rumors social isolation etc summary research conducted europe suggests workplace incivility common ref name cortina magley cortina lm magley v williams jh langhout rd incivility workplace incidence impact ''journal occupational health psychology '' ref research us civil service workers sample experienced workplace incivility


example impaired educational progress complications outside work substance use disorders co morbid mental disorders plague sufferers however personality disorders also bring average work abilities increasing competitive drive causing sufferer exploit co workers schizophrenia case control study link dohrenwend skodol compared schizophrenic patients two comparison groups depressed individuals well controls prior first episode disorder schizophrenic patients likely well controls depressed subjects jobs characterized noisesome work characteristics


noisesome work characteristics refer noise humidity heat cold etc jobs tended higher status blue collar jobs suggesting downward drift already affected individuals account finding one explanation involving diathesis stress model suggests job related stressors helped precipitate first episode already vulnerable individuals supporting evidence epidemiologic catchment area eca study psychological distress longitudinal studies suggested adverse working conditions contribute increases psychological distress psychological distress refers negative affect regardless whether individuals meet criteria


helped workers abstain smoking exercise frequently lose weight ref name schmitt schmitt l ohp interventions wellness programs ''newsletter society occupational health psychology '' https sohp onlineorg wp content uploads sohpnewsletterv pdf ref ohp interventions included campaign improve rates hand washing effort get workers walk often drive get employees compliant regard taking prescribed medicines ref name schmitt schmitt l ohp interventions wellness programs part ''newsletter society occupational health psychology '' https sohp onlineorg wp content uploads sohpnewsletterv january pdf ref interventions tended reduce organization health care costs ref name


natural sources without added artificial ingredients ref name url npf us ref within field organic chemistry definition natural products usually restricted organic compounds isolated natural sources produced pathways primary secondary metabolism ref name hanson ref within field medicinal chemistry definition often restricted secondary metabolites secondary metabolites essential survival nevertheless provide organisms produce evolutionary advantage ref name pmid ref many secondary metabolites cytotoxic selected optimized evolution use chemical warfare agents prey predators competing

Natural science
Chemistry
Natural product chemistry


organisms ref name pmid ref natural sources may lead basic research potential bioactive components commercial development lead compounds drug discovery ref name li ref although natural products inspired numerous drugs drug development natural sources received declining attention st century pharmaceutical companies partly due unreliable access supply intellectual property cost profit concerns seasonal environmental variability composition loss sources due rising extinction rates ref name li classes broadest definition natural product anything produced life ref name samuelson ref name bhat ref includes


acids nucleic acids ref name kliebenstein ref name karlovsky basic building blocks life ref name rogers ref primary metabolites involved energy production include respiratory photosynthetic enzymes enzymes turn composed amino acids often non peptidic cofactors essential enzyme function ref name lehninger ref basic structure cells organisms also composed primary metabolites include cell membranes eg phospholipids cell walls eg peptidoglycan chitin cytoskeletons proteins primary metabolite enzymatic cofactors include members vitamin b family vitamin b thiamine diphosphate


conflict followed hit lead stage drug discovery derivatives active compound produced attempt improve potency safety ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref related ways modern medicines developed directly natural sources although traditional medicines biological material considered excellent source novel compounds extraction isolation compounds slow expensive inefficient process large scale manufacture therefore attempts may made produce new compound total synthesis semisynthesis ref name pmid ref natural


number type stereochemical elements physical properties molecule intermediates bear ease handling purification viewed context novelty structure whether preceding related synthetic efforts successful see details natural products especially less complex easily cost effectively prepared via complete chemical synthesis readily available simpler chemical ingredients process referred total synthesis especially process involves steps mediated biological agents natural products amenable total


hermann emil fischer richard willst tter robert robinson foundations organic natural product chemistry concept natural products dates back early th century foundations organic chemistry laid organic chemistry regarded time chemistry substances plants animals composed relatively complex form chemistry stood stark contrast inorganic chemistry principles established frenchman antoine lavoisier work ''trait l mentaire de chimie'' ref name acs lavoisier landmark ref isolation


isolated german chemist friedrich sert rner discovered boiling morphine acetic anhydride produced substance strong pain suppressive effect heroin ref name dias ref eug ne chevreul isolated cholesterol crystalline substance animal tissue belongs class steroids strychnine alkaloid isolated synthesis second important step synthesis organic compounds whereas synthesis inorganic substances known long time synthesis organic substances difficult hurdle swedish chemist j ns jacob


berzelius held indispensable force nature synthesis organic compounds called vital force life force needed philosophical idea vitalism well th century many supporters even introduction atomic theory idea vitalism especially fitted beliefs medicine traditional healing practices believed disease result imbalance vital energies distinguishes life nonlife first attempt break vitalism idea science made german chemist friedrich w hler succeeded synthesizing urea


variety nature derived substances important factor characterization organic materials basis physical properties melting point boiling point solubility crystallinity color structural theories third step structure elucidation organic substances although elemental composition pure organic substances irrespective whether natural synthetic origin could determined fairly accurately molecular structure still problem urge structural elucidation resulted dispute friedrich w hler justus von liebig studied silver salt


composition different properties w hler studied silver cyanate harmless substance von liebig investigated silver fulminate salt explosive properties ref name justus von liebig friedrich w hler ref elemental analysis shows salts contain equal quantities silver carbon oxygen nitrogen according prevailing ideas substances possess properties case apparent contradiction later solved berzelius 's theory isomers whereby number type elements importance properties chemical reactivity also position


wallach nobel prize later leopold ru ka nobel prize dyes based porphins including chlorophyll heme studied richard willst tter nobel prize hans fischer nobel prize steroids studied heinrich otto wieland nobel prize adolf windaus nobel prize carotenoids studied paul karrer nobel prize vitamins studied among others paul karrer adolf windaus robert r williams norman haworth nobel prize richard kuhn nobel prize albert szent gy rgyi hormones studied adolf butenandt nobel prize edward calvin kendall nobel prize alkaloids anthocyanins studied


injured antiquity called nursing care ref name olynn ref fifth century bc example hippocratic collection places describes skilled care observation patients male attendants may early nurses ref name levine ref around nbsp bc india recorded sushruta samhita book chapter v role nurse different parts members body mentioned including skin cannot correctly described one well versed anatomy hence one desirous acquiring thorough knowledge anatomy prepare dead

Applied science
Medicine and health
Nursing


industries many nurses also work health advocacy patient advocacy fields companies health advocate inc helping variety clinical administrative issues attorneys others work attorneys legal nurse consultants reviewing patient records assure adequate care provided testifying court nurses work temporary basis involves shifts without contract variety settings sometimes known ''per diem nursing'' ''agency nursing'' ''travel nursing'' nurses work researchers laboratories universities research institutions nurses also delving


level verbal abuse organizational coercion may include irrationally high workload forced shifts forced placement different wards hospital low salaries denial benefits overwork poor working environment workplace stressors problems affect quality life nurses may experience extremely detrimental nurses managers lack understanding severity problems support nurses many contributing factors workplace violence factors divided environmental organizational individual psychosocial environmental factors


using organizational individual interventions together effective reducing stress nurses ref name japanese hospitals powered exoskeletons used lumbar supports ie back belts also trialled worldwide america ''united states'' two nurses arizona us scope practice determined state territory nurse licensed state laws rules regulations governing nursing care usually making rules regulations delegated state board nursing performs day day administration rules licenses nurses


nursing associate degree nursing two year college degree referred adn four year colleges universities also offer adn associate degree nursing programs prerequisite corequisite courses may include english math human anatomy physiology ultimately stretch degree acquiring process three years greater bachelor science nursing another pathway profession higher level education nurses obtaining bachelor science nursing bsn four year degree also prepares nurses graduate level education first two years


lack masters doctoral qualified faculty number increased qualified rejected students two years earlier several strategies offered mitigate shortage including federal private support experienced nurses enhance education incorporating hybrid blended nursing courses using simulation lieu clinical hospital training experiences ref name nardi deena furthermore shortage academically qualified instructors teach schools nursing worldwide serious need educational capacity met underlying important preparation resource


four years however canadian universities offer condensed program two years length ref name test nursing specialty certification available canadian nurses association practice areas ref name test including cardiovascular nursing community health nursing critical care nursing pediatric critical care nursing emergency nursing gastroenterology nursing gerontological nursing hospice palliative care nursing medical surgical nursing neonatal nursing nephrology nursing neuroscience nursing occupational health nursing oncology nursing orthopedic nursing pediatric nursing peri anesthesia nursing obstetrical nursing peri operative nursing psychiatric mental health nursing rehabilitation nursing wound ostomy continence nursing nursing specialty certification generally requires practice experience


common foundation program cfp teaches basic knowledge skills required nurses skills included cfp may include communication taking observations administering medication providing personal care patients remainder program consists training specific student 's chosen branch nursing child nursing mental health nursing learning disabilities nursing nursing midwifery council require new nurses qualifying uk hold degree qualification ref name http wwwnmc ukorg get involved consultations past consultations year pre registration nursing education phase changes pre registration nursing programmes faqs ref however nurses hold diploma even certificate nursing still able legally


established legal substantiation registered nurses japan new law geared towards nurses created world war ii ''public health nurse midwife nurse law'' established ref name test established educational requirements standards licensure continued effort improve nursing japan nursing human resource law passed ref name test law created development new university programs nurses programs designed raise education level nurses could better suited taking care public


aged care sisters little company mary little sisters poor founded hospitals hospices research institutes aged care facilities around australia census found several hundred nurses working western australia colonial period history included aboriginal female servants cared infirm state nursing licensing bodies amalgamated australia federal body ahpra australian health practitioner registration authority several divisions nursing license available recognized around country enrolled nurses may initiate oral medication orders specific competency


p ref important authors period include johann gottfried herder jean jacques rousseau emmanuel joseph siey johann gottlieb fichte giuseppe mazzini ernest renan john stuart mill nationalism studies academic field several universities organize degree non degree courses nationalism boston university university london particularly london school economics central european university hungary university sussex university edinburgh among prominent institutions study nationalism occupies central place faculty humanities e tv lor nd university hungary recently launched comprehensive short term program dedicated exclusively

Social science
Political science
Nationalism studies


consensus question remains whether even possible construct universal theory nationalism theories previously proposed often detached reality given diverse ways identities form different groups around world order solve problem michal luczewski recommends scholars employ greater awareness addressing essential questions nationalism studies scholars produce extensive work dealing national phenomena varieties integrating emotions cognitions subjective objective dimensions one picture essential scholars ignore subjective experience deal directly


analytic perspectives ref name lopez j j scott ''social structure'' buckingham open university press p ref follow marx trying identify basic dimensions society explain dimensions emphasizing either economic production political power others follow l vi strauss seeking logical order cultural structures still others notably peter blau follow simmel attempting base formal theory social structure numerical patterns relationships analyzing example ways factors like group size shape intergroup relations ref name calhoun notion social structure intimately related

Social science
Sociology
Structural sociology


years ref name primary creates situation college experience underrepresented military make military force youth inclusion armed conflict new concept one restricted large well organized forces united states military various societies time youth prized armed conflict instances include dinka sudan boys received spears initiation rite sixteen eighteen years age nineteenth century cheyenne joined first war parties fourteen

Social science
Sociology
Military sociology


characteristics active measures taken ensure balanced representation lower ranks integrated much officers units constituted basis identity usually different groups played role founding nation units constituted without regard minority status emphasises interests dominant national community may many minorities military officers possible advantages policies ensure equal opportunity military parallel structures help internal crisis units identified


armed forces society giuseppe caforio john sibley butler minority participation military bernard boene editorial board armed forces society morton ender editorial board armed forces society meredith kleycamp recruitment nicholas jans professionalism editorial board armed forces society christopher dandeker veterans editorial board armed forces society gerhard k mmel editorial board armed forces society paul camacho veterans editorial board armed forces society guy siebold cohesion anthony king combat cohesion editorial board armed forces society yagil levy editorial board armed forces society patricia shields editor chief armed forces society see also


operation transport person cargo may involve one mode several modes latter case called inter modal multi modal transport mode advantages disadvantages chosen basis cost capability route governments deal way vehicles operated procedures set purpose including financing legalities policies transport industry operations ownership infrastructure either public private depending country mode passenger transport may public operators provide scheduled


terminals act transshipment points though cargo transported directly point production point use financing infrastructure either public private transport often natural monopoly necessity public roads countries railways airports funded taxation new infrastructure projects high costs often financed debt many infrastructure owners therefore impose usage fees landing fees airports toll plazas roads independent authorities may impose taxes purchase use vehicles


value chain manufacturing increased specialization globalization production located away consumption rapidly increasing demand transport transport creates place utility moving goods place production place consumption modes transport used cargo transport high differentiation nature cargo transport mode chosen logistics refers entire process transferring products producer consumer including storage transport transshipment warehousing material handling packaging associated exchange information incoterm deals handling payment


transport land uses efficient clustered transport facilities consume land cities pavement devoted streets parking easily exceed percent total land use efficient transport system reduce land waste much infrastructure much smoothing maximum vehicle throughput mean many cities much traffic many negative impacts come recent years traditional practices started questioned many places result new types analysis bring


efficient introduction vehicles first forms road transport involved animals horses domesticated th rd millennium bce oxen bce humans carrying goods dirt tracks often followed game trails infrastructure many early civilizations including mesopotamia indus valley constructed paved roads classical antiquity persian roman empires built stone paved roads allow armies travel quickly deep roadbeds crushed stone underneath kept roads dry medieval caliphate later built tar paved roads water transport water transport including rowed


children 's reports although measures exist try prevent poor reliability credibility accuracy children 's reports research child testimony process indicates several difficulties may associated child testimony process especially regards eyewitness testimony topics language development memory skills susceptibility suggestion truth lie competency credibility deception detection currently researched determine impact child 's competency reliability credibility language development individual differences language development comprehension may cause difficulties determining child 's relative competence child testimony process

Social science
Psychology
Forensic developmental psychology


text without distortion transparency extent translation appears native speaker target language originally written language conforms grammar syntax idiom john dryden wrote preface translation anthology ''sylvae'' ref translation meets criterion fidelity faithfulness said faithful translation meets criterion transparency idiomatic depending given translation two qualities may mutually exclusive criteria judging fidelity translation vary according subject type

Journalism, media studies and communication


actually translation another language back translation hypothetical original language provide supporting evidence showing characteristics idioms puns peculiar grammatical structures etc fact derived original language example known text ''till eulenspiegel'' folk tales high german contains puns work back translated low german seems clear evidence tales least large portions originally written low german translated high german metaphrastic translator supporters aramaic primacy view christian new


english according latin grammar usage latin sentences ending prepositions dryden may applied latin grammar english thus forming controversial rule sentence ending prepositions subsequently adopted writers source target languages practice translation '' 'source language''' language translated '''target language''' also called '' 'receptor language''' language translated ref name basil hatim jeremy munday https booksgooglecom booksid gzc rcdulyc pg pa dq target language translation hl en sa x ei wlyiu mqh trbdhugcgg ved ce q aewcq v onepage q target language translation f false translation advanced resource book introduction pg milton park routledge ref difficulties translating arise lexical syntactical


translation process referred various terms including translating non mother tongue translating second language inverse translation reverse translation service translation translation b ref name translation specialized professional fields requires working knowledge well pertinent terminology field example translation legal text requires fluency respective languages also familiarity terminology specific legal field language form style source language often cannot reproduced target language


assure true rather spurious ''equivalents'' source target language texts competent translator bilingual bicultural language merely collection words rules grammar syntax generating sentences also vast interconnecting system connotations cultural references whose mastery writes linguist mario pei comes close lifetime job complexity translator 's task cannot overstated one author suggests becoming accomplished translator already acquired good basic knowledge languages cultures may require minimum ten years'


impossible unfinishable art translators including monks spread buddhist texts east asia early modern european translators bible course work shaped languages translated acted bridges conveying knowledge cultures along ideas imported source languages languages loanwords calques grammatical structures idioms vocabulary interpreting hern n cort la malinche meet moctezuma ii tenochtitlan november lewis clark native american interpreter sacagawea interpreting facilitation


translation latter function tools known broadly machine translation tools speed translation process assisting human translator memorizing committing translations database translation memory database sentence occurs project future project content reused translation reuse leads cost savings better consistency shorter project timelines machine translation machine translation mt process whereby computer program analyzes source text principle produces target text without human intervention reality however machine translation


sheila fischman robert dickson linda gaboriau canadian governor general 's awards annually present prizes best english french french english literary translations writers among many made name literary translators include vasily zhukovsky tadeusz boy ele ski vladimir nabokov jorge luis borges robert stiller lydia davis haruki murakami achy obejas jhumpa lahiri substantial gender imbalance noted literary translation english far male writers translated women writers meytal radzinski launched ''women translation'' campaign address history


benjamin jowett th century brought new standards accuracy style regard accuracy observes jm cohen policy became text whole text nothing text except bawdy passages addition copious explanatory footnotes regard style victorians' aim achieved far reaching metaphrase literality ''pseudo'' metaphrase constantly remind readers reading ''foreign'' classic exception outstanding translation period edward fitzgerald 's ''rubaiyat'' omar khayyam achieved oriental flavor largely using persian names discreet biblical echoes


one charged special mission watching maturing process original language birth pangs blockquote gregory hays course discussing roman adapted translations ancient greek literature makes approving reference views translating poetry expressed david bellos accomplished french english translator hays writes book titles book title translations either descriptive symbolic descriptive book titles example antoine de saint exup ry 's ''le petit prince'' little prince meant informative name protagonist indicate theme


languages ref name fatani always element human judgment interpretation involved understanding translating text muslims regard translation ''quran'' one possible interpretation quranic classical arabic text full equivalent divinely communicated original hence translation often called interpretation rather translation complicate matters languages meanings usages expressions changed ''over time'' classical arabic ''quran'' modern arabic thus modern arabic speaker may misinterpret meaning


banana'' deals subject translation trilogy presents evolution spanish language loose translations dramatic poetic philosophical writings medieval golden age modernist eras contemporary caribbean latin american nuyorican spanish expressions braschi translations classical texts iberian spanish regional historical linguistic poetic frameworks challenge concept national languages science fiction science fiction genre recognizable set conventions literary genealogies language often includes neologisms neosemes invented languages techno scientific pseudoscientific vocabulary fictional


language notes references bibliography armstrong rebecca kinds unlucky review ''the aeneid translated shadi bartsch'' profile november pp ''london review books'' vol march pp nbsp excerpted english english translation bromwich david praise ambiguity review michael wood ''on empson'' princeton university press ''the new york review books'' vol lxiv october pp nbsp cohen jm translation ''encyclopedia americana'' vol p nbsp http wwwtranslocutionscom turjuman papers constraints pdf work progress version pdf fatani afnan translation qur'an oliver leaman ''the qur'an


ii latter half th century field saw renewed prominence research inheritance behaviour mental illness humans typically using twin family studies well research genetically informative model organisms selective breeding crosses late th early st centuries technological advances molecular genetics made possible measure modify genome directly led major advances model organism research eg knockout mice human studies eg genome wide association studies leading new scientific discoveries findings behavioural genetic research broadly

Natural science
Biology
Genetics
Behavioural genetics


using model organisms employ range molecular techniques alter insert delete genes techniques include knockouts floxing gene knockdown genome editing using methods like crispr cas ref name heidenreichzhang ref techniques allow behavioural geneticists different levels control model organism 's genome evaluate molecular physiological behavioural outcome genetic changes ref name singhschimenti ref animals commonly used model organisms behavioral genetics include mice zebra fish nematode species ''c elegans'' twin family studies pedigree chart showing inheritance pattern consistent autosomal dominant transmission behavioural geneticists used pedigree studies investigate


math colspan style text align center math k math unknown probably small quantity simplified falconer formulation used derive estimates math math math c math math e math rearranging substituting math r mz math math r dz math equations one obtain estimate additive genetic variance heritability math r mz r dz math non shared environmental effect math e r mz math finally shared environmental effect math c r dz r mz math ref name falconer falconer formulation presented illustrate twin model works modern approaches use maximum likelihood


phenotypic variation accounted genetic relatedness called snp heritability ref name leeyang ref intuitively snp heritability increases degree phenotypic similarity predicted genetic similarity measured snps expected lower true narrow sense heritability degree measured snps fail tag typically rare causal variants ref name visscheryang ref value method independent way estimate heritability require assumptions twin family studies gives insight allelic frequency spectrum


unrelated individuals individuals close even distant relatives associated phenotypic similarity ref name yanglee ref methods rely assumptions twin adoption studies routinely find evidence heritability behavioural traits disorders ref name lee ref name genetics personality consortium ref name plominhaworth ref nature environmental influence researched human behavioural phenotypes influenced genes ie heritable phenotypes also influenced environment ref name poldermanbenyamin ref ref name plomin defries knopik neiderheiser basic fact monozygotic twins genetically identical never perfectly concordant psychiatric


gene variant accounts differences among individuals risk developing disease assuming live long enough ref name gusellawexler ref case genetically simple rare diseases huntington 's variant math r math math math simultaneously large ref name bland additional general findings response general concerns replicability psychological research behavioral geneticists robert plomin john c defries valerie knopik jenae neiderhiser published review ten well replicated findings behavioral genetics research ref name plomin defries knopik neiderheiser ten findings


sold one million books lifetime far sociologist time strong influence many th century thinkers including mile durkheim defined ideas relation durkheim 's ''division labour society'' large extent extended debate spencer whose sociology many commentators agree durkheim borrowed extensively ref name mile durkheim 's division labor shadow herbert spencer also notable biologist spencer coined term ' 'survival fittest'' marxian ideas defined one strand sociology spencer critic


science institutions genesis functioning durkheim 's monograph ''suicide'' considered seminal work statistical analysis contemporary sociologists ''suicide'' case study variations suicide rates among catholic protestant populations served distinguish sociological analysis psychology philosophy also marked major contribution theoretical concept structural functionalism carefully examining suicide statistics different police districts attempted demonstrate catholic communities lower suicide rate protestants something attributed social opposed individual psychological causes developed


theorists marcel mauss bronis aw malinowski radcliffe brown latter 's specific usage prefix structural emerged classical functionalist theory generally united tendency towards biological analogy notions social evolutionism basic form society would increase complexity forms social organization promoted solidarity would eventually overcome social disorganization giddens states blockquote functionalist thought comte onwards looked particularly towards biology science providing closest compatible model social science biology taken provide guide conceptualizing


single overarching grand theoretical orientation john levi martin refers golden age methodological unity theoretical calm ''pax wisconsana'' reflected composition sociology department university wisconsin madison numerous scholars working separate projects little contention omar lizardo describes ''pax wisconsana'' midwestern flavored mertonian resolution theory method wars sociologists agreed least two working hypotheses grand theory waste time good theory good think goes trash bin


synchrony would refer social phenomena static concept like ''language'' diachrony would refer unfolding processes like actual ' 'speech'' anthony giddens' introduction ''central problems social theory'' states order show interdependence action structure must grasp time space relations inherent constitution social interaction like structure agency time integral discussion social reproduction terms sociology historical sociology often better positioned analyse social life diachronic survey research takes snapshot social life


methodological atheism may said modern formal discipline sociology ''began'' analysis religion durkheim 's study suicide rates among roman catholic protestant populations max weber published four major texts religion context economic sociology social stratification ''the protestant ethic spirit capitalism'' ''the religion china confucianism taoism'' ''the religion india sociology hinduism buddhism'' ''ancient judaism'' contemporary debates often centre topics secularization civil religion intersection religion economics


role religion context globalization multiculturalism social change development sociology change development attempts understand societies develop changed includes studying many different aspects society example demographic trends political technological trends changes culture within field sociologists often use macrosociological methods historical comparative methods contemporary studies social change overlaps international development community development however founders sociology theories social change based study history instance marx contended


life'' focused urbanization effect alienation anonymity chicago school produced major body theory nature city important urban sociology criminology utilizing symbolic interactionism method field research contemporary research commonly placed context globalization instance saskia sassen 's study global city rural sociology contrast analysis non metropolitan areas agriculture wilderness tend prominent social fact rural regions rural sociologists often overlap


practical strategies alleviate social dysfunctions sociology general provides thorough examination root causes problems ref name direct social work practice example sociologist might study ''why'' community plagued poverty applied sociologist would focused practical strategies ''what'' needs done alleviate burden social worker would focused ''action'' implementing theses strategies directly indirectly means mental health therapy counselling advocacy community organization community mobilization ref name generalist practice organisations communities social anthropology branch anthropology studies


name autogenerated horowitz cites lack 'core discipline' exacerbating problem randall collins dorothy swaine thomas professor sociology university pennsylvania member advisory editors council social evolution history journal voiced similar sentiments lost coherence discipline breaking conglomerate specialities going way none high regard ''the times higher education guide'' published list 'the cited authors books humanities' including philosophy


ooir latest papers trends sociology http wwwapspt portuguese sociological association aps http wwwsociologyie sociological association ireland sai http nordicsociologicalassociationorg nordic sociological association nsa https wwwsverigessociologforbundse swedish sociological association swedish


oceans lead destructive tsunamis volcanoes huge landslides impact large meteorites wide variety organisms including bacteria protists algae plants fungi animals live sea offers wide range marine habitats ecosystems ranging vertically sunlit surface shoreline great depths pressures cold dark abyssal zone latitude cold waters polar ice caps colourful diversity coral reefs tropical regions many major groups organisms evolved sea life may

Applied science
Military sciences
Battlespace
Sea


temporary surface currents occur specific conditions waves meet shore angle longshore current created water pushed along parallel coastline water swirls onto beach right angles approaching waves drains away straight slope effect gravity larger breaking waves longer beach oblique wave approach stronger longshore current currents shift great volumes sand pebbles create spits make beaches disappear water channels silt


pressure time sand pebbles erosive effect thrown rocks tends undercut cliff normal weathering processes action frost follows causing destruction gradually wave cut platform develops foot cliff protective effect reducing wave erosion ref name monkhouse ref material worn margins land eventually ends sea subject attrition currents flowing parallel coast scour channels transport sand pebbles away place


separated ocean mountains natural geologic features prevent water draining away caspian sea largest one main inflow river volga outflow evaporation water makes saline dissolved minerals accumulate aral sea kazakhstan uzbekistan pyramid lake western united states examples large inland saline water bodies without drainage endorheic lakes less salty sensitive variations quality inflowing water carbon cycle oceans contain


zheng early fifteenth century sailing indian pacific oceans ref name stow late fifteenth century western european mariners started making longer voyages exploration search trade bartolomeu dias rounded cape good hope vasco da gama reached india via cape christopher columbus sailed cadiz attempting reach eastern lands india japan novel means travelling westwards made landfall instead island caribbean sea years later venetian navigator john cabot


overseas one earliest dutch service batavia added passenger accommodation cramped conditions later scheduled services offered time journeys took depended much weather steamships replaced sailing vessels ocean going liners took task carrying people beginning twentieth century crossing atlantic took five days shipping companies competed largest fastest vessels blue riband unofficial accolade given fastest liner crossing atlantic regular service ''mauretania'' held title


act time remove oil sea gulf mexico oil eating bacteria already present take days consume spilt oil run fertilisers agricultural land major source pollution areas discharge raw sewage similar effect extra nutrients provided sources cause excessive plant growth nitrogen often limiting factor marine systems added nitrogen algal blooms red tides lower oxygen level water kill marine animals events


ethnic groups '''indigenous southeast asians ''' br austroasiatic austronesian negrito lolo burmese tai peoples br '''east asians''' br han br '''south asians''' br tamils religions animism buddhism christianity confucianism hinduism islam tai folk taoism vietnamese folk demonym southeast asian countries


text align left padding right em font weight normal background color whitesmoke internet bn id kh la mm ph sg th tl vn calling code zone cities bandar seri begawan phnom penh jakarta vientiane kuala lumpur nay pyi daw manila singapore bangkok dili ha noi bandung bekasi


scope col population br ref name population ref scope col density br scope col gdp nominal br usd ref name imf ref scope col gdp ppp br per capita br int ref name imf scope col hdi report scope col capital scope row style text align left ref name ciagov bn ref r round style text align left bandar seri begawan scope row style text align left ref name ciagov kh ref r round style text align left phnom penh scope row style text align left ref name ciagov tl ref


region third century via maritime trade routes region sri lanka buddhism later established strong presence funan region fifth century present day mainland southeast asia theravada still dominant branch buddhism practiced thai burmese cambodian buddhists branch fused hindu influenced khmer culture mahayana buddhism established presence maritime southeast asia brought chinese monks transit region en route nalanda ref name still dominant branch buddhism practiced indonesian malaysian buddhists spread


enabled cholas influence local cultures many surviving examples hindu cultural influence found today throughout southeast asia result chola expeditions angkor wat siem reap cambodia srivijaya influence region declined hindu khmer empire experienced golden age th th century ce empire 's capital angkor hosts majestic monuments angkor wat bayon satellite imaging revealed angkor peak largest pre industrial urban centre world ref name evans ref champa civilisation located today central vietnam


islam region large volume trade many settled indonesia singapore malaysia evident arab indonesian arab singaporean arab malay populations one time prominent countries finally ruling classes embraced islam aided permeation religion throughout region ruler region 's important port malacca sultanate embraced islam th century heralding period accelerated conversion islam throughout region islam provided positive force among ruling trading classes gujarati muslims played


barbosa wrote lord malacca hand throat venice colonial boundaries southeast asia european fort cornwallis george town marks spot british east india company first landed penang thus heralding british colonisation malaya western influence started enter th century arrival portuguese malacca maluku philippines latter settled spanish years later throughout th th centuries dutch established dutch east indies french indochina


climate change big effect agriculture southeast asia irrigation systems affected changes rainfall runoff subsequently water quality supply climate change also likely pose serious threat fisheries industry southeast asia ref name despite one vulnerable regions effects climate change world southeast asian countries lagging behind terms climate mitigation measures ref name environment komodo dragon komodo national park indonesia vast majority southeast asia falls within warm


agreement transboundary haze pollution combat haze pollution southeast asian haze saw api levels reach hazardous level countries muar experienced highest api level june around economy port singapore busiest transshipment container port world important transportation shipping hub southeast asia even prior penetration european interests southeast asia critical part world trading system wide range commodities originated region especially important spices


negritos believed one earliest inhabitants region genetically related papuans eastern indonesia east timor australian aborigines modern times javanese largest ethnic group southeast asia million people mostly concentrated java indonesia second largest ethnic group southeast asia vietnamese kinh people around million population mainly inhabiting vietnam thus forming significant minority neighboring cambodia laos thais also significant ethnic group around million population forming majority thailand


garuda found palawan gold images hindu gods goddesses also found mindanao balinese hinduism somewhat different hinduism practised elsewhere animism local culture incorporated christians also found throughout southeast asia majority east timor philippines asia 's largest christian nation addition also older tribal religious practices remote areas sarawak east malaysia highland philippines papua eastern indonesia burma sakka indra revered ''nat'' vietnam mahayana buddhism practised


invention paper around year china note palm leaf section several lines written longitudinally across leaf bound twine sections outer portion decorated alphabets southeast asia tended abugidas arrival europeans used words also ended consonants vowels forms official documents use paper included javanese copperplate scrolls material would durable paper tropical climate southeast asia malaysia brunei singapore


sciences addition home economics strong historic relationship field human ecology since number university level home economics programs renamed human ecology programs including cornell university 's program ref name cornell ref history fcs taught worldwide elective required course secondary education many tertiary continuing education institutions sometimes also taught primary education international cooperation field coordinated international federation home economics established canada majority elementary k public k schools

Applied science
Family and consumer science


legitimate profession originally wanted call profession oekology science right living however home economics ultimately chosen official term ref name aafcs ref first book home economics ''mrs welch 's cookbook'' published iowa state mary beaumont welch welch 's classes domestic economy first nation give college credit subject twentieth century home economics united states education system increased popularity early twentieth century emerged movement train women efficient household


model used students different prevailing expectations housewives example women graded collaboration households time assumed women would working independently ref name nevertheless practice homes valued practicum courses took place variety environments including single family homes apartments student dorm style blocks duration number weeks students lived together taking different roles responsibilities cooking cleaning interior decoration hosting budgeting classes also involved caring young infants temporarily adopted orphanages childcare practicums often included


thomas gale smith http homeeccohort pbworkscom w file fetch sustainable food futurespdf sustainable food futures lessons home economics pedagogy practice martin caraher janet reynolds external links societies associations http wwwifheorg international federation home economics ifhe http wwwaafcsorg american association family consumer sciences http wwwneafcsorg national extension association family consumer sciences http bctfca thesa teachers home economics specialist association resources http rmclibrarycornelledu homeec masterlabelhtml home economics web pages cornell university library history influence home economics http wwwcsreesusdagov familysciencecfm usda cooperative state research education extension service http hearthlibrarycornelledu home economics archive tradition research history hearth http wwwfamilyconsumersciencescom family


emerging united nations peacekeeping operations' capstone doctrine speaks integrated civilian military operations political usage definition political doctrine policy position principle advocated taught put effect concerning acquisition exercise power govern administrate society ref name eionet ref term political doctrine sometimes wrongly identified political ideology however doctrine lacks ''the actional aspect'' ideology mainly theoretical discourse refers coherent sum assertions regarding particular topic bernard crick political doctrine based

Applied science
Military sciences
Doctrine


digital libraries project gutenberg make public domain texts readily available combination inexpensive home computers internet creativity users also led new forms fiction interactive computer games computer generated comics countless forums fan fiction found online loyal followers specific fictional realms create distribute derivative stories internet also used development blog fiction story delivered blog either flash fiction serial blog collaborative fiction story written sequentially

Humanities
Languages and literature
Creative writing
Fiction


elements often classified genre fantasy including lewis carroll 's novel ''alice 's adventures wonderland'' j r r tolkien 's ''the lord rings'' j k rowling 's ''harry potter'' series creators fantasy sometimes introduce imaginary creatures beings dragons fairies ref name c hugh holman p literary fiction definition literary fiction controversial book trade used market novels fit neatly established genre see genre fiction definitions novel literary fiction


really like suggested works literary simply written words literary fiction often involves social commentary political criticism reflection human condition general focuses introspective depth character studies interesting complex developed characters contrasts genre fiction plot central concern usually literary fiction focus inner story characters drive plot detailed motivations elicit emotional involvement reader style literary fiction often described elegantly


case often set entirely imaginary universe alternative history world currently understood true non existent location time period sometimes even presenting impossible technology defiance currently understood laws nature however types fiction arguably invite audience explore real ideas issues possibilities otherwise imaginary setting using understood reality mentally construct something similar reality though still distinct ref ref terms traditional separation fiction non fiction lines commonly understood


blurred showing overlap mutual exclusion even fiction usually elements grounding truth distinction two may best defined perspective audience according work regarded non fiction people places events historically factually real work regarded fiction deviates reality areas distinction fiction non fiction obscured understanding one hand truth presented imaginary channels constructions


manuscripts well historical sites antiquarianism focused empirical evidence existed understanding past encapsulated motto th century antiquary sir richard colt hoare speak facts theory tentative steps towards systematization archaeology science took place enlightenment era europe th th centuries imperial china song dynasty figures ouyang xiu zhao mingcheng established tradition chinese epigraphy investigating preserving analyzing ancient chinese bronze inscriptions shang zhou periods


deeds contracts interests world view elites often quite different lives interests populace writings produced people representative general population unlikely find way libraries preserved posterity thus written records tend reflect biases assumptions cultural values possibly deceptions limited range individuals usually small fraction larger population hence written records cannot trusted sole source material record may closer fair representation society though


years species ''homo'' millions years see human evolution civilizations coincidentally best known open inquiry historians centuries study pre historic cultures arisen recently even within literate civilization many events important human practices officially recorded knowledge early years human civilization development agriculture cult practices folk religion rise first cities must come archaeology addition scientific importance archaeological remains sometimes political cultural significance


prominent rise processual archaeology years later ref name billmand feinman survey work many benefits performed preliminary exercise even place excavation requires relatively little time expense require processing large volumes soil search artifacts nevertheless surveying large region site expensive archaeologists often employ sampling methods ref name redman forms non destructive archaeology survey avoids ethical issues particular concern descendant peoples associated destroying site excavation way gather forms


collections comparison process often involves classifying typologically identifying sites similar artifact assemblages however much comprehensive range analytical techniques available archaeological science meaning artifacts dated compositions examined bones plants pollen collected site analyzed using methods zooarchaeology paleoethnobotany palynology stable isotopes texts usually deciphered techniques frequently provide information would otherwise known therefore contribute greatly understanding site computational virtual archaeology computer graphics


used build virtual models sites throne room assyrian palace ancient rome ref name virt photogrammetry also used analytical tool digital topographical models combined astronomical calculations verify whether certain structures pillars aligned astronomical events sun 's position solstice ref name virt agent based modeling simulation used better understand past social dynamics outcomes data mining applied large bodies archaeological 'grey literature' drones archaeologists around world use drones speed


expansion cities dams highways along statutes nhpa mandates projects federal land involving federal funds permits consider effects project archaeological site application crm united kingdom limited government funded projects since ppg ref name planning policy guidance archaeology planning planning building environment communities local government required planners consider archaeology material consideration determining applications new development result numerous archaeological organizations undertake mitigation work advance


hodder scott hutson reading past rd edition ''international journal south american archaeology'' ''ijsa'' magazine internet archaeology e journal cu larsen ''sites monuments'' adrian praetzellis ''death theory'' altamira press colin renfrew paul bahn ''archaeology theories methods practice'' nd edition smekalova tn voss smekalov sl magnetic surveying archaeology years using overhauser gsm gradiometer wormianum david hurst thomas ''archaeology'' rd edition robert j sharer wendy ashmore ''archaeology discovering past'' nd edition bruce trigger


planning towns cities rural areas may seen applied geography techniques spatial interrelationships key synoptic science maps key tool classical cartography joined modern approach geographical analysis computer based geographic information systems gis study geographers use four interrelated approaches analytical nbsp asks ''why'' find features populations specific geographic area descriptive nbsp simply specifies locations features populations regional nbsp examines systematic relationships categories specific region location planet systematic nbsp groups geographical knowledge categories


geographic information system quantitative methods geostatistics deal quantitative data analysis specifically application statistical methodology exploration geographic phenomena geostatistics used extensively variety fields including hydrology geology petroleum exploration weather analysis urban planning logistics epidemiology mathematical basis geostatistics derives cluster analysis linear discriminant analysis non parametric statistical tests variety subjects applications geostatistics rely heavily geographic information systems particularly interpolation estimate unmeasured points geographers making notable contributions method quantitative techniques qualitative


surrounded bitter river oceanus seven islands arranged around form seven pointed star accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond encircling ocean descriptions five survived contrast ''imago mundi'' earlier babylonian world map dating back th century bc depicted babylon north center world though certain center supposed represent ideas anaximander c bc considered later greek writers true founder geography come


vautrin lud prize ellen churchill semple nbsp first female president association american geographers eratosthenes c bc nbsp calculated size earth ernest burgess nbsp creator concentric zone model gerardus mercator nbsp cartographer produced mercator projection john francon williams author ''the geography oceans'' karl butzer nbsp german american geographer cultural ecologist environmental archaeologist michael frank goodchild born nbsp gis scholar winner rgs founder 's medal muhammad al idrisi arabic latin dreses nbsp author nuzhatul mushtaq nigel


positive claims controversial contentious subjects would impossible without mathematics much economic theory currently presented terms mathematical economic models set stylized simplified mathematical relationships asserted clarify assumptions implications broad applications include optimization problems goal equilibrium whether household business firm policy maker static equilibrium analysis economic unit household economic system market economy modeled changing comparative statics change one equilibrium another induced

Social science
Economics
Mathematical economics


preceded modern game theory years l walras cournot provided solution would later called partial equilibrium l walras attempted formalize discussion economy whole theory general competitive equilibrium behavior every economic actor would considered production consumption side walras originally presented four separate models exchange recursively included next solution resulting system equations linear non linear general equilibrium time general solution could


free recontract another independently ofany third party edgeworth box displaying contract curve economy two participants referred core economy modern parlance infinitely many solutions along curve economies two participants given two individuals set solutions individuals maximize utility described ''contract curve'' known edgeworth box technically construction two person solution edgeworth 's problem developed graphically arthur lyon bowley ref name bowley ref


contract curve edgeworth box generally set solutions edgeworth 's problem actors referred core economy edgeworth devoted considerable effort insisting mathematical proofs appropriate schools thought economics helm ''the economic journal'' published several articles criticizing mathematical rigor rival researchers including edwin robert anderson seligman noted skeptic mathematical economics ref name moss ref articles focused back forth tax incidence responses producers edgeworth noticed


axiomatics differential calculus vilfredo pareto analyzed microeconomics treating decisions economic actors attempts change given allotment goods another preferred allotment sets allocations could treated pareto efficient pareto optimal equivalent term exchanges could occur actors could make least one individual better without making individual worse pareto 's proof commonly conflated walrassian equilibrium informally ascribed adam smith 's invisible hand hypothesis rather pareto 's statement first formal assertion would known


yves balasko advances changed traditional narrative history mathematical economics following von neumann celebrated abandonment differential calculus game theory john von neumann working oskar morgenstern theory games broke new mathematical ground extending functional analytic methods related convex sets topological fixed point theory economic analysis ref name debreuneumann ref name neumannmorgenstern work thereby avoided traditional differential calculus maximum operator apply non differentiable functions continuing von neumann 's work cooperative game theory game theorists lloyd shapley martin shubik herv moulin nimrod


conventional methods theorem formulation may find ready use starting specified initial conditions computational economic system modeled evolving time constituent agents repeatedly interact respects ace characterized bottom culture dish approach study economy contrast standard modeling methods ace events driven solely initial conditions whether equilibria exist computationally tractable ace modeling however includes agent adaptation autonomy learning similarity overlap game theory


wars advances mathematical statistics cadre mathematically trained economists led econometrics name proposed discipline advancing economics using mathematics statistics within economics econometrics often used statistical methods economics rather mathematical economics statistical econometrics features application linear regression time series analysis economic data ragnar frisch coined word econometrics helped found econometric society journal ''econometrica'' ref name arrow bio frisch ref student frisch 's trygve haavelmo published ''the probability approach


econometrics'' asserted precise statistical analysis could used tool validate mathematical theories economic actors data complex sources linking statistical analysis systems economic theory also promulgated cowles commission cowles foundation throughout roots modern econometrics traced american economist henry l moore moore studied agricultural productivity attempted fit changing values productivity plots corn crops curve using different values elasticity


economic variables functional relationships used qualitative sense example price item increases demand item decrease models economists often use two dimensional graphs instead functions qualitative models occasionally used one example qualitative scenario planning possible future events played another example non numerical decision tree analysis qualitative models often suffer lack precision example effect corporate tax cut wages great appeal mathematical economics brings


degree rigor economic thinking particularly around charged political topics example discussion efficacy corporate tax cut increasing wages workers simple mathematical model proved beneficial understanding issues hand intellectual exercise following problem posed prof greg mankiw harvard university blockquote '''''an open economy production function math display inline f k math math display inline math output per worker math display inline k math capital per worker capital stock adjusts tax marginal product capital equals exogenously given world interest


total taxes math display inline x tau f kl wl math implies taxes per worker math display inline x math math display block x tau f k w tau f' k k math change taxes per worker given tax rate math display block dx tau underbrace f' k k text static underbrace tau left f' k f'' k k right dk tau text dynamic math find change wages differentiate second optimality condition per worker wages obtain math display block frac dw tau left f' k f' k f'' k k right frac dk tau f'' k k frac dk tau math assuming interest rate fixed math display inline r math math display inline dr tau math may differentiate first optimality condition interest rate find math display block dk tau f' k tau f'' k math


john r hicks werner hildenbrand harold hotelling leonid hurwicz leonid kantorovich tjalling koopmans david kreps harold w kuhn edmond malinvaud andreu mas colell eric maskin nimrod megiddo jean fran ois mertens james mirrlees roger myerson john forbes nash jr john von neumann edward c prescott roy radner frank ramsey donald john roberts paul samuelson thomas sargent leonard j savage herbert scarf reinhard selten amartya sen lloyd shapley stephen smale robert solow hugo f sonnenschein nancy l stokey albert w tucker hirofumi uzawa robert b wilson abraham wald hermann wold nicholas c yannelis yuliy sannikov see also econophysics mathematical finance references


discoveries enlarged dramatically scope geometry one oldest discoveries gauss' theorema egregium remarkable theorem asserts roughly gaussian curvature surface independent specific embedding euclidean space implies surfaces studied ''intrinsically'' stand alone spaces expanded theory manifolds riemannian geometry later th century appeared geometries without parallel postulate non euclidean geometries developed without introducing contradiction geometry underlies general relativity famous application non euclidean geometry since

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry


related graphics ref name meyer ref geometry also applications areas mathematics apparently unrelated example methods algebraic geometry fundamental wiles 's proof fermat 's last theorem problem stated terms elementary arithmetic remained unsolved several centuries history european arab practicing geometry th century earliest recorded beginnings geometry traced ancient mesopotamia egypt nd millennium bc early geometry collection empirically discovered principles concerning lengths angles areas volumes developed meet practical