major religions world hindu denominations fuzzy individuals practicing one suggests term hindu polycentrism vaishnavism devotional religious tradition worships vishnu avatars particularly krishna rama adherents sect generally non ascetic monastic oriented towards community events devotionalism practices inspired intimate loving joyous playful ''krishna'' vishnu avatars ref name sskumar practices sometimes include community dancing singing kirtans bhajans sound music believed meditative spiritual powers temple worship festivals typically elaborate


oldest among vedas one earliest indo european texts ref one oldest religious texts rigveda manuscript devanagari ancient scriptures hinduism sanskrit texts classified two shruti smriti shruti ''apauru ey '' made man revealed ''rishis'' seers regarded highest authority smriti manmade secondary authority two highest sources dharma two '' ch ra sad chara'' conduct noble people finally '' tma tu i'' pleasing


shiva shakti ''nigamas'' refers vedas teachings shakti shiva agamic schools hinduism vedic literature agamas equally authoritative practices rituals wedding extensive personal ritual adult hindu undertakes life typical hindu wedding solemnized vedic fire ritual shown hindus observe religious rituals home rituals vary greatly among regions villages individuals mandatory hinduism nature place rituals individual 's choice devout hindus


kedar ghat bathing place pilgrims ganges varanasi pilgrimages part ''vrata'' vow hindu may make number reasons may mark special occasion birth baby part rite passage baby 's first haircut healing sickness may states eck also result prayers answered alternative reason tirtha hindus respect wishes memory beloved person death may


include dispersing cremation ashes tirtha region stream river sea honor wishes dead journey tirtha assert hindu texts helps one overcome sorrow loss ref reasons tirtha hinduism rejuvenate gain spiritual merit traveling famed temples bathe rivers ganges tirtha one recommended means addressing remorse perform penance unintentional errors intentional sins hindu tradition proper procedure pilgrimage widely discussed


distancing lower caste citizens modern days ghar wapsi reconversion muslims christians back hinduism also criticised called act hindutva dominance especially india hindu nationalism hindutva often criticised right wing views sometimes violent acts compared nazism persecution hindus experienced historical religious persecution ongoing religious persecution systematic violence occur form forced conversions documented massacres demolition desecration temples ref name ref historic persecutions hindus happened muslim rulers ref name also


concept missionary conversion either way anathema precepts hinduism ref name arvindmr ref known unlike ethnic religions exist almost exclusively among instance japanese shinto chinese taoism jews judaism hinduism india nepal widespread among many indo aryan non aryan ethnic groups addition religious conversion hinduism long history outside india merchants traders india particularly indian peninsula carried religious ideas led religious conversions hinduism outside india antiquity middle ages hinduism state religion


jamison witzel harvard university hindu religion swami vivekananda wikisource http wwwramakrishnaorg catalog archive spirit hinduismhtm hinduism swami nikhilananda ramakrishna mission one theistic hindu movements http wwwdlshqorg download hinduismbkpdf hinduism swami sivananda pdf divine life society one theistic hindu movements http wwwieputmedu adv veda advaita vedanta hinduism sangeetha menon iep one non theistic school hindu philosophy https webarchiveorg web http hinduismiskconcom heart hinduism overview hindu traditions iskcon hare krishna movement http wwwhinduismtodaycom modules wfchannel indexphpwfc cid hinduism ''hinduism today'' magazine research hinduism https webarchiveorg web http pluralismorg religion hinduism bibliography hinduism outside india bibliography harvard university pluralism project


lamm ref name canoville chinsamy biological tissues animal tissue classification four basic types animal tissues muscle tissue nervous tissue connective tissue epithelial tissue ref name leeson leeson ref name ross pawlina animal tissues considered subtypes four principal tissue types example blood classified connective tissue since blood cells suspended extracellular matrix plasma ref name ross pawlina plant tissue classification histologic section plant stem ''alliaria petiolata'' plants study tissues falls


tissues microscopic examination known histotechnology job titles trained personnel prepare histological specimens examination numerous include histotechnicians histotechnologists ref name titford bowman histology technicians technologists medical laboratory technicians biomedical scientists sample preparation histological samples need preparation microscopic observation methods depend specimen method observation ref name ross pawlina fixation histologic section fossilized invertebrate ordovician bryozoan chemical fixatives used preserve maintain structure tissues cells fixation also hardens tissues aids cutting


german botanists julius von sachs wilhelm knop years resulted development technique soilless cultivation ref name ref quote sachs directly year published results experiments demonstrated land plants capable absorbing nutritive matters watery solutions without aid soil possible way maintain plants alive growing long time long known also bring vigorous increase organic substance even production


seed capable germination growth terrestrial plants without soil mineral nutrient solutions later called solution culture quickly became standard research teaching technique still widely used solution culture considered type hydroponics inert medium around plant scientists investigated diseases certain plants thereby observed symptoms related existing soil conditions salinity context water culture experiments undertaken hope delivering similar symptoms controlled conditions approach forced dennis robert hoagland led model systems


arnon served major united states army used prior expertise plant nutrition feed troops stationed barren ponape island western pacific growing crops gravel nutrient rich water arable land available ref name nytobit sullivan walter https wwwnytimescom obituaries daniel arnon researcher expert photosynthesishtml daniel arnon researcher expert photosynthesis ''the new york times'' december accessed april ref allen cooper england developed nutrient film technique land pavilion walt disney world 's epcot center opened prominently features variety hydroponic techniques


hole cut drilled top reservoir plant jar tub may lid otherwise cardboard foil paper wood metal may put top single reservoir dedicated single plant various plants reservoir size increased plant size increases home made system constructed food containers glass canning jars aeration provided aquarium pump aquarium airline tubing aquarium valves clear containers covered aluminium foil butcher paper black plastic


channels provide required slope methods used depend local requirements often determined site crop requirements general guide flow rates gully one liter per minute planting rates may half upper limit l min appears maximum flow rates beyond extremes often associated nutritional problems depressed growth rates many crops observed channels exceed meters length rapidly growing crops tests indicated oxygen levels remain adequate nitrogen may


common plant directly place pot medium stand tray regular intervals simple timer causes pump fill upper tray nutrient solution solution drains back reservoir keeps medium regularly flushed nutrients air upper tray fills past drain stop begins recirculating water timer turns pump water upper tray drains back reservoirs run waste run waste system nutrient water solution periodically applied


timer irrigation tubing deliver nutrient solution delivery frequency governed key parameters plant size plant growing stage climate substrate substrate conductivity ph water content commercial setting watering frequency multi factorial governed computers plcs commercial hydroponics production large plants like tomatoes cucumber peppers uses one form another run waste hydroponics environmentally responsible uses nutrient rich waste collected processed site filtration system used many times making system productive bonsai also grown soil free


nitrogen eg ammonium positive charge thus plant expels one proton h every nh taken resulting reduction rhizosphere ph supplied opposite occur plant releases bicarbonate hco increases rhizosphere ph changes ph influence availability plant essential micronutrients eg zn ca mg potassium essential macronutrient k sup sup ref name adv ref name adv kno sub sub k sub sub sub sub kcl koh k sub sub co sub sub k sub sub hpo sub sub k sub sub sio sub sub high concentrations interfere function fe mn zn zinc


deficiencies often apparent ref name jones phosphorus essential macronutrient p ref name jones ref name adv k sub sub hpo sub sub kh sub sub po sub sub nh sub sub h sub sub po sub sub h sub sub po sub sub ca h sub sub po sub sub sub sub excess tends inhibit po absorption ratio iron po affect co precipitation reactions ref name adv calcium essential macronutrient ca sup sup ref name jones ref name adv ca sub sub sub sub ca h sub sub po sub sub sub sub caso sub sub cacl sub sub excess ca sup sup inhibits mg sup sup uptake ref name jones magnesium essential macronutrient mg sup sup ref name adv ref name adv mgso sub sub mgcl sub sub


plants eg asparagus ppm absent conifers ferns bryophytes ref name adv aluminum variable micronutrient al sup sup ref name adv al sub sub sub sub sub sub essential plants eg peas maize sunflowers cereals toxic plants ppm ref name adv sometimes used produce flower pigments eg hydrangeas silicon variable micronutrient p ref name jones k sub sub sio sub sub na sub sub sio sub sub h sub sub sio sub sub present plants abundant cereal crops grasses tree bark evidence sio improves


integer multiples one another frequencies harmonics music notes term generalized beyond original meaning classical fourier transform '''r''' sup ''n'' sup still area ongoing research particularly concerning fourier transformation general objects tempered distributions instance impose requirements distribution ''f'' attempt translate requirements terms fourier transform ''f'' paley wiener theorem example paley wiener theorem immediately implies ''f'' nonzero distribution compact support

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Harmonic analysis


international level police intelligence gathering information crime order track predict view curbing media music intelligence song know us trail dead ep ''the secret elena 's tomb'' intelligence noise rock band seattle releases red records periodicals ''intelligence'' journal scientific journal dealing intelligence psychometrics ''intelligence'' newspaper australian newspaper television ''intelligence'' canadian tv series canadian television show ran cbc television ''intelligence'' american tv series

Applied science
Military sciences
Organization
Intelligence


american cyber themed action adventure television series ''intelligence'' british tv series british sitcom set gchq film ''inttelligent'' indian telugu language film uses intelligence solitaire card game ''nous'' intelligence classical medieval philosophy cosmology theology see also artificial intelligence disambiguation emotional intelligence intellect disambiguation intelligence analysis multiple intelligence signals intelligence social intelligence


whether quantifiable ref name legghutter ref groups psychologists suggested following definitions mainstream science intelligence op ed statement wall street journal signed fifty two researchers total invited sign ref name gottfredson ref ref ''intelligence knowns unknowns'' report published board scientific affairs american psychological association ref besides definitions psychology learning researchers also suggested definitions intelligence following class wikitable style width px researcher quotation alfred binet judgment otherwise


encounters appropriate create effective product must also entail potential finding creating problems thereby laying groundwork acquisition new knowledge ref name isbn ref linda gottfredson ability deal cognitive complexity robert sternberg william salter goal directed adaptive behavior ref name isbn ref reuven feuerstein theory structural cognitive modifiability describes intelligence unique propensity human beings change modify structure cognitive functioning adapt changing demands life situation shane legg marcus


first described humans ''g'' factor since identified number non human species ref name reader reader hager laland k n evolution primate general cultural intelligence philosophical transactions royal society b biological sciences ref cognitive ability intelligence cannot measured using largely verbally dependent scales developed humans instead intelligence measured using variety interactive observational tools focusing innovation habit reversal social learning responses novelty studies shown ''g'' responsible individual variance


environments cognitive ability sometimes measured one dimensional parameter could also represented hypersurface multidimensional space compare systems good different intellectual tasks skeptics believe meaningful way define intelligence aside pointing see also outline human intelligence passive intellect superintelligence sapience references reading handbook includes chapters paul b baltes ann e boehm thomas j bouchard jr nathan brody valerie j cook roger dixon gerald e gruen j p


changes dns root zone iana stewardship transition october internet society isoc founded mission '' assure open development evolution use internet benefit people throughout world '' members include individuals anyone may join well corporations organizations governments universities among activities isoc provides administrative home number less formally organized groups involved developing managing internet including ietf internet architecture board iab internet engineering steering group iesg internet research

Formal science
Computer science
Computer communications (networks)
Internet


governments may perform function isps engaging peering purchasing transit behalf internal networks research networks tend interconnect large subnetworks geant gloriad internet uk 's national research education network janet access common methods internet access users include dial computer modem via telephone circuits broadband coaxial cable fiber optics copper wires wi fi satellite cellular telephone technology eg g g internet may often accessed computers libraries internet cafes internet access points exist many public places


wireless community networks commercial wi fi services cover large areas available many cities new york london vienna toronto san francisco philadelphia chicago pittsburgh internet accessed places park bench experiments also conducted proprietary mobile wireless networks like ricochet various high speed data services cellular networks fixed wireless services modern smartphones also access internet cellular carrier network web browsing devices provide applications google chrome safari firefox wide variety internet software may


ipv address exhaustion entered final stage global ipv address allocation pool exhausted ipv growth internet depletion available ipv addresses new version ip ipv developed mid provides vastly larger addressing capabilities efficient routing internet traffic ipv uses bits ip address standardized ref name rfc ref ref name rfc ref ref name rfc ref ipv deployment ongoing since mid currently growing deployment around world since internet address registries rirs began urge


technical specifications protocols describe exchange data network indeed internet defined interconnections routing policies subnetwork creating subnet dividing host identifier ' 'subnetwork'' ' 'subnet'' logical subdivision ip network ref name rfc updated rfc ref practice dividing network two networks called ' 'subnetting'' computers belong subnet addressed identical significant bit group ip addresses results logical division ip address two fields ''network number'' ''routing


use convenient traditional telephone benefit substantial cost savings traditional telephone calls especially long distances cable adsl mobile data networks provide internet access customer premises ref name ebscohost ref inexpensive voip network adapters provide connection traditional analog telephone sets voice quality voip often exceeds traditional calls remaining problems voip include situation emergency services may universally available devices rely local power supply older traditional phones powered local loop typically operate


controlled user authentication transit file internet may obscured encryption money may change hands access file price paid remote charging funds example credit card whose details also passed usually fully encrypted across internet origin authenticity file received may checked digital signatures md message digests simple features internet worldwide basis changing production sale distribution anything reduced


internet well language 's role lingua franca world language early computer systems limited characters american standard code information interchange ascii subset latin alphabet english requested languages world wide web chinese spanish japanese portuguese german arabic french russian korean ref name niubl iws region world 's internet users based asia europe north america latin america caribbean


cellular routers allow users connect internet wirelessly within limitations imposed small screens limited facilities pocket sized devices services internet including email web may available service providers may restrict services offered mobile data charges may significantly higher access methods educational material levels pre school post doctoral available websites examples range cbeebies school high school revision guides virtual universities access top end scholarly literature likes google scholar distance education help


low cost nearly instantaneous sharing ideas knowledge skills made collaborative work dramatically easier help collaborative software group cheaply communicate share ideas wide reach internet allows groups easily form example free software movement produced among things linux mozilla firefox openofficeorg later forked libreoffice internet chat whether using irc chat room instant messaging system social networking service allows colleagues stay touch convenient way


cyberbullying approaches sexual predators sometimes pose children children may also encounter material may find upsetting material parents consider age appropriate due naivety may also post personal information online could put families risk unless warned many parents choose enable internet filtering supervise children 's online activities attempt protect children inappropriate material internet popular social networking services facebook twitter commonly forbid users


gamespy mplayer non subscribers limited certain types game play certain games many people use internet access download music movies works enjoyment relaxation free fee based services exist activities using centralized servers distributed peer peer technologies sources exercise care respect original artists' copyrights others internet usage correlated users' loneliness lonely people tend use internet outlet feelings share stories others


unauthorized control cause interruptions commit fraud engage blackmail access private information malware malware malicious software used distributed via internet includes computer viruses copied help humans computer worms copy automatically software denial service attacks ransomware botnets spyware reports activity typing users usually activities constitute cybercrime defense theorists also speculated possibilities hackers using cyber warfare using similar methods large scale surveillance vast majority computer surveillance involves monitoring


exhibits emergent phenomena depend large scale organization traffic volume volume internet traffic difficult measure single point measurement exists multi tiered non hierarchical topology traffic data may estimated aggregate volume peering points tier network providers traffic stays local large provider networks may accounted outages internet blackout outage caused local signalling interruptions disruptions submarine communications cables may cause blackouts slowdowns large areas submarine cable


peer reviewed research paper found claims differing factor published literature preceding decade ranging kilowatt hours per gigabyte transferred kwh gb kwh gb ref name ref researchers attributed discrepancies mainly year reference ie whether efficiency gains time taken account whether end devices personal computers servers included analysis ref name academic researchers estimated overall energy used internet gw less two percent


''' international trade''' exchange capital goods services across international borders territories need want goods services countries trade represents significant share gross domestic product gdp international trade existed throughout history example uttarapatha silk road amber road scramble africa atlantic slave trade salt roads economic social political importance rise recent centuries carrying trade international level complex process compared domestic trade trade takes place

Applied science
Business
International trade


h sub sub nh sub sub cl sup sup cn sup sup modern coordination compounds almost organic inorganic compounds used ligands metal usually metal groups well ''trans'' lanthanides ''trans'' actinides certain perspective chemical compounds described coordination complexes stereochemistry coordination complexes quite rich hinted werner 's separation two enantiomers co oh sub sub co nh sub sub sub sub sub sub sup sup early demonstration chirality inherent organic compounds topical theme within specialization supramolecular coordination chemistry examples co edta sup sup co nh sub sub sub sub sup sup ticl sub sub thf sub sub main

Natural science
Chemistry
Inorganic chemistry


study quantum size effects cadmium selenide clusters thus large clusters described array bound atoms intermediate character molecule solid examples fe sub sub co sub sub b sub sub h sub sub mo sub sub cl sub sub sup sup fe bioinorganic compounds octahedral cobalt centre vitamin b sub sub definition compounds occur nature subfield includes anthropogenic species pollutants eg methylmercury drugs eg cisplatin field incorporates many aspects biochemistry includes many kinds compounds eg phosphates dna also metal complexes containing ligands range biological macromolecules commonly peptides


relation recalling boltzmann 's constant ''w'' speed transmission intelligence ''m'' number different voltage levels choose time step ''k'' constant ralph hartley 's paper ''transmission information'' uses word ''information'' measurable quantity reflecting receiver 's ability distinguish one sequence symbols thus quantifying information ''s'' number possible symbols ''n'' number symbols transmission unit information therefore decimal digit since sometimes

Formal science
Computer science
Computer communications (networks)
Information theory


entropy sum individual entropies example represents position chess piece row column joint entropy row piece column piece entropy position piece math h x mathbb e xy log p xy sum x p x log p x math despite similar notation joint entropy confused conditional entropy equivocation ''conditional uncertainty'' given random variable also called ''equivocation''


subdivided source coding theory channel coding theory using statistical description data information theory quantifies number bits needed describe data information entropy source data compression source coding two formulations compression problem lossless data compression data must reconstructed exactly lossy data compression allocates bits needed reconstruct data within specified fidelity level measured distortion function subset information theory called ''rate distortion theory'' error correcting codes channel coding data compression removes much redundancy possible


process discrete channel simple model process shown math title channel model xrightarrow text message w begin array c hline text encoder f n hline end array xrightarrow mathrm encoded atop sequence x n begin array c hline text channel p x hline end array xrightarrow mathrm received atop sequence n begin array c hline text decoder g n hline end array xrightarrow mathrm estimated atop message hat w math ''x'' represents space messages transmitted ''y'' space messages received unit time channel let ''x'' conditional probability distribution function ''y'' given ''x'' consider ''x'' inherent fixed property communications channel


able crack one time pads soviet union due improper reuse key material pseudorandom number generation pseudorandom number generators widely available computer language libraries application programs almost universally unsuited cryptographic use evade deterministic nature modern computer equipment software class improved random number generators termed cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generators even require random seeds external software work intended obtained via extractors done carefully measure sufficient randomness


major improvement resolution image clarity previous analog methods semiotics semioticians doede nauta winfried n th considered charles sanders peirce created theory information works semiotics ref name nauta ref ref name n th ref nauta defined semiotic information theory study internal processes coding filtering information processing ref name nauta concepts information theory redundancy code control used semioticians umberto eco ferruccio rossi landi explain ideology form message transmission whereby dominant social class emits message using


computation physcomp' '' ieee comp scipress los alamitos pp nbsp textbooks information theory arndt c ''information measures information description science engineering'' springer series signals communication technology ash rb ''information theory'' new york interscience new york dover gallager r ''information theory reliable communication'' new york john wiley sons goldman ''information theory'' new york prentice hall new york dover csiszar korner j ''information theory coding theorems discrete memoryless systems'' akademiai kiado nd edition mackay david j c '' http wwwinferencephycamacuk mackay itila bookhtml information theory


group organisms causing infection skin superficial structures humans basidiomycota including human pathogenic genus ''cryptococcus'' prions although n't secrete toxins parasites usually divided unicellular organisms eg malaria ''toxoplasma'' ''babesia'' macroparasites worms helminths including nematodes parasitic roundworms pinworms tapeworms cestodes flukes trematodes schistosomes arthropods ticks mites fleas lice also cause human disease conceptually similar infections invasion human animal body macroparasites usually termed infestation diseases caused helminths also macroparasites

Applied science
Medicine and health
Infectious disease


hand may detect measure antibodies produced organism 's immune system made neutralize allow destruction virus instrumentation used read extremely small signals created secondary reactions linked antibody antigen binding instrumentation control sampling reagent use reaction times signal detection calculation results data management yield cost effective automated process diagnosis infectious disease pcr based diagnostics technologies based upon polymerase chain reaction pcr method become nearly ubiquitous gold standards diagnostics near future several reasons first


arise quickly chronic infections ''focal'' infection initial site infection organisms travel via bloodstream another area body ref name ref primary versus opportunistic among many varieties microorganisms relatively cause disease otherwise healthy individuals ref name baron section incorporates https wwwncbinlmnihgov books bvfcgirid mmed public domain materials included text https wwwncbinlmnihgov books bvfcgicall bvviewshowtoc rid mmedtoc depth medical microbiology fourth edition https wwwncbinlmnihgov books bvfcgirid mmedchapter chapter baron samuel md university texas medical branch galveston ref infectious disease results interplay pathogens defenses hosts infect


pathogenic bacteria fungi gastrointestinal upper respiratory tract may also result otherwise innocuous microbes acquired hosts ''clostridium difficile'' colitis environment result traumatic introduction surgical wound infections compound fractures opportunistic disease requires impairment host defenses may occur result genetic defects chronic granulomatous disease exposure antimicrobial drugs immunosuppressive chemicals might occur following poisoning cancer chemotherapy exposure ionizing radiation result infectious disease immunosuppressive activity


measles malaria hiv disease primary pathogens may also cause severe disease host depressed resistance would normally occur immunosufficient host ref name sherris secondary infection primary infection practically viewed root cause individual 's current health problem secondary infection sequela complication root cause example infection due burn penetrating trauma root cause secondary infection primary pathogens often cause primary infection often cause secondary infection usually opportunistic infections viewed


cases region pandemic global epidemic cause infectious disease unknown epidemiology used assist tracking sources infection ref name pmid ref contagiousness infectious diseases sometimes called contagious diseases easily transmitted contact ill person secretions eg influenza thus contagious disease subset infectious disease especially infective easily transmitted types infectious transmissible communicable diseases specialized routes infection vector transmission sexual transmission usually


late th century greatly reduced incidence infections caused surgery frequent hand washing remains important defense spread unwanted organisms forms prevention avoiding use illicit drugs using condom wearing gloves healthy lifestyle balanced diet regular exercise cooking foods well avoiding foods left outside long time also important antimicrobial substances used prevent transmission infections include antiseptics applied living tissue skin disinfectants destroy microorganisms found


manifested direct effect upon pathogen antibody initiated complement dependent bacteriolysis opsonoization phagocytosis killing occurs bacteria neutralization viruses organisms cannot enter cells lymphocytes kill cell parasitized microorganism immune system response microorganism often causes symptoms high fever inflammation potential devastating direct damage caused microbe ref name sherris resistance infection immunity may acquired following disease asymptomatic carriage pathogen harboring organism


similar structure crossreacting vaccination knowledge protective antigens specific acquired host immune factors complete primary pathogens opportunistic pathogens also phenomenon herd immunity offers measure protection otherwise vulnerable people large enough proportion population acquired immunity certain infections immune resistance infectious disease requires critical level either antigen specific antibodies cells host encounters pathogen individuals develop natural serum antibodies surface polysaccharides agents although


meningitis style text align center syphilis style text align center hepatitis b style text align center tropical diseases style text align center style text align left colspan top three single agent disease killers hiv aids tb malaria number deaths due nearly every disease decreased deaths due hiv aids increased fourfold childhood diseases include pertussis poliomyelitis diphtheria measles tetanus children also make large percentage lower respiratory diarrheal deaths


written codes areas around world developed differing legal systems chinese legal tradition dating back four thousand years although end th century still written code civil proceedings china mid th century relations states dictated mostly treaties agreements states behave certain way unenforceable except force nonbinding except matters honor faithfulness one first instruments modern international law lieber code governed conduct us forces

Humanities
Law
Civil law
Public international law


''united kingdom v norway'' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj fisheries case concerning limits norway 's jurisdiction neighboring waters ''peru v chile'' dispute international waters ''bakassi case'' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj nigeria cameroon ''burkina faso niger frontier dispute case'' united nations convention law sea ''corfu channel case'' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj uk sues albania damage ships international waters first icj decision ''france v united kingdom'' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj ''germany v denmark netherlands'' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj successful claim greater share north


http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj ''international court justice advisory opinion legality threat use nuclear weapons'' humanitarian law first geneva convention amelioration condition wounded sick armed forces field first adopted second geneva convention amelioration condition wounded sick shipwrecked members armed forces sea first adopted third geneva convention treatment prisoners war adopted following hague conventions fourth geneva convention protection


civilian persons time war international criminal law international criminal tribunal rwanda international criminal tribunal former yugoslavia courts enforcement ref since international law established compulsory judicial system settlement disputes coercive penal system straightforward managing breaches within domestic legal system however means breaches brought attention international community means resolution example judicial quasi judicial tribunals international law certain areas trade


general assembly debate general assembly resolutions generally non binding towards member states adoption uniting peace resolution res november assembly declared power authorize use force terms un charter cases breaches peace acts aggression provided security council owing negative vote permanent member fails act address situation assembly also declared adoption resolution could call


allows individuals rights violated member states petition international human rights committee investment treaties commonly routinely provide enforcement individuals investing entities commercial agreements foreigners sovereign governments may enforced international plane international courts numerous international bodies created treaties adjudicating legal issues may jurisdiction one claiming universal jurisdiction united nations security council others united nations international court justice international criminal court national systems totally failed treaty


particularly fields organ transplantation oncology rheumatology virology bacteriology parasitology psychiatry dermatology term coined russian biologist ilya ilyich mechnikov advanced studies immunology received nobel prize work pinned small thorns starfish larvae noticed unusual cells surrounding thorns active response body trying maintain integrity mechnikov first observed phenomenon phagocytosis body defends foreign body prior designation immunity etymological root ''immunis''


responses contribute development many common disorders traditionally viewed immunologic including metabolic cardiovascular cancer neurodegenerative conditions like alzheimer disease besides direct implications immune system infectious diseases tuberculosis malaria hepatitis pneumonia dysentery helminth infestations well hence research field immunology prime importance advancements fields modern medicine biomedical research biotechnology immunological research continues become specialized pursuing non classical models immunity functions cells organs systems previously associated immune system yemeserach


reduce severity parasite infection ref name symbiont mediated defenses also heritable across host generations despite non genetic direct basis transmission aphids example rely several different symbionts defense key parasites vertically transmit symbionts parent offspring therefore symbiont successfully confers protection parasite likely passed host offspring allowing coevolution parasites attacking host way similar traditional immunity immunotherapy use immune system components antigens treat disease disorder


longbowmen hundred years' war start renaissance infantry began return dominance swiss pikemen german landsknechts filling role heavy infantry using dense formations pikes drive cavalry dense formations vulnerable ranged weapons technological developments allowed raising large numbers light infantry units armed ranged weapons without years training expected traditional high skilled archers slingers started slowly first crossbowmen hand cannoneers arquebusiers increasing effectiveness marking beginning early modern warfare

Applied science
Military sciences
Military weapons
Infantry


border patrol operations dense forests mountainous terrain patrolling common infantry mission full scale attacks defensive efforts occasional patrols constant patrols consist small groups infantry moving areas possible enemy activity locate enemy destroy found patrols used front lines rear areas enemy infiltration insurgencies possible pursuit operations pursuit role infantry often assumes objective pursuit operations destruction withdrawing enemy forces capable effectively


teams gather information enemy reporting characteristics size activity location unit equipment infantry units typically known stealth ability operate periods time within close proximity enemy without detected may engage high profile targets employed hunt terrorist cells insurgents within given area units may also entice enemy engage located recon unit thus disclosing location destroyed powerful friendly forces military reserve force assignments infantry units involve deployment behind


infantry units must trained enter city systematically clear buildings likely booby trapped order kill capture enemy personnel within city care must taken differentiate innocent civilians often hide support enemy non uniformed armed enemy forces civilian military casualties usually high day day service german army mechanised infantry panzergrenadiers alert post exercise infantryman 's duties firearms explosives physical emotional stress physical violence casualties


also air assault airborne infantry armoured infantry combined arms foot guards fusiliers grenadiers indonesian army infantry battalions infantry branch united states infantry british army infantry tactics line infantry marines mechanized infantry medium infantry marine military motorised infantry mountain troops mounted infantry united states army rangers riflemen royal canadian infantry corps school infantry special forces pathfinder military notes references citations sources english john gudmundsson bruce ''on infantry'' revised edition military profession series praeger publishers london ''the times'' earl wavell thursday april http regimentalroguecom misc praise infantryhtm


'''information science''' also known '''information studies''' academic field primarily concerned analysis collection classification manipulation storage retrieval movement dissemination protection information practitioners within outside field study application usage knowledge organizations addition interaction people organizations existing information systems aim creating replacing improving understanding information systems historically information science associated computer science data science psychology technology library science healthcare intelligence agencies however information science also incorporates aspects diverse fields archival

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Information science


ellis allen wilson hand provided bibliometric investigation describing relation two ' 'different'' fields information science information systems philosophy information philosophy information studies conceptual issues arising intersection psychology computer science information technology philosophy includes investigation conceptual nature basic principles information including dynamics utilisation sciences well elaboration application information theoretic computational methodologies philosophical problems ontology science information science ontology formally represents knowledge set concepts within


domain relationships concepts used reason entities within domain may used describe domain specifically ontology model describing world consists set types properties relationship types exactly provided around varies essentials ontology also generally expectation close resemblance real world features model ontology theory ontology formal explicit specification


individual usually relevant subject degree high level subject knowledge provides focused information scientific technical research staff industry subject faculty students academia industry information specialist scientist academic information subject specialist librarian general similar subject background training academic position holder required hold second advanced degree mls mi eg information library studies addition subject master title also applies individual carrying research information science systems analyst


breaking news ref name diffusion well news anchors frequently request audience tweet pictures events ref name facebook users viewers shared information earned opinion making agenda setting power ref name diffusion channel recognized usefulness providing targeted information based public demand research vectors applications graph shows links wikipedia articles information science includes studying topics relate readers relate concepts following areas information science investigates develops information access information


library systems database development information management information management im collection management information one sources distribution information one audiences sometimes involves stake right information management means organization control structure processing delivery information throughout largely limited files file maintenance life cycle management paper based files media records proliferation information technology starting job information


semantic network ref name martin http wwwwebkborg doc papers iccs iswc pdf knowledge representation rdf xml kif frame cg formalized english philippe martin distributed system technology centre qld australia july ref knowledge representation kr research involves analysis reason accurately effectively best use set symbols represent set facts within knowledge domain symbol vocabulary system logic combined enable inferences elements kr create new kr sentences logic used supply formal semantics reasoning functions applied symbols kr system


determining number relevant documents retrieved ''' ''' international conference scientific information washington dc included consideration ir systems solution problems identified see ''proceedings international conference scientific information '' national academy sciences washington dc ''' ''' hans peter luhn published auto encoding documents information retrieval ''' s''' '''early s''' gerard salton began work ir harvard later moved cornell ''' ''' melvin earl maron john lary kuhns ref name maron ref published relevance probabilistic indexing information retrieval journal acm july

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Information retrieval


psychology behavioral genetics references reading http wwwwilderdomcom personality l introductionhtml introduction individual differences wilderdom http wwwintelltheorycom timeline researchers brief biographies branches psychology behavioural sciences

Social science
Psychology
Differential psychology


perceived negative news coverage candidacy presidency countries including turkey egypt india bangladesh iran nigeria ethiopia kenya cote ivoire montenegro kazakhstan azerbaijan malaysia singapore philippines somalia journalists threatened arrested allegedly spreading fake news covid pandemic history antiquity publications reporting news general public standardized fashion began appear th century later governments early han dynasty china made use regularly published news bulletins similar publications established republic venice

Journalism, media studies and communication


peasants well establishment parliamentary system russia farther left socialist communist newspapers wide followings france russia germany despite outlawed government early th century china journalism china primarily served international community ''overthrow old imperial regime '' produced surge chinese nationalism end censorship demand professional nation wide journalism major cities launched efforts late however much greater emphasis advertising expanding circulation


within two years circulation several english newspapers started publication aftermath enjoyed circulation figure weeklies giving personal news items classified advertisements variety products later english newspapers started indian publishers english speaking indians target audience era vast differences language major problem facilitating smooth communication among people country hardly knew languages prevalent parts vast land however english became ''lingua franca''


across country notable among breed one named 'bengal gazette' started gangadhar bhattacharyya united states late th early th century united states saw advent media empires controlled likes william randolph hearst joseph pulitzer realizing could expand audience abandoning politically polarized content thus making money advertising american newspapers began abandon partisan politics favor less political reporting starting around newspapers era embraced sensationalized reporting larger headline typefaces layouts


style would become dubbed yellow journalism newspaper publishing became much heavily professionalized era issues writing quality workroom discipline saw vast improvement era saw establishment freedom press legal norm president theodore roosevelt tried failed sue newspapers reporting corruption handling purchase panama canal still critics note although government 's ability suppress journalistic speech heavily limited concentration newspaper general media ownership hands small number private business owners leads


affect suffering happiness experienced ''jiva'' ''lokas'' karma believed obscure obstruct innate nature striving soul well spiritual potential next rebirth sa ra conceptual framework sa ra doctrine differs jainism indian religions soul ''jiva'' accepted truth hinduism buddhism cycle rebirths definite beginning end jainism jain theosophy asserts soul passes birth situations circle ''sa ra'' going five types bodies earth


nature absolute reality human existence claims condoning activities killing animals food violence disbelievers living perhaps right five vows jain monks nuns example strict requirements perhaps similarly since ancient times jainism co existed buddhism hinduism according dundas jainism disagreed specific areas knowledge systems beliefs traditions vice versa non attachment ''aparigraha'' third main principle jainism ''aparigraha'' means non attachment worldly


jain sub traditions typically jain layperson enters derasar jain temple inner sanctum simple clothing bare feet plate filled offerings bows says namaskar completes litany prayers sometimes assisted temple priest leaves offerings departs jain practices include performing ''abhisheka'' ceremonial bath images jain sects employ ''pujari'' also called ''upadhye'' may hindu perform priestly duties temple elaborate worship includes offerings rice fresh dry fruits flowers coconut sweets money


considers males closest soul 's liberation v mbaras believe women also achieve liberation asceticism state th ''tirthankara'' n tha female digambara rejects excavations mathura revealed jain statues time kushan empire c st century ce ''tirthankara'' represented without clothes monks cloth wrapped around left arm identified ''ardhaphalaka'' half clothed mentioned texts yapaniyas believed originated ''ardhaphalaka'' followed digambara nudity along several v mbara beliefs modern era according fl gel new jain religious movements primarily


either lotus position ''kayotsarga'' standing position distinguished ''tirthankara'' long locks hair falling shoulders bull images also appear sculptures paintings incidents life like marriage indra marking forehead depicted paintings show presenting pottery bowl followers also seen painting house weaving visited mother marudevi twenty four ''tirthankara'' associated distinctive emblems listed texts ''tiloyapannati'' ''kahavaali'' ''pravacanasaarodhara'' temples jain temple


philosophers law ask law '''jurisprudence''' '''legal theory''' theoretical study propriety law scholars jurisprudence seek explain nature law general form provide deeper understanding legal reasoning analogy legal systems legal institutions proper application role law society modern jurisprudence began th century focused first principles natural law civil law law nations general jurisprudence divided categories


qualified view political justice means something close subject modern jurisprudence political justice aristotle argues partly derived nature partly matter convention taken statement similar views modern natural law theorists must also remembered aristotle describing view morality system law therefore remarks nature grounding morality enacted law laws best evidence aristotle 's


countries pure theory law describes law binding norms time refusing evaluate norms legal science separated legal politics central pure theory law notion basic norm ''grundnorm'' ' hypothetical norm presupposed jurist lower norms hierarchy legal system beginning constitutional law understood derive authority extent binding kelsen contends extent legal norms binding specifically legal character


law holmes argues object legal studyis prediction prediction incidence public force instrumentality courts american legal realists early twentieth century legal realism sought describe way judges decide cases legal realists jerome frank judges start facts move legal principles legal realism theories jurisprudence turned method around judges thought begin legal principles look facts become common today identify justice oliver wendell


one may know best moral justification practices interpretation according dworkin 's integrity theory law two dimensions count interpretation reading text must meet criterion fit interpretations fit however dworkin maintains correct interpretation one portrays practices community best light makes best many writers doubted whether single best moral justification complex practices given community others doubted whether even


contemporary deontological approach found work legal philosopher ronald dworkin utilitarianism mill believed law create happiness utilitarianism view laws crafted produce best consequences greatest number people historically utilitarian thinking law associated philosopher jeremy bentham john stuart mill pupil bentham 's torch bearer utilitarian philosophy throughout late nineteenth century contemporary legal theory utilitarian approach frequently championed scholars work law economics tradition ref name ssrncom


roman law social philosophy social sciences


subsequent internal developments language particular carried development modern standard varieties languages development language standardised form varieties instance scholars also undertook study attempting establish super families linking example indo european uralic language families nostratic attempts still widely accepted credible methods provide necessary information establish relatedness language change something easily available depth time increases time depth linguistic methods

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics


grammatical phonological rules linguistic features stylistic aspects given official status language dialects often move gain status language due political social reasons times dialects remain marginalized particularly associated marginalized social groups differentiation amongst dialects subsequently languages based upon use grammatical rules syntactic rules stylistic features though always lexical use vocabulary popular saying language dialect army navy attributed definition


formulated max weinreich standard language dialect documented sufficiently linguistic description grammar emerged consensual laws within community gains political national recognition country region 's policies stage language considered standard variety one whose grammatical laws stabilised within consent speech community participants sufficient evolution improvisation correction growth english language besides perhaps french language may examples languages arrived stage


subject object sentence agent patient functional linguistics functional grammar branch structural linguistics humanistic reference terms structuralism functionalism related meaning human sciences difference formal functional structuralism lies way two approaches explain languages properties functional explanation entails idea language tool communication communication primary function language linguistic forms consequently explained appeal functional value usefulness


linguists work assumption spoken data signed data fundamental written data speech appears universal human beings capable producing perceiving many cultures speech communities lack written communication features appear speech n't always recorded writing including phonological rules sound changes speech errors natural writing systems reflect spoken language potentially signed one even pictographic scripts like dongba writing naxi homophones pictogram text writing systems used two


p ini th century bc grammarian formulated rules sanskrit morphology p ini 's systematic classification sounds sanskrit consonants vowels word classes nouns verbs first known instance kind middle east sibawayh persian made detailed description arabic ad monumental work ''al kitab fii na w'' ''the book grammar'' first known author distinguish sounds phonemes sounds units linguistic system western interest study languages began somewhat later


asylum seeker ref name linguistic analysis language documentation language documentation combines anthropological inquiry history culture language linguistic inquiry order describe languages grammars lexicography involves documentation words form vocabulary documentation linguistic vocabulary particular language usually compiled dictionary computational linguistics concerned statistical rule based modeling natural language computational perspective specific knowledge language applied speakers act translation interpretation well language education


binomial case animals prior linnaean taxonomy animals classified according mode movement linnaeus 's use binomial nomenclature anticipated theory definition used scholasticism scholastic logicians philosophers nature defined species man example ''animal rationalis'' ''animal'' considered genus ''rationalis'' latin rational characteristic distinguishing man animals treating ''animal'' immediate genus species man horse etc little practical use biological taxonomist however accordingly linnaeus 's classification treats ''animal'' class

Natural science
Biology
Linnaean taxonomy


acceptance however although number ranks unlimited practice classification becomes cumbersome ranks added among later subdivisions arisen entities phyla families tribes well number ranks prefixes superfamilies subfamilies etc use newer taxonomic tools cladistics phylogenetic nomenclature led different way looking evolution expressed many nested clades sometimes leads desire ranks example complexity scheme mammals proposed mckenna bell


greek originally meaning 'book container' via latin cf french german changing roles content libraries may provide physical digital access material may physical location virtual space library 's collection include books periodicals newspapers manuscripts films maps prints documents microform cds cassettes videotapes dvds blu ray discs e books audiobooks databases table games video games formats libraries range widely size millions items libraries often provide quiet areas studying also often offer common areas facilitate group study

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Library


library services play major role fighting rising illiteracy rates among youths public libraries protected funded public serve boston public library boston massachusetts united states number books libraries steadily increased since inception need compact storage access adequate lighting grown ' 'stack system'' involves keeping library 's collection books space separate reading room arrangement arose th century book stacks quickly evolved fairly standard form cast iron steel frameworks supporting


holdings extremely large traditional research libraries entirely reference sense lending none materials academic research libraries least us uk lend books periodicals materials many research libraries attached parental organization serve members organization examples research libraries include british library bodleian library oxford university new york public library main branch nd street manhattan state public scientific technological library siberian branch russian academy


preparatory changes anticipated solutions sought problem future trends digital preservation include transparent enterprise models digital preservation launch self preserving objects increased flexibility digital preservation architectures clearly defined metrics comparing preservation tools terminology standards interoperability real time special libraries bookshelf beinecke rare book manuscript library top floor contains volumes since new acquisitions frozen prevent spread insects diseases libraries fall special library category many private businesses public


materials arranged specified order according library classification system items may located quickly collections may browsed efficiently libraries additional galleries beyond public ones reference materials stored reference stacks may open selected members public others require patrons submit stack request request assistant retrieve material closed stacks see list closed stack libraries progress larger libraries often divided departments staffed paraprofessionals professional librarians circulation access services


technical services stacks maintenance also shelf reads material stacks ensure correct library classification order card used user sign book basic tasks library management include planning acquisitions materials library acquire purchase otherwise library classification acquired materials preservation materials especially rare fragile archival materials manuscripts deaccessioning materials patron borrowing materials developing administering library computer systems long term issues include planning construction new libraries extensions


specialty nevertheless seems ideal type library yet realized type adapted purpose would immediately recognized case school buildings mean library constructions conform rigidly fixed standard appearance arrangement mean exterior express nearly possible purpose functions interior ref name ea ref usage card catalogues traditional method organizing list resources location within large library state university library national


webcats online public access catalogues opacs allow users search library 's holdings location internet access style catalogue maintenance compatible new types libraries digital libraries distributed libraries well older libraries retrofitted large libraries may scattered within multiple buildings across town multiple floors multiple rooms housing resources across series shelves called bays user located resource within catalogue must use navigational guidance retrieve resource physically


information scientists documentalists library association bangladesh sri lanka library association founded national associations english speaking world include american library association australian library information association canadian library association library information association new zealand aotearoa research libraries uk consortium university research libraries united kingdom library bodies cilip formerly library association founded may advocate role libraries librarians play modern internet environment teaching information literacy skills ref name cilip ref ref


portuguese romanian medieval latin used literary language th century renaissance used renaissance latin later early modern latin new latin evolved latin language international communication scholarship science well th century vernaculars including romance languages supplanted ecclesiastical latin remains official language holy see roman rite catholic church latin highly inflected language three distinct genders six seven noun cases five declensions four verb conjugations six tenses three persons three moods two voices

Applied science
Divinity
Scriptural study and languages
Latin


benefit understand latin also songs written latin lyrics libretto opera oratorio igor stravinsky latin continued instruction latin often seen highly valuable component liberal arts education latin taught many high schools especially europe americas common british public schools grammar schools italian german dutch occasionally media outlets targeting enthusiasts broadcast latin notable examples include radio bremen germany yle


common origin albanian rumanian languages rumanian grammar almost identical albanian may well effect later convergence within balkan sprachbund ref well german dutch norwegian danish swedish latin still spoken vatican city city state situated rome seat catholic church inscriptions inscriptions published internationally agreed monumental multivolume series cil authors publishers vary format volumes detailing inscriptions critical


apparatus stating provenance relevant information reading interpretation inscriptions subject matter field epigraphy inscriptions known literature julius caesar 's one famous classical latin texts golden age latin unvarnished journalistic style patrician general long taught model urbane latin officially spoken written floruit roman republic works several hundred ancient authors wrote latin survived whole part substantial works


parliamentary sessions held zagreb croatia date april extensive croatian latin literature exists latin still used croatian coins even years kingdom poland officially recognised widely used ref name friedrich karin friedrich et al ''the prussia royal prussia poland liberty '' cambridge university press https booksgooglecom booksid qsbco rmpcc pg pa dq latin language szlachta brr ei j rr xfzxc ak xegvbq sig ecp djpuclntaedvi ck xse google print p ref th th centuries commonly used foreign relations popular second language among nobility ref name friedrich phonology ancient pronunciation latin reconstructed among data used


phrase used prepositions followed noun either accusative ablative case apud puerum boy puerum accusative form puer boy sine puero without boy puero ablative form puer adpositions however govern noun genitive gratia tenus verbs regular verb latin belongs one four main conjugations conjugation class verbs similar inflected forms conjugations identified last letter verb 's present stem present stem


made passive used impersonally supine exists verbs six tenses latin divided two tense systems present system made present imperfect future tenses perfect system made perfect pluperfect future perfect tenses tense set endings corresponding person number voice subject subject nominative pronouns generally omitted first ''i we'' second ''you'' persons except emphasis table displays common inflected endings


imperfect bam b bat b mus b tis bant perfect ist imus istis runt future perfect er eris er erit erimus er mus eritis er tis erint pluperfect eram er erat er mus er tis erant deponent verbs latin verbs deponent causing forms passive voice retain active meaning ''hortor hort r hort tus sum'' urge vocabulary latin italic language vocabulary


words sentences entered using perseus displays complete conjugations verbs entered first person present singular form displays conjugation verbs entered infinitive form identifies latin words entered translates english words entered combines whittakers words lewis short bennett 's grammar inflection tables browser addon http docscltkorg en latest latinhtml classical language toolkit cltk natural language processing toolkit python offering variety functionality latin classical languages https outilsbiblissimafr en collatinus web indexphp collatinus web online lemmatizer morphological analysis latin texts courses http wwwutexasedu cola centers lrc eieol latol xhtml latin lessons free online https webarchiveorg web http wwwutexasedu cola lrctr linguistics research center


prevents person borrowed renewing person placed 'hold' notified book returned libraries provide service circulation desk ability request interlibrary loan books material branch libraries library system cooperating library anywhere world libraries provide service circulation desk opportunity recommend library purchase something collection n't may needed interest library users

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Reference desk


name winograd cope limited memory systems time planner used backtracking control structure one possible computation path stored time planner gave rise programming languages qa popler conniver qlisp concurrent language ether hayes kowalski edinburgh tried reconcile logic based declarative approach knowledge representation planner 's procedural approach hayes developed equational language golux different procedures could obtained altering behavior theorem prover kowalski hand developed sld resolution ref name

Formal science
Computer science
Logic in computer science
Logic programming


state modifying updates model theoretic semantics procedural one implementation subset transaction logic available flora system prototypes also available see also automated theorem proving constraint logic programming control theory datalog fril functional programming fuzzy logic inductive logic programming logic computer science includes formal methods logic programming languages programmable logic controller r reasoning system rule based machine learning satisfiability boolean satisfiability problem linear logic citations sources general introductions http wwwdocicacuk rak papers early yearspdf sources john mccarthy programs common sense ''symposium mechanization thought processes'' national physical laboratory teddington england


motions thus lie algebras representations used extensively physics notably quantum mechanics particle physics elementary example space three dimensional vectors math mathfrak g mathbb r math bracket operation defined cross product math xy x times math skew symmetric since math x times times x math instead associativity satisfies jacobi identity math x times times z x times times z times x times z math lie algebra lie group rotations space vector math v r math may pictured infinitesimal rotation around axis

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Lie algebra


string theory representations definitions given vector space ''v'' let math mathfrak gl v math denote lie algebra consisting linear endomorphisms ''v'' bracket given math xy xy yx math ' 'representation'' lie algebra math mathfrak g math ''v'' lie algebra homomorphism math pi mathfrak g mathfrak gl v math representation said ''faithful'' kernel zero ado 's theorem states every finite dimensional lie algebra faithful representation finite dimensional vector space adjoint representation lie algebra math mathfrak g math define representation math operatorname ad colon mathfrak g mathfrak gl mathfrak g math given math operatorname ad x x math


based notion killing form symmetric bilinear form math mathfrak g math defined formula math k uv operatorname tr operatorname ad u operatorname ad v math tr denotes trace linear operator lie algebra math mathfrak g math semisimple killing form nondegenerate lie algebra math mathfrak g math solvable math k mathfrak g mathfrak g mathfrak g math classification levi decomposition expresses arbitrary lie algebra semidirect sum solvable radical semisimple lie algebra almost canonical way decomposition exists finite dimensional lie algebra field characteristic


twelve ''advice establishing library'' private library within book naud encouraged idea public libraries open people regardless ability pay access collection one famous libraries naud helped improve biblioth que mazarine paris naud spent ten years librarian naud 's strong belief free access libraries people biblioth que mazarine became first public library france around although libraries created order within collections early

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Classification
Library classification


fifth century bc ref name shera paris bookseller 's classification developed jacques charles brunet generally seen first modern book classifications brunet provided five major classes theology jurisprudence sciences arts belles lettres history ref name sayers ref classification seen provider subject access information networked environment types many standard systems library classification use many proposed years however general classification systems divided three types depending used universal schemes


general specific faceted analytico synthetic subjects divided mutually exclusive orthogonal facets completely enumerative systems faceted systems systems blend favouring one type common classification systems lcc ddc essentially enumerative though hierarchical faceted elements ddc especially broadest general level first true faceted system colon classification r ranganathan methods systems classification types denote classification categorization according form characteristics qualities


classification scheme used law libraries many common law jurisdictions canada australia new zealand united kingdom ref name ials ref harvard yenching classification english classification system chinese language materials vartavan library classification london education classification devised dj foskett joy foskett used ucl institute education garside classification used libraries university college london bliss bibliographic classification used british libraries non english universal classification systems german regensburger verbundklassifikation rvk system book classification chinese libraries liu 's classification library classification user new classification scheme chinese libraries nippon


gabriel cramer used giving explicit solutions linear systems called cramer 's rule later gauss described method elimination initially listed advancement geodesy ref name vitulli marie ref hermann grassmann published theory extension included foundational new topics today called linear algebra james joseph sylvester introduced term ''matrix'' latin ''womb'' linear algebra grew ideas noted complex plane instance two numbers ''w'' ''z'' math mathbb c math difference ''w'' ''z''

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Linear algebra


every every conditions suffice implying vector space example given linear map math v w math image inverse image ''' ''' called kernel null space linear subspaces respectively another important way forming subspace consider linear combinations set vectors set sums math mathbf v mathbf v


cdots k mathbf v k math form linear subspace called span span also intersection linear subspaces containing words smallest inclusion relation linear subspace containing set vectors linearly independent none span others equivalently set vectors linearly independent way express zero vector linear combination elements take zero


eigenvalues basis exists consists eigenvectors matrix basis simple structure diagonal matrix entries main diagonal eigenvalues entries zero case endomorphism matrix said diagonalizable generally endomorphism matrix also said diagonalizable become diagonalizable extending field scalars extended sense characteristic polynomial square free matrix diagonalizable symmetric matrix always


term peace officer law enforcement officer include every person vested legislating state police power authority traditionally anyone sworn badged arrest person violation criminal law included umbrella term law enforcement although law enforcement may concerned prevention punishment crimes organizations exist discourage wide variety non criminal violations rules norms effected imposition less severe consequences probation organizations police officers australia law enforcement conducted type law


eg alternative country country pop two many country subgenres although dividing lines relationships music genres often subtle sometimes open personal interpretation occasionally controversial example hard draw line early hard rock heavy metal within arts music may classified performing art fine art auditory art music may played sung heard live rock concert orchestra performance heard live part dramatic work music theater show


lovers create mix tapes favourite songs serve self portrait gesture friendship prescription ideal party environment consisting solely ardently loved amateur musicians compose perform music pleasure derive income elsewhere professional musicians employed range institutions organisations including armed forces marching bands concert bands popular music groups churches synagogues symphony orchestras broadcasting film production companies music schools professional musicians sometimes work freelancers session musicians seeking contracts engagements


pitch aspect sound hear reflecting whether one musical sound note tone higher lower another musical sound note tone talk highness lowness pitch general sense way listener hears piercingly high piccolo note whistling tone higher pitch deep thump bass drum also talk pitch precise sense associated musical melodies basslines chords precise pitch determined sounds frequency


music means pitches played sung together time create chord usually means notes played time although harmony may also implied melody outlines harmonic structure ie using melody notes played one outlining notes chord music written using system major minor tonality keys includes classical music written western pop rock traditional music key piece determines scale used centres


consists four beats called time common time accents beats two four typically performed drummer snare drum loud distinctive sounding percussion instrument pop rock rhythm parts song played rhythm section includes chord playing instruments eg electric guitar acoustic guitar piano keyboard instruments bass instrument typically electric bass styles jazz bluegrass double bass drum kit player texture musical texture overall sound piece music


debate surrounding whether truly musical instrument object formed animals instruments seven holed flute various types stringed instruments ravanahatha recovered indus valley civilization archaeological sites india one oldest musical traditions world references indian classical music ''marga'' found vedas ancient scriptures hindu tradition ref name brown ref earliest largest collection prehistoric musical instruments found china dates back nbsp bc ref name wilkinson ref hurrian hymn nikkal found clay tablets


day hindi music influenced persian traditional music afghan mughals carnatic music popular southern states largely devotional majority songs addressed hindu deities also many songs emphasising love social issues chinese classical music traditional art court music china history stretching around three thousand years unique systems musical notation well musical tuning pitch musical instruments styles musical genres chinese music pentatonic diatonic scale twelve notes octave


composers period l onin p rotin guillaume de machaut walther von der vogelweide renaissance class wikitable style text align right float left margin right px align center tl de victoria br small amicus meus small style text align left background dcdcdc px allegory music filippino lippi renaissance music c focused secular non religious themes courtly love around printing press invented made printed sheet music much less expensive easier mass produce prior invention printing press notated music hand copied increased availability sheet music helped spread


era polyphonic contrapuntal music multiple simultaneous independent melody lines used remained important counterpoint important vocal music medieval era german baroque composers wrote small ensembles including strings brass woodwinds well choirs keyboard instruments pipe organ harpsichord clavichord period several major music forms defined lasted later periods expanded evolved including fugue invention sonata concerto ref name sdsu ref late baroque style polyphonically complex richly ornamented important composers baroque


technologies radio broadcasting mass market availability gramophone records meant sound recordings songs pieces heard listeners either radio record player became main way learn new songs pieces vast increase music listening radio gained popularity phonographs used replay distribute music whereas th century focus sheet music restricted access new music middle class upper class people could read music owned pianos instruments


basic questions philosophy music definition music necessary sufficient conditions classifying something music relationship music mind music history reveal us world connection music emotions meaning relation music ancient times ancient greeks aesthetics music explored mathematical cosmological dimensions rhythmic harmonic organization th century focus shifted experience hearing music thus questions


model musical knowledge represented stored perceived performed generated using well structured computer environment systematic structures cognitive phenomena investigated psychoacoustics psychoacoustics scientific study sound perception specifically branch science studying psychological physiological responses associated sound including speech music categorized branch psychophysics evolutionary musicology evolutionary musicology concerns origins music question animal song selection pressures underlying music evolution music evolution human evolution ref name brown merker wallin wallin nils l bj rn merker steven brown


women 's issues feminism women comprise significant proportion popular music classical music singers significant proportion songwriters many singer songwriters women record producers rock critics rock instrumentalists although huge number women composers classical music medieval period present day women composers significantly underrepresented commonly performed classical music repertoire music history textbooks music encyclopedias example ''concise oxford history music'' clara schumann one female composers


work university professors musical performance composition dma takes three five years master 's degree includes advanced courses projects performances medieval times study music one quadrivium seven liberal arts considered vital higher learning within quantitative quadrivium music accurately harmonics study rational proportions musicology musicology academic study subject music studied universities music conservatories earliest definitions th century defined three sub disciplines musicology systematic musicology historical musicology


burton 's ''the anatomy melancholy'' argued music dance critical treating mental illness especially melancholia noted music excellent power expel many diseases called sovereign remedy despair melancholy pointed antiquity canus rhodian fiddler used music make melancholy man merry lover enamoured religious man devout ottoman empire mental illnesses treated music november dr michael j crawford colleagues also found music therapy helped schizophrenic patients albert einstein


film ''music'' ''musics'' album dewey redman songs music erick sermon marvin gaye song music john miles song music madonna song music sakanaction song music darude album ''rush'' music kelsea ballerini album ''unapologetically'' music petula clark album ''downtown'' music september album ''love cpr'' music witchfinder general album ''friends hell'' music sia album ''music songs inspired motion picture'' computing music software apple 's itunes replacement application


diverge utilitarian goal maximizing utility consider distribution goods people market failure positive economics microeconomics limited implications without mixing belief economist theory demand various commodities individuals generally thought outcome utility maximizing process individual trying maximize utility budget constraint given consumption set history economists commonly consider microeconomists macroeconomists difference microeconomics macroeconomics likely introduced


represented table graph relating price quantity supplied producers example business firms hypothesized ''profit maximizers'' meaning attempt produce supply amount goods bring highest profit supply typically represented function relating price quantity factors unchanged higher price good sold producers supply figure higher price makes profitable increase production demand side position


supply shift say change price productive input technical improvement law supply states general rise price leads expansion supply fall price leads contraction supply well determinants supply price substitutes cost production technology applied various factors inputs production taken constant specific time period evaluation supply market equilibrium occurs quantity supplied equals quantity demanded intersection supply


health insurance programs industrial organization examines topics entry exit firms innovation role trademarks law economics applies microeconomic principles selection enforcement competing legal regimes relative efficiencies political economy examines role political institutions determining policy outcomes public economics examines design government tax expenditure policies economic effects policies eg social insurance programs urban economics examines challenges faced cities sprawl air water pollution traffic congestion poverty draws fields urban geography


regulate economy growth stability includes regional national global economies according assessment economists emi nakamura j n steinsson economic evidence regarding consequences different macroeconomic policies still highly imperfect open serious criticism ref name ref macroeconomists study topics gdp unemployment including unemployment rates national income price indices output consumption inflation saving investment energy international trade international finance macroeconomics microeconomics two general fields economics ref name blaug ref united nations sustainable development goal target enhance global macroeconomic stability policy coordination


challenged keynesian school central development new classical thought came robert lucas introduced rational expectations macroeconomics prior lucas economists generally used adaptive expectations agents assumed look recent past make expectations future rational expectations agents assumed sophisticated consumer simply assume inflation rate average past years look current monetary policy economic conditions make informed forecast new classical economists introduced rational expectations


fiscal policy real effects like classical models new classical models assumed prices would able adjust perfectly monetary policy would lead price changes new keynesian models investigated sources sticky prices wages due imperfect competition would adjust allowing monetary policy impact quantities instead prices late economists reached rough consensus nominal rigidity new keynesian theory combined rational expectations rbc methodology produce dynamic stochastic general equilibrium dsge models fusion elements different schools thought


often used demonstrate effects monetary fiscal policy textbooks frequently use lm model feature complexities modern macroeconomic models nevertheless models still feature similar relationships lm growth models neoclassical growth model robert solow become common textbook model explaining economic growth long run model begins production function national output product two inputs capital labor solow model assumes labor capital used constant rates without fluctuations


'''metaphysics''' branch philosophy studies first principles identity change space time causality necessity possibility includes questions nature consciousness relationship mind matter word metaphysics comes two greek words together literally mean behind among study natural suggested term might coined first century ce editor assembled various small selections aristotle works treatise know name ''metaphysics'' ''meta


entities exist fundamental level ontology sometimes referred ' 'science being'' characterized ''general metaphysics'' contrast ' 'special metaphysics'' concerned particular aspects ontologists often try determine ''categories'' ''highest kinds'' form ' 'system categories'' provides encompassing classification entities commonly proposed categories include substances properties relations states affairs events categories characterized fundamental ontological concepts like ''particularity'' ''universality'' ''abstractness'' ''concreteness'' ''possibility'' ''necessity''


relation thing bears thing bears anything cf sameness modern philosopher made lasting impact philosophy identity leibniz whose ''law indiscernibility identicals'' still widely accepted today states object ''x'' identical object ''y'' property ''x'' ''y'' well put formally states math forall x forall x rightarrow forall p p x leftrightarrow p math however seem objects change


leibniz 's law indiscernibility identicals utilized define numerical identity seems objects must completely unchanged order persist discriminating intrinsic properties extrinsic properties endurantists state numerical identity means object ''x'' identical object ''y'' ''intrinsic'' property ''x'' ''y'' well thus object persists ''intrinsic'' properties unchanged ''extrinsic'' properties change time besides object environments objects change time properties relate objects


subjects make foundations applied metaphysics may draw upon core topics methods guide including ontology core peripheral topics science foundations chosen turn depend underlying ontology used philosophers subjects may dig right ontological layer metaphysics find possible theories example contradiction obtained theory god beauty might due assumption object rather kind


arguing genuine knowledge involves either mathematics matters fact metaphysics goes beyond worthless concludes ''enquiry concerning human understanding'' statement blockquote take hand volume book divinity school metaphysics instance let us ask ''does contain abstract reasoning concerning quantity number'' ''does contain experimental reasoning concerning matter fact existence'' commit flames contain nothing sophistry illusion blockquote thirty three years hume 's ''enquiry'' appeared immanuel kant published


grand synthesis revision trends already mentioned scholastic philosophy systematic metaphysics skeptical empiricism forget burgeoning science day systems builders overarching framework questions addressed like hume famously woke 'dogmatic slumbers' suspicious metaphysical speculation also places much emphasis limitations human mind kant described shift metaphysics away making claims objective noumenal world towards exploring subjective phenomenal world copernican revolution analogy though


early mid twentieth century philosophy saw trend reject metaphysical questions meaningless driving force behind tendency philosophy logical positivism espoused vienna circle argued meaning statement prediction observable results experiment thus need postulate existence objects perceptual observations around time american pragmatists steering middle course materialism idealism system building metaphysics fresh inspiration science revived n whitehead


ref name williams ref joll suggests take metaphilosophy 'the application methods philosophy philosophy itself' vague view sees metaphilosophy 'second order' abstract discipline outside philosophy narrow tendentious ref name jo b ref analytical tradition term metaphilosophy mostly used tag commenting research previous works opposed original contributions towards solving philosophical problems writings ludwig wittgenstein wrote nature philosophical puzzles philosophical understanding suggested philosophical errors arose confusions nature philosophical inquiry ''philosophical investigations''


allows place faith revelation ref name pdp philosophy try answer questions appeal revelation myth religious knowledge kind uses reason without reference sensible observation experiments however philosophers theologians thomas aquinas peter damian argued philosophy handmaiden theology ''ancilla theologiae'' methods philosophical method philosophical methodology study philosophy common view among philosophers philosophy distinguished ways philosophers follow addressing philosophical questions one method


considered mathematics mathematical logic foundations including model theory computability theory set theory proof theory algebraic logic number theory number theory started manipulation numbers natural numbers math mathbb n math later expanded integers math z math rational numbers math q math number theory formerly called arithmetic nowadays term mostly used methods calculation numbers specificity number theory many problems stated elementarily difficult solved solution require sophisticated methods coming


aspect crisis solved systematizing axiomatic method adopting truth chosen axioms mathematical problem turn axiomatic method allows study various geometries obtained either changing axioms considering properties invariant specific transformations space results number subareas generalizations geometry include projective geometry introduced th century girard desargues extends euclidean geometry adding points infinity parallel lines intersect simplifies many aspects classical geometry


many areas mathematics study nowadays autonomous parts algebra include group theory field theory vector spaces whose study essentially linear algebra ring theory commutative algebra study commutative rings includes study polynomials foundational part algebraic geometry homological algebra lie algebra lie group theory boolean algebra widely used study logical structure computers study types algebraic structures mathematical objects object universal algebra category theory latter applies every


mathematical structure algebraic ones origin introduced together homological algebra allowing algebraic study non algebraic objects topological spaces particular area application called algebraic topology calculus analysis calculus formerly called infinitesimal calculus introduced th century newton leibniz independently simultaneously fundamentally study relationship two changing quantities called ''variables'' one depends calculus largely expanded th century euler introduction concept function


provable inside theory approach foundations mathematics challenged first half th century mathematicians leaded l e j brouwer promoted intuitionistic logic excludes law excluded middle problems debates led wide expansion mathematical logic subareas model theory modeling logical theories inside theory proof theory type theory computability theory computational complexity theory although aspects mathematical logic introduced rise computers use compiler design program certification proof assistants


benefit mathematical discoveries continue made day according mikhail b sevryuk january nbsp issue ''bulletin american mathematical society'' number papers books included ''mathematical reviews'' database since first year operation mr nbsp million nbsp thousand items added database year overwhelming majority works ocean contain new mathematical theorems proofs etymology word ''mathematics'' comes ancient greek ''m th ma'' '' label none '' meaning learnt


mathematical ideas considered valid according definitions particular philosophies mathematics allow objects proved exist even though cannot constructed intuitionism allows mathematical objects one actually construct intuitionists also reject law excluded middle ie math p vee neg p math stance force reject one common version proof contradiction viable proof method namely inference math p math math neg p bot math still able infer math neg p math math p bot math math neg neg p


without needing derived using rules system mathematics science carl friedrich gauss known prince mathematicians german mathematician carl friedrich gauss referred mathematics queen sciences recently marcus du sautoy called mathematics queen science nbsp main driving force behind scientific discovery philosopher karl popper observed mathematical theories like physics biology hypothetico deductive pure mathematics therefore turns much closer natural sciences whose hypotheses conjectures seemed even recently popper also noted


axiomatization sense every mathematical statement proof could cast formulas within set theory mathematical awards arguably prestigious award mathematics fields medal established awarded every four years except around world war ii many four individuals fields medal often considered mathematical equivalent nobel prize wolf prize mathematics instituted recognizes lifetime achievement another major international award abel prize instituted chern medal introduced recognize lifetime achievement


accolades awarded recognition particular body work may innovational provide solution outstanding problem established field famous list open problems called hilbert 's problems compiled german mathematician david hilbert list achieved great celebrity among mathematicians least nine problems solved new list seven important problems titled millennium prize problems published one riemann hypothesis duplicates one hilbert 's problems solution problems carries


objective features world meta ethical theories commonly categorized either form realism one three forms anti realism regarding moral facts ethical subjectivism error theory non cognitivism realism comes two main varieties ''ethical naturalism'' holds objective moral properties properties reducible stand metaphysical relation supervenience entirely non ethical properties ethical naturalists hold empirical knowledge moral truths ethical naturalism implicitly assumed many modern ethical theorists particularly utilitarians ''ethical non naturalism'' put forward

Humanities Philosophy Ethics Meta-ethics


intuitionism moral knowledge gained inference empiricism empiricism doctrine knowledge gained primarily observation experience meta ethical theories imply empirical epistemology include ethical naturalism holds moral facts reducible non moral facts thus knowable ways common forms ethical subjectivism hold moral facts reduce facts individual opinions cultural conventions thus knowable observation conventions exceptions within subjectivism however ideal observer theory implies moral facts may known


mating crosses pea plants one law genetic inheritance law segregation states diploid individuals two alleles particular gene pass one alleles offspring critical work study genetic inheritance commonly referred mendelian genetics major milestone molecular biology discovery structure dna work began friedrich miescher swiss biochemist first proposed structure called ''nuclein'' know deoxyribonucleic acid dna ref name auto learn science

Natural science
Biology
Molecular biology


midwife comfortability one go every question problem according cochrane review public health systems australia canada ireland new zealand united kingdom women offered midwifery led continuity models care women encouraged ask option although caution exercised applying advice women substantial medical obstetric complications midwifery led care effects including following ref name sandall reduction use epidurals fewer episiotomies instrumental births longer mean length

Applied science
Medicine and health
Midwifery


birth chairs bas reliefs royal birth rooms luxor temples also attest heavy presence midwifery culture ref name towlerbramall jean towler joan bramall ''midwives history society'' london croom helm p ref midwifery greco roman antiquity covered wide range women including old women continued folk medical traditions villages roman empire trained midwives garnered knowledge variety sources highly trained women considered physicians ref name flemming rebecca flemming ''medicine making roman women'' oxford oxford university press p


delivery patient sits birth chair gripping handles midwife assistant stands behind providing support scribonia sits low stool front woman modestly looking away also assisting delivery dilating massaging vagina encouraged soranus ref name jackson services midwife inexpensive fact suggests poorer women could afford services professional midwife often make female relatives many wealthier families midwives however vast majority women greco roman world


present confinements ref name minkowski ref modern history th century conflict surgeons midwives arose medical men began assert modern scientific techniques better mothers infants folk medicine practiced midwives doctors medical associations pushed legal monopoly obstetrical care midwifery became outlawed heavily regulated throughout united states canada ref name ehrenreich ref ref name rooks ref northern europe russia situation midwives little easier duchy estonia imperial russia professor christian friedrich deutsch established midwifery


school women university dorpat existed world war predecessor tartu health care college training lasted months end certificate practice issued female students despite accusations midwives incompetent ignorant argued poorly trained surgeons far danger pregnant women physician ignaz semmelweiss observed women died maternity wards staffed male surgeons female midwives traced outbreaks puerperal fever back


kush store water boost irrigation ref name hinkel fritz hintze kush xi pp ref bloomeries blast furnaces developed seventh century bc meroe ref name humphris ref kushite sundials applied mathematics form advanced trigonometry earliest practical water powered machines water wheel watermill first appeared persian empire iraq iran early th century bc ancient greece works archimedes bc influenced mechanics western tradition roman egypt heron alexandria c ad created first steam powered device aeolipile china zhang heng

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering