properties dark matter dark energy black holes whether time travel possible wormholes form multiverse exists origin ultimate fate universe ref name nasagov topics also studied theoretical astrophysicists include solar system formation evolution stellar dynamics evolution galaxy formation evolution magnetohydrodynamics large scale structure matter universe origin cosmic rays general relativity physical cosmology including string cosmology astroparticle physics astrochemistry astrochemistry study abundance reactions molecules universe interaction radiation discipline


overlap astronomy chemistry word astrochemistry may applied solar system interstellar medium study abundance elements isotope ratios solar system objects meteorites also called cosmochemistry study interstellar atoms molecules interaction radiation sometimes called molecular astrophysics formation atomic chemical composition evolution fate molecular gas clouds special interest clouds solar systems form studies field contribute understanding formation solar


universe astrophysics stars determined observation theoretical understanding computer simulations interior ref name amos harpaz pp ref star formation occurs dense regions dust gas known giant molecular clouds destabilized cloud fragments collapse influence gravity form protostar sufficiently dense hot core region trigger nuclear fusion thus creating main sequence star ref name smith almost elements heavier hydrogen helium created inside cores stars ref name amos characteristics resulting star depend primarily upon starting mass


evolutionary phases fuse increasingly heavier elements ref name amos harpaz ref final fate star depends mass stars mass greater eight times sun becoming core collapse supernovae smaller stars blow outer layers leave behind inert core form white dwarf ejection outer layers forms planetary nebula remnant supernova dense neutron star stellar mass least three times sun black hole ref name cambridge atlas ref closely orbiting binary stars


astrophysicists list software astronomy research education outline space science science tourism space exploration starlight stellar collision ''universe infinite frontier'' television series portal astronomy references bibliography external links http nedipaccaltechedu nasa ipac extragalactic database ned http nedipaccaltechedu library distances ned distances http wwwastronomy org international year astronomy iya main website http wwwaiporg history cosmology indexhtm cosmic journey history scientific cosmology american institute physics https webarchiveorg web http astronomynetnz southern hemisphere astronomy http wwwcelestiamotherlodenet catalog educationalphp celestia motherlode educational site astronomical journeys space http wwwvegaorguk video subseries kroto harry astrophysical chemistry lecture series http adsharvardedu books clab core books http adsharvardedu books claj core journals astronomy smithsonian nasa astrophysics data system http wwwworldscientificcom worldscibooks journey


common scenario tank containing volume contaminant certain concentration given first order reaction kc taking place tank steady state effluent concentration becomes expression initial concentration reaction constant k hydraulic retention time hrt equal quotient volume tank flow math c c tauk math applications water supply treatment environmental engineers evaluate water balance within watershed determine available water supply water needed various needs

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Environmental engineering


singapore together comprehensive package road pricing measures stringent car ownership rules improvements mass transit thanks technological advances electronic toll collection singapore upgraded system see singapore 's electronic road pricing similar pricing schemes implemented rome upgrade manual zone control system implemented london extended see london congestion charge stockholm seven month trial permanent basis since august see stockholm congestion tax pollution pricing energy efficiency different transport

Social science
Economics
Transport economics


modes milan traffic charge scheme ecopass exempted higher emission standard vehicles euro iv alternative fuel vehicles later replaced conventional congestion pricing scheme area c even transport economists advocate congestion pricing anticipated several practical limitations concerns controversial issues regarding actual implementation policy summarized noted regional planner robert cervero true social cost pricing metropolitan travel proven theoretical ideal far eluded real world implementation primary obstacle except professors transportation


people income levels road space rationing based license numbers implemented cities athens xico city paulo santiago chile bogot colombia la paz bolivia san jos costa rica tradable mobility credits acceptable policy automobile travel restrictions proposed transport economists avoid inequality revenue allocation issues implement rationing peak period travel revenue neutral credit based congestion pricing concept similar existing system emissions trading carbon credits proposed kyoto protocol


states literary theory popular late influence beginning spread outward universities johns hopkins yale cornell time taught nearly everywhere form span time literary theory perceived academically cutting edge university literature departments sought teach study theory incorporate curricula meteoric rise popularity difficult language key texts theory also often criticized faddish trendy obscurantism many academic

Humanities
Languages and literature
Literary theory


post structuralist critic might simply avoid issue understanding religious meaning poem allegory meaning treating poem 's references god discussing referential nature rather refer critic using darwinian literary studies might use arguments evolutionary psychology religion disagreement cannot easily resolved inherent radically different terms goals theories critics theories reading derive vastly different intellectual traditions new critic bases work east coast american scholarly


studies situates literature context evolution natural selection deconstruction strategy close reading elicits ways key terms concepts may paradoxical self undermining rendering meaning undecidable jacques derrida paul de man j hillis miller philippe lacoue labarthe gayatri spivak avital ronell descriptive poetics brian mchale feminist literary criticism eco criticism explores cultural connections human relationships natural world gender see feminist literary criticism emphasizes themes gender relations luce irigaray judith butler h l ne cixous julia kristeva elaine showalter formalism school literary criticism


http wwwkristisiegelcom theoryhtm introduction theory http wwwieputmedu literary encyclopedia philosophy https owlenglishpurdueedu owl resource purdue owl http litguidepressjhuedu johns hopkins guide interpretation philosophy communication theory


literary criticism became popular time period literacy rates started rise public longer reading exclusive wealthy scholarly rise literate public swiftness printing commercialization literature criticism arose reading longer viewed solely educational sacred source religion form entertainment literary criticism influenced values stylistic writing including clear bold precise writing controversial criteria author 's religious beliefs ref name regan ref critical reviews published

Humanities
Languages and literature
Literary theory
Literary criticism


play discourse human sciences'' roland barthes ''the structuralist activity'' ''the death author'' michel foucault ''truth power'' ''what author'' ''the discourse language'' hans robert jauss ''literary history challenge literary theory'' georges poulet ''phenomenology reading'' raymond williams ''the country city'' lionel trilling ''the liberal imagination'' julia kristeva ''from one identity another'' ''women 's time'' paul de man ''semiology rhetoric'' ''the rhetoric temporality'' harold bloom ''the anxiety influence'' ''the dialectics poetic tradition'' ''poetry revisionism repression'' chinua achebe ''colonialist criticism'' stanley fish ''normal


circumstances literal language direct speech acts ordinary everyday obvious goes without saying special cases'' ''is text class'' edward said ''the world text critic'' ''secular criticism'' elaine showalter ''toward feminist poetics'' sandra gilbert susan gubar ''infection sentence'' ''the madwoman attic'' murray krieger '' waking dream symbolic alternative allegory'' gilles deleuze f lix guattari ''anti oedipus capitalism schizophrenia'' ren girard ''the sacrificial crisis'' h l ne cixous ''the laugh medusa'' jonathan culler ''beyond interpretation'' geoffrey hartman ''literary commentary literature'' wolfgang


iser ''the repertoire'' hayden white ''the historical text literary artifact'' hans georg gadamer ''truth method'' paul ricoeur ''the metaphorical process cognition imagination feeling'' peter szondi ''on textual understanding'' h abrams ''how things texts'' j hillis miller ''the critic host'' clifford geertz ''blurred genres refiguration social thought'' filippo tommaso marinetti ''the foundation manifesto futurism'' tristan tzara ''unpretentious proclamation'' andr breton ''the surrealist manifesto'' ''the declaration january '' mina loy ''feminist manifesto'' yokomitsu riichi ''sensation new sensation'' oswald de andrade ''cannibalist manifesto'' andr breton leon trotsky


finance industrial organization also significant practical impacts antitrust law competition policy development industrial organization separate field owes much edward chamberlin joan robinson edward mason j clark joe bain paolo sylos labini among others ref name grether e grether industrial organization past history future problems ''american economic review'' pp https wwwjstororg pss ref subareas journal economic literature jel classification codes one way representing range economics subjects subareas industrial organization one primary categories secondary categories multiple

Social science
Economics
Industrial organization


recent times includes dozens short biographies major figures europe north america contributed growth development discipline ref name bazar henry w de jong william g shepherd ed ''pioneers industrial organization'' cheltenham uk elgar description content http wwwe elgarcom bookentry descriptionlassoid links https booksgooglecom booksid tpfrppofwuic printsec find pg pa gbs atb v onepage q f false preview ref reviews publication year earliest available cited works ref name grether cites cites c ref name bazar lefteris tsoulfidis competition monopoly ''competing schools economic thought'' ch pp https booksgooglecom booksid l zoui uc printsec find pg pa onepage q f false v onepage q f false https archivetoday http wwwspringerlinkcom content springer ref see


gives listed timeline ranging bc ad provides overview ancient history chronology prehistory prehistory period written history early human migrations lower paleolithic saw ''homo erectus'' spread across eurasia million years ago controlled use fire first occurred years ago middle paleolithic years ago ''homo sapiens'' modern humans emerged africa years ago ''homo sapiens'' migrated africa along coastal route south southeast asia reached australia years ago modern humans spread asia


credited ancient greeks gear screw bronze casting techniques water clock water organ torsion catapult use steam operate experimental machines toys many inventions occurred late greek period often inspired need improve weapons tactics war roman technology engineering practice supported roman civilisation made expansion roman commerce roman military possible nearly thousand years roman empire advanced set technology time may lost


beginning mesopotamia states produced sufficient agricultural surplus full time ruling elites military commanders could emerge bulk military forces still farmers society could support campaigning rather working land portion year thus organized armies developed first time new armies could help states grow size became increasingly centralized first empire sumerians formed mesopotamia early ancient armies continued primarily use bows spears weapons developed prehistoric times hunting early armies


till text formative till text classic till text postclassic bar samericas color age till text archaic till text preclassic till text classic bar blank bar eur color skyblue start till end text europe bar europe color era till text archaic till text phoenicia till text ancient greece till text ancient rome add timeline comparison table cellpadding cellspacing style font size border margin auto style background f eaba fontsize textalign center name period area occupations writing religion mesopotamia


introducing social stratification slavery organized warfare laid foundation fields astronomy mathematics core territory th century bc assyria two major cities assur nineveh upstream babylonia downstream states mitanni hatti center x px mesopotamia mesopotamia site earliest known civilisations world early settlement alluvial plain lasted ubaid period late th millennium bc uruk period th millennium bc dynastic periods rd millennium bc rise babylon early


considered one iran 's important influential historical periods many ways sassanid period witnessed highest achievements persian civilisation constituted last great iranian empire muslim conquest adoption islam sassanid times persia influenced roman civilisation considerably romans reserved sassanid persians alone status equals sassanid cultural influence extended far beyond empire 's territorial borders reaching far western europe china india playing role example formation european asiatic medieval art armenia kingdom armenia


id filler value gray background bar id black value black period till timeaxis orientation horizontal scalemajor unit year increment start scaleminor unit year increment start plotdata align center textcolor black fontsize mark lineblack width shift bar egypt color age till text ancient egypt bar kush color era till text kerma till text ancient egypt till text napata till text meroe bar aksumite color age till text aksumite empire bar carthage color eon till text ancient carthage timeline carthage carthage founded


bc phoenician settlers city tyre bringing city god melqart ancient carthage informal hegemony phoenician city states throughout north africa modern spain bc bc less control city state carthage fall tyre babylonian forces height city 's influence empire included western mediterranean empire constant state struggle roman republic led series conflicts known punic wars third


primarily african origin leads us suppose term punt probably applied african arabian territory ref name shaw nicholson p ref name tyldesley tyldesley hatchepsut p ref blockquote earliest recorded egyptian expedition punt organized pharaoh sahure fifth dynasty th century bc although gold punt recorded egypt time king khufu fourth dynasty egypt subsequently expeditions punt sixth dynasty egypt eleventh dynasty egypt twelfth dynasty egypt eighteenth dynasty egypt


elected based least part stature replied instead challenge persian counterpart form unstrung bow persians could manage string would right invade country thank gods macrobians never decided invade empire ref name kitto john kitto james taylor ''the popular cyclop dia biblical literature condensed larger work'' gould lincoln p nbsp ref macrobians regional power reputed advanced architecture gold wealth plentiful shackled


births mahavira buddha th century bc mark beginning well recorded history region around th century bc ancient region afghanistan pakistan invaded achaemenid empire darius bc forming easternmost satraps persian empire provinces sindh panjab said richest ' 'satraps'' persian empire contributed many soldiers various persian expeditions known ''indian'' contingent fought xerxes' army expedition greece herodotus mentions indus satrapy supplied cavalry


intruding population traditionally divided angles saxons jutes composition likely less clear cut may also included ancient frisians franks ''anglo saxon chronicle'' contains text may first recorded indications movement germanic tribes britain angles saxons jutes noted confederation greek geographia written ptolemy around ad term 'anglo saxon' usually used describe peoples living south east great britain early th century ad benedictine monk bede identified


environmental applications international association mathematical geosciences see also multivariate interpolation spline interpolation geodemographic segmentation remote sensing pedometrics notes references armstrong champigny n study kriging small blocks cim bulletin vol armstrong https webarchiveorg web http geostatscamcom adobe degeo pdf freedom speech de geeostatisticis july champigny n https webarchiveorg web http wwwgeostatscamcom adobe tnm pdf geostatistics tool works northern miner may clark http wwwkrigingcom pg downloadhtml practical geostatistics applied science publishers london david geostatistical ore reserve estimation elsevier scientific publishing company amsterdam hald statistical

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Geostatistics


value objective function may real number case maximum objective function unbounded answer infinity undefined optimal input arguments consider following notation math underset x infty operatorname arg min x math equivalently math underset x operatorname arg min x text subject x infty math represents value values argument interval minimizes minimize objective function actual minimum value function problem asks case

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Mathematical optimization


answer since infeasible belong feasible set similarly math underset x mathbb r operatorname arg max x cos math equivalently math underset x operatorname arg max x cos text subject x mathbb r math represents math ''x'' ''y'' nowiki nowiki pair pairs maximizes maximize value objective function added constraint lie interval actual maximum value expression matter case solutions pairs form nowiki nowiki nowiki nowiki ranges


matrices generalization linear convex quadratic programming conic programming general form convex programming lp socp sdp viewed conic programs appropriate type cone geometric programming technique whereby objective inequality constraints expressed posynomials equality constraints monomials transformed convex program integer programming studies linear programs variables constrained take integer values convex general much difficult regular linear programming quadratic programming allows


objective function quadratic terms feasible set must specified linear equalities inequalities specific forms quadratic term type convex programming fractional programming studies optimization ratios two nonlinear functions special class concave fractional programs transformed convex optimization problem nonlinear programming studies general case objective function constraints contain nonlinear parts may may convex program general whether program convex affects difficulty solving


definite point local maximum finally indefinite point kind saddle point constrained problems often transformed unconstrained problems help lagrange multipliers lagrangian relaxation also provide approximate solutions difficult constrained problems objective function convex function local minimum also global minimum exist efficient numerical techniques minimizing convex functions interior point methods computational optimization techniques solve problems researchers may use algorithms terminate finite number steps iterative methods


small medium scale ''constrained'' problems versions handle large dimensional problems interior point methods large class methods constrained optimization use sub gradient information others require evaluation hessians methods evaluate gradients approximate gradients way even subgradients coordinate descent methods algorithms update single coordinate iteration conjugate gradient methods iterative methods large problems theory methods terminate finite number steps quadratic objective functions finite termination observed practice finite precision computers


combinatorial optimization problems similarities quasi newton methods conditional gradient method frank wolfe approximate minimization specially structured problems linear constraints especially traffic networks general unconstrained problems method reduces gradient method regarded obsolete almost problems quasi newton methods iterative methods medium large problems eg n simultaneous perturbation stochastic approximation spsa method stochastic optimization uses random efficient gradient approximation methods evaluate function values problem continuously differentiable gradients approximated using finite differences case gradient based method


chain letter etymology english philologist robert nares says word ''hoax'' coined late th century contraction verb ''hocus'' means cheat impose upon ref name nares ref according merriam webster befuddle often drugged liquor ref name mw ref ''hocus'' shortening magic incantation ''hocus pocus'' ref name mw whose origin disputed definition thomas ady 's ''a candle dark '' contains one earliest mentions ''hocus pocus'' origin word ''hoax'' ref name ahd ref robert nares defined word ''hoax'' meaning cheat dating

Journalism, media studies and communication


doctors sugar load drink form grams glucose cola lime orange draw blood hour later plus minus minutes standard modified criteria lowered since late result ultrasonography black white image shows clear view interior abdomen fetal assessments scan weeks obstetric ultrasonography routinely used dating gestational age pregnancy size fetus determine number fetuses placentae evaluate ectopic

Applied science
Medicine and health
Obstetrics


beyond pregnancy delivery affect neurointellectual development early life child demand thyroid hormones increased pregnancy may cause previously unnoticed thyroid disorder worsen hypercoagulability pregnancy propensity pregnant women develop thrombosis blood clots pregnancy factor hypercoagulability pregnancy induced hypercoagulability physiologically adaptive mechanism prevent ''post partum'' bleeding ref name gresele however combined additional underlying hypercoagulable states risk thrombosis embolism may become substantial ref name gresele page ref induction labour induction method artificially


prematurely stimulating labour woman reasons induce include pre eclampsia foetal distress placental malfunction intrauterine growth retardation failure progress labour increasing risk infection foetal distresses induction may achieved via several methods disturbance cervical membranes pessary ''prostin'' cream prostaglandin e sub sub intravaginal oral administration misoprostol cervical insertion ml foley catheter rupturing amniotic membranes intravenous infusion synthetic oxytocin pitocin syntocinon labour obstetrician carries following tasks monitor progress labour reviewing nursing chart performing vaginal examination assessing


play significant role decrease maternal mortality rates among many populations history obstetrics america development obstetrics practice accredited doctors happened turn th century thus differently developed europe americas due independence many countries americas european powers unlike europe british isles midwifery laws national america midwifery laws local varied widely ref name roth roth judith pregnancy birth history childbearing choices united states human service


care born unborn children name suggests position held mainly women birth child men rarely present women neighbourhood family would join process birth assist many different ways one position men would help birth child would sitting position usually performed side bed support mother ref name gelis gelis jacques history childbirth boston northeastern university press ref men introduced field obstetrics


improving access alternative forms care lowering need emergency visits ref name common misconception pegs frequent ed visitors significant factor wasteful spending however frequent ed users make small portion contributing overutilization often insured uncompensated care injury illness often unforeseen patients lower socioeconomic status especially susceptible suddenly burdened cost necessary ed visit suppose unable pay care received case hospital emergency medical treatment

Applied science
Medicine and health
Emergency medicine


arrived hospital property care must provided hospital triage nurse first contacts patient determines appropriate level care needed according mead v legacy health system patient physician relationship established physician takes affirmative action concerning patientcare initiating relationship forms legal contract physician must continue provide treatment adequately terminate relationship legal responsibility extend physician consultations call physicians even without direct patient contact emergency medicine termination patient provider relationship prior stabilization


countries expensive impractical use many developing countries limited health care resources international emergency medicine provides critical global perspective hope improvement areas brief review programs follows argentina argentina sae sociedad argentina de emergencias leading organisation emergency medicine many residency programs also possible reach certification two year postgraduate university course years ed background australia new zealand specialist medical college responsible emergency medicine australia


emergency departments acem provides non specialist certificates diplomas belgium belgium three recognised ways practice emergency medicine accredited emergency medicine program emergency medicine performed general practitioners followed h course 'acute medicine' specialists surgeon internal medicine neurologist anesthesiologist without supra speciality training emergency medicine since residency training exists acute medicine emergency medicine least training emergency department part rotation disciplines like pediatrics surgery orthopedic surgery anesthesiology


frcp em residency length allows time formal training areas physician assistants currently practising field emergency medicine canada china current post graduate emergency medicine training process highly complex china first em post graduate training took place peking union medical college hospital speciality certification em established formal training required practice emergency medicine china decade ago emergency medicine residency training centralized municipal levels following ministry public health guidelines residency programs hospitals


emergency medicine speciality board committee increasing board certified emergency physicians iran ethical medicolegal issues ethical medico legal issues embedded within nature emergency medicine issues surrounding competence end life care right refuse care encountered daily within emergency department growing significance ethical issues legal obligations surround mental health act increasing numbers suicide attempts self harm seen emergency department ref name ref wooltorton case patient arrived emergency


also specialized form fine art artists ''perform'' work live audience called performance art performance art also involves form plastic art perhaps creation props dance often referred ''plastic art'' modern dance era musicology concert mozarteum salzburg musicology academic discipline take number different paths including historical musicology music literature ethnomusicology music theory undergraduate music majors generally take courses areas graduate students focus particular path


thunderbolt byzantine gothic art middle ages dominance church insisted expression biblical material truths renaissance saw return valuation material world shift reflected art forms show corporeality human body three dimensional reality landscape eastern art generally worked style akin western medieval art namely concentration surface patterning local colour meaning plain colour object basic red red robe rather modulations


however humanities seem declining harvard university provides one example percent harvard undergraduates majored humanities percent took course study professor benjamin schmidt northeastern university documented degrees english history foreign languages philosophy decreased percent percent us college degrees liberal arts education commission humanities social sciences report ''the heart matter'' supports notion broad liberal arts education includes


humanities developed numerous large small scale digital corporation digitized collections historical texts along digital tools methods analyze aim uncover new knowledge corpora visualize research data new revealing ways much activity occurs field called digital humanities stem politicians united states currently espouse need increased funding stem fields science technology engineering mathematics federal funding represents much smaller fraction funding humanities fields stem medicine ref name bi jun ''america


'''calligraphy''' greek visual art related writing design execution lettering pen ink brush writing instrument ref name mediaville contemporary calligraphic practice defined art giving form signs expressive harmonious skillful manner ref name mediaville modern calligraphy ranges functional inscriptions designs fine art pieces letters may may readable ref name mediaville classical calligraphy differs type design non classical hand lettering though calligrapher may practice ref name zapf ref ref name zapf cd rom ref calligraphy continues flourish

Humanities
Visual arts
Applied arts
Calligraphy


unorthodox locally used centuries generally understood always rejected official texts unorthodox variants addition newly created characters compose simplified chinese character set technique ''on calligraphy'' mi fu song dynasty traditional east asian writing uses four treasures study ink brushes known ob chinese ink paper inkstones write chinese characters instruments writing also known ''four friends study'' korea besides traditional four tools desk pads paperweights also used


monasteries uncial script found suitable copying bible religious texts monasteries preserved calligraphic traditions fourth fifth centuries roman empire fell europe entered dark ages height empire power reached far great britain empire fell literary influence remained semi uncial generated irish semi uncial small anglo saxon region developed standards following main monastery region ie merovingian script laon script luxeuil script visigothic script beneventan script mostly cursive


hardly readable calligraphy latin bible display malmesbury abbey wiltshire england bible hand written belgium gerard brils reading aloud monastery christian churches promoted development writing prolific copying bible breviary sacred texts two distinct styles writing known uncial half uncial latin uncia inch developed variety roman bookhands th th centuries northern europe heyday celtic illuminated manuscripts book durrow lindisfarne gospels book


varied levels skill complained many documents beyond ability decipher office financier thereupon restricted legal documents three hands namely coulee rhonde known round hand english speed hand sometimes simply called bastarda ref name whalley ref many great french masters time influential proposing hands louis barbedor published ''les ecritures financi et italienne bastarde dans leur naturel'' circa ref name whalley destruction camera apostolica sack rome capitol


writing masters moved southern france italic cursiva began replaced technological refinement italic chancery circumflessa turn fathered rhonde later english roundhand ref name whalley england ayres banson popularized round hand snell noted reaction warnings restraint proportionality still edward crocker began publishing copybooks years aforementioned ref name whalley style modern western calligraphy sacred western calligraphy unique features illumination first letter book chapter


published copies manuscripts architect william harrison cowlishaw introduced william lethaby principal central school arts crafts advised study manuscripts british museum triggered johnston 's interest art calligraphy use broad edged pen began teaching course calligraphy central school southampton row london september influenced typeface designer sculptor eric gill commissioned frank pick design new typeface london underground still used today minor


first referred hand foundational hand publication ''manuscript inscription letters schools classes use craftsmen'' subsequent developments graily hewitt taught central school arts crafts published together johnston throughout early part century hewitt central revival gilding calligraphy prolific output type design also appeared attributed revival gilding gesso gold leaf vellum hewitt helped found society scribes


first modern programmable digital computers manchester mark edsac independently invented ref name stanford though different many ways modern computers machines digital software controlling logical operations encoded binary system ones zeroes combined make hundreds characters binary digits digital media metal oxide silicon field effect transistor mosfet mos transistor invented mohamed atalla dawon kahng bell labs ref name computerhistory ref ref name lojek ref first truly compact transistor


digital multimedia practical digital multimedia distribution streaming made possible advances data compression due impractically high memory storage bandwidth requirements uncompressed media important compression technique discrete cosine transform dct ref name zhu ref lossy compression algorithm first proposed image compression technique nasir ahmed kansas state university ref name ahmed ref dct algorithm basis first practical video coding format h ref name ghanbari ref followed dct based video coding standards notably mpeg video formats onwards ref name zhu


history known information age digital revolution ref name infoage transition created uncertainty definitions digital media new media multimedia similar terms relationship engineering innovations cultural impact digital media blending digital media media cultural social factors sometimes known new media new media similarly digital media seems demand new set communications skills called transliteracy media literacy digital literacy skills include ability read write traditional literacy


third place united states million users android ios dominate smartphone market study gartner found worldwide smartphones android ios market share ref name ref mobile market revenue came mobile games ref name impact digital revolution also assessed exploring amount worldwide mobile smart device users split categories smart phone users smart tablet users worldwide


analog technologies digital media easy copy store share modify quality digital media led significant changes many industries especially journalism publishing education entertainment music business overall effect changes far reaching difficult quantify example movie making transition analog film cameras digital cameras nearly complete transition economic benefits hollywood making distribution easier making possible add high quality digital effects films time affected analog special effects stunt animation


adults get news often news websites social media compared television pew research also asked respondents got news streaming device tv us adults said often ref name individual content creator average camera youtube blogger canon eos digital media also allowed individuals much active content creation ref name pew new ref anyone access computers internet participate social media contribute writing art videos photography commentary internet


youtube grown become website user generated media content oftentimes mediated company agency leading wide array personalities opinions online years youtube platforms also shown monetary gains top youtube performers generating million dollars year many youtube profiles years multi camera set would see tv many creators also creating digital companies personalities grow personal devices also seen increase


years billion users tablets exist world right expected slowly grow ref name ref people world regularly watch content using tablets ref name user generated content raises issues privacy credibility civility compensation cultural intellectual artistic contributions spread digital media wide range literacy communications skills necessary use effectively deepened digital divide access digital media n't rising digital media made


consumer 's audio collection precise personalized longer necessary purchase entire album consumer ultimately interested audio files web news us philips tv controller built netflix streaming button rise streaming services led decrease cable tv services streaming services growing around still users digital antenna ref name ref tv controllers incorporate designated buttons streaming platforms users spending average digital video day


use first factor purpose purpose means content used reference commercial nonprofit educational purposes also use adds new aspect meaning content second factor copyrighted content content non fiction likely full fair use content work fiction third factor much copyrighted content use small pieces likely considered fair large chunks real meat content


mass media technology articles containing video clips


forestry education imparted agricultural universities forest research institutes deemed universities four year degree programmes conducted universities undergraduate level masters doctorate degrees also available universities united states postsecondary forestry education leading bachelor 's degree master 's degree accredited society american foresters canada canadian institute forestry awards silver rings graduates accredited university bsc programs well college technical programs many european countries training forestry made accordance requirements


study physical quantities eg electric current temperature stress entropy biological systems biological sciences also perform research biophysical properties living organisms including molecular biology cell biology chemical biology biochemistry overview molecular biophysics typically addresses biological questions similar biochemistry molecular biology seeking find physical underpinnings biomolecular phenomena scientists field conduct research concerned understanding interactions various systems cell including interactions dna rna protein biosynthesis well interactions regulated great variety techniques


used answer questions ribosome biological machine utilizes protein dynamics fluorescent imaging techniques well electron microscopy x ray crystallography nmr spectroscopy atomic force microscopy afm small angle scattering sas x rays neutrons saxs sans often used visualize structures biological significance protein dynamics observed neutron spin echo spectroscopy conformational change structure measured using techniques dual polarisation interferometry circular dichroism saxs sans direct manipulation molecules using optical tweezers afm also used monitor biological events forces


way test said hypotheses leaving results inconclusive agnosticism compatible forming belief truth falsehood claim hand karl popper would also describe agnostic ref name edward zerin edward zerin karl popper god lost interview ''skeptic'' ''' ''' ref according philosopher william l rowe strict sense agnosticism view human reason incapable providing sufficient rational grounds justify either belief god exists belief god exist ref name roweroutledge ref george h smith admitting


n't care deity exists history hindu philosophy throughout history hinduism strong tradition philosophic speculation skepticism rig veda takes agnostic view fundamental question universe gods created nasadiya sukta ''creation hymn'' tenth chapter rig veda says ref name kramer ref ref name christian ref ref name singh ref hume kant kierkegaard aristotle anselm ref name williams ref aquinas ref name owens ref descartes g del presented arguments attempting rationally prove existence god skeptical empiricism david hume antinomies immanuel kant


alone modern peoples' dissatisfaction life result depending incomplete data ability reason way discover truth rather way organize knowledge experiences somewhat sensibly without full human perception world one 's reason tends lead wrong direction beyond measured scientific tools types perception one 's ability know another human loving one 's loves cannot dissected logged scientific journal know far better know


crimes humanity ecological disasters ref name yojc ref ref name tt ref agnosticism said benedict always fruit refusal knowledge fact offered man nbsp knowledge god always existed ref name tt asserted agnosticism choice comfort pride dominion utility truth opposed following attitudes keenest self criticism humble listening whole existence persistent patience self correction scientific method readiness purified truth ref name yojc catholic church sees merit examining calls partial


concepts composers musicians use creating music development preservation transmission music theory sense may found oral written music making traditions musical instruments artifacts example ancient instruments prehistoric sites around world reveal details music produced potentially something musical theory might used makers see history music musical instrument ancient living cultures around world deep long roots music theory visible instruments oral traditions current music making many

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Music theory


methods also used music theory textbooks especially united states america often include elements musical acoustics considerations musical notation techniques tonal composition harmony counterpoint among topics history prehistory preserved prehistoric instruments artifacts later depictions performance artworks give clues structure pitch systems prehistoric cultures see instance paleolithic flutes g anasazi flute antiquity mesopotamia several surviving sumerian akkadian clay tablets include musical information theoretical nature mainly lists intervals tunings scholar sam mirelman reports earliest


passage music shows hierarchical relationships among pitches draws conclusions structure passage hierarchy analysis makes use specialized symbolic form musical notation schenker devised demonstrate various techniques elaboration fundamental concept schenker 's theory tonality may ''tonal space'' intervals notes tonic triad form ''tonal space'' filled passing neighbour notes producing new triads new tonal spaces open elaborations surface work score reached although


conventions horn calls dance forms styles treated suggestively agawu among others notion gesture beginning play large role musico semiotic enquiry strong arguments music inhabits semiological realm ontogenetic phylogenetic levels developmental priority verbal language writers music semiology include kofi agawu topical theory heinrich schenker robert hatten topic gesture raymond monelle topic musical meaning jean jacques nattiez introversive taxonomic analysis ethnomusicological applications anthony newcomb narrativity eero tarasti generally considered founder musical semiotics


vols chicago university chicago press reference zur stimmung der babylonischen harfe ''orientalia'' reference latham alison ed ''the oxford companion music'' oxford new york oxford university press reference laurie timothy music genre method ''cultural studies review'' reference lerdahl fred ray jackendoff ''a generative theory tonal music'' cambridge massachusetts mit press reference lewin david ''generalized musical intervals transformations'' new yale university press reference linkels ad nd real music paradise ''world music'' vol latin north america caribbean india asia pacific edited simon


akkadian term sihpu ''journal cuneiform studies'' chase wayne ''how music really works '' second edition vancouver canada roedy black publishing book d'errico francesco christopher henshilwood graeme lawson marian vanhaeren anne marie tillier marie soressi frederique bresson bruno maureille april nowell joseba lakarra lucinda backwell michele julien http wwwevampgde evolution staff soressi pdf derrico al jwppdf archaeological evidence emergence language symbolism music alternative multidisciplinary perspective ''journal world prehistory'' march despopoulos agamemnon stefan silbernagl ''color atlas physiology'' fifth edition new york stuttgart thieme dunbar brian ''practical music theory


oxford studies music theory oxford new york oxford university press west martin litchfield babylonian musical notation hurrian melodic texts ''music letters'' may wu zhao jiahu guiling gudi yu zhongguo yinyue wenming zhi yuan relation jiahu bone flutes turtle shell shakers origin chinese music ''wenwu'' cultural relics nbsp wu zhongzian karin taylor wu ''heavenly stems earthly branches tian gan dizhi heart chinese wisdom traditions'' london philadelphia singing dragon jessica kingsley publishers yamaguchi


piece paper respect detailing physical objects drafting effort requires thorough understanding geometry trigonometry spatial comprehension cases demands precision accuracy attention detail high order although drafting sometimes accomplished project engineer architect shop personnel machinist skilled drafters designers usually accomplish task always demand degree computer aided design today mechanics drafting task largely automated accelerated use computer aided design systems cad two types

Humanities
Visual arts
Applied arts
Technical drawing


disassembly parts outside normally removed first standards conventions basic drafting paper sizes many standard sizes paper different times different countries today world uses international standard siblings north america uses sizes gallery image size illustration letter legalsvg iso series paper sizes used countries world image ansi size illustrationsvg ansi paper sizes used north america gallery patent drawing wright brothers' patent drawings aeroplane applicant patent


required law furnish drawing invention nature case requires drawing understand invention job drawing must filed application includes practically inventions except compositions matter processes drawing may also useful case many processes ref name us pto drawing must show every feature invention specified claims required patent office rules particular form office specifies size sheet


mechanical systems drawings electrical drawings plumbing drawings assembly drawings assembly drawings show different parts go together identify parts number parts list often referred bill materials technical service manual type drawing may referred exploded view drawing diagram parts may used engineering fitted drawings also called ''as built drawings'' ''as made drawings'' '''as fitted drawings''' represent record completed works literally 'as fitted' based upon ''working drawings'' updated reflect changes alterations


alt false color image computer simulation earth 's magnetic field period normal polarity reversals '''geophysics''' subject natural science concerned physical processes physical properties earth surrounding space environment use quantitative methods analysis term ''geophysics'' sometimes refers solid earth applications earth 's shape gravitational magnetic fields internal structure composition dynamics surface expression plate tectonics generation magmas volcanism rock formation ref name sheriff ref however modern geophysics organizations pure scientists use

Natural science
Earth science
Geophysics


pull moon sun give rise two high tides two low tides every lunar day every hours minutes therefore gap hours minutes every high tide every low tide gravitational forces make rocks press deeper rocks increasing density depth increases ref name poirier ref measurements gravitational acceleration gravitational potential earth 's surface used look mineral deposits see gravity anomaly gravimetry ref name telford surface gravitational field provides information dynamics


sprites variety electric methods used geophysical survey measure spontaneous potential potential arises ground man made natural disturbances telluric currents flow earth oceans two causes electromagnetic induction time varying external origin geomagnetic field motion conducting bodies seawater across earth 's permanent magnetic field distribution telluric current density used detect variations electrical resistivity underground structures geophysicists also provide electric current see induced polarization electrical resistivity tomography electromagnetic waves


however solid enormous pressure ref name lowrie ref reconstruction seismic reflections deep interior indicate major discontinuities seismic velocities demarcate major zones earth inner core outer core mantle lithosphere crust mantle divided upper mantle transition zone lower mantle ''d '' layer crust mantle mohorovi discontinuity ref name lowrie seismic model earth determine composition layers complete model earth mineral physics needed interpret seismic velocities terms


geodesy needed related measurements surface earth reference coordinate system gravity measurements land made using gravimeters deployed either surface helicopter flyovers since earth 's gravity field measured analyzing motion satellites sea level also measured satellites using radar altimetry contributing accurate geoid ref name nrc nasa launched gravity recovery climate experiment grace wherein two twin satellites map variations earth 's gravity field making measurements distance


modern culture china prehistory paleolithic ka china inhabited ''homo erectus'' one million years ago ref name magnetostratigraphicdating ref recent study shows stone tools found xiaochangliang site magnetostratigraphically dated nbsp million years ago ref name xiaochangliang ref archaeological site xihoudu shanxi province evidence use fire ''homo erectus'' ref name xihoudu ref dated nbsp million years ago ref name magnetostratigraphicdating ''homo erectus'' fossils china include yuanmou man lantian man peking man fossilised teeth ''homo sapiens'' dating bc

Humanities
History
Asian history
Chinese history


warring states period chinese historiography iron age culture tibetan plateau tentatively associated zhang zhung culture described early tibetan writings ancient china xia dynasty bc xia dynasty china c c bc first dynasty described ancient historical records sima qian 's ''records grand historian'' ''bamboo annals'' ref name ancient dynasties dynasty considered mythical historians scientific excavations found early bronze age sites erlitou henan clear records matching


shang oracle bones remains unclear whether sites remains xia dynasty another culture period excavations overlap alleged time period xia indicate type culturally similar groupings chiefdoms early markings period found pottery shells thought ancestral modern chinese characters according ancient records dynasty ended around bc consequence battle mingtiao shang dynasty bc map shang dynasty archaeological findings providing evidence existence


much complicated hence scholars china suggest xia shang refer political entities existed concurrently early zhou existed time shang although written records found anyang confirm existence shang dynasty western scholars often hesitant associate settlements contemporaneous anyang settlement shang dynasty example archaeological findings sanxingdui suggest technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike anyang evidence inconclusive proving far shang realm extended anyang leading hypothesis


falling apart central zhou power hundreds states eventually arose local strongmen held political power continued subservience zhou kings name local leaders even started using royal titles china consisted hundreds states large village fort era continued larger powerful states annexed claimed suzerainty smaller ones th century bc small states disappeared annexed large


china though unified reign first qin emperor lasted years managed subdue great parts constitutes core han chinese homeland unite tightly centralized legalist government seated xianyang close modern xi'an doctrine legalism guided qin emphasized strict adherence legal code absolute power emperor philosophy effective expanding empire military fashion proved unworkable governing peacetime qin emperor presided brutal silencing political opposition including


bc agriculture established peasants however discontented later revolted succeeding han dynasty also expanded ordos due overpopulation depleted resources process indeed true dynasty 's borders multiple directions modern inner mongolia xinjiang tibet manchuria regions southeast foreign qin even areas military control culturally distinct emperor qin shi huang 's unnatural death due consumption mercury pills ref name wright ref qin government drastically deteriorated eventually capitulated bc


six ministries imperial examinations selecting officials commoners improved systems fubing system army conscription equal field system land distributions policies adopted later dynasties brought enormous population growth amassed excessive wealth state standardized coinage enforced throughout unified empire buddhism took root prominent religion supported officially sui china known numerous mega construction projects intended grains shipment transporting troops grand canal constructed linking capitals daxing chang'an luoyang wealthy southeast region


tang dynasty prosperity early tang dynasty abetted centralized bureaucracy government organized three departments six ministries separately draft review implement policies departments run royal family members landed aristocrats dynasty wore joined replaced scholar officials selected imperial examinations setting patterns later dynasties tang equal field system land owned emperor granted family according household size men granted land conscripted military service fixed period year


long reign emperor xuanzong oversaw empire stretched pacific aral sea least nbsp million people vibrant artistic cultural creations including works greatest chinese poets li bai du fu zenith prosperity empire lushan rebellion watershed event war disease economic disruption devastated population drastically weakened central imperial government upon suppression rebellion regional military governors known jiedushi gained increasingly autonomous status loss revenue


capital established kaifeng also known bianjing song dynasty reunified china proper large swaths outer territories occupied sinicized nomadic empires khitan liao dynasty lasted ruled manchuria mongolia parts northern china meanwhile north western chinese provinces gansu shaanxi ningxia tangut tribes founded western xia dynasty aiming recover strategic sixteen prefectures lost previous dynasty campaigns launched liao dynasty


previous chinese dynasties although land trading routes far west blocked nomadic empires extensive maritime trade neighboring states facilitated use song coinage de facto currency exchange giant wooden vessels equipped compasses traveled throughout china seas northern indian ocean concept insurance practised merchants hedge risks long haul maritime shipments prosperous economic activities historically first use paper currency emerged western city chengdu supplement existing copper coins song dynasty


dynasty historical work ''zizhi tongjian'' comprehensive mirror aid government invention movable type printing facilitated spread knowledge culture arts flourished grandiose artworks ''along river qingming festival'' ''eighteen songs nomad flute'' along great buddhist painters prolific lin tinggui song dynasty also period major innovation history warfare gunpowder invented tang dynasty first put use battlefields song army inspiring succession new firearms


mongol empire chinese dynasty preceding decades mongols conquered jin dynasty northern china southern song dynasty fell protracted bloody war mongol yuan dynasty became first conquest dynasty chinese history rule entire china proper population ethnic minority dynasty also directly controlled mongolian heartland regions inheriting largest share territory divided mongol empire roughly coincided modern area china nearby regions east asia expansion


empire halted defeats invasions japan vietnam following previous jin dynasty capital yuan dynasty established khanbaliq also known dadu modern day beijing grand canal reconstructed connect remote capital city economic hubs southern part china setting precedence foundation beijing would largely remain capital successive regimes unified china mainland peace treaty ended series mongol civil wars emperors yuan dynasty upheld nominal great


intellectuals traditional bearers elite chinese culture lost substantial social status stimulated development culture common folks prolific works zaju variety shows literary songs sanqu written distinctive poetry style known qu novels vernacular style gained unprecedented status popularity mongol invasion chinese dynasties reported approximately nbsp million inhabitants conquest completed census reported roughly nbsp million people major decline necessarily due mongol killings scholars frederick w mote argue wide drop


populace mongol dominance yet rather nationalist cause mainly strings natural disasters incompetent governance triggered widespread peasant uprisings since massive naval engagement lake poyang zhu yuanzhang prevailed rebel forces south proclaimed emperor founded ming dynasty year northern expedition army captured capital khanbaliq yuan remnants fled back mongolia sustained regime mongol khanates central asia continued exist fall yuan dynasty china ming dynasty ad


tribute large navy built including four masted ships displacing nbsp tons standing army nbsp million troops created chinese armies conquered occupied vietnam around years chinese fleet sailed china seas indian ocean cruising far east coast africa chinese gained influence eastern moghulistan several maritime asian nations sent envoys tribute chinese emperor domestically grand canal expanded became stimulus domestic trade nbsp tons iron per year produced many books printed using movable type imperial


combined traditions central asian rule confucian norms traditional chinese government considered chinese dynasty manchus enforced 'queue order' forcing han chinese men adopt manchu queue hairstyle officials required wear manchu style clothing ''changshan'' bannermen dress ''tangzhuang'' ordinary han civilians allowed wear traditional han clothing bannermen could undertake trade manual labor petition removed banner status considered form nobility given annual pensions land allotments cloth kangxi emperor ordered creation


ming loyalist koxinga zheng chenggong fall southern ming served base continued ming resistance southern china qing defeated russians albazin resulting treaty nerchinsk qianlong emperor end qianlong emperor 's long reign qing empire zenith qing ruled one third world 's population largest economy world area one largest empires ever li hongzhang chinese politician general diplomat late qing dynasty


two chinese parties nominally formed united front oppose japanese second sino japanese war became part world war ii japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities civilian population including biological warfare see unit three alls policy ''sank sakusen'' three alls '' kill burn loot '' following defeat japan war nationalist government forces ccp resumed failed attempts reconciliation negotiated settlement ccp established control


massacres nationalist government forces defeated ccp forces mainland china nationalist government retreated taiwan forces along chiang large number supporters nationalist government taken effective control taiwan end wwii part overall japanese surrender japanese troops taiwan surrendered republic china troops early roc recognized sole legitimate government china united nations united states western nations refusing recognize prc


cultural revolution marking end turbulent political era china deng xiaoping outmaneuvered mao 's anointed successor chairman hua guofeng gradually emerged ' 'de facto'' leader next years deng xiaoping paramount leader china although never became head party state influence within party led country significant economic reforms ccp subsequently loosened governmental control citizens' personal lives communes disbanded many peasants receiving multiple land leases greatly increased incentives agricultural


prc jiang zhu 's ten years administration prc 's economic performance pulled estimated nbsp million peasants poverty sustained average annual gross domestic product growth rate ref name ref ref country formally joined world trade organization former european colonies british hong kong portuguese macau became hong kong macau special administrative regions people 's republic china respectively although prc needs economic growth spur development government began worry rapid economic growth degrading country 's


second millennium bce southern mesopotamia arose grammatical tradition lasted years linguistic texts earliest parts tradition lists nouns sumerian language isolate language known genetic relatives language religious legal texts time sumerian replaced everyday speech different unrelated language akkadian remained however language prestige continued used religious legal contexts therefore taught foreign language

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
History of linguistics


making full syllable certain lengthening shortening rules correption create long short syllables contexts one would expect opposite important classical meter defined alexandrian grammarians dactylic hexameter meter homeric poetry form uses verses six feet first four feet normally dactyls spondees fifth foot almost always dactyl sixth foot either spondee trochee initial syllable either foot called ictus basic beat verse


usually caesura ictus third foot text ''t khn grammatik '' c bce gk ''gramma'' meant letter title means art letters possibly written dionysius thrax bce considered earliest grammar book greek tradition ref name bod lists eight parts speech lays broad details greek morphology including case structures text intended pedagogic guide panini also covers punctuation aspects prosody grammars charisius mainly compilation thrax


''yueding sucheng'' study phonology china began late influenced indian tradition buddhism become popular china rime dictionary type dictionary arranged tone rime pronunciations characters indicated ''fanqie'' spellings rime tables later produced aid understanding ''fanqie'' philological studies flourished qing dynasty duan yucai wang niansun towering figures last great philologist era zhang binglin also helped lay foundation modern chinese linguistics western comparative


greeks romans viewed civilized persons ancient world view articulated thomas sheridan compiled important th century pronunciation dictionary care taken cultivation languages greece rome owed splendor eclipsed nations world th century james burnett lord monboddo analyzed numerous languages deduced logical elements evolution human languages thinking interleaved precursive concepts biological evolution early concepts validated considered


finite means '' ber den dualis'' humboldt 's work associated movement '''romantic linguistics''' inspired ''naturphilosophie'' romantic science ref name esterhammer angela esterhammer ed ''romantic poetry'' volume john benjamins publishing p ref notable representatives movement include friedrich schlegel franz bopp ref name esterhammer late th century neogrammarian approach karl brugmann others introduced rigid notion sound law historical linguistics also led emergence semantics forms pragmatics nerlich nerlich clarke historical linguistics continues today


via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine ref name google later machines came libraries programs would linked user 's program assist operations input output compiling generating machine code human readable symbolic code genesis modern day operating system however machines still ran single job

Formal science
Computer science
Operating systems


first os written exclusively high level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys company 's mcp clearpath line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main frame systems batch oriented system


apple 's line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux ubuntu desktop linux distribution linux unix like operating system first time released september


popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google 's android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated percent total usage share web connected computers ref name statcounter ref name w cstats ref latest version windows windows overtook windows xp common version use ref name w schoolsosstats ref ref name gstats ref ref name globstats ref microsoft windows first released operating environment running top ms dos standard operating system


disks tapes flash memory etc program execution operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates


means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system 's kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel 's attention modes privilege rings x microprocessor architecture available protected mode operating systems determine processes run mode modern computers support multiple modes operation cpus capability


functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer 's graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer 's command line interface client server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services


others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt windows server exist mostly kernel space windows x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x nbsp window system conjunction gnome kde plasma commonly found setup


robots spacecraft industrial control large scale computing systems early example large scale real time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows' codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka starting version b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd


economy consumption saving investment variable components economy determine macroeconomic equilibrium three main sectors economic activity primary secondary tertiary due growing importance financial sector modern times term ' 'real economy'' used analysts well politicians denote part economy concerned actual production goods services ostensibly contrasted ''paper economy'' financial side economy concerned buying selling financial markets alternate long standing

Applied science
Military sciences
Military weapons
Economic


debt legal contracts law codes relating business practices private property ref name sheila sheila c dow axioms babylonian thought reply ''journal post keynesian economics'' ''' ''' p ref babylonians city state neighbors developed forms economics comparable currently used civil society law concepts ref name yale ref developed first known codified legal administrative systems complete courts jails government records ancient economy mainly based subsistence farming shekel referred ancient unit weight currency first usage term came mesopotamia circa


book ''the wealth nations'' european captures became branches european states called colonies rising nation states spain portugal france great britain netherlands tried control trade custom duties ''mercator'' lat merchant first approach intermediate private wealth public interest secularization europe allowed states use immense property church development towns influence nobles decreased first secretaries state economy started work bankers like amschel mayer rothschild started finance national projects


transport facilities air sea ports post natal care hospitals schools libraries museums preserved historical buildings parks gardens nature reserves universities national sports grounds stadiums national arts concert halls theaters centers various religions private sector privately run businesses social sector voluntary sector economic measures main indicators used monitor performance economy consumer spending exchange rate gross domestic product gdp per capita gnp stock market interest rate government debt rate inflation unemployment balance trade gdp gdp gross domestic product country measure size


indirect binocular ophthalmoscope whilst moorfields eye hospital founder schepens eye research institute associated harvard medical school massachusetts eye ear infirmary boston massachusetts marshall parks father pediatric ophthalmology jos ignacio barraquer spain father modern refractive surgery developed lamellar techniques including keratomileusis keratophakia well first microkeratome corneal microlathe tadeusz krwawicz poland developed first cryoprobe intracapsular cataract extraction svyatoslav fyodorov russia father ophthalmic microsurgery

Applied science
Medicine and health
Ophthalmology


take notice infrared astronomy became well established subfield astronomy ref name rieke infrared space telescopes entered service iras made sky survey european space agency created infrared space observatory satellite ran liquid helium however discovered protostars water universe even saturn uranus august nasa launched spitzer space telescope previously known space infrared telescope facility telescope ran liquid helium lost ability see far infrared

Natural science
Space science
Astronomy
Infrared astronomy


industry centre discussions purpose public education tvet skills development viewed important component promoting economic growth general addressing youth unemployment particular ref name ref recognition united nations sustainable development goal advocates expansion equitable access tvet needs order substantially increase number youths relevant skills decent work general education systems effective developing skills many adolescents adults needed secure employment industry late early saw introduction

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Vocational education


may participate workplace training co operation schools local employers government piloting vocational meister schools workplace training important part programme around half vocational high schools private private public schools operate according similar rules example charge fees high school education exemption poorer families number students vocational high schools decreased half students one quarter today make vocational high schools attractive april korean


short programmes employed workers requirements admission institutions principle rest tertiary sector basis college scholastic aptitude test candidates vocational qualifications given priority admission process junior colleges expanded rapidly response demand enrolled around tertiary students junior college students private institutions fees charged private colleges approximately twice public institutions polytechnic colleges state run institutions responsibility ministry labour


training organisations ito unique element itos purchase training well set standards aggregate industry opinion skills labour market industry training organised itos expanded apprenticeships true lifelong learning situation example trainees aged moreover much training generic challenges prevailing idea vocational education standard layperson view focuses apprenticeships one source information new zealand industry training federation another ministry


vocational education training advises minister development national vocational education training system advisory councils vocational education training linked nine vocational education programmes provided upper secondary education advise content vet programmes trends future skill needs national curriculum groups assist deciding contents vocational training within specific occupations local county vocational training committees advise quality provision vet career guidance paraguay paraguay vocational education known ''bachillerato cnico''


related tertiary degree according survey oecd year old students attend vocational study programmes offered ''anatolian vocational'' ''anatolian technical'' ''technical high schools'' municipalities turkey also offer vocational training metropolitan municipality istanbul populous city turkey offers year long free vocational programs wide range topics ismek umbrella organization formed municipality united kingdom first trades school uk ''stanley technical trades school'' harris academy south norwood designed built set william stanley


base disciplinary theoretical know may explicit process application specific work contexts environment operates bernstein loo occupational knowledge base also includes knowledge procedures skills eg interpersonal intrapersonal ones usually tacit techniques transversal abilities project management abilities personal capabilities occupational capacity awareness eraut winch knowledge base wider spectrum pedagogic one two forms knowledge pedagogic occupational may applied processes recontextualization bernstein van oers barnett


dynamical systems implicit relation gives state system short time future relation either differential equation difference equation time scale determine state future times requires iterating relation many times mdash advancing time small step iteration procedure referred ' 'solving system'' ''integrating system'' system solved given initial point possible determine future positions collection points known ''trajectory'' ''orbit''

Formal science
Mathematics
Applied mathematics
Dynamical systems


chaos history many people regard french mathematician henri poincar founder dynamical systems poincar published two classical monographs new methods celestial mechanics lectures celestial mechanics successfully applied results research problem motion three bodies studied detail behavior solutions frequency stability asymptotic papers included poincar recurrence theorem states certain systems sufficiently long finite time return state close initial state aleksandr lyapunov


least principle fundamental problem statistical mechanics ergodic theorem also repercussions dynamics stephen smale made significant advances well first contribution smale horseshoe jumpstarted significant research dynamical systems also outlined research program carried many others oleksandr mykolaiovych sharkovsky developed sharkovsky 's theorem periods discrete dynamical systems one implications theorem discrete dynamical system real line periodic point period nbsp must periodic points every


space back phase space notion smoothness changes applications type manifold several choices set nbsp ''t'' ''t'' taken reals dynamical system called ''flow'' ''t'' restricted non negative reals dynamical system ' 'semi flow'' ''t'' taken integers ''cascade'' ''map'' restriction non negative integers ' 'semi cascade'' note technical condition sup ''t'' sup action ''t'' ''m''


includes facts sup sup identity function sup ' 's t'' sup composition sup ' 's'' sup sup ''t'' sup monoid action n't require existence negative values ''t'' n't require functions sup ''t'' sup invertible examples evolution function sup nbsp ''t'' sup often solution ' 'differential equation motion'' math dot x v x math equation gives time derivative represented dot trajectory ''x'' ''t'' phase space starting point nbsp ''x'' sub sub vector field ''v'' ''x'' smooth


cases patch cannot extended entire phase space may singular points vector field ''v'' ''x'' nbsp nbsp patches may become smaller smaller point approached subtle reason global constraint trajectory starts patch visiting series patches comes back original one next time orbit loops around phase space different way impossible rectify vector field whole series patches near periodic orbits


high school classes majority formal music history courses offered post secondary college university level canada music students receive training prior undergraduate studies examinations music history well music theory required complete royal conservatory music certification grade level higher medium large institutions offer music appreciation courses non music majors music history courses music majors two types courses usually differ length one two semesters vs two four breadth many music appreciation courses

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Music history


folk become demoted lower level status well historical musicology ideology slanted origins development particular body music aestheticit arose specific moment specific context nineteenth century europe especially germany close association movement musical ''practice'' period codifying repertory taken musicology centre attention terminological methodological ideological problems affect even works sympathetic popular music however musicology ''cannot'' understand popular


aldermaston marches continued late tens thousands people took part four day marches us president john f kennedy gave speech un general assembly announced us intention challenge soviet union arms race peace race advance together step step stage stage general complete disarmament achieved went call global general complete disarmament offering rough outline could accomplished ref blockquote major nuclear disarmament

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Disarmament


systems public safety well disarming defunding police movement traced back often championed anarchists left libertarians police abolition movement seen increase support following george floyd protests well reports police brutality police corruption proponents defend police disarmament movement forms maintaining public safety critics police disarmament include sociologists criminologists journalists politicians criticism mainly centering around utopian well perceived need police maintain


eloranta jari league nations fail ''cliometrica'' https wwwacademiaedu download league nations fail isou pdf online league nations feldman jonathan warfare state 'shadow state' militarism economic depletion reconstruction ''social text'' volume number summer kitching carolyn j ''britain problem international disarmament '' routledge marks sally ''the illusion peace international relations europe '' macmillan melman seymour ed ''inspection disarmament'' new york columbia university press myrdal alva ''the game disarmament united states russia run arms race''


behavior lines common perpendicular three types geometry mathematics '''non euclidean geometry''' consists two geometries based axioms closely related specify euclidean geometry euclidean geometry lies intersection metric geometry affine geometry non euclidean geometry arises either relaxing metric requirement replacing parallel postulate alternative latter case one obtains hyperbolic geometry elliptic geometry traditional non euclidean geometries metric requirement relaxed affine planes associated planar algebras give rise

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Non-Euclidean geometry


infinitely many lines ''a'' intersect models concepts non euclidean geometries represented euclidean objects euclidean setting introduces perceptual distortion wherein straight lines non euclidean geometry represented euclidean curves visually bend bending property non euclidean lines artifice way represented three dimensional non euclidean geometry three dimensions eight models geometries euclidean elliptic hyperbolic geometries two dimensional case mixed geometries


partially euclidean partially hyperbolic spherical twisted versions mixed geometries one unusual geometry completely anisotropic ie every direction behaves differently uncommon properties lambert quadrilateral hyperbolic geometry saccheri quadrilaterals three geometries euclidean non euclidean geometries naturally many similar properties namely depend upon nature parallelism commonality subject absolute geometry also called ''neutral geometry'' however properties distinguish one geometry others historically received attention besides behavior lines respect common perpendicular mentioned


positive defect triangles euclidean geometry zero defect triangles elliptic geometry negative importance models non euclidean plane presented beltrami klein poincar euclidean geometry stood unchallenged mathematical model space furthermore since substance subject synthetic geometry chief exhibit rationality euclidean point view represented absolute authority discovery non euclidean geometries ripple effect went far beyond boundaries mathematics science philosopher immanuel kant 's treatment human knowledge special


h g wells published short story ''the remarkable case davidson 's eyes'' appreciate story one know antipodal points sphere identified model elliptic plane story midst thunderstorm sidney davidson sees waves remarkably neat schooner working electrical laboratory harlow technical college story 's close davidson proves witnessed hms ''fulmar'' antipodes island non euclidean geometry sometimes connected influence th century horror fiction writer h p lovecraft works


gender studies significantly specifically terms psychoanalytic theory among sigmund freud jacques lacan julia kristeva bracha l ettinger gender studied lens theorists looks somewhat different freudian system women mutilated must learn accept lack penis freud 's terms deformity lacan however organizes femininity masculinity according different unconscious structures male female subjects participate phallic organization feminine side sexuation supplementary opposite complementary lacan uses concept sexuation sexual situation


hungary poland russia russia russia gender studies currently tolerated however state supported practices push view related perspectives gender power eg law solving detail specifics domestic violence abolished since russia also leading campaign unhrc recognise called 'traditional values' legitimate consideration human rights protection promotion hungary gender studies programs banned hungary october statement released hungarian prime minister viktor orb n 's office


gender equality citing mao zedong 's philosophy women hold half sky may seen continuation equality men women introduced part cultural revolution romania romanian senate approved broad majority june update national education law would ban theories opinions gender identity according gender separate concept biological sex december constitutional court romania overturned ban earlier president klaus iohannis challenged bill see also androcentrism gender politics gender history gender role genderqueer postgenderism


america degree designed give broad knowledge functional aspects company interconnection also allowing specialization particular area degree also develops student 's practical managerial communication skills business decision making capability succeed competitive world many programs incorporate training practical experience form case projects presentations internships industrial visits interaction experts industry master business administration master business administration mba mba master 's degree business administration significant focus

Applied science
Business
Business administration


knowledge tended remain periphery mainstream sociological thought largely reinvented applied much closely everyday life particularly peter l berger thomas luckmann ''the social construction reality'' still central methods dealing qualitative understanding human society compare ' 'socially constructed reality'' 'genealogical' 'archaeological' studies michel foucault considerable contemporary influence history enlightenment enlightenment movement ought underestimated influence upon social sciences philosophers worked towards

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of knowledge


knowledge ''ideologie und utopie'' translated extended ''ideology utopia'' although term introduced five years earlier co founder movement german philosopher phenomenologist social theorist max scheler ''versuche zu einer soziologie des wissens'' ''attempts sociology knowledge'' mannheim feared interpretation could seen claim knowledge beliefs products socio political forces since form relativism self defeating true merely product socio political forces


claim truth persuasive force mannheim believed relativism strange mixture modern ancient beliefs contained within belief absolute truth true times places ancient view often associated plato condemned truth claims could achieve level objectivity idea gleaned marx mannheim sought escape problem idea '' 'relationism''' idea certain things true certain times places view influenced pragmatism however


definitions marketing approved accessed january ref however definition marketing evolved years ama reviews definition definition marketing research every three years ref name def interests society large added definition development definition may seen comparing definition ama 's version marketing performance business activities direct flow goods services producers consumers newer definition highlights increased prominence stakeholders new conception


inform r department create prototype product service based consumers' new desires production department would start manufacture product finance department may oppose required capital expenditures since could undermine healthy cash flow organization societal marketing concept social responsibility goes beyond satisfying customers providing superior value embraces societal stakeholders employees customers local communities companies adopt perspective typically practice triple bottom line reporting publish financial social environmental impact reports sustainable marketing green marketing extension societal marketing


name borden n concept marketing mix ''journal advertising research'' june pp van waterschoot w van den bulte c p classification marketing mix revisited ''journal marketing'' vol pp ref criticisms one limitations ps approach emphasis inside view ''inside out'' approach traditional planning approach organisation identifies desired goals objectives often based around always done marketing 's task becomes one selling organization 's products messages


public 's eye goal either sustain positive opinion lessen change negative opinion include interviews speeches presentations corporate literature social media news releases special events ref name advertising occurs firm directly pays media channel directly via house agency ref name marketinginhousenyt ref via advertising agency media buying service publicize product service message common examples advertising media include social media used facilitate two way communication companies customers outlets facebook twitter tumblr pinterest snapchat youtube allow brands


start conversation regular prospective customers viral marketing greatly facilitated social media successful allows key marketing messages content reaching large number target audiences within short time frame platforms also house advertising public relations content ref name ref marketing plan area marketing planning involves forging plan firm 's marketing activities marketing plan also pertain specific product well organization 's overall marketing strategy organization 's marketing planning process derived overall business strategy thus


valuable habitat ecosystem diversity '''management optimum land productivity''' silviculture agronomy nutrient management water management native vegetation grazing '''management optimum water quality''' stormwater management sediment erosion control '''remediation restoration damaged lands''' mine reclamation flood storm damage contamination '''sustainability desired uses''' soil conservation also practical applications soil science might apparent looking published soil survey '''radiometric dating''' specifically knowledge local pedology used date prior activity site stratification archeology soil formation processes preservative qualities inform study

Natural science
Earth science
Soil Science


flooding soil erosion study land 's depression storage capacity important fields geology ecology especially hydrology see also agricultural soil science agroecology agrology agrophysics australian society soil science incorporated asssi compost history soil science international soil reference information centre isric international union soil sciences iuss liming soil list russian earth scientists list state soil science associations list state soil science licensing boards national society consulting soil scientists nscss resonant column test soil biology soil science society america sssa soil value world congress soil science


distance alkmaar breda approximately underestimated distance survey chain quadrangles containing triangles snell showed planar formulae could corrected allow curvature earth also showed resect calculate position point inside triangle using angles cast vertices unknown point could measured accurately bearings vertices depended compass work established idea surveying primary network control points locating subsidiary

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Surveying


cartography creation map real time field data collection edm electronic distance measurement laser devices distances measured using variety means included chains links known length gunter 's chain measuring tapes made steel invar measure horizontal distances chains tapes pulled taut reduce sagging slack distance adjusted heat expansion attempts hold measuring instrument level would also made measuring slope surveyor might break break chain measurement use


method referred ' 'differential levelling'' repeated series measurements completed level must horizontal get valid measurement horizontal crosshair instrument lower base rod surveyor able sight rod get reading rod usually raised high allowing level set much higher base rod determining position primary way determining one 's position earth 's surface known


surface earth reference networks survey using traverse offset measurements record location shoreline shown blue black dashed lines traverse measurements reference points black circles red lines offsets measured right angles traverse lines survey positions derived first principles instead surveys points measured relative previous measured points forms reference ''control'' network point used surveyor determine position beginning new survey survey points usually marked


using consistent methods good design reference network repeated measurements averaged outlier measurements discarded independent checks like measuring point two locations using two different methods used errors detected comparing results two measurements thus utilizing redundancy surveyor calculated level errors work adjusted process distributing error measurements observation weighted according much total error likely


incorporates elements boundary survey mortgage survey topographic survey ''control surveying'' control surveys establish reference points use starting positions future surveys forms surveying contain elements control surveying ''construction surveying'' ''deformation survey '' survey determine structure object changing shape moving first positions points object found period time allowed pass positions measured calculated comparison two sets positions made ''dimensional control survey '' type


poured cured done ensure foundation constructed location elevation authorized ''plot plan'' ' 'site plan'' ' 'subdivision plan'' ''hydrographic survey'' survey conducted purpose mapping shoreline bed body water used navigation engineering resource management purposes ''leveling'' either finds elevation given point establish point given elevation ''loma survey'' survey change base flood line removing property sfha special flood hazard area ''measured survey'' building survey


boundary survey splits property two smaller properties ''topographic survey'' survey measures elevation points particular piece land presents contour lines plot ''existing conditions'' similar topographic survey instead focuses specific location key features structures exist time within surveyed area rather primarily focusing elevation often used alongside architectural drawings blueprints locate place building structures ''underwater survey'' survey underwater site object area plane


region wish practice undergo period job training portfolio building awarded license practise licensed surveyors usually receive post nominal varies depending qualified system replaced older apprenticeship systems licensed land surveyor generally required sign seal plans state dictates format showing name registration number many jurisdictions surveyors must mark registration number survey monuments setting boundary corners monuments take form capped iron rods concrete monuments nails washers


cadastral survey branch bureau land management blm conducts cadastral surveys united states consult forest service national park service army corps engineers bureau indian affairs fish wildlife service bureau reclamation others blm used known general land office glo states organized per public land survey system plss surveyors must carry blm cadastral surveys system cadastral surveyors often work around changes earth obliterate damage boundary monuments happens must consider evidence


southern united states typical habitat blow flies temperate tropical areas provide layer loose damp soil litter larvae may thrive pupate forensic importance fly first insect come contact carrion ability smell death ten miles nbsp km away prominent species calliphoridae ''calliphora vomitoria'' ''calliphora vicina'' flesh fly decomposing flesh flesh flies family sarcophagidae flesh flies breed carrion dung garbage decaying material

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Forensic entomology


hymenoptera necessarily necrophagous feed body also predatory eat insects feeding body bees wasps seen feeding body early stages may cause problems murder cases larval flies used estimate post mortem interval since eggs larvae body may consumed prior arrival scene investigators factors moisture levels rain humidity levels area body found affect time insect development species


hours high confidence level ref name tarone even though technique used estimate age egg feasibility legal acceptance must considered widely utilized forensic technique ref name tarone one benefit would like dna based techniques labs would equipped conduct similar experiments without requiring new capital investment style age determination process used accurately find age instars pupa however much complicated


capacity change learn experience examples complex adaptive systems include stock market social insect ant colonies biosphere ecosystem brain immune system cell developing embryo cities manufacturing businesses human social group based endeavor cultural social system political parties communities features complex systems may following features cascading failures due strong coupling components complex systems failure one components lead cascading failures may catastrophic consequences functioning

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Complex systems


system localized attack may lead cascading failures abrupt collapse spatial networks ref name berezinbashan ref complex systems may open complex systems usually open systems exist thermodynamic gradient dissipate energy words complex systems frequently far energetic equilibrium despite flux may pattern stability see synergetics complex systems may exhibit critical transitions year ref top panels indicate stability landscapes different conditions middle panels b indicate rates change akin slope stability landscapes bottom panels c


indicate recovery perturbation towards system 's future state ci another direction cii critical transitions abrupt shifts state ecosystems climate financial systems complex systems may occur changing conditions pass critical bifurcation point 'direction critical slowing down' system 's state space may indicative system 's future state transitions delayed negative feedbacks leading oscillatory complex dynamics weak ref name auto complex systems may memory recovery critical transition may require simple


discipline namely econophysics broadly defined cross discipline applies statistical physics methodologies mostly based complex systems theory chaos theory economics analysis nobel prize physics awarded syukuro manabe klaus hasselmann giorgio parisi work understand complex systems work used create accurate computer models effect global warming earth 's climate applications complexity practice traditional approach dealing complexity reduce constrain typically involves compartmentalization dividing


networks often interact complex manner individual complex system represented network interacting complex systems modeled networks networks dynamic properties ref name gaobuldyrev ref ref name majdandzicbraunstein one main reasons high vulnerability network central control ie node disconnected cluster usually regraded failed percolation approach generate study decentralized systems using reinforced nodes support redundancy links network science found useful better understand complexity