instead seeing religious language referring objective reality instead see referring ''forms life'' approach generally termed non realist ref name auto view realists respond non realism subverts religious belief intelligibility religious practice hard see example one pray god without believing really exist realists also argue non realism provides normative way choose competing religions ref name auto analytic philosophy religion ''analytic philosophy religion'' james franklin harris noted pages volume


forms depth psychology typically associated theories unconscious mind contrast behaviorists consider phenomena classical conditioning operant conditioning cognitivists explore implicit memory automaticity subliminal messages understood either bypass occur outside conscious effort attention indeed cognitive behavioral therapists counsel clients become aware maladaptive thought patterns nature clients previously conscious ref research psychologists employ empirical methods infer causal correlational relationships psychosocial variables clinical counseling psychologists rely


quoted psychology n dictionary psychology edited andrew colman oxford university press oxford reference online oxford university press http wwwoxfordreferencecom views entryhtmlsubview main entry e oxfordreferencecom ref william james defined ''psychology'' science mental life phenomena conditions definition enjoyed widespread currency decades however meaning contested notably radical behaviorists john b watson asserted discipline natural science theoretical goal prediction control behavior ref name watson ref since james defined psychology term strongly implicates


indivisible continuum suggested difference conscious unconscious awareness matter degree christian wolff identified psychology science writing ''psychologia empirica'' ''psychologia rationalis'' immanuel kant advanced idea anthropology discipline psychology important subdivision kant however explicitly rejected idea experimental psychology writing empirical doctrine soul also never approach chemistry even systematic art analysis experimental doctrine manifold inner observation separated mere division


status upon us 's entry world war standing committee headed robert yerkes administered mental tests army alpha army beta almost million soldiers ref name tomes subsequently rockefeller family via social science research council began provide funding behavioral research rockefeller charities funded national committee mental hygiene disseminated concept mental illness lobbied applying ideas psychology child rearing ref name tomes bureau social hygiene later funding alfred kinsey rockefeller foundations helped establish research sexuality us


stalin celebrated heroes soviet psychology soviet academics experienced degree liberalization khrushchev thaw topics cybernetics linguistics genetics became acceptable new field engineering psychology emerged field involved study mental aspects complex jobs pilot cosmonaut interdisciplinary studies became popular scholars georgy shchedrovitsky developed systems theory approaches human behavior twentieth century chinese psychology originally modeled us psychology translations american authors like william james establishment university psychology departments journals establishment


psychology research office became institute psychology leading psychologists educated united states first concern academy education psychologists soviet doctrines child psychology pedagogy purpose nationally cohesive education remained central goal discipline disciplinary organization institutions douard clapar de pierre bovet created new applied psychology organization called international congress psychotechnics applied vocational guidance later called international congress psychotechnics international association


focuses ''will meaning'' one 's life opposed adler 's nietzschean doctrine ''will power'' freud 's ''will pleasure'' themes personality personality psychology concerned enduring patterns behavior thought emotion theories personality vary across different psychological schools thought theory carries different assumptions features role unconscious importance childhood experience according freud personality based dynamic interactions id ego super ego contrast trait theorists developed taxonomies personality constructs


theory based environmental transmission would hold offspring virtue problematic rearing environment managed depressed mother risk developing depression hand hereditarian theory would hold depression risk offspring influenced extent genes passed child mother genes environment simple transmission models completely confounded depressed mother may carry genes contribute depression offspring also create rearing environment increases risk depression


theories physiognomy judgment character based face described aristotle th century bc greece physiognomy remained current enlightenment added doctrine phrenology study mind intelligence based simple assessment neuroanatomy experimental psychology came britain francis galton leading practitioner virtue procedures measuring reaction time sensation considered inventor modern mental testing also known ''psychometrics'' james mckeen cattell student wundt galton brought idea psychological testing united states fact coined


u mid twentieth century industrial psychologist arthur kornhauser pioneered study occupational mental health linking industrial working conditions mental health well spillover unsatisfying job worker 's personal life ref name zickar zickar j remembering arthur kornhauser industrial psychology 's advocate worker well ''journal applied psychology '' ref zickar accumulated evidence show industrial psychologist era devoted advocating management labor practices would improve lives working people ref name zickar occupational health psychology interest worker health expanded toward


threatens study 's validity example research best way affect reading achievement first three grades school school administrators may permit educational psychologists randomly assign children phonics whole language classrooms case psychologists must work preexisting classroom assignments psychologists compare achievement children attending phonics whole language classes perhaps statistically adjust initial differences reading level experimental researchers typically use statistical hypothesis testing model involves making predictions conducting experiment assessing well data collected


frontal lobe remembered injury 's reported effects personality behavior jane goodall studied chimpanzee social family life careful observation chimpanzee behavior field psychologists conduct naturalistic observation ongoing human social professional family life sometimes participants aware observed times participants know observed strict ethical guidelines must followed covert observation carried program evaluation program evaluation involves systematic collection analysis application information answer questions projects policies


programs particularly effectiveness public private sectors stakeholders often want know extent programs funding implementing voting receiving objecting producing intended effects program evaluation first focuses effectiveness important considerations often include much program costs per participant program could improved whether program worthwhile whether better alternatives unintended outcomes whether program goals appropriate useful contemporary issues methodology practice metascience metascience involves application


bibcode ploso f doi access free ref found psychiatry psychology studies confirmed effects looking concluded odds happening positive result around five times higher fields space science geosciences fanelli argued researchers softer sciences fewer constraints conscious unconscious biases replication replication crisis psychology emerged many notable findings field replicated researchers even accused publishing fraudulent results systematic efforts including efforts reproducibility project center


work therapies rebirthing reparenting may dubious even dangerous despite popularity practices however outside mainstream practices taught clinical psychology doctoral programs ethics ethical standards discipline changed time famous past studies today considered unethical violation established codes canadian code conduct research involving humans belmont report american psychological association advanced set ethical principles code conduct profession important contemporary standards include informed voluntary consent


stanley milgram 's studies obedience authority humans universities ethics committees dedicated protecting rights eg voluntary nature research privacy well eg minimizing distress research participants university ethics committees evaluate proposed research ensure researchers protect rights well participants investigator 's research project cannot conducted unless approved ethics committee ethics code american psychological association originated ethical standards psychologists code guided formation licensing laws american states changed multiple times


using non human animals scientific purposes acceptable harm physical psychological done animals outweighed benefits research keeping mind psychologists use certain research techniques animals could used humans comparative psychologist harry harlow drew moral condemnation isolation experiments rhesus macaque monkeys university wisconsin madison aim research produce animal model clinical depression harlow also devised called rape rack female isolates tied normal monkey


psychological experts transformed public life united states doctoral dissertation accepted brandeis university hock roger r ''forty studies changed psychology explorations history psychological research'' fourth edition upper saddle river nj prentice hall morgan robert tara l kuther corey j habben ''life graduate school psychology insider 's advice new psychologists'' new york psychology press taylor francis group severin frank ed ''humanistic viewpoints psychology'' book readings new york mcgraw hill isbn shah james wendi l gardner ''handbook motivation science''


pre historic times whereas circus skills date least ancient egypt many performing arts performed professionally performance purpose built buildings theatres opera houses open air stages festivals stages tents circuses street live performances audience form entertainment development audio video recording allowed private consumption performing arts performing arts often aims express one 's emotions feelings performers performing artists kyoto japan artists participate performing arts front


art dance impulse channeled skillful performers something becomes intensely expressive may delight spectators feel wish dance two concepts art dance dance powerful impulse dance skillfully choreographed art practiced largely professional two important connecting ideas running consideration subject dance connection two concepts stronger arts neither exist without ref name mackrell choreography art making dances person


introduction gaslight theatres burlesque minstrel dancing variety theatre ballet women make great progress previously male dominated art modern dance began late th century early th century response restrictions traditional ballet arrival sergei diaghilev 's ballets russes revolutionized ballet performing arts generally throughout western world importantly diaghilev 's emphasis collaboration brought choreographers dancers set designers artists composers musicians together revitalize revolutionize ballet extremely complex konstantin stanislavski 's system revolutionized acting early th century continues


major influence actors stage screen current day impressionism modern realism introduced stage period invention motion picture late th century thomas edison growth motion picture industry hollywood early th century film became dominant performance medium throughout th st centuries rhythm blues cultural phenomenon black america rose prominence early th century influencing range later popular music styles internationally jean rosenthal


also prevalent black face represented honesty red one bravery rods used control cantonese puppets attached perpendicular puppets' heads thus seen audience shadow created pekingese puppets delicate smaller created thin translucent leather usually taken belly donkey painted vibrant paints thus cast colorful shadow thin rods controlled movements attached leather collar neck puppet rods ran parallel


verbal argument philoponus relied observation aristotle 's physics philoponus wrote blockquote completely erroneous view may corroborated actual observation effectively sort verbal argument let fall height two weights one many times heavy see ratio times required motion depend ratio weights difference time small one difference weights considerable


''the book optics'' huge impact europe later european scholars able build devices replicated ibn al haytham built understand way light works important inventions eyeglasses magnifying glasses telescopes cameras developed classical galileo galilei showed modern appreciation proper relationship mathematics theoretical physics experimental physics sir isaac newton whose laws motion universal gravitation major milestones classical physics physics became separate science early modern europeans used experimental quantitative methods


explicit domains applicability solvay conference prominent physicists albert einstein werner heisenberg max planck hendrik lorentz niels bohr marie curie erwin schr dinger paul dirac loosely speaking laws classical physics accurately describe systems whose important length scales greater atomic scale whose motions much slower speed light outside domain observations match predictions provided classical mechanics einstein contributed framework special relativity replaced notions absolute time space spacetime allowed accurate description systems whose


simple machine lifting experiment using laser applied physics general term physics research intended particular use applied physics curriculum usually contains classes applied discipline like geology electrical engineering usually differs engineering applied physicist may designing something particular rather using physics conducting physics research aim developing new technologies solving problem approach similar applied mathematics applied physicists use physics scientific research instance people working


come understand two observations nature terms root cause electricity magnetism however work th century revealed two forces two different aspects one force electromagnetism process unifying forces continues today electromagnetism weak nuclear force considered two aspects electroweak interaction physics hopes find ultimate reason theory everything nature see section ''current research'' information research fields contemporary research physics broadly divided nuclear


formation evolution universe largest scales albert einstein 's theory relativity plays central role modern cosmological theories early th century hubble 's discovery universe expanding shown hubble diagram prompted rival explanations known steady state universe big bang big bang confirmed success big bang nucleosynthesis discovery cosmic microwave background big bang model rests two theoretical pillars albert einstein 's general relativity cosmological principle cosmologists recently established cdm


continue vibrate resonant frequency vibrations transmitted bridge soundboard amplifies efficiently coupling acoustic energy air key released damper stops strings' vibration ending sound notes sustained even keys released fingers thumbs use pedals base instrument sustain pedal enables pianists play musical passages would otherwise impossible sounding note chord lower register chord


instrument 's ability play soft loud expression bach used help sell instrument acting silbermann 's agent ref name palmieri instrument piano et forte genandt expression bach also used acting silbermann 's agent ref piano making flourished late th century viennese school included johann andreas stein worked augsburg germany viennese makers nannette streicher daughter stein anton walter viennese style pianos built wood frames two strings per note leather covered hammers viennese pianos


opposite coloring modern day pianos natural keys black accidental keys white ref name vienna ref instruments wolfgang amadeus mozart composed concertos sonatas replicas built st century use authentic instrument performance music pianos mozart 's day softer tone st century pianos english pianos less sustaining power term ''fortepiano'' distinguishes early instruments modern creations later pianos modern piano period mozart era piano underwent tremendous changes


escapement action incorporated ' 'repetition lever'' also called ''balancier'' permitted repeating note even key yet risen maximum vertical position facilitated rapid playing repeated notes musical device exploited liszt invention became public revised henri herz double escapement action gradually became standard grand pianos still incorporated grand pianos currently produced improvements mechanism included use firm felt hammer coverings instead layered leather cotton felt jean henri pape


modern grand piano single piece cast iron frame patented boston alpheus babcock ref name isacoff isacoff ref combining metal hitch pin plate claimed broadwood behalf samuel herv resisting bars thom allen also claimed broadwood rard babcock later worked chickering mackays firm patented first full iron frame grand pianos composite forged metal frames preferred many european makers american system fully adopted early th century increased structural integrity


usual dampers eager copy effects theodore steinway invented ' 'duplex scaling'' used short lengths non speaking wire bridged aliquot throughout much upper range piano always locations caused vibrate sympathetically conformity respective overtones typically doubled octaves twelfths variations shape design early pianos shapes designs longer use square piano truly square rectangular cross strung extremely acute angle hammers keyboard set along long side


hammers required use drop action preserve reasonable keyboard height modern upright grand pianos attained present era forms end th century improvements made manufacturing processes many individual details instrument continue receive attention small number acoustic pianos produced midi recording digital sound module triggering capabilities th century era dramatic innovations modifications instrument types modern pianos two basic configurations grand piano upright


vertically oriented soundboard could called upright word often reserved full size models specialized player piano steinway toy piano introduced th century small piano like instrument generally uses round metal rods produce sound rather strings us library congress recognizes toy piano unique instrument subject designation toy piano scores henri fourneaux invented player piano plays piano roll machine perforates performance recording rolls paper player piano


feet pedals may play existing bass strings piano rarely pedals may set bass strings hammer mechanisms typical intended use pedal pianos enable keyboardist practice pipe organ music home players pedal piano use performance instrument wadia sabra microtone piano manufactured pleyel abdallah chahine later constructed quartertone oriental piano help austrian hofmann electric electronic digital span style font size wurlitzer electric piano span technological advances amplified electric


electronic keyboards built amp speaker alternatively person play electronic piano headphones quieter settings digital pianos also non acoustic strings hammers use digital sampling technology reproduce acoustic sound piano note accurately also must connected power amplifier speaker produce sound however digital pianos built amp speaker alternatively person practice headphones avoid disturbing others digital pianos include sustain pedals weighted semi weighted keys multiple voice options eg sampled synthesized


string pianos individual parts ref name steinwayfacts ref supporting six functional features keyboard hammers dampers bridge soundboard strings many parts piano made materials selected strength longevity especially true outer rim commonly made hardwood typically hard maple beech massiveness serves essentially immobile object flexible soundboard best vibrate according harold conklin purpose sturdy rim nbsp vibrational energy stay much possible soundboard instead


makes possible sustain selected notes depressing sostenuto pedal notes released player 's hands free play additional notes n't sustain useful musical passages low bass pedal points bass note sustained series chords changes top otherwise tricky parts many upright pianos middle pedal called practice ''celeste'' pedal drops piece felt hammers strings greatly muting sounds pedal shifted


less nbsp ms ref name physicsoduedu two wires adjusted pitch struck time sound produced one reinforces louder combined sound shorter duration produced one wire vibrates synchronization subtract produce softer tone longer duration maintenance pianos heavy powerful yet delicate instruments years professional piano movers developed special techniques transporting grands uprights prevent damage case piano 's mechanical elements pianos need


section sundance film festival sundance amc channel acquired release following sundance premiere halley invited international film festivals including prestigious hivos tiger awards competition iff rotterdam munich film festival karlovy vary film festival fantastic fest fantasia film festival sitges film festival puchon international fantastic film festival among others ref name visitfilmscom ref overall halley awards including sitges new visions award cinevision award munich aqcc award special jury mention fantasia film festival ref name visitfilmscom mexico film


guanajuato pleasure mine epitaph flesh darkness piano announced expansion acquisition strategy foreign titles purchases palme d'or winner square rungano nyoni 's feature film debut i'm witch piano also launched sale dvd blu ray collection auteur cinema includes far three editions mexican cult movies halley alamar inori duck season meticulously designed offer collection product public filmography ''ismael'' ''halley'' ''kwaku ananse'' ''death arizona'' echo


mountain flesh ''resurrection'' ''the gaze sea'' ''opus zero'' ''acusada'' ''knife heart'' ''time share'' ''land'' sources external links https wwwimdbcom name nm news sebasti n hofmann news br https varietycom film festivals willem dafoe daniel graham opus zero willem dafoe star daniel graham opus zero mexican cinematographers


freedom action independent caliphate late ancient period however traditionalist asharite view islam general triumphed according asharites reason must subordinate quran sunna islamic political philosophy indeed rooted sources islam ie qur'an sunnah words practices muhammad thus making essentially theocratic however western thought generally supposed specific area peculiar merely great philosophers islam al kindi alkindus al farabi abunaser bn sina avicenna ibn bajjah avempace ibn rushd averroes

Social science
Political science
Political philosophy


property required human race adopt institutions law degenerate phase society man prone frequent competition fellow men also becoming increasingly dependent double pressure threatens survival freedom industrialization modern era marxist critique capitalism developed friedrich engels alongside liberalism fascism one defining ideological movements twentieth century industrial revolution produced parallel revolution political thought urbanization capitalism greatly reshaped society period socialist movement began form


believed historical materialism hegel believed ''phenomenology spirit'' late th century socialism trade unions established members political landscape addition various branches anarchism thinkers mikhail bakunin pierre joseph proudhon peter kropotkin syndicalism also gained prominence anglo american world anti imperialism pluralism began gaining currency turn th century world war watershed event human history changing views governments politics russian revolution similar albeit less successful revolutions many european


movements end colonial rule political exclusion minorities african americans sexual minorities developed world led feminist postcolonial multicultural thought becoming significant led challenge social contract philosophers charles w mills book ''the racial contract'' carole pateman book ''the sexual contract'' social contract excluded persons colour women respectively anglo american academic political philosophy publication john rawls 's ''a theory justice'' considered milestone rawls used thought experiment


aristotelian teaching ''treatise law'' aquinas contends god 's gift higher reason manifest human law way divine virtues gives way assembly righteous government aristotle wrote ''politics'' extension ''nicomachean ethics'' notable theories humans social animals polis ancient greek city state existed bring good life appropriate animals political theory based upon ethics perfectionism marx 's readings mikhail bakunin pierre joseph proudhon bakunin became important political philosopher


paleontologist work john day fossil beds national monument '''paleontology''' also spelled '''palaeontology''' '''pal ontology''' scientific study life existed prior sometimes including start holocene epoch roughly years present includes study fossils classify organisms study interactions environments paleoecology paleontological observations documented far back th century bce science became established th century result georges cuvier 's work comparative anatomy developed rapidly

Natural science
Earth science
Paleontology


preserved however even lagerst tten present incomplete picture life time majority organisms living time probably represented lagerst tten restricted narrow range environments eg soft bodied organisms preserved quickly events mudslides exceptional events cause quick burial make difficult study normal environments animals sparseness fossil record means organisms expected exist long found fossil record nbsp known signor lipps


different functions first appears possible fungus probable red alga sexual reproduction may prerequisite specialisation cells asexual multicellular organism might risk taken rogue cells retain ability reproduce ref name butterfield bangiomorpha ref ref name butterfield proterozoicfungi ref earliest known animals cnidarians modern looking must descendants earlier animals early fossils animals rare developed mineralised easily fossilized hard parts ref name bengtson ref earliest modern looking bilaterian animals appear early cambrian


plants water land required organisms solve several problems including protection drying supporting gravity ref name garwood ref ref name selden terrestrializationofanimals ref ref name kenrickcrane evolutionoflandplants ref earliest evidence land plants land invertebrates date back respectively ref name kenrickcrane evolutionoflandplants invertebrates indicated trace body fossils shown arthropods known euthycarcinoids lineage produced land vertebrates evolved later rapidly recent discoveries overturned earlier ideas history driving forces behind evolution ref name clack gettinglegup ref land plants successful detritus


group outlive old move niche fossil record appears show rate extinction slowing gaps mass extinctions becoming longer average background rates extinction decreasing however certain whether actual rate extinction altered since observations could explained several ways ref name macleod extinction ref oceans may become hospitable life last nbsp million years less vulnerable mass extinctions dissolved oxygen became widespread penetrated greater depths development


life land reduced run nutrients hence risk eutrophication anoxic events marine ecosystems became diversified food chains less likely disrupted reasonably complete fossils rare extinct organisms represented partial fossils complete fossils rarest oldest rocks paleontologists mistakenly assigned parts organism different genera often defined solely accommodate finds nbsp story ''anomalocaris'' example ref name wonderfullifep ref risk mistake higher older fossils


strict diplomatic approach faithful rendering text exactly found manuscript without emendations cognitive another branch philology cognitive philology studies written oral texts cognitive philology considers oral texts results human mental processes science compares results textual science results experimental research psychology artificial intelligence production systems decipherment case bronze age literature philology includes prior decipherment language study notably case egyptian sumerian assyrian hittite ugaritic

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Philology


'''phonetics''' branch linguistics studies humans produce perceive sounds case sign languages equivalent aspects sign phoneticians linguists specialize phonetics study physical properties speech field phonetics traditionally divided three sub disciplines based research questions involved humans plan execute movements produce speech articulatory phonetics various movements affect properties resulting sound acoustic phonetics humans convert sound waves linguistic information auditory phonetics traditionally minimal linguistic unit phonetics phone speech

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Phonetics


sound language differs phonological unit phoneme phoneme abstract categorization phones phonetics broadly deals two aspects human speech production ways humans make sounds perception way speech understood communicative modality language describes method language produces perceives languages languages oral aural modalities english produce speech orally using mouth perceive speech aurally using ears sign languages australian sign language auslan american sign language asl manual visual modality producing speech manually using hands perceiving


speech visually using eyes asl sign languages addition manual manual dialect use tactile signing deafblind speakers signs produced hands perceived hands well language production consists several interdependent processes transform non linguistic message spoken signed linguistic signal identifying message linguistically encoded speaker must select individual words known lexical items represent message process called lexical selection phonological encoding mental representation words assigned phonological content


begin alveolar sounds english differ far tongue alveolar ridge difference large effects air stream thus sound produced similarly direction source airstream affect sound common airstream mechanism pulmonic using lungs glottis tongue also used produce airstreams language perception process linguistic signal decoded understood listener order perceive speech continuous acoustic signal must converted


discrete linguistic units phonemes morphemes words order correctly identify categorize sounds listeners prioritize certain aspects signal reliably distinguish linguistic categories certain cues prioritized others many aspects signal contribute perception example though oral languages prioritize acoustic information mcgurk effect shows visual information used distinguish ambiguous information acoustic cues unreliable modern phonetics three main branches articulatory phonetics addresses way sounds made articulators acoustic phonetics addresses


mouth tongue contacts makes constriction include dental alveolar post alveolar locations tongue postures using tip tongue apical using top tongue tip laminal made blade tongue sub apical tongue tip curled back bottom tongue used coronals unique group every manner articulation attested australian languages well known large number coronal contrasts exhibited within across languages region dental consonants


mark prosodic pragmatic information vocal folds vibrate must proper position must air flowing glottis phonation types modeled continuum glottal states completely open voiceless completely closed glottal stop optimal position vibration phonation type used speech modal voice exists middle two extremes glottis slightly wider breathy voice occurs bringing vocal folds closer together results creaky voice normal phonation pattern used typical speech modal


new speakers shift boundaries categories match acoustic distinctions conversational partner making audition x px audition process hearing sounds first stage perceiving speech articulators cause systematic changes air pressure travel sound waves listener 's ear sound waves hit listener 's ear drum causing vibrate vibration ear drum transmitted ossicles three small bones middle ear cochlea cochlea spiral shaped fluid filled tube divided lengthwise organ corti


anti communist propaganda comic book published '''propaganda''' communication primarily used influence audience agenda may objective may selectively presenting facts encourage particular synthesis perception using loaded language produce emotional rather rational response information presented ref name brit bls ref propaganda found news journalism government advertising entertainment education activism ref name ref often associated material prepared governments part war efforts political campaigns revolutionaries big businesses ultra religious organizations

Journalism, media studies and communication


opponent thinking projected actually true propaganda efforts wartime require home population feel enemy inflicted injustice may fictitious may based facts eg sinking passenger ship rms lusitania german navy world war home population must also believe cause nation war efforts difficult determine accuracy propaganda truly impacted war nato doctrine propaganda defined information especially biased


material based presumption exposure public concerns raised upon passage due relaxation prohibitions domestic propaganda united states wake internet become prolific method distributing political propaganda benefiting evolution coding called bots software agents bots used many things including populating social media automated messages posts range sophistication us election cyber strategy implemented using bots direct us voters russian political news information sources


name lass ref name carr phonology describes way function within given language across languages encode meaning many linguists phonetics belongs descriptive linguistics phonology theoretical linguistics although establishing phonological system language necessarily application theoretical principles analysis phonetic evidence note distinction always made particularly development modern concept phoneme mid th century subfields modern phonology crossover phonetics descriptive disciplines psycholinguistics speech perception resulting specific areas like

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Phonology


worked theory phonetic alternations called allophony morphophonology may influence work saussure according e f k koerner nikolai trubetzkoy influential school phonology interwar period prague school one leading members prince nikolai trubetzkoy whose ''grundz ge der phonologie'' ''principles phonology'' ref name gdp published posthumously among important works field period directly influenced baudouin de courtenay trubetzkoy considered founder morphophonology although concept also


prince paul smolensky developed optimality theory overall architecture phonology according languages choose pronunciation word best satisfies list constraints ordered importance lower ranked constraint violated violation necessary order obey higher ranked constraint approach soon extended morphology john mccarthy alan prince become dominant trend phonology appeal phonetic grounding constraints representational elements eg features various approaches criticized proponents 'substance free phonology' especially mark hale charles reiss ref


weathering also ways humans interact coast coastal geography although predominantly geomorphological research concerned coastal landforms also causes influences sea level change '''oceanography''' ref name dcl branch physical geography studies earth 's oceans seas covers wide range topics including marine organisms ecosystem dynamics biological oceanography ocean currents waves geophysical fluid dynamics physical oceanography plate tectonics geology sea floor geological oceanography fluxes various chemical substances physical properties within

Social science
Geography
Physical geography


else refuse define perceptions idealism holds reality limited mental qualities skepticism challenges ability know anything outside minds one influential proponents idealism george berkeley maintained everything mind dependent upon mind berkeley 's idealism two main strands phenomenalism physical events viewed special kind mental event subjective idealism david hume probably influential proponent skepticism fourth theory perception opposition naive realism enactivism attempts find middle path

Humanities
Philosophy
Metaphysics
Philosophy of perception


extended attributes colour solidity popular modern philosophical view brain cannot contain images sense space must due actual space occupied physical things however ren descartes noticed perceptual space projective geometry things within appear viewed point phenomenon perspective closely studied artists architects renaissance relied mainly th century polymath alhazen ibn al haytham affirmed visibility perceptual space geometric structuring projections mathematicians know


human nature attempt introduce experimental method reasoning moral subjects'' http wwwclassuidahoedu mickelsen toc hume treatise tochtm online text kant immanuel ''critique pure reason'' norman kemp smith trans preface howard caygill palgrave macmillan http wwwhkbueduhk ppp cpr tochtml online text lacewing michael unpublished phenomenalism https webarchiveorg web http wwwalevelphilosophycouk freehandouts phenomenalismpdf online pdf locke john ''an essay concerning human understanding'' http humanumartscuhkeduhk philosophy locke echu online text mccreery charles perception hallucination case continuity ''philosophical paper '' oxford oxford forum http wwwceliagreencom charlesmccreery perceptionpdf online pdf mcdowell john criteria defeasibility knowledge ''proceedings british academy'' pp nbsp mcdowell john ''mind world'' cambridge massachusetts harvard


stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' edward zalta ed http platostanfordedu entries perception contents online text tong frank primary visual cortex visual awareness nature reviews ''neuroscience'' vol https wwwncbinlmnihgov entrez queryfcgicmd retrieve db pubmed list uids dopt abstract online text tye michael ''consciousness color content'' cambridge massachusetts mit press infoactivity https webarchiveorg web http wwwinfoactivitecom genesis perception investigation external links epistemology philosophy mind perception


meshid othercodes '''psychoanalysis''' greek translit psykh lit soul label none translit lysis lit investigate label none set theories therapeutic techniques ref group lower roman psychoanalysis course one supposed answer many things theory research method therapy body knowledge might considered unfortunately abbreviated description freud said anyone recognizes transference resistance psychoanalyst even comes conclusions prefer think analytic situation broadly

Social science
Psychology
Psychoanalysis


one someone seeking help tries speak freely someone listens carefully aim articulating going david rapaport defined analytic situation carrying method interpersonal relationship last consequences gill merton https webarchiveorg web http americanmentalhealthfoundationorg aphpid psychoanalysis part proposals future ''the challenge psychoanalysis psychotherapy solutions future'' new york american mental health foundation archived june ref deal part unconscious mind ref group lower roman psychoanalytic theories include


later developed different directions mostly students freud alfred adler collaborator carl gustav jung ref name group lower roman alfred adler developed school thought known individual psychology carl jung established analytical psychology ref well neo freudian thinkers erich fromm karen horney harry stack sullivan ref name birnbach martin birnbach martin ''neo freudian social philosophy'' stanford stanford university press p ref psychoanalysis controversial discipline effectiveness treatment contested largely replaced similar broader psychodynamic psychotherapy mid th century ref name encmh ref although


help patient gain insight history sigmund freud first used term 'psychoanalysis' ultimately retaining term school thought ref name mitchell juliet november wrote ''interpretation dreams'' freud thought significant work psychoanalysis later developed different directions mostly students freud alfred adler carl gustav jung ref name group lower roman neo freudians erich fromm karen horney harry stack sullivan ref name birnbach martin psychologist frank sulloway book ''freud biologist


avoid painful emotions hartmann pointed may delays deficits functions frosch described differences people demonstrated damage relationship reality seemed able test according ego psychology ego strengths later described otto f kernberg include capacities control oral sexual destructive impulses tolerate painful affects without falling apart prevent eruption consciousness bizarre symbolic fantasy synthetic functions contrast autonomous functions arise development ego serve purpose


neither marry one parent eliminate lead identifications parental values identifications generally create new set mental operations regarding values guilt subsumed term ' 'superego'' besides superego development children resolve preschool oedipal conflicts channeling wishes something parents approve sublimation development school age years latency age appropriate obsessive compulsive defensive maneuvers rules repetitive games treatment using various analytic psychological techniques assess mental problems believe particular constellations problems especially suited analytic treatment see


whereas problems might respond better medicines interpersonal interventions ref name inserm treated psychoanalysis whatever presenting problem person requesting help must demonstrate desire start analysis person wishing start analysis must capacity speech communication well need able develop trust insight within psychoanalytic session potential patients must undergo preliminary stage treatment assess amenability psychoanalysis time also enable analyst form working psychological model


analyst use direct treatment psychoanalysts mainly work neurosis hysteria particular however adapted forms psychoanalysis used working schizophrenia forms psychosis mental disorder finally prospective patient severely suicidal longer preliminary stage may employed sometimes sessions twenty minute break middle numerous modifications technique heading psychoanalysis due individualistic nature personality analyst patient common problems treatable psychoanalysis include phobias conversions compulsions obsessions anxiety attacks depressions sexual


patient try say 's mind including interferences exploration asking questions clarification rephrasing summarizing patient describing well analyst also use confrontation bringing aspect functioning usually defense patient 's attention analyst uses variety interpretation methods dynamic interpretation explaining nice guards guilt eg defense vs affect genetic interpretation explaining past event influencing present resistance interpretation showing patient avoiding problems transference interpretation showing patient ways


old conflicts arise current relationships including analyst dream interpretation obtaining patient 's thoughts dreams connecting current problems analysts also use reconstruction estimate may happened past created current issue techniques primarily based ''conflict theory'' see ''object relations theory'' evolved supplemented work john bowlby mary ainsworth techniques patients severe problems basic trust erikson history maternal deprivation see works augusta alpert led new


addition corey postulates necessary therapist help clients develop cultural identity well ego identity psychodynamic therapy psychodynamic therapies refer therapies draw psychoanalytic approaches designed shorter duration less intensive ref name cost length treatment cost patient psychoanalytic treatment ranges widely place place practitioners low fee analysis often available psychoanalytic training clinic graduate schools otherwise fee set analyst varies analyst 's training


institutes often two four cases male female cases required supervision must go least years one cases supervision done supervisor 's office trainee presents material psychoanalytic work week supervision patient 's unconscious conflicts explored also transference countertransference constellations examined also clinical technique taught many psychoanalytic training centers united states accredited special committees apsaa ipa theoretical differences independent institutes usually founded psychologists


society constituent society international psychoanalytical association ipa body members five continents safeguards professional ethical practice society member british psychoanalytic council bpc bpc publishes register british psychoanalysts psychoanalytical psychotherapists members british psychoanalytic council required undertake continuing professional development cpd members society teach hold posts approved psychoanalytic courses eg british psychotherapy foundation academic departments eguniversity college london members society included michael balint wilfred bion john bowlby ronald


unconscious popular topic study fields experimental social psychology eg implicit attitude measures fmri pet scans indirect tests idea unconscious transference phenomenon widely researched claimed validated fields cognitive psychology social psychology ref name westen gabbard ref though freudian interpretation unconscious mental activity held majority cognitive psychologists recent developments neuroscience resulted one side arguing provided biological basis unconscious emotional processing line


p greenberg ''the scientific credibility freud 's theories therapy'' new york basic books ''freud scientifically reappraised testing theories therapy'' new york john wiley gellner ernest ''the psychoanalytic movement cunning unreason critical view freudian theory'' ''the foundations psychoanalysis philosophical critique'' macmillan malcolm ''freud evaluated completed arc'' roustang francois dire mastery discipleship freud lacan baltimore johns hopkins university press webster richard ''why freud wrong'' new york basic books harper collins wollheim richard editor ''freud collection critical essays'' new york


''versehung des leibs'' written published together form ''pediatric incunabula'' four great medical treatises children 's physiology pathology ref name col ncol n information childhood diseases became available little evidence children received kind medical care adults ref name ref seventeenth eighteenth centuries medical experts started offering specialized care children ref name swedish physician nils ros n von rosenstein considered founder modern pediatrics medical specialty ref name oxford ref work ''the diseases children remedies''

Applied science
Medicine and health
Pediatrics


name pediatric patients underdeveloped proteins leads decreased metabolism increased serum concentrations specific drugs however prodrugs experience opposite effect enzymes necessary allowing active form enter systemic circulation ref name distribution percentage total body water extracellular fluid volume decrease children grow develop time pediatric patients thus larger volume distribution adults directly affects dosing hydrophilic drugs beta lactam antibiotics like ampicillin ref name thus drugs administered greater weight based doses adjusted


dosing intervals children account key difference body composition ref name ref name infants neonates also fewer plasma proteins thus highly protein bound drugs fewer opportunities protein binding leading increased distribution ref name metabolism drug metabolism primarily occurs via enzymes liver vary according specific enzymes affected specific stage development ref name phase phase ii enzymes different rates maturation development depending specific mechanism action ie oxidation hydrolysis acetylation methylation etc enzyme capacity clearance


result mothers midwives wise women general practitioners treated children instead doctors ref name since mothers could rely professional medicine take care children developed methods using alkaline soda ash remove vernix birth treating teething pain opium wine absence proper pediatric care rights laws health care prioritize children 's health led many deaths ancient greeks romans sometimes even killed healthy female babies infants deformities since adequate medical treatment


commonly means always sciences medical graduates hold degree specific country university graduated degree qualifies medical practitioner become licensed registered laws particular country sometimes several countries subject requirements internship conditional registration pediatricians must undertake training chosen field may take four eleven years depending jurisdiction degree specialization united states medical school graduate wishing specialize pediatrics must undergo


next years galenic physiology powerful influential tool medicine ref name britannicacom early modern period jean fernel french physician introduced term physiology galen ibn al nafis michael servetus realdo colombo amato lusitano william harvey credited making important discoveries circulation blood santorio santorio first use device measure pulse rate ''pulsilogium'' thermoscope measure temperature ref name ref luigi galvani described role electricity nerves dissected frogs c sar julien jean legallois studied


stimuli ref name physiologyinfoorg th century physiological knowledge began accumulate rapid rate particular appearance cell theory matthias schleiden theodor schwann radically stated organisms made units called cells claude bernard 's discoveries ultimately led concept ''milieu interieur'' internal environment would later taken championed homeostasis american physiologist walter b cannon homeostasis cannon meant maintenance steady states body physiological processes regulated words


body 's ability regulate internal environment william beaumont first american utilize practical application physiology nineteenth century physiologists michael foster max verworn alfred binet based haeckel 's ideas elaborated came called general physiology unified science life based cell actions ref name brain later renamed th century cell biology late modern period th century biologists became interested organisms human beings function eventually spawning fields comparative physiology ecophysiology major figures fields include knut schmidt nielsen


experiments arab physicist ibn al haytham alhazen also invented camera obscura well first true pinhole camera ref name krebs ref name plott ref invention camera traced back work ibn al haytham ref name belbachir ref effects single light passing pinhole described earlier ref name belbachir ibn al haytham gave first correct analysis camera obscura including first geometrical quantitative descriptions phenomenon first use screen dark room image one side

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Photography


practical partnership louis daguerre worked post exposure processing methods produced visually superior results replaced bitumen light sensitive resin hours exposure camera still required eye eventual commercial exploitation partners opted total secrecy ni pce died daguerre redirected experiments toward light sensitive silver halides ni pce abandoned many years earlier inability make images captured light fast permanent daguerre 's efforts culminated would later named daguerreotype


process essential elements silver plated surface sensitized iodine vapor developed mercury vapor fixed hot saturated salt water place required exposure time measured minutes instead hours daguerre took earliest confirmed photograph person capturing view paris street unlike pedestrian horse drawn traffic busy boulevard appears deserted one man boots polished stood sufficiently still throughout several minutes long exposure visible existence daguerre 's process publicly announced without details january


circa march issue ''the chemist'' frederick scott archer published wet plate collodion process became widely used photographic medium gelatin dry plate introduced eventually replaced three subsets collodion process ambrotype positive image glass ferrotype tintype positive image metal glass negative used make positive prints albumen salted paper many advances photographic glass plates printing made rest th century gabriel lippmann


differences spectral tonal sensitivity shaped density exposure h curve film vs linear response curve digital ccd sensors resolution continuity tone black white photographic darkroom safelight originally photography monochrome ''black white'' even color film readily available black white photography continued dominate decades due lower cost chemical stability classic photographic look tones contrast light dark areas define black white photography monochromatic pictures necessarily composed pure blacks whites intermediate shades gray involve shades


early experiments color required extremely long exposures hours days camera images could fix photograph prevent color quickly fading exposed white light first permanent color photograph taken using three color separation principle first published scottish physicist james clerk maxwell ref name king 's college ref ref name maxwell ref foundation virtually practical color processes maxwell 's idea take three separate black white photographs red green blue filters ref name king 's college ref name maxwell provides photographer three basic channels required recreate


suddenly made possible add sensitivity green yellow even red improved color sensitizers ongoing improvements overall sensitivity emulsions steadily reduced prohibitive long exposure times required color bringing ever closer commercial viability autochrome first commercially successful color process introduced lumi brothers autochrome plates incorporated mosaic color filter layer made dyed grains potato starch allowed three color components recorded adjacent microscopic image fragments autochrome plate reversal processed produce positive transparency


third recorded blue without special film processing result would simply three superimposed black white images complementary cyan magenta yellow dye images created layers adding color couplers complex processing procedure agfa 's similarly structured agfacolor neu introduced unlike kodachrome color couplers agfacolor neu incorporated emulsion layers manufacture greatly simplified processing currently available color films still employ multi layer emulsion principles closely resembling agfa 's product instant color film used special camera yielded unique


granting copyright moral rights photographer united states photography protected first amendment right anyone free photograph anything seen public spaces long plain view uk recent law counter terrorism act increases power police prevent people even press photographers taking pictures public places south africa person may photograph person without permission public spaces specific restriction placed may photographed government related


reaction mixture well catalysts reaction conditions engineered optimize reaction rate fact fast reactions occur often specified concentrations temperature instead needing know positions speeds every molecule mixture special case another key concept physical chemistry extent engineer needs know everything going mixture large numbers perhaps order avogadro constant x sup sup particles often

Natural science
Chemistry
Physical chemistry


work colloids surface chemistry irving langmuir made many contributions another important step development quantum mechanics quantum chemistry linus pauling one leading names theoretical developments gone hand hand developments experimental methods use different forms spectroscopy infrared spectroscopy microwave spectroscopy electron paramagnetic resonance nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy probably important th century development development physical chemistry may attributed discoveries nuclear chemistry especially isotope separation world


york city leadership james h hyslop ref name berger ref notable cases investigated walter franklin prince aspr early th century included pierre l keeler great amherst mystery patience worth rhine era stanford university became first academic institution united states study extrasensory perception esp psychokinesis pk laboratory setting effort headed psychologist john edgar coover supported funds donated thomas welton stanford brother university 's founder conducting approximately experiments coover concluded statistical treatments

Social science
Psychology
Parapsychology


symbols placed cards sealed envelope asked guess contents performed poorly later criticized tests claiming cards lacked psychic energy called energy stimulus could perform clairvoyance order parapsychologist samuel soal colleagues tested garrett may experiments carried psychological laboratory university college london total guesses recorded garrett failed produce chance level report soal wrote case


foreword pratt jg rhine jb smith bm stuart ce greenwood ja eds ''extrasensory perception sixty years'' nd ed boston us humphries ref rhine described three experiments pearce pratt experiment pratt woodruff experiment ownbey zirkle series believed demonstrated esp however c e hansel wrote known experiment contained serious flaws escaped notice examination made authors ''extra sensory perception sixty years'' ref name hansel joseph gaither pratt co experimenter pearce pratt pratt woodruff experiments duke campus hansel visited campus experiments


pair placed adjacent rooms unable see electric fan used prevent pair communicating sensory cues ownbey tapped telegraph key zirkle inform trying send symbol door separating two rooms open experiment guess zirkle would call guess ownbey recorded choice critics pointed experiment flawed ownbey acted sender experimenter nobody controlling experiment ownbey could cheated


j irwin caroline watt https booksgooglecom booksid e ezxyoufbgc dq attacks parapsychology source gbs navlinks introduction parapsychology mcfarland pp ref uk researchers work conventional psychology departments also studies mainstream psychology boost credibility show methods sound thought approach could account relative strength parapsychology britain ref name smee parapsychology research represented different countries ref name hji number universities worldwide continue academic parapsychology programs among koestler parapsychology unit university edinburgh parapsychology research group liverpool hope


parapsychology publisher ''journal parapsychology'' parapsychology foundation published ''international journal parapsychology'' australian institute parapsychological research publisher ''australian journal parapsychology'' ''european journal parapsychology'' ceased publishing parapsychological research also included sub disciplines psychology related fields include transpersonal psychology studies transcendent spiritual aspects human mind anomalistic psychology examines paranormal beliefs subjective anomalous experiences traditional psychological terms ref name smee ref name zusne leonard zusne warren h jones ''anomalistic psychology study


playing white noise static similar sounds recipient subject also seated reclined comfortable position minimize sense touch ref name radin ref typical ganzfeld experiment sender receiver isolated ref name hymanganzfeld ref receiver put ganzfeld state ref name radin ganzfeld effect sender shown video clip still picture asked mentally send image receiver receiver ganzfeld asked continuously speak aloud mental processes including images thoughts feelings end sending


yet another indication simplest hypothesis likely true nothing replicate ref name pigliucci recent meta analysis psychokinesis published ''psychological bulletin'' along several critical commentaries analyzed results studies authors reported overall positive effect size statistically significant small relative sample size could principle explained publication bias ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref direct mental interactions living systems formerly called bio pk direct mental interactions living systems dmils studies effects one person 's intentions distant person 's psychophysiological


one 's body seeing surrounding area sense overwhelming love peace sensation moving upwards tunnel narrow passageway meeting deceased relatives spiritual figures encountering light light experiencing life review reaching border boundary feeling returned body often accompanied reluctance ref name mauro ref interest nde originally spurred research psychiatrists elisabeth k bler ross george g ritchie raymond moody moody wrote best selling book ''life life'' wrote second book


bias illusion control magical thinking bias blind spot ways explain parapsychological results research also shown people 's desire believe paranormal phenomena causes discount strong evidence exist psychologists donovan rawcliffe c e hansel ray hyman andrew neher studied history psi experiments late th century every experiment investigated flaws weaknesses discovered possibility sensory leakage trickery ruled data creery sister


play psi unfortunately label substantive definition goes beyond saying normal explanations apparently eliminated course parapsychologists generally presume something ability mind transcend laws nature know vague unhelpful scientific exploration ref parapsychologists admitted impossible eliminate possibility non paranormal causes experiments independent method indicate


reproducible data experiments fraud stage magician skeptic james randi demonstrated magic tricks simulate duplicate supposedly psychic phenomena instances fraud history parapsychology research late th century creery sisters mary alice maud kathleen emily tested society psychical research believed genuine psychic ability however later experiment caught utilizing signal codes confessed fraud george albert smith douglas blackburn claimed genuine psychics society


irving langmuir ref name park researcher j e kennedy said concerns use meta analysis science medicine apply well problems present parapsychological meta analysis post hoc analysis critics emphasize opportunity method presents produce biased outcomes via selection cases chosen study methods employed key criteria critics say analogous problems meta analysis documented medicine shown different investigators performing meta analyses set studies reached contradictory conclusions anomalistic psychology anomalistic psychology paranormal phenomena naturalistic


minimum four years independently validated accredited ref name descriptionapta ref curricula united states accredited commission accreditation physical therapy education capte according capte students currently enrolled accredited pt programs united states pta students currently enrolled pta programs united states ref name captequickfacts ref updated capte statistics list students enrolled accredited pt programs united states ref name capte quick facts ref physical therapist professional curriculum includes content clinical sciences

Applied science
Medicine and health
Physical therapy


effective patients conditions systematic review effectiveness physiotherapy treatment asthma patients concluded physiotherapy treatment may improve quality life promote cardiopulmonary fitness inspiratory pressure well reduce symptoms medication use physical therapy sometimes provided patients icu early mobilization help reduce icu hospital length stay improve long term functional ability systematic review showed early progressive mobilization adult intubated icu patients mechanical ventilation safe effective results systematic review suggest psychologically


physiotherapist european commission allied health professions hospital departments manual therapy physical exercise rehabilitation medicine rehabilitation team sports medicine sports occupations roles


methods opened doors understanding human variation past present accurately much greater detail notable biological anthropologists zeresenay alemseged john lawrence angel george j armelagos william bass caroline bond day jane e buikstra william montague cobb carleton coon robert corruccini raymond dart egon freiherr von eickstedt linda fedigan roberto frisancho jane goodall earnest hooton ale hrdli ka sarah blaffer hrdy ant firmin dian fossey birute galdikas richard lynch garner colin groves yohannes haile selassie ralph holloway william w howells donald johanson robert jurmain melvin konner louis leakey mary leakey richard leakey frank b

Social science
Anthropology
Biological anthropology


lexington books pages essays field late th late th century topics include sherwood l washburn new physical anthropology brown ryan armelagos george https webarchiveorg web http wwwstanfordedu class ihum pdf brown armelagos pdf apportionment racial diversity review ''evolutionary anthropology'' https webarchiveorg web http anthropalomaredu vary vary htm modern human variation models classification redman samuel j bone rooms scientific racism human prehistory museums cambridge harvard university press external links american association physical anthropologists http wwwphysanthorg http wwwbabaoorguk british association biological anthropologists osteoarchaeologists http wwwhumbioorg human biology association http wwwutscutorontoca chan capa canadian association physical anthropology https webarchiveorg web http anthroamnhorg anthropology research recon wikihtm ''homo erectus''


finding new drugs ref name isbn ref basic sense involves design molecules complementary shape charge given biomolecular target lead compound identified drug discovery drug development involves bringing drug market ref name sd drug discovery related pharmacoeconomics sub discipline health economics considers value drugs pharmacoeconomics evaluates cost benefits drugs order guide optimal healthcare resource allocation techniques used discovery formulation manufacturing quality control drugs discovery studied pharmaceutical


drug must found effective disease seeking approval 'effective' means drug performed better placebo competitors least two trials drug must meet safety criteria subject animal controlled human testing gaining fda approval usually takes several years testing done animals must extensive must include several species help evaluation effectiveness toxicity drug dosage drug approved use intended fall within range


politics methodological pluralism defining feature contemporary political science empirical political science methods include use field experiments surveys survey experiments case studies process tracing historical institutional analysis ethnography participant observation interview research political scientists also use develop theoretical tools like game theory agent based models study host political systems situations political theorists approach theories political phenomena similar diversity positions tools including feminist political theory historical analysis associated cambridge school straussian approaches political science may overlap topics study


humanities division became school liberal arts c ref whereas classical political philosophy primarily defined concern hellenic enlightenment thought political scientists also marked great concern modernity contemporary nation state along study classical thought share terminology sociologists eg structure agency united states colleges universities offer ba programs political science mat phd edd programs common larger universities term ''political science'' popular north america elsewhere


th century public relations entered era professional development trade associations pr news magazines international pr agencies academic principles profession established early press release services began offering social media press releases cluetrain manifesto predicted effect social media controversial time effect social media new internet technologies became broadly accepted career prospects united kingdom ''cosmopolitan'' reported average annual salary public relations director one notable former pr practitioner former prime minister david cameron


company primary publics directly affected decisions organization ref name '''''internal publics''''' people within organization ref name '''''external publics''''' people outside organization ref name '''''domestic publics''''' within country ref name '''''international publics''''' outsides country communicating publics individuals must wary areas culture beliefs values ethic valuable cultural difference offend anyone ref name early literature authored james grunig suggested publics develop stages determined levels problem


exercise huge amount influence upon individual defenseless powerful force claims public relations weapon capitalist deception best way resist become media literate use critical thinking interpreting various mediated messages according jim hoggan public relations definition 'spin' public relations art building good relationships effectively earning trust goodwill among important business spin public relations manipulation interpersonal


dpr 'black hat pr' earlier writing black pr process destroying target 's reputation corporate identity objective dpr discredit someone else may pose threat client 's business political rival dpr may rely security industrial espionage social engineering competitive intelligence common techniques include using dirty secrets target producing misleading facts fool competitor politics decision use negative pr also known negative campaigning tares tares five point test evaluates ethical


various legal systems languages similar english expressions spanish words ' 'derecho adjetivo'' ' 'derecho material'' ' 'derecho sustantivo'' well portuguese terms ' 'direito adjetivo'' ' 'direito substantivo'' ideas behind german expressions ''formelles recht'' ''verfahrensrecht'' ''materielles recht'' well french ' 'droit formel droit mat riel'' italian ' 'diritto formale diritto materiale'' swedish ''formell r tt materiell r tt'' taken literally mean formal material law opposition found russian legal vocabulary '' '' substantive law '' '' procedural


similar russian bulgarian means substantive law '' '' used procedural chinese procedural law substantive law represented characters germany expressions ''formelles recht'' ''materielles recht'' developed th century time roman ''actio'' split procedural substantive components substance procedural law substantive law europe european legal systems roman law great influence ancient times roman civil procedure applied many countries one main issues


allows individuals exercise freedom others government arguments favor limiting private property rights also raised ref name private property used way harmful others factory owner causing loud noises nearby neighborhoods economics known negative externality nuisance laws government regulations zoning used limit owners' right use property certain ways property lead monopolies giving owner power unfairly extract advantages others


premises every crime includes injury every injury includes violation right lectures iii ii government 's role protecting property depends upon idea right wilson believes man natural right property character liberty safety also indicates primary principal object institution government acquire new security possession recovery rights wilson states property right lawful power person thing divides right


two main views right property traditional view bundle rights view traditionalists believe core inherent meaning concept property bundle rights view states property owner bundle permissible uses property ref name two views exist spectrum difference may matter focus emphasis ref name william blackstone ''commentaries laws england'' wrote essential core property right exclude


creating transferring interest may valid title may intentionally negligently create several interests wholly partially inconsistent court resolves dispute adjudicating priorities interests property rights rights people property rights rights things enforceable persons contrast contractual rights rights enforceable particular persons property rights may however arise contract two systems rights overlap relation sale land example two sets legal relationships exist alongside one another contractual right


legally capable owning property capable maintaining dealing paying property taxes case young children mentally handicapped individuals state deems incompetent capacity deal property thus must appointed legal guardian deal property incompetent individual 's behalf cases individual cannot find legal guardian deal property property put sale incompetent individual involuntarily deprived property tax sales another process


individuals forcibly deprived private property tax sale forced sale property state due unpaid taxes property property typically auctioned tax sale local government payoff delinquent taxes property one could make argument given presence property taxes individual never truly owns piece property rent government property also pass one person state independently consent property owner state 's power


divide share interests property common law jurisdictions corporate owners corporations legal non human entities entitled property rights individual human corporation legal power use possess property fictitious legal human would however corporation n't single human collective group people provide service build good many agent play many different opposing interests play respect ownership majority property owned


rights others historically deontological thought regarding law associated immanuel kant formulated one particularly prominent deontological theory law another deontological approach found work contemporary legal philosopher ronald dworkin aretaic moral theories contemporary virtue ethics emphasize role character morality virtue jurisprudence view laws promote development virtuous characters citizens historically approach associated aristotle contemporary virtue jurisprudence inspired philosophical work virtue ethics many normative approaches

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of law


british association advancement science sheffield friday august systematic studies plasma began research irving langmuir colleagues langmuir also introduced term plasma description ionized gas ref name langmuir ref lewi tonks harold mott smith worked langmuir recall langmuir first used term analogy blood plasma mott smith recalls particular transport electrons thermionic filaments reminded langmuir way blood plasma carries red white corpuscles germs definitions


electrons much larger electron neutral collision frequency condition valid electrostatic interactions dominate processes ordinary gas kinetics plasmas called collisionless non neutral plasma strength range electric force good conductivity plasmas usually ensure densities positive negative charges sizeable region equal quasineutrality plasma significant excess charge density extreme case composed single species called non neutral plasma plasma electric fields play dominant role examples


like many uses plasma several means generation however one principle common must energy input produce sustain ref name hippler case plasma generated electric current applied across dielectric gas fluid electrically non conducting material seen adjacent image shows discharge tube simple example dc used simplicity potential difference subsequent electric field pull bound electrons negative toward anode positive electrode cathode negative electrode pulls


increases rapidly millions successive sets collisions ref name leal quiros mainly due small mean free path average distance travelled collisions electric arc left avalanche effect two electrodes original ionization event liberates one electron subsequent collision liberates electron two electrons emerge collision ionizing electron liberated electron ample current density ionization forms luminous electric arc continuous electric discharge similar lightning electrodes ref group note electrical resistance along continuous electric arc creates heat dissociates gas


distance features much larger features fractal form many features first studied laboratory subsequently recognized throughout universe examples complexity complex structures plasmas include filamentation striations string like structures also known birkeland currents seen many plasmas like plasma ball aurora lightning electric arcs solar flares supernova remnants sometimes associated larger current densities interaction magnetic field form magnetic rope structure high power microwave breakdown atmospheric pressure


psychometrics darwin published book ''on origin species'' darwin described role natural selection emergence time different populations species plants animals book showed individual members species differ among possess characteristics less adaptive environment adaptive characteristics likely survive procreate give rise another generation less adaptive characteristics less likely ideas stimulated galton 's interest study human beings differ


field psychometrics went extend galton 's work cattell coined term ''mental test'' responsible research knowledge ultimately led development modern tests ref name kap kaplan rm saccuzzo dp ''psychological testing principles applications issues'' th ed belmont ca wadsworth cengage learning ref german stream origin psychometrics also connections related field psychophysics around time darwin galton cattell making discoveries herbart also interested unlocking mysteries human consciousness scientific method ref name


levels measurement ref name stevens ref although widely adopted definition differs important respects classical definition measurement adopted physical sciences namely scientific measurement entails estimation discovery ratio magnitude quantitative attribute unit attribute p nbsp indeed stevens 's definition measurement put forward response british ferguson committee whose chair ferguson physicist committee appointed british association advancement science investigate possibility quantitatively estimating sensory events although


test current psychological symptoms used predict occurrence past victimization would accurately represent postdiction criterion measure collected time measure validated goal establish ''concurrent validity'' criterion collected later goal establish ''predictive validity'' measure ''construct validity'' related measures constructs required theory ''content validity'' demonstration items test adequate job covering domain measured personnel selection example test content


learning evolution ''machines'' mostly unrelated case humans non human animals specific approaches area artificial intelligence integrated approach name universal psychometrics also proposed ref name upsycho ref see also references bibliography michell j ''measurement psychology'' cambridge cambridge university press rasch g ''probabilistic models intelligence attainment tests'' copenhagen danish institute educational research expanded edition foreword afterword bd wright chicago university chicago press reese tw application


plato expressed distinctive views nature knowledge reality soul blockquote soul body united nature orders soul rule govern body obey serve two functions akin divine mortal divine appear naturally orders rules mortal subject servant blockquote premise plato advocated removing children mothers' care raising wards state great care taken differentiate

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of education


next five years accepting junior positions army years man would completed theoretical practical education age immanuel kant '''date ''' immanuel kant believed education differs training former involves thinking whereas latter addition educating reason central importance development character teaching moral maxims kant proponent public education learning georg wilhelm friedrich hegel '''date ''' realism aristotle bust aristotle roman copy


taught qur'an islamic metaphysics language literature islamic ethics manual skills could refer variety practical skills ref name asimov ibn sina refers secondary education stage ''maktab'' schooling period specialization pupils begin acquire manual skills regardless social status writes children age given choice choose specialize subjects interest whether reading manual skills literature preaching medicine geometry trade commerce craftsmanship subject profession would interested


ref montaigne child education among psychological topics michel de montaigne wrote ref name king king brett viney wayne woody william''a history psychology ideas context'' th ed pearson education inc p ref essays ''on education children'' ''on pedantry'' ''on experience'' explain views child education ref name hall hall michael l ''montaigne 's uses classical learning'' journal education vol issue p ref views child education still relevant today ref name ediger ediger marlow'' influence ten leading educators american education''''education'' vol issue p ref


wide variety stock knowledge propose variety stock knowledge variety freedom thinking increase powers activity mind enlargement possessions blockquote locke expressed belief education maketh man fundamentally mind empty cabinet statement think may say men meet nine parts ten good evil useful education locke also


city chicago san francisco san mateo california worked columbia university university chicago encyclop dia britannica adler 's institute philosophical research adler married twice four children ref name nyt obit https querynytimescom gst fullpagehtmlres c e f aa c c b sec spon pagewanted william grimes mortimer adler dies helped create study classics new york times june ref adler proponent educational perennialism harry broudy '''date ''' broudy 's philosophical views based tradition classical realism dealing truth goodness beauty however also influenced modern philosophy existentialism instrumentalism textbook building philosophy


entity within social context learner must confront others' views clarify character development emphasizes individual responsibility decisions real answers come within individual outside authority examining life authentic thinking involves students genuine learning experiences existentialists opposed thinking students objects measured tracked standardized educators want educational experience focus creating opportunities self direction self actualization start student rather curriculum content critical theory paulo freire paulo freire '''date ''' brazilian


steiner waldorf education humanistic approach pedagogy based upon educational philosophy austrian philosopher rudolf steiner founder anthroposophy known waldorf steiner education pedagogy emphasizes balanced development cognitive affective artistic practical skills head heart hands schools normally self administered faculty emphasis placed upon giving individual teachers freedom develop creative methods steiner 's theory child development divides education three discrete developmental stages predating close similarities stages development described piaget early childhood education occurs imitation teachers provide practical activities


individuals help every child fulfill unique destiny existence anthroposophy posits schools teachers given considerable freedom define curricula within collegial structures democratic education democratic education theory learning school governance students staff participate freely equally school democracy democratic school typically shared decision making among students staff matters concerning living working learning together neill '''date ''' neill founded summerhill school oldest existing democratic school suffolk england wrote number


network philosophers education worldwide inpe sponsors international conference every year philosophy education society usa pes national society philosophy education united states america site provides information pes services history publications links online resources relevant philosophy education philosophy education society great britain uk pesgb promotes study teaching application philosophy education international membership site provides guide society 's activities


education http ovpesorg ohio valley philosophy education society http wwwhumanitiesresearchnet humanities research network te whatunga rangahau aronu http wwwtextbooksfreeorg leaders educational advisehtm leaders educational advise


theorists believe humans play active role ref name engler modern theorists agree important aggregate behavior primarily determined traits situational factors primary predictor behavior short term ref name person situation ref '''optimistic versus pessimistic''' personality theories differ regard whether humans integral changing personalities theories place great deal emphasis learning often optimistic ref name engler personality theories type theories personality type refers psychological classification

Social science
Psychology
Personality psychology


components ref name carver carver c scheier ''perspectives personality'' th ed boston pearson ref channeling release sexual libidal aggressive energies ensues eros sex instinctual self preservation thanatos death instinctual self annihilation drives respectively major components theory ref name carver important note freud 's broad understanding sexuality included kinds pleasurable feelings experienced human body freud proposed five psychosexual stages personality development believed adult personality dependent upon early childhood experiences largely determined age five ref name carver fixations develop


rotter 's evaluations found cassandra bolyard whyte provide valuable information improving academic performance students ref name whyte ref individuals internal control tendencies likely persist better academic performance levels presenting achievement personality according cassandra b whyte ref name whyte recognition tendency believe hard work persistence often results attainment life academic goals influenced formal educational counseling efforts students various ages various settings since research achievement ref name lauridsenkurt lauridsen kurt ed whyte cassandra b integrated


leads uniqueness every person well differences looks abilities brain functioning factors culminate develop cohesive personality cattell eysenck proposed genetics powerful influence personality large part evidence collected linking genetics environment personality come twin studies twin method compares levels similarity personality using genetically identical twins one first twin studies measured pairs twins studied numerous personality traits determined identical twins similar


personality tests projective objective ''projective tests'' assume personality primarily unconscious assess individuals respond ambiguous stimulus ink blot projective tests use years continue used today examples tests include rorschach test thematic apperception test rorschach test involves showing individual series note cards ambiguous ink blots individual tested asked provide interpretations blots cards stating everything ink blot may resemble based


observer whereas inner experiences subject observer ref name price ref ref name mihelic ref methods measuring inner experience '''descriptive experience sampling des ''' developed psychologist russel hurlburt idiographic method used help examine inner experiences method relies introspective technique allows individual 's inner experiences characteristics described measured beep notifies subject record experience exact moment hours later interview given based experiences recorded des used subjects diagnosed schizophrenia


depression also crucial studying inner experiences diagnosed common psychiatric diseases ref name mihelic '''articulated thoughts stimulated situations atss ''' atss paradigm created alternative ta think aloud method method assumes people continuous internal dialogues naturally attended atss also assesses person 's inner thoughts verbalize cognitions procedure subjects listen scenario via video audio player asked imagine specific situation later


quantum physics according bell 's theorem nature actually operates accord theory ''local'' hidden variables results bell test constrained particular quantifiable way many bell tests performed using entangled particles shown results incompatible constraints imposed local hidden variables ref name wiseman ref ref name wolchover ref possible present concepts superficial way without introducing actual mathematics involved understanding quantum mechanics requires manipulating complex numbers also linear algebra differential equations group theory

Natural science
Physics
Mathematical physics
Quantum mechanics


give instead probability density measurement result math lambda math obtained quantum state postulated collapse math vec lambda math non degenerate case math p lambda psi sqrt langle psip lambda psi rangle math general case probabilistic nature quantum mechanics thus stems act measurement one difficult aspects quantum systems understand central topic famous bohr einstein debates two scientists attempted clarify fundamental principles way thought experiments decades formulation quantum mechanics question


constitutes measurement extensively studied newer interpretations quantum mechanics formulated away concept wave function collapse see example many worlds interpretation basic idea quantum system interacts measuring apparatus respective wave functions become entangled original quantum system ceases exist independent entity details see article measurement quantum mechanics ref name google https booksgooglecom booksid tm fb csc pg pa chapter p ref time evolution quantum state described schr dinger equation math hbar frac dt psi


h psi math math h math denotes hamiltonian observable corresponding total energy system math hbar math reduced planck constant constant math hbar math introduced hamiltonian reduced classical hamiltonian cases quantum system approximated classical system ability make approximation certain limits called correspondence principle solution differential equation given math psi e iht hbar psi math operator math u e iht hbar math known time evolution operator


uncertainty principle familiar form states preparation quantum particle imply simultaneously precise predictions measurement position measurement momentum ref name cohen tannoudji ref ref name l l ref position momentum observables meaning represented hermitian operators position operator math hat x math momentum operator math hat p math commute rather satisfy canonical commutation relation math hat x hat p hbar math given quantum state born rule lets us compute expectation values math x math math p math moreover powers defining


uncertainty observable standard deviation math sigma x sqrt langle x rangle langle x rangle math likewise momentum math sigma p sqrt langle p rangle langle p rangle math uncertainty principle states math sigma x sigma p geq frac hbar math either standard deviation principle made arbitrarily small simultaneously ref name ballentine section fact experimentally well known example quantum optics see eg chap fig ref inequality generalizes arbitrary pairs self adjoint operators math math math b math commutator two operators math ab ab ba math provides lower bound product


composite system math mathcal h ab mathcal h otimes mathcal h b math state first system vector math psi math state second system math psi b math state composite system math psi otimes psi b math states joint hilbert space math mathcal h ab math written form however superposition principle implies linear combinations separable product states also valid example math psi math math phi math possible states system math math likewise math psi b math math phi b math


variable math math evolution generated math math observable math b math commutes math math conserved moreover math b math conserved evolution math math math math conserved evolution generated math b math implies quantum version result proven emmy noether classical lagrangian mechanics every differentiable symmetry hamiltonian exists corresponding conservation law examples free particle position space probability density gaussian wave packet moving one dimension free space simplest example quantum system position degree freedom


energy levels box defined zero potential energy everywhere ''inside'' certain region therefore infinite potential energy everywhere ''outside'' region ref name cohen tannoudji one dimensional case math x math direction time independent schr dinger equation may written math frac hbar frac psi dx e psi math differential operator defined math hat p x hbar frac dx math previous equation evocative classic kinetic energy analogue math frac hat p x e math state math psi math case energy math e math coincident kinetic energy


particle general solutions schr dinger equation particle box math psi x e ikx b e ikx qquad qquad e frac hbar k math euler 's formula math psi x c sin kx cos kx math infinite potential walls box determine values math c math math k math math x math math x l math math psi math must zero thus math x math math psi c sin cos math math math math x l math math psi l c sin kl math math c math cannot zero


accomplished blocking one paths equivalently removing first beam splitter feeding photon left bottom desired cases interference paths anymore probabilities given math p u p l math independently phase math delta phi math conclude photon take one path another first beam splitter rather genuine quantum superposition two paths ref name vedral ref applications quantum mechanics enormous success explaining many


features universe regards small scale discrete quantities interactions cannot explained classical methods quantum mechanics often theory reveal individual behaviors subatomic particles make forms matter electrons protons neutrons photons others solid state physics materials science dependent upon quantum mechanics ref name marvincohen ref many aspects modern technology operates scale quantum effects significant important applications quantum theory include quantum chemistry quantum optics quantum computing superconducting magnets light emitting diodes optical amplifier laser transistor


limit non relativistic classical mechanics instance well known model quantum harmonic oscillator uses explicitly non relativistic expression kinetic energy oscillator thus quantum version classical harmonic oscillator complications arise chaotic systems good quantum numbers quantum chaos studies relationship classical quantum descriptions systems quantum decoherence mechanism quantum systems lose coherence thus become incapable displaying many typically quantum effects quantum superpositions become simply probabilistic mixtures quantum entanglement becomes simply classical correlations quantum coherence


typically evident macroscopic scales except maybe temperatures approaching absolute zero quantum behavior may manifest macroscopically many macroscopic properties classical system direct consequence quantum behavior parts example stability bulk matter consisting atoms molecules would quickly collapse electric forces alone rigidity solids mechanical thermal chemical optical magnetic properties matter results interaction electric charges rules quantum mechanics special relativity electrodynamics early attempts merge quantum mechanics


special relativity involved replacement schr dinger equation covariant equation klein gordon equation dirac equation theories successful explaining many experimental results certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming neglect relativistic creation annihilation particles fully relativistic quantum theory required development quantum field theory applies quantization field rather fixed set particles first complete quantum field theory quantum electrodynamics provides fully quantum description electromagnetic interaction quantum electrodynamics along general relativity one


planck length physically meaningful lqg philosophical implications since inception many counter intuitive aspects results quantum mechanics provoked strong philosophical debates many interpretations arguments centre probabilistic nature quantum mechanics difficulties wavefunction collapse related measurement problem quantum nonlocality perhaps consensus exists issues consensus richard feynman said think safely say nobody understands quantum mechanics according steven weinberg opinion entirely satisfactory interpretation quantum


born rule ref name dewitt ref ref name wallace ref consensus whether successful ref name ballentine ref ref name kent ref relational quantum mechanics appeared late modern derivative copenhagen type ideas qbism developed years later ref name ref history max planck considered father quantum theory quantum mechanics developed early decades th century driven need explain phenomena cases observed earlier times scientific inquiry wave nature light began th th centuries scientists robert hooke


became basis laser solvay conference brussels fifth world physics conference phase known old quantum theory never complete self consistent old quantum theory rather set heuristic corrections classical mechanics theory understood semi classical approximation modern quantum mechanics notable results period include addition work planck einstein bohr mentioned einstein peter debye 's work specific heat solids bohr hendrika johanna van leeuwen 's proof classical physics cannot account


certain materials function eject electrons material albert einstein postulated based planck 's quantum hypothesis light consists individual quantum particles later came called photons years follow theoretical basis slowly began applied chemical structure reactivity bonding probably greatest contribution field made linus pauling electronic structure first step solving quantum chemical problem usually solving schr dinger equation dirac equation relativistic quantum chemistry electronic molecular hamiltonian

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Chemistry
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speedups query problems related grover 's algorithm including brassard h yer tapp 's algorithm finding collisions two one functions uses grover 's algorithm farhi goldstone gutmann 's algorithm evaluating nand trees variant search problem potential applications cryptography notable application quantum computation attacks cryptographic systems currently use integer factorization underpins security public key cryptographic systems believed computationally infeasible ordinary computer large integers product prime numbers

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