standard position body also age sclerotherapy removing visible 'spider veins' telangiectasia appear surface skin dermal fillers dermal fillers injected skin give fuller youthful appearance feature section face one type dermal filler hyaluronic acid hyaluronic acid naturally found throughout human body plays vital role moving nutrients cells skin blood also commonly used patients suffering arthritis acts like cushion


mining involves six common classes tasks ref name fayyad ref anomaly detection outlier change deviation detection identification unusual data records might interesting data errors require investigation association rule learning dependency modeling searches relationships variables example supermarket might gather data customer purchasing habits using association rule learning supermarket determine products frequently bought together use information marketing purposes sometimes referred market basket analysis clustering task discovering groups structures data way

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Data mining


another similar without using known structures data classification task generalizing known structure apply new data example e mail program might attempt classify e mail legitimate spam regression attempts find function models data least error estimating relationships among data datasets summarization providing compact representation data set including visualization report generation results validation example data produced data dredging bot operated statistician tyler vigen apparently


algorithm roc curves learned patterns meet desired standards subsequently necessary evaluate change pre processing data mining steps learned patterns meet desired standards final step interpret learned patterns turn knowledge research premier professional body field association computing machinery 's acm special interest group sig knowledge discovery data mining sigkdd since acm sig hosted annual international conference published proceedings since


provider violates fair information practices indiscretion cause financial emotional bodily harm indicated individual one instance privacy violation patrons walgreens filed lawsuit company selling prescription information data mining companies turn provided data pharmaceutical companies situation europe europe rather strong privacy laws efforts underway strengthen rights consumers however us eu safe harbor principles developed currently effectively expose european users privacy exploitation us companies


programming language software environment statistical computing data mining graphics part gnu project scikit learn open source machine learning library python programming language torch open source deep learning library lua programming language scientific computing framework wide support machine learning algorithms uima uima unstructured information management architecture component framework analyzing unstructured content text audio video originally developed ibm weka suite machine learning software applications written java programming language proprietary data mining software applications following applications


sex education instruction various physiological psychological sociological aspects sexual response reproduction ref name delamare referred http wwweducationalleadersgovtnz leadership development professional information principals sabbatical reports report archives primary award recipients de la mare jeanette paper jeanette de la mare october ref kearney also defined sex education involving comprehensive course action school calculated bring socially desirable attitudes practices personal conduct part children adults best protect individual human family social institution thus sex education may also described sexuality education means encompasses education aspects sexuality including

Social science
Sociology
Sexology
Sex education


netherlands report positive consensual first sexual experience sexually active us teens report wished waited longer first sexual experience ref name ref nine ten teens netherlands use contraception first sexual experience contributes lower pregnancy sti rates comprehensive sex ed starting elementary level resulted appreciation sexual diversity dating intimate partner violence prevention development healthy relationships prevention child sex abuse improved social emotional learning increased media literacy human rights issues gender equality gender roles


policy largely due strong objection sex education raised catholic church portugal sex education taught part biology related curricula also official program intended provide sex education students netherlands subsidized dutch government long live love package developed late aims give teenagers skills make decisions regarding health sexuality nearly secondary schools provide sex education part biology classes half primary schools discuss sexuality contraception starting school year


age appropriate sex education including education sexual diversity compulsory secondary primary schools curriculum focuses biological aspects reproduction well values attitudes communication negotiation skills dutch sex education encourages idea topics like masturbation homosexuality sexual pleasure normal natural larger emotional relational societal forces shape experiences sexuality type curriculum begin students young age four curriculum children focuses topics like love self image gender stereotypes elementary level students


concern parents teachers external experts united kingdom england wales cecil reddie ran first sex education course british school october abbotsholme schoolbut lessons sex married couples ref name hammill england wales sex relationship education abbr sre abbr compulsory since part age onwards involves teaching children reproduction sexuality sexual health promote early sexual activity particular sexual orientation compulsory parts sex relationship education elements contained within national curriculum science parents


dofe december february inform updated guidelines released new mandatory subject added curriculum england scotland main sex education programme scotland ''healthy respect'' focuses biological aspects reproduction also relationships emotions education contraception sexually transmitted diseases included programme way encouraging good sexual health response refusal catholic schools commit programme however separate sex education programme


developed use schools funded scottish government programme ''called love'' focuses encouraging children delay sex marriage cover contraception form abstinence sex education north america canada education provincial concern sex education varies across canada ontario provincial curriculum created attempting update proven controversial first reform shelved new curriculum introduced liberal government kathleen wynne reversed three years later conservatives


curriculum content additionally school districts authorized distribute condoms connection instruction relating human sexuality since enactment policy several research studies done evaluate sex ed policy namely ''abstinence only'' aspect teaching drs david wiley kelly wilson published ''just say n't know sexuality education texas public schools'' report found shaming fear based instruction commonly used teaching sex ed gender stereotypes promoted majority students receive information human sexuality except abstinence materials used regularly contain


receive adequate instruction lgbt sex topics ref name formby ref name ellis ref see also ''the abc sex education trainables'' short film informing people need educate mentally disabled trainables sex sexuality adolescent sexuality age consent aids education training centers aetcs us ''harmful minors'' book judith levine deals sexual morality sex education united states list universities bdsm clubs section uk world war ii us military sex education references reading https webarchiveorg web http chatafrikcom articles education teaching immorality schools udlvzh hmzq teaching immorality schools


study fish dates upper paleolithic revolution advent high culture science ichthyology developed several interconnecting epochs various significant advancements study fish receives origins humans' desire feed clothe equip useful implements according michael barton prominent ichthyologist professor centre college earliest ichthyologists ''hunters gatherers'' learned obtain useful fish obtain abundance times might available early cultures manifested insights

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Ichthyology


seba assembled cabinet collection fish invited artedi use assortment fish unfortunately artedi fell amsterdam canal drowned age linnaeus posthumously published artedi 's manuscripts ''ichthyologia sive opera omnia de piscibus'' refinement taxonomy culminated development binomial nomenclature use contemporary ichthyologists furthermore revised orders introduced artedi placing significance pelvic fins fish lacking appendage placed within order apodes fish containing abdominal thoracic jugular pelvic fins termed abdominales thoracici


jugulares respectively however alterations grounded within evolutionary theory therefore century needed charles darwin provide intellectual foundation needed perceive degree similarity taxonomic features consequence phylogenetic relationships modern era close dawn th century marcus elieser bloch berlin georges cuvier paris made attempts consolidate knowledge ichthyology cuvier summarized available information monumental ''histoire naturelle des poissons'' manuscript published volume series


publication publisher ''ichthyology herpetology'' quarterly december american society ichthyologists herpetologists ''journal applied ichthyology'' bi monthly blackwell publishing '' https webarchiveorg web http contentprosealsacza iii cpro collectionviewpageexternallang eng sp suite def ichthyological bulletin '' irregular january rhodes university organizations width class wikitable organizations organizations width align left style vertical align top american elasmobranch society american fisheries society american society ichthyologists herpetologists association systematics collections ichthyological society hong kong native fish conservancy neotropical ichthyological association width align left style vertical align top


maurice kottelat swiss bernard germain de lac p de carl linnaeus seth eugene meek george myers joseph nelson ''fishes world'' john treadwell nichols china founder ''copeia'' john roxborough norman peter simon pallas wilhelm peters felipe poey jean ren constant quoy constantine samuel rafinesque john ernest randall charles tate regan john richardson eduard r ppell johann gottlob schneider hm smith jlb smith edwin chapin starks franz steindachner royal suttkus shigeho tanaka ethelwynn trewavas english achille valenciennes johann julius walbaum gilbert percy whitley francis willughby paleoichthyologists hans c bjerring erik jarvik erik stensi see also ichthyology terms


series ''intimit s'' ernst ludwig kirchner ''portrait otto ller'' woodcut type relief print earliest printmaking technique probably first developed means printing patterns cloth th century used china printing text images paper woodcuts images paper developed around japan slightly later europe two areas woodcut extensively used purely process making images without text ''woodcuts stanislaw raczynski ndash '' artist either draws design

Humanities
Visual arts
Applied arts
Printmaking


padding px border px solid aa artists using technique include albrecht rer rembrandt francisco goya wenceslaus hollar whistler otto dix james ensor edward hopper k kollwitz pablo picasso cy twombly lucas van leyden div '''etching''' part intaglio family pure etching metal plate usually copper zinc steel covered waxy acrylic ground artist draws ground pointed etching needle exposing metal plate etched dipping bath etchant eg nitric acid ferric chloride etchant bites exposed


reproduce oil paintings particular portraits aquatint div style width float right margin px padding px border px solid aa artists using technique include norman ackroyd jean baptiste le prince william daniell francisco goya thomas rowlandson div ''the sleep reason creates monsters'' etching aquatint francisco goya c left technique used intaglio etchings like etching aquatint technique involves application acid make marks metal plate etching technique uses needle make lines retain ink traditional aquatint relies powdered rosin acid resistant ground


placed surface image transferred paper pressure printing press lithography known ability capture fine gradations shading small detail variations lithography rachel robinson elmer halftone offset lithograph woolworth building june night national gallery art washington dc photo lithography captures image photographic processes metal plates printing less carried way stone lithography halftone lithography produces image illustrates gradient like quality mokulito form lithography wood


generally called gicl e foil imaging art '''foil imaging''' printmaking technique made using iowa foil printer developed virginia myers commercial foil stamping process uses gold leaf acrylic foil printmaking process color hiroshige ''morning mist'' printmakers apply color prints many different ways coloring techniques include positive surface roll negative surface roll la poup e often color printmaking involves etching screen printing woodcut linocut applied either using separate plates blocks screens using reductionist


directions definitions'' victoria albert museum may antony griffiths ''prints printmaking'' british museum press nd ed linda hults ''the print western world introductory history'' madison university wisconsin press carol wax ''the mezzotint history technique'' harry n abrams inc james watrous ''a century american printmaking'' madison university wisconsin press william ivins jr ''prints visual communication'' cambridge harvard university press donald saff deli sacilotto ''printmaking history process'' new york holt rinehart winston external links history printmaking glossaries http wwwmomaorg interactives projects whatisaprint flashhtml


bohemia lesser poland principalities kievan rus' retaining characteristically south slavic linguistic features later texts written territories began take characteristics local slavic vernaculars mid th century old church slavonic diversified number regional varieties known ' 'recensions'' local varieties collectively known church slavonic language apart use slavic countries old church slavonic served liturgical language romanian orthodox church also literary official language princedoms wallachia moldavia

Applied science
Divinity
Scriptural study and languages
Old Church Slavonic


see old church slavonic romania gradually replaced romanian th th centuries church slavonic maintained prestigious status particularly russia many centuriesamong slavs east status analogous latin western europe advantage substantially less divergent vernacular tongues average parishioners title bdinski zbornik manuscript url https libugentbe viewer archiveugentbe e b e ef bdaaf ff c cv xywh access date website libugentbe ref alt orthodox churches bulgarian orthodox church russian orthodox church serbian orthodox church ukrainian orthodox church macedonian orthodox church ohrid archbishopric


gen loc dat instr city ''m'' grad grade grad grada grad gradu gradom grada gradu gradoma gradi grady grad grad x gradom grady knife jo ''m'' u u em u ema ix em wolf ''m'' vl k vl e vl k vl ka vl c vl ku vl kom vl ka vl ku vl koma vl ci vl ky vl k vl c x vl kom vl ky wine ''n'' vino vino vino vina vin vinu vinom vin vinu vinoma vina vina vin vin x vinom viny field jo ''n'' polje polje polje polja polji polju poljem polji polju poljema polja polja


neighboring cultures promoted formation distinct bulgarian identity preslav recension manuscripts preslav recension ref name kamusella ref eastern variant among oldest old church slavonic language recension centred around preslav literary school since earliest datable cyrillic inscriptions found area preslav school credited development cyrillic alphabet gradually replaced glagolic one number prominent bulgarian writers scholars worked preslav literary school including naum preslav constantine preslav john


south slavic included canon either hand kiev missal included canon even though manifests west slavic features contains western liturgy bulgarian linguistic layer connection moravian mission manuscripts usually classified two groups depending alphabet used cyrillic glagolitic exception kiev missal glagolita clozianus exhibit west slavic croatian features respectively glagolitic texts assumed macedonian recension kiev missal ki km seven folios late th


marshes headwaters nile idea swallow hibernation became well established even late elliott coues could list many contemporary publications dealing hibernation swallows little published evidence contradict theory similar misconceptions existed regarding breeding barnacle geese nests seen believed grow transformations goose barnacles idea became prevalent around th century noted bishop giraldus cambrensis gerald wales ''topographia hiberniae'' around

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Ornithology


bird studies area ref name konishi study imprinting behaviour ducks geese konrad lorenz studies instinct herring gulls nicolaas tinbergen led establishment field ethology study learning became area interest study bird songs model studies neuroethology study hormones physiology control behaviour also aided bird models helped finding proximate causes circadian seasonal cycles studies migration attempted answer


operations research '''operations research''' often shortened initialism '''or''' discipline deals development application advanced analytical methods improve decision making sometimes considered subfield mathematical sciences term management science sometimes used synonym employing techniques mathematical sciences modeling statistics optimization operations research arrives optimal near optimal solutions complex decision making problems emphasis practical applications operations research overlap many disciplines notably industrial engineering operations research often concerned determining

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research


recommendation given armour added heavily damaged areas recommendation adopted fact aircraft able return areas damaged indicated areas vital adding armour non vital areas damage acceptable reduces aircraft performance suggestion remove crew aircraft loss would result fewer personnel losses also rejected raf command blackett 's team made logical recommendation armour placed areas completely untouched damage bombers


ratios useful planning ratio mines laid per ship sunk common several campaigns german mines british ports british mines german routes united states mines japanese routes ref name proceedings ref operational research doubled target bomb rate b bombing japan marianas islands increasing training ratio percent flying hours revealed wolf packs three united states submarines effective number enable members pack engage targets discovered individual patrol stations revealed glossy enamel paint


project floorplanning designing layout equipment factory components computer chip reduce manufacturing time therefore reducing cost network optimization instance setup telecommunications power system networks maintain quality service outages resource allocation problems facility location assignment problems assignment problem generalized assignment problem quadratic assignment problem weapon target assignment problem bayesian search theory looking target optimal search routing determining routes buses buses needed possible supply chain management managing flow raw materials products based


research'' jointly published belgian french italian operations research societies springer ''decision sciences'' published wiley blackwell behalf decision sciences institute ''european journal operational research ejor '' founded presently far largest operational research journal world around pages published papers per year total number citations second largest amongst operational research management science journals ''infor journal'' published sponsored canadian operational research society ''international journal operations research information systems'' ijoris official publication


schrijver editors ''history mathematical programming collection personal reminiscences'' north holland charles w mcarthur ''operations analysis us army eighth air force world war ii'' history mathematics vol providence american mathematical society c h waddington ''o r world war operational research u boat'' london elek science external links https wwwinformsorg build career consider analytics career operations research http wwwiforsorg international federation operational research societies http wwwinformsorg institute operations research management sciences informs https webarchiveorg web http statsblsgov oco ocos htm occupational outlook handbook us department labor bureau labor statistics industrial engineering mathematical optimization


pictorial representation simple linear program two variables six inequalities set feasible solutions depicted yellow forms polygon dimensional polytope linear cost function represented red line arrow red line level set cost function arrow indicates direction optimizing closed feasible region problem three variables convex polyhedron surfaces giving fixed value objective function planes shown linear programming problem

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Linear programming


algorithm karmarkar khachiyan 's algorithm landmark importance establishing polynomial time solvability linear programs algorithm computational break simplex method efficient specially constructed families linear programs however khachiyan 's algorithm inspired new lines research linear programming n karmarkar proposed projective method linear programming karmarkar 's algorithm ref name karmarkar improved khachiyan 's ref name khachiyan worst case polynomial bound giving math n l math karmarkar claimed algorithm much faster practical lp simplex method claim


ocean warming accounts energy accumulation global warming paleoceanography paleoceanography study history oceans geologic past regard circulation chemistry biology geology patterns sedimentation biological productivity paleoceanographic studies using environment models different proxies enable scientific community assess role oceanic processes global climate reconstruction past climate various intervals paleoceanographic research also intimately tied palaeoclimatology oceanographic institutions oceanographic museum first international organization oceanography created

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Oceanography


south african coasts https wwwtags shipcom memorial website usns bowditch usns dutton usns michelson usns h h hess applied interdisciplinary physics earth sciences hydrology physical geography articles containing video clips


missile range new mexico may ref name mccammon ref principal investigator mission dr dan mccammon university wisconsin madison balloons balloon flights carry instruments altitudes nbsp km sea level much earth 's atmosphere unlike rocket data collected brief minutes balloons able stay aloft much longer however even altitudes much x ray spectrum still absorbed x rays energies less kev aj cannot reach balloons july

Natural science
Space science
Astronomy
X-ray astronomy


contains remarkable x ray sources identified astrophysical modeling galaxies black holes centers galaxies pulsars sources already successfully modeled x ray astrophysics striving understand generation x rays apparent source helps understand sun universe whole affect us earth constellations astronomical device handling observation precision independent current physical theory interpretation astronomy around long time physical theory changes time respect


observations chandra x ray observatory show three distinct structures outer horseshoe shaped ring light years diameter hot inner core light months diameter hot central source less light month diameter may contain superstar drives whole show outer ring provides evidence another large explosion occurred years ago three structures around eta carinae thought represent shock waves produced matter rushing away superstar supersonic speeds temperature shock heated gas ranges mk


source separation crowded region toward galactic center source variability multiplicity source nomenclature ref name thomas ref x ray source counterparts stars identified calculating angular separation source centroids position star maximum allowable separation compromise larger value identify many real matches possible smaller value minimize probability spurious matches adopted matching criterion finds nearly possible x ray source matches keeping probability spurious matches sample ref name gaidos ref solar x ray


outbursts fast rise times tens minutes typical durations hours associated ob supergiants hence define new class massive x ray binaries supergiant fast x ray transients sfxts observations made chandra indicate presence loops rings hot x ray emitting gas surrounds messier '''magnetar''' type neutron star extremely powerful magnetic field decay powers emission copious amounts high energy electromagnetic radiation particularly x rays gamma rays x ray dark stars solar cycle montage


someone say tiger carnivorous animal one context mammal another definition tiger would still meaning sign tiger describing animal world change either circumstance indexical meaning hand dependent context utterance rules use rules use meant indexicals tell used actually mean ''example'' refers depends context

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Pragmatics


example would '' '' ''referential singular count'' ''indexical close by'' pure indexical sign contribute meaning propositions example non referential use language second way define signified signifier relationship cs peirce 's '''peircean trichotomy''' components trichotomy following '''icon''' signified resembles signifier signified dog 's barking noise signifier bow wow ref name ref '''index''' signified signifier linked proximity signifier meaning pointing signified ref name '''symbol'''


illocutionary forces presentation formal treatment pragmatics appears development fregean idea assertion sign formal sign act assertion literary theory pragmatics specifically speech act theory 's notion performative underpins judith butler 's theory gender performativity ''gender trouble'' claims gender sex natural categories socially constructed roles produced reiterative acting ''excitable speech'' extends theory performativity hate speech censorship arguing censorship necessarily strengthens discourse tries suppress therefore since


english applied grammatical inventory'' https purempgde rest items item component file content vonk hustinx simon 's referential expression journal nancy bauer 's ''how things pornography'' see also notes references austin j l ''how things words'' oxford university press ariel mira ''pragmatics grammar'' cambridge cambridge university press brown penelope stephen c levinson ''politeness universals language usage'' cambridge university press carston robyn ''thoughts utterances pragmatics explicit communication'' oxford blackwell clark herbert h using language cambridge university press cole peter ed ''pragmatics'' syntax semantics new york academic press dijk


teun van ''text context explorations semantics pragmatics discourse'' london longman grice h paul ''studies way words'' cambridge harvard university press laurence r horn gregory ward ''the handbook pragmatics'' blackwell leech geoffrey n ''principles pragmatics'' london longman levinson stephen c ''pragmatics'' cambridge university press levinson stephen c presumptive meanings theory generalized conversational implicature mit press lin g h c perkins l cross cultural discourse giving accepting gifts international journal communication eric collections ed


give continuous mapping morphism authors also require identity map closed inclusion cofibration examples algebraic structures examples universal algebras rings semigroups quasigroups groupoids magmas loops others vector spaces fixed field modules fixed ring universal algebras binary addition family unary scalar multiplication operators one element field ring examples relational algebras include semilattices lattices boolean algebras basic constructions assume type math omega math fixed

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Universal algebra


conjecture proved april states finite algebra either p np complete generalizations universal algebra also studied using techniques category theory approach instead writing list operations equations obeyed operations one describe algebraic structure using categories special sort known lawvere theories generally algebraic theories alternatively one describe algebraic structures using monads two approaches closely related advantages particular every lawvere theory gives


rings described called algebras operad groups since law math g g math duplicates variable ''g'' left side omits right side first may seem troublesome restriction payoff operads certain advantages example one hybridize concepts ring vector space obtain concept associative algebra one cannot form similar hybrid concepts group vector space another development partial algebra operators


chmielewska halina po wiatowska janusz zajdel rafa wojaczek ewa lipska born andrzej sapkowski born ryszard legutko born jerzy pilch born pawe huelle born andrzej stasiuk born olga tokarczuk born jaros aw marek rymkiewicz born leopold tyrmand wojciech kuczok born stanis aw bara czak nobel laureates class wikitable style text align right margin right px align center small henryk sienkiewicz br small align center small w adys aw reymont br small align center small isaac bashevis singer br small align center small czes aw mi osz br small align center small wis awa szymborska br small align center small olga tokarczuk br born small px px px px px

Humanities
Languages and literature
Polish Literature


henryk sienkiewicz w adys aw reymont isaac bashevis singer yiddish czes aw mi osz wis awa szymborska olga tokarczuk awarded see also list poles literature list polish language authors list polish language poets polish comics polish poetry samizdat sapphic stanza polish poetry science fiction fantasy poland socialist realism polish literature ''stowarzyszenie pisarzy polskich'' kashubian literature notes references czes aw mi osz ''the history polish literature'' nd edition berkeley university california press ''being poland new history polish literature culture since '' ed tamara trojanowska joanna ni ska przemys aw


czapli ski toronto university toronto press dariusz sk rczewski ''polish literature national identity postcolonial perspective'' translated agnieszka polakowska university rochester press boydell brewer rochester studies east central europe external links http wwwnewadventorg cathen ahtm polish literature catholic encyclopedia michael kandel http editioncnncom world europe poland literature plenty zs plenty z 's far dull get know polish literature cnn november literature language


incision closed anesthetic agents stopped reversed person taken ventilation extubated general anesthesia administered ref name booksgooglecom askitopoulou h konsolaki e ramoutsaki anastassaki e ''surgical cures sleep induction asclepieion epidaurus'' history anesthesia proceedings fifth international symposium jos carlos diz avelino franco douglas r bacon j rupreht juli n alvarez elsevier science bv international congress series pp nbsp https booksgooglecom booksid tm nidpowoc pg pa dq history hospital basclepieion lr lang en brr cd v onepage q history hospital basclepieion f false ref postoperative care completion surgery person transferred post anesthesia care unit closely monitored person

Applied science
Medicine and health
Surgery


though concluded topical antibiotics applied certain types surgical wounds reduce risk surgical site infections compared treatment use antiseptics review also find conclusive evidence suggest topical antibiotics increased risk local skin reactions antibiotic resistance retrospective analysis national administrative data association mortality day elective surgical procedure suggests higher risk procedures carried later working week weekends odds death higher respectively comparing procedures


hdi per cent middle hdi per cent low hdi per cent p sub study children undergoing emergency abdominal surgery centres across countries found adjusted mortality children following surgery may high times greater low hdi middle hdi countries compared high hdi countries translates excess deaths per procedures performed settings ref name globalsurgpaeds ref patient safety factors suggested play important role use surgical safety checklist associated reduced mortality days ref name globalsurg ref introducing novel


new surgical techniques low middle income countries challenge challenges include knowledge awareness fear costs cultural beliefs human rights access surgical care increasingly recognized integral aspect healthcare therefore evolving normative derivation human right health icescr article define human right health right everyone enjoyment highest attainable standard physical mental health august un committee economic social cultural rights cescr interpreted mean right enjoyment


health art ref obstetric care shares close ties reproductive rights includes access reproductive health ref name cultural rights surgeons public health advocates kelly mcqueen described surgery integral right health reflected establishment global initiative emergency essential surgical care formation lancet commission global surgery world bank publication volume disease control priorities essential surgery world health assembly passing resolution strengthening emergency essential


learned surgery kasi lord dhanvantari god medicine hindu mythology one oldest known surgical texts describes detail examination diagnosis treatment prognosis numerous ailments well procedures various forms cosmetic surgery plastic surgery rhinoplasty ancient greece hippocrates stated oath c bc general physicians must never practice surgery surgical procedures conducted specialists ancient greece temples dedicated healer god asclepius known ''asclepieia'' sing ''asclepieion'' '' '' functioned centers medical advice


french chemist louis pasteur showed rotting fermentation could occur anaerobic conditions micro organisms present pasteur suggested three methods eliminate micro organisms responsible gangrene filtration exposure heat exposure chemical solutions lister confirmed pasteur 's conclusions experiments decided use findings develop antiseptic techniques wounds first two methods suggested pasteur inappropriate treatment human tissue lister experimented third spraying carbolic acid instruments found remarkably reduced incidence gangrene


unit study constituent tendency say deflation discover general laws relations combinations tendencies former study revolves around events facts latter around tendencies former primarily economic history latter primarily economic science sorts studies proper important helps panic understood light various tendencies involved deflation deflation understood light various historical manifestations blockquote scope focus economic history today


james robinson ''why nations fail origins power prosperity poverty'' alexander gerschenkron ''economic backwardness historical perspective book essays'' robert j gordon ''the rise fall american growth us standard living since civil war'' david landes ''the wealth poverty nations rich poor'' joel mokyr ''the lever riches technological creativity economic progress'' kenneth pomeranz ''the great divergence china europe making modern world economy'' walt whitman rostow ''the stages


annual basis censuses typically occur every years thus usually best source data births deaths analyses conducted census estimate much undercounting took place compare sex ratios census data estimated natural values mortality data censuses count people typically collect information families households addition individual characteristics age sex marital status literacy education employment status occupation geographical location may also collect data


births per woman completing reproductive life childbearing age reflected current age specific fertility rates '' 'replacement level fertility''' average number children women must order replace population next generation example replacement level fertility us ref name ela introduction environmental engineering science masters ela pearson education chapter ref '''gross reproduction rate''' number daughters would born woman completing reproductive life current age specific fertility rates '''net reproduction ratio''' expected number


life table summarizes mortality separately age life table necessary give good estimate life expectancy basic equation regarding development population suppose country entity contains ''population sub sub '' persons time ''t'' size population time ''t'' math text population text population text natural increase text net migration math natural increase time ''t'' ''t'' math text natural increase text births text deaths math net migration time ''t'' ''t'' math text net migration text immigration text emigration math basic equations


events births deaths immigration emigration enumeration total population size subject error allowance needs made error underlying statistics accounting population size change made figure section shows latest un projections world population year red high orange medium green low un medium projection shows world population reaching approximate equilibrium nbsp billion working independently demographers international institute applied systems analysis austria expect world population peak


bullet killed victim able trace back mold used manufacturing process entry exit wounds based distance firearm discharged anthropometry frontispiece bertillon 's ''identification anthropom trique'' demonstrating measurements needed anthropometric identification system french police officer alphonse bertillon first apply anthropological technique anthropometry law enforcement thereby creating identification system based physical measurements time criminals could identified name photograph ref name kirsten moana thompson kirsten moana thompson ''crime films investigating scene''

Humanities
Law
Criminal law
Forensic science


moana thompson fingerprints sir william herschel one first advocate use fingerprinting identification criminal suspects working indian civil service began use thumbprints documents security measure prevent rampant repudiation signatures ref name herschel ref fingerprints taken william herschel hooghly near kolkata herschel instituted use fingerprints contracts deeds registered government pensioners' fingerprints prevent collection money relatives pensioner 's death dr henry faulds scottish surgeon


shoeprints long used match pair shoes crime scene hans gross applied scientific methods crime scenes responsible birth criminalistics edmond locard expanded gross' work locard 's exchange principle stated whenever two objects come contact one another materials exchanged means every contact criminal leaves trace alexander lacassagne taught locard produced autopsy standards actual forensic cases alphonse bertillon french criminologist founder anthropometry scientific study measurements proportions human


objects hidden underground underwater forensic intelligence process starts collection data ends integration results within analysis crimes investigation forensic interviews conducted using science professionally using expertise conduct variety investigative interviews victims witnesses suspects sources determine facts regarding suspicions allegations specific incidents either public private sector settings forensic histopathology application histological techniques examination forensic pathology practice forensic limnology analysis evidence collected crime scenes around fresh water


micro spectrophotometry wildlife forensic science applies range scientific disciplines legal cases involving non human biological evidence solve crimes poaching animal abuse trade endangered species questionable techniques forensic techniques believed scientifically sound time used turned later much less scientific merit none techniques include comparative bullet lead analysis used fbi four decades starting john f kennedy assassination theory batch ammunition possessed chemical makeup distinct


jobs describe far mundane tedious boring ref name accurate crime shows rasumssen edu flavin brianna quoting brian mckenna retired police lieutenant crime scene investigator http wwwrasmussenedu degrees justice studies blog crime show myths debunked forensic experts tell life real accurate crime shows tv debunking common myths february ''blog'' school justice studies rasmussen college inc oak brook il retrieved may ref ref name tv forensic science accurate psu edu stanton dawn quoting robert shaler phd prof biochemistry molecular biology dir forensic science program penn state univ formerly pittsburgh crime laboratory new york city office chief medical examiner lifecodes corp nation 's first forensic dna laboratory http newspsuedu story research probing question forensic science tv accurate probing question


regularly th century drawing work earlier writers james madison ''the federalist papers'' alexis de tocqueville ''democracy america'' integrate concepts social cohesion connectedness pluralist tradition american political science john dewey may made first direct mainstream use ' 'social capital'' ''the school society'' though offer definition first half th century de tocqueville observations american life seemed outline define social capital observed americans prone meeting


individuals social networks norms reciprocity trustworthiness arise ref name putnam ref view putnam followers social capital key component building maintaining democracy putnam says social capital declining united states seen lower levels trust government lower levels civic participation also says television urban sprawl significant role making america far less 'connected' putnam believes social capital measured amount trust reciprocity community


cooperate norm reciprocity religious doctrine like christianity social capital formed repeated interactions time argues critical development difficult generate public policy importance social capital economic development norms behavior reduce transaction cost exchange legal contracts government regulations fukuyama suggests social capital beneficial development also imposes cost non group members unintended consequences general welfare referencing alexis de tocqueville ''democracy america'' described '''art


bourdieu '''habitus''' refers social context within social actor socialized thus social platform equips one social reality become accustomed habitus comes field manner one integrates displays habitus end social exchange interaction two social actors illustrate assume individual wishes better place society therefore accumulates social capital involving social network adhering norms group


capital may always beneficial society whole though always asset individuals groups involved horizontal networks individual citizens groups enhance community productivity cohesion said positive social capital assets whereas self serving exclusive gangs hierarchical patronage systems operate cross purposes societal interests thought negative social capital burdens society similar putnam daniel p aldrich describes three mechanisms social capital '''bonding capital''' relationships person friends family making also strongest


measurement widely held consensus measure social capital become debate ref name usually one intuitively sense level amount social capital present given relationship regardless type scale quantitative measuring proven somewhat complicated resulting different metrics different functions sociologists carl l bankston min zhou argued one reasons social capital difficult measure neither individual level group level phenomenon one emerges across levels analysis individuals participate


keefer measured econometric correlations confidence civic cooperation norms economic growth large group countries found confidence civic cooperation great impact economic growth less polarized societies terms inequality ethnic differences social capital bigger narayan pritchet researched associativity degree economic performance rural homes tanzania observed even high poverty indexes families higher levels incomes participation collective organizations social capital accumulated participation individual benefits


stolle rochon foley edwards ref name edwards walters civil society accurately ''third sector'' individuals able establish maintain relational networks voluntary associations also connect people build trust reciprocity informal loosely structured associations consolidate society altruism without obligation range activities services associations produced civil society constitutes sources social capital ref name alessandrini civil society documented produce sources social capital according lyons' ''third sector''


book positive outcomes result parents' social capital community states high social capital also high education performance ref name putnam similarity states parents associated children 's education teachers reported parents participate children 's education school life lowers levels misbehavior bringing weapons school engaging physical violence unauthorized absence generally apathetic education ref name putnam borrowing coleman 's quotation putnam 's book coleman


mentioned cannot understate importance embeddedness young persons enclaves adults proximate first prominent family second surrounding community adults ref name putnam without social capital area education teachers parents play responsibility students learning significant impacts child 's academic learning rely factors focus parents contributing child 's academic progress well influenced social capital education without contribution parent child 's education gives


performance hei hang hayes tang argues adaptation process activation accumulation cultural social capitals research findings show supportive networks key determinant differentiating divergent adaptation pathways supportive networks form social capital necessary activating cultural capital newly arrived students possessed amount accumulated capital also relevant advancement ongoing adaptation process min zhou carl l bankston study vietnamese community new orleans found preserving traditional ethnic values enable immigrants integrate


socially maintain solidarity ethnic community ethnic solidarity especially important context immigrants arrive host society article social capital chinatown zhou examines process adaptation young chinese americans affected tangible forms social relations community immigrant families younger generations chinatown serves basis social capital facilitates accommodation immigrant children expected directions ethnic support provides impetus academic success furthermore maintenance literacy native language also provides form


diffused space case continuous change social structures could bring change social capital cause changes community atmosphere area plagued social organizations whose goals revolt social norms gangs cause negative social capital area causing disagreed organizations relocate thus taking positive social capital different space negative another area social capital seen area study geography


importance social capital among female entrepreneurship epo presented case social capital micro loans increase likelihood female entrepreneurship cameroon epo comparing welfare outcomes entrepreneurs access access authors however disagree positive correlation social capital microfinance kanak iiguni argue formation social capital largely dependent strategies implemented microfinance institutions kanak iiguni determined investigating social capital formation rural village bangladesh see also cultural economics intellectual capital


management organization workshop organisational capital political capital reed 's law relational capital structural capital sexual capital references reading adler paul seok woo kwon https webarchiveorg web http wwwcseewvuedu xinl library papers social social capitalpdf social capital prospects new concept ''academy management review'' http wwwhupharvardedu catalog becacchtml lay summary bourdieu pierre konomisches kapital kulturelles kapital soziales kapital pp nbsp ''soziale ungleichheiten'' ''soziale welt sonderheft'' edited r kreckel goettingen otto schartz co dasgupta partha ismail serageldin eds ''social capital multifaceted perspective'' washington dc world bank https booksgooglecom booksid pz bvqqmxec pg pa lpg pa dq social capital multifaceted perspective world bank publications source web ots eepddaanzf sig mies aax bmve txwuaa zqm ppp google books edwards b w foley ''civil society social capital


method load resisted significant deflections structures forces parts machine subjected vary significantly great rate forces boat aircraft subjected vary enormously thousands times structure 's lifetime structural design must ensure structures endure loading entire design life without failing works require mechanical structural engineering boilers pressure vessels coachworks carriages cranes elevators escalators marine vessels hulls aerospace structures

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Structural engineering


airbus world 's largest passenger airliner design missile needs depth understanding structural analysis aerospace structure types include launch vehicles atlas delta titan missiles alcm harpoon hypersonic vehicles space shuttle military aircraft f f commercial aircraft boeing md aerospace structures typically consist thin plates stiffeners external surfaces bulkheads frames support shape fasteners welds rivets screws bolts hold components together nanoscale structures nanostructure object intermediate size molecular microscopic micrometer sized structures describing nanostructures necessary


elements nonlinearity design structural concrete walls section historical overview structural concrete modelling nedwell pj swamy rn ed ''ferrocement proceedings fifth international symposium'' taylor francis external links http wwwseaintorg structural engineering association international http wwwncseacom national council structural engineers associations https webarchiveorg web http contentseinstituteorg structural engineering institute institute american society civil engineers http enstructuraede structurae database structures https wwwcadengineeringsolutionscouk structural engineering fulhamphp structural engineering consultants http wwwseaintorg structural engineering association international http eurocodesjrceceuropaeu en eurocodes series european standards en en providing common approach design


serve link organization 's management employees duties include planning recruitment selection process posting job ads evaluating performance employees organizing resumes job applications scheduling interviews assisting process ensuring background checks another job payroll benefits administration deals ensuring vacation sick time accounted reviewing payroll participating benefits tasks like claim resolutions reconciling benefits statements approving invoices payment ref name ref hr also coordinates employee relations activities programs including limited employee counseling last job

Applied science
Business
Industrial and labor relations
Human resources


taken granted since time euclid around nbsp bce natural basis mathematics notions axiom proposition proof well notion proposition true mathematical object see assignment formalized allowing treated mathematically zermelo fraenkel axioms set theory formulated provided conceptual framework much mathematical discourse would interpreted mathematics physics new unexpected ideas arisen significant changes coming g del numbering propositions could interpreted referring propositions enabling

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of mathematics


mathematics today proceeds along several different lines inquiry philosophers mathematics logicians mathematicians many schools thought subject schools addressed separately next section assumptions explained major themes mathematical realism '''mathematical realism''' like realism general holds mathematical entities exist independently human mind thus humans invent mathematics rather discover intelligent beings universe would presumably point view really one sort mathematics discovered triangles


used provide sufficient evidence able reasonably assume conjecture within realism distinctions depending sort existence one takes mathematical entities know major forms mathematical realism include platonism aristotelianism mathematical anti realism '''mathematical anti realism''' generally holds mathematical statements truth values corresponding special realm immaterial non empirical entities major forms mathematical anti realism include formalism fictionalism contemporary schools thought artistic view claims mathematics aesthetic combination


assumptions also claims mathematics art famous mathematician claims british g h hardy hardy book ''a mathematician 's apology'' definition mathematics like aesthetic combination concepts platonism '''mathematical platonism''' form realism suggests mathematical entities abstract spatiotemporal causal properties eternal unchanging often claimed view people numbers term ''platonism'' used view seen parallel plato 's theory forms


allow working mathematician continue work leave problems philosopher scientist many formalists would say practice axiom systems studied suggested demands science areas mathematics david hilbert major early proponent formalism david hilbert whose program intended complete consistent axiomatization mathematics hilbert aimed show consistency mathematical systems assumption finitary arithmetic subsystem usual arithmetic positive integers


fact consistent one needs first assume consistency system mathematics sense stronger system proven consistent hilbert initially deductivist may clear considered certain metamathematical methods yield intrinsically meaningful results realist respect finitary arithmetic later held opinion meaningful mathematics whatsoever regardless interpretation formalists rudolf carnap alfred tarski haskell curry considered mathematics investigation formal axiom systems mathematical logicians study


uniquely broad collaborations prompted others see study mathematics social activity eg via erd number reuben hersh also promoted social view mathematics calling humanistic approach similar quite associated alvin white one hersh 's co authors philip j davis expressed sympathy social view well beyond traditional schools unreasonable effectiveness rather focus narrow debates true nature mathematical truth even practices unique mathematicians proof growing


facts involving platonic entities reside realm outside space time whilst knowledge concrete physical objects based ability perceive therefore causally interact parallel account mathematicians come knowledge abstract objects another way making point platonic world disappear would make difference ability mathematicians generate proofs etc already fully accountable terms physical processes brains field developed views fictionalism benacerraf also


diagram electromagnetic spectrum earth 's atmospheric transmittance opacity types telescopes used image parts spectrum'''visible light astronomy''' encompasses wide variety observations via telescopes sensitive range visible light optical telescopes visible light astronomy part '''optical astronomy''' differs astronomies based invisible types light electromagnetic radiation spectrum radio waves infrared waves ultraviolet waves x ray waves gamma ray waves visible light ranges nanometers wavelength visible light astronomy existed long people

Natural science
Space science
Astronomy
Optical astronomy


compared first invented government agencies nasa involved modern day research observation visible objects celestial bodies modern day highest quality pictures data obtained via space telescopes telescopes outside earth 's atmosphere allows much clearer observations atmosphere disrupting image viewing quality telescope meaning objects observed much greater detail much distant low light objects may observed additionally means observations able


past navigation especially ships sea one recognizable constellations big dipper part constellation ursa major constellations also serve help describe location objects sky see also list largest optical reflecting telescopes optical telescope astronomy amateur astronomy references astronomical imaging observational astronomy


power conventionally understood conduces victory war victory weak strong explained key explanations include strategic interaction willingness weak suffer bear higher costs external support weak actors reluctance escalate violence part strong actors internal group dynamics inflated strong actor war aims evolution asymmetric rivals' attitudes towards time asymmetric conflicts include interstate civil wars past two hundred years generally strong actors since however

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Asymmetric warfare


state missouri voted overwhelmingly secede union pro slavers mo ks border driven either south arkansas texas underground became guerrilla fighters bushwhackers living brushy ravines throughout northwest missouri across state line kansas bloody border war lasted civil war long guerrilla partisans like james brothers cynically robbing murdering aided abetted lingering lost causers tragically western border war asymmetric war pro slavery guerrillas paramilitary partisans pro confederate side attacking


forced concentration camps publicly announced deadline persons found outside camps without identification would shot sight thousands civilians died camps due poor conditions th century second boer war asymmetric warfare featured prominently second boer war initial phase fought sides conventional war british captured johannesburg boers' largest city captured capitals two boer republics british expected boers accept peace dictated traditional european manner however


league nations irish free state world war ii philippine resistance japan nbsp japanese occupation world war ii extensive philippine resistance movement opposed japanese active underground guerrilla activity increased years improvised molotov cocktails winter war nbsp finland invaded much larger mechanized military units soviet union although soviets captured finland suffered enormous casualties versus much lower losses finns soviet vehicles confined narrow forest roads terrain snow finns used


battlefield use explosive filled boats suicide attacks military shipping use light aircraft targeting military installations iraq cougar al anbar iraq hit directed charge ied approximately size victory us led coalition forces persian gulf war invasion iraq demonstrated training tactics technology provide overwhelming victories field battle modern conventional warfare saddam hussein 's regime removed power iraq campaign moved different type asymmetric warfare coalition 's use


superior conventional warfare training tactics technology much less use continued opposition various partisan groups operating inside iraq syria much present syrian civil war fought asymmetrically syrian national coalition along mujahideen kurdish democratic union party engaging forces syrian government asymmetric means conflict seen large scale asymmetric warfare across country forces opposed government unable engage symmetrically syrian government resorting instead asymmetric tactics suicide bombings targeted assassinations


see also civilian casualty ratio counter insurgency counter terrorism fourth generation warfare guerrilla warfare irregular military list guerrillas lawfare low intensity conflict military use children millennium challenge people 's war partisan military political warfare reagan doctrine resistance movement scorched earth unconventional warfare unrestricted warfare war amongst people war terror yank levy free war '''us organisations ''' center asymmetric warfare caw asymmetric warfare group special activities division '''wars''' people 's war nepal lebanon war second gaza war '''documents ''' ''management savagery'' references reading bibliographies compiled joan phillips bibliographer air university library '' http wwwauafmil au aul bibs aswhtm bibliography


january pp nbsp montgomery c meigs '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwcarlislearmymil usawc parameters summer meigspdf unorthodox thoughts asymmetric warfare '' pdf richard norton taylor '' https wwwtheguardiancom waronterror story html asymmetric warfare military planners beginning grasp implications september future deterrence strategy '' ''the guardian'' october michael novak '' http wwwnationalreviewcom article asymmetrical warfare war michael novak asymmetrical warfare war moral obligation '' nro february toni pfanner asymmetrical warfare perspective humanitarian law humanitarian action ''international review red cross'' vol march p nbsp sullivan patricia war aims war outcomes powerful states lose limited wars ''journal


quota system means firm abates pollution would cost less paying someone else make reduction leads lower cost total abatement effort whole ''quotas pollution'' often advocated pollution reductions achieved way tradeable emissions permits freely traded may ensure reductions pollution achieved least cost theory tradeable quotas allowed firm would reduce pollution load would cost less paying someone else

Social science
Economics
Environmental economics


loss natural capital consequent erosion water purity problems diseases desertification outcomes efficient economic sense concern related subfield sustainable development political relation anti globalization movement imagemap image sustainable developmentsvg right three pillars sustainability clickable px thumb poly


bearable social ecology poly viable poly


development economics dubbed envirodevonomics michael greenstone b kelsey jack paper envirodevonomics research agenda young field sub field primarily interested studying environmental quality poor developing countries strategy better understanding correlation country 's gdp environmental quality involves analyzing many central concepts environmental economics including market failures externalities willingness pay may complicated particular problems facing developing countries political issues lack infrastructure inadequate financing tools among many others field


properties particularly component exotic alloys ability processing fabrication minimal changes existing technology capital plant processing fabricating facilities suggested substitutions alunite bauxite make alumina molybdenum nickel cobalt aluminum alloy automobile radiators copper alloy automobile radiators materials eliminated without material substitutes example using discharges high tension electricity shape hard objects formerly shaped mineral abrasives giving superior performance lower cost ref name charles w pp charles w merrill mineral obsolescence substitution

Social science
Economics
Resource economics


ref terms ' 'stochastic process'' ''random process'' usually used index set interpreted time ref name gikhmanskorokhod page ref name gusakkukush page ref name bass page ref terms used ''random field'' index set math n math dimensional euclidean space math mathbb r n math manifold ref name gikhmanskorokhod page ref name lamperti page ref name adlertaylor page notation stochastic process denoted among ways math x math ref name br maud page math x math ref name asmussen page math x math ref name lamperti page ref math x math simply math x math math x math although math x math regarded abuse function notation ref name klebaner page ref example math x math math x math used refer random variable

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Probability theory
Stochastic process


finance led confusion resulting criticism ref name spanos page ref various types random walks defined state spaces mathematical objects lattices groups general highly studied many applications different disciplines ref name weiss page ref name klebaner page ref classic example random walk known ' 'simple random walk'' stochastic process discrete time integers state space based bernoulli process bernoulli variable takes either value positive one negative one


zero given time poisson random variable depends time parameter process natural numbers state space non negative numbers index set process also called poisson counting process since interpreted example counting process ref name tijms page poisson process defined single positive constant process called homogeneous poisson process ref name tijms page ref name pinskykarlin ref homogeneous poisson process member important classes stochastic processes markov processes l vy processes ref


two variables math math math omega omega math ref name lamperti page ref name lindgrenrootzen page ref ways consider stochastic process definition considered traditional one ref name rogerswilliams page ref ref name asmussen page ref example stochastic process interpreted defined math math valued random variable math math space possible math math valued functions math math map set math math space math math ref name kallenberg page ref name rogerswilliams page index set set math math called '''index set''' ref name parzen ref name florescu page '''parameter set''' ref name lamperti page ref name skorokhod page ref stochastic process often set subset real


increment much stochastic process changes certain time period example math x math stochastic process state space math math index set math infty math two non negative numbers math infty math math infty math math leq math difference math x x math math math valued random variable known increment ref name karlintaylor page ref name applebaum page interested increments often state space math math real line natural numbers math n math dimensional euclidean space abstract spaces banach spaces ref name applebaum page definitions law


springer ref formally math left x right left right text uncorrelated quad iff quad operatorname k mathbf x mathbf quad forall math independence implies uncorrelatedness two stochastic processes math x math math math independent also uncorrelated ref name kunilpark orthogonality two stochastic processes math left x right math math left right math called '''orthogonal''' cross correlation math operatorname r mathbf x mathbf operatorname e x overline math zero times ref name kunilpark formally math left x right left right text orthogonal quad iff quad operatorname r mathbf x mathbf quad forall math skorokhod space '''skorokhod space''' also written '''skorohod space''' mathematical space functions right continuous left limits defined interval


aspect discrete time martingales generalize idea partial sums independent random variables ref name hallheyde page ref martingales also created stochastic processes applying suitable transformations case homogeneous poisson process real line resulting martingale called ''compensated poisson process'' ref name karatzasshreve page martingales also built martingales ref name steele page example martingales based martingale wiener process forming continuous time martingales ref name klebaner page ref name steele page ref martingales mathematically formalize idea fair game ref name ross page ref originally developed show possible win


theory ref name cramer world war ii greatly interrupted development probability theory causing example migration feller sweden united states america ref name cramer death doeblin considered pioneer stochastic processes ref name lindvall ref mathematician joseph doob early work theory stochastic processes making fundamental contributions particularly theory martingales ref name getoor ref name snell book ''stochastic processes'' considered highly influential field probability theory ref name bingham stochastic processes world war ii world war ii study probability theory stochastic processes gained attention


mathematicians significant contributions made many areas probability mathematics well creation new areas ref name cramer ref name meyer ref starting kiyosi published papers developing field stochastic calculus involves stochastic integrals stochastic differential equations based wiener brownian motion process ref name ito prize ref also starting connections made stochastic processes particularly martingales mathematical field potential theory early ideas shizuo kakutani later work joseph doob ref name meyer work considered pioneering done gilbert hunt


work harry bateman studied counting problem derived poisson probabilities solution family differential equations resulting independent discovery poisson process ref name stirzaker time many studies applications poisson process early history complicated explained various applications process numerous fields biologists ecologists engineers various physical scientists ref name stirzaker markov processes markov processes markov chains named andrey markov studied markov chains early th century ref name ref markov interested studying


math math sample function stochastic process math x math bounded function math math sample function stochastic process math x math increasing function math math overcome two difficulties different assumptions approaches possible ref name asmussen page resolving construction issues one approach avoiding mathematical construction issues stochastic processes proposed joseph doob assume stochastic process separable ref name athreyalahiri page ref separability ensures infinite dimensional distributions determine properties sample functions requiring sample functions essentially determined values dense countable set


causal causal determinism sometimes synonymous historical determinism sort path dependence idea every event necessitated antecedent events conditions together laws nature ref name sepcausaldeterminism ref however broad enough term consider ref name sepmoralresponsibility ref blockquote one 's deliberations choices actions often necessary links causal chain brings something words even though deliberations choices actions determined like everything else still case according causal determinism occurrence existence yet things depends upon

Humanities Philosophy Metaphysics Determinism


categorised specific type determinism ref name mckewan also used interchangeably causal determinism context capacity determine future events ref name mckewan despite predeterminism often considered independent causal determinism ref name society ref biological term ''predeterminism'' also frequently used context biology heredity case represents form biological determinism sometimes called ''genetic determinism'' biological determinism idea human behaviors beliefs desires fixed human genetic nature fatalism fatalism normally distinguished


ignored macroscopic events random quantum events average limit large numbers particles laws quantum mechanics asymptotically approach laws classical mechanics stephen hawking explains similar idea says microscopic world quantum mechanics one determined probabilities quantum effects rarely alter predictions classical mechanics quite accurate albeit still perfectly certain larger scales something large animal cell would adequately determined even light quantum indeterminacy many worlds many worlds interpretation


everything instead describing expect led searching set universal simple laws rule world movement significantly encouraged deterministic views western philosophy well related theological views classical pantheism eastern tradition idea entire universe deterministic system articulated eastern non eastern religion philosophy literature ''i ching'' philosophical taoism ebb flow favorable unfavorable conditions suggests path least resistance effortless see wu wei philosophical schools


favour libertarian free making arguments based generative processes emergence ref name koch ref proponents emergentist generative philosophy cognitive sciences evolutionary psychology argue certain form determinism necessarily causal true ref name kenrick ref ref name nowak nowak vallacher rr tesser borkowski w society self emergence collective properties self structure psychological review ref ref name axtell epstein jm axtell r growing artificial societies social science bottom cambridge mit press ref ref name epstein epstein jm agent based models generative social science complexity iv ref suggest instead illusion


differential equations notably measuring rate change time mathematical models deterministic involve randomness called stochastic sensitive dependence initial conditions deterministic models may appear behave non deterministically cases deterministic interpretation model may useful due numerical instability finite amount precision measurement considerations motivate consideration stochastic model even though underlying system governed deterministic equations quantum classical mechanics day day physics since beginning th century quantum mechanics


target calculated reliably sense behavior light apparatus deterministic way predict resulting interference pattern individual photon make contribution although may ways use weak measurement acquire information without violating uncertainty principle including albert einstein argued inability predict probabilities simply due ignorance idea beyond conditions laws observed deduced also hidden factors hidden variables determine


breeze study composition traditionally dominated examination methods practice western classical music definition composition broad enough include creation popular music traditional music songs instrumental pieces include spontaneously improvised works like free jazz performers african percussionists ewe drummers composition considered consist manipulation aspect music harmony melody form rhythm timbre according jean benjamin de ref terminology since invention sound recording classical piece

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Musical composition


important influence composition link folk music indigenous also musical culture arabia persia bengal ref name nijenhuis ref hindustani musical tradition drupad originally sanskrit later adaptations hindi braj bhasha one ancient compositions formed base forms music tradition khyal thumri raga karnatak music tradition compositions form kriti varanam padam ref name nijenhuis people composing music using synthesizers methods computer methods technology developed


th st century new methods music composition come eeg headsets also used create music interpreting brainwaves musicians method used project mindtunes involved collaborating disabled musicians dj fresh also artists lisa park masaki batoh structure compositional instrumentation task adapting composition different musical ensembles called arranging orchestration may undertaken composer separately arranger based composer 's core composition based factors composers orchestrators arrangers must


modern medical diagnosis medical research history advent microscope one major developments history pathology researchers centers disease control examine cultures containing ''legionella pneumophila'' pathogen responsible legionnaire 's disease study pathology including detailed examination body including dissection inquiry specific maladies dates back antiquity rudimentary understanding many conditions present early societies attested records earliest historical societies including middle east india china ref


develop distinct field inquiry th century natural philosophers physicians studied disease informal study termed pathological anatomy morbid anatomy however pathology formal area specialty fully developed late th early th centuries advent detailed study microbiology th century physicians begun understand disease causing pathogens germs catch disease causing pathogenic microbes bacteria viruses fungi amoebae molds protists prions existed capable reproduction


diagnostic medicine etymology terms ''pathology'' comes ancient greek roots ''pathos'' meaning experience suffering '' logia'' study general pathology modern pathology lab services institute medical sciences modern practice pathology divided number subdisciplines within discrete deeply interconnected aims biological research medical practice biomedical research disease incorporates work vast variety life science specialists whereas parts world licensed practice pathology medical specialty one complete


oral cavity roles distinct otorhinolaryngologists ear nose throat specialists speech pathologists latter helps diagnose many neurological neuromuscular conditions relevant speech phonology swallowing owing availability oral cavity non invasive examination many conditions study oral disease diagnosed least suspected gross examination biopsies cell smears tissue analysis remain important diagnostic tools oral pathology medical training accreditation anatomical pathology instructor uses microscope multiple eyepieces instruct students diagnostic microscopy becoming


may called typologies languages apply commonly attested word orders sov svo least common orders object initial ovs least common four attested instances linguists began question relevance geographical distribution different values various features linguistic structure may wanted discover whether particular grammatical structure found one language likewise found another language geographic location languages split verbs auxiliary

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Linguistic typology


old referents thus instance russian widely considered svo language frequent constituent order conditions sorts variations possible though occur texts many inflected languages russian latin greek departures default word orders permissible usually imply shift focus emphasis final element special context poetry languages word order may also shift freely meet metrical demands additionally freedom word order may vary within language example formal literary


archaizing varieties may different stricter lenient constituent order structures informal spoken variety language hand clear preference described conditions language considered flexible constituent order type unto additional problem languages without living speech communities latin ancient greek old church slavonic linguists written evidence perhaps written poetic formalizing archaic style mischaracterizes actual daily use language daily spoken language sophocles cicero might


chart showing lack predictability consonant vowel inventory sizes relation class wikitable consonant inventory colspan vowel quality inventory style text align center small style text align center average style text align center large style text align center total small style text align center style text align center style text align center average style text align center style text align center style text align center large style text align center style text align center style text align center total


cysouw http wwwcysouwde home articles files cysouwquantmethodpdf quantitative methods typology quantitative linguistics international handbook ed gabriel altmann reinhard k hler r piotrowski berlin mouton de gruyter grijzenhout j phonological domains universals deviations berlin new york mouton de gruyter moravcsik edith introducing language typology cambridge cambridge university press nichols j linguistic diversity space time chicago university chicago press nichols j http wwwreference globalcom doi abs lingty anything typology linguistic typology volume issue pages issn online x issn print july song jj linguistic typology


th century waddington 's canalisation hypothesis epigenetic changes affecting expression chromosomes put forth russian biologist nikolai koltsov generic meaning associated adjective ''epigenetic'' british embryologist c h waddington coined term ''epigenetics'' pertaining ''epigenesis'' parallel valentin haecker 's 'phenogenetics' ref name waddington purpose study inheritance relation phenotypes genotypes wider biological point view crucial importance since kernel whole problem development many geneticists recognized attempted


anything dna sequence influences development organism recent usage word biology follows stricter definitions defined arthur riggs colleagues study mitotically meiotically heritable changes gene function cannot explained changes dna sequence ref name isbn ref term also used however describe processes demonstrated heritable forms histone modification consequently attempts redefine epigenetics broader terms would avoid constraints requiring heritability example adrian bird


express genes necessary activity epigenetic changes preserved cells divide epigenetic changes occur within course one individual organism 's lifetime however epigenetic changes transmitted organism 's offspring process called transgenerational epigenetic inheritance moreover gene inactivation occurs sperm egg cell results fertilization epigenetic modification may also transferred next generation ref name pmid ref specific epigenetic processes include paramutation bookmarking imprinting gene silencing x chromosome inactivation position effect dna methylation reprogramming transvection maternal effects progress


remodeling see next section addition enzyme parp poly adp ribose polymerase product poly adp ribose par accumulate sites dna damage part repair process accumulation turn directs recruitment activation chromatin remodeling protein alc cause nucleosome remodeling nucleosome remodeling found cause instance epigenetic silencing dna repair gene mlh ref name isbn dna damaging chemicals benzene hydroquinone styrene carbon tetrachloride trichloroethylene cause considerable hypomethylation dna activation oxidative stress pathways foods known alter epigenetics rats


different diets food components epigenetically increase levels dna repair enzymes mgmt mlh p food components reduce dna damage soy isoflavones one study markers oxidative stress modified nucleotides result dna damage decreased week diet supplemented soy decrease oxidative dna damage also observed h consumption anthocyanin rich bilberry ''vaccinium myrtillius'' l pomace extract techniques used study epigenetics epigenetic research uses wide range molecular biological techniques understanding epigenetic


acids chain changed shape histone might modified dna completely unwound replication possible modified histones may carried new copy dna histones may act templates initiating surrounding new histones shaped new manner altering shape histones around modified histones would ensure lineage specific transcription program maintained cell division second way addition methyl groups dna mostly


gene transcription factors inhibited binding recognition sequence methylated cytosine addition presence methylated cytosines promoter region attract methyl cpg binding domain mbd proteins mbds interact nucleosome remodeling histone deacetylase complexes leads gene silencing addition another covalent modification involving methylated cytosine demethylation tet enzymes hundreds demethylations occur instance learning memory forming events neurons mechanisms heritability histone state well understood however much known mechanism heritability


mediated effect small rnas small interfering rnas modulate transcriptional gene expression via epigenetic modulation targeted promoters ref name morris ref rna transcripts sometimes gene turned transcribes product directly indirectly maintains activity gene example hnf myod enhance transcription many liver specific muscle specific genes respectively including transcription factor activity proteins encode rna signalling includes differential recruitment hierarchy generic chromatin modifying complexes dna methyltransferases specific loci rnas differentiation development ref name pmid ref epigenetic


rnas mrnas downregulates downregulation mrnas occurs causing decay targeted mrna downregulation occurs level translation protein appears human protein coding genes regulated mirnas many mirnas epigenetically regulated mirna genes associated cpg islands ref name wang may repressed epigenetic methylation transcription methylated cpg islands strongly heritably repressed mirnas epigenetically regulated either histone modifications combined dna methylation histone modification ref name wang mrna


databases srna gene maps based targets microbial genomes also constructed prions prions infectious forms proteins general proteins fold discrete units perform distinct cellular functions proteins also capable forming infectious conformational state known prion although often viewed context infectious disease prions loosely defined ability catalytically convert native state versions protein infectious conformational state latter sense viewed epigenetic agents capable inducing phenotypic


environment intercellular signaling thus individuals develop morphogens activate silence genes epigenetically heritable fashion giving cells memory mammals cells terminally differentiate stem cells retaining ability differentiate several cell types totipotency multipotency mammals stem cells continue producing newly differentiated cells throughout life neurogenesis mammals able respond loss tissues example inability regenerate limbs animals capable epigenetic modifications regulate transition neural stem cells glial progenitor cells


epimutation much faster rates mutation ref name rando verstrepen ref epimutations easily reversible plants heritable dna methylation mutations times likely occur compared dna mutations ref name van der graaf et al ref epigenetically inherited element psi system act stop gap good enough short term adaptation allows lineage survive long enough mutation recombination genetically assimilate adaptive phenotypic change existence possibility increases evolvability species nbsp cases transgenerational epigenetic inheritance phenomena reported wide range


different role bacteria importantly eukaryotes use epigenetic mechanisms primarily regulate gene expression bacteria rarely however bacteria make widespread use postreplicative dna methylation epigenetic control dna protein interactions bacteria also use dna adenine methylation rather dna cytosine methylation epigenetic signal dna adenine methylation important bacteria virulence organisms ''escherichia coli'' ''salmonella vibrio yersinia haemophilus'' ''brucella'' ''alphaproteobacteria'' methylation adenine regulates cell cycle couples gene transcription dna replication ''gammaproteobacteria'' adenine methylation provides signals dna replication chromosome segregation mismatch repair packaging


cohort one thousand subjects assessed multiple times preschool adulthood subjects carried one two copies short allele serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism exhibited higher rates adult depression suicidality exposed childhood maltreatment compared long allele homozygotes equal els exposure ref name referencea ref parental nutrition utero exposure stress endocrine disrupting chemicals male induced maternal effects attraction differential mate quality maternal well paternal age offspring gender could possibly influence whether germline epimutation ultimately expressed offspring


new age authors making unfounded suggestions person 's genes health manipulated mind control misuse scientific term quack authors produced misinformation among general public ref name science see also baldwin effect behavioral epigenetics biological effects radiation epigenome computational epigenetics contribution epigenetic modifications evolution epigenesis biology epigenetics forensic science epigenetic therapy epigenetics neurodegenerative diseases genetics lamarckism nutriepigenomics position effect variegation preformationism somatic epitype synthetic genetic array transcriptional memory transgenerational epigenetic inheritance references reading external links http wwwepigenomeorg human


terms express fuzzy value scale common practice modify linguistic values adjectives adverbs example use hedges ''rather'' ' 'somewhat'' construct additional values ''rather old'' ' 'somewhat young'' fuzzy systems mamdani best known fuzzy system applying mamdani rule based system following process followed fuzzify input values fuzzy membership functions execute applicable rules rulebase compute fuzzy output functions de fuzzify fuzzy output functions get crisp output values fuzzification fuzzification process

Formal science
Computer science
Logic in computer science
Fuzzy logic


natural manner example image meanings expressions ''cold'' ''warm'' ''hot'' represented functions mapping temperature scale point scale three truth values one three functions vertical line image represents particular temperature three arrows truth values gauge since red arrow points zero temperature may interpreted hot ie temperature zero membership fuzzy set hot orange arrow pointing may describe slightly warm blue arrow pointing


center final output takagi sugeno kang tsk tsk system similar mamdani defuzzification process included execution fuzzy rules also adapted instead consequent rule represented polynomial function usually constant linear example rule constant output would syntaxhighlight lang text temperature cold syntaxhighlight case output equal constant consequent eg scenarios would entire rule base


inference systems forming consensus inputs fuzzy rules since fuzzy system output consensus inputs rules fuzzy logic systems well behaved input values available trustworthy weightings optionally added rule rulebase weightings used regulate degree rule affects output values rule weightings based upon priority reliability consistency rule rule weightings may static changed dynamically even


others used neural networks soon found way multitude electronic devices obviously underlying logic latter approach radically different former even neural networks built top bivalent electronics fuzzy logic gives ai accurate way model complex situations medical decision making fuzzy logic important concept comes medical decision making since medical healthcare data subjective fuzzy applications domain great potential benefit lot using fuzzy logic based approaches


example large public collaborations across many companies networks notion confined grid may also known intra nodes cooperation whereas notion larger wider grid may thus refer inter nodes cooperation coordinating applications grids complex task especially coordinating flow information across distributed computing resources grid workflow systems developed specialized form workflow management system designed specifically compose execute series computational data manipulation steps workflow grid context comparison grids conventional

Formal science
Computer science
Distributed computing
Grid computing


multiple machines makes possible write debug single conventional machine eliminates complications due multiple instances program running shared memory storage space time design considerations variations one feature distributed grids formed computing resources belonging one multiple individuals organizations known multiple administrative domains facilitate commercial transactions utility computing make easier assemble volunteer computing networks one disadvantage feature computers


enterprise global grid term cloud computing came popularity conceptually similar canonical foster definition grid computing terms computing resources consumed electricity power grid earlier utility computing indeed grid computing often always associated delivery cloud computing systems exemplified applogic system tera progress november seidel received sidney fernbach award supercomputing conference tampa florida outstanding contributions development software hpc grid computing enable


internet project ran million machines close definitions today many definitions ''grid computing'' article grid three point checklist ref name autogenerated ian foster lists primary attributes computing resources administered centrally open standards used nontrivial quality service achieved plaszczak wellner define grid technology technology enables resource virtualization demand provisioning service resource sharing organizations ibm defines grid computing ability using set open standards protocols gain access applications data


world war ii united nations set body promote maintain international peace security united states proposed baruch plan way impose stringent international control nuclear fuel cycle thereby avert global nuclear arms race soviet union rejected proposal negotiations failed following president eisenhower 's atoms peace speech un general assembly international atomic energy agency set promote peaceful uses nuclear technology apply safeguards diversion

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Arms control


force strategic offensive reductions treaty sort signed entered force expires limited nuclear warheads international code conduct ballistic missile proliferation signed limited proliferation ballistic missiles convention cluster munitions signed entered force prohibits deployment production stockpiling cluster bombs new start treaty signed russia united states april entered force february reduced strategic nuclear missiles half arms trade treaty concluded entered force december regulates trade conventional weapons treaty prohibition


oxidation mohamed atalla bell labs ref name bassett ref ref name sah considered successful effort bell labs group led atalla stabilize silicon surface important significant technology advance blazed trail led silicon integrated circuit technology developments second phase volume production third phase ref monolithic integrated circuit chip robert noyce fairchild semiconductor ref name saxena ref metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor mosfet mos transistor mohamed atalla dawon kahng bell labs ref name computerhistory ref ref name computerhistory transistor ref ref name triumph ref single chip microprocessor intel

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Electrical Engineering
Computer engineering


improving existing ones example relative cost fixing bug increases along software development cycle greater cost savings attributed developing testing quality code soon possible process particularly release ref name cost fixing bug ref profession computer engineer person profession computer engineering called computer engineer class wikitable title prefix suffix requirements computer engineer engr cpe passed degree computer engineering small institution educational institution college university small certified computer


systems engineers working area work enhancing speed reliability energy efficiency next generation large scale integrated vlsi circuits microsystems example specialty work done reducing power consumption vlsi algorithms architecture ref name sccc signal image speech processing computer engineers area develop improvements human computer interaction including speech recognition synthesis medical scientific imaging communications systems work area includes computer vision development recognition human facial features ref name sccc quantum computing see also related fields associations


association computer engineers technicians ieee computer society association computing machinery references external links electrical computer engineering engineering disciplines


maritime facilities airport engineering airport engineers design construct airports airport engineers must account impacts demands aircraft design airport facilities engineers must use analysis predominant wind direction determine runway orientation determine size runway border safety areas different wing tip wing tip clearances gates must designate clear zones entire port see also bicycle transportation engineering heuristic routing individual mobility interplanetary transport network pavement engineering principles intelligent urbanism space syntax pedestrian vehicular analysis using similar br techniques

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Transportation engineering


characterized start seeking rational physical explanation celestial phenomena rd century bc aristarchus samos estimated size distance moon sun proposed model solar system earth planets rotated around sun called heliocentric model nd century bc hipparchus discovered precession calculated size distance moon invented earliest known astronomical devices astrolabe hipparchus also created comprehensive catalog stars constellations northern hemisphere derive


''albion'' could used astronomical calculations lunar solar planetary longitudes could predict eclipses nicole oresme jean buridan first discussed evidence rotation earth furthermore buridan also developed theory impetus predecessor modern scientific theory inertia able show planets capable motion without intervention angels georg von peuerbach regiomontanus helped make astronomical progress instrumental copernicus 's development heliocentric model decades later astronomy flourished islamic world parts world


normally blocked blurred atmosphere february revealed ligo project detected evidence gravitational waves previous september ref name discovery ref ref name 'abbot' ref observational astronomy main source information celestial bodies objects visible light generally electromagnetic radiation observational astronomy may categorized according corresponding region electromagnetic spectrum observations made parts spectrum observed earth 's surface parts observable either high altitudes outside earth 's atmosphere specific information


produce gamma radiation milliseconds thousands seconds fading away gamma ray sources non transient sources steady gamma ray emitters include pulsars neutron stars black hole candidates active galactic nuclei ref name cox fields based electromagnetic spectrum addition electromagnetic radiation events originating great distances may observed earth neutrino astronomy astronomers use heavily shielded underground facilities sage gallex kamioka ii iii detection neutrinos vast majority neutrinos streaming earth originate


stars ref name wolszczan ref theoretical astronomy theoretical astronomers use several tools including analytical models computational numerical simulations particular advantages analytical models process better giving broader insight heart going numerical models reveal existence phenomena effects otherwise unobserved theorists astronomy endeavor create theoretical models results predict observational consequences models observation phenomenon predicted model allows astronomers select several alternate conflicting models one best able describe phenomena theorists also try