organised hierarchical bodies scepticism toward authority also rose although traces anarchist thought found throughout history modern anarchism emerged enlightenment latter half th first decades th century anarchist movement flourished parts world significant role workers' struggles emancipation various anarchist schools thought formed period anarchists taken part several revolutions notably comune paris russian civil war spanish civil war whose end marked end classical era

Humanities
Philosophy
Social philosophy
Anarchism


theory mutualism found fertile soil france late various anarchist schools thought become well defined wave unprecedented globalisation occurred era classical anarchism lasted end spanish civil war considered golden age anarchism mikhail bakunin opposed marxist aim dictatorship proletariat allied federalists first international expulsion marxists drawing mutualism mikhail bakunin founded collectivist anarchism entered international workingmen 's association class worker union later


followed major currents social anarchism collectivist communist syndicalist differ organisational economic aspects ideal society mutualism th century economic theory developed anarchist theory pierre joseph proudhon aims include reciprocity free association voluntary contract federation monetary reform credit currency would regulated bank people mutualism retrospectively characterised ideologically situated individualist collectivist forms anarchism ''what property'' proudhon first characterised goal third form society synthesis


philosophy embodies many diverse attitudes tendencies schools thought disagreement questions values ideology tactics common diversity led widely different uses identical terms among different anarchist traditions created number definitional concerns anarchist theory compatibility capitalism nationalism religion anarchism widely disputed anarchism enjoys complex relationships ideologies communism collectivism marxism trade unionism anarchists may motivated humanism divine authority enlightened self interest veganism number alternative ethical doctrines phenomena civilisation technology eg within


philosophical anarchism ineffective talk thoughts meantime capitalism bourgeois class remains strong philosophical anarchism met criticism members academia following release pro anarchist books john simmons' ''moral principles political obligations'' law professor william edmundson authored essay argue three major philosophical anarchist principles finds fallacious edmundson says individual owe state duty obedience imply anarchism inevitable conclusion state still morally legitimate ''the problem


indigenous american people '''anthropology''' scientific study humanity concerned human behavior human biology cultures societies linguistics present past including past human species ref name oed ref ref name eb ref ref name aaa ref social anthropology studies patterns behaviour cultural anthropology ref name oed ref name eb ref name aaa studies cultural meaning including norms values portmanteau sociocultural anthropology commonly used today linguistic anthropology studies language influences social life biological physical anthropology ref name oed ref name eb ref name aaa studies biological development humans archaeological anthropology often termed 'anthropology past' studies human activity investigation physical evidence


anthropologists times liberal anti slavery pro human rights activists maintained international connections anthropology many current fields intellectual results comparative methods developed earlier th century theorists diverse fields anatomy linguistics ethnology making feature feature comparisons subject matters beginning suspect similarities animals languages folkways result processes laws unknown publication charles darwin 's ''on origin species'' epiphany everything begun suspect darwin arrived


conclusions comparison species seen agronomy wild darwin wallace unveiled evolution late immediate rush bring social sciences paul broca paris process breaking away soci de biologie form first explicitly anthropological societies soci d'anthropologie de paris meeting first time paris ref name fletcher ref read darwin became immediate convert ''transformisme'' french called evolutionism definition became study


printed first volume new publication ''the anthropological review'' hunt stressed work waitz adopting definitions standard ref name hunt ref among first associates young edward burnett tylor inventor cultural anthropology brother alfred tylor geologist previously edward referred ethnologist subsequently anthropologist similar organizations countries followed anthropological society madrid american anthropological association anthropological society vienna italian society anthropology ethnology many others subsequently majority evolutionists


one notable exception berlin society anthropology ethnology prehistory founded rudolph virchow known vituperative attacks evolutionists religious insisted darwin 's conclusions lacked empirical foundation last three decades th century proliferation anthropological societies associations occurred independent publishing journals international membership association major theorists belonged organizations supported gradual osmosis anthropology curricula major institutions higher learning educational institutions countries curriculum


anthropology none faculty members department named anthropology th st centuries meager statistic expanded th century comprise anthropology departments majority world 's higher educational institutions many thousands number anthropology diversified major subdivisions dozens practical anthropology use anthropological knowledge technique solve specific problems arrived example presence buried victims might stimulate use forensic archaeologist recreate final scene organization reached global level example world


sometimes used interchangeably ethnographic film visual anthropology also encompasses anthropological study visual representation including areas performance museums art production reception mass media visual representations cultures sandpaintings tattoos sculptures reliefs cave paintings scrimshaw jewelry hieroglyphics paintings photographs included focus visual anthropology economic political economic applied development economic economic anthropology attempts explain human economic behavior widest historic geographic cultural scope complex relationship discipline economics


social studies science donna haraway 's ''cyborg manifesto'' could considered founding document cyborg anthropology first exploring philosophical sociological ramifications term cyborg anthropology studies humankind relations technological systems built specifically modern technological systems reflexively shaped notions means human beings digital digital anthropology study relationship humans digital era technology extends various areas anthropology technology intersect sometimes grouped sociocultural anthropology sometimes considered part


material culture field new thus variety names variety emphases include techno anthropology digital ethnography cyberanthropology virtual anthropology ecological ecological anthropology defined study cultural adaptations environments ref name kottak ref sub field also defined study relationships population humans biophysical environment ref name townsend ref focus research concerns cultural beliefs practices helped human populations adapt environments environments change across space time ref name kottak cp ref contemporary perspective environmental anthropology


legitimate professional exercise anthropology summary stress constructive engagement anthropology military possible ceaussic suggests aaa emphasize incompatibility hts disciplinary ethics practice job seekers recognize problem allowing hts define meaning anthropology within dod post world war ii developments wwii british 'social anthropology' american 'cultural anthropology' still distinct traditions war enough british american anthropologists borrowed ideas methodological approaches one another began speak collectively 'sociocultural' anthropology


''exploring city inquiries toward urban anthropology'' p columbia university press ref exist many works focusing peoples topics close author 's home ref name lewis lewis herbert '' https wwwjstororg stable misrepresentation anthropology consequences '' ''american anthropologist'' ref also argued fields study like history sociology contrary focus disproportionately west france study western societies traditionally left sociologists increasingly changing starting scholars like isac chiva journals like ''terrain'' fieldwork


become extremely popular since pixar 's ''toy story'' first computer animated feature style cel animation studios switched producing mostly computer animated films around proved cheaper profitable popular animation style generated computers also films series traditional hand crafted appearance charming characteristics cel animation could emulated software new digital tools helped developing new styles effects economic status animation market worth us billion animated feature length

Humanities
Performing arts
Film
Animation


year awarded th academy awards film ''shrek'' produced dreamworks pacific data images disney animation pixar produced films either win nominated award ''beauty beast'' first animated film nominated best picture ''up'' ''toy story '' also received best picture nominations academy expanded number nominees five ten academy award best animated feature academy award best animated short film several countries instituted award


director ask one take principal photography live action film every take animated film must manually rendered animators although task rendering slightly different takes made less tedious modern computer animation pointless studio pay salaries dozens animators spend weeks creating visually dazzling five minute scene scene fails effectively advance plot film thus animation studios starting disney began practice maintaining story departments storyboard artists develop every


term tradigital play words traditional digital describe cel animation uses significant computer technology examples traditionally animated feature films include ''pinocchio'' united states ''animal farm'' united kingdom ''lucky zorba'' italy ''the illusionist'' british french traditionally animated films produced aid computer technology include ''the lion king'' us ''the prince egypt'' us ''akira'' japan ''spirited away'' japan ''the triplets belleville'' france ''the secret kells'' irish french belgian full '''full animation''' refers process producing high quality traditionally animated


animation produced moving two dimensional pieces material paper cloth examples include terry gilliam 's animated sequences ''monty python 's flying circus'' uk ''fantastic planet'' france czechoslovakia ''tale tales'' russia pilot episode adult television sitcom series sometimes episodes ''south park'' us music video live moment verona riots band produced alberto serrano n vola uy spain silhouette animation variant cutout animation characters backlit visible silhouettes examples include ''the adventures prince achmed'' weimar


movements sounds rather responding external stimuli disney created interactive version technology called autonomatronics '''linear animation generator''' form animation using static picture frames installed tunnel shaft animation illusion created putting viewer linear motion parallel installed picture frames concept technical solution invented mihai girlovan romania '''chuckimation''' type animation created makers television series ''action league '' characters props thrown chucked


harvesting wheat combine harvester accompanied tractor trailer '''agriculture''' practice cultivating plants livestock ref name office year publisher international labour organization isbn page access date september url status live archive url https webarchiveorg web http booksgooglecom booksid gtba xiw aqc archive date july quote defined agriculture 'all forms activities connected growing harvesting primary processing types crops breeding raising caring animals tending gardens nurseries' ref agriculture key development rise sedentary human civilization whereby farming domesticated species created food surpluses enabled people live cities history agriculture


p orange identified recently ref name larson origins development agriculture enabled human population grow many times larger could sustained hunting gathering ref name bocquet appel ref agriculture began independently different parts globe ref name stephens ref included diverse range taxa least separate centres origin ref name larson ref wild grains collected eaten least years ago around years ago eight neolithic founder crops emmer einkorn wheat hulled barley peas lentils bitter vetch chick peas flax cultivated


islands mayas used extensive canal raised field systems farm swampland bc ref name spooner ref ref name online ref ref name john michael francis isbn ref coca domesticated andes peanut tomato tobacco pineapple ref name murphy cotton domesticated peru bc ref name broudy p year publisher upne isbn page ref animals including llamas alpacas guinea pigs domesticated ref name rischkowskypilling year publisher food agriculture organization isbn page ref north america indigenous people east domesticated crops sunflower tobacco squash ''chenopodium'' wild foods including wild rice maple sugar


agriculture th century dropped countries today figure less ref name laborforce start st century one billion people available work force employed agriculture constitutes approximately global employment children many countries employs largest percentage women industry ref name ilo service sector overtook agricultural sector largest global employer safety rollover protection bar retrofitted mid th century fordson


work live farm entire families risk injuries illness death ref name niosh agri ref ages may especially vulnerable population agriculture ref name weicheltgorucu ref common causes fatal injuries among young farm workers include drowning machinery motor accidents including terrain vehicles ref name niosh agri ref name weicheltgorucu international labour organization considers agriculture one hazardous economic sectors ref name ilo ref estimates annual work related death toll among agricultural employees least twice average rate jobs addition incidences death injury


name cs intercropping coconut mexican marigold industrialization led use monocultures one cultivar planted large acreage low biodiversity nutrient use uniform pests tend build necessitating greater use pesticides fertilizers ref name pcp aps multiple cropping several crops grown sequentially one year intercropping several crops grown time kinds annual cropping systems known polycultures ref name cs subtropical arid environments timing extent agriculture may limited


long term decline ecosystem function productivity estimated occurring land worldwide cropland overrepresented ref name fao glada ref land management driving factor behind degradation nbsp billion people rely upon degrading land degradation deforestation desertification soil erosion mineral depletion acidification salinization ref name cs eutrophication excessive nutrient enrichment aquatic ecosystems resulting algal blooms anoxia leads fish kills loss biodiversity renders water unfit drinking industrial uses excessive fertilization manure application cropland well high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient mainly


structure organisms including systems organs tissues includes appearance position various parts materials composed locations relationships parts anatomy quite distinct physiology biochemistry deal respectively functions parts chemical processes involved example anatomist concerned shape size position structure blood supply innervation organ liver physiologist interested production bile role liver nutrition


inorganic material called extracellular matrix connective tissue gives shape organs holds place main types loose connective tissue adipose tissue fibrous connective tissue cartilage bone extracellular matrix contains proteins chief abundant collagen collagen plays major part organizing maintaining tissues matrix modified form skeleton support protect body exoskeleton thickened rigid cuticle stiffened mineralization crustaceans cross linking proteins insects endoskeleton internal


kept entirely separate nitrogenous waste excreted primarily urea ref name dorit ref mammals amniotes viviparous giving birth live young exception egg laying monotremes platypus echidnas australia mammals placenta developing foetus obtains nourishment marsupials foetal stage short immature young born finds way mother 's pouch latches nipple completes development ref name dorit human anatomy mri scan chapter hand ref humans overall body plan


islamic golden age medicine translated greek time th century ref name boas medieval early modern anatomical study arm leonardo da vinci anatomical chart vesalius 's ''epitome'' michiel jansz van mierevelt ''anatomy lesson dr willem van der meer'' anatomy developed little classical times sixteenth century historian marie boas writes progress anatomy sixteenth century mysteriously slow development startlingly rapid ref name boas ref anatomists mondino


ultrastructure cells organelles structures within time use x ray diffraction studying crystal structures proteins nucleic acids biological molecules gave rise new field molecular anatomy ref name britmicro equally important advances occurred ''non invasive'' techniques examining interior structures body x rays passed body used medical radiography fluoroscopy differentiate interior structures varying degrees opaqueness magnetic resonance imaging computed tomography ultrasound imaging enabled examination


flakes naqada ii times early evidence exists contact near east particularly canaan byblos coast period years naqada culture developed small farming communities powerful civilization whose leaders complete control people resources nile valley establishing power center nekhen greek hierakonpolis later abydos naqada iii leaders expanded control egypt northwards along nile also traded nubia south oases western desert west

Humanities
History
Ancient history
Ancient Egypt


nation 's population arts religion flourished contrast elitist old kingdom attitudes towards gods middle kingdom displayed increase expressions personal piety middle kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes characters written confident eloquent style relief portrait sculpture period captured subtle individual details reached new heights technical sophistication last great ruler middle kingdom amenemhat iii allowed semitic speaking canaanite settlers near east delta region provide sufficient labour force especially active mining building campaigns ambitious building


entrance temple abu simbel around bc ramesses ii also known ramesses great ascended throne went build temples erect statues obelisks sire children pharaoh history bold military leader ramesses ii led army hittites battle kadesh modern syria fighting stalemate finally agreed first recorded peace treaty around bc egypt 's wealth however made tempting target invasion particularly libyan berbers west sea peoples


sea peoples' one egyptologist wolfgang helck recently remarked although things unclear eins ist aber sicher nach den agyptischen texten haben wir es nicht mit einer 'volkerwanderung' zu tun thus migration hypothesis based inscriptions interpretation initially military able repel invasions egypt eventually lost control remaining territories southern canaan much falling assyrians effects external threats exacerbated internal problems corruption tomb robbery civil unrest regaining power high priests


shoshenq bc founding called libyan bubastite dynasty would rule years shoshenq also gained control southern egypt placing family members important priestly positions libyan control began erode rival dynasty delta arose leontopolis kushites threatened south twenty fifth dynasty several kushite kings left right tantamani taharqa rear senkamanisken tantamani rear aspelta anlamani senkamanisken kerma museum around bc kushite king piye invaded northward seizing control thebes eventually delta established th dynasty


traded goods according fixed price list fifth centurybc coined money introduced egypt abroad first coins used standardized pieces precious metal rather true money following centuries international traders came rely coinage social status painted limestone relief noble member ancient egyptian society new kingdom egyptian society highly stratified social status expressly displayed farmers made bulk population agricultural produce owned directly state temple noble family


cosmic order thus humans animals plants believed members single whole animals domesticated wild therefore critical source spirituality companionship sustenance ancient egyptians cattle important livestock administration collected taxes livestock regular censuses size herd reflected prestige importance estate temple owned addition cattle ancient egyptians kept sheep goats pigs poultry ducks geese pigeons captured nets bred farms


large numbers purpose ritual sacrifice natural resources egypt rich building decorative stone copper lead ores gold semiprecious stones natural resources allowed ancient egyptians build monuments sculpt statues make tools fashion jewelry embalmers used salts wadi natrun mummification also provided gypsum needed make plaster ore bearing rock formations found distant inhospitable wadis eastern desert sinai requiring large state controlled expeditions obtain natural resources found extensive gold mines nubia one first


tomb autobiography harkhuf weni genre known ''sebayt'' instructions developed communicate teachings guidance famous nobles ipuwer papyrus poem lamentations describing natural disasters social upheaval famous example story sinuhe written middle egyptian might classic egyptian literature also written time westcar papyrus set stories told khufu sons relating marvels performed priests instruction amenemope considered masterpiece near eastern literature towards end


lepsius projekt tw jpg illustration various types capitals drawn egyptologist karl richard lepsius gallery art bust nefertiti sculptor thutmose one famous masterpieces ancient egyptian art ancient egyptians produced art serve functional purposes years artists adhered artistic forms iconography developed old kingdom following strict set principles resisted foreign influence internal change artistic standards simple lines shapes flat areas color combined characteristic flat projection figures indication spatial depth created


art quickly abandoned akhenaten 's death replaced traditional forms gallery widths heights file calcite basin supporting boat shrine jpg egyptian tomb models funerary goods egyptian museum cairo file kneeling portrait statue amenemhat holding stele inscription jpg kneeling portrait statue amenemhat holding stele inscription c bc limestone egyptian museum berlin germany file tomb nebamunjpg fresco depicts nebamun hunting birds nbsp bc paint plaster nbsp cm british museum london file portrait head pharaoh hatshepsut thutmose iii jpg portrait head pharaoh hatshepsut thutmose iii bc


substitute statue permanent home ultimate goal deceased rejoin ''ka'' ''ba'' become one blessed dead living ''akh'' effective one happen deceased judged worthy trial heart weighed feather truth deemed worthy deceased could continue existence earth spiritual form deemed worthy heart eaten ammit devourer erased universe burial


mixture salts called natron body wrapped linen protective amulets inserted layers placed decorated anthropoid coffin mummies late period also placed painted cartonnage mummy cases actual preservation practices declined ptolemaic roman eras greater emphasis placed outer appearance mummy decorated wealthy egyptians buried larger quantities luxury items burials regardless social status included goods deceased funerary texts often included grave beginning new kingdom


alongside troops soldiers recruited general population especially new kingdom mercenaries nubia kush libya hired fight egypt technology medicine mathematics technology glassmaking highly developed art technology medicine mathematics ancient egypt achieved relatively high standard productivity sophistication traditional empiricism evidenced edwin smith ebers papyri c bc first credited egypt egyptians created alphabet decimal system faience glass ancient egyptian medical instruments depicted ptolemaic period inscription temple


significant toll body grit sand stone ground flour abraded teeth leaving susceptible abscesses though caries rare diets wealthy rich sugars promoted periodontal disease despite flattering physiques portrayed tomb walls overweight mummies many upper class show effects life overindulgence adult life expectancy men women reaching adulthood difficult one third population died infancy edwin smith surgical papyrus c th century bc written hieratic describes


city states eastern mediterranean especially byblos coast modern day lebanon several expeditions red sea land punt fact one earliest egyptian words seagoing ship byblos ship originally defined class egyptian seagoing ships used byblos run however end old kingdom term come include large seagoing ships whatever destination ancient north south canal discovered extending lake timsah ballah lakes dated


moscow mathematical papyrus show ancient egyptians could perform four basic mathematical operations addition subtraction multiplication division use fractions calculate areas rectangles triangles circles compute volumes boxes columns pyramids understood basic concepts algebra geometry could solve simple sets simultaneous equations hiero hiero align right era default mathematical notation decimal based hieroglyphic signs power ten one million could written many times necessary add desired number write number


particular case observations medical ethics committees jonsen toulmin note consensus particularly problematic moral cases often emerges participants focus facts case rather ideology theory thus rabbi catholic priest agnostic might agree particular case best approach withhold extraordinary medical care disagreeing reasons support individual positions focusing cases theory engaged moral debate increase possibility agreement see also bioethics business ethics effective altruism ethical

Humanities
Philosophy
Ethics
Applied ethics


convertible reverse process e e c c b therefore b constitutes synthetic proof original theorem problematic analysis applied cases proposed construct figure assumed satisfy given condition problem converted theorem involved condition proved synthetically steps synthetic proof taken backwards synthetic solution problem blockquote music musical analysis nbsp process attempting answer question

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis


variance different parts boolean analysis nbsp method find deterministic dependencies variables sample mostly used exploratory data analysis cluster analysis nbsp techniques finding groups called clusters based measure proximity similarity factor analysis nbsp method construct models describing data set observed variables terms smaller set unobserved variables called factors meta analysis nbsp combines results several studies address set related research hypotheses multivariate analysis nbsp analysis data involving several variables factor analysis regression analysis principal component analysis principal component


ref sub symbolic form commonsense knowledge much people know represented facts statements could express verbally ref name psychological evidence sub symbolic reasoning formal knowledge representations used content based indexing retrieval scene interpretation clinical decision support knowledge discovery mining interesting actionable inferences large databases areas planning intelligent agent plan makes representation state world makes predictions actions change makes choices maximize utility value available choices

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence


steps search methodologies heuristics also serve eliminate choices unlikely lead goal called pruning search tree heuristics supply program best guess path solution lies ref name informed search heuristic informed searches eg greedy best first ref heuristics limit search solutions smaller sample size particle swarm seeking global minimum different kind search came prominence based mathematical theory optimization many problems possible begin search


form guess refine guess incrementally refinements made algorithms visualized blind hill climbing begin search random point landscape jumps steps keep moving guess uphill reach top optimization algorithms simulated annealing beam search random optimization ref name optimization search optimization searches ref evolutionary computation uses form optimization search example may begin population organisms guesses allow mutate recombine selecting


performance programs many important subfields artificial intelligence including computer vision speech recognition image classification others deep learning often uses convolutional neural networks many layers convolutional layer neuron receives input restricted area previous layer called neuron 's receptive field substantially reduce number weighted connections neurons creates hierarchy similar organization animal visual cortex recurrent neural network signal propagate layer thus rnn


learning eclipsed approaches much sources especially business world use term artificial intelligence mean machine learning neural networks approach mostly sub symbolic neat soft narrow see critics argue questions may revisited future generations ai researchers symbolic ai limits symbolic ai gofai simulated high level conscious reasoning people use solve puzzles express legal reasoning mathematics highly successful intelligent tasks algebra iq tests


whether pursue goals artificial general intelligence superintelligence general ai directly solve many specific problems possible narrow ai hopes solutions lead indirectly field 's long term goals general intelligence difficult define difficult measure modern ai verifiable successes focussing specific problems specific solutions experimental sub field artificial general intelligence studies area exclusively machine consciousness sentience mind philosophy mind know whether machine mind consciousness mental


computer science volume pages e doi peerj cs doi access free date december title robots could demand legal rights work bbc news url http newsbbccouk hi technology stm access date february archive url https webarchiveorg web http newsbbccouk hi technology stm archive date october url status live url https eceuropaeu info sites info files commission white paper artificial intelligence feb enpdf title white paper artificial intelligence european approach excellence trust publisher european commission year location brussels access date february archive date february archive url https webarchiveorg web https eceuropaeu info sites info files commission white paper artificial intelligence feb enpdf url status live title machine ethics url http wwwaaaiorg library symposia fall fs work aaaiorg url status dead archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwaaaiorg library symposia fall fs archive date november title ai set exceed human brain power work cnn date august url http wwwcnncom tech science aibostrom archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwcnncom tech science aibostrom archive date february url status live title kismet publisher mit artificial intelligence laboratory humanoid robotics group url http wwwaimitedu projects humanoid robotics group kismet kismethtml access date october archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwaimitedu projects humanoid robotics group kismet kismethtml archive date october url status live title ask ai experts


behave intelligently complicated understand p nbsp computer scientist alex pentland writes current ai machine learning algorithms core dead simple stupid work work brute force p nbsp domingos pedro digital doubles ai serve species control ''scientific american'' vol september pp nbsp gopnik alison making ai human artificial intelligence staged revival starting incorporate know children learn ''scientific american'' vol june pp nbsp halpern sue human costs ai


parked cars wrong situation ai systems go supersmart superdumb instant enemy trying manipulate hack ai system risks even greater p nbsp sun r bookman l eds ''computational architectures integrating neural symbolic processes'' kluwer academic publishers needham taylor paul insanely complicated hopelessly inadequate review brian cantwell smith ''the promise artificial intelligence reckoning judgment'' mit pp gary marcus ernest davis ''rebooting ai building artificial intelligence trust'' ballantine pp judea pearl


arab empire marked end old iranian philosophy ushered beginnings early islamic philosophy ancient chinese philosophy chinese philosophy dominant philosophical thought china countries within east asian cultural sphere share common language including japan korea vietnam schools thought hundred schools thought hundred schools thought philosophers schools flourished th century bce era great cultural intellectual expansion china even though period known earlier part spring autumn period

Humanities
History
Philosophical history
Ancient philosophy


imitate heaven engaging practice collective love epistemology regarded primitive materialist empiricism believed human cognition ought based one 's perceptions ndash one 's sensory experiences sight hearing ndash instead imagination internal logic elements founded human capacity abstraction mozi advocated frugality condemning confucian emphasis ritual music denounced extravagant naturalism school naturalists yin yang school synthesized concepts yin yang five elements zou yan considered founder


philosophers st millennium bce parashara writer ''vi u pur a'' philosophers vedic age c c bce rishi narayana seer purusha sukta rig veda seven rishis atri bharadwaja gautama jamadagni kasyapa vasishtha viswamitra vedic rishis gritsamada sandilya kanva etc rishaba rishi mentioned rig veda later several puranas believed jains first official religious guru jainism accredited later followers yajnavalkya one vedic sages greatly influenced buddhistic thought lopamudra gargi vachaknavi maitreyi parshvanatha ghosha angiras one


pressure levels terms frequencies partly ears interpret sound experience higher pitched lower pitched sounds pressure vibrations higher lower number cycles per second common technique acoustic measurement acoustic signals sampled time presented meaningful forms octave bands time frequency plots popular methods used analyze sound better understand acoustic phenomenon entire spectrum divided three sections audio ultrasonic infrasonic audio range


microphones particle velocity sensors hydrophones sonar projectors devices convert sound wave electric signal widely used transduction principles electromagnetism electrostatics piezoelectricity transducers common loudspeakers eg woofers tweeters electromagnetic devices generate waves using suspended diaphragm driven electromagnetic voice coil sending pressure waves electret microphones condenser microphones employ electrostatics sound wave strikes microphone 's diaphragm moves induces voltage change ultrasonic systems used medical ultrasonography employ piezoelectric transducers made special ceramics


speech music noise acoustic scientists advance understanding sound affected moves environments eg underwater acoustics architectural acoustics structural acoustics areas work listed subdisciplines acoustic scientists work government university private industry laboratories many go work acoustical engineering positions faculty academic staff require doctor philosophy subdisciplines archaeoacoustics st michael 's cave archaeoacoustics also known archaeology sound one ways experience past senses eyes ref name ref archaeoacoustics


analysis material characterization structural health monitoring acoustic metamaterials friction acoustics applications might include ground vibrations railways vibration isolation reduce vibration operating theatres studying vibration damage health vibration white finger vibration control protect building earthquakes measuring structure borne sound moves buildings ultrasonics ultrasound image fetus womb viewed weeks pregnancy bidimensional scan ultrasonics deals sounds frequencies high heard humans specialisms include medical ultrasonics including medical ultrasonography sonochemistry ultrasonic testing material characterisation underwater acoustics sonar underwater acoustics underwater acoustics


discovered every year producing large enough scale commercial purposes almost impossible highly probable future developments field rely microorganisms greater funding research needed overcome lack knowledge field species groups ref header align center header background footer footer align footer background background color image global aquaculture productionpng alt caption center main species groups center image global aquaculture productionpng alt caption center minor


mediterranean young bluefin tuna netted sea towed slowly towards shore interned offshore pens sometimes made floating hdpe pipe grown market researchers australia managed first time coax southern bluefin tuna breed landlocked tanks southern bluefin tuna also caught wild fattened grow sea cages southern spencer gulf south australia similar process used salmon farming section industry juveniles taken hatcheries variety methods


data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot total capture quot '''total capture''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot aquaculture quot aquaculture data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot inland quot inland data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot marine quot marine data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot total aquaculture quot '''total aquaculture''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' '''


removed system raising harvesting kelp macroalgae directly remove nutrients nitrogen phosphorus repackaging nutrients relieve eutrophic nutrient rich conditions known low dissolved oxygen decimate species diversity abundance marine life removing algal cells water also increases light penetration allowing plants eelgrass reestablish increase oxygen levels aquaculture area provide crucial ecological functions inhabitants shellfish beds cages provide habitat structure structure used shelter invertebrates small fish


proved work proved work know call alternative medicine 's proved work medicine types alternative medicine consists wide range health care practices products therapies shared feature claim heal based scientific method alternative medicine practices diverse foundations methodologies ref name nccih alternative medicine practices may classified cultural origins types beliefs upon based ref name nsf ref name atramm ref name amcer ref name nccih methods may incorporate

Applied science
Medicine and health
Alternative medicine


belief supernatural energies transfer practitioner 's palms heal patient lacks credible scientific evidence ref name rosa ref acupuncture involves insertion needles body herbal remedies substances substance based practices use substances found nature herbs foods non vitamin supplements megavitamins animal fungal products minerals including use products traditional medical practices may also incorporate methods ref name nccih ref name abdulla ref examples include healing claims non vitamin supplements fish oil omega fatty acid glucosamine echinacea flaxseed oil ginseng ref name nccihsurvey herbal medicine phytotherapy includes


use plant products may also include use animal mineral products ref name abdulla among commercially successful branches alternative medicine includes tablets powders elixirs sold nutritional supplements ref name abdulla small percentage shown efficacy little regulation standards safety contents ref name abdulla chiropractor adjusting spine religion faith healing prayer class wikitable claims issues christian faith healing divine spiritual


center education research practice inseparable much improved medical practice defining increasing certainty pathophysiological basis disease single minded focus pathophysiological diverted much mainstream american medicine clinical conditions well understood mechanistic terms effectively treated conventional therapies ref name snyderman form cam training offered least medical schools us ref name berman exceptionally school medicine university maryland baltimore includes research institute


study algebraic varieties way similar use study differential analytic manifolds obtained extending notion point classical algebraic geometry point affine variety may identified hilbert 's nullstellensatz maximal ideal coordinate ring points corresponding affine scheme prime ideals ring means point scheme may either usual point subvariety approach also enables unification language tools

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Algebraic geometry


essentially polynomial expected number solutions thus simply exponential number unknowns algorithm strongly related macaulay 's multivariate resultant since results area related one several items either using improving one algorithms finding algorithms whose complexity simply exponential number variables body mathematical theory complementary symbolic methods called numerical algebraic geometry developed last several decades main computational method homotopy continuation supports


polynomials ''n'' number variables complexity math c n math constant ''c'' inputs complexity least math c' n math another constant ''c'' last years th century various algorithms introduced solve specific subproblems better complexity algorithms complexity math n math among algorithms solve sub problem problems solved gr bner bases one may cite ''testing affine variety empty'' ' 'solving nonhomogeneous polynomial systems finite number solutions''


precise definition first given authors jean pierre serre alexander grothendieck recast foundations making use sheaf theory later largely led grothendieck idea schemes worked conjunction refined apparatus homological techniques decade rapid development field stabilized new applications made number theory classical geometric questions algebraic varieties singularities moduli formal moduli important class varieties easily understood


including flapping wing ornithopter rotating wing helicopter although designs rational based particularly good science many designs four person screw type helicopter severe flaws least understand object offers much resistance air air object newton would publish third law motion analysis led realisation manpower alone sufficient sustained flight later designs included mechanical power source spring da vinci 's work lost

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Aerospace engineering
Aeronautics


hot air section order catch favourable wind whatever altitude blowing balloon envelope made goldbeater 's skin first flight ended disaster approach seldom used since cayley foundation modern aeronautics sir george cayley widely acknowledged founder modern aeronautics first called father aeroplane henson called father aerial navigation first true scientific aerial investigator publish work included first time underlying


order'' order maximal among orders related concepts coalgebras associative algebra ''k'' given ''k'' vector space ''a'' endowed bilinear map ''a'' nbsp times nbsp ''a'' nbsp nbsp ''a'' two inputs multiplicator multiplicand one output product well morphism ''k'' nbsp nbsp ''a'' identifying scalar multiples multiplicative identity bilinear map ''a'' nbsp times nbsp ''a'' nbsp nbsp ''a'' reinterpreted linear map e morphism category ''k'' vector spaces ''a'' nbsp otimes nbsp ''a'' nbsp nbsp ''a'' universal property tensor product view associative algebra ''k'' ''k'' vector space

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Associative algebra


typically considers questions beauty well art examines topics art works aesthetic experience aesthetic judgments consider aesthetics synonym philosophy art since hegel others insist significant distinction closely related fields practice aesthetic judgement refers sensory contemplation appreciation object necessarily work art artistic judgement refers recognition appreciation criticism art art work philosophical aesthetics must speak judge art art works


tatarkiewicz six conditions presentation art beauty form representation reproduction reality artistic expression innovation however one may able pin qualities work art question whether facts aesthetic judgments belongs branch metaphilosophy known '''meta aesthetics''' factors involved aesthetic judgment rainbows often aesthetic appeal aesthetic judgement closely tied disgust responses like disgust show sensory detection linked instinctual ways facial expressions including physiological responses like gag reflex disgust triggered largely dissonance


aesthetics could proceed without confronting role culture industry commodification art aesthetic experience hal foster attempted portray reaction beauty modernist art ''the anti aesthetic essays postmodern culture'' arthur danto described reaction kalliphobia greek word beauty ''kallos'' andr malraux explains notion beauty connected particular conception art arose renaissance still dominant eighteenth century supplanted later discipline aesthetics originated eighteenth century mistook


transient state affairs revelation permanent nature art brian massumi suggests reconsider beauty following aesthetical thought philosophy deleuze guattari walter benjamin echoed malraux believing aesthetics comparatively recent invention view proven wrong late abraham moles frieder nake analyzed links beauty information processing information theory denis dutton art instinct also proposed aesthetic sense vital evolutionary factor jean fran ois lyotard invokes kantian distinction taste sublime sublime painting unlike kitsch realism nbsp


formulated theory love basis british philosopher theorist conceptual art aesthetics peter osborne makes point 'post conceptual art' aesthetic concern particular type contemporary art much historical ontological condition production contemporary art general nbsp osborne noted http wwwfondazionerattiorg mat mostre contemporary art post conceptual art leggi il testo della conferenza di peter osborne pdfpdf contemporary art 'post conceptual' public lecture delivered gary tedman put forward theory subjectless aesthetics derived karl marx 's concept alienation louis althusser 's antihumanism using elements freud 's group psychology defining concept 'aesthetic level


observation sequence described fewer bits temporary interestingness data corresponds number saved bits compression progress proportional observer 's internal reward also called curiosity reward reinforcement learning algorithm used maximize future expected reward learning execute action sequences cause additional interesting input data yet unknown learnable predictability regularity principles implemented artificial agents exhibit form artificial curiosity truth beauty mathematics mathematical considerations symmetry complexity used


significant material art science philosophies john bender gene blocker ''contemporary philosophy art readings analytic aesthetics'' ren bergeron ''l'art et sa spiritualit '' qu bec qc ditions du pelican christine buci glucksmann ''esth tique de l' ph re'' galil e french l carroll ''theories art today'' university wisconsin press mario costa italian l'estetica dei media avanguardie e tecnologia milan castelvecchi benedetto croce ''aesthetic science expression general linguistic'' es dallas ''the gay science'' volumes aesthetics poetry danto arthur ''the abuse


art culture education http wwwkunstbewegunginfo de revised interpretation founding concepts history aesthetics history aesthetics http platostanfordedu entries aesthetic concept concept aesthetic https wwwreproutledgecom articles overview aesthetics v aesthetics entry routledge encyclopedia philosophy https webarchiveorg web http wwwphilosophyarchivecom indexphptitle philosophy aesthetics philosophy aesthetics entry philosophy archive http wwwsaylororg site wp content uploads module pdf washington state board community technical colleges introduction aesthetics http cyclebackfileswordpresscom art perception cycleback pdf art perception complete pdf version art historian david cycleback 's book https wwwbbccouk programmes p k hf beauty bbc radio discussion angie hobbs susan james julian baggini ''in time'' may humanities neologisms


shellfire trenches aircraft development effective anti aircraft artillery period second world war military pilots knights air first world war became far vulnerable ground fire response armour plating added aircraft protect aircrew vulnerable areas engines fuel tanks self sealing fuel tanks functioned like armor added protection also increased weight cost present us military 's abrams mbt uses composite reactive cage armour swebor brand high strength low alloy steel plate

Applied science
Military sciences
Military weapons
Armor


download location quarterly magazines published united states magazines established magazines published georgia us state military magazines published united states establishments united states


traditional techniques many still used today techniques also tend form backbone undergraduate analytical chemistry educational labs qualitative analysis qualitative analysis determines presence absence particular compound mass concentration definition qualitative analyses measure quantity chemical tests numerous qualitative chemical tests example acid test gold kastle meyer test presence blood flame test inorganic qualitative analysis generally refers systematic scheme confirm presence certain aqueous ions elements performing

Natural science
Chemistry
Analytical chemistry


size capable handling extremely small fluid volumes less picoliters errors error defined numerical difference observed value true value experimental error divided two types systematic error random error systematic error results flaw equipment design experiment random error results uncontrolled uncontrollable variables experiment error true value observed value chemical analysis related equation math varepsilon rm x bar x math


biomedical applications environmental monitoring quality control industrial manufacturing forensic science recent developments computer automation information technologies extended analytical chemistry number new biological fields example automated dna sequencing machines basis complete human genome projects leading birth genomics protein identification peptide sequencing mass spectrometry opened new field proteomics addition automating specific processes effort automate larger sections lab testing companies like emerald cloud lab transcriptic analytical chemistry indispensable


gunpowder western warfare artillery dependent upon mechanical energy severely limited kinetic energy projectiles also required construction large engines store sufficient energy st century bc roman catapult launching stones achieved kinetic energy joules compared mid th century pounder gun fired round kinetic energy joules th century us battleship fired projectile main battery energy level surpassing joules middle ages modern era artillery

Applied science
Military sciences
Artillery


munitions notably smoke also suppress neutralize enemy obscuring view fire may directed artillery observer another observer including crewed uncrewed aircraft called onto map coordinates military doctrine significant influence core engineering design considerations artillery ordnance history seeking achieve balance delivered volume fire ordinance mobility however modern period consideration protecting gunners also arose due late th century introduction new generation infantry weapons using conoidal bullet better known


''artillier'' referred builder war equipment next years sense word artillery covered forms military weapons hence naming honourable artillery company essentially infantry unit th century another suggestion comes italian ''arte de tirare'' art shooting coined one first theorists use artillery niccol tartaglia history bronze thousand ball thunder cannon ''huolongjing'' mechanical systems used throwing ammunition ancient warfare also known engines war


royal arsenal woolwich outcome revolutionary armstrong gun marked birth modern artillery three features particularly stand armstrong gun deployed japan boshin war left first piece rifled allowed much accurate powerful action although rifling tried small arms since th century necessary machinery accurately rifle artillery available mid th century martin von wahrendorff joseph whitworth independently produced rifled cannon armstrong 's gun first see


horse artillery pounder inches mm field guns first cannon contain 'modern' features generally considered french ref name roberts priscilla mary roberts https booksgooglecom booksid togxvhtlxg c pg pa french gun world war one p ref first field gun include hydro pneumatic recoil mechanism kept gun 's trail wheels perfectly still firing sequence since need aimed shot crew could fire soon barrel returned resting position typical use french could deliver fifteen rounds


soviet nbsp mm krasnopol equivalent success indian service relied laser designation 'illuminate' target shell homed onto however early st century global positioning system gps enabled relatively cheap accurate guidance shells missiles notably us nbsp mm excalibur nbsp mm gmlrs rocket introduction led new issue need accurate three dimensional target coordinates mensuration process weapons covered term 'modern artillery' include cannon artillery howitzer mortar field gun rocket artillery certain smaller caliber mortars


would either hit ground burst high accurate running time less important cargo munitions burst much higher first radar proximity fuzes perhaps originally codenamed 'vt' later called variable time vt invented british developed us initially used aircraft world war ii ground use delayed fear enemy recovering 'blinds' artillery shells failed detonate copying fuze first proximity fuzes designed detonate ground air bursts much lethal personnel


amounts powder fire projectiles created thick clouds white smoke would obscure targets betray positions guns make aiming impossible nitrocellulose also known guncotton discovered high explosive nitroglycerin discovered nearly time nitrocellulose significantly powerful black powder smokeless early guncotton unstable however burned fast hot leading greatly increased barrel wear widespread introduction smokeless powder would wait advent double base powders combine nitrocellulose nitroglycerin produce powerful smokeless


users tanks ships residual anti aircraft coastal guns term cannon united states generic term includes guns howitzers mortars used english speaking armies traditional definitions differentiated guns howitzers terms maximum elevation well less opposed close greater number charges one one charge higher lower muzzle velocity sometimes indicated barrel length three criteria give eight possible combinations guns howitzers two however modern


delivering ''close supporting fire'' however suitable providing ' 'deep supporting fire'' although limited range many mortars tends exclude role control arrangements limited range also mean mortars suited ' 'direct supporting fire'' guns used either ''general supporting fire'' rockets mostly used latter however lighter rockets may used direct fire support rules thumb apply nato armies modern mortars lighter weight simpler transportable design usually integral part infantry


units command directly supported formation nevertheless batteries' fire ''concentrated'' onto single target fire units range tactical missions application fire nbsp mm artillery shell fired united states th marine regiment howitzer several dimensions subject first notion fire may ''opportunity'' target may ''prearranged'' latter may either ''on call'' ' 'scheduled'' prearranged targets may part ''fire plan'' fire may either ''observed''


assist protect unit engaged defensive action ''final protective fire'' immediately available prearranged barrier fire designed impede enemy movement across defensive lines areas ''harassing fire'' random number shells fired random intervals without pattern enemy predict process designed hinder enemy forces' movement constantly imposed stress threat losses inability enemy forces relax sleep lowers morale ''interdiction fire'' placed area point prevent enemy using area


velocity steeper solid line lower dashed line trajectory different trajectories shells different flight times modern version earlier time target concept fire different weapons timed arrive target time possible artillery fire several shells per gun target arrive simultaneously called mrsi multiple rounds simultaneous impact one trajectory rounds fly given


enacted regulates main administrative procedures federal government serves purpose ensure treatment accordance rule law public authority furthermore contains regulations mass processes expands legal protection authorities vwvfg basically applies entire public administrative activities federal agencies well federal state authorities case making federal law one central clause vwvfg defines administrative act common form action public administration occurs


general ''algemene termijnenwet'' general time provisions act general provisions time schedules procedures basis awb citizens oppose decision 'besluit' made administrative agency 'bestuursorgaan' within administration apply judicial review courts unsuccessful going court citizens must usually first object decision administrative body made called bezwaar procedure allows administrative body correct possible mistakes used filter cases going court sometimes instead bezwaar different system


used called administratief beroep administrative appeal difference bezwaar administratief beroep filed different administrative body usually higher ranking one administrative body made primary decision administratief beroep available law primary decision based specifically provides example involves objecting traffic ticket district attorney officier van justitie decision appealed court unlike france germany special administrative courts first instance netherlands regular courts


discipline common law countries generally speaking countries follow principles common law developed procedures judicial review limit reviewability decisions made administrative law bodies often procedures coupled legislation common law doctrines establish standards proper rulemaking administrative law may also apply review decisions called semi public bodies non profit corporations disciplinary boards decision making bodies affect legal rights members particular group entity administrative decision making bodies often controlled larger


bookkeeping system ''summa de arithmetica'' published italy luca pacioli father accounting ref name lw lauwers luc willekens marleen five hundred years bookkeeping portrait luca pacioli tijdschrift voor economie en management katholieke universiteit leuven vol xxxix issue p https liriaskuleuvenbe bitstream tem ppdf kuleuvenbe ref accounting began transition organized profession nineteenth century ref name icaew ref local professional bodies england merging form institute chartered accountants england wales ref name perks ref etymology early th century ledger words accounting accountancy


use great britain mid derived words ''accompting'' ''accountantship'' used th century ref name ln labardin pierre marc nikitin accounting words tell historical perspective ''accounting business financial history'' ref middle english used roughly th late th century verb account form ''accounten'' derived old french word ''aconter'' ref name b baladouni vah etymological observations accounting terms ''the accounting historians journal'' ref


ifrs stream uk stream students must pass total exams arranged across three papers research accounting research research effects economic events process accounting effects reported information economic events roles accounting organizations society ref name acca ref ref name burchell et al ref encompasses broad range research areas including financial accounting management accounting auditing taxation ref name oos oler derek k mitchell j oler christopher j skousen characterizing accounting research ''accounting horizons'' ref accounting


dissolution arthur andersen time one five largest accounting firms world series revelations involving irregular accounting procedures conducted throughout enron filed chapter bankruptcy protection december one consequence events passage sarbanes oxley act united states result first admissions fraudulent behavior made enron act significantly raises criminal penalties securities fraud destroying altering fabricating records federal investigations scheme attempt defraud shareholders


biology foreigners word used science fiction writer robert heinlein work ''the star beast'' term xenobiology used specialized sense mean biology based foreign chemistry whether extraterrestrial terrestrial possibly synthetic origin since alternate chemistry analogs life processes created laboratory xenobiology considered extant subject emerging developing field question whether life exists elsewhere universe verifiable hypothesis thus valid line scientific inquiry ref name nat ref ref name nyt ref

Natural science
Space science
Astrobiology


composing deciphering messages could theoretically understood another technological civilization communication attempts humans included broadcasting mathematical languages pictorial systems arecibo message computational approaches detecting deciphering 'natural' language communication seti program example uses radio telescopes optical telescopes search deliberate signals extraterrestrial intelligence high profile scientists carl sagan advocated transmission messages scientist stephen hawking warned suggesting aliens might simply raid earth resources move elements astrobiology astronomy


search past life mars various organic functional groups composed hydrogen oxygen nitrogen phosphorus sulfur host metals iron magnesium zinc provide enormous diversity chemical reactions necessarily catalyzed living organism silicon contrast interacts atoms large silicon molecules monotonous compared combinatorial universe organic macromolecules ref name bc ref name pace indeed seems likely basic building blocks life anywhere similar earth generality detail ref name pace although terrestrial


hypothesis rare earth hypothesis postulates multicellular life forms found earth may actually rarity scientists assume according hypothesis life earth multi cellular life possible conjunction right circumstances galaxy location within solar system star orbit planetary size atmosphere etc chance circumstances repeat elsewhere may rare provides possible answer fermi paradox suggests extraterrestrial aliens common n't obvious apparently opposition principle


life ''beagle '' replica nbsp kg ''beagle '' lander mars science laboratory rover concept artwork ''beagle '' unsuccessful british mars lander formed part european space agency 's mars express mission primary purpose search signs life mars past present although landed safely unable correctly deploy solar panels telecom antenna expose expose multi user facility mounted outside international space station dedicated astrobiology ref name rabbow ref ref name experimental methods ref expose developed european space agency esa long term spaceflights allow


life know played forming minerals mars ''tanpopo'' ''tanpopo'' mission orbital astrobiology experiment investigating potential interplanetary transfer life organic compounds possible terrestrial particles low earth orbit purpose assess panspermia hypothesis possibility natural interplanetary transport microbial life well prebiotic organic compounds early mission results show evidence clumps microorganism survive least one year space ref name 'agu ' http blogsaguorg geospace early tanpopo mission results show microbes survive space early tanpopo mission results show microbes survive space american geophysical union ''geospace'' larry o'hanlon


may ref may support idea clumps greater millimeters microorganisms could one way life spread planet planet ref name 'agu ' ''exomars'' rover exomars rover model ''exomars'' robotic mission mars search possible biosignatures martian life past present astrobiological mission currently development european space agency esa partnership russian federal space agency roscosmos planned launch ref name still keen ref ref name svitak ref ref name selding ref ''mars '' ''perseverance'' rover mars mini helicopter ''ingenuity'' front ''mars '' successfully landed


supersonic hypersonic conditions well desire improve aerodynamic efficiency current aircraft propulsion systems continues motivate new research aerodynamics work continues done important problems basic aerodynamic theory related flow turbulence existence uniqueness analytical solutions navier stokes equations fundamental concepts forces flight airfoil understanding motion air around object often called flow field enables calculation forces moments acting object many aerodynamics problems forces interest


flow velocity additional property viscosity used classify flow fields flow classification flow velocity used classify flows according speed regime subsonic flows flow fields air speed field always local speed sound transonic flows include regions subsonic flow regions local flow speed greater local speed sound supersonic flows defined flows flow speed greater speed sound everywhere fourth classification hypersonic flow refers flows flow


rather arbitrary used gas flows mach number value demonstrate changes density less furthermore maximum density change occurs stagnation point point object flow speed zero density changes around rest object significantly lower transonic supersonic hypersonic flows compressible flows transonic flow term transonic refers range flow velocities local speed sound generally taken mach defined


engine environmental design urban aerodynamics studied town planners designers seeking improve amenity outdoor spaces creating urban microclimates reduce effects urban pollution field environmental aerodynamics describes ways atmospheric circulation flight mechanics affect ecosystems aerodynamic equations used numerical weather prediction ball control sports sports aerodynamics crucial importance include soccer table tennis cricket baseball golf players control trajectory ball using magnus effect see also aeronautics aerostatics aviation insect flight


thirteenth century poem guillaume de la villeneuve th century advertisements started appear weekly newspapers england early print advertisements used mainly promote books newspapers became increasingly affordable advances printing press medicines increasingly sought however false advertising called quack advertisements became problem ushered regulation advertising content th century pears soap created thomas j barratt leadership victoria albert museum london thomas j barratt london called father modern advertising ref name mat matt haig

Journalism, media studies and communication


product afterthought cable satellite television became increasingly prevalent specialty channels emerged including channels entirely devoted advertising qvc home shopping network shoptv canada internet advent ad server online advertising grew contributing dot com boom entire corporations operated solely advertising revenue offering everything coupons free internet access turn st century websites including search engine google changed online advertising personalizing ads based web browsing behavior led


advertisement side hot air balloon displaying advertising ''geo'' magazine advertising man pasting bill madame tussauds london advertising may categorized variety ways including style target audience geographic scope medium purpose ref name bovee example print advertising classification style include display advertising ads design elements sold size vs classified advertising ads without design elements sold word line advertising may local national global ad campaign may directed toward consumers businesses purpose


domain name directly web browser known direct navigation type web traffic although many internet users search ideas products using search engines mobile phones large number users around world still use address bar type keyword address bar geraniums add com end sometimes org country code top level domain tld couk united kingdom ca canada internet users type generic


specific stores' products advertisers often advertise products example celebrities share favorite products wear clothes specific brands designers celebrities often involved advertising campaigns television print adverts advertise specific general products use celebrities endorse brand downsides however one mistake celebrity detrimental public relations brand example following performance eight gold medals olympic games beijing china swimmer michael phelps' contract kellogg 's terminated kellogg 's


wide web prices web based advertising space dependent relevance surrounding web content traffic website receives online display advertising display ads generate awareness quickly unlike search requires someone aware need display advertising drive awareness something new without previous knowledge display works well direct response display used generating awareness 's used direct response campaigns link landing page clear 'call action' mobile phone became new mass medium


internet widely distribute ads anyone willing see hear last three quarters mobile internet advertising grew respectively older media advertising saw declines tv radio magazines newspapers us newspapers lost half print advertising revenue niche marketing another significant trend regarding future advertising growing importance niche market using niche targeted ads also brought internet theory long tail advertisers


increasing ability reach specific audiences past efficient way deliver message blanket largest mass market audience possible however usage tracking customer profiles growing popularity niche content brought everything blogs social networking sites provide advertisers audiences smaller much better defined leading ads relevant viewers effective companies' marketing products among others comcast spotlight one advertiser employing method video demand menus advertisements targeted specific


group viewed anyone wishing find particular business practice home causes viewer become proactive actually choose advertisements want view niche marketing could also helped bringing issue colour advertisements different colours play major roles comes marketing strategies example seeing blue promote sense calmness gives sense security many social networks facebook use blue logos google adsense example niche


display billboards regulated uk town county planning system currently display advertisement without consent planning authority criminal offense liable fine per offense us many communities believe many forms outdoor advertising blight public realm long ago us attempts ban billboard advertising open countryside cities paulo introduced outright ban london also specific legislation control unlawful displays governments restrict languages


contain message means leads consumer desired end state leverage points aim move consumer understanding product 's benefits linking benefits personal values marketing mix marketing mix proposed professor e jerome mccarthy consists four basic elements called '''four ps''' '''product''' first p representing actual product '''price''' represents process determining value product '''place''' represents variables getting product consumer distribution channels market coverage movement organization


specialized form research works improve effectiveness efficiency advertising entails numerous forms research employ different methodologies advertising research includes pre testing also known copy testing post testing ads campaigns pre testing includes wide range qualitative quantitative techniques including focus groups depth target audience interviews one one interviews small scale quantitative studies physiological measurement goal investigations better understand different groups respond various messages visual prompts thereby providing assessment well advertisement meets communications goals post testing employs many


meanings within brand names logos package designs print advertisements television advertisements semiotics aims study interpret message conveyed example advertisements logos advertisements interpreted two levels known surface level underlying level surface level uses signs creatively create image personality product signs images words fonts colors slogans underlying level made hidden meanings combination images words colors slogans must interpreted audience consumer key advertising


ads affective tone advertising feeling sad males prefer happy ads boost mood contrast females prefer happy ads feeling happy television programs ads embedded influence viewer 's mood state susan wojcicki author article ads empower women break stereotypes also effective discusses advertising women changed since first barbie commercial little girl tells doll wants like little girls grow watching advertisements scantily clad women advertising


repetition advertising al ries advertising executive author credited coining term positioning late daniel starch developed starch score method measuring print media effectiveness still use j walter thompson one earliest advertising agencies fathers advertising late benjamin franklin father advertising america ref name hjsj winfield scott downs american historical company american historical society biography autobiography p https booksgooglecom booksid kpomaqaamaaj vq father advertising franklin smythe pg ra pa j henry smythe jr world 's best known slogan writer compiled edited amazing benjamin franklin published


sage publications vestergaard torben schr der kim ''the language advertising'' oxford basil blackwell splendora anthony discourse review vestergaard schr der ''the language advertising'' ''language society'' vol dec pp nbsp history brandt allan https booksgooglecom booksid yyban j ipec pg pa ''the cigarette century'' crawford robert ''but wait 's history australian advertising '' ewen stuart ''captains consciousness advertising social roots consumer culture'' new york mcgraw hill fox stephen r ''the mirror makers history american advertising creators'' university illinois press friedman


walter ''birth salesman'' harvard university press united states jacobson lisa ''raising consumers children american mass market early twentieth century'' columbia university press jamieson kathleen hall ''packaging presidency history criticism presidential campaign advertising'' oxford university press laird pamela walker ''advertising progress american business rise consumer marketing'' johns hopkins university press lears jackson ''fables abundance cultural history advertising america'' liguori maria chiara north south advertising prosperity italian economic boom years ''advertising society review''


muslims practice also well known ancient china jing ke 's failed assassination qin king ying zheng nbsp bc whilst many assassinations performed individuals small groups also specialized units used collective group people perform one assassination earliest sicarii ad predated middle eastern assassins japanese shinobis centuries ref name ross ross jeffrey ian ''religion violence encyclopedia faith conflict antiquity present'' routledge january chapter sicarii ref assassination king przemys ii

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Assassination


campaign aid byzantines seljuk turks account however contentious among historians commonly asserted died natural causes myth curse king zvonimir based legend assassination august king william ii england died mysterious hunting accident wherein shot arrow widely suspected result assassination plot conrad montferrat ' 'de facto'' king jerusalem killed assassin arab world east asia


dead assassination plot end three decades dictatorial rule march king faisal saudi arabia shot dead point blank range nephew faisal bin musaid al saud returned united states august emperor haile selassie ethiopia murdered lieutenant colonel daniel asfaw orders derg us senate select committee chaired senator frank church church committee reported found concrete evidence least eight plots involving cia assassinate fidel


assassination prime minister india india prime ministers indira gandhi son rajiv gandhi neither related mahatma gandhi assassinated assassinated respectively linked separatist movements punjab northern sri lanka respectively liberia president samuel doe assassinated september captured rebels torturous brutal death captured live television march progressive mexican presidential candidate luis donaldo colosio gunned campaign rally


armed forces guinea bissau killed bomb exploding day benghazi attack occurring night september us ambassador j christopher stevens among targeted murdered coordinated terrorist attack december russian ambassador turkey andrei karlov shot dead ankara turkish nationalist tense period turkey russia conflict syria february world food programme convoy attacked democratic republic congo militants


provisional ira troubles northern ireland killing royal ulster constabulary officers assassination unionist politicians one number methods used provisional ira campaign ira also attempted assassinate british prime minister margaret thatcher bombing conservative party conference brighton hotel loyalist paramilitaries retaliated killing catholics random assassinating irish nationalist politicians basque separatists eta spain assassinated many security political figures since late notably president government spain luis carrero blanco st duke carrero blanco


grenade heavy weapons rocket propelled grenade rpg become useful tool given popularity armored cars discussed israeli forces pioneered use aircraft mounted missiles well innovative use explosive devices rifle lee harvey oswald assassin president john f kennedy derringer john wilkes booth assassin president abraham lincoln sniper precision rifle often used fictional assassinations however certain pragmatic difficulties attend long range shooting including finding hidden shooting position clear line sight detailed advance knowledge intended


major study assassination attempts us second half th century undertaken handgun rifle shotgun used knives explosives use multiple weapons methods reported cases ref name ss case state sponsored assassination poisoning easily denied georgi markov dissident bulgaria assassinated ricin poisoning tiny pellet containing poison injected leg specially designed umbrella widespread allegations involving bulgarian government kgb led


'assassination' ref name google ref associate professor eric patterson teresa casale wrote perhaps important legal distinction targeted killing assassination hand american civil liberties union also states website program targeted killing far battlefield without charge trial violates constitutional guarantee due process also violates international law lethal force may used outside armed conflict zones last resort prevent imminent threats non lethal means available targeting people suspected terrorism execution far war


followers early texts jainism buddhism suggest emerged period urbanisation ancient india one city nobles prospering urban centres states agricultural surplus trade introduction money stories buddha life teachings claims society grew may invented interpolated later time buddhist texts according early texts pali ''ariyapariyesan sutta'' discourse noble quest mn chinese parallel gautama moved suffering ' 'dukkha''


rebirth see patrick olivelle ''encyclop dia britannica'' ref group web name brittanica patrick olivelle ''encyclop dia britannica'' http wwwbritannicacom ebchecked topic moksha moksha indian religions ref truth ' 'dukkha'' basic insight life mundane world clinging craving impermanent states things ' 'dukkha'' unsatisfactory ref group web name eb dl four truths ''dukkha'' translated incapable satisfying ref group web name sumedho first http wwwbuddhanetnet noblehtm ajahn sumedho ''the first noble truth'' nb links index page click first noble truth correct page ref unsatisfactory nature general insecurity conditioned phenomena painful ''dukkha'' commonly translated suffering


rebirth occur six realms existence namely three good realms heavenly demi god human three evil realms animal hungry ghosts hellish samsara ends person attains nirvana blowing afflictions insight impermanence non self rebirth ramabhar stupa kushinagar uttar pradesh india regionally believed buddha 's cremation site rebirth refers process whereby beings go succession lifetimes one many possible forms sentient life running conception death buddhist thought rebirth involve soul fixed


substance buddhist doctrine anatt sanskrit ''an tman'' self doctrine rejects concepts permanent self unchanging eternal soul found religions ref name leaman p ref buddhist traditions traditionally disagreed person reborn well quickly rebirth occurs death ref name neufeldt p ref buddhist traditions assert self doctrine means enduring self ''avacya'' inexpressible personality ''pudgala'' migrates one life another majority buddhist traditions contrast assert vij na person 's consciousness though


holds phenomena ' 'dharmas'' without ' 'svabhava'' literally nature self nature thus without underlying essence empty independent doctrine sought refute heterodox theories ' 'svabhava'' circulating time three jewels dharma wheel triratna symbols sanchi stupa number forms buddhism revere take spiritual refuge three jewels ''triratna'' buddha dharma sangha buddha varieties buddhism revere buddha buddhahood different views whatever may buddha


deep immeasurable hard fathom great ocean also immense psychic powers abhij theravada generally sees gautama buddha historical buddha sakyamuni buddha current era longer world left us dharma teaching vinaya discipline sangha community also said two types buddhas ' 'sammasambuddha ''is also said teach dharma others ''paccekabuddha'' solitary buddha teach ref name crosby kate p mah na buddhism meanwhile vastly expanded cosmology various buddhas


rebirth suffering noble eightfold path grouped three basic divisions follows class wikitable division eightfold factor ''sanskrit pali'' description style background cff rowspan wisdom br sanskrit ''praj '' br p li ''pa '' right view ' 'samyag br samm ditthi'' belief afterlife everything ends death buddha taught followed successful path nirvana according peter harvey right view held buddhism belief buddhist principles karma rebirth importance four noble truths true realities


lead arupa heavens meditation insight ''kamakura daibutsu'' k toku kamakura japan pali canon buddha outlines two meditative qualities mutually supportive ' 'samatha'' p li sanskrit '' amatha'' calm ''vipassan '' sanskrit ''vipa yan '' insight buddha compares mental qualities swift pair messengers together help deliver message ''nibbana'' sn various buddhist traditions generally see buddhist meditation divided two main types samatha also called calming meditation focuses stilling concentrating mind ie developing samadhi four ' 'dhy nas'' according damien keown ''vipassan ''


inconsistencies early buddhist presentation samadhi insight br br according bronkhorst happened influence mainstream meditation vedic brahmanical oriented groups believed cessation action could liberating since action never fully stopped solution postulate fundamental difference inner soul self body inner self unchangeable unaffected actions insight difference one liberated equal emphasis insight buddhists presented insight essential teaching equally


traditions constitutes scriptures common canon buddhism ref name lopez busc general belief among buddhists canonical corpus vast corpus includes ancient ''sutras'' organised ''nikayas'' ''agamas'' part three basket texts called ''tripitakas'' buddhist tradition collection texts much translation ancient pali sanskrit buddhist texts india chinese buddhist canon example includes texts volumes tibetan canon comprises textsall claimed spoken buddhaand another


northern tradition continues studied east asian buddhism tibetan buddhism mah na texts tripi aka koreana south korea edition chinese buddhist canon carved preserved wood printing blocks mah na tras broad genre buddhist scriptures mah na buddhist tradition holds original teachings buddha modern historians generally hold first texts composed probably around st century bce st century ce ref name buddhism page ''macmillan encyclopedia buddhism'' p ref mah na texts


vehicle buddhism well understood various competing theories movement arose theories include idea began various groups venerating certain texts arose strict forest ascetic movement ref name drewes david drewes david ''early indian mahayana buddhism recent scholarship'' religion compass ref first mah na works written sometime st century bce nd century ce ref name drewes david much early extant evidence origins mah na comes early chinese translations mah na texts mainly


monasteries difference mah na monks worshipped figures bodhisattvas non mahayana monks site nalanda university great center mah na thought mah na initially seems remained small minority movement tension buddhist groups struggling wider acceptance however fifth sixth centuries ce seems rapid growth mah na buddhism shown large increase epigraphic manuscript evidence period however still remained minority comparison buddhist schools mah na buddhist institutions continued


rashtrakutas pandyas pallavas loss support favor hindu faiths like vaishnavism shaivism beginning long complex period decline buddhism indian subcontinent islamic invasions conquest india th th century damaged destroyed many buddhist institutions leading eventual near disappearance india spread east southeast asia angkor thom build khmer king jayavarman vii c silk road transmission buddhism china commonly thought started


song entire chinese canon printed using wooden printing blocks indian period esoteric buddhism th century onwards buddhism spread india tibet mongolia johannes bronkhorst states esoteric form attractive allowed secluded monastic community well social rites rituals important laypersons kings maintenance political state succession wars resist invasion middle ages buddhism slowly declined india vanished persia central asia islam


mah na classification also used scholars one ordinarily used english language ref group web ref alternative scheme used scholars divides buddhism following three traditions geographical cultural areas therav da southern buddhism south asian buddhism east asian buddhism eastern buddhism indo tibetan buddhism northern buddhism identifies three broad traditions therav da tradition sri lanka south east asia also sometimes referred 'southern' buddhism east asian tradition china korea japan vietnam also sometimes referred 'eastern'


many different forms buddhist structures classic indian buddhist institutions mainly made use following structures monasteries rock hewn cave complexes ajanta caves stupas funerary mounds contained relics temples mahabodhi temple southeast asia widespread institutions centered wats refers establishment various buildings ordination hall library monks' quarters stupas east asian buddhist institutions also use various structures including monastic halls temples lecture halls bell towers pagodas japanese buddhist temples different structures usually grouped together


modern hinduism well asian religions like taoism confucianism example various scholars argued key hindu thinkers adi shankara patanjali author yoga sutras influenced buddhist ideas likewise buddhist practices influential early development indian yoga buddhist philosophers like dignaga dharmakirti influential development indian logic epistemology buddhist educational institutions like nalanda vikramashila preserved various disciplines classical indian knowledge grammar astronomy astrology medicine taught foreign students asia buddhist institutions major centers


buddhist population densities class wikitable sortable buddhism percentage country estimated buddhist population buddhists total population style text align left style text align left style text align left style text align left style text align left style text align left style text align left style text align left br style text align left ref name singapore census statistics singapore http wwwsingstatgovsg publications publications papers ghs ghs content general household


within living cells cells ref name karp karp p ref turn relating greatly understanding tissues organs well organism structure function ref name millerspoolman miller p ref biochemistry closely related molecular biology study molecular mechanisms biological phenomena ref name fn astbury p ref much biochemistry deals structures bonding functions interactions biological macromolecules proteins nucleic acids carbohydrates lipids provide structure cells perform many functions associated life ref name biology eldra p ref chemistry


spectroscopy radioisotopic labeling electron microscopy molecular dynamics simulations techniques allowed discovery detailed analysis many molecules metabolic pathways cell glycolysis krebs cycle citric acid cycle led understanding biochemistry molecular level another significant historic event biochemistry discovery gene role transfer information cell james watson francis crick rosalind franklin maurice wilkins instrumental solving dna structure suggesting relationship genetic transfer information


years complete spontaneously might take less second enzyme enzyme used process free catalyze reaction new set substrates using various modifiers activity enzyme regulated enabling control biochemistry cell whole ref name structure proteins traditionally described hierarchy four levels primary structure protein consists linear sequence amino acids instance alanine glycine tryptophan serine glutamate asparagine glycine lysine secondary structure concerned local morphology morphology


full text biochemistry kevin indira introductory biochemistry textbook biotechnology molecular biology


two sides within sight reach depth battlefield also increased modern warfare inclusion supporting units rear areas supply artillery medical personnel etc often outnumber front line combat troops battles made multitude individual combats skirmishes small engagements combatants usually experience small part battle infantryman may little distinguish combat part minor raid big offensive likely anticipates future course

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Battle


century bc air battles far less common due late conception prominent battle britain since second world war land sea battles come rely air support battle midway five aircraft carriers sunk without either fleet coming direct contact battle scene detail deccan miniature painting c th century pitched battle encounter opposing sides agree time place combat ''battle encounter'' ''encounter battle'' meeting engagement opposing sides collide


field without either prepared attack defence ''battle attrition'' aims inflict losses enemy less sustainable compared one 's losses need greater numerical losses one side much numerous pursuing strategy based attrition work even casualties sides equal many battles western front first world war intentionally verdun unintentionally somme attrition battles ''battle breakthrough'' aims pierce enemy 's defences thereby exposing


vulnerable flanks turned ''battle encirclement'' german battle manoeuvre surrounds enemy pocket ''battle envelopment'' involves attack one flanks classic example double envelopment battle cannae ''battle annihilation'' one defeated party destroyed field french fleet battle nile battles usually hybrids different types listed ' 'decisive battle'' one political effects determining course war


americans hand fight lines using guerrilla tactics american colonists european forces continued using disciplined lines american civil war new style arose first world war known trench warfare also led tactical radio chemical warfare also began second world war use smaller divisions platoons companies became much important precise operations became vital instead trench stalemate second world war battles developed small groups encountered platoons


major military use world war aircraft increasingly taken larger roles warfare world war primary use reconnaissance small scale bombardment aircraft began becoming much prominent spanish civil war especially world war ii aircraft design began specializing primarily two types bombers carried explosive payloads bomb land targets ships fighter interceptors used either intercept incoming aircraft escort protect bombers engagements fighter aircraft known dog fights notable aerial battles period include


primary tools army navy evidenced prominent use helicopters transport support troops use aerial bombardment first strike many engagements replacement battleship aircraft carrier center modern navies naming battle gibraltar hendrick cornelisz vroom battles usually named feature battlefield geography town forest river commonly prefixed battle occasionally battles named date took place glorious first


union tended name battles nearest watercourse battle wilsons creek battle stones river whereas confederates favoured nearby towns battles chancellorsville murfreesboro occasionally names battle entered popular culture first battle bull run second battle bull run also referred first second battles manassas sometimes desert warfare nearby town name use map coordinates gave name battle easting


extreme case twelve battles isonzo first twelfth italy austria hungary first world war battles named convenience military historians periods combat neatly distinguished one another following first world war british battles nomenclature committee formed decide standard names battles subsidiary actions soldiers fighting distinction usually academic soldier fighting beaumont hamel november probably unaware taking part committee named battle


contained plants medical importance forerunners first botanical gardens attached universities founded onwards one earliest padua botanical garden gardens facilitated academic study plants efforts catalogue describe collections beginnings plant taxonomy led binomial system nomenclature carl linnaeus remains use day naming biological species th th centuries new techniques developed study plants including methods optical microscopy live


science molecular genetics epigenetics study mechanisms control gene expression differentiation plant cells tissues botanical research diverse applications providing staple foods materials timber oil rubber fibre drugs modern horticulture agriculture forestry plant propagation breeding genetic modification synthesis chemicals raw materials construction energy production environmental management maintenance biodiversity history early botany cork robert hooke 's ''micrographia'' evidence humans used plants far back years ago


adolf fick formulated fick 's laws enabled calculation rates molecular diffusion biological systems ''echeveria glauca'' connecticut greenhouse botany uses latin names identification specific name ''glauca'' means blue late modern botany micropropagation transgenic plants building upon gene chromosome theory heredity originated gregor mendel august weismann proved inheritance takes place gametes cells pass inherited characters work katherine esau plant anatomy still major foundation modern botany books ''plant


herbarium specimen lady fern ''athyrium filix femina'' study plants vital underpin almost animal life earth generating large proportion oxygen food provide humans organisms aerobic respiration chemical energy need exist plants algae cyanobacteria major groups organisms carry photosynthesis process uses energy sunlight convert water carbon dioxide sugars used source chemical energy organic molecules used


life cycles alternating haploid diploid phases sexual haploid phase embryophytes known gametophyte nurtures developing diploid embryo sporophyte within tissues least part life even seed plants gametophyte nurtured parent sporophyte groups organisms previously studied botanists include bacteria studied bacteriology fungi mycology including lichen forming fungi lichenology non chlorophyte algae phycology viruses virology however attention still given groups botanists fungi including lichens photosynthetic protists usually covered


plant cuticle protects land plants drying plants synthesise number unique polymers like polysaccharide molecules cellulose pectin xyloglucan land plant cell wall constructed vascular land plants make lignin polymer used strengthen secondary cell walls xylem tracheids vessels keep collapsing plant sucks water water stress lignin also used cell types like sclerenchyma fibres provide structural support plant major constituent wood sporopollenin chemically resistant polymer found


recreational drugs tetrahydrocannabinol active ingredient cannabis caffeine morphine nicotine come directly plants others simple derivatives botanical natural products example pain killer aspirin acetyl ester salicylic acid originally isolated bark willow trees wide range opiate painkillers like heroin obtained chemical modification morphine obtained opium poppy popular stimulants come plants caffeine coffee tea chocolate nicotine tobacco alcoholic beverages come fermentation carbohydrate rich plant products barley beer rice