geometry ref name stewart ref symmetric shapes circle regular polygons platonic solids held deep significance many ancient philosophers ref name alexey ref investigated detail time euclid ref name hartshorne symmetric patterns occur nature artistically rendered multitude forms including graphics leonardo da vinci c escher others ref name hahn ref second half th century relationship symmetry geometry came intense scrutiny felix klein 's erlangen program proclaimed precise sense symmetry expressed via notion transformation group


theory predicts extra dimensions dimensional spacetime may modelled calabi yau manifolds discrete geometry discrete geometry includes study various sphere packings discrete geometry subject close connections convex geometry ref name matou ek ref ref name zong ref ref name gruber ref concerned mainly questions relative position simple geometric objects points lines circles examples include study sphere packings triangulations kneser poulsen conjecture etc ref name devadosso'rourke ref ref name bezdek ref shares many methods principles combinatorics computational geometry computational geometry deals algorithms implementations manipulating geometrical objects important problems

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry


responses external conditions approaches important field psychiatry sufficiently reconciled settle controversy either selection psychiatric paradigm specification psychopathology notion biopsychosocial model often used underline multifactorial nature clinical impairment ref name mclaren n discussion ref name mclaren madness ref ref name mclaren psychiatry ref notion word ''model'' used strictly scientific way though ref name mclaren n discussion alternatively niall mclaren acknowledges physiological basis mind 's existence identifies cognition irreducible

Applied science
Medicine and health
Psychiatry


psychiatrists may also go significant training conduct psychotherapy psychoanalysis cognitive behavioral therapy training physicians differentiates mental health professionals career choice psychiatry popular career choice among medical students even though medical school placements rated favorably ref name linkspringercom ref resulted significant shortage psychiatrists united states elsewhere strategies address shortfall included use short 'taster' placements early medical school curriculum ref name linkspringercom attempts extend psychiatry services using telemedicine technologies


wide variety settings performed many different health professionals therefore diagnostic procedure may vary greatly based upon factors typically though psychiatric diagnosis utilizes differential diagnosis procedure mental status examination physical examination conducted pathological psychopathological psychosocial histories obtained sometimes neuroimages neurophysiological measurements taken personality tests cognitive tests administered ref name meyendorf ref ref name hampel ref ref name townsend ref cases brain scan might used rule medical illnesses time relying brain scans alone cannot accurately diagnose mental illness


many categories overlap symptomology typically occur together ref name mezzich ref originally intended guide experienced clinicians trained use nomenclature widely used clinicians administrators insurance companies many countries ref name guze ref dsm attracted praise standardizing psychiatric diagnostic categories criteria also attracted controversy criticism critics argue dsm represents unscientific system enshrines opinions powerful psychiatrists ongoing issues concerning validity reliability diagnostic categories reliance superficial symptoms use


many cases involuntary psychiatric treatment permitted deemed risk patient others due patient 's illness involuntary treatment refers treatment occurs based treating physician 's recommendations without requiring consent patient inpatient treatment psychiatric treatments changed past several decades past psychiatric patients often hospitalized six months cases involving hospitalization many years average inpatient psychiatric treatment stay decreased significantly since trend known deinstitutionalization today countries people receiving psychiatric treatment


ill began early th century large state led effort england lunacy act important landmark treatment mentally ill explicitly changed status mentally ill people patients required treatment asylums required written regulations resident qualified physician ref name wright wright david mental health timeline ref france enacted law regulate admissions asylums asylum services across country united states erection state asylums began first law


patients discharged hospitals resulting large population chronically homeless people suffering mental illness ref name shorter controversy criticism controversy surrounded psychiatry scholars producing critiques argued psychiatry influenced ideas medicine causing misunderstand nature mental distress use drugs part due lobbying drug companies resulting distortion research concept mental illness often used label control beliefs behaviours majority people disagree


identifying outcome fair coin flip two equally likely outcomes provides less information lower entropy specifying outcome roll die six equally likely outcomes important measures information theory mutual information channel capacity error exponents relative entropy important sub fields information theory include source coding algorithmic complexity theory algorithmic information theory information theoretic security applications fundamental topics information theory include source coding data compression eg zip files channel coding error detection correction eg dsl impact crucial success

Applied science
Military sciences
Battlespace
Information


voyager missions deep space invention compact disc feasibility mobile phones development internet theory also found applications areas including statistical inference cryptography neurobiology ref name spikes ref perception linguistics evolution function molecular codes bioinformatics thermal physics quantum computing black holes information retrieval intelligence gathering plagiarism detection pattern recognition anomaly detection even art creation sensory input often information viewed type input organism system inputs two kinds inputs important function


might argue though human consciously define pattern example nucleotide naturally involves conscious information processing systems theory times seems refer information sense assuming information necessarily involve conscious mind patterns circulating due feedback system called information words said information sense something potentially perceived representation though created presented purpose example gregory bateson defines information difference makes difference however premise influence


value meaning reference metadata available establish relevant context often many possible contexts derive new knowledge information make decisions recommendations resulting knowledge stewart argues transformation information knowledge critical lying core value creation competitive advantage modern enterprise danish dictionary information terms argues information provides answer posed question whether answer provides knowledge depends informed person generalized definition concept information answer specific question marshall


point c next diagram consumption increases sub sub sub c sub since diagram assumes leisure normal good leisure time increases x sub sub x sub c sub employment time decreases amount leisure increases div style float center text align center income substitution effects wage increase br ''the income substitution effects wage increase'' div part picture wage rate rises worker substitute away leisure provision labour work hours take advantage higher wage

Social science
Economics
Labor economics


perfectly competitive goods market mrp calculated multiplying price end product service marginal physical product worker mrp greater firm 's marginal cost firm employ worker since increase profit firm employs however point mrp mc beyond neoclassical economic theory ref name frank mrp worker affected inputs production worker work eg machinery often aggregated term capital typical


used demand labour curve firm short run competitive markets firm faces perfectly elastic supply labour corresponds wage rate marginal resource cost labour w sub l sub mfc sub l sub imperfect markets diagram would adjusted mfc sub l sub would equal wage rate divided marginal costs optimum resource allocation requires marginal factor costs equal marginal revenue product firm would demand l units labour shown diagram demand labour


decline hiring minorities instead causes segregated workforce prejudiced worker feels paid work next worker prejudiced paid equal amount worker prejudiced one taste model involves customer discrimination whereby employers prejudiced believe customers might therefore employer less likely hire minority worker going interact customers prejudiced many taste


national portrait gallery visible public floor ceiling glass walls allow visitors see firsthand techniques conservators use examine treat preserve artworks within functioning conservation laboratory conservators routinely use chemical scientific analysis examination treatment cultural works modern conservation laboratory uses equipment microscopes spectrometers various x ray regime instruments better understand objects components data thus collected helps deciding conservation treatments provided object ethics conservator 's work guided ethical standards take


create intellectual framework supporting museums' capacity tackle issues identity museum sector must continue develop improved practical techniques engaging communities sorts museums' collections dynamic better used pp government sector find new ways encourage museums collect actively strategically especially record contemporary society sector develop new collaborative approaches sharing developing collections related expertise museums' workforce dynamic highly skilled representative pp museums' governing bodies workforce


proper oral hygiene requires regular brushing interdental cleaning '''oral hygiene''' practice keeping one 's mouth clean free disease problems eg bad breath regular brushing teeth '' 'dental hygiene''' cleaning teeth important oral hygiene carried regular basis enable prevention dental disease bad breath common types dental disease tooth decay ''cavities'' ' 'dental caries'' gum diseases including gingivitis periodontitis ref name darby ref general guidelines adults suggest brushing least twice day fluoridated

Applied science
Medicine and health
Dentistry
Dental hygiene


technique removing plaque gum line electric toothbrush electric toothbrushes toothbrushes moving vibrating bristle heads two main types electric toothbrushes sonic type vibrating head oscillating rotating type bristle head makes constant clockwise anti clockwise movements electric toothbrushes expensive manual toothbrushes damaging environment sonic ultrasonic toothbrushes vibrate high frequency small amplitude fluid turbulent activity aids plaque removal ref name shinada ref ref name pmid ref rotating type might reduce plaque gingivitis compared


manual brushing though currently uncertain whether clinical significance ref name pmid ref movements bristles vibrations help break chains bacteria mm gum line ref name shinada oscillating rotating electric toothbrush hand uses mechanical action produced manual tooth brushing removing plaque via mechanical disturbance biofilm however higher frequency using electric tooth brushes less complex regards brushing technique making viable option children adults limited dexterity bristle head


natural law ref name ce based teleology christian historian keeps view fact founder church son god church instituted order communicate whole human race assistance holy spirit salvation christ standpoint christian historian estimates particular events relation end purpose church unbelieving historian hand recognizing natural forces origin throughout

Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church


greek schism crusades recent writers therefore assume boundary lines emphasize forces active life church rather prominent personalities subdividing third period difficulty presents many historians consider french revolution end th century event sufficient importance demand new epoch others see distinct epochal line treaty westphalia formation great protestant territories came end sources sources fall naturally two classes remains ' 'reliquiae ueberreste'' immediate sources e


authors lived pictorial representations paintings sculptures etc auxiliary sciences special auxiliary sciences e g epigraphy palaeography numismatics deal certain particular kinds mentioned sources '''the study languages sources''' necessitates use lexicons either general special e language particular authors '''palaeography''' methodical introduction reading dating kinds manuscript sources first scientifically investigated formulated mabillon ''de diplomatic '' paris '''diplomatics''' teaches examine critically form content historical documents


jena petavius ''rationarium temporum'' leyden ''de doctrin temporum'' antwerp authors ''art de v rifier les dates des faits historiques'' paris '''ecclesiastical geography statistics ''' first teaches us recognize places historical events took place represents development church actual condition institutions exhibited synoptically tables corresponding figures etc '''epigraphy''' guide reading methodical use christian inscriptions monuments '''christian archaeology history fine arts''' student learns


eusebius bishop caesarea palestine died styled father church history wrote chronicle well ''church history'' church history outgrowth chronicle first appeared nine books covered time death christ victories constantine licinius eusebius afterwards added tenth book carried narrative victory constantine licinius sought set forth favourable light christian sentiments imperial convert constantine services


christian church criticised partiality towards constantine palliation latter 's faults brief historical treatise eusebius martyrs palestine also preserved major christian historian found several imitators first half th century works survive partially originals first two general narratives ecclesiastical history eusebius lost ie christian history presbyter philip side church history arian philostorgius three early ecclesiastical histories written period


clear simple style frequently making use history comes hermias sozomenus sozomen also advocate constantinople whose church history nine books comprises period writers surpassed theodoret bishop cyrus died church history continuation work eusebius describes five books period beginning arianism beginning nestorian troubles addition writings predecessors socrates sozomen also used


chronicle ''notitiae'' great value th century chronicle preserved ethiopic version ''chronique de jean v que de nikiou'' publ par h zotenberg paris zotenberg believes work originally written greek translated n ldeke ''gottinger gelehrte anzeigen'' sqq thinks probable original coptic alexandrian cosmas known indian voyager owe christian topography great value ecclesiastical geography ed montfaucon ''collectio nova patrum et scriptor gr c'' ii paris translated english mccrindle london


great value also ecclesiastical geography ''notitiae episcopatuum'' ''taktika'' lists patriarchal metropolitan episcopal sees greek church ''hieroclis synecdemus et notitiae graecae episcopatuum'' ed parthey berlin ''georgii cyprii descriptio orbis romani'' ed geizer leipzig major collection early greek historians church henri de valois three folio volumes paris improved william reading cambridge contains eusebius socrates sozomen theodoret evagrius fragments philostorgius theodorus lector ancient syrian writings ecclesiastico historical interest chiefly acts martyrs


leipzig ''church history'' eusebius translated rufinus added history church two new books x xi rufinus 's continuation soon translated greek latest edition berlin collection greek christian writings mentioned connexion eusebius st jerome 's latin recension ''chronicle'' eusebius followed later many chronicles among may mentioned works prosper idacius marcellinus victor tununum marius avenches isidore seville venerable bede west


state church reason byzantine chronicles justinian great destruction empire middle th century contain information history greek church major church historian byzantine period nicephorus callistus flourished beginning th century syriac possess aforesaid chronicle dionysius telmera towards end th century michael kandis patriarch jacobites died wrote chronicle creation important source history


end last period cassiodorus jordanis gregory tours followed similar works giving history peoples venerable bede wrote admirable ''historia ecclesiastica gentis anglorum'' describes five books history england roman conquest though treating principally events augustine canterbury 's mission paulus warnefrid diaconus wrote history fellow lombards ''historia langobardorum'' still remains principal source history people unknown writer continued th century monk


ecclesiastical history northern germany described albert crantz canon hamburg died ''metropolis'' ''historia de ecclesiis sub carolo magno saxoni instauratis'' e frankfort often reprinted among special historical works period western church must mention ''liber pontificalis'' important collection papal biographies take larger proportions th century occasionally lengthy th th centuries various continuations reach death pope martin v german


major ecclesiastical historians period l alexandre natalis alexander dominican claude fleury wrote ''histoire eccl siastique'' volumes reaching paris moderate gallican louis bastien le nain de tillemont must added bossuet ''discours sur l'histoire universelle'' paris treated history church far charlemagne ''histoire des variations des glises protestantes'' vols paris describes changes waldenses albigenses wyclifites hussites well luther calvin made fundamental doctrines catholic church


mansi lucca vatican librarian zacagni ferdinando ughelli roncaglia bianchini muratori brothers pietro girolamo ballerini gallandi zaccaria indicate extent historical research carried italy th century among general histories church ''storia ecclesiastica'' dominican giuseppe agostino orsi church history similarly vast proportions undertaken oratorian sacarelli third work even comprehensive nature reaching beginning th century written french dominican hyacinthe graveson resident italy ''historia ecclesiastica variis colloquiia digesta''


spain ''espa sagrada'' death author reached twenty ninth volume manuel risco continued forty second volume since death carried still nearer completion fifty first volume appearing special works appeared germany monographs particular dioceses monasteries general church history cultivated joseph ii executed reform theological studies among lumper 's ''institutiones histori ecclesiastic '' vienna ''institutiones histori eccl'' dannenmeyer vols vienna relatively best ''synopsis histor relig et eccles


distractions protestant scholarship arose reformed churches took lead retained th century true domain special history issued important publications e g bingham 's ''antiquitates ecclesiastic '' works grabe beveridge blondel daill saumaise usher pearson dodwell etc also general church history among writers johann heinrich hottinger whose ''historia ecclesiastica novi test'' vols hanover hostile catholic church jacques basnage opponent bossuet ''histoire de l' glise depuis j sus christ jusqu' pr sent'' rotterdam


tzschirmer added two others whole work includes forty five volumes closes beginning th century works johannes salomon semler ''histori eccles selecta capita'' vols halle ''versuch eines fruchtbaren auszuges der kirchengeschichte'' parts halle ''versuch christlicher jahrb cber'' parts halle contemporaries wrote church history chronicle scandals ''scandalchronik'' superstition fanaticism human passion spirit particularly characteristic spittler ''grundriss der gesch der christl kirche'' henke ''allgem geschichte der chr k'' th century romanticism led


instructive catholic church history recent years smaller scholarly compendia written br ck krause funk kn pfler marx weiss numerous periodicals scientific nature bear evidence vigorous activity present displayed field ecclesiastical history e g ''kirchengeschichtliche studien'' nster ''quellen und forschungen aus dem gebiet der geschichte'' paderborn ''forschungen zur christlichen literatur und dogmengeschichte'' mainz paderborn ''ver ffentlichungen aus dem kirchenhistorischen seminar nchen'' france france study church history long attaining high standard reached th century two extensive narratives


also borne individuals investments rather costly eu governments spent gdp education average however measuring spending way alone greatly underestimates costs subtle form costs completely overlooked opportunity cost forgone wages students cannot work study estimated total costs including opportunity costs education much double direct costs including opportunity costs investments education estimated around gdp

Social science
Economics
Education economics


debated overall question whether added funds schools likely produce higher achievement money matter debate entered legislative debates court consideration school finance systems additionally policy discussions class size reduction heightened academic study relationship class size achievement notable education economists eric hanushek lawrence f katz stephen machin douglas staiger ludger w mann karthik muralidharan costas meghir thomas kane caroline hoxby bruce sacerdote victor lavy philip oreopoulos brian jacob morton schapiro paul glewwe jere behrman bridget terry long parag pathak jesse rothstein joshua angrist


subfields subfields arthropodology arachnology study spiders arachnids entomology study insects th century term used study arthropods carcinology study crustaceans myriapodology study centipedes millipedes myriapods journals journal arthropodology references bibliography vargas v notas sobre artropodolog dica oficina de publicaciones universidad de costa rica external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwbiogeorgiasouthernedu iap indexhtm institute arthropodology parasitology subfields zoology

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Arthropodology


ecosystems international community agreed restoring chemistry oceans priority efforts toward goal tracked part sustainable development goal marine chemistry earth organic compounds oceans colored dissolved organic matter cdom estimated range carbon content oceans higher near river outlets lower open ocean ref name coble ref marine life largely similar biochemistry terrestrial organisms except inhabit saline environment one consequence adaptation marine organisms prolific source

Natural science
Chemistry
Marine chemistry


seawater hydrothermal activity ridge crest efficient removing magnesium ref name ref lower mg ca ratio favors precipitation low mg calcite polymorphs calcium carbonate calcite seas ref name slow spreading mid ocean ridges opposite effect result higher mg ca ratio favoring precipitation aragonite high mg calcite polymorphs calcium carbonate aragonite seas ref name experiments show modern high mg calcite organisms would low mg calcite past calcite seas ref name ref meaning mg ca ratio organism 's skeleton varies mg ca ratio seawater


military commander give series answers task face complexities cannot foreseen educate different aspects face let evaluate situation develop strategy strategic thinkers whole search recurrent patterns cannot predict characteristics individual case even doubtless fits larger category patterns characteristics found cases recent times major conflicts

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
Strategic studies


behaviour neural networks heterarchy information theory self organising systems cybernetics developed became broader scope include work domains design family therapy management organisation pedagogy sociology creative arts time questions arising circular causality explored relation philosophy science ethics constructivist approaches cybernetics also associated counter cultural movements contemporary cybernetics thus varies widely scope focus cyberneticians variously adopting combining technical scientific philosophical creative critical approaches overview definitions cybernetics

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Cybernetics


concept causal feedback loops intersecting fields cybernetics' broad scope tendency transgress disciplinary norms means boundaries shifted time difficult define many fields trace origins whole part work carried cybernetics partially absorbed cybernetics developed include artificial intelligence bionics cognitive science control theory complexity science computer science information theory robotics key concepts key concepts cybernetics include black box distinction george spencer brown 's laws form became influential cybernetics including work francisco varela


device built ross ashby capable adapting environment exhibited behaviours habituation reinforcement learning ability maintain homeostasis changing environment musicolour musicolour interactive light installation developed gordon pask responded musicians' variations vary playing would become 'bored' stop responding prompting musicians respond project cybersyn project cybersyn attempted apply cybernetics economy large scale early practice application cybernetics' transdisciplinary origins led


systems using cybernetics social behavioural sciences anthropology anthropologists working cybernetics include gregory bateson margaret mead mary catherine bateson genevieve bell psychology cognitive science concepts cybernetics spread throughout psychology onwards sociology examining group behavior lens cybernetics sociologists seek reasons spontaneous events smart mobs riots well communities develop rules etiquette consensus without formal discussion affect control theory explains role behavior emotions labeling theory terms homeostatic maintenance


'''black psychology''' also known african american psychology african black psychology scientific field focuses people african descent know experience world ref name ref field particularly united states largely emerged result lack understanding psychology black people traditional westernized notions psychology ref name ref overall field combines perspectives black studies traditional psychology encapsulating range definitions approaches simultaneously proposing framework understanding practice black psychology exists academic applied discipline focuses

Social science
Psychology
Cultural psychology
Black psychology


furthering well people african descent accurate knowledge ref name ref name ref based different definitional systems developments black psychology tend utilize range approaches ref name ref overall field contributed developing afrocentric models research therapy well identifying inaccuracies current psychological frameworks furthering understandings specific black african american individuals advocating increased equity appreciation black excellence ref name definitions definitions black psychology varied constitute ongoing debate within field ref name ref ref name building common framework


one 's consciousness development sustaining positive relationships ref name vedhara journal international journal epidemiology volume issue pages doi ije dyi issn doi access free ref concept ma'at one fundamental principle came time period ma'at individuals thoughts emotions behaviors spiritual energy aligned principle truth ref name vedhara concept thought originate ra considered ancient egyptians god time creation ref name vedhara ma'at considered code conduct could broken seven main virtues ref name vedhara also believed


psyche soul follows ref name vedhara ka ba khaba akhu seb putah atmu first ka physical structure individuals humanity ref name vedhara ka also thought encase seven elements many ways ref name vedhara second ba breath life ref name vedhara element believed originate creator ancestor reside individuals ref name vedhara third element khaba emotion motion ref name vedhara cultural context motion refers natural rhythmic order


interaction humans divine critical many african beliefs ref name vedhara development following end civil war push education began occur black community moving away secret night schools held time slavery variety learning centers colleges began open many schools established missionary associations various freedman societies federal government land grants morrill act ref name g guthrie rv p ref helped support institutions additional aid religious denominations


education training field midst paradigm shift industrial revolution information age requiring corresponding shift standardization customization instructional design moreover gros et al posit inflexibility traditional linear design processes calling iterative process winn jonassen et al criticize positivist assumptions learning situations closed systems imparting knowledge instructor 's responsibility human behavior predictable many alternative models proposed conducive new information age paradigm including

Applied science
Education
Educational Technology
Instructional design
Instructional simulation


useful non linear dynamic situations situations small change initial conditions produce great changes later finally fuzzy logic based idea reality rarely bivalent rather multivalent words many values need designed therefore instructional models move away deterministic approaches design probabilistic ways thinking elaboration theory et hypermedia key aspects et single organizing structure reflects primary focus course sequencing simple complex sequence


within lesson conceptually organized instruction present easiest familiar organizing concepts first p nbsp procedures present steps order performance theoretically organized instruction move simple complex place supporting content immediately related organizing content adhere learning prerequisite relationships content present coordinate concepts simultaneously rather serially teach underlying principle associated procedure hoffman states web like linking characterizes hypermedia alike functioning human cognition traditional linear structure found much educational programming asserting kind


shadow robot hand system '''robotics''' interdisciplinary branch computer science engineering robotics involves design construction operation use robots goal robotics design machines help assist humans robotics integrates fields mechanical engineering electrical engineering information engineering mechatronics electronics bioengineering computer engineering control engineering software engineering mathematics etc robotics develops machines substitute humans replicate human actions robots used many situations many purposes today many used dangerous environments including inspection radioactive materials bomb detection deactivation manufacturing processes

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Robotics


devol 's patents unimate george devol first installed industrial robot unimate george devol first full scale humanoid intelligent robot first android limb control system allowed walk lower limbs grip transport objects hands using tactile sensors vision system allowed measure distances directions objects using external receptors artificial eyes ears conversation system allowed communicate person japanese artificial mouth ref name androidworldcom ref wabot waseda university


lead acid batteries used power source many different types batteries used power source robots range lead acid batteries safe relatively long shelf lives rather heavy compared silver cadmium batteries much smaller volume currently much expensive designing battery powered robot needs take account factors safety cycle lifetime weight generators often type internal combustion engine also used however designs often mechanically complex need fuel require heat dissipation


powered air muscles actuators muscles robot parts convert stored energy movement far popular actuators electric motors rotate wheel gear linear actuators control industrial robots factories recent advances alternative types actuators powered electricity chemicals compressed air electric motors vast majority robots use electric motors often brushed brushless dc motors portable robots ac motors industrial robots cnc machines motors often preferred systems lighter loads


uses radio waves determine range angle velocity objects sonar uses sound propagation navigate communicate detect objects surface water manipulation kuka industrial robot operating foundry puma one first industrial robots baxter modern versatile industrial robot developed rodney brooks definition robotic manipulation provided matt mason manipulation refers agent control environment selective contact robots need manipulate objects pick modify destroy otherwise effect thus functional end


vacuum generators simple astrictive devices hold large loads provided prehension surface smooth enough ensure suction pick place robots electronic components large objects like car windscreens often use simple vacuum end effectors suction highly used type end effector industry part natural compliance soft suction end effectors enable robot robust presence imperfect robotic perception example consider case robot vision system estimates position water bottle


one leg small foot could stay upright simply hopping movement person pogo stick robot falls one side would jump slightly direction order catch soon algorithm generalised two four legs bipedal robot demonstrated running even performing somersaults quadruped also demonstrated could trot run pace bound full list robots see mit leg lab robots page dynamic balancing controlled falling


vertical glass examples approach include wallbot stickybot china 's ''technology daily'' reported november dr li hiu yeung research group new concept aircraft zhuhai co ltd successfully developed bionic gecko robot named speedy freelander according dr yeung gecko robot could rapidly climb variety building walls navigate ground wall fissures walk upside ceiling also able adapt surfaces smooth glass rough sticky dusty walls well various types metallic materials


robot tuna built institute field robotics analyze mathematically model thunniform motion aqua penguin designed built festo germany copies streamlined shape propulsion front flippers penguins festo also built aqua ray aqua jelly emulate locomotion manta ray jellyfish respectively robotic fish ''isplash'' ii ''isplash'' ii developed phd student richard james clapham prof huosheng hu essex university first robotic fish capable outperforming real carangiform fish terms average maximum velocity measured


complex control systems rubot ii manually resolve rubik 's cubes mechanical structure robot must controlled perform tasks control robot involves three distinct phases perception processing action robotic paradigms sensors give information environment robot eg position joints end effector information processed stored transmitted calculate appropriate signals actuators motors move mechanical processing phase range complexity reactive level may translate raw sensor information


directly actuator commands sensor fusion may first used estimate parameters interest eg position robot 's gripper noisy sensor data immediate task moving gripper certain direction inferred estimates techniques control theory convert task commands drive actuators longer time scales sophisticated tasks robot may need build reason cognitive model cognitive models try represent robot world interact pattern recognition computer vision used track


robot projects describe level advancement robot term generation robots used term coined professor hans moravec principal research scientist carnegie mellon university robotics institute describing near future evolution robot technology ''first generation'' robots moravec predicted intellectual capacity comparable perhaps lizard become available ''first generation'' robot would incapable learning however moravec predicts ' 'second generation'' robot would improvement ''first'' become available intelligence


maybe comparable mouse ''third generation'' robot intelligence comparable monkey though ''fourth generation'' robots robots human intelligence professor moravec predicts would become possible predict happening around second evolutionary robots methodology uses evolutionary computation help design robots especially body form motion behavior controllers similar way natural evolution large population robots allowed compete way ability perform task measured


doctoral degrees field robotics vocational schools offer robotics training aimed careers robotics certification robotics certification standards alliance rcsa international robotics certification authority confers various industry educational related robotics certifications summer robotics camp several national summer camp programs include robotics part core curriculum addition youth summer robotics programs frequently offered celebrated museums institutions robotics competitions many competitions around globe seaperch curriculum aimed students ages short list competition examples


perform repetitive monotonous tasks handle radioactive material work explosive atmospheres future many highly repetitive risky unpleasant tasks performed robots variety sectors like agriculture construction transport healthcare firefighting cleaning services despite advances certain skills humans better suited machines time come question achieve best combination human robot skills advantages robotics include heavy duty jobs precision repeatability whereas advantages humans include creativity decision making


badly finally threat du jour corporations technologies promote pp nbsp external links http wwwieee rasorg ieee robotics automation society investigation http wwwaimitedu projects humanoid robotics group indexhtml social robots robots mimic human behaviors gestures https wwwwiredcom wired archive robotshtml wired 's guide ' best robots ever' mix robots fiction hal r k real robots roomba mobot aibo


festivities celebrating dionysus god wine fertility contestants city dionysia 's competition prestigious festivals stage drama playwrights required present tetralogy plays though individual works necessarily connected story theme usually consisted three tragedies one satyr play performance tragedies city dionysia may begun early bce official records ' 'didaskaliai'' begin bce satyr play introduced athenian tragedies dramatise events greek mythology though ''the persians'' stages persian


acting school known pear garden produce form drama primarily musical actors commonly called children pear garden dynasty empress ling shadow puppetry first emerged recognized form theatre china two distinct forms shadow puppetry pekingese northern cantonese southern two styles differentiated method making puppets positioning rods puppets opposed type play performed puppets styles generally performed plays depicting great


many popular plays involving acrobatics music developed yuan dynasty sophisticated form known ''zaju'' four five act structure yuan drama spread across china diversified numerous regional forms one best known peking opera still popular today xiangsheng certain traditional chinese comedic performance forms monologue dialogue indonesian theatre rama shinta wayang wong performance near prambanan temple complex indonesia theatre performances become important part local culture theatre performances indonesia developed


thousands years indonesia oldest theatre forms linked directly local literary traditions oral written prominent puppet theatres wayang golek wooden rod puppet play sundanese wayang kulit leather shadow puppet play javanese balinese draw much repertoire indigenized versions ramayana mahabharata tales also provide source material wayang wong human theatre java bali uses actors wayang golek performances however also present muslim stories called ''menak'' ref name rubin p ref wayang ancient form storytelling renowned elaborate puppet human


new revolutionary stage said unladylike looked charles ii like young men playing parts young women asked women play parts women allowed stage playwrights leeway plot twists like women dressing men narrow escapes morally sticky situations forms comedy comedies full young much vogue storyline following love lives commonly young roguish hero professing love


common sense self evident testifies hegemonic success actors frequently employ basic concepts without knowing thanks promotion elaboration acting teachers former students many translations theoretical writings stanislavski 's 'system' acquired unprecedented ability cross cultural boundaries developed international reach dominating debates acting europe united states many actors routinely equate 'system' north american method although latter 's exclusively psychological techniques contrast sharply stanislavski 's multivariant holistic psychophysical approach explores character action


semitic speaking realm assyria centred tigris river upper mesopotamia region covered modern terms northern iraq northeast syria southeast turkey fringe areas northwest iran fall assyria remained geo political entity control various empires mid th century ad name assyria originates assyrian state 's original capital ancient city ur dates bc originally one number akkadian speaking city states mesopotamia late th century bc assyrians became subject sargon akkad united

Humanities
History
Ancient history
Assyrian Civilization


akkadian sumerian speaking peoples mesopotamia akkadian empire lasted bc assyrians created powerful empires several periods making substantial part greater mesopotamian cradle civilization included sumer akkadian empire babylonia assyria reached height technological scientific cultural achievements time assyrians launched campaign expand third empire year bc new fortified towns built along palaces temples result conquests built vast empire


language isolate akkadian language borrowed words massive scale influenced syntax morphology phonology point convergence ref name deutscher prompted scholars refer sumerian akkadian third millennium bc ' 'sprachbund'' ref name deutscher akkadian gradually replaced sumerian spoken language mesopotamia sometime turn rd millennium bc perhaps late turn nd millennium bc exact date debated ref name woods woods c bilingualism scribal learning death sumerian sl sanders ed ''margins


puzur ashur first leader ashur nadin ahhe ii last year leader c bc year leader c bc title leader king today iraq syria iran turkey old assyrian empire one four periods history assyria divided three early assyrian period


'governor' assur approximately bc king named puzur ashur came throne assyria debate among scholars whether founder new dynasty descendant ushpia mentioned conducted building projects assur successors took title ''i ak ur'' meaning viceroy ashur time assyria began expand trading colonies called karum hurrian hattian lands anatolia ref name reallexikon ref succeeded shalim ahum c bc king attested


however greatly expanded old assyrian empire incorporating northern half mesopotamia swathes eastern southern anatolia much levant large empire campaigned far west eastern shores mediterranean son successor ishme dagan bc gradually lost territory southern mesopotamia levant state mari eshnunna respectively mixed relations hammurabi king turned hitherto young insignificant city state babylon major power empire shamsi adad 's death assyria reduced vassalage


called ''ilku'' service legal code produced th th centuries among things clearly shows social position women assyria lower neighbouring societies men permitted divorce wives compensation paid latter woman committed adultery could beaten put death certain laws seriously enforced appear backlash older documents granted things like equal compensation partners divorce middle assyrian laws


lydia emerged new hurrian state named urartu arose caucasus cimmerians colchians georgians scythians around black sea caucasus egypt divided disarray israelites battling west asian peoples amalekites moabites edomites ammonites non semitic speaking peleset philistines conjectured one called sea peoples ref name ak quote first coined french egyptologist g maspero somewhat misleading term sea peoples encompasses ethnonyms lukka sherden shekelesh teresh eqwesh denyen sikil tjekker weshesh peleset philistines footnote


earliest appearance invaders north reigns merenptah ramesses ill see eg sandars redford n recent review primary secondary literature see woudhuizen hencefore term sea peoples appear without quotation marks ref ref name drews robert drews '' https booksgooglecom booksid bfpk axewn c pg pa lpg pa end bronze age changes warfare catastrophe ca bc '' pp quote thesis great migration sea peoples occurred ca bc supposedly based egyptian inscriptions one reign merneptah another


islamification region saw large influx ''non indigenous'' arabs th th centuries early th century ad gradual influx kurds iranian turkic peoples however indigenous assyrian population northern mesopotamia retained language religion culture identity arab islamic empires christian assyrians classed ' 'dhimmis'' certain restrictions imposed upon assyrians thus excluded specific duties occupations reserved muslims enjoy political rights muslims word equal


muslim legal civil matters without muslim witness subject payment special tax jizyah banned spreading religion muslim ruled lands however personal matters marriage divorce governed cultural laws assyrians reasons even sassanian period islamic rule assyrian church east formed church structure spread nestorian christianity far away china order proselytize away hitherto christian christian friendly muslim ruled regions iran levant


british presence iraq lasted assyrian levies remained attached british forces time disarmed disbanded persecution assyrians took place soviet union late early thousands assyrians settled georgia armenia southern russia forcibly deported homes dead night stalin without warning reason central asia relocated kazakhstan small minority still remain ba'athism flag assyrian nation created used since period


th century ref name ninevehcom however assyrians today mostly christian following assyrian church east chaldean catholic church ancient church east syriac orthodox church syriac catholic church assyrian pentecostal church assyrian evangelical church assyrians begun adopt christianity well time manicheanism gnosticism st rd centuries ad christianity osroene mesopotamia st century tradition church east thomas apostle disciples addai thaddeus edessa mari brought christianity mesopotamia thus attributing st


way adorned ruskin well constructed well proportioned functional building needed string courses rustication least ref name ruskin difference ideals ''architecture'' mere ''construction'' renowned th century architect le corbusier wrote employ stone wood concrete materials build houses palaces construction ingenuity work suddenly touch heart good happy say beautiful architecture le corbusier 's contemporary ludwig mies van der rohe said architecture starts carefully put

Applied science
Architecture and design
Architecture


state architecture urbanism classical civilizations greek roman evolved civic ideals rather religious empirical ones new building types emerged architectural style developed form classical orders roman architecture influenced greek architecture incorporated many greek elements building practices texts architecture written since ancient time texts provided general advice specific formal prescriptions canons examples canons found writings st century bce roman architect vitruvius


technology modern architecture first practised avant garde movement moral philosophical aesthetic underpinnings immediately world war pioneering modernist architects sought develop completely new style appropriate new post war social economic order focused meeting needs middle working classes rejected architectural practice academic refinement historical styles served rapidly declining aristocratic order approach modernist architects reduce buildings pure forms removing historical references ornament favor functional details buildings displayed functional


important movement early reaction modernism architects like charles moore united states christian norberg schulz norway ernesto nathan rogers vittorio gregotti michele valori bruno zevi italy collectively popularized interest new contemporary architecture aimed expanding human experience using historical buildings models precedents postmodernism produced style combined contemporary building technology cheap materials aesthetics older pre modern non modern styles high classical architecture popular vernacular regional building styles robert venturi famously defined postmodern architecture decorated shed


modern microbiology ref name pmid medical microbiology respectively ref name sherris ref pasteur famous series experiments designed disprove widely held theory spontaneous generation thereby solidifying microbiology 's identity biological science one students adrien certes considered founder marine microbiology pasteur also designed methods food preservation pasteurization vaccines several diseases anthrax fowl cholera rabies ref name brock koch best known contributions germ theory disease proving specific diseases caused specific pathogenic microorganisms developed series


used biotechnological production biopolymers tailored properties suitable high value medical application tissue engineering drug delivery microorganisms example used biosynthesis xanthan alginate cellulose cyanophycin poly gamma glutamic acid levan hyaluronic acid organic acids oligosaccharides polysaccharide polyhydroxyalkanoates ref name rehmbha ref microorganisms beneficial microbial biodegradation bioremediation domestic agricultural industrial wastes subsurface pollution soils sediments marine environments ability microorganism degrade toxic waste depends nature contaminant since sites typically multiple pollutant types effective approach microbial


vast collection resources including articles news frequently asked questions links pertaining field microbiology http wwwmicrobiologybookorg book welcomehtm immunology bacteriology virology parasitology mycology infectious disease http arjournalsannualreviewsorg loi micro annual review microbiology branches biology microscopy


journals associated international learned professional societies europe monthly journals

Applied science
Medicine and health
Medical toxicology


coordinate work improved coordination buffer inventory could eliminated leads whole philosophy time argues costs carrying inventory typically underestimated direct obvious costs storage space insurance also harder measure costs increased variables complexity thus decreased flexibility business enterprise inventory models mathematical approach typically formulated follows store time math k math math x k math items stock orders receives math u k math items sells math w k math items math w math follows

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Inventory theory


given probability distribution thus math x k x k u k w k math math u k ge math whether math x k math allowed go negative corresponding back ordered items depend specific situation allowed usually penalty back orders store costs related number items store number items ordered math c k c x k u k math often additive form math c k p x k h u k math store wants select math u k math optimal way ie minimize math sum k c k math


speak us questions led materialists philosophers deleuze guattari develop science understanding reality without imposing mental projections way encourage instead throwing conceptual ideas tracing tracing requires one connect disparate assemblages appendages unified center rather rhizome open system open system closed system ludwig bertalanffy describes two types systems open system closed system open systems systems allow interactions internal elements environment open system

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems theory in anthropology


social activity force produces rationality interested finding sophisticated scientific universal laws society though contrary positivist mechanistic approaches take facts given develop causal relationship max weber found marxist ideas useful however limited explaining complex societal practices activities drawing hermeneutic tradition weber introduced multiple rationalities modern schema thinking used interpretive approach understanding meaning phenomenon placed webs significance contrary marx searching universal laws society weber attempts


state apparatuses workers instance state ideal type imported physical world deceived diverted political activism away real sites power corporations discourses similarly class ideal type projected society ensemble population becomes dangerous marginalizes undermines organic linkages kinship language race ethnicity significant point society composed two conflicting classes bourgeoisie proletariat vicissitudes along economic lines exist binaries marxist


came right moment marxism particularly vulgar marxism reduced non economic practices beliefs superstructure determined base mode production similarly speculative philosophy imposed metaphysical categories diverse concrete realities thus making particular instance ahistorical weber approaches methods materialist purely idealist equally possible serve preparation conclusion investigation prove point weber demonstrated ethics morality played significant role rise modern capitalism protestant work ethic instance


functioned sophisticated mechanism encouraged population care self served underpinning social activity bourgeois capitalism course work ethics element utilitarian philosophy equally contributed forming bureaucratic work culture whose side effects well known modern world response reductive approach economism vulgar marxism also known louis althusser raymond williams introduced new understanding marxist thought althusser williams introduced politics culture new entry points alongside mode production marxist methodology however


franz boas first anthropologist problematize notion culture challenging modern hegemony culture boas introduced idea cultural relativism understanding culture context drawing extensive fieldwork northwestern united states british columbia boas discusses culture separate physical environment biology importantly discarded evolutionary models represent civilization progressive entity following chronological development moreover cultural boundaries according boas barriers intermixing seen obstacle multiculturalism fact boundaries must seen porous permeable pluralized


also conditioned categories abstract systems made deep structures example l vi strauss suggests kinship phenomena type linguistic phenomena saussure discovered phonemes basic structures language l vi strauss identified consanguinity affinity descent deep structures kinship microsociological levels serve discover general structural laws deep structures acquire meanings respect system constitute like phonemes kinship terms elements meaning like phonemes acquire meaning integrated


atomism simplified labels avunculate associated matrilineal descent furthermore suggested kinship systems exist human consciousness arbitrary system representations spontaneous development real situation meaning element avunculate exists relation kinship structure l vi strauss elaborates meaning structure point essay titled sorcerer magic sorcerer patient group according l vi strauss comprise shaman complex makes social consensus underlying pattern understanding work sorcerer reintegrate divergent expressions


feelings patients patterns present group 's culture assimilation patterns means objectivizing subjective states formulating inexpressible feelings integrating inarticulated experiences system three examples l vi strauss mentions relate magic practice reached social consensus group people including sorcerer patient seems people make sense certain activities beliefs created social consensus effectiveness magical practices community 's belief social consensus thus determines social roles sets rules categories attitudes


perhaps essay magic system terminology langue whereas individual behavior system attitude parole attitudes make sense acquire meaning magic magic language interpretive anthropology influenced hermeneutic tradition clifford geertz developed interpretive anthropology understanding meaning society hermeneutic approach allows geertz close distance ethnographer given culture similar reader text relationship reader reads text generates meaning instead imposing concepts represent reality ethnographers read culture interpret


plus environment interacts system technical sense adding environment systems bateson closes gap dualities subject object playing upon differences formalization process crystallization randomness bateson sought transcend dualisms mind versus nature organism versus environment concept versus context subject versus object bateson set general rule systems theory says blockquote basic rule systems theory want understand phenomenon appearance must consider phenomenon within context


psychology individual organizes systems minds boundaries longer coincide participant individuals blockquote posthumanist turn ethnographic writing anthropology task representing native point view challenging one idea behind ethnographic writing understand complexity everyday life people without undermining reducing native account historically mentioned ethnographers insert raw data collected fieldwork writing machine output usually neat categories ethnicity identity classes kinship genealogy


science technology aspects directed toward control processes increase yields improve quality reduce costs one important branch chemurgy concerned chiefly utilization agricultural products chemical raw materials sciences goals agricultural chemistry expand understanding causes effects biochemical reactions related plant animal growth reveal opportunities controlling reactions develop chemical products provide desired assistance control every scientific discipline contributes agricultural progress depends way chemistry hence agricultural chemistry


seen close connection spread printing press publishing press derives name german language ''relation aller f rnemmen und gedenckw rdigen historien'' printed onwards johann carolus strasbourg often recognized first newspaper time strasbourg free imperial city holy roman empire german nation first newspaper modern germany ''avisa'' published wolfenb ttel distinguished printed material published regular basis reported variety current events

Journalism, media studies and communication


broad public audience within decades newspapers could found major cities europe venice london dutch ''courante uyt italien duytslandt c'' 'courant italy germany etc' first appear folio rather quarto size amsterdam center world trade quickly became home newspapers many languages often published country ref name stephens collier 's ref first english language newspaper ''corrant italy germany etc'' published amsterdam year half later published england


several name changes asia tang dynasty china ''kaiyuan za bao'' published government news block printed onto paper sometimes considered one earliest newspapers published first recorded attempt found newspaper modern type south asia william bolts dutchman employ british east india company september calcutta however could begin newspaper deported back europe first newsprint region ''hicky 's bengal gazette'' published


arabic title ''al waqa'i'a al masriya'' first non official turkish newspaper ''ceride havadis'' register events published englishman william churchill first private newspaper published turkish journalists ''terc man ahv l'' interpreter events founded brahim inasi agah efendi issued ref name goston goston masters p ref first newspaper iran ''kaghaz e akhbar'' newspaper created government mirza saleh shirazi first journals arabian peninsula appeared hijaz become independent ottoman rule towards


industrial revolution enabled newspapers become even widely circulated means communication new printing technologies made printing less expensive efficient ''the times'' london acquired printing press capable making impressions per hour soon press adapted print sides page innovation made newspapers cheaper thus available larger part population first inexpensive penny press newspaper came market lynde walter 's boston ''transcript'' penny press papers cost one sixth price


others might concentrate national local entertainment sports specialised newspapers might concentrate specifically example financial matters publications covering exclusively sports certain sports horse racing theatre although may longer called newspapers technology east german tank unit reading erection berlin wall newspaper neues deutschland print centuries newspapers printed paper supplied physically readers either local distribution cases mail example british expatriates living india hong kong


children museum lesson stedelijk museum amsterdam '''museum education''' specialized field devoted developing strengthening education role informal education spaces institutions museums critical report called ''excellence equity'' ref name aam ref published american association museums educational role museums identified core museums' service public museum education developed field study interest right efforts made record history establish research agenda

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Museum education


strengthen position discipline wider work museums history informal education first report first assistant secretary state education culture john f kennedy 's administration philip h coombs emphasized increment educative needs world population world war ii mentions diversity informal education activities constitute constitute important complement formal education total educational efforts country ref name pastor homs inmaculada la necesidad de planificaci n evaluaci n educativas en la educaci n


including master 's phd arts administration education policy ohio state university master 's bank street college education master 's tufts university museum studies others effects covid pandemic american alliance museum wilkening consulting released survey snap shot covid impact united states museums survey includes information museum closures visitation numbers furloughs lost revenue staff positions affected layoffs furloughs due covid surveyed institutions guest services admissions front house retail followed education


''journal museum education'' http nycmerorg new york city museum educators roundtable forum museum education professionals address issues museum educational interest exchange disseminate relevant information explore implement cooperative programming opportunities roundtable discussions workshops annual conference http artmuseumteachingcom art museum teaching digital community collaborative online forum reflecting issues teaching learning experimental practice field art museum education site 's goal connect educators ideas resources around dialogue shared practice teaching learning https wwwaam usorg professional networks education committee american alliance


number purchase price condition assessment time arrival seller donor restrictions applicable ''deaccessions'' feature addresses removal object collection includes information date deaccessioning method disposal used reason removal ''loans'' feature used tracking information incoming outgoing loans include lender name contact information special requirements shipping instructions associated insurance policies loan history ''condition conservation reports'' feature includes condition assessments performed objects name inspector date inspection section

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Collection Management Policy


object acquired legal terms object acquired ie documentation proving legal purchase import export restrictions intellectual property rights repository agreement information object stored within offsite facility ref name mrm accessioning section collection policy might also discuss strengths weaknesses collection examining history collection whole turn allows collector institution set guidelines improving growing developing collection way benefit ref


types enclosed cabinetry available appropriate coverings fabrics eg unbleached muslin polyethylene sheeting closed cell foam eg ethafoam containers made paper plastic wood metal enclosures folders mats standards frames supports mounts main environmental conditions require outlined protocols collections management policy include temperature relative humidity rh light contaminants ref name mrm g ref impossible completely prevent natural deterioration objects carefully monitoring implementing policies regarding environmental conditions effects conditions greatly reduced ''temperature'' flexibility allowed


imagination cognitive benefits reading continue mid life senior years research suggests reading books writing among brain stimulating activities slow cognitive decline seniors ref name neurology cites ref state reading achievement reading subject considerable research reporting decades many organizations measure report reading achievement children adults eg naep pirls pisa piaac researchers concluded students taught read end first grade yet many countries meet

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Reading education


finland others england th united states th australia st canada rd new zealand rd ref name ref ref name ref ref name ref programme international student assessment pisa measures year old school pupils scholastic performance mathematics science reading ref name pisa ref reading levels adults ages countries reported programme international assessment adult competencies piaac ref name piaac oecd ref piaac reports percentage adults reading ''at level one'' lowest five levels examples japan finland netherlands australia sweden canada


meet expectation ref name teaching reading rocket science '''learning read''' '' 'reading skills acquisition''' acquisition practice skills necessary understand meaning behind printed words skilled reader act reading feels simple effortless automatic ref name rayner ref however process learning read complex builds cognitive linguistic social skills developed early age one four core language skills listening speaking reading writing reading vital gaining command written language united states elsewhere


language foundation learning read long children see letters children 's knowledge phonological structure language good predictor early reading ability spoken language dominant childhood however reading ultimately catches surpasses speech first birthday children learned sounds spoken language however takes longer learn phonological form words begin developing spoken vocabulary ref name children acquire spoken language years five six year old english learners vocabularies


united states read level one five levels ref name ref ref name many researchers concerned low reading levels due manner reading taught point three areas contemporary reading science little impact educational practice mainly two cultures problem separating science education b current teaching practices rest outdated assumptions make learning read harder needs c connecting evidence based practice educational practice would beneficial extremely difficult achieve many teachers


reading aloud output contributing pronunciation written words ref name coltheart ref ref name yamada ref ref name pritchard ref one mechanism lexical route whereby skilled readers recognize word part sight vocabulary nonlexical sublexical route reader sounds decodes written words ref name pritchard ref name zorzi houghton ref evidence based reading instruction evidence based reading instruction refers practices research evidence showing success improving reading achievement related evidence based education several organizations report research reading instruction example best evidence encyclopedia bee


screens systematic review meta analysis conducted advantages reading paper vs screens found difference reading times however reading paper small advantage reading performance metacognition apart depending circumstances people prefer one medium appears unique advantages sor teacher preparation teachers even obtaining master 's degree education n't feel necessary knowledge skills teach students read ref name sor spotlight ref mark seidenberg neuroscientist states


allow student practice saying sounds related letter letters eg ''a'' ''e'' ''i'' ''o'' ''u'' accuracy comes first followed speed sounds may grouped categories vowels sound short eg c ''a'' ''i'' student comfortable recognizing saying sounds following steps might followed tutor says target word student repeats loud b student writes individual sound letter word completely spelled saying sound written c


challenge yet research concluded fully alphabetic students learn irregular words easily use process called ''hierarchical decoding'' process students rather decode left right taught focus attention irregular elements vowel digraph silent e example break b r ''ea'' k height h ''eigh'' touch ''ou ch'' make ''a'' k''e'' consequentially suggest teachers tutors focus teaching decoding advanced vowel patterns expecting young readers


text science reading says reading comprehension heavily dependent word recognition ie phonological awareness decoding etc oral language comprehension ie background knowledge vocabulary etc phonological awareness rapid naming predict reading comprehension second grade oral language skills account additional variance reading spelling evidence supports strong synergy reading decoding spelling encoding especially children kindergarten grade one elementary school students risk literacy difficulties using embedded picture mnemonic alphabet cards teaching phonics research supports use embedded


amount practice time available learn essential decoding skills also say students first decode word use context figure meaning word understand consequently researchers cognitive neuroscientists mark seidenberg professor timothy shanahan support theory say three cueing system 's value reading instruction magnificent work imagination developed teachers lack integrity commitment motivation sincerity intelligence poorly trained advised science reading ref name timothy shanahan reading rockets ref ref name mark


reading workshop model reading instruction '''the reading workshop model''' provides students collection books allows choice read limits students reading texts easily read provides teaching mini lessons monitors supports reading comprehension development one one teacher student conferences reports state 'unlikely lead literacy success' students particularly lacking foundational skills '''shared oral reading''' activity whereby teacher students read shared text determined students' reading level '''leveled reading'''


involves students reading leveled books appropriate reading level student struggles word encouraged use cueing system eg three cueing searchlights model msv guess meaning many systems purport gauge students' reading levels using scales incorporating numbers letters colors lexile readability scores '''silent reading self teaching ''' common practice elementary schools study united states found average class time spent active reading instruction practice frequent activity students reading


name language speed sight pag ref ref name rayner national reading panel usa identified five ingredients effective reading instruction phonics one four phonemic awareness fluency vocabulary comprehension ref name national reading panel summary reports countries australian report ''teaching reading'' ref name teaching reading uk independent review teaching early reading rose report also supported use phonics notable researchers stanislas dehaene mark seidenberg clearly stated disapproval ''whole language'' ref name dehaene ref ref name ref furthermore


study uk compared teaching phonics vs teaching whole written words concluded phonics effective saying findings suggest interventions aiming improve accuracy reading aloud comprehension early stages learning focus systematicities present print sound relationships rather attempting teach direct access meanings whole written words recently educators advocated theory balanced literacy purported combine phonics whole language yet necessarily consistent systematic manner may include elements


word study phonics mini lessons differentiated learning cueing leveled reading shared reading guided reading independent reading sight words ref name ref ref name districtadministrationcom ref ref name ref ref name reasons use balanced literacy ref according survey k teachers united states practice balanced literacy however teachers included ''phonics'' definition ''balanced literacy'' addition teachers teach three cueing system ie meaning structure visual semantic syntactic graphophonic roots whole language ref name addition phonics supporters assert ''balanced literacy'' merely ''whole language'' another name critics whole


language sceptics balanced literacy neuroscientist mark seidenberg state struggling readers ''not'' encouraged skip words find puzzling rely semantic syntactic cues guess words ref name language speed sight pag ref name time growing number countries states put greater emphasis phonics evidence based practices see phonics practices country region requirements proficient reading according report us national reading panel nrp ref name national reading panel summary ref ref name national reading panel subgroups ref elements required


speed high frequency words recognized allows increased fluency reading also supports orthographic development reading comprehension vocabulary development research suggests value reading words isolation context reading words isolation promotes faster reading times better memory spellings whereas reading words context improves semantic knowledge comprehension reading difficulties difficulties reading typically involve difficulty one following decoding reading rate reading fluency reading comprehension decoding brain activity young older children used predict future


person 's ability read ref name nih ref individuals typically read levels significantly lower expected despite normal intelligence also inherited families recent studies identified number genes may predispose individual developing dyslexia although symptoms vary person person common characteristics among people dyslexia difficulty spelling phonological processing manipulation sounds rapid visual verbal responding ref name nih adults either developmental dyslexia ref name 'heim' ref ref name facoetti ref ref name anchoring ref ref name chung kk ref acquired dyslexia occurs brain injury stroke ref name cherney lr


respect reading skills nation 's grade four public school students performed naep ''proficient level'' solid academic performance performed naep ''basic level'' partial mastery proficient level skills results race ethnicity follows ref name class wikitable sortable class unsortable race ethnicity class unsortable proficient level class unsortable basic level asian white two races '''national average''' ''' ''' ''' ''' native hawaiian pacific islander hispanic


ranking countries ''literacy proficiency among adults'' according oecd report five countries highest ranking japan finland netherlands sweden australia whereas canada th england uk th united states th ref name also worth noting piaac table shows percentage adults reading ''at level one'' five levels examples japan finland netherlands australia sweden canada england uk united states ref name pirls progress international


reading literacy study pirls international study reading comprehension achievement fourth graders ref name pirls designed measure children 's reading literacy achievement provide baseline future studies trends achievement gather information children 's home school experiences learning read pirls report shows th grade reading achievement country two categories literary informational ten countries highest overall reading average russian federation singapore hong kong sar ireland finland poland northern ireland norway chinese taipei england uk others


students reading grade level able comprehend half printed fourth grade curriculum furthermore says gap exists known teach reading teachers able teach reading goes say teachers' preparation programs must include evidence based practices including five essential components reading instruction phonemic awareness phonics fluency vocabulary comprehension european literacy policy network elinet reports hungarian children grades one two receive explicit instruction phonemic awareness phonics route decode


words grades three four continue apply knowledge phonics however emphasis shifts meaning focused technical aspects reading writing ie vocabulary types texts reading strategies spelling punctuation grammar ohio department education adopted ''reading standards foundational skills k '' laying systematic approach teaching ''phonological awareness'' kindergarten grade one ''grade level phonics word analysis skills decoding words'' including fluency comprehension grades ref name arkansas department education published report new initiative known


later started defending called mixed method also known balanced literacy approaches methods used influential researchers psycho pedagogy cognitive sciences neurosciences stanislas dehaene ref name michel fayol put heavy scientific weight side phonics ministry created science educational council openly supported phonics april minister issued set four guiding documents early teaching reading mathematics booklet detailing phonics recommendations described stance traditionalist openly declared called


rhandelle august mabunga university santo tomas nester mendoza university santo tomas rhodel ishiwata sazon university santo tomas note incomplete list notable alumni diosdado macapagal arroyo ateneo de naga university ' member house representatives philippines son philippine president gloria macapagal arroyo grandson philippine president diosdado macapagal andres bautista ateneo de manila university ' former chairman philippine commission elections president harvard law school student council harvard club philippines antonette c tionko


management hong kong university science technology mba alumni university philippines mpa alumni president philippine institute arbitrators professor law public administration university philippines ateneo de manila university references see also pre law legal education bachelor laws juris doctor list academic disciplines political science paralegal legal professions management occupations


bergen rucksack normandy landings training assessment started immediately arrival volunteers complete march equipment spean bridge railway station commando depot ref name moreman exercises conducted using live ammunition explosives make training realistic possible physical fitness prerequisite cross country runs boxing matches improve fitness speed endurance marches conducted nearby mountain ranges assault courses included zip line loch arkaig carrying arms full equipment training

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Special forces


benghazi harbour limited success damage aircraft al berka ref name sm june crete airfield raids heraklion kasteli tympaki maleme significant damage caused raids fuka mersa matruh airfields destroyed aircraft chindits burma campaign chindits whose long range penetration groups trained operate bases deep behind japanese lines contained commandos king 's regiment liverpool commando company gurkhas jungle expertise would play important part many british special forces operations post war learned great cost lives jungles


first division level raiding unit main japanese airborne base karasehara airfield ky sh japan however similar airborne units created allies axis powers japanese paratroops suffered disproportionately high casualty rate loss men required extensive expensive training limited operations critical ones two regiments ''teishin shudan'' formed st raiding group commanded major general rikichi tsukada control southern expeditionary army group philippines campaign although structured division capabilities much


also operated several guerrilla battalions conducted successful ambush sabotage campaigns ref name cdrborg ref mukti bahini received training weapons indian armed forces fought alongside ref name time photo gallery ref people eastern northeastern states share common bengali ethnic linguistic heritage east pakistan war mukti bahini became part allied forces bangladesh india ref name ref crack platoon june world bank sent mission observe situation east pakistan media cell pakistan 's government circulating news


dhaka become almost prohibited pakistani army officers modern special forces post world war ii oda team picture taken shortly infiltration iraq february admiral william h mcraven formerly ninth commanding officer us special operations command described two approaches special forces operations posture statement us senate committee armed services direct approach characterized technologically enabled small unit precision lethality focused intelligence inter agency cooperation integrated digitally networked battlefield whereas indirect approach includes empowering host nation forces providing appropriate assistance humanitarian


agencies engaging key populations elements national power must deployed concert without reliance single capability special forces leaves entire force unprepared hollow across spectrum military operations throughout latter half th century st century special forces come higher prominence governments found objectives sometimes better achieved small team anonymous specialists larger much politically controversial conventional deployment kosovo afghanistan special forces used co ordinate activities local


status everyone least reasonable person agrees case regard factual character world far traditional social science concerned taken granted world social facts starting end point investigations social world provides raw observable taken granted data upon findings social sciences idealized conceptualized offered analysis discourse within traditional social science data formulated second order world

Social science
Sociology
Phenomenological sociology


phenomenological reduction controversy official name number levels reduction internal argument among philosophers need concern us purposes mundane phenomenology social world phenomenological social scientists engage mundane phenomenological reduction called epoch hallmark form reduction reveals field inquiry mundane phenomenology social world defines phenomenal field intersubjective region mundane consciousness appearing within natural attitude phenomenological reduction


object constituted intending subject act meaning constitution phenomenology meaning object materiality co constituted intending object subject phenomenologically speaking meaningful objects thing neutrally valued object meaningless object notion object nonsense meaningful determination existentialists would say condemned meaning note observers already born already existing social world already pre interpreted


healthcare furthermore stated primary goal health informatics distinguished follows ''to provide solutions problems related data information knowledge processing study general principles processing data information knowledge medicine healthcare'' term health informatics quickly spread throughout united states various forms nursing informatics public health informatics medical informatics analogous terms later introduced use computers various fields business informatics forest informatics legal informatics etc unfortunately fields still mainly use term informatics context library science

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Informatics


department computer science engineering university nevada harvard john paulson school engineering applied sciences institute neuroinformatics university zurich department computer science american university beirut department computing imperial college london institut f r neuroinformatik ruhr universit bochum stanford university 's computer science department department electrical engineering computer sciences uc berkeley department computer science software engineering university cantenbury interdisciplinary programs https twuedu informatics texas woman 's university list information schools see also anti information information science information processing system behavior informatics computational theory mind


see effects cardiomyocytes turn function beating heart standards far widely accepted standard format storing exchanging models field systems biology markup language sbml http sbmlorg sbmlorg website includes guide many important software packages used computational systems biology large number models encoded sbml retrieved biomodels markup languages different emphases include biopax cellml particular tasks cellular model part cell cycle summerhayes elton 's food web bear island ''arrows represent

Natural science
Biology
Systems biology
Computational systems biology


united states asian americans general safe assume one single answer throughout growing amount asian american queer writings merle woo http wwwencyclopediacom article g kim willycehtml willyce kim russell leong http wwwbrowsebiographycom bio kitty tsuihtml kitty tsui dwight okita norman wong https wwwpoetsorg poetsorg poet timothy liu tim liu chay yew justin chin authors interrogate intersections gender sexuality race cultural traditions experience fragility due ethnicity gender sexual orientation fragile status families economic success

Humanities
Languages and literature
Asian American Literature


defining feature aaas main goal advocacy representation asian americans asian american literary awards one problems associated asian american literature definition asian american asian american literary awards presented asian american writers' workshop define eligibility authors asian descent definition clear concise stopped giving awards written asian americans event developed awards extended groups outside asian descent winners still predominantly asian aaas also


sake activity applied mathematics thus intimately connected research pure mathematics history numerical solution heat equation pump casing model using finite element method historically applied mathematics consisted principally applied analysis notably differential equations approximation theory broadly construed include representations asymptotic methods variational methods numerical analysis applied probability areas mathematics related directly development newtonian physics fact distinction mathematicians physicists sharply drawn mid th century history left

Formal science
Mathematics
Applied mathematics


applications even fields number theory part pure mathematics important applications cryptography though generally considered part field applied mathematics ''per se'' sometimes term applicable mathematics used distinguish traditional applied mathematics developed alongside physics many areas mathematics applicable real world problems today consensus various branches applied mathematics categorizations made difficult way mathematics science change time also


operations research game theory methods mathematical analysis regard resembles distinct financial mathematics another part applied mathematics according mathematics subject classification msc mathematical economics falls applied mathematics classification category game theory economics social behavioral sciences http msc org mscwiki indexphptitle msc msc classifications 'game theory' codes http msc org mscwiki indexphptitle axx axx 'mathematical economics' codes http msc org mscwiki indexphptitle bxx bxx applicable mathematics '''applicable mathematics''' subdiscipline applied mathematics although consensus precise definition ref name otteetal sometimes term applicable mathematics used distinguish


traditional applied mathematics developed alongside physics many areas mathematics applicable real world problems today mathematicians often distinguish applied mathematics one hand applications mathematics applicable mathematics within outside science engineering ref name otteetal https booksgooglecom booksid vglzbaaaqbaj pg pa lpg pa dq applicable mathematics v onepage q applicable mathematics perspectives mathematics education papers submitted members bacomet group pgs editors h christiansen ag howson otte volume mathematics education library springer science business media ref mathematicians emphasize term applicable mathematics separate delineate


traditional applied areas new applications arising fields previously seen pure mathematics ref name rektorys example viewpoint ecologist geographer using population models applying known mathematics would applied rather applicable mathematics even fields number theory part pure mathematics important applications cryptography though generally considered part field applied mathematics ''per se'' descriptions lead ''applicable mathematics'' seen collection mathematical methods real analysis linear algebra


academic journal published open library humanities conferences although presentations dedicated comics commonplace conferences many fields entire conferences dedicated subject becoming common conferences saic international comic arts forum mmu international bande dessin e society conference uts sequential art studies conference georgetown ohio state festival cartoon art ref name con http wwwcomicsresearchorg academichtml regularly held conferences ref bowling green comics popular culture conference yearly conference university florida conference comics graphic novels additionally annual michigan state university comics forum

Humanities
Languages and literature
Comics studies


international wondercon another important conference annual international graphic novels comics conference held since organized british academics conference held conjunction longer running international bande dessin e society conference ''comics forum'' uk based community international comics scholars also holds annual conference leeds central library first held see also alternative comics childhood studies glossary comics terminology graphic medicine comics education comics poetry conference college composition communication read nancy institute comics studies joe kubert school cartoon graphic


studies'' routledge stein daniel jan l thon eds ''from comic strips graphic novels contributions theory history graphic narrative'' walter de gruyter weiner robert g ed ''graphic novels comics libraries archives essays readers research history cataloging'' mcfarland historiography barrier j michael martin williams ''a smithsonian book comic book comics'' smithsonian institution press blackbeard bill martin williams editors ''the smithsonian collection newspaper comics'' smithsonian institution press blackbeard bill dale crain ''the comic strip century celebrating years american art


fano planes fano went describe galois geometries arbitrary dimension prime orders george conwell gave early application galois geometry characterized solution kirkman 's schoolgirl problem partition sets skew lines pg three dimensional projective geometry galois field gf similar methods line geometry space field characteristic conwell used pl cker coordinates pg identified points representing lines pg klein quadric beniamino segre characterized ovals ''q'' odd segre 's

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Galois geometry


sociology conduct inductive research particular social phenomenon german sociologist ferdinand nnies defined empirical sociology collection factual information evidence sociologist morris janowitz defined empirical sociology collecting planning empirical indicators change morris describes relationship history empirical sociology point sociology history converge empirical sociology history history empirical sociology timeline first stage empirical sociology represented changes introduced scientific procedure chicago school american sociologist

Social science
Sociology
Empirical sociology


give rational development leading system sort result theory infinitesimals gradually fell disrepute replaced eventually classical theory limits ref name nsa robinson non standard analysis north holland publishing co amsterdam ref blockquote robinson continues blockquote leibniz 's ideas fully vindicated lead novel fruitful approach classical analysis many branches mathematics key method provided detailed analysis relation mathematical languages mathematical structures lies bottom contemporary model

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Non-standard analysis


entirely axiomatic formulation nonstandard analysis called internal set theory ist ref name nel edward nelson ''internal set theory new approach nonstandard analysis'' bulletin american mathematical society vol number november chapter internal set theory available http wwwmathprincetonedu nelson books pdf http wwwmathprincetonedu nelson books pdf ref ist extension zermelo fraenkel set theory zf alongside basic binary membership relation introduces new unary predicate ' 'standard'' applied elements mathematical universe together axioms reasoning new predicate syntactic nonstandard analysis requires great deal


let greatest index math q w left pi j x right tfrac math space standard elements infinitely close desired invariant subspace upon reading preprint bernstein robinson paper paul halmos reinterpreted proof using standard techniques papers appeared back back issue ''pacific journal mathematics'' ideas used halmos' proof reappeared many years later halmos' work quasi triangular operators applications results received along line reinterpreting reproving previously known results particular interest


exists quad x math bounded quantification quantification ''y'' unrestricted internal sets set ''x'' ''internal'' ''x'' element ''a'' element ''a'' ''a'' internal ''a'' belongs formulate basic logical framework nonstandard analysis ''extension principle'' mapping identity ''transfer principle'' formula bounded quantification free variables elements following equivalence holds math p


miscalculation misunderstanding situation caused us interventionism kimball reports historians field diplomatic history socialist liberal none conservative military historians socialist liberal none conservative online resources people interested military history periods time subtopics increasingly turning internet many resources typically available nearby libraries since one popular sites

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history


persians war elephants also used battle hydaspes river hannibal second punic war romans one important military transactions ancient world chandragupta maurya 's gift elephants seleucus nicator greek trireme naval warfare often crucial military success early navies used sailing ships without cannons often goal ram enemy ships cause sink human oar power often using slaves built ramming speed galleys used rd millennium bc


fleet built bc addition corvus allowed roman soldiers board enemy ships bridge would prove effective battle mylae resulting roman victory vikings th century ad invented ship propelled oars dragon decorating prow hence called drakkar th century ad song dynasty invented ships watertight bulkhead compartments nd century bc han dynasty invented rudders sculled oars warships fortifications important warfare early hill forts used protect inhabitants iron


paris first balloon traveled nbsp miles nbsp km previously military scouts could see high points ground mast ship could high sky signalling troops ground made much difficult troop movements go unobserved end th century iron cased artillery rockets successfully used militarily india british tipu sultan kingdom mysore anglo mysore wars rockets generally inaccurate time though william hale


cannons gunpowder apportioned iron cannon weighed approximately lbs brass cannons weighed roughly lbs ref name philip bold credited creating effective artillery power europe late fourteenth century effectively creating burgundian estate philip 's development large artillery army made small country reputable force larger empires england france philip achieved establishing large scale artillery manufacturing economy burgundy ref name philip used new cache artillery help french


though korean 's similar manpower curtain arrows thrown defenders wiped japanese gunfire ref name stavros japanese finally pushed back sweeping military reforms took place korea largely based updating implementing volley technique firearms qi jiguang ming chinese general provided original treatise disseminated koreans aided venture manuals qi gave detailed instructions use small group tactics psychological warfare 'modern' techniques ref name ref qi emphasized repetitive drilling dividing men


car british produced first armored troop carrier many early tanks proof concept impractical development world war british french held crucial advantage due superiority tanks germans dozen sub sub v tanks well captured tanks british french several hundred french tanks included ton schneider creusot nbsp mm gun british mark iv mark v tanks december wright brothers performed


fighting common weapons armor designed sturdy tended last longer artifacts thus great deal surviving artifacts recovered tend fall category likely survive weapons armor also mass produced scale makes quite plentiful throughout history thus likely found archaeological digs items also considered signs prosperity virtue thus likely placed tombs monuments prominent warriors writing existed often used kings


parthian empire decline central imperial authority han dynasty collapsed era civil war continuous warfare three kingdoms period rd century ad achaemenid persian empire founded cyrus great conquering median empire neo babylonian empire lydia asia minor successor cambyses went conquer egyptian empire much central asia parts greece india libya empire later fell alexander great defeating darius iii ruled seleucid dynasty persian empire subsequently


five good emperors rome quickly fell decline huns goths barbaric groups invaded rome continued suffer inflation internal strifes despite attempts diocletian constantine theodosius western rome collapsed eventually conquered byzantine empire continued prosper however medieval warfare battle cr cy english french hundred years' war stirrups came use time dark ages militaries forever changed invention coupled technological cultural social developments forced dramatic transformation