inclusive fitness also see bateman 's principle ref name doi hdy ref trivers posited differential parental investment led evolution sexual dimorphisms mate choice intra inter sexual reproductive competition courtship displays mammals including humans females make much larger parental investment males ie gestation followed childbirth lactation parental investment theory branch life history theory buss schmitt 's ''sexual strategies theory'' proposed due differential parental investment humans evolved sexually dimorphic adaptations related sexual accessibility fertility assessment commitment seeking avoidance immediate enduring resource procurement paternity certainty


assessment mate value parental investment ''strategic interference theory'' suggested conflict sexes occurs preferred reproductive strategies one sex interfere sex resulting activation emotional responses anger jealousy women generally selective choosing mates especially long term mating conditions however circumstances short term mating provide benefits women well fertility insurance trading better genes reducing risk inbreeding insurance protection offspring due male paternity insecurity sex differences

Social science
Psychology
Evolutionary psychology


degree relatedness concept serves explain natural selection perpetuate altruism altruism gene complex genes influences organism 's behavior helpful protective relatives offspring behavior also increases proportion altruism gene population relatives likely share genes altruist due common descent altruists may also way recognize altruistic behavior unrelated individuals inclined support dawkins points ''the selfish gene'' chapter ''the extended phenotype''


consequence evolved psychological adaptations ref name sosis ref byproduct cognitive adaptations coalitional psychology coalitional psychology approach explain political behaviors different coalitions conditionality behaviors evolutionary psychological perspective approach assumes since human beings appeared earth evolved live groups instead living individuals achieve benefits mating opportunities increased status ref name lopez ref human beings thus naturally think act way manages negotiates group dynamics coalitional psychology offers falsifiable ex ante prediction


positing five hypotheses psychological adaptations operate humans represent groups special category individual unstable short shadow future political entrepreneurs strategically manipulate coalitional environment often appealing emotional devices outrage inspire collective action relative gains dominate relations enemies whereas absolute gains characterize relations allies coalitional size male physical strength positively predict individual support aggressive foreign policies individuals children particularly women vary adopting aggressive foreign policies without progeny reception criticism critics evolutionary psychology accuse


promoting genetic determinism panadaptationism idea behaviors anatomical features adaptations unfalsifiable hypotheses distal ultimate explanations behavior proximate explanations superior malevolent political moral ideas ethical implications critics argued evolutionary psychology might used justify existing social hierarchies reactionary policies ref name wilson ref also suggested critics evolutionary psychologists' theories interpretations empirical data rely heavily ideological assumptions race gender response criticism evolutionary psychologists often caution committing naturalistic fallacy assumption natural


chances defeating mating anyway pointlessness assessing one necessary condition faster another necessary condition possibly assessed standard social science model evolutionary psychology entangled larger philosophical social science controversies related debate nature versus nurture evolutionary psychologists typically contrast evolutionary psychology call standard social science model sssm characterize sssm blank slate relativist social constructionist cultural determinist perspective say dominated social sciences throughout th century assumed mind shaped almost entirely culture ref


highly domain specific modules suggest neural anatomy brain supports model based domain general faculties processes moreover empirical support domain specific theory stems almost entirely performance variations wason selection task extremely limited scope tests one subtype deductive reasoning cultural rather genetic development cognitive tools cecilia heyes argued picture presented evolutionary psychology human mind collection cognitive instinctsorgans thought shaped genetic evolution long time periods ref


''the evolution desire strategies human mating'' new york basic books confer easton fleischman goetz lewis perilloux buss http homepagepsyutexasedu homepage group busslab pdffiles evolutionary psychology ap pdf evolutionary psychology ''american psychologist'' durrant r ellis bj evolutionary psychology gallagher rj nelson eds ''comprehensive handbook psychology volume three biological psychology'' pp nbsp new york wiley sons gaulin steven j c donald h mcburney ''evolutionary psychology'' prentice hall ref nesse rm http www personalumichedu nesse nesse tinbergen qpdf tingergen 's four questions organized schacter daniel l daniel wegner daniel gilbert ''psychology'' worth publishers tooby j cosmides l ''conceptual foundations


http wwwsealsiteorg society evolutionary analysis law scholarly association dedicated fostering interdisciplinary exploration issues intersection law biology evolutionary theory https webarchiveorg web http wwwuneedu nei new england institute cognitive science evolutionary psychology aims foster research education interdisciplinary nexus cognitive science evolutionary studies http wwwneepsocietycom northeastern evolutionary psychology society regional society dedicated encouraging scholarship dialogue topic evolutionary psychology https webarchiveorg web http fepsocietyorg feminist evolutionary psychology society researchers investigate active role females human evolution journals ''evolutionary psychology'' free access online scientific


context mysticism term refers metaphorically end ordinary reality reunion divine many religions treat eschatology future event prophesied sacred texts folklore eschatologies vary degree optimism pessimism future eschatologies conditions better worse others eg heaven hell also vary time frames groups claiming end times ''imminent'' also referred doomsday cults religion bah faith bah faith creation neither


view commonly held early christian church among predecessors protestantism john wycliffe joachim fiore later majority protestant reformers martin luther john calvin john wesley supporters view included isaac newton among others idealist approach sees events revelation neither past future actualities purely symbolic accounts dealing ongoing struggle ultimate triumph good evil messianic judaism hinduism vaishnavite tradition links contemporary hindu eschatology figure


kalki tenth last avatar vishnu age draws close kalki reincarnate shiva simultaneously dissolve regenerate universe hindus believe current period kali yuga last four ''yuga'' make current age period seen successive degeneration moral order point kali yuga quarrel hypocrisy norm hinduism time cyclic consisting cycles kalpas kalpa lasts billion years followed pralaya equal length


like tail ox would get morning wrath god would go evening anger god abu hurairah narrated muhammad said honesty lost wait day judgment asked honesty lost messenger god said authority given deserve wait day judgment 'umar ibn al khatt b long narration relating questions angel gabriel reported inform day


pollution control air quality industrial air pollution regulated air quality law air quality laws water quality typical stormwater outfall subject water quality law waste management municipal landfill operated pursuant waste management law waste management laws contaminant cleanup oil spill emergency response governed environmental cleanup law environmental cleanup laws chemical safety chemical safety laws govern use chemicals human activities particularly man made chemicals modern industrial applications contrasted media oriented environmental laws eg air water quality laws chemical control laws seek manage potential pollutants regulatory efforts

Humanities
Law
Civil law
Environmental law


protection environment without imposing undue financial burdens upon applicants adequate protection privacy business confidentiality effective judicial administrative proceedings principles present environmental impact assessment laws requiring publication access relevant environmental data administrative procedure precautionary principle one commonly encountered controversial principles environmental law rio declaration formulated precautionary principle follows order protect environment precautionary approach shall widely applied states according capabilities threats serious irreversible


agreed upon advance widely known protocol international environmental law kyoto protocol followed united nations framework convention climate change bodies proposed argued agreed upon ultimately adopted existing international agreements vary according agreement certain conferences including 's united nations conference human environment 's world commission environment development 's united nations conference environment development 's world summit sustainable development particularly important multilateral environmental agreements sometimes create international organization institution body responsible


rests upon conviction really universal hidden esoteric dimension reality objectively exists existence universal inner tradition discovered scientific scholarly enquiry led claim exist though hanegraaff thought better adopt view based methodological agnosticism stating simply know cannot know exists noted even true absolute nature reality really existed would accessible esoteric


reality existing material world divine experience transmutation faivre 's fourth intrinsic characteristic esotericism emphasis esotericists place fundamentally transforming practice instance spiritual transformation alleged accompany attainment gnosis practice concordance first faivre 's secondary characteristics esotericism belief held many esotericists traditionalist school fundamental unifying principle root world religions spiritual practices emerge common esoteric principle attaining unifying principle


higher knowledge claim possessing wisdom superior interpretations cosmos history serves master key answering questions humankind accordingly believed esoteric groups placed great emphasis secrecy inherently rooted elite groups idea concealed secrets revealed central discourse examining means accessing higher knowledge highlighted two themes believed could found within esotericism mediation contact non human entities individual experience accordingly von


stuckrad esotericism could best understood structural element western culture rather selection different schools thought western esotericism rejected knowledge hanegraaff proposed additional definition western esotericism category represents academy 's dustbin rejected knowledge respect contains theories world views rejected mainstream intellectual community accord normative conceptions religion rationality science approach rooted within field history ideas stresses role change transformation time


new esoteric understandings magic also developed latter part th century one pioneers american paschal beverly randolph argued sexual energy psychoactive drugs could used magical purposes england hermetic order golden dawn initiatory order devoted magic based kabbalah founded latter years century one prominent members order aleister crowley went proclaim religion thelema become prominent member ordo templi orientis


consulting help setting symbolic ceremonial aspects ss important political decisions wiligut forcibly retired ss due institutionalised insanity hand german hermetic magic order fraternitas saturni founded easter one oldest continuously running magical groups germany fraternitas saturni prohibited nazi regime leaders lodge emigrated avoid imprisonment course war eugen grosche one main leaders arrested


spiritual forum held two days country attended capacity august year international shaman expo began broadcast live tv ultimately taking place months wherein various neo shamanist millenarian mystic neo pagan even ufo religionist congregations figures among attendees academic study london 's warburg institute one first centres encourage academic study western esotericism academic study western esotericism pioneered early th century historians ancient world european renaissance came recognise


renamed history esoteric mystical currents modern contemporary europe faivre since cited responsible developing study western esotericism formalised field work ''l' sot risme'' cited marking beginning study western esotericism academic field research remained chair succeeded jean pierre brach prominent scholar esotericism wouter hanegraaff faivre noted two significant obstacles establishing field one engrained prejudice towards esotericism within


academia resulting widespread perception history esotericism worthy academic research second esotericism trans disciplinary field study fit clearly within particular discipline hanegraaff noted western esotericism studied separate field religion philosophy science arts participates fields squarely fit elsewhere noted probably domain humanities seriously neglected western esotericism


maintaining justice harmony human society sustaining gods temples offerings reasons oversaw state religious activity however pharaoh 's real life influence prestige could differ portrayal official writings depictions beginning late new kingdom religious importance declined drastically king also associated many specific deities identified directly horus represented kingship seen son ra ruled regulated nature pharaoh ruled regulated society new

Humanities
Theology
Ancient Egyptian Religion


heretic writings egyptians unified religious scripture produced many religious writings various types together disparate texts provide extensive still incomplete understanding egyptian religious practices beliefs mythology ra center travels underworld barque accompanied gods egyptian myths metaphorical stories intended illustrate explain gods' actions roles nature details events recounted could change convey different symbolic perspectives mysterious divine events described many myths exist different conflicting versions mythical


coffin texts reserved royalty appeared tombs non royal officials new kingdom several new funerary texts emerged best known book dead unlike earlier books often contains extensive illustrations vignettes book copied papyrus sold commoners placed tombs coffin texts included sections detailed descriptions underworld instructions overcome hazards new kingdom material gave rise several books netherworld including


included mortuary temples serve spirits deceased pharaohs temples dedicated patron gods although distinction blurred divinity kingship closely intertwined ref name shafer temples primarily intended places worship general populace common people complex set religious practices instead state run temples served houses gods physical images served intermediaries cared provided offerings service believed necessary sustain gods


served center learning multitude subjects theoretically duty pharaoh carry temple rituals egypt 's official representative gods reality ritual duties almost always carried priests old middle kingdoms separate class priests instead many government officials served capacity several months year returning secular duties new kingdom professional priesthood become widespread although lower ranking priests still part time still employed


began raising stocks animals choose new divine manifestation separate practice developed twenty sixth dynasty people began mummifying member particular animal species offering god species represented millions mummified cats birds creatures buried temples honoring egyptian deities ref name owen ref worshippers paid priests particular deity obtain mummify animal associated deity mummy placed cemetery near god 's cult center oracles egyptians used oracles ask gods


understand questions raised combining behavioral cognitive social psychology classroom setting ref name farrell history early years educational psychology fairly new growing field study although date back early days plato aristotle educational psychology considered specific practice unknown everyday teaching learning individuals think individual differences assessment development nature subject taught problem solving transfer learning beginning field educational psychology topics important education

Social science
Psychology
Educational psychology


vives cambridge university press ref suggested school located away disturbing noises air quality good plenty food students teachers ref name vives vives emphasized importance understanding individual differences students suggested practice important tool learning ref name vives vives introduced educational ideas writing de anima et vita publication vives explores moral philosophy setting educational ideals explains different parts soul similar


found studying classics contribute overall general intelligence ref name zimmerman thorndike one first say individual differences cognitive tasks due many stimulus response patterns person rather general intellectual ability ref name zimmerman contributed word dictionaries scientifically based determine words definitions used ref name zimmerman dictionaries first take consideration users' maturity level ref name zimmerman also integrated pictures easier pronunciation guide definitions ref name zimmerman thorndike contributed arithmetic books based learning theory made


original thought problem solving ref name dewey dewey j think new york dc heath co ref also stated material relative student 's experience ref name dewey jean piaget jean piaget one powerful researchers area developmental psychology th century developed theory cognitive development ref name zimmerman theory stated intelligence developed four different stages stages sensorimotor stage birth years old preoperational state years old concrete operational stage years


name clark categories knowledge recall comprehension application analysis synthesis evaluation ref name clark affective domain deals emotions categories ref name clark categories receiving phenomenon responding phenomenon valuing organization internalizing values ref name clark psychomotor domain deals development motor skills movement coordination categories also go simplest complex ref name clark categories psychomotor domain perception set guided response mechanism complex overt response adaptation origination ref name clark taxonomy provided broad educational objectives could used help expand


concerns sequencing concepts skills teaching must take account processing working memory capacities characterize successive age levels ref name demetriou demetriou spanoudis g mouyi three level model developing mind functional neuronal substantiation ferrari l vuletic eds ''the developmental relations mind brain education essays honor robbie case'' new york springer ref second psychology cognitive development involves understanding cognitive change takes place recognizing factors processes enable cognitive competence develop education also capitalizes cognitive change


social cultural determinants learning process educational psychologists distinguish individual psychological constructivism identified piaget 's theory cognitive development social constructivism social constructivist paradigm views context learning occurs central learning regards learning process enculturation people learn exposure culture practitioners observe practice behavior practitioners 'pick relevant jargon imitate behavior gradually start act accordance norms practice' ref name ref student learns become mathematician exposure


child received assistance adult one able perform nine year old level one able perform twelve year old level said difference twelve eight nine eight call ''the zone proximal development'' ref name said zpd defines functions yet matured process maturation functions mature tomorrow currently embryonic state ref name zone bracketed learner 's current ability ability achieve


aid instructor capacity vygotsky viewed zpd better way explain relation children 's learning cognitive development prior zpd relation learning development could boiled following three major positions development always precedes learning eg constructivism children first need meet particular maturation level learning occur learning development cannot separated instead occur simultaneously eg behaviorism essentially learning development learning development separate interactive processes eg gestaltism one process always prepares


source visual audio input elaborating vygotsky 's theory jerome bruner educational psychologists developed important concept instructional scaffolding social information environment offers supports learning gradually withdrawn become internalized ref name educational psychology seifert kelvin sutton rosemary '' http wwwsaylororg site wp content uploads educational psychologypdf educational psychology second edition '' global text project pp nbsp ref jean piaget 's cognitive development jean piaget interested organism adapts environment piaget hypothesized infants born schema operating birth called reflexes piaget identified four stages cognitive development


process ref name woolfolk woolfolk ae winne ph perry ne ''educational psychology'' rd canadian ed toronto canada pearson ref piaget proposed developmental theory moral reasoning children progress na understanding morality based behavior outcomes advanced understanding based intentions piaget 's views moral development elaborated lawrence kohlberg stage theory moral development evidence moral reasoning described stage theories sufficient account moral behavior example factors modeling described social cognitive theory morality


recent years many university training programs us included curriculum focuses issues race gender disability trauma poverty issues affect learning academic outcomes growing number universities offer specialized certificates allow professionals work study fields ie autism specialists trauma specialists employment outlook anticipated grow employment psychologists united states expected grow faster occupations one four psychologists employed educational settings united states median salary psychologists primary


receiving information national defence intent reason believe information may used injury united states advantage foreign nation ''black 's law dictionary'' defines espionage nbsp gathering transmitting losing nbsp information related national defense espionage violation united states law article uniform code military justice united states like nations conducts espionage nations control national clandestine service britain 's espionage activities controlled secret intelligence service

Applied science
Military sciences
Espionage


get access leave ''legend'' also employed individual ''is not'' illegal agent ordinary citizen relocated example protected witness nevertheless non agent likely also case officer act controller synthetic identity schemes whatever purpose illegal legal assistance controller required spies may also used spread disinformation organization planted giving false reports country 's military movements


competing company 's ability bring product market spies may given roles also require infiltration sabotage many governments spy allies well enemies although typically maintain policy commenting governments also employ private companies collect information behalf scg international risk international intelligence limited others many organizations national non national conduct espionage operations assumed espionage always directed secret operations target country national terrorist


projection lens moving pictures could shown tremendously enlarged screen viewing entire audience first kinetoscope film shown public exhibition blacksmith scene produced edison manufacturing company following year company would begin edison studios became early leader film industry notable early shorts including ''the kiss'' would go produce close films first public screenings films admission charged made american woodville latham sons using films produced


would retrofitted one might propose going cinema referring activity sometimes pictures british english whereas us expression usually going movies cinema usually shows mass marketed movie using front projection screen process either film projector recently digital projector cinemas may also show theatrical movies home video transfers include blu ray disc dvd videocassette possess sufficient projection quality based upon need movies exist transferred state


categorization film subjective production core means produce film depend content filmmaker wishes show apparatus displaying zoetrope merely requires series images strip paper film production therefore take little one person camera even without camera stan brakhage 's film ''mothlight'' thousands actors extras crew members live action feature length epic necessary steps almost film boiled conception planning execution


development synchronized sound allowing sound recorded exactly speed corresponding action soundtrack recorded separately shooting film live action pictures many parts soundtrack usually recorded simultaneously medium film limited motion pictures since technology developed basis photography used present progressive sequence still images form slideshow film also incorporated multimedia presentations often importance primary historical documentation however historic films problems


also taught academia featured many california colleges united states due established home film hollywood colleges include university california davis university california berkeley university california los angeles stanford university well many colleges across world academic criticism typically divided taught form many different disciplines tackle critique different manors include formalism analyzes way things done appearance form shape structuralism examines way movies

Humanities
Performing arts
Film
Film criticism


commonly used flavor enhancers food processing mono diglutamate salts also commonly used glycine salts simple amino acid salts typically combined glutamic acid flavor enhancers guanylic acid salts nucleotide salts typically combined glutamic acid flavor enhancers inosinic acid salts nucleotide salts created breakdown amp due high costs production typically combined glutamic acid flavor enhancers ' ribonucleotide salts nucleotide salts typically combined amino acids nucleotide salts flavor enhancers certain organic inorganic acids used enhance


''matter memory'' anticipated development film theory birth cinema early twentieth century bergson commented need new ways thinking movement coined terms movement image time image however essay ''l'illusion cin matographique'' ''l' volution cr atrice'' english ''the cinematic illusion'' rejects film example mind nonetheless decades later ''cin cinema ii'' philosopher gilles deleuze took ''matter memory'' basis philosophy film revisited bergson 's concepts combining

Humanities
Performing arts
Film
Film theory


university press ''the oxford guide film studies'' edited john hill pamela church gibson oxford university press ''the routledge encyclopedia film theory'' edited edward branigan warren buckland routledge aesthetics arts concepts aesthetics critical theory postmodernism cinematography filmmaking


equations motion particles navier stokes equations describe changes momentum force response pressure math p math viscosity parameterized kinematic viscosity math nu math occasionally body forces gravitational force lorentz force added equations solutions navier stokes equations given physical problem must sought help calculus practical terms simplest cases solved exactly way cases generally involve non turbulent steady flow reynolds number small complex cases especially involving turbulence

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Fluid mechanics


birth surrogate mother child protective proceedings court proceedings may result state intervention cases child abuse child neglect juvenile law matters relating minors including status offenses delinquency emancipation juvenile adjudication paternity proceedings establish disestablish paternity administration paternity testing list exhaustive varies depending jurisdiction conflict laws issues may arise family law question laws jurisdiction apply marriage relationship custody divorce whether divorce child custody


ref name hudak f ref name quantfsharp ref ref name businessappsfsharp ref functional programming also key languages found success specific domains like javascript web r statistics ref name user ref name chambers j k q financial analysis xquery xslt xml ref name novatchev ref name mertz domain specific declarative languages like sql lex yacc use elements functional programming allowing mutable values ref name chamberlin boyce addition many programming languages support programming functional style implemented features functional programming c c kotlin ref name ref perl php python ref name autont ref go

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Functional programming


lambda calculus assigning type terms forms basis statically typed functional programming first high level functional programming language lisp developed late ibm series scientific computers john mccarthy massachusetts institute technology mit lisp functions defined using church 's lambda notation extended label construct allow recursive functions lisp first introduced many paradigmatic features functional programming though early lisps multi paradigm languages incorporated support numerous programming styles new paradigms evolved later dialects scheme clojure


niches parametric cad courtesy openscad language built csg geometry framework although restriction reassigning values values treated constants led confusion among users unfamiliar functional programming concept functional programming continues used commercial settings concepts number concepts paradigms specific functional programming generally foreign imperative programming including object oriented programming however programming languages often cater several programming paradigms programmers using mostly imperative languages may utilized concepts first class


languages become means writing formal mathematical proofs compiler generate certified code languages mainly interest academic research including formalized mathematics begun used engineering well compcert compiler subset c programming language written coq formally verified limited form dependent types called generalized algebraic data types gadt 's implemented way provides benefits dependently typed programming avoiding inconvenience gadt 's available


states done making function accept state one parameters return new state together result leaving old state unchanged impure functional languages usually include direct method managing mutable state clojure example uses managed references updated applying pure functions current state kind approach enables mutability still promoting use pure functions preferred way express computations alternative methods hoare logic uniqueness developed track side effects programs


flows reactive flows flows chemically reactive finds applications many areas including combustion ic engine propulsion devices rockets jet engines detonations fire safety hazards astrophysics addition conservation mass momentum energy conservation individual species example mass fraction methane methane combustion need derived production depletion rate species obtained simultaneously solving equations chemical kinetics magnetohydrodynamics magnetohydrodynamics multidisciplinary study flow electrically conducting fluids electromagnetic fields examples fluids include plasmas


flow special significance importance given special name stagnation point static pressure stagnation point special significance given name stagnation pressure incompressible flows stagnation pressure stagnation point equal total pressure throughout flow field terminology compressible fluid dynamics compressible fluid convenient define total conditions also called stagnation conditions thermodynamic state properties total temperature total enthalpy total speed sound


expenditure lend invest excess intending earn fair return correspondingly entity income less expenditure raise capital usually one two ways borrowing form loan private individuals selling government corporate bonds ii corporation selling equity also called stock shares may take various forms preferred stock common stock owners bonds stock may ''institutional investors'' financial institutions investment banks pension funds private individuals called ''private investors'' ' 'retail investors''


entails purchase stock either individual securities via mutual fund example stocks usually sold corporations investors raise required capital form equity financing distinct ' 'debt financing'' described financial intermediaries investment banks investment banks find initial investors facilitate listing securities typically shares bonds additionally facilitate securities exchanges allow trade thereafter well various service providers manage performance risk investments latter include mutual


retirement personal finance may also involve paying loan debt obligations main areas personal finance considered income spending saving investing protection following steps outlined financial planning standards board suggest individual understand potentially secure personal finance plan purchasing insurance ensure protection unforeseen personal events understanding effects tax policies subsidies penalties management personal finances understanding effects credit individual financial standing developing savings plan financing large purchases auto education home planning


implementing strategies manage risk financial risk management practice protecting corporate value using financial instruments manage exposure risk called hedging focus particularly credit market risk banks includes operational risk credit risk risk default debt may arise borrower failing make required payments market risk relates losses arising movements market variables prices exchange rates operational risk relates failures internal processes people systems external events financial risk management


bounded self adjoint operator hilbert space ''h'' measure space real valued essentially bounded measurable function ''f'' ''x'' unitary operator math u u math ''t'' multiplication operator math varphi x f x varphi x math math f infty math beginning vast research area functional analysis called operator theory see also spectral measure also analogous spectral theorem bounded normal operators hilbert spaces difference conclusion math f math

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Functional analysis


israel gelfand include types representation theory see also list functional analysis topics spectral theory references reading aliprantis cd border kc ''infinite dimensional analysis hitchhiker 's guide'' rd ed springer online subscription bachman g narici l ''functional analysis'' academic press reprint dover publications banach http wwwebook com theory linear operations volume north holland mathematical library banach html ''theory linear operations'' volume north holland mathematical library brezis h ''analyse fonctionnelle'' dunod conway j b ''a course functional analysis'' nd edition springer verlag dunford n schwartz jt ''linear operators general theory john wiley sons''


became necessary antti aarne published first classification system folktales later expanded aarne thompson classification system stith thompson remains standard classification system european folktales types oral literature number classified oral artifacts grew similarities noted items collected different geographic regions ethnic groups epochs giving rise historic geographic method methodology dominated folkloristics first half th century william thoms first published appeal document verbal lore rural


communities across continent single example ethnic group parading separateness differential behavior encouraging americans stripes show alliance colorful ethnic group practitioners hoodening folk custom found kent southeastern england festivals parades target audience people belong social group intersect interests mission public folklorists engaged documentation preservation presentation traditional forms folklife swell popular interest folk traditions community celebrations becoming


realms constraints reality time shift realis irrealis mood understood participants within reference group enables fictional events contain meaning group lead real consequences anderson 's law auto correction theory self correction folklore transmission first articulated folklorist walter anderson posits feedback mechanism would keep folklore variants closer original form ref group note anderson best known monograph ''kaiser und abt'' folklore fellows' communications helsinki folktales type


housing middle virginia investigation concerns historical pattern finds repeated dwellings region house planted landscape landscape completes house artisan roadside stand shop nearby town wants make display products appeal customers craftsperson 's eagerness produce 'satisfactory items' due close personal contact customer expectations serve customer role consumer basic force responsible continuity discontinuity behavior ref


tailored top worn leggings trousers pace change accelerated considerably following century women 's men 's fashion especially dressing adorning hair became equally complex art historians therefore able use fashion confidence precision date images often within five years particularly case images th century initially changes fashion led fragmentation across upper classes europe previously similar style dressing subsequent development distinctive national styles national


may inspire new fashion trend people like respect people influenced style begin wearing similarly styled clothes fashions may vary considerably within society according age social class generation occupation geography may also vary time terms ''fashionista'' ''fashion victim'' refer someone slavishly follows current fashions early asian fashion became increasingly significant local global markets countries china japan india pakistan traditionally large textile industries number rich traditions though often drawn upon


western designers asian clothing styles gained considerable influence early mid fashion industry runway los angeles fashion week common use term fashion refers current expressions sale fashion industry global fashion industry product modern age ref name auto ref western world tailoring since medieval times controlled guilds emergence industrialism power guilds undermined mid th century clothing custom made handmade individuals either home production order


also factor consumers engaging symbolic consumption may develop sense self extended period time various objects collected part process establishing identity symbolic meaning shared social group communicate identity others teenagers consumption plays role distinguishing child self adult researchers found fashion choices teenagers used self expression also recognize teens wear similar clothes symbolic association clothing items link individuals' personality interests


music prominent factor influencing fashion decisions political influences ivanka trump right along japanese pm shinz abe wearing western style business suits political figures played central role development fashion least since time french king louis xiv example first lady jacqueline kennedy fashion icon early wearing chanel suits structural givenchy shift dresses soft color cassini coats large buttons inspired trends elegant formal dressing classic feminine style cultural upheavals also impact fashion trends


media ''vogue'' founded united states longest lasting successful hundreds fashion magazines come gone increasing affluence world war nbsp ii importantly advent cheap color printing led huge boost sales heavy coverage fashion mainstream women 's magazines followed men 's magazines one example ''vogue'' 's popularity younger version ''teen vogue'' covers clothing trends targeted toward fashionista budget haute couture designers followed


islander'' 's fashion editor genevieve tax criticized fashion industry running seasonal schedule largely expense real world consumers designers release fall collections spring spring collections fall fashion magazines ''vogue'' always look forward upcoming season promoting parkas come september issuing reviews shorts january writes savvy shoppers consequently conditioned extremely perhaps impractically farsighted buying fashion industry subject numerous films television shows including reality show


racism led boycotts customers globally known swedish fashion brand h faced issue one children 's wear advertisements black child wearing hoodie slogan written coolest monkey jungle right center featured ad released immediately became controversial even led boycott lot people including celebrities posted social media resentments towards h refusal work buy products h issued statement saying apologise anyone


industry editors models wear white bandana advocating unity solidarity inclusiveness fashion week fashion may used promote cause promote healthy behavior raise money cancer cure raise money local charities juvenile protective association children 's hospice one fashion cause trashion using trash make clothes jewelry fashion items order promote awareness pollution number modern trashion artists marina debris ann wizer nancy judd


wide applicability stems many useful properties transforms transforms linear operators proper normalization unitary well property known parseval 's theorem generally plancherel theorem generally via pontryagin duality ref name rudin transforms usually invertible exponential functions eigenfunctions differentiation means representation transforms linear differential equations constant coefficients ordinary algebraic ones ref name evans therefore behavior linear time invariant system analyzed frequency independently convolution theorem fourier transforms turn complicated convolution operation

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Fourier analysis


dtft dtft mathematical dual time domain fourier series thus convergent periodic summation frequency domain represented fourier series whose coefficients samples related continuous time function math frac f triangleq underbrace sum k infty infty left f frac k right equiv overbrace sum n infty infty n cdot e pi f n text fourier series dtft text poisson summation formula mathcal f left sum n infty infty n delta nt right math known dtft thus '''dtft''' sequence also '''fourier transform''' modulated dirac comb function efn ua may also note math begin align sum n infty infty cdot nt delta nt sum n infty infty


facilitates math nt math transforms table alternatively math n math defined math cdot nt math case math k frac left frac k p right math coefficients proportional samples ''f'' disrete intervals math k frac cdot frac left frac k p right math efn ua math sum n n left sum infty infty n mn right cdot e pi frac k n n underbrace sum n infty infty nt cdot e pi frac k n n triangleq frac frac left frac k nt right math conversely one wants compute arbitrary number discrete samples one cycle continuous dtft ''f'' done computing relatively simple dft ''n'' defined cases chosen


game chess'' proved optimal chess strategy strictly determined paved way general theorems danish mathematical economist frederik zeuthen proved mathematical model winning strategy using brouwer 's fixed point theorem book ''applications aux jeux de hasard'' earlier notes mile borel proved minimax theorem two person zero sum matrix games pay matrix symmetric provided solution non trivial infinite game known english blotto game borel conjectured non existence mixed strategy equilibria finite

Applied science
Military sciences
Game theory


game fictitious play repeated games shapley value developed also saw first applications game theory philosophy political science prize winning achievements reinhard selten introduced solution concept subgame perfect equilibria refined nash equilibrium later would introduce trembling hand perfection well nash selten harsanyi became economics nobel laureates contributions economic game theory game theory extensively applied biology largely result work john maynard smith evolutionarily stable strategy addition


sequential simultaneous games follows class wikitable sequential simultaneous normally denoted decision trees payoff matrices yes time axis yes also known cournot competition cournot competition model involves players choosing quantity homogenous product produce independently simultaneously marginal cost different firm firm 's payoff profit production costs public information firm


constrained set theorists particular study games last infinitely many moves winner payoff known ''after'' moves completed focus attention usually much best way play game whether one player winning strategy proven using axiom choice gameseven perfect information outcomes win lose ''neither'' player winning strategy existence strategies cleverly designed games important consequences


ie corresponding higher payoffs greater number offspring social sciences models typically represent strategic adjustment players play game many times within lifetime consciously unconsciously occasionally adjust strategies stochastic outcomes relation fields individual decision problems stochastic outcomes sometimes considered one player games situations considered game theoretical authors may modeled using similar tools within related disciplines decision theory operations research areas artificial intelligence particularly ai planning uncertainty multi agent system although fields


latter considers worst case set adversarial moves rather reasoning expectation moves given fixed probability distribution minimax approach may advantageous stochastic models uncertainty available may also overestimating extremely unlikely costly events dramatically swaying strategy scenarios assumed adversary force event happen ref name mcmahan ref see black swan theory discussion kind modeling issue particularly relates predicting limiting losses investment banking general models include


mathematician pierre louis lions jean michel lasry representation games games studied game theory well defined mathematical objects fully defined game must specify following elements ''players'' game ''information'' ''actions'' available player decision point ''payoffs'' outcome eric rasmusen refers four essential elements acronym papi ref name r ref name r b ref name r c ref name r game theorist typically uses elements along solution concept choosing deduce set equilibrium strategies player strategies


player player specified number listed vertex lines vertex represent possible action player payoffs specified bottom tree extensive form viewed multi player generalization decision tree solve extensive form game backward induction must used involves working backward game tree determine rational player would last vertex tree player previous move would given player


last move rational first vertex tree reached game pictured consists two players way particular game structured ie sequential decision making perfect information ''player '' moves first choosing either fair unfair next sequence ''player '' seen ''player ' 's move chooses play either ''player '' made choice game considered finished player gets respective payoff suppose ''player '' chooses


actions accompanying example two players one chooses row chooses column player two strategies specified number rows number columns payoffs provided interior first number payoff received row player player example second payoff column player player example suppose player plays ''up'' player plays ''left'' player gets payoff player gets


game presented normal form presumed player acts simultaneously least without knowing actions players information choices players game usually presented extensive form every extensive form game equivalent normal form game however transformation normal form may result exponential blowup size representation making computationally impractical characteristic function form games possess removable utility separate rewards given rather characteristic function decides payoff unity idea


nash equilibrium playing strategy part nash equilibrium seems appropriate normative use game theory also come criticism economics business game theory major method used mathematical economics business modeling competing behaviors interacting agents applications include wide array economic phenomena approaches auctions bargaining mergers acquisitions pricing ref name gt e n agarwal p zeephongsekul http wwwmssanzorgau modsim agarwalpdf psychological pricing mergers acquisitions using game theory school mathematics geospatial sciences rmit university melbourne ref fair division duopolies oligopolies social network formation agent based computational economics


one person cannot maintain authority personally exercising physical control even significant number subjects sovereign control instead explained recognition citizen citizens expect view king established government person whose orders followed coordinating communication among citizens replace sovereign effectively barred since conspiracy replace sovereign generally punishable crime thus process modeled variants prisoner 's dilemma


dispute non democracy however game theory predicts two countries may still go war even leaders cognizant costs fighting war may result asymmetric information two countries may incentives mis represent amount military resources hand rendering unable settle disputes agreeably without resorting fighting moreover war may arise commitment problems two countries wish settle dispute via peaceful means wishes go back terms settlement may choice resort


way benefits organisms detrimental distinct traditional notions altruism actions conscious appear evolutionary adaptations increase overall fitness examples found species ranging vampire bats regurgitate blood obtained night 's hunting give group members failed feed worker bees care queen bee entire lives never mate vervet monkeys warn group members predator 's approach even endangers individual 's


w tucker eds shapley ls stochastic games proceedings national academy science vol pp nbsp english translation theory games strategy w tucker r luce ed ''contributions theory games'' v nbsp p https booksgooglecom booksid lsvfzstgwsc pg pa princeton university press print references allan gibbard manipulation voting schemes general result ''econometrica'' vol pp nbsp edition layman 's introduction external links james miller https wwwyoutubecom playlistlist plqekkryyeow cr u c wkiekm pxxorpn introductory game theory videos paul walker https webarchiveorg web http wwweconomicsharvardedu aroth alrothhtml history game theory page david levine http dklevinecom game theory


study '''galaxy formation evolution''' concerned processes formed heterogeneous universe homogeneous beginning formation first galaxies way galaxies change time processes generated variety structures observed nearby galaxies galaxy formation hypothesized occur structure formation theories result tiny quantum fluctuations aftermath big bang simplest model general agreement observed phenomena lambda cdm model clustering merging allows galaxies accumulate mass determining shape

Natural science
Space science
Numerical simulations
Galaxy formation and evolution


rate galaxy mergers explain galaxies move blue cloud red sequence also explain star formation ceases galaxies theories galaxy evolution must therefore able explain star formation turns galaxies phenomenon called galaxy quenching stars form cold gas see also kennicutt schmidt law galaxy quenched cold gas however thought quenching occurs relatively quickly within billion years much shorter time would take


nearby low mass galaxies exact physical explanation strangulation still unknown may galaxy 's interactions galaxies galaxy falls galaxy cluster gravitational interactions galaxies strangle preventing accreting gas galaxies massive dark matter halos another preventive mechanism called virial shock heating may also prevent gas becoming cool enough form stars ref name ejective processes expel cold gas galaxies may explain massive galaxies quenched one ejective mechanism caused supermassive black holes


geological map europe compiled belgian geologist andr dumont colors indicate distribution rocks different ages types across continent known '''geology''' ancient greek ''g '' earth '' logia'' study discourse ref name onlineetdict ref ref name lsj ref ref branch earth science concerned liquid solid earth rocks composed processes change time geology also include study solid features terrestrial planet natural satellite mars

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Geology


determine specimens tested luster quality light reflected surface mineral examples metallic pearly waxy dull color minerals grouped color mostly diagnostic impurities change mineral 's color streak performed scratching sample porcelain plate color streak help name mineral hardness resistance mineral scratching breakage pattern mineral either show fracture cleavage former breakage uneven surfaces latter breakage along closely spaced parallel planes specific gravity


wave paths earthquakes like gave early seismologists insights layered structure earth advances seismology computer modeling mineralogy crystallography high temperatures pressures give insights internal composition structure earth seismologists use arrival times seismic waves reverse image interior earth early advances field showed existence liquid outer core shear waves able propagate dense solid inner core advances led development layered model earth


name ref ref name book ref billion years beginning informally recognized hadean eona division geological time later end scale marked present day holocene epoch timescale earth important milestones earth geological time diagram called geological clock showing relative lengths eons eras earth 's history ga gigaannum billion years ago solar system formation ref name ga accretion formation earth ref name ref name book c ga end late heavy bombardment


older formation ripped included newer layer similar situation igneous rocks occurs xenoliths found foreign bodies picked magma lava flows incorporated later cool matrix result xenoliths older rock contains permian jurassic stratigraphy colorado plateau area southeastern utah example original horizontality law superposition strata make much famous prominent rock formations widely spaced protected areas


stretched rocks also pinch lenses known ''boudins'' french word sausage visual similarity rock units slide past one another strike slip faults develop shallow regions become shear zones deeper depths rocks deform ductilely cross section kittatinny mountain cross section shows metamorphic rocks overlain younger sediments deposited metamorphic event rock units later folded faulted uplift mountain addition new rock units depositionally intrusively often occurs deformation faulting deformational processes result


ended upper undeformed units deposited although amount rock emplacement rock deformation occur occur number times concepts provide guide understanding geological history area methods geology brunton pocket transit commonly used geologists mapping surveying geologists use number fields laboratory numerical modeling methods decipher earth history understand processes occur inside earth typical geological investigations geologists use primary information related petrology study rocks stratigraphy study


earth geology often used conjunction names planetary bodies describing composition internal processes examples geology mars lunar geology specialized terms ' 'selenology'' studies moon ''areology'' mars etc also use although planetary geologists interested studying aspects planets significant focus search evidence past present life worlds led many missions whose primary ancillary purpose examine planetary bodies evidence life one


news maps dictionary articles jobs'' http wwwaguorg american geophysical union http wwwamericangeosciencesorg american geosciences institute http wwwegueu european geosciences union https webarchiveorg web http wwwgeosocietyorg geological society america http wwwgeolsocorguk geological society london https geologybuzz geology buzz http wwwminigeologycom video interviews famous geologists https opentextbcca geology geology opentextbook https ghkclasscom chronostratigraphy benchmarks


organism 's environment experiences influence development behavior often referred nature versus nurture intracellular extracellular environment living cell organism may switch gene transcription classic example two seeds genetically identical corn one placed temperate climate one arid climate lacking sufficient waterfall rain average height two corn stalks may genetically determined equal one arid climate grows half height one temperate climate due lack


sequence old strand property gives dna semi conservative nature one strand new dna original parent strand although structure dna showed inheritance works still known dna influences behavior cells following years scientists tried understand dna controls process protein production ref name betz ref discovered cell uses dna template create matching messenger rna molecules nucleotides similar dna nucleotide sequence messenger rna used create


amino acid sequence protein translation nucleotide sequences amino acid sequences known genetic code ref name rice ref newfound molecular understanding inheritance came explosion research ref name sarkar ref notable theory arose tomoko ohta amendment neutral theory molecular evolution publishing nearly neutral theory molecular evolution theory ohta stressed importance natural selection environment rate genetic evolution occurs one important development chain termination dna sequencing frederick sanger technology allows scientists


magenta alleles interaction genes called epistasis second gene epistatic first ref name griffiths sect ref many traits discrete features eg purple white flowers instead continuous features eg human height skin color complex traits products many genes influence genes mediated varying degrees environment organism experienced degree organism 's genes contribute complex trait called heritability ref name griffiths sect ref measurement heritability trait relative variable environment environment bigger


cytosine c guanine g thymine genetic information exists sequence nucleotides genes exist stretches sequence along dna chain ref name pearson ref viruses exception rule sometimes viruses use similar molecule rna instead dna genetic material viruses cannot reproduce without host unaffected many genetic processes tend considered living organisms dna normally exists double stranded molecule coiled shape double helix nucleotide dna preferentially pairs partner nucleotide opposite


dna strands often extremely long largest human chromosome example million base pairs length dna chromosome associated structural proteins organize compact control access dna forming material called chromatin eukaryotes chromatin usually composed nucleosomes segments dna wound around cores histone proteins full set hereditary material organism usually combined dna sequences chromosomes called genome dna often found nucleus cells ruth sager helped discovery


interactions many cells within eukaryotes exist structural features chromatin influence transcription genes often form modifications dna chromatin stably inherited daughter cells features called epigenetic exist top dna sequence retain inheritance one cell generation next epigenetic features different cell types grown within medium retain different properties although epigenetic features generally dynamic course development like phenomenon paramutation multigenerational inheritance exist rare


engineering offshore construction fields geotechnical engineering engineering geology knowledge areas overlap however geotechnical engineering specialty civil engineering engineering geology specialty geology share principles soil mechanics rock mechanics differ application history humans historically used soil material flood control irrigation purposes burial sites building foundations construction material buildings first activities linked irrigation flood control demonstrated traces dykes dams canals dating back least bce

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Geotechnical engineering


soil water voids geotechnical engineering soils considered three phase material composed rock mineral particles water air voids soil spaces mineral particles contain water air engineering properties soils affected four main factors predominant size mineral particles type mineral particles grain size distribution relative quantities mineral water air present soil matrix fine particles fines defined particles less nbsp mm diameter soil properties important properties soils


general geotechnical engineers estimate magnitude location loads supported develop investigation plan explore subsurface determine necessary soil parameters field lab testing eg consolidation test triaxial shear test vane shear test standard penetration test design foundation safest economical manner primary considerations foundation support bearing capacity settlement ground movement beneath foundations bearing capacity ability site soils support loads imposed buildings structures settlement occurs foundations soil conditions


areas shallow bedrock foundations may bear directly bedrock areas soil may provide sufficient strength support structures areas deeper bedrock soft overlying soils deep foundations used support structures directly bedrock areas bedrock economically available stiff bearing layers used support deep foundations instead shallow example slab grade foundation shallow foundations type foundation transfers building load near surface rather subsurface layer shallow foundations typically depth


behind gravity walls usually must minimum percent deep thick height wall may larger slope surcharge wall cantilever walls prior introduction modern reinforced soil gravity walls cantilevered walls common type taller retaining wall cantilevered walls made relatively thin stem steel reinforced cast place concrete mortared masonry often shape inverted walls cantilever loads like beam large structural footing converting horizontal pressures


shoring wall base excavation tie backs steel tendons drilled face wall extends beyond soil applying pressure wall provide additional lateral resistance wall earthworks compactor roller operated us navy seabees excavation process training earth according requirement removing soil site filling process training earth according requirement placing soil site compaction process density soil increased permeability soil


levels durability required main functions include drainage filtration reinforcement separation containment geosynthetics available wide range forms materials suit slightly different end use although frequently used together products wide range applications currently used many civil geotechnical engineering applications including roads airfields railroads embankments piled embankments retaining structures reservoirs canals dams landfills bank protection coastal engineering offshore platforms offshore mexico ''offshore'' ''marine'' ''geotechnical engineering'' concerned foundation design human made structures sea away


structures exposed various environmental loads notably wind waves currents phenomena may affect integrity serviceability structure foundation operational lifespan need taken account offshore design subsea geotechnical engineering seabed materials considered two phase material composed rock mineral particles water ref name das das bm principles geotechnical engineering cengage learning stamford p ref ref name atkinson atkinson j mechanics soils foundations taylor francis ny p ref structures may fixed place


low tensions ref name mit http webmitedu flowlab pdf floating offshore wind turbinespdf floating offshore wind turbines responses sea state pareto optimal designs economic assessment p sclavounos et al october ref observational method geotechnical engineering construction earth structures dams tunnels example '''observational method''' continuous managed integrated process design construction control monitoring review enabling appropriate previously defined modifications incorporated construction aspects must demonstrably robust objective achieve greater overall economy without compromising safety observational method proposed karl terzaghi discussed


dynamic behavior bedding foundation soil time domain springer verlag div external links http wwwswedgeose templates sgistandardpage aspxepslanguage en worldwide geotechnical literature database


ordered pairs vertices edge associated two distinct vertices avoid ambiguity type object may called precisely '' 'directed simple graph''' edge math x math directed math x math math math vertices math x math math math called ''endpoints'' edge math x math ''tail'' edge math math ''head'' edge edge said ''join'' math x math math math ''incident'' math x math math math vertex may exist graph belong edge edge math yx math

Formal science
Mathematics
Applied mathematics
Graph theory


table provide information relationships vertices within graph visual graph drawing graphs usually represented visually drawing point circle every vertex drawing line two vertices connected edge graph directed direction indicated drawing arrow graph weighted weight added arrow graph drawing confused graph abstract non visual structure several ways structure graph drawing matters


subgraphs induced subgraphs minors common problem called subgraph isomorphism problem finding fixed graph subgraph given graph one reason interested question many graph properties ''hereditary'' subgraphs means graph property subgraphs unfortunately finding maximal subgraphs certain kind often np complete problem example finding largest complete subgraph called clique problem np complete one special case subgraph isomorphism graph isomorphism problem


asks whether two graphs isomorphic known whether problem np complete whether solved polynomial time similar problem finding induced subgraphs given graph important graph properties hereditary respect induced subgraphs means graph property induced subgraphs also finding maximal induced subgraphs certain kind also often np complete example finding largest edgeless induced subgraph independent set called independent set problem np complete still another problem


graph algorithms references links graph library implementations online textbooks https arxivorg abs cond mat phase transitions combinatorial optimization problems section introduction graphs hartmann weigt http wwwcsrhulacuk books dbook digraphs theory algorithms applications jorgen bang jensen gregory gutin http diestel graph theorycom indexhtml graph theory reinhard diestel


specific designation later hippolytus uses learned ''gnostikos'' cerinthus ebionites epiphanius applied learned ''gnostikos'' specific groups term gnosticism appear ancient sources first coined th century henry commentary seven letters book revelation used term gnosticisme describe heresy thyatira term ''gnosticism'' derived use greek adjective ''gnostikos'' greek learned intellectual st irenaeus c nbsp ad describe school valentinus ''he legomene gnostike haeresis'' heresy called


hypothesis reitzenstein showing many hypotheses untenable nevertheless geo widengren argued origin mandaean gnosticism mazdean zoroastrianism zurvanism conjunction ideas aramaic mesopotamian world however scholars specializing mandaeism kurt rudolph mark lidzbarski rudolf mac ch ethel drower james f mcgrath charles g h berl jorunn jacobsen buckley inasi g nd z argue palestinian origin majority scholars believe mandaeans likely historical connection john baptist 's inner circle disciples charles h berl also linguist specializing mandaic


divine origins humanity term thus central element gnostic cosmology pleroma also used general greek language used greek orthodox church general form since word appears epistle colossians proponents view paul actually gnostic elaine pagels view reference colossians term interpreted gnostic sense emanation supreme light consciousness descends series stages gradations worlds hypostases becoming progressively material embodied time


alone creates materiality host co actors referred archons demiurge responsible creation humankind trapping elements pleroma stolen sophia inside human bodies ref name apocryphon ref name hypostasis ref response godhead emanates two savior aeons ''christ'' ''the holy spirit'' christ embodies form jesus order able teach humans achieve gnosis may return pleroma ref name nhlintro demiurge lion faced deity found gnostic gem bernard de montfaucon 's ''l'antiquit expliqu e et repr sent e en figures'' may


inner truth revealed jesus end second century fourth century reaction proto orthodox church condemnation heresy subsequent decline first period three types tradition developed genesis reinterpreted jewish milieus viewing yahweh jealous god enslaved people freedom obtained jealous god wisdom tradition developed jesus' sayings interpreted pointers esoteric wisdom soul could divinized identification wisdom ref jesus' sayings may incorporated gospels put


regions theme developed elaine pagels argues proto orthodox church found debates gnostic christians helped stabilize beliefs according gilles quispel catholicism arose response gnosticism establishing safeguards form monarchic episcopate creed canon holy books historical jesus gnostic movements may contain information historical jesus since texts preserve sayings show similarities canonical sayings especially gospel thomas significant amount parallel sayings yet striking difference canonical


fully present kingdom heaven church attained adam eve 's divine status fall johannine literature prologue gospel john describes incarnated logos light came earth person jesus ''apocryphon john'' contains scheme three descendants heavenly realm third one jesus gospel john similarities probably point relationship gnostic ideas johannine community according raymond brown gospel john shows development certain gnostic


end second century sethianism grew apart developing christian orthodoxy rejected docetian view sethians christ early third century sethianism fully rejected christian heresiologists sethianism shifted toward contemplative practices platonism losing interest primal origins late third century sethianism attacked neo platonists like plotinus sethianism became alienated platonism early mid fourth century sethianism fragmented various sectarian gnostic groups archontics audians borborites phibionites perhaps stratiotici secundians groups


development valentinus layton called great gnostic reformer focal point gnostic development alexandria born valentinus probably would contact gnostic teacher basilides may influenced simone petrement arguing christian origin gnosticism places valentinus basilides sethians according petrement valentinus represented moderation anti judaism earlier hellenized teachers demiurge widely regarded mythological depiction old testament god hebrews ie jehova depicted ignorant evil


treasures world since would belong isma'ili shia work ''umm al kitab'' azazil 's role resembles whose gnostic demiurge like demiurge endowed ability create world seeks imprison humans material world power limited depends higher god gnostic anthropogenic found frequently among isma'ili traditions fact ismailism often criticised non islamic ghazali characterized group outwardly shias actually adherence dualistic philosophical


anton lewald proposed persian zoroastrian origins jacques matter described gnosticism intrusion eastern cosmological theosophical speculation christianity gnosticism placed within greek philosophy especially neo platonism adolf von harnack belonged ''school history dogma'' proposed ''kirchengeschichtliches ursprungsmodell'' saw gnosticism internal development within church influence greek philosophy according harnack gnosticism acute hellenization christianity ''religionsgeschichtliche schule'' history religions school th century profound influence study gnosticism ''religionsgeschichtliche schule'' saw


jacobsen buckley argue palestinian origin mandaeism gilles quispel divided syrian egyptian gnosticism jewish gnosticism ''apocryphon john'' christian gnosis marcion basilides valentinus christian gnosticism christocentric influenced christian writings gospel john pauline epistles authors speak rather gnostic christians noting gnostics prominent substream early church traditional approaches gnosticism christian heresy best known example approach adolf von harnack stated gnosticism acute hellenization christianity according dillon many scholars


replace term biblical demiurgical tradition according karen king scholars unwittingly continued project ancient heresiologists searching non christian influences thereby continuing portray pure original christianity modern scholarship according westar institute 's fall christianity seminar report gnosticism actually group possesses usually attributed features nearly every group possesses one modified version particular relationship among set groups one could distinguish gnostic opposition


point land sea space respect coordinate system point position solved computation measurements linking known positions terrestrial extraterrestrial points unknown terrestrial position may involve transformations among astronomical terrestrial coordinate systems known points used point positioning triangulation points higher order network gps satellites traditionally hierarchy networks built allow point positioning within country highest hierarchy triangulation networks densified networks traverses polygons


space geodesy project including overview four fundamental techniques gps vlbi slr doris level used determining height differences height reference systems commonly referred mean sea level traditional spirit level produces practically useful heights sea level directly economical use gps instruments height determination requires precise knowledge figure geoid gps gives heights grs reference ellipsoid geoid knowledge accumulates one may expect use gps heighting spread theodolite used measure horizontal


geod sie'' vol teubner leipzig b hofmann wellenhof h moritz ''physical geodesy'' springer verlag wien text updated edition classic wa heiskanen h moritz w kaula ''theory satellite geodesy applications satellites geodesy'' dover publications text reprint classic van ek p ej krakiwsky ''geodesy concepts'' pp nbsp elsevier torge w ''geodesy'' rd edition published de gruyter thomas h meyer daniel r roman david b zilkoski ''height'' really mean series four articles


group acts object simple example symmetries regular polygon consisting reflections rotations transform polygon mathematical field representation theory '''group representations''' describe abstract groups terms bijective linear transformations ie automorphisms vector spaces particular used represent group elements invertible matrices group operation represented matrix multiplication representations groups important allow many group theoretic problems reduced problems linear algebra well understood also important

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Group representation


representations bulk article describes linear representation theory see last section generalizations branches group representation theory representation theory groups divides subtheories depending kind group represented various theories quite different detail though basic definitions concepts similar important divisions ''finite groups'' mdash group representations important tool study finite groups also arise applications finite group theory crystallography geometry field scalars vector space characteristic


lie groups general fields '''r''' '''c''' although linear algebraic groups classification similar lie groups give rise families lie algebras representations rather different much less well understood analytic techniques used studying lie groups must replaced techniques algebraic geometry relatively weak zariski topology causes many technical complications ''non compact topological groups'' mdash class non compact groups broad construct general representation theory specific special cases


permutation representation group homomorphism g symmetric group sub ''x'' sub ''x'' information topic see article group action representations categories every group ''g'' viewed category single object morphisms category elements ''g'' given arbitrary category ''c'' ' 'representation'' ''g'' ''c'' functor ''g'' ''c'' functor selects object ''x'' ''c'' group homomorphism ''g'' aut ''x'' automorphism group ''x'' case ''c''


scalar transformations affine representations category affine spaces example euclidean group acts affinely upon euclidean space see also irreducible representations character table character theory molecular symmetry list harmonic analysis topics list representation theory topics representation theory finite groups semisimple representation notes references introduction representation theory emphasis lie groups yurii lyubich '' https booksgooglecom booksid gcr bwaaqbaj printsec frontcover dq introduction theory banach representations groups hl en sa x ved ahukewi rdrx djahvlk khdpbdnqq aeikjaa v onepage q introduction theory banach representations groups f false introduction theory banach representations groups '' translated russian language edition kharkov ukraine birkh user verlag group theory representation theory


roque gameiro depicting portuguese guerrilla ambush french forces term guerrilla coined conflict occurred early th century '''guerrilla warfare''' form irregular warfare small groups combatants paramilitary personnel armed civilians irregulars use military tactics including ambushes sabotage raids petty warfare hit run tactics mobility fight larger less mobile traditional military although term guerrilla warfare coined context peninsular war th century tactical methods guerrilla warfare long use

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Guerrilla warfare


ink die laser cutting foil stamping blind embossing printmaking printmaking process making artworks printing paper materials surfaces process capable producing multiples work called print print original technically known impression prints created single original surface technically matrix common types matrices include plates metal usually copper zinc engraving etching stone used lithography blocks wood woodcuts linoleum lino cuts fabric plates screen printing works printed

Applied science
Architecture and design
Visual communication
Graphic design


american osteopathic board internal medicine aobim american college gastroenterology american gastroenterological association american society gastrointestinal endoscopy research resources scandinavian journal gastroenterology http uegsagepubcom content current ueg journal references external links

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Gastroenterology


also criticized father lies along contemporary thucydides helped form foundations modern study past events societies works continue read today gap culture focused herodotus military focused thucydides remains point contention approach modern historical writing east asia state chronicle spring autumn annals reputed date early bc although nd centurybc texts survived etymology ''history'' frederick dielman word ''history'' comes ancient greek ''histor a'' meaning inquiry


irish old welsh old english ' 'st r'' history narrative story word fell use late old english period ref name oed online oxford university press history n oed online oxford university press december march ref meanwhile latin became old french anglo norman ''historia'' developed forms ''istorie'' ''estoire'' ''historie'' new developments meaning account events person 's life beginning th century chronicle account events relevant group people people general dramatic pictorial representation


dynastic periods china used ''shiji'' official format historical texts well biographical literature saint augustine influential christian western thought beginning medieval period medieval renaissance periods history often studied sacred religious perspective around german philosopher historian georg wilhelm friedrich hegel brought philosophy secular approach historical study ref name graham ch preface book ''muqaddimah'' arab historian early sociologist ibn khaldun warned seven mistakes thought historians regularly


historians' work power imagination hence contended history understood art french historians associated annales school introduced quantitative history using raw data track lives typical individuals prominent establishment cultural history cf ''histoire des mentalit s'' intellectual historians herbert butterfield ernst nolte george mosse argued significance ideas history american historians motivated civil rights era focused formerly overlooked ethnic racial socio economic groups another genre social history emerge post wwii


roland mousnier henry ashby turner robert conquest offered anti marxist interpretations history feminist historians joan wallach scott claudia koonz natalie zemon davis sheila rowbotham gisela bock gerda lerner elizabeth fox genovese lynn hunt argued importance studying experience women past recent years postmodernists challenged validity need study history basis history based personal interpretation sources book ''in defence history'' richard j evans defended worth history another defence history


cited crucial influence course history huntington semple argued climate impact racial temperament regions history africa begins first emergence modern human beings continent continuing modern present patchwork diverse politically developing nation states history americas collective history north south america including central america caribbean history north america study past passed generation generation continent earth 's northern western hemisphere history


determinism context comparative law'' fc decoste bernard schwartz eds ''holocaust 's ghost writings art politics law education'' https booksgooglecom booksid llnbsq yp gc pg pa lpg pa p ref related issue judgement history collective memory pseudohistory pseudohistory term applied texts purport historical nature depart standard historiographical conventions way undermines conclusions closely related deceptive historical revisionism works draw controversial conclusions new speculative disputed historical evidence particularly fields national political military


level historians debate question whether history belongs social science humanities many view field perspectives teaching history french schools influenced ''nouvelle histoire'' disseminated ''cahiers p dagogiques enseignement'' journals teachers also influential institut national de recherche et de documentation p dagogique inrdp joseph leif inspector general teacher training said pupils children learn historians' approaches well facts dates louis fran ois dean history geography group inspectorate national education advised


''history'' ep ep controllercontroller ''history'' dune album ''history'' jon english album ''history'' loudon wainwright iii album ''history'' matthew west album ''history past present future book i'' album michael jackson ''history '' album grime rapper jme ''history america 's greatest hits'' compilation album america ''history function music'' album e short ''history mob music'' album e short ''history singles '' songs history exo song history funeral friend song history one direction song history


menus graphical programs maintain example listing recently accessed files commands code history code command implementation command history feature found many operating system shells changelog history log record changes computer projects schedule computer science also called history fields databases transaction processing web browsing history log pages user visited web uses history concept study internal validity refers events outside scientific experiment repeated measures dependent


body water outside cells sodium chloride whereas within cells potassium phosphates cells body contains trillions cells fundamental unit life maturity roughly ref name sender et al ref trillion cells body estimate arrived totaling cell numbers organs body cell types body also host number non human cells ref name sender et al well multicellular organisms reside gastrointestinal tract skin ref name fredericks ref parts body made

Natural science
Biology
Anatomy
Human anatomy


internal cavities endothelium come numerous shapes forms single layers flat cells cells small beating hair like cilia lungs column like cells line stomach endothelial cells cells line internal cavities including blood vessels glands lining cells regulate ca n't pass protect internal structures function sensory surfaces organs organs structured collections cells specific function mostly sit within body exception skin examples include heart lungs liver many organs reside within cavities within body


area next ref name niddknihgov ref digestion begins mouth chews food smaller pieces easier digestion swallowed moves esophagus stomach stomach food mixed gastric acids allow extraction nutrients left called chyme moves small intestine absorbs nutrients water chyme remains passes large intestine dried form feces stored rectum expelled anus ref name niddknihgov endocrine


increased height weight also occur female puberty process ref name ref internal gross anatomy male reproductive system external male reproductive system made penis scrotum bag protects testes penis consists glans head penis contains urethra urinary meatus point urine exits penis rest penis called shaft corpus cavernosum contains urethra glans covered fold skin called foreskin


ref respiratory system function properly need impediments possible movement air within lungs inflammation lungs excess mucus common sources breathing difficulties ref name webmdcom asthma respiratory system persistently inflamed causing wheezing shortness breath pneumonia occurs infection alveoli may caused tuberculosis emphysema commonly result smoking caused damage connections alveoli urinary system female urinary system urinary system consists two kidneys two ureters bladder urethra


major bones muscles nerves body named exception anatomical variations sesamoid bones accessory muscles blood vessels carry blood throughout body moves beating heart venules veins collect blood low oxygen tissues throughout body collect progressively larger veins reach body 's two largest veins superior inferior vena cava drain blood right side heart blood pumped lungs receives oxygen drains back


left side heart pumped body 's largest artery aorta progressively smaller arteries arterioles reaches tissue blood passes small arteries capillaries small veins process begins blood carries oxygen waste products hormones one place body another blood filtered kidneys liver body consists number body cavities separated areas house different organ systems brain central nervous system reside area protected rest


adulthood old age referred process aging society culture professional study anatomical study leonardo da vinci health professionals learn human body illustrations models demonstrations medical dental students addition gain practical experience example dissection cadavers human anatomy physiology biochemistry basic medical sciences generally taught medical students first year medical school ref name introhgray ref ref name gray ref depiction figure drawing lovis corinth anatomy served visual arts since ancient greek times th century bc sculptor


racism imperialism similar concern human physical aspects apparent later th first half th centuries focused regional geography goal regional geography something known regionalisation delineate space regions understand describe unique characteristics region human physical aspects links possibilism cultural ecology notions causal effect environment society culture remain environmental determinism however quantitative revolution led strong criticism

Social science
Geography
Human geography


schaefer waldo tobler william garrison peter haggett richard j chorley william bunge torsten h gerstrand number critiques positivism associated geography emerged known term 'critical geography' critiques signaled another turning point discipline behavioral geography emerged time means understand people made perceived spaces places made locational decisions influential 'radical geography' emerged draws heavily marxist 's theory techniques associated geographers david harvey richard peet radical geographers


seek say meaningful things problems recognized quantitative methods provide explanations rather descriptions put forward alternatives solutions politically engaged rather using detachment associated positivists detachment objectivity quantitative revolution critiqued radical geographers tool capital radical geography links marxism related theories remain important part contemporary human geography see ''antipode'' critical geography also saw introduction 'humanistic geography' associated work yi fu tuan pushed much qualitative approach methodology


biophysical environment subfields include marketing geography transportation geography health medical health geography application geographical information perspectives methods study health disease health care health geography deals spatial relations patterns people environment sub discipline human geography researching diseases spread contained histories historical geography study human physical fictional theoretical real geographies past historical geography studies wide variety issues topics common theme study geographies


hydrogeology study presence movement groundwater hydrogeochemistry study terrestrial water dissolves minerals weathering effect water chemistry hydroinformatics adaptation information technology hydrology water resources applications hydrometeorology study transfer water energy land water body surfaces lower atmosphere isotope hydrology study isotopic signatures water surface hydrology study hydrologic processes operate near earth 's surface drainage basin management covers water storage form reservoirs


also affected presence snow hail ice relate dew mist fog hydrology considers evaporation various forms water surfaces transpiration plant surfaces natural agronomic ecosystems direct measurement evaporation obtained using simon 's evaporation pan detailed studies evaporation involve boundary layer considerations well momentum heat flux energy budgets remote sensing estimates changes water storage around tigris euphrates rivers measured nasa 's grace satellites satellites measure tiny changes gravitational acceleration processed


rather complex mathematical models developed facilitated availability high speed computers common pollutant classes analyzed nutrients pesticides total dissolved solids sediment organizations intergovernmental organizations international hydrological programme ihp international research bodies international water management institute iwmi un ihe delft institute water education national research bodies centre ecology hydrology uk centre water science cranfield university uk eawag aquatic research eth z rich switzerland institute hydrology albert ludwigs university freiburg germany united states geological survey water resources united


book ''the psychology human computer interaction'' although authors first used term ref name keystroke level model user performance time interactive systems first known use ref name evaluating impact office automation top management communication term intended convey unlike tools specific limited uses computers many uses often involve open ended dialogue user computer notion dialogue likens human computer interaction human human interaction analogy crucial theoretical considerations field ref name ref introduction

Formal science
Computer science
Human-computer interaction


environment''''' conditions goals set upon user '''''machine environment''''' computer 's environment connected eg laptop college student 's dorm room '''''areas interface''''' non overlapping areas involve processes human computer interaction meanwhile overlapping areas concern processes interaction '''''input flow''''' flow information begins task environment user task requiring using computer '''''output''''' flow information originates machine environment '''''feedback''''' loops interface evaluate moderate confirm processes


digital fashion lies improvements effectiveness human computer interaction influence emotions human computer interaction studied fields financial decision making using ecg organizational knowledge sharing using eye tracking face readers affect detection channels fields shown affect detection channels potential detect human emotions information systems incorporate data obtained affect detection channels improve decision models brain computer interfaces brain computer interface bci direct communication pathway enhanced wired brain external device bci differs neuromodulation


computers beginning merge computer print fields expected cross assimilate ''high bandwidth interaction'' rate humans machines interact expected increase substantially due changes speed computer graphics new media new input output devices lead qualitatively different interfaces virtual reality computational video ''large thin displays'' new display technologies maturing enabling huge displays displays thin lightweight low power use large effects portability likely enable developing paper like pen based computer interaction systems different feel


cooperative work group acm conference supporting group work hri acm ieee international conference human robot interaction hcii human computer interaction international icmi international conference multimodal interfaces acm conference interactive tabletops surfaces mobilehci international conference human computer interaction mobile devices services nime international conference new interfaces musical expression ozchi australian conference human computer interaction tei international conference tangible embedded embodied interaction ubicomp international conference ubiquitous computing uist acm symposium user interface software technology user international conference user science engineering interact ifip tc conference human computer interaction ihci


human computer interaction'' ''international journal human computer studies'' ''human computer interaction'' http hci journalcom http wwwtandfcouk journals titles asp collection papers ronald baecker jonathan grudin william buxton saul greenberg eds ''readings human computer interaction toward year '' ed morgan kaufmann san francisco mithun ahamed developing message interface architecture android operating systems http asrjetsjournalorg indexphp american scientific journal article view treatments one authors often aimed general audience jakob nielsen ''usability engineering'' academic press boston donald norman ''the psychology everyday things'' basic books new york jef raskin ''the humane interface new directions


taken pre islamic persian term ''hind '' refers indians th century ''hindustan'' emerged popular alternative name india meaning land hindus ref term ''hindu'' later used occasionally sanskrit texts later ''rajataranginis'' kashmir hinduka c th th century bengali gaudiya vaishnava texts including ''chaitanya charitamrita'' ''chaitanya bhagavata'' texts used distinguish hindus muslims called yavanas foreigners mlecchas barbarians th century ''chaitanya charitamrita'' text th century ''bhakta mala'' text using phrase


inden ''imagining india'' carol breckenridge peter van der veer ''orientalism postcolonial predicament'' vasudha dalmia heinrich von stietencron ''representing hinduism'' sn balagangadhara ''the heathen blindness'' thomas trautmann ''aryans british india'' ''orientalism religion'' also taken critics western view india typology om stylized letter devanagari script used religious symbol hinduism hinduism commonly known subdivided number major currents historical division six darsanas philosophies two schools vedanta yoga


cognitive mysticism stereotype followed fit states inden imperial imperatives era providing moral justification colonial project ref name ronaldinden tribal animism buddhism everything subsumed part hinduism early reports set tradition scholarly premises typology hinduism well major assumptions flawed presuppositions foundation indology hinduism according inden neither imperial religionists stereotyped appropriate equate hinduism merely monist pantheism philosophical idealism advaita


ce various indian cultures traditions ref name various cultures diverse roots founder hindu synthesis emerged vedic period c bce c ce period second urbanisation early classical period hinduism epics first puranas composed flourished medieval period decline buddhism india hinduism 's tolerance variations belief broad range traditions make difficult define religion according traditional western conceptions academics suggest hinduism


full sense concept presumes unused human potential creativity compassion understanding blocked shut moksha liberation life rebirth cycle suffering sa ra vedantic school separates two ''jivanmukti'' liberation life ''videhamukti'' liberation death ref name klausklost karma sa ra ''karma'' translates literally ''action'' ''work'' ' 'deed'' also refers vedic theory moral law cause effect theory combination causality may ethical non ethical ethicization good bad actions consequences


right deities also separate sects dedicated great prambanan hindu temple complex built th century java indonesia hinduism central doctrinal authority many practising hindus claim belong particular denomination tradition four major denominations however used scholarly studies ''vaishnavism'' ''shaivism'' ''shaktism'' ''smartism'' ref name lancenelson ref denominations differ primarily central deity worshipped traditions soteriological outlook ref name sskumar ss kumar ''bhakti yoga love'' lit verlag nster pp ref denominations hinduism states lipner unlike found