genetic drift described using either branching processes diffusion equation describing changes allele frequency approaches usually applied wright fisher moran models population genetics assuming genetic drift evolutionary force acting allele generations many replicated populations starting allele frequencies p q variance allele frequency across populations math v approx pq left exp left frac n e right right math ronald fisher held view genetic drift plays minor role evolution remained dominant view several decades


example simplest case single locus two alleles denoted '''a''' '''a''' frequencies ''p'' ''q'' random mating predicts freq '''aa''' nbsp nbsp ''p'' sup sup '''aa''' homozygotes freq '''aa''' nbsp nbsp ''q'' sup sup '''aa''' homozygotes freq '''aa''' nbsp nbsp ''pq'' heterozygotes absence population structure hardy weinberg proportions reached within generations random mating typically excess homozygotes indicative population structure extent excess quantified inbreeding coefficient f individuals clustered ''k'' subpopulations degree population structure calculated using f sub st sub

Natural science
Biology
Genetics
Population genetics


viaspan university wisconsin solution htk celsior designed purpose solutions also contain ingredients minimize damage free radicals prevent edema compensate atp loss etc cryopreservation cells guided two factor hypothesis american cryobiologist https wwwphysicsiupuiedu starman starman cryobiology mazur mazurhtm peter mazur states excessively rapid cooling kills cells intracellular ice formation excessively slow cooling kills cells either electrolyte toxicity mechanical crushing slow cooling ice forms extracellularly causing water osmotically leave cells thereby dehydrating intracellular ice much damaging extracellular ice red blood


promote scientific research low temperature biology improve scientific understanding field disseminate apply knowledge benefit mankind society requires members highest ethical scientific standards performance professional activities according society 's bylaws membership may refused applicants whose conduct deemed detrimental society bylaws amended explicitly exclude practice application freezing deceased persons anticipation reanimation objections members cryonicists jerry


category algebras scheme even stack one may associate tale topos fppf topos nisnevich topos another important example topos crystalline site case tale topos form foundational objects study anabelian geometry studies objects algebraic geometry determined entirely structure tale fundamental group pathologies topos theory sense generalization classical point set topology one therefore expect see old new instances pathological behavior

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Topos theory


graph example related examples via yoneda lemma described examples section ceases first order topoi provide abstract general first order solution figure ''m'' pullback generic subobject ''t'' along ''f''as noted topos ''c'' subobject classifier namely object ''c'' element ''t'' isin ''generic subobject'' ''c'' property every monic ''m'' ''x '' ''x'' arises pullback generic subobject along unique morphism ''f'' ''x''


''u'' '''grph''' rarr '''set''' sup sup sending object ''g'' pair sets '''grph''' ''v' ''''g'' '''grph''' ''e' ''''g'' morphism ''h'' ''g'' rarr ''h'' pair functions '''grph''' ''v' ''''h'' '''grph''' ''e' ''''h'' faithful morphism graphs understood ''pair'' functions one mapping vertices edges application still realized composition multiple sorts ''generalized'' elements shows traditional concept concrete category one whose objects underlying set generalized cater wider range


third part borceux' remarkable magnum opus johnstone labelled still suitable introduction though beginners may find hard recognize relevant results among huge amount material given long time standard compendium topos theory however even johnstone describes work far hard read faint hearted early two scheduled three volumes overwhelming compendium available books target special applications topos theory includes many interesting special applications foundations mathematics sheaf theory


burrows polecat domesticated ferret use described pliny elder medieval husbandry div alt painting shepherd sheep div northern europe agriculture including animal husbandry went decline roman empire collapsed aspects herding animals continued throughout period th century economy recovered countryside productive ''domesday book'' recorded every parcel land every animal england one single hide yard land nay moreover even ox cow

Applied science
Agriculture
Animal husbandry


others like foot mouth disease affect cloven hoofed animals animals living intensive conditions prone internal external parasites increasing numbers sea lice affecting farmed salmon scotland reducing parasite burdens livestock results increased productivity profitability condition serious governments impose regulations import export movement stock quarantine restrictions reporting suspected cases vaccines available certain diseases antibiotics widely used appropriate one time antibiotics routinely added certain compound foodstuffs promote growth practice


avian flu h n present wild bird populations carried large distances migrating birds virus easily transmissible domestic poultry humans living close proximity infectious diseases affecting wild animals farm animals humans include rabies leptospirosis brucellosis tuberculosis trichinosis ref name norrgren ref range species single universally agreed definition species livestock widely agreed types livestock include cattle beef dairy sheep goats pigs poultry various species sometimes considered livestock horses poultry birds sometimes excluded


grass cut brought cow housed year round many communities milk production part purpose keeping animal may also used beast burden draw plough production fibre meat leather dung used fuel improvement soil fertility sheep goats may favoured dairy production climates conditions suit dairy cows ref name faodairy meat hereford hardy breed beef cattle raised many countries


combs removed processing extraction honey quite apart honey wax produce honey bees important pollinators crops wild plants many places hives transported around countryside assist pollination sericulture rearing silkworms first adopted chinese shang dynasty species farmed commercially domesticated silkmoth spins cocoon larva produces exceedingly long slender thread silk larvae feed mulberry leaves europe one generation normally raised year


lead qualification provide practicing lawyers updates recent legal developments history early western legal education emerged republican rome initially desiring advocates would train schools rhetoric around third century bce tiberius coruncanius began teaching law separate discipline public legal instruction effect creating class legally skilled non priests ''jurisprudentes'' sort consultancy coruncanius' death instruction gradually became formal introduction books law beyond scant official roman legal texts possible coruncanius allowed

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Legal education


recent case hku aimed shifting theoretical aspects hku pcll llb leaving room practical instruction india bar council india prescribes supervises standard legal education india law degrees india granted conferred terms https webarchiveorg web http barcouncilofindianicin disk pdf advocates act law passed parliament aspect legal education also regulation conduct legal profession various regional universities specialised national law universities offer law graduate degrees various law schools


student 's grades overall score extracurricular activities generally specialized ip law contract law civil liberties etc students must pass specific examination enter bar school crfpa cole du barreau must successfully finish first year master law maitrise de droit able attend succeed months school practical aspects ethics internship take capa exam diploma certificat d'aptitude la profession d'avocat successful students also take oath order practice law japan japanese ministry


prior implementation law school system legal education system driven examinations formal schooling passage rate bar exam historically around three percent nearly sat exam took several times number specialized cram schools trained prospective lawyers exam schools remain prevalent today passing bar exam prospective barristers required train months legal research training institute supreme court japan training period traditionally


law schools permitted enroll students per year far financially sustainable number beginning passage lawyer admission test distinct old bar exam required qualification practice number legal professions exist korea patent attorneys '' '' tax attorneys '' '' solicitors '' '' etc entry governed separate examination malaysia commonwealth country malaysian legal education system rooted united kingdom legal qualifications offered local law faculties require students


law student must complete law exams held sri lanka law college undergo six month period apprenticeship senior practicing lawyer two routes taken students gained law degree llb years long sri lankan state universities university colombo university jaffna open university sri lanka university peradeniya given direct entry undertake law exams sri lanka law college n't hold law degree could gain entrance sri lanka law college via


competitive entrance exam study law prepare law exams groups students must undergo period apprenticeship senior practicing lawyer least years practicing experience become judge one must admitted attorney law united kingdom england wales law studied undergraduate degree graduate diploma law students complete common professional examination obtaining degree necessary complete certain vocational courses serve period job training


leuchtenburg william e pertinence political history reflections significance state america ''journal american history'' newman richard bringing politics back abolition ''reviews american history'' silbey joel h state practice american political history millennium nineteenth century test case ''journal policy history'' swirski peter '' https booksgooglecom booksid f qsagaaqbaj printsec frontcover dq american utopia social engineering literature social thought political history hl en sa x ved ahukewis sojumnjahvlhoakhs gbv q aeikjaa v onepage q american utopia social engineering literature c social thought c political history f false american utopia social engineering literature social thought political history '' new york routledge external links https mbsbhamwordpresscom conference rethinking modern british studies conference rethinking modern british studies numerous papers reports


even prevention vaccination influenza vaccination pregnant women remains low munoz et al demonstrated adverse outcome observed new infants mothers ref name mun ref causes causes teratogenesis broadly classified toxic substances humans drugs pregnancy environmental toxins pregnancy potassium iodide possible teratogen potassium iodide raw form mild irritant handled gloves chronic overexposure adverse effects thyroid vertically transmitted infection lack nutrients example lack folate acid

Natural science
Biology
Developmental biology
Teratology


agreement parties contract makes promise set promises example contract sale home buyer promises pay seller exchange seller 's promise deliver title property common contracts take place daily flow commerce transactions cases sophisticated expensive precedent requirements requirements must met contract fulfilled less common unilateral contracts one party makes promise


legal consequences consideration concept english common law consideration required simple contracts special contracts contracts deed court ''currie v misa'' declared consideration right interest profit benefit forbearance detriment loss responsibility thus consideration promise something value given promissor exchange something value given promisee typically thing value goods money act forbearance act adult promising refrain


create mutuality obligation simpkins v pays united states persons typically minor contracts considered voidable however minor voids contract benefits received minor must returned minor enforce breaches contract adult adult 's enforcement may limited bargain principle promissory estoppel unjust enrichment may available generally formalities writing requirements contracts contract often evidenced writing deed general rule person


signs contractual document bound terms document rule referred rule ''l'estrange v graucob'' ref name l'estrange v graucob ''l'estrange v graucob'' kb ref rule approved high court australia ''toll fgct pty ltd v alphapharm pty ltd'' ref name toll v alphapharm ref valid contract may exceptions made orally even conduct remedies breach contract include damages monetary compensation loss ref name hadley v baxendale ref serious breaches repudiation ie cancellation equitable remedy specific


implied fact officious bystander listening contract negotiations suggested term included parties would promptly agree difference tests questionable terms implied law statutes judicial rulings may create implied contractual terms particularly standardized relationships employment shipping contracts uniform commercial code united states also imposes implied covenant good faith fair dealing performance enforcement contracts covered code addition australia israel india imply similar good faith term laws england


choice forum many contracts contain forum selection clause setting disputes relation contract litigated clause may general requiring case arising contract filed within specific state country may require case filed specific court example choice forum clause may require case filed us state california may require specifically case filed superior court los angeles county choice law


venue necessarily binding upon court based upon analysis laws rules procedure public policy state court case filed court identified clause may find exercise jurisdiction court different jurisdiction venue may find litigation may proceed despite clause part analysis court may examine whether clause conforms formal requirements jurisdiction case filed jurisdictions choice forum


watergate politically justified examples opinions feelings cannot verified thus subject interpretation hence distorted meanings receiver 's background experience learning may differ enough sender cause significantly different perceptions evaluations topic discussion shall see later differences form basic barrier communication ref name johnson nonverbal content always accompanies verbal content messages speaking nonverbal communication birdwhistell says complementary meaning adds rather redundant repeating verbal

Journalism, media studies and communication


''isolate'' grapevine include destructive miscommunication also beneficial allowing feelings expressed increasing productivity employees top approach also known downward communication approach used top level management communicate lower levels used implement policies guidelines etc type organizational communication distortion actual information occurs could made effective feedbacks additionally mcphee zaug take nuanced view communication constitutive organizations also referred cco identify


follow building quantitative research method use results qualitative data form variables instruments interventions quantitative surveys questionnaires ref name abeza sequential transformative design researchers line sequential transformative design led theoretical perspective conceptual framework specific ideology advocacy position employs best serve researcher 's theoretical ideological perspective ref name abeza therefore research design could either qualitative quantitative method used first priority depends circumstance resource availability


given either ref name abeza concurrent triangulation design concurrent triangulation design although data collected quantitative qualitative methods time collected separately equal priority one phase later analysis phase mixing two methods takes place ref name abeza concurrent embedded design concurrent embedded design qualitative quantitative data collected although one method supports one two methods either qualitative quantitative transforms support dominant method ref name abeza concurrent transformative design


outside organization nbsp assuming outside taken granted organizational practices work fortify dominant hegemonic narrative individuals resist confront practices actions agencies effects status changes organization eg promotions demotions restructuring financial social strata changes change communicative behavior criteria employed organizational members differentiate legitimate ie endorsed formal organizational structure illegitimate ie opposed unknown formal power structure behaviors successful mean successful pretenders usurpers employ


greater topological dimension instance refers fractal scales compared geometric shapes usually perceived straight line instance conventionally understood one dimensional figure rep tiled pieces length original always three equal pieces solid square understood two dimensional figure rep tiled pieces scaled factor dimensions total sup sup pieces see ordinary self similar objects n dimensional means

Formal science
Mathematics
Applied mathematics
Dynamical systems
Fractal geometry


look similar larger parts circular village made circular houses according pickover mathematics behind fractals began take shape th century mathematician philosopher gottfried leibniz pondered recursive self similarity although made mistake thinking straight line self similar sense ref name pickover ref writings leibniz used term fractional exponents lamented geometry yet know ref name mandelbrot indeed according various historical accounts point mathematicians tackled issues work


become important study fractals ref name vicsek ref name classics ref name mactutor shortly work submitted march felix hausdorff expanded definition dimension significantly evolution definition fractals allow sets non integer dimensions ref name mactutor idea self similar curves taken paul l vy paper ''plane space curves surfaces consisting parts similar whole'' described new fractal curve l vy c curve ref group notes name levy note strange attractor exhibits multifractal scaling x px


built earlier work lewis fry richardson ref name mandelbrot quote mandelbrot solidified hundreds years thought mathematical development coining word fractal illustrated mathematical definition striking computer constructed visualizations images canonical mandelbrot set captured popular imagination many based recursion leading popular meaning term fractal ref name gordon ref name classics ref name pickover loren carpenter gave presentation siggraph introduced software generating rendering fractally generated landscapes definition characteristics one


expressed phrases smoothly piling surfaces swirls upon swirls ref name mandelbrot chaos simple perhaps recursive definitions ' 'see common techniques generating fractals'' group criteria form guidelines excluding certain cases may self similar without typically fractal features straight line instance self similar fractal lacks detail easily described euclidean language hausdorff dimension topological dimension fully defined without need recursion ref name mandelbrot ref name vicsek common techniques generating fractals


comparative study medical systems known ethnomedicine way illness disease treated one 's culture psychopathology object study ethnopsychiatry beneduce transcultural psychiatry bibeau anthropology mental illness l z concept medical systems would seen specific product ethnic group 's cultural history scientific biomedicine would become another medical system therefore cultural form could studied position originated cultural relativism maintained cultural anthropology allowed debate medicine psychiatry

Social science
Anthropology
Medical Anthropology


fields intersect medical anthropology terms research methodology theoretical production ''cultural psychiatry'' ''transcultural psychiatry'' ''ethnopsychiatry'' training medical anthropologists trained anthropology main discipline many come health professions medicine nursing whereas others come backgrounds psychology social work social education sociology cultural transcultural psychiatrists trained anthropologists naturally psychiatric clinicians training medical anthropology normally acquired master 's msc doctoral level latin countries specific masters'


van eds ''themes medical anthropology'' perugia fondazione angelo celli argo dongen els comelles josep ''medical anthropology anthropology'' perugia fondazione angelo celli argo farmer paul ''infections inequalities modern plagues'' berkeley university california press farmer paul ''pathologies power health human rights new war poor'' berkeley university california press geest sjaak van der rienks ari ''the art medical anthropology readings'' amsterdam het spinhuis universiteit van amsterdam good byron michael j fischer sarah willen mary jo delvecchio good eds ''a reader


share statistical classification identifying set categories new observation belongs basis training set data media classification literature figure speech linking proper noun common noun using ''the'' articles decimal classification decimal classification systems document classification problem library science information science computer science classified information sensitive information access restricted law regulation particular classes people library classification system coding assorting organizing library materials according subject image classification computer vision motion

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Classification


former soviet union united states australia brazil canada germany india malaysia pakistan russia united states united states constitution established supremacy clause united states constitution federal law takes precedent state law powers include authority govern international affairs interstate commerce currency national defense american civil war fourteenth amendment applied constitution 's bill rights state governments legislation passed congress executive order president decision federal courts pursuant constitution federal law


group also produces fp events ''foreign policy'' 's events division launched history ''foreign policy'' founded late samuel p huntington professor harvard university friend warren demian manshel give voice alternative views american foreign policy time vietnam war huntington hoped would serious scholarly lively glib ref name samuel huntington ref early six years close partnership carnegie endowment international peace acquired full ownership ''foreign policy'' format change implemented

Applied science
Public administration
Foreign policy


employed especially automated medical diagnosis ref name aima ref however increasing emphasis logical knowledge based approach caused rift ai machine learning probabilistic systems plagued theoretical practical problems data acquisition representation ref name aima expert systems come dominate ai statistics favor ref name changing ref work symbolic knowledge based learning continue within ai leading inductive logic programming statistical line research outside field ai proper pattern recognition information retrieval ref name aima neural networks research abandoned ai

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Machine learning


receive consequence situation compute emotion consequence situation v update crossbar memory w w v system one input situation one output action behavior neither separate reinforcement input advice input environment backpropagated value secondary reinforcement emotion toward consequence situation caa exists two environments one behavioral environment behaves genetic environment wherefrom initially receives initial emotions situations


order items either within transaction across transactions learning classifier systems lcs family rule based machine learning algorithms combine discovery component typically genetic algorithm learning component performing either supervised learning reinforcement learning unsupervised learning seek identify set context dependent rules collectively store apply knowledge piecewise manner order make predictions inductive logic programming ilp approach rule learning using logic programming uniform representation input examples background knowledge hypotheses given encoding known background knowledge


classification svms efficiently perform non linear classification using called kernel trick implicitly mapping inputs high dimensional feature spaces illustration linear regression data set regression analysis regression analysis encompasses large variety statistical methods estimate relationship input variables associated features common form linear regression single line drawn best fit given data according mathematical criterion ordinary least squares latter often extended regularization mathematics methods mitigate overfitting bias


professionals additional tool diagnose medicate plan recovery paths patients requires biases mitigated hardware since advances machine learning algorithms computer hardware led efficient methods training deep neural networks particular narrow subdomain machine learning contain many layers non linear hidden units graphic processing units gpus often ai specific enhancements displaced cpus dominant method training large scale commercial cloud ai openai estimated hardware compute used largest deep learning projects alexnet


references sources reading nils j nilsson '' https aistanfordedu people nilsson mlbookhtml introduction machine learning '' trevor hastie robert tibshirani jerome h friedman '' https webstanfordedu hastie elemstatlearn elements statistical learning '' springer pedro domingos september ''the master algorithm'' basic books ian h witten eibe frank ''data mining practical machine learning tools techniques'' morgan kaufmann pp ethem alpaydin ''introduction machine learning'' mit press david j c mackay '' http wwwinferencephycamacuk mackay itila bookhtml information theory inference learning algorithms '' cambridge cambridge university press richard duda peter e hart david g stork


hydrogenation alkenes without touching aromatic rings selective hydrogenation alkynes alkenes using lindlar 's catalyst example catalyst palladium placed barium sulfate treated quinoline resulting catalyst reduces alkynes far alkenes lindlar catalyst applied conversion phenylacetylene styrene gallery caption illustrative hydrogenations widths px heights px file carvoneh png selective hydrogenation less hindered alkene group carvone using homogeneous catalyst wilkinson 's catalyst file phc hh png partial hydrogenation phenylacetylene using lindlar catalyst file imineh png hydrogenation imine using raney nickel catalyst popular heterogeneous catalyst file resorcinolh png partial


double bonds removed process elevates melting point product petrochemical industry petrochemical processes hydrogenation used convert alkenes aromatics saturated alkanes paraffins cycloalkanes naphthenes less toxic less reactive relevant liquid fuels stored sometimes long periods air saturated hydrocarbons exhibit superior storage properties hand alkenes tend form hydroperoxides form gums interfere fuel handling equipment example mineral turpentine usually hydrogenated hydrocracking heavy residues diesel another application isomerization


commercialized early french chemist paul sabatier considered father hydrogenation process building earlier work james boyce american chemist working manufacture soap products discovered traces nickel catalyzed addition hydrogen molecules gaseous hydrocarbons known sabatier process work sabatier shared nobel prize chemistry wilhelm normann awarded patent germany britain hydrogenation liquid oils beginning


membered transition state another system metal free hydrogenation based phosphine borane compound ''' ''' called ''frustrated lewis pair'' reversibly accepts dihydrogen relatively low temperatures form phosphonium borate ''' ''' reduce simple hindered imines metal free hydrogenation phosphine borane reduction nitrobenzene aniline reported catalysed fullerene mono anion atmospheric hydrogen uv light equipment used hydrogenation today 's bench chemist three main choices hydrogenation equipment batch hydrogenation atmospheric conditions batch hydrogenation elevated temperature pressure ref name apparatus ref flow hydrogenation batch hydrogenation


reactors hydrogenator also used carrying catalytic hydrogenation see also carbon neutral fuel dehydrogenation h bio hydrogenolysis hydrodesulfurization hydrotreater oil desulfurization josiphos ligands timeline hydrogen technologies transfer hydrogenation rhodium catalyzed hydrogenation trans fats references reading examples hydrogenation organic syntheses http orgsynthorg orgsyn pdfs cv p pdf organic syntheses coll vol p http orgsynthorg orgsyn pdfs cv p pdf organic syntheses coll vol p http orgsynthorg orgsyn pdfs cv p pdf organic syntheses coll vol p http orgsynthorg orgsyn pdfs cv p pdf organic syntheses coll vol p http orgsynthorg orgsyn pdfs cv p pdf organic syntheses coll vol p early work transfer hydrogenation external links https booksgooglecom booksid oidaaaambaj pg pa magic hydro ''popular mechanics'' june


pp nbsp early article general public hydrogenation oil produced addition reactions homogeneous catalysis industrial processes hydrogen organic redox reactions oil refining oil shale technology synthetic fuel technologies


rules cautions observed eschewed scottish prosody'' published aged poetic manual description poetic tradition mother tongue applied renaissance principles became patron member loose circle scottish jacobean court poets musicians later called castalian band included william fowler c john stewart baldynneis c c alexander montgomerie c translated key renaissance texts produced poems using french forms including sonnets short sonnets narrative nature description

Humanities
Languages and literature
Scottish Literature


owen clancy pittock manning eds ''the edinburgh history scottish literature columba union '' edinburgh edinburgh university press pp ref buchanan major influence continental theatre plays ''jepheths'' ''baptistes'' influenced pierre corneille jean racine neo classical tradition french drama impact scotland limited choice latin medium ref name brown pp brown introduction lively tradition collective amnesia brown ed ''the edinburgh companion scottish drama'' edinburgh edinburgh university press pp


drama arranging company english players erect playhouse perform ref name carpenter p carpenter scottish drama brown ed ''the edinburgh companion scottish drama'' edinburgh edinburgh university press p ref seventeenth century first page ''the assembly'' archibald pitcairne edition extolled virtues scots poesie following accession english throne james vi increasingly favoured language southern england kirk adopted english authorised king james version bible interpreters declared


discouraged creation professional theatre ref name brown bpp brown public private performance brown ed ''the edinburgh companion scottish drama'' edinburgh edinburgh university press pp ref eighteenth century alan ramsay influential literary figure early eighteenth century scotland union shift political power england use scots discouraged many authority education nevertheless scots remained vernacular many rural communities growing number urban working class scots literature developed distinct national identity began enjoy international reputation


allan ramsay important literary figure era often described leading vernacular revival laid foundations reawakening interest older scottish literature publishing ''the ever green'' collection included many major poetic works stewart period led trend pastoral poetry helping develop habbie stanza would later used robert burns poetic form ''tea table miscellany'' contained poems old scots folk material poems folk style gentilizings scots poems english


poetry major figures included rob donn mackay donnchadh b n mac saoir duncan ban macintyre significant figure tradition alasdair mac mhaighstir alasdair alasdair macdonald c interest traditional forms seen significant poem ''clanranald 's gallery'' also mixed traditions influences lowlands including thompson 's ''seasons'' helped inspire new form nature poetry gaelic focused relations human concerns ref name macdonald pp robert burns considered many scottish national poet james macpherson


made among enduring gaelic poets ref name macdonald pp walter scott began poet also collected published scottish ballads first prose work ''waverley'' often called first historical novel launched highly successful career historical novels ''rob roy'' ''the heart midlothian'' ''ivanhoe'' scott probably figure define popularise scottish cultural identity nineteenth century scottish national drama emerged early plays specifically scottish themes began dominate scottish stage


early th century new surge activity scottish literature influenced modernism resurgent nationalism known scottish renaissance ref name visitingartsscotland ref leading figure movement hugh macdiarmid pseudonym christopher murray grieve macdiarmid attempted revive scots language medium serious literature poetic works including drunk man looks thistle developing form synthetic scots combined different regional dialects archaic terms ref name visitingartsscotland writers emerged period often treated part movement include


appointed inaugural scottish government shift drama focused working class life post war period gained momentum robert mcleish 's ''the gorbals story'' ref name kershaw thompson p work ena lamont stewart robert kemp george munro ref name kershaw thompson p j macdonald theatre scotland b kershaw p thomson ''the cambridge history british theatre volume '' cambridge cambridge university press p ref many major scottish post war novelists muriel spark james kennaway alexander trocchi jessie kesson robin jenkins spent much lives outside scotland often dealt


collections yale ethnography european folklore european studies indo european studies

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Slavic studies


application information technology business series methodologies processes used develop use information system many developers use systems engineering approach system development life cycle sdlc systematically develop information system stages stages system development lifecycle planning system analysis requirements system design development integration testing implementation operations maintenance recent research aims enabling measuring ongoing collective development systems within organization entirety human actors information system developed

Applied science
Business
Information systems


business practices principles excellent opportunities companies increasingly looking technology drive revenue information technology important operation contemporary businesses offers many employment opportunities information systems field includes people organizations design build information systems people use systems people responsible managing systems demand traditional staff programmers business analysts systems analysts designer significant many well paid jobs exist areas information technology top list chief information


organizational behavior and'' design science'' extends boundaries human organizational capabilities creating new innovative artifacts salvatore march gerald smith proposed framework researching different aspects information technology including outputs research research outputs activities carry research research activities identified research outputs follows ''constructs'' concepts form vocabulary domain constitute conceptualization used describe problems within domain specify solutions ''model'' set propositions statements expressing relationships among


real time computing real time marketing references external links http lampinfosysdeakineduau journals index information systems journals http wwwchris kimblecom courses mis mis linkshtml mis links university york http wwwchris kimblecom research executive information systemshtml executive information systems minimising risk development https saundersritedu mis rit saunders college business mis mis https wwwcmichedu colleges cba academic programs grad msis pages defaultaspx central michigan university msis http businessdegreesuabedu mis degree masters university alabama birmingham msis http spsnorthwesternedu program areas graduate information systems northwestern university msis business software decision support systems information systems information technology management management systems school administration software

Applied science
Business
Information systems
Management information systems


witnessed eruptions mount etna stromboli visited crater vesuvius published view earth central fire connected numerous others caused burning sulfur bitumen coal johannes kepler considered volcanoes conduits tears excrement earth voiding bitumen tar sulfur descartes pronouncing god created earth instant declared done three layers fiery depths layer water air volcanoes said formed rays sun pierced earth

Natural science
Earth science
Volcanology


virtually europe aware insane subjected incredible abuses movement millions dollars raised build new institutions house mentally ill mental hospitals began grow substantially numbers th century care mentally ill increased patients state mental hospitals usa ref name osborn ref hospital stays normally quite long patients individuals treated many years hospitals better asylums past still

Social science
Psychology
Abnormal psychology


individual result thoughts actions irrational abnormal contrary norms beliefs society ref name boag irrational beliefs irrational beliefs driven unconscious fears result abnormal behavior ref name turner ref rational emotive therapy helps drive irrational maladaptive beliefs one 's mind ref name turner sociocultural influences term sociocultural refers various circles influence individual ranging close friends family institutions policies country world whole discriminations whether based social class income race


treating patient human instead client get source problem resolve problem effective manner humanistic therapy rise recent years associated numerous positive benefits considered one core elements needed therapeutic effectiveness significant contributor well patient society whole say therapeutic approaches today draw humanistic approach regard humanistic therapy best way


although somewhat controversial due data suggests lack effectiveness children older years old play therapy shown valuable treatment therapy particularly useful younger children age consciously aware environment play therapy important seeing many therapeutic interventions effective adults shown less effective children ref name lin ref '''family systems therapies''' family systems therapies based belief children 's problems revolve around problems occur within family family systems therapy attempts improve


art historians side disparage connoisseurs look upon drudges collect materials personally slightest knowledge physiology art attributions painted pottery important project history ancient art classical archeology ancient greece south italy two specialists important authorities archaeological connoisseurship john davidson beazley arthur dale trendall connoisseurs fields connoisseur also used context gastronomy ie connection fine food beer wine coffee tea


projective geometry ordered geometry elementary since involve minimum axioms either used foundation affine euclidean geometry projective geometry ordered distinct foundation geometry history first geometrical properties projective nature discovered rd century pappus alexandria filippo brunelleschi started investigating geometry perspective see history perspective thorough discussion work fine arts motivated much development projective geometry johannes kepler

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Projective geometry


work desargues ignored michel chasles chanced upon handwritten copy meanwhile jean victor poncelet published foundational treatise projective geometry poncelet examined projective properties objects invariant central projection basing theory concrete pole polar relation respect circle established relationship metric projective properties non euclidean geometries discovered soon thereafter eventually demonstrated models klein model hyperbolic space relating projective geometry f bius wrote article


intended extend analytic geometry techniques supposed ' 'synthetic'' effect projective space understood introduced axiomatically result reformulating early work projective geometry satisfies current standards rigor somewhat difficult even case projective plane alone axiomatic approach result models describable via linear algebra period geometry overtaken research general algebraic curve clebsch riemann max noether others stretched existing techniques invariant theory towards end century


geometry may deduced appropriate set axioms projective geometries characterised elliptic parallel axiom ''any two planes always meet one line'' plane ''any two lines always meet one point'' words things parallel lines planes projective geometry many alternative sets axioms projective geometry proposed see example coxeter hilbert cohn vossen greenberg whitehead 's axioms axioms based whitehead axioms projective geometry two types points lines


points three collinear six connecting lines three additional diagonal points determined intersections science projective geometry captures surplus determined four points quaternary relation projectivities preserve complete quadrangle configuration harmonic quadruple points line occurs complete quadrangle two whose diagonal points first third position quadruple two positions points lines joining two quadrangle points third diagonal point spacial perspectivity projective configuration


''l'' one line containing ''p'' containing point ''l'' line said ''parallel'' ''l'' every line contains least two points least three points belonging one line according h coxeter blockquote interest five axioms enhanced fact developed vast body propositions holding euclidean geometry also minkowski geometry time space simple case dimensions whereas special theory

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Affine geometry


relativity needs extension either euclidean minkowskian geometry achieved adding various axioms orthogonality etc blockquote various types affine geometry correspond interpretation taken ''rotation'' euclidean geometry corresponds ordinary idea rotation minkowski 's geometry corresponds hyperbolic rotation respect perpendicular lines remain perpendicular plane subjected ordinary rotation minkowski geometry lines hyperbolic orthogonal remain relation plane subjected hyperbolic rotation ordered structure axiomatic treatment plane affine geometry


immediate application multilinear algebra also applications mechanical study material response stress strain various moduli elasticity practical reference led use word tensor describe elements multilinear space extra structure multilinear space led play important role various studies higher mathematics though grassmann started subject ''ausdehnungslehre'' republished work slow find acceptance ordinary linear algebra provided sufficient challenges comprehension topic multilinear

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Multilinear algebra


alternate ways also clarified time indeed done almost precisely explain ''tensor spaces'' constructions required reduce multilinear problems linear problems purely algebraic attack conveys geometric intuition expressing problems terms multilinear algebra clear well defined best solution constraints solution exerts exactly needed practice general need invoke ''ad hoc'' construction geometric idea recourse co ordinate systems category theoretic jargon everything entirely ''natural'' conclusion abstract


postcard one pioneers commutative algebra emmy noether e fischer discussing work commutative algebra '''commutative algebra''' branch algebra studies commutative rings ideals modules rings algebraic geometry algebraic number theory build commutative algebra prominent examples commutative rings include polynomial rings rings algebraic integers including ordinary integers math mathbb z math ''p'' adic integers commutative algebra main technical tool local study schemes study rings necessarily commutative known noncommutative algebra

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Commutative algebra


math n n cdots math commutative ring noetherian suffices every prime ideal ring finitely generated result due cohen notion noetherian ring fundamental importance commutative noncommutative ring theory due role plays simplifying ideal structure ring instance ring integers polynomial ring field noetherian rings consequently theorems lasker noether theorem krull intersection theorem hilbert 's basis theorem hold furthermore


precisely ideals form ''p sup e sup '' ''p'' prime ''e'' positive integer thus primary decomposition ''n'' corresponds representing ''n'' intersection finitely many primary ideals ''lasker noether theorem'' given may seen certain generalization fundamental theorem arithmetic math theorem name lasker noether theorem math statement let ''r'' commutative noetherian ring let ''i'' ideal ''r'' ''i'' may written intersection finitely many primary ideals distinct radicals math bigcap q math ''q sub sub '' primary ''i'' rad ''q sub sub ''


historical origin algebraic k theory work j h c whitehead others later became known whitehead torsion followed period various partial definitions ''higher k theory functors'' finally two useful equivalent definitions given daniel quillen using homotopy theory variant also given friedhelm waldhausen order study ''algebraic k theory spaces'' related study pseudo isotopies much modern research higher k theory related algebraic geometry study motivic cohomology

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
K-theory


smooth projective curve math c math grothendieck group math display block k c mathbb z oplus text pic c math picard group math c math follows brown gersten quillen spectral sequence ref name ref sup pg sup algebraic k theory regular scheme finite type field convergent spectral sequence math display block e pq coprod x x p k p q k x rightarrow k p q x math math x p math set codimension math p math points meaning set subschemes math x x math codimension math p math math k x math algebraic function field subscheme spectral sequence property ref name sup pg sup math display block e p p cong text ch p x math


psychology favors experimental methods introspection came dominate psychological studies late th century one philosophy psychology 's concerns evaluate merits many different schools psychology practiced example cognitive psychology 's use internal mental states might compared behaviorism reasons widespread rejection behaviorism mid th century examined topics fall within philosophy mind go back much farther example questions nature mind qualities experience particular issues like

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of psychology


commutative algebra proof involves deep results algebraic number theory algebraic geometry noncommutative rings quite different flavour since unusual behavior arise theory developed right fairly recent trend sought parallel commutative development building theory certain classes noncommutative rings geometric fashion rings functions non existent 'noncommutative spaces' trend started development noncommutative geometry discovery quantum groups led better

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Ring theory


math mathfrak math primary ideals dimension graded ring math textstyle operatorname gr mathfrak r bigoplus k ge mathfrak k mathfrak k math equivalently plus degree hilbert polynomial commutative ring ''r'' said catenary every pair prime ideals math mathfrak p subset mathfrak p ' math exists finite chain prime ideals math mathfrak p mathfrak p subsetneq cdots subsetneq mathfrak p n mathfrak p ' math maximal sense impossible insert additional prime ideal two ideals chain maximal chains math mathfrak p math math mathfrak p ' math length practically


modules ''r'' let also math mathbf p n r math subsets consisting constant rank ''n'' rank module ''m'' continuous function math operatorname spec r mathbb z mathfrak p mapsto dim otimes r k mathfrak p math math mathbf p r math usually denoted pic ''r'' abelian group called picard group ''r'' ''r'' integral domain field fractions ''f'' ''r'' exact sequence groups math r f overset f mapsto fr operatorname cart r operatorname pic r math math operatorname cart r math set fractional ideals ''r'' ''r''


fundamental question classical invariant theory find study polynomials polynomial ring math k v math invariant action finite group generally reductive ''g'' ''v'' main example ring symmetric polynomials symmetric polynomials polynomials invariant permutation variable fundamental theorem symmetric polynomials states ring math r sigma ldots sigma n math math sigma math elementary symmetric polynomials history commutative ring theory originated algebraic number theory algebraic geometry invariant theory central development subjects rings


dispensable next objective investigation source riemann 's statement riemann hypothesis paper ref name riemann die anzahl der primzahlen unter einer gegebenen year journal monatsberichte der berliner akademie ''gesammelte werke'' teubner leipzig reprinted dover new york http wwwclaymathorg millennium riemann hypothesis manuscript original manuscript english translation reprinted ref discussing version zeta function modified roots real rather critical line bernhard riemann made famous contributions modern analytic number theory single short paper one published

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Number theory
Analytic number theory


' 's'' nbsp nbsp function known riemann zeta function denoted '' '' ' 's'' plethora literature function function special case general dirichlet l functions analytic number theorists often interested error approximations prime number theorem case error smaller ''x'' log nbsp ''x'' riemann 's formula ''x'' shows error term approximation expressed terms zeros zeta function paper riemann conjectured


processes including ways replace augment sustain predict chemical mechanical processes kinesin walking microtubule molecular biological machine uses protein domain dynamics nanoscales history biological engineering science based discipline founded upon biological sciences way chemical engineering electrical engineering mechanical engineering ref name ref based upon chemistry electricity magnetism classical mechanics respectively ref name cuello cuello jc engineering biology biology engineering bi directional connection engineering biology biological engineering design int j engng ed ref wwii biological

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Bioengineering


broadly include agricultural engineering first biological engineering program united states started university california san diego recent programs launched mit ref name mit dept ref utah state university many old agricultural engineering departments universities world branded ''agricultural biological engineering'' ''agricultural biosystems engineering'' according professor doug lauffenburger mit ref name mit dept biological engineering broad base applies engineering principles enormous range size complexities systems ranging molecular level molecular biology biochemistry microbiology pharmacology


landscape history evolution theory one central landscape ecology theory originated macarthur wilson 's ''the theory island biogeography'' work considered biodiversity islands result competing forces colonization mainland stock stochastic extinction concepts island biogeography generalized physical islands abstract patches habitat levins' metapopulation model applied eg forest islands agricultural landscape generalization spurred growth landscape ecology providing conservation biologists new tool assess habitat fragmentation

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Landscape ecology


affects population viability recent growth landscape ecology owes much development geographic information systems gis ref name sstein ref availability large extent habitat data eg remotely sensed datasets development discipline landscape ecology developed europe historical planning human dominated landscapes concepts general ecology theory integrated north america general ecology theory sub disciplines focused study homogenous discrete community units organized hierarchical structure typically ecosystems populations species communities landscape ecology built upon heterogeneity space time frequently


point reference constitutes landscape ''topological ecology landscape level biological organisation'' eg urban et al basis ecological hierarchy theory presupposed nature working multiple scales different levels organisation part rate structured nested hierarchy specifically claimed ecosystem level landscape level exists generated identifiable high interaction intensity ecosystems specific interaction frequency typically corresponding spatial scale landscape ecology defined ecology focuses influence exerted


spatial temporal patterns organisation interaction among functionally integrated multispecies ecosystems ''analysis social ecological systems using natural social sciences humanities'' eg leser naveh zonneveld landscape ecology defined interdisciplinary super science explores relationship human societies specific environment making use various natural sciences also social sciences humanities conception grounded assumption social systems linked specific ambient ecological system way systems together form co evolutionary self organising unity called 'landscape'


study however general ecology theory central landscape ecology theory many aspects landscape ecology consists four main principles development dynamics spatial heterogeneity interactions exchanges across heterogeneous landscapes influences spatial heterogeneity biotic abiotic processes management spatial heterogeneity main difference traditional ecological studies frequently assume systems spatially homogenous consideration spatial patterns ref name turner ref important terms landscape ecology created new terms also incorporated existing ecological terms new ways many terms used


patches cause environmental difference interior patch edge edge effect includes distinctive species composition abundance ref name forman example landscape mosaic perceptibly different types forest adjacent grassland edge location two types adjoin continuous landscape forest giving way open woodland exact edge location fuzzy sometimes determined local gradient exceeding threshold point tree cover falls thirty five percent ref name turner


community mosaic many exotic species ecotonal species spatial mass effect species richness higher lower either side ecotone ref name walker ref ''ecocline'' another type landscape boundary gradual continuous change environmental conditions ecosystem community ecoclines help explain distribution diversity organisms within landscape certain organisms survive better certain conditions change along ecocline contain heterogeneous communities considered environmentally stable ecotones ref name attrill ref ''ecotope'' spatial term representing smallest ecologically distinct unit


leak one habitat another implications landscape ecology human land use practices expand continue increase proportion edges landscapes effects leakage across edges assemblage integrity may become significant conservation taxa may conserved across landscape levels local levels land change modeling land change modeling application landscape ecology designed predict future changes land use land change models used urban planning geography gis disciplines gain clear understanding


course landscape recent years much earth 's land cover changed rapidly whether deforestation expansion urban areas relationship disciplines landscape ecology incorporated variety ecological subdisciplines example closely linked land change science interdisciplinary land use land cover change effects surrounding ecology another recent development explicit consideration spatial concepts principles applied study lakes streams wetlands field landscape limnology seascape ecology


derivation meaning points ''heterosex ual '' '' ism'' ''hetero '' ' 'sexism'' fact word ''heterosexualism'' used equivalent sexism racism ref name psychologyucdavisedu given lack semantic transparency researchers outreach workers critical theorists lgbt activists proposed use terms ''institutionalized homophobia'' ' 'state sponsored homophobia'' ' 'sexual prejudice'' ''anti gay bigotry'' ' 'straight privilege'' ''the straight mind'' collection essays french writer monique wittig ''heterosexual bias'' ''compulsory heterosexuality'' much lesser known terms ''heterocentrism'' ''homonegativity'' gender theory queer theory ''heteronormativity'' however

Social science
Sociology
Sexology
Heterosexism


lgbt people subjected additional discrimination violence belong considered part socially devalued racial category privileges afforded people falling categories white people perceived heterosexuals include limited social acceptance prestige freedom negative stereotypes comfort within social norm thereby marginalized viewed different set beliefs attitudes individual group level brochure used save children heterosexism set


one limitation present research heterosexism often distinction homophobia heterosexism individuals likely aware homophobic tendencies rather heterosexist views thus researchers often measure homophobia instead heterosexism research research heterosexism focused variables may affect views heterosexism instance study psychologist gregory herek found gender difference heterosexual attitudes toward lesbians gay men ref name herek g ref specifically study reveals heterosexual individuals seem heterosexist tendency


name wright l w ref wright et al revealed higher levels education years education related less homophobic tendencies ref name wright l w discrimination explicit open type heterosexism includes anti gay laws policies institutional practices harassment based sexual orientation perceived sexual orientation stereotyping discriminatory language discourse forms discrimination lgbt persons hate speech terms disparagement hate mail death threats murder music scapegoating mobbing witch hunts moral panic using gay men homosexuality folk devil aids pandemic


negative portrayals stereotypes gay men lesbians bisexuals solely villains suicide murder victims using gay panic defense assault murder cases sodomy laws enforced almost exclusively consenting adult sex partners ''see also bowers v hardwick lawrence v texas'' countries homosexuality criminalized mauritania saudi arabia islamic republic iran offenders may receive maximum sentence capital punishment ''see also paragraph '' discrepancies age consent laws legal sexual activity members sex set higher


characters themes issues works art literature entertainment ' 'see also sugar time episode postcards buster'' exclusion historical political figures' celebrities' homosexuality bisexuality portrayal heterosexuals complete avoidance mentioning people positive contributions particularly news media context sex education professional advice referring female male relationships discussing female male sexual attraction activity silence issues affecting homosexual bisexual people school work absence discussion positive light implementation use content control software censorware


forensic psychologist karen franklin explains violence caused heterosexism toward men women regardless sexual orientations ref name franklin blockquote hrough heterosexism male refuses accept dominant culture 's assignment appropriate masculine behavior labeled early sissy fag subjected bullying similarly woman opposes male dominance control labeled lesbian attacked potential ostracized homosexual regardless actual sexual attractions behaviors puts pressure people conform narrow standard appropriate gender behavior thereby maintaining reinforcing


assault targets convenience victims accounts suggest assailants possess tremendous rage hatred indeed documentation horrific levels brutality led gay activists characterize violence political terrorism aimed gay men lesbians motives antigay violence suggested literature include male bonding proving heterosexuality purging secret homosexual desires responses according article ''howard journal communications'' lgbt individuals responded heterosexism direct confrontation communication removal self hostile environment see also anti lgbt rhetoric culture war discrimination


information shared amongst nato allies four levels security classification least classified cosmic top secret cts nato secret ns nato confidential nc nato restricted nr special case exists regard nato unclassified nu information documents marking nato property copyright must made public without nato permission cosmic abbreviation control secret material international command international organizations european union four levels eu top secret eu secret eu confidential eu restricted note usually french terms used '''tr

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Classification
Security classification


classified eg draft legislation certain memos people 's republic china building wuhan housing provincial offices dealing foreign countries etc red slogan says protection national secrets duty every citizen criminal law people 's republic china operative special administrative regions hong kong macau makes crime release state secret regulation enforcement carried national administration protection state secrets law guarding state secrets state secrets defined


concern major policy decisions state affairs building national defence activities armed forces diplomatic activities activities related foreign countries maintained commitments foreign countries national economic social development science technology activities preserving state security investigation criminal offences matters classified state secrets national state secrets bureau ref name prcssreport translation per human rights china '' http hrichinaorg public contents state secrets china 's legal labyrinth '' ref secrets classified three categories top secret


defined vital state secrets whose disclosure would cause extremely serious harm state security national interests highly secret defined important state secrets whose disclosure would cause serious harm state security national interests secret defined ordinary state secrets whose disclosure would cause harm state security national interests ref name prcssreport france france classified information defined article penal code three levels military classification ''tr secret fense'' secret defence information deemed extremely harmful national defense relative governmental priorities national


defense service organisation elaborate process stock transfer display destroy information protected supports classified level without authorization prime minister national secretary national defence partial exhaustive reproduction strictly forbidden ''secret fense'' secret defence information deemed harmful national defense information cannot reproduced without authorisation emitting authority except exceptional emergencies ''confidentiel fense'' confidential defence information deemed potentially harmful national defense could lead uncovering information classified higher level security less sensitive information protected levels


eg ibm confidential common companies one level information protected trade secret laws new product development teams often sequestered forbidden share information efforts un cleared fellow employees original apple macintosh project famous example activities mergers financial report preparation generally involve similar restrictions however corporate security generally lacks elaborate hierarchical clearance sensitivity structures harsh criminal sanctions give government classification systems particular tone traffic light protocol traffic light protocol developed group


workplace approved contract usually force fixed term years term renegotiated employees management sometimes disputes union contract particularly occurs cases workers fired without cause union workplace go arbitration similar informal court hearing neutral arbitrator rules whether termination contract breach extant orders corrected us states employees working unionized

Applied science
Business
Industrial and labor relations
Collective bargaining


costs contract negotiation regardless state supreme court held act prevents person 's union dues used without consent fund political causes may opposed individual 's personal politics instead states union security clauses permitted dissenters may elect pay proportion dues go directly toward representation workers american federation labor formed providing unprecedented bargaining powers variety workers ref name curriculum illinois labor history society '' http wwwkentlawedu ilhs curriculhtm curriculum united states labor history teachers '' online


'' '' nbsp nbsp ''h'' nbsp nbsp ''u '' nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp ker ''i'' nbsp nbsp ''u'' ''x'' ''h'' math lim n infty n sum n n u n x p x math limit respect norm ''h'' words sequence averages math frac n sum n n u n math converges ''p'' strong operator topology indeed difficult see case math x h math admits orthogonal decomposition parts math ker u math math overline operatorname ran u math respectively former part invariant partial sums math n math grows latter part telescoping series one

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Probability theory
Ergodic theory


''a'' called '' 'sojourn time''' immediate consequence ergodic theorem ergodic system relative measure ''a'' equal mean sojourn time math frac mu mu x frac mu x int chi mu lim n rightarrow infty frac n sum k n chi k x math ''x'' except set measure zero sub ''a'' sub indicator function ''a'' '''occurrence times''' measurable set ''a'' defined set ''k'' sub sub ''k'' sub sub ''k'' sub sub times ''k'' ''t sup k sup '' ''x'' ''a'' sorted increasing order differences consecutive occurrence times


buses common form vehicles used public transport '' 'vehicle''' ref name oed ref machine transports people cargo vehicles include wagons bicycles motor vehicles motorcycles cars trucks buses railed vehicles trains trams watercraft ships boats amphibious vehicles screw propelled vehicle hovercraft aircraft airplanes helicopters aerostat spacecraft ref name macmillian halsey william editorial director ''macmillan contemporary dictionary'' page macmillan publishing ref land vehicles classified broadly used apply steering drive forces ground wheeled tracked railed skied iso standard also internationally used


regarded forerunner modern bicycle motorcycle introduced drais public mannheim summer ref name cstm ref karl benz built subsequently patented first automobile powered four stroke cycle gasoline engine mannheim germany otto lilienthal began experimental gliding achieved first sustained controlled reproducible flights wright brothers flew first controlled powered aircraft first helicopters gyroplane tethered cornu helicopter free flight ref name munson munson ref opel rak rocket car opel rak rocket glider vostok vehicle carried first human yuri gagarin


estimated million cars million motorcycles service world ref name worldmapper ref ref name worldmapper ref least million chinese flying pigeon bicycles made single model vehicle ref name koeppel ref ref name newson ref produced model motor vehicle honda super cub motorcycle passed million units ref name squatriglia ref ref name ama ref produced car model toyota corolla least million made ref name abc ref ref name foxbusiness ref common fixed wing airplane cessna made ref name avweb ref


virtues considered good vast majority cultures throughout history traits lead increased happiness practiced csv identifies six classes virtue ie core virtues virtues made measurable character strengths csv intended provide theoretical framework assist developing practical applications positive psychology criticisms philosophers criticize virtue ethics culturally relative since different people cultures societies often different opinions constitutes virtue perhaps one objectively right list example regarding important virtues aristotle proposed

Humanities
Philosophy
Ethics
Virtue ethics


come single set virtues immensely difficult contemporary societies according louden contain ethnic religious class groups moral community aristotle theorized groups interests set virtues well louden notes passing macintyre supporter virtue based ethics grappled ''after virtue'' ethics cannot dispense building rules around acts rely discussing moral character persons ref name louden ref topics virtue ethics virtue


uncover mistakes physicians time began trust observations galen interesting observation made physicians presence homologous structures wide variety animals included humans observations later used darwin formed theory natural selection ref name caldwell ref drawing edward tyson edward tyson regarded founder modern comparative anatomy credited determining whales dolphins fact mammals also concluded chimpanzees similar humans

Natural science
Biology
Anatomy
Comparative anatomy


serve similar purposes example streamlined torpedo body shape porpoises sharks even though evolved different ancestors porpoises sharks developed analogous structures result evolution aquatic environment known homoplasy uses comparative anatomy long served evidence evolution joined role comparative genomics indicates organisms share common ancestor also assists scientists classifying organisms based similar characteristics anatomical structures common example comparative anatomy similar bone


experiences growing half white half native american foster child bloods gang member south central los angeles fictitious although instances traditional literary journalists falsifying stories ethics applied creative nonfiction apply journalism truth meant upheld told literary fashion essayist john d'agata explores issue book ''the lifespan fact'' examines relationship truth accuracy whether appropriate writer substitute one

Humanities
Languages and literature
Creative Nonfiction


full collineation group order isomorphic group psl psl special case also isomorphic general linear group order planes finite plane '''order''' ''n'' one line ''n'' points affine plane line ''n'' points projective plane one major open question finite geometry ''is order finite plane always prime power'' conjectured true affine projective planes order

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Finite geometry


given von staudt first axiomatic treatment finite projective geometry developed italian mathematician gino fano work proving independence set axioms projective ''n'' space developed considered finite three dimensional space points lines planes see diagram line three points oswald veblen w h bussey described projective geometry using homogeneous coordinates entries galois field gf ''q'' ''n'' coordinates used ''n'' dimensional finite geometry denoted


set lines satisfying axioms two distinct points ''p'' ''q'' exactly one line veblen 's axiom ''a'' ''b'' ''c'' ' 'd'' distinct points lines ''ab'' ''cd'' meet lines ''ac'' ''bd'' line least points last axiom eliminates reducible cases written disjoint union projective spaces together point lines joining two points distinct projective spaces abstractly defined incidence structure consisting


p hirschfeld researcher finite geometries http wwwmathssussexacuk staff jwph research indexhtml books hirschfeld finite geometry https wwwamsorg featurecolumn archive finitegeometrieshtml ams column finite geometries http cageugentbe fdc courses ggagpphp galois geometry generalized polygons intensive course https mathoverflownet q projective plane order mathoverflow combinatorics


forth framework assess broad field public finance gruber suggests public finance thought terms four central questions government intervene economy two central motivations government intervention market failure redistribution income wealth might government intervene decision made intervene government must choose specific tool policy choice carry intervention example public provision taxation subsidization effect interventions economic outcomes question


revenue bonds government represents people government debt seen indirect debt taxpayers government debt categorized internal debt owed lenders within country external debt owed foreign lenders governments usually borrow issuing securities government bonds bills less creditworthy countries sometimes borrow directly commercial banks international institutions international monetary fund world bank government budgets calculated cash basis meaning revenues recognized collected outlays recognized paid consider


public sector see figure '''figure general government''' imf ''government finance statistics manual '' washington pp '''figure public sector''' imf ''government finance statistics manual '' washington pp general government sector nation includes non private sector institutions organisations activities general government sector convention includes public corporations able cover least costs sales therefore considered non market producers ref name gen http eppeurostateceuropaeu statistics explained indexphp glossary general government sector general government sector eurostat glossary ref european system accounts sector general government defined containing institutional units


professional interpersonal intrapersonal knowledge lead good thinking habits maturity wisdom capacity make reasonable judgements ref name professional knowledge subject sport curricular pedagogical knowledge fall category professional coaches knowledge ref name including ''ologies'' sports science like ref name ref sport psychology sport biomechanics sport nutrition exercise physiology motor control critical thinking sociology strength conditioning sporting tactics associated sub areas knowledge category knowledge coach education focused ref name ref alone enough

Human physical performance and recreation


staff may include coordinators strength conditioning coach sport psychologist physiotherapist nutritionist biomechanist sports analyst association football coaching team liverpool football club monitoring players training session association football duties coach vary depending level coaching country coaching amongst others youth football primary objective coach aid players development technical skills emphasis enjoyment fair play game rather physical tactical development recent decades


mlb unusual distinction tax exempt multibillion dollar corporation tax exempt monopoly move teams one city another combined stadiums sometimes built tax free borrowing cities every american taxpayer pays public subsidies nfl 's coaches highest paid professional coaches professional football topping list forbes' highest paid sports coaches bill belichick top spot second year row mlb national hockey league coaches making list another major element nfl coaches' contracts negotiated individual


different methods different advantages common modes administration summarized ref name mellenbergh gj pp mellenbergh gj chapter surveys hj ad r gj mellenbergh eds contributions dj hand advising research methods consultant 's companion pp huizen netherlands johannes van kessel publishing ref telephone mail post online surveys personal home surveys personal mall street intercept survey hybrids research designs several different designs overall structures used survey research three general types cross sectional successive independent samples longitudinal studies ref

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Survey Methodology


used instruments psychology thus important measures constructed carefully also reliable valid ref name shaughnessy reliability validity self report measures reliable measures self report defined consistency ref name shaughnessy thus reliable self report measure produces consistent results every time executed ref name shaughnessy test 's reliability measured ways ref name shaughnessy first one calculate test retest reliability ref name shaughnessy test retest reliability entails conducting questionnaire large sample two different times ref name shaughnessy questionnaire considered reliable people sample


end long surveys researchers also discussed recipient 's role profession potential factor affecting nonresponse managed example faxes commonly used distribute surveys recent study sometimes preferred pharmacists since frequently receive faxed prescriptions work may always access generally addressed piece mail interviewer effects survey methodologists devoted much effort determining extent interviewee responses affected physical characteristics interviewer main interviewer traits demonstrated influence survey responses race


project positive self image effort conform norms attribute interviewer asking questions interviewer effects one example survey response effects see also data documentation initiative enterprise feedback management efm likert scale official statistics paid survey quantitative marketing research questionnaire construction ratio estimator social research total survey error references reading abramson j j abramson z h ''survey methods community medicine epidemiological research programme evaluation clinical trials'' th edition london churchill livingstone elsevier health sciences ad r h j mellenbergh g j hand j ''advising research methods


'''''survey methodology''''' '''''techniques d'enqu te''''' french version peer reviewed open access scientific journal publishes papers related development application survey techniques published statistics canada national statistical office canada english french journal started publishing publishes two issues year available print subscription fee online open access abstracting indexing ''survey methodology'' indexed following services current index statistics science citation index expanded social sciences citation index external links


finding work industry difficult former soldiers personal network fellow ex soldiers enough keep informed available contracts logistics civil augmentation program logcap established united states primarily plan contingencies leverage existing civilian resources however three years later first used support united states third army mission united states army corps engineers usace used logcap contract construction maintenance two petroleum pipelines systems southwest asia later

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Private military company


providing security supplied armed guards us army base qatar used live ammunition train soldiers camp doha kuwait maintained array weapons systems vital invasion iraq also provided bodyguards vips guard installations escort supply convoys kuwait resources called upon constantly ref name soldiers good fortune list occurrences employees private military company caci titan corp involved iraq abu ghraib prison scandal us army found contractors involved


fraud waste abuse received anonymous letter may october trophy video complete post production elvis presley music appearing show private military contractors baghdad shooting iraqi civilians sparked two investigations posted internet video linked unofficially aegis defence services according posters man seen shooting vehicles video iraq south african employee aegis victory team named danny heydenreycher served british military six years incident regional director


operate iraq january us iraq status forces agreement took effect blackwater one high profile firms operating iraq around employees well fleet helicopters country four blackwater employees tried convicted us federal court incident one murder three manslaughter firearms charges ref name nyt verdict ref president donald trump left office pardoned four security guards private military firm blackwater serving jail sentences killing civilians including two children


board trading ships seems low estimate pmc presence somalia example two violent non state actors sea engaged combat fatalities end number contractors died iraq afghanistan kuwait reached scholars studied whether contractor deaths effect public 's casualty sensitivity substituted military fatalities casualty sensitivity refers inverse relationship military deaths public support sustained military engagement contractor deaths may account nearly total us


name onlinelibrarywileycom ref currently globally accepted norms legal framework applied firms pmc activities elsewhere south african based pmc executive outcomes involved two military actions africa first conflict eo fought behalf angolan government unita un brokered peace settlement broke second action eo tasked containing guerrilla movement sierra leone called revolutionary united front missions involved personnel firm training four five thousand combat personnel angolan government retaking


act begin using business operational standards contracting management pscs intent raising overall standard performance companies standard fulfills mandate also recognized american national standards institute achieving international recognition psc conformity assessment auditing management systems quality private security company operation ref name psmduedu standard provides requirements guidance conducting conformity assessment management system quality private security company operations psc standard provides requirements bodies providing auditing third party certification


government caucus junior lower profile members opposition caucuses known backbenchers backbenchers however exert influence sitting parliamentary committees like public accounts committee national defence committee context canada 's governmental structure originally established british parliament ''british north america act'' known ''constitution act '' federal model division powers devised canadian politicians particularly world war citizens self governing dominions canada began develop strong sense identity balfour declaration

Social science
Political science
Canadian politics


right new democratic party occupying left ref name bittnerkoop b ref ref name evansgraaf ref ref name carlisle b ref five parties representatives elected federal parliament election liberal party currently form government conservative party official opposition new democratic party bloc qu b cois green party canada governmental organization type government westminster style federal parliamentary democracy within constitutional monarchy administrative divisions ten provinces three territories alberta british columbia manitoba new brunswick newfoundland labrador northwest territories nova scotia nunavut ontario prince edward island quebec saskatchewan


exceed five years election must occur end time fixed mandate exceeded prime minister robert borden perceived need world war constitutional amendment passed extending life parliament one year unanimous consent house commons size house apportionment seats province revised every census conducted every five years based population changes approximately representation population majority minority governments canadians vote local member


popular vote canadian alliance well western canada election unable make significant inroads east merged progressive conservative party form conservative party canada late proved moderately successful campaign gaining seats combined alliance pc total however new conservatives lost popular vote going conservatives led stephen harper minority government seats improved


particular three dimensional wibco code developed charlie boppe grumman aircraft early seen heavy use developers turned full potential codes panel methods could calculate non linear flow present transonic speeds first description means using full potential equations published earll murman julian cole boeing frances bauer paul garabedian david korn courant institute new york university nyu wrote series two dimensional full potential airfoil codes widely used important named

Formal science
Mathematics
Computational fluid dynamics


program h growth program h developed bob melnik group grumman aerospace grumfoil antony jameson originally grumman aircraft courant institute nyu worked david caughey develop important three dimensional full potential code flo many full potential codes emerged culminating boeing 's tranair code still sees heavy use next step euler equations promised provide accurate solutions transonic flows methodology used jameson three dimensional flo code used


equation density multiplies gravitational acceleration ref name kundu ref also assume various fluid properties viscosity thermal conductivity heat capacity always everywhere constant boussinesq equations widely used microscale meteorology compressible reynolds averaged navier stokes equations compressible favre averaged navier stokes equations c rans c fans start c ns assume flow variable math f math density velocity pressure represented math f f f'' math math f math ensemble average ref name panton flow variable math f'' math perturbation


carefully formulated conservative much stable finite volume approach however fem require memory slower solution times fvm method weighted residual equation formed math r iiint w q dv e math math r math equation residual element vertex math math math q math conservation equation expressed element basis math w math weight factor math v e math volume element finite difference method finite difference method fdm historical importance simple program


equations reynolds stresses means introduction several transport equations reynolds stresses hence approach much costly cpu effort large eddy simulation volume rendering non premixed swirl flame simulated les large eddy simulation les technique smallest scales flow removed filtering operation effect modeled using subgrid scale models allows largest important scales turbulence resolved greatly reducing computational cost incurred smallest scales method requires


smooth velocity field across rans les regions solutions direct numerical simulation direct numerical simulation dns resolves entire range turbulent length scales marginalizes effect models extremely expensive computational cost proportional math math ref name pope ref dns intractable flows complex geometries flow configurations coherent vortex simulation coherent vortex simulation approach decomposes turbulent flow field coherent part consisting organized vortical motion incoherent part random background flow ref name farge ref decomposition done using wavelet filtering


unrestrained power make law spurred attempts establish distinctly private sphere would free encroaching state power return ref name horwitz ref public law civil law common law jurisdictions traditionally division public private law made context legal systems found continental europe whose laws fall within tradition civil law however public private divide apply strictly civil law systems given public law 's emphasis aspects state true systems government law common law legal systems

Social science
Political science
Public law


historical political reasons constitution united kingdom unwritten one administrative law administrative law refers body law regulates bureaucratic managerial procedures defines powers administrative agencies laws enforced executive branch government rather judicial legislative branches different particular jurisdiction body law regulates international trade manufacturing pollution taxation like sometimes seen subcategory civil law sometimes seen public law deals regulation


british english commonwealth countries term ''company'' widely used describe sort entity word ''corporation'' encompasses incorporated entities american english word ''company'' include entities partnerships would referred companies british english separate legal entity late th century new form company limited liability protections corporation favorable tax treatment either sole proprietorship partnership developed corporation


began buying shares merely order sell higher price turn led higher share prices first speculative bubble country seen end bubble burst share price sank bankruptcies recriminations ricocheted government high society mood corporations errant directors bitter chart south sea company 's stock prices rapid inflation stock value led bubble act restricted establishment companies


clear answer mindless operation bureaucratic technological power may indeed witnessing extension form artificial intelligence robotics likewise decades dire warning environmental problem remains fundamentally unaddressed bureaucratic overreach environmental catastrophe precisely kinds slow moving existential challenges democracies deal badly finally threat du jour corporations technologies promote pp nbsp external links us corporate law wikibooks http wwwbrhorguk dwtf kcchtml audio talk history corporations english law barrister


mental processes looked brain due inert nature mechanism cooling heat generated heart ref name brain website brainaacnorg language en us access date ref ref name ref drew conclusions based empirical study animals found brains cold touch contact trigger movements heart warm active accelerating slowing dependent mood ref name ref name beliefs upheld many years come persisting middle ages renaissance period began falter th

Social science
Psychology
Neuropsychology


century due research ref name influence aristotle development neuropsychology evident within language used modern day since follow hearts learn heart ref name hippocrates hippocrates viewed brain seat soul drew connection brain behaviors body writing brain exercises greatest power man apart moving focus heart seat soul brain hippocrates go much detail actual functioning however


book brain mechanisms intelligence lashley 's theory engram driving force much research engram believed part brain specific memory stored continued use training ablation method franz taught would train rat learn maze use systematic lesions removed sections cortical tissue see rat forgot learned research rats learned forgetting dependent amount tissue removed


suffered illness injury particularly brain caused neurocognitive problems particular bring psychological viewpoint treatment understand illness injury may affect affected psychological factors also offer opinion whether person demonstrating difficulties due brain pathology consequence emotional another potentially reversible cause example test might show patients x unable name items previously exposed within past minutes


warning others ''golden legend'' jacobus de voragine reached popularity time reportedly read often bible francis assisi prolific poet franciscan followers frequently wrote poetry expression piety ''dies irae'' ''stabat mater'' two powerful latin poems religious subjects goliardic poetry four line stanzas satiric verse art form used clerics express dissent widespread religious writing produced clerics mystery plays growing

Humanities
Languages and literature
History of literature
Medieval literature


heloise'' ''libro de los ejemplos del conde lucanor de patronio'' ''book examples count lucanor patronio'' juan manuel prince villena ''ludus de antichristo'' anonymous german author ''mabinogion'' various welsh authors ''metrical dindshenchas'' irish onomastic poems ''il milione'' ''the travels marco polo'' marco polo ''le morte d'arthur'' sir thomas malory ''nibelungenlied'' anonymous german author ''nj l 's saga'' anonymous icelandic author ''parzival'' wolfram von eschenbach ''piers plowman'' william langland ''poem cid'' anonymous spanish author ''proslogium'' anselm canterbury ''queste del saint graal'' ''the quest holy grail'' anonymous french author ''revelations


localization theory due fred van oystaeyen luc willaert alain verschoren main concept '' 'schematic algebra''' invariants noncommutative spaces motivating questions theory concerned extending known topological invariants formal duals noncommutative operator algebras replacements candidates noncommutative spaces one main starting points alain connes' direction noncommutative geometry discovery new homology theory associated noncommutative associative algebras noncommutative operator algebras namely cyclic homology relations algebraic k theory primarily via connes chern

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Noncommutative geometry


invasion muhammad ghor jayachandra last ruler kannauj gave patronage sanskrit rather local dialects harsha author ''naishdhiya charitra'' court poet jagnayak sometimes jagnik royal poet mahoba nalha royal poet ajmer prominent literary figures period however prithviraj chauhan 's defeat second battle tarain literary works belonging period destroyed army muhammad ghor scriptures manuscripts period available genuineness also doubted

Humanities
Languages and literature
Hindi Literature


'''british literature''' literature united kingdom great britain northern ireland isle man channel islands article covers british literature english language anglo saxon old english literature included discussion latin anglo norman literature literature languages relate early development english language literature also brief discussion major figures wrote scots main discussion various scottish literature articles article literature languages britain focuses

Humanities
Languages and literature
World literature
British literature


use legends king arthur knights round table also first historiography written english since anglo saxon chronicle middle english interest king arthur continued th century sir thomas malory 's ''le morte d'arthur'' popular influential compilation french english arthurian romances among earliest books printed england caxton later medieval period new form english known middle english evolved earliest form comprehensible modern readers listeners albeit


elegiac poem ''pearl'' geoffrey chaucer father english literature geoffrey chaucer c known father english literature widely considered greatest english poet middle ages first poet buried poet 's corner westminster abbey chaucer best known today ''the canterbury tales'' collection stories written middle english mostly written verse although prose presented part story telling contest group pilgrims travel together journey southwark shrine


saint thomas becket canterbury cathedral chaucer crucial figure developing legitimacy vernacular middle english time dominant literary languages england french latin multilingual nature audience literature th century illustrated example john gower c october contemporary langland personal friend chaucer gower remembered primarily three major works ''mirroir de l'omme'' ''vox clamantis'' ''confessio amantis'' three long poems written anglo norman latin middle english respectively


plays type allegory protagonist met personifications various moral attributes try prompt choose godly life one evil plays popular europe th th centuries ''the somonyng everyman'' ''the summoning everyman'' c usually referred simply ''everyman'' late th century english morality play like john bunyan 's allegory ''pilgrim 's progress'' ''everyman'' examines question christian salvation use allegorical characters renaissance renaissance style ideas slow


scotsman hero ref name crawford multinational voices represented narrative confront anti scottish sentiment published two years battle culloden ''the expedition humphry clinker'' brings together characters extremes britain question cultural linguistic differences accommodated within new british identity influenced charles dickens richard cumberland wrote patriotic comedies depicting characters taken outskirts empire ref name eb richard cumberland encyclop dia britannica eleventh edition ref popular play ''the west indian'' performed north america west indies prose including novel


prominent poetry period romantics especially perhaps wordsworth often described 'nature poets' however longer romantic 'nature poems' wider concern usually meditations emotional problem personal crisis romantic poetry william blake considered seminal figure history poetry visual arts romantic age poet painter printmaker william blake one first english romantic poets largely disconnected major streams literature time blake generally unrecognised


''poems'' ''the borough'' romanticism novel sir walter scott jane austen major novelists period jane austen scotsman sir walter scott gothic fiction various kinds also flourished austen 's works satirise novels sensibility second half th century part transition th century realism austen 's works include ''pride prejudice'' ''sense sensibility'' ''mansfield park'' ''emma'' '' persuasion'' important british novelist beginning early th century sir walter scott


robert browning established reputation major poet met famous work sequence sonnets sonnets portuguese published ''poems'' matthew arnold 's reputation poet declined recent years best remembered critical works like ''culture anarchy'' poem dover beach dante gabriel rossetti poet illustrator painter translator founded pre raphaelite brotherhood william holman hunt john everett millais later main inspiration


first half th century drama london provincial theatres restricted licensing system patent theatre companies theatres could perform musical entertainments although magistrates powers license occasional dramatic performances passing theatres act removed monopoly drama held patent theatres irish playwright dion boucicault extremely popular writer comedies achieved success london stage works like ''london assurance'' middle th century however drama achieve importance


non fiction prose e lawrence 's lawrence arabia autobiographical account ''seven pillars wisdom'' arab revolt ottoman empire important poetry thomas hardy two victorian poets published little th century thomas hardy gerard manley hopkins since come regarded major poets hardy first established reputation late th century novels also wrote poetry throughout career however publish first collection tends treated th century poet gerard manley hopkins 's ''poems''


douglas noted war poetry world war ii wry memoir western desert campaign ''alamein zem zem'' killed action invasion normandy alun lewis born south wales one best known english language poets war second world war remained theme british literature modernist novel rudyard kipling modernism become important literary movement early decades new century also many fine writers like thomas hardy modernists novelists include