need reassessed frequently economics us preventive care cost effectiveness preventive care highly debated topic economists argue preventive care valuable potentially cost saving others believe inefficient waste resources preventive care composed variety clinical services programs including annual doctor 's check ups annual immunizations wellness programs recent models show simple interventions significant economic impacts ref name doiorg clinical preventive services programs research preventive care addresses question whether cost saving cost


increase life expectancy th century economic standpoint childhood vaccines demonstrate high return investment ref name auto according healthy people every birth cohort receives routine childhood vaccination schedule direct health care costs reduced billion society saves billion indirect costs economic benefits childhood vaccination extend beyond individual patients insurance plans vaccine manufacturers improving health population health capital theory burden preventable illness extends beyond healthcare sector incurring costs related lost productivity among

Applied science
Medicine and health
Preventive medicine


non hispanic blacks currently highest rates obesity risk newly diagnosed diabetes higher among non hispanic blacks higher among hispanics latinos higher among asian americans compared non hispanic whites current us population projections predict half americans belong minority group without targeted preventive interventions medical costs chronic disease inequities become unsustainable broadening health policies designed improve delivery preventive services minority populations may help reduce substantial medical costs caused inequities health care resulting return investment policies


meet certain nutritional criteria children years old self regulated program policies written council better business bureaus robert wood johnson foundation funded research test efficacy cfbai results showed progress terms decreased advertising food products target children adolescents childhood immunization policies despite nationwide controversies childhood vaccination immunization policies programs federal state local school levels outlining vaccination requirements states require children vaccinated certain communicable diseases condition school


dualism otherwise dual aspect theory dual aspect theory dual aspect monism view mental physical two aspects perspectives substance thus mixed position monistic respects modern philosophical writings theory 's relationship neutral monism become somewhat ill defined one proffered distinction says whereas neutral monism allows context given group neutral elements relationships enter determine whether group thought mental physical neither dual aspect

Humanities
Philosophy
Metaphysics
Philosophy of mind


versa however unlike cartesian dualism systems experiential dualism posit two fundamental substances reality mind matter rather experiential dualism understood conceptual framework gives credence qualitative difference experience mental physical states experiential dualism accepted conceptual framework madhyamaka buddhism madhayamaka buddhism goes finding fault monist view physicalist philosophies mind well generally posit matter energy fundamental substance reality nonetheless imply


eastern philosophies two millennia indian chinese philosophy monism integral experience understood today common forms monism western philosophy physicalist ref name kim physicalistic monism asserts existing substance physical sense term clarified best science ref name stol ref however variety formulations see possible another form monism idealism states existing substance mental although pure idealism george berkeley uncommon contemporary western philosophy sophisticated variant called panpsychism


state desire cup coffee would thus nothing firing certain neurons certain brain regions ref name smart classic identity theory anomalous monism contrast identity theory every token instantiation single mental type corresponds indicated arrows physical token single physical type anomalous monism token token correspondences fall outside type type correspondences result token identity hand even granted follow identity theories types must abandoned according


implementation mental state characterizing terms non mental functional properties example kidney characterized scientifically functional role filtering blood maintaining certain chemical balances ref name block non reductive physicalism non reductionist philosophers hold firmly two essential convictions regard mind body relations physicalism true mental states must physical states reductionist proposals unsatisfactory mental states cannot reduced behavior brain states functional states ref name stol hence question arises whether still non reductive physicalism donald davidson 's anomalous monism ref name davidson


attempt formulate physicalism thinks one runs across traditionally seen absurdities reason akrasia self deception personal psychology framework given favor subpersonal one rather must enlarged extended rationality set principle charity found elsewhere davidson uses thesis supervenience mental states supervene physical states reducible supervenience therefore describes functional dependence change mental without


puzzle many cerebral processes occur accompanying experiential aspect consciousness seems impossible explain ref name ja yet also seems many science eventually explain experiences ref name stol follows assumption possibility reductive explanations according view attempt successfully made explain phenomenon reductively eg water explained phenomenon properties eg fluidity transparency ref name stol case mental states means needs explanation


property experienced certain way th century german philosopher martin heidegger criticized ontological assumptions underpinning reductive model claimed impossible make sense experience terms according heidegger nature subjective experience ''qualities'' impossible understand terms cartesian substances bear properties another way put concept qualitative experience incoherent terms semantically incommensurable concept substances bear properties problem explaining


electrochemical processes seem anything herodotus ref name int philosophy perception philosophy perception concerned nature perceptual experience status perceptual objects particular perceptual experience relates appearances beliefs world main contemporary views within philosophy perception include naive realism enactivism representational views ref name referencea ref name macpherson f philosophy mind science humans corporeal beings subject examination description natural sciences since mental processes intimately related


law line subjective effort physically non reducible agency libertarianism deterministic therefore potentially free critics second proposition b accuse incompatibilists using incoherent concept freedom argue follows determined anything desire desire pure chance desire purely accidental free determined anything free ref name hond self philosophy mind also important consequences


quantitative psychology begin informally undergraduate level many graduate schools recommend students coursework psychology complete full college sequence calculus including multivariate calculus course linear algebra quantitative coursework fields economics research methods statistics courses psychology majors also helpful historically however students without courses accepted aspects application show promise schools also offer formal minors areas related quantitative psychology example university kansas offers minor social behavioral

Social science
Psychology
Quantitative psychology


school 's college education psychology department programs focus especially educational research psychometrics often part education educational psychology departments programs may therefore different names mentioning research methods quantitative methods research evaluation methodology phd university florida quantitative methods degree university pennsylvania however universities may separate programs two colleges example university washington quantitative psychology degree psychology department separate measurement statistics phd college


psychometrics include item response theory computer adaptive testing focus education intelligence testing research areas include modeling psychological processes time series analysis fmri data collection structural equation modeling social network analysis human decision science statistical genetics two common types psychometric tests aptitude tests supposed measure raw intellectual suitability purpose personality tests aim assess character temperament subject deals problems item response theory based application related mathematical models testing data


'''christian theology''' theology christian belief practice study concentrates primarily upon texts old testament new testament well christian tradition christian theologians use biblical exegesis rational analysis argument theologians may undertake study christian theology variety reasons order help better understand christian tenets make comparisons christianity traditions defend christianity objections criticism facilitate reforms christian church assist propagation christianity draw resources christian tradition


bible divinely supernaturally revealed inspired revelation always require presence god angel instance concept catholics call interior locution supernatural revelation include inner voice heard recipient thomas aquinas first described two types revelation christianity general revelation special revelation general revelation occurs observation created order observations logically lead important conclusions existence god god 's attributes general revelation also element christian apologetics certain specifics


versions bible renders ''theopneustos'' god breathed niv breathed god esv avoiding word ''inspiration'' latin root ''insp r re'' blow breathe biblical authority christianity generally regards agreed collections books known bible authoritative written human authors inspiration holy spirit christians believe bible inerrant totally without error free contradiction including historical scientific parts ref name inerrancy ref infallible inerrant issues faith practice necessarily matters history science ref


sole ultimate power universe distinct bible never speaks god impersonal instead refers personal terms speaks sees hears acts loves god understood personality powerful divine benevolent represented scripture primarily concerned people salvation ref name stagg attributes god classification many reformed theologians distinguish ''communicable'' attributes human beings also ''incommunicable'' attributes belong god alone enumeration attributes


also impeccably honest titus refers god lie wisdom god fully comprehends human nature world see accomplished heaven earth romans speaks wise god monotheism heinrich hofmann christians believe god worshiped hebrew people pre christian era always revealed jesus never obvious jesus born see john also though angel lord spoke patriarchs revealing god believe


nature infinite god however commonly described beyond definition word 'person' imperfect expression idea critics contend adoption tripartite conception deity christianity form tritheism polytheism concept dates arian teachings claimed jesus appeared later bible father secondary lesser therefore distinct god jews muslims idea god trinity heretical considered akin polytheism christians overwhelmingly assert monotheism central


formalized th century time emperor constantine convoked first council nicaea bishops empire invited attend pope sylvester attend sent legate council among things decreed original nicene creed trinity holy trinity tretyakov gallery moscow andrei rublev c properly known hospitality abraham three angels symbolize trinity christians beliefs god enshrined doctrine trinitarianism holds three persons god together form


single god trinitarian view emphasizes god god son two wills divine human though never conflict see hypostatic union however point disputed oriental orthodox christians hold ''god son'' one unified divinity humanity see miaphysitism christian doctrine trinity teaches unity father son holy spirit three persons one godhead ref name eb purgatory http wwwbritannicacom eb article purgatory encyclop dia britannica purgatory world religions idea purification temporary punishment death ancient roots


god child parent unique sense ref name stagg stagg frank ''new testament theology'' nashville broadman ref see filioque controversy mission earth proved enabling people know god father christians believe essence eternal life god son second person trinity christian theology doctrine trinity identifies jesus nazareth god son ''united essence distinct person'' regard god father god holy spirit first third persons trinity god


new testament later theological use expression reflects came standard interpretation new testament references understood imply jesus' divinity distinction person one god called father title associated development doctrine trinity christological debates places new testament jesus given title son god scholars n't consider equivalent expression god son rejected anti trinitarians view


arian modern era number denominations rejected nicene doctrine trinity including christadelphians jehovah 's witnesses sort amalgamation christological debates following council nicaea sought make sense interplay human divine person christ upholding doctrine trinity apollinaris laodicea taught jesus divine component took place human ''nous'' ''thinking'' confused ''thelis'' meaning ''intent'' however seen denial jesus' true humanity


modern assyrian church east times shunned term implies acceptance entire theology nestorius various forms monophysitism taught christ one nature divine either dissolved eutychianism divine joined human one nature person christ miaphysitism notable monophysite theologian eutyches c monophysitism rejected heresy council chalcedon affirmed jesus christ two natures divine human joined one person hypostatic union see chalcedonian creed


sixth ecumenical council incarnation incarnation belief christianity second person christian godhead also known god son logos word became flesh miraculously conceived womb virgin mary word incarnate derives latin caro carnis flesh meaning make flesh become flesh incarnation fundamental theological teaching orthodox nicene christianity based understanding new testament incarnation represents belief jesus non created second hypostasis triune


question concerning sinlessness jesus christ focuses seeming paradox fully human require one participate fall adam could jesus exist unfallen status adam eve fall according genesis kinds sinlessness evangelical writer donald macleod suggests sinless nature jesus christ involves two elements first christ free actual sin ref name macleod donald macleod ''the person christ'' intervarsity press ref studying gospels reference jesus praying forgiveness sin confessing sin assertion


neither overriding preserved coexist one person christ '''all''' properties god humanity god stop god become man christ half god half human two natures mix new third kind nature although independent acted complete accord one nature acted natures commingle merge infuse replace one converted remained distinct yet acted one accord virgin birth holy doors


bestowed present time ref name ericksonworks ref view catholic church ref name cathhs many mainstream christian groups alternate view espoused mainly pentecostal denominations charismatic movement absence supernatural gifts due neglect holy spirit work church although small groups ''montanists'' practiced supernatural gifts rare growth pentecostal movement late th century ref name ericksonworks believers relevance supernatural gifts sometimes speak ''baptism


innate nature constitution human known ''nature mankind'' concerned relationship notions body soul spirit together form person based descriptions bible three traditional views human constitution trichotomism dichotomism monism sense anthropology components soul semantic domain biblical soul based hebrew word ''nepes'' presumably means breath breathing word never means immortal soul incorporeal part human survive death


called ''psyche'' viz self lives man 's attitude orientation body flesh body greek ' 'soma'' corporeal physical aspect human christians traditionally believed body resurrected end age flesh greek ' 'sarx'' usually considered synonymous body referring corporeal aspect human apostle paul contrasts flesh spirit romans origin humanity bible teaches book genesis humans created god christians


stars lights shining heaven many today 's biblical scholars n wright tracing concept heaven back jewish roots see earth heaven overlapping interlocking heaven known god 's space dimension place reached human technology belief states heaven god lives reigns whilst active working alongside people earth one day god restores things heaven earth forever combined new heavens new earth


geographically situated place largely creation medieval christian piety imagination ref name eb purgatory notion purgatory associated particularly latin rite catholic church eastern sui juris churches rites doctrine though often without using name purgatory anglicans anglo catholic tradition generally also hold belief john wesley founder methodism believed intermediate state death final judgment possibility continuing grow holiness ref name methodism cite web title happens person dies url http wwwumcorg site apps nlnet content aspxc lwl knn lth b content id f f ea c b b b c ec e notoc quote purgatory believed


john stott although latter described agnostic issue annihilationism ref name acute conditionalists typically reject traditional concept immortality soul protestants george macdonald karl randall keith derose thomas talbott also however minority believe serving sentence gehenna souls reconciled god admitted heaven ways found time death drawing souls repentance hellish suffering experienced view often called christian universalism conservative branch specifically called


ecclesiastes sees suffering beyond human abilities comprehend apocalyptic parts including new testament see suffering due cosmic evil forces god mysterious reasons given power world soon defeated things set right hamartiology sin greek word new testament translated english sin ''hamartia'' literally means ''missing target'' john states everyone sins breaks law fact sin lawlessness jesus clarified law defining foundation jesus replied 'love lord god


sin adam sin caused adam descendants lose unrestricted access god years life limited wherefore one man sin entered world death sin death passed upon men sinned christian theology death jesus cross atonement sin adam adam die even christ shall made alive result act christ put trust


defend polity church england puritans episcopal polity used several closely related senses commonly refers field church governance abstract also refer governance particular christian body sense used term civil law polity sometimes used shorthand church governance structure though church denomination characteristic structure three general types polity episcopal polity churches episcopal polity governed bishops


lutherans presbyterians anglicans non congregational protestants similarity deceptive however congregationalist associations exercise control members ending membership association many congregationalist churches completely independent principle one major exception ordination even congregationalist churches often invite members vicinage association ordain called pastor principle congregationalism ministers govern congregations may preside congregation congregation exerts authority end congregational polity sometimes called baptist


protestant denominations unfermented grape juice used rite sense communicants may speak receiving eucharist well celebrating eucharist ''eucharist'' greek ''eucharistia'' meaning thanksgiving verb usual word thank septuagint new testament found major texts concerning lord 's supper including earliest blockquote received lord also delivered lord jesus night betrayed took bread ''given thanks'' broke


ref name harris expression ''the lord 's supper'' derived st paul 's usage may originally referred agape feast shared communal meal eucharist originally associated agape feast mentioned ''the lord 's supper'' commonly used reference celebration involving food sacramental bread wine didache greek teaching early church order including among features instructions baptism eucharist scholars date early nd century distinguish two


eucharist memorial death christ https webarchiveorg web http wwwoikoumeneorg en resources documents wcc commissions faith order commission unity church mission baptism eucharist ministry faith order paper lima text baptism eucharist ministryhtml c ''baptism eucharist ministry'' document world council churches attempting present common understanding eucharist part generality christians describes essentially sacrament gift god makes us christ power holy spirit thanksgiving father anamnesis memorial christ sacrament unique sacrifice christ ever lives make intercession us sacrament body blood christ sacrament


seminary extensive collection online resources christian theology http ccelorg christian classics ethereal library http jonathanscornercom jonathan hayward contemporary orthodox theologian http orthodoxchurchfatherscom orthodox church fathers christian theology classics search engine external links https webarchiveorg web http argumentrixcom wiki appendix christian theology table christian theological terms argumentrix


Applied science
Medicine and health
Behavioral Medicine


secondary radical reactions increased chemical activity formation new relatively stable chemical species diffuse solution create chemical effects example formation hydrogen peroxide combination two hydroxyl radicals following dissociation water vapor within collapsing bubbles water exposed ultrasound upon irradiation high intensity sound ultrasound acoustic cavitation usually occurs cavitation formation growth implosive collapse bubbles irradiated sound impetus sonochemistry sonoluminescence ref name leighton tg acoustic bubble pp leighton tg acoustic


bubble academic press london pp ref bubble collapse liquids produces enormous amounts energy conversion kinetic energy liquid motion heating contents bubble compression bubbles cavitation rapid thermal transport generates short lived localized hot spot experimental results shown bubbles temperatures around k pressures roughly atm heating cooling rates sup sup k cavitations create extreme physical chemical conditions otherwise cold liquids liquids containing solids similar phenomena may


land back claims tell myths ancestress started clan clan descends ancestress malinowski 's observations followed research found durkheim alfred reginald radcliffe brown radcliffe brown put culture andaman islanders research showed group solidification among islanders based music kinship rituals involve use activities words radcliffe brown ritual fortifies society marcel mauss marcel mauss made many comparative studies religion magic law morality occidental non occidental societies

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of culture


structures major areas research theoretical constructs bourdieu 's sociology culture french sociologist pierre bourdieu 's influential model society social relations roots marxist theories class conflict bourdieu characterizes social relations context calls ''field'' defined competitive system social relations functioning according specific logic rules ''field'' site struggle power dominant subordinate classes within ''field'' legitimacy key aspect defining dominant class conferred withdrawn bourdieu 's theory practice


practical rather discursive embodied well cognitive durable though adaptive valid concern sets agenda bourdieu 's theory practice action follows regular statistical patterns without product accordance rules norms conscious intention explain concern bourdieu explains habitus field habitus explains mutually penetrating realities individual subjectivity societal objectivity function social construction employed transcend subjective objective dichotomy cultural change belief culture symbolically coded thus taught one person another means


many practitioners new age religion arcane symbol power life forces variant diffusion theory stimulus diffusion refers element one culture leading invention another contact cultures also result acculturation acculturation different meanings context refers replacement traits one culture another happened many native american indians related processes individual level assimilation transculturation refer adoption different culture individual wendy griswold


talking cultural change actual origins culture culture suddenly griswold explicitly distinguish origins cultural change origins culture may appear though griswold arguing origins culture situating origins society neither accurate clear representation sociological thought issue culture like society existed since beginning humanity humans social cultural society culture co exist humans social relations


perspectives human animal interactions hai involving companion animals also studied waltham centre pet nutrition partners us national institutes health research hai relation child development aging three primary lists scholars students h animal human animal studies listserv nilas well critical animal studies list dozen journals covering issues many founded last decade hundreds books published last decade see example ''humanimalia'' brill berg johns

Natural science
Biology
Ethnobiology
Anthrozoology


battle cambrai german counter offensivein study military tactics '''counter offensive''' large scale strategic offensive military operation usually forces successfully halted enemy 's offensive occupying defensive positions counter offensive executed exhausting enemy 's front line troops enemy reserves committed combat proven incapable breaching defenses ''before'' enemy opportunity assume new defensive positions sometimes counter offensive limited operational maneuver nature limited objectives rather seeking attainment strategic goal

Applied science
Military sciences
Strategy
Counter-offensive


mongolian language mongolian studies also presented sub field study inner asia opposed east asia american center mongolian studies founded history universities across united states part opposition vietnam war younger faculty graduate students criticized field complicity saw american imperialism particular committee concerned asian scholars debated published alternative approaches centered united states funded many american programs american government major foundations

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
East Asian studies


punishment america'' london sage publications https booksgooglecom booksid tyme z nyac pg pa dq right libertarianism hl sa x ved ahukewjvont uvlahwn aqkhwz auuq aeinjab v onepage q exist three major camps libertarian thought right libertarianism c socialist libertarianism c left libertarianism b extent represent distinct ideologies opposed variations theme contested scholars f false p exist three major camps libertarian thought right libertarianism socialist libertarianism left libertarianism extent represent distinct ideologies opposed variations theme contested scholars ref scholars distinguish libertarian views nature property capital usually along left right socialist capitalist lines ref name francis ref libertarianism originated form left wing politics anti authoritarian anti state socialists like anarchists especially social anarchists generally libertarian communists marxists libertarian socialists ref name rothbardbetrayal ref ref name marshall libertarians seek abolish capitalism private ownership

Humanities
Philosophy
Social philosophy
Libertarianism


man man anarchism one streams socialist thought stream whose main components concern liberty haste abolish state ref revival free market ideologies mid late th century came disagreement call movement many adherents prefer term ''libertarian'' many conservative libertarians reject term 's association new left connotations libertine hedonism ref name gamble p ref movement divided use ''conservatism'' alternative ref name gamble p ref


groups society traditions ideological systems ref name ryner mean individualism mean individualism moral doctrine relying dogma tradition external determination appeals individual conscience https webarchiveorg web http wwwmarxorg archive ryner mini manualhtm ''mini manual individualism'' han ryner ref ref name tucker admit anything except existence individual condition sovereignty say sovereignty individual conditioned liberty simply another way saying conditioned anarchism state ''individual liberty'' ref influential form individualist anarchism called egoism ref name goodway david


name nonserviam ref stirner proposed form organisation place state ref name karl ref egoist anarchists argue egoism foster genuine spontaneous union individuals ref name carlson ref egoism inspired many interpretations stirner 's philosophy stirner 's philosophy discovered promoted german philosophical anarchist lgbt activist john henry mackay josiah warren widely regarded first american anarchist ref name slate palmer brian december http wwwslatecom id anarchists want us ''slatecom'' ref four page weekly paper edited ''the peaceful revolutionist'' first anarchist periodical published ref name bailie ref american anarchist historian eunice


name bailie enterprise built printing press cast type made printing plates ref name bailie catalan historian xavier diez reports intentional communal experiments pioneered warren influential european individualist anarchists late th early th centuries mile armand intentional communities started ref name tesisenxarxanet https webarchiveorg web http wwwtesisenxarxanet tesis udg available tdx txdr de pdf xavier diez ''l'anarquisme individualista espanya '' p ref warren said stephen pearl andrews individualist anarchist close associate wrote lucid complete exposition warren 's theories ''the science society'' published


andrews formerly associated fourierist movement converted radical individualism becoming acquainted work warren like warren held principle individual sovereignty paramount importance contemporary american anarchist hakim bey reports american anarchist historian eunice minette schuster apparent proudhonian anarchism found united states least early conscious affinity individualist anarchism josiah warren stephen pearl andrews william b greene presented proudhonian mutualism purest


caba en el bosque vivir en ntimo contacto con la naturaleza en una vida de soledad sobriedad de esta experiencia su filosof trata de transmitirnos la idea que resulta necesario un retorno respetuoso la naturaleza que la felicidad es sobre todo fruto de la riqueza interior de la armon de los individuos con el entorno natural muchos han visto en thoreau uno de los precursores del ecologismo del anarquismo primitivista representado en la actualidad por jonh zerzan para george woodcock esta actitud puede estar tambi n motivada por una cierta idea de resistencia al


progreso de rechazo al materialismo creciente que caracteriza la sociedad norteamericana de mediados de siglo xix http wwwacraciaorg xdiezhtml la insumisi n voluntaria el anarquismo individualista espa ol durante la dictadura la segund arep blica xavier diez ref ''civil disobedience'' first published argues people permit governments overrule atrophy consciences people duty avoid allowing acquiescence enable government make agents injustice works influenced green anarchism anarcho primitivism anarcho pacifism ref name ppuorguk well figures including mohandas gandhi martin luther king jr martin


higher incomes ordinary people minimizing power would bosses achieving socialist goals without state action tucker 's anarchist periodical ''liberty'' published august april publication ''liberty'' emblazoned proudhon 's quote liberty daughter mother order instrumental developing formalizing individualist anarchist philosophy publishing essays serving forum debate contributors included benjamin tucker lysander spooner auberon herbert dyer lum joshua k ingalls john henry mackay victor yarros wordsworth donisthorpe james l walker j william lloyd florence finch kelly voltairine


f goodrich chairman trustees fee board included wealthy industrialist jasper crane dupont h w luhnow william volker co robert w welch jr founder john birch society austrian school economist murray rothbard initially enthusiastic partisan old right particularly general opposition war imperialism long embraced reading american history emphasized role elite privilege shaping legal political institutions part ayn rand 's circle brief period later harshly criticized objectivism praised


forum'' hess left hess eventually put focus small scale stating society people together making culture deemed two cardinal social principles opposition central political authority concern people individuals rejection standard american party politics reflected lecture gave said democrats liberals think everybody stupid therefore need somebody tell behave republicans think everybody lazy nolan chart created american libertarian david nolan expands


american voters self identify libertarians including age group ref name reuters twenty polls topic spanning thirteen years gallup found voters libertarian political spectrum ranged united states electorate ref name gallup however pew poll found americans identify libertarians idea word means poll respondents identified libertarians understand term meant ref name pew tea party movement protest washington dc september saw rise tea party


''demanding impossible history anarchism'' oakland ca pm press mclaughlin paul ''anarchism authority philosophical introduction classical anarchism'' ashgate miller david coleman janet connolly william ryan alan ''the blackwell encyclopaedia political thought'' wiley blackwell richardson james l ''contending liberalisms world politics ideology power'' boulder co lynne rienner publishers ward colin ''anarchism short introduction'' oxford university press woodcock george ''anarchism'' university toronto press external links https wwwbritannicacom topic libertarianism politics libertarianism ''encyclop dia britannica'' economic ideologies history economic thought philosophical movements political movements political


'''landscape planning''' branch landscape architecture according erv zube landscape planning defined activity concerned developing landscaping amongst competing land uses protecting natural processes significant cultural natural resources park systems greenways type designed frederick law olmsted key examples landscape planning landscape designers tend work clients wish commission construction work landscape planners analyze broad issues well project characteristics constrain design projects landscape planners may work projects broad geographical scope concern many land uses

Humanities
Visual arts
Applied arts
Landscape planning


structural peace individual members human race exercise personal freedoms enjoy legal protection violence oppression indignity approaches type familiarize participants international covenants declarations united nations system train students recognize violations universal declaration human rights promote tolerance solidarity autonomy self affirmation individual collective levels human rights education faces continual elaboration significant theory practice gap frequent challenge validity one practitioner 's view blockquote '' human rights education work communities fraught conflict

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Peace education


tool making systems diagrams flow charts fourth principles principle maximum power efficiency takes central place analysis synthesis ecological systems fourth principle suggests evolutionarily advantageous system function occurs environmental load matches internal resistance system environmental load matching internal resistance system away sustainable steady state therefore systems ecologist engages task resistance impedance matching ecological engineering electronic engineer would

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems ecology


highly integrated ethical fashion ecological economics ecological economics transdisciplinary field academic research addresses dynamic spatial interdependence human economies natural ecosystems ecological economics brings together connects different disciplines within natural social sciences especially broad areas name suggests field made researchers background economics ecology important motivation emergence ecological economics criticism assumptions approaches traditional mainstream environmental resource economics ecological energetics ecological energetics quantitative


lead physicist many thousands computers employed commerce government research establishments many clerks served human computers women performed astronomical calculations calendars others ballistic tables military expression ''computing machine'' referred machine performed work human computer especially accordance effective methods church turing thesis thesis states mathematical method effective could set list instructions able followed human clerk paper

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
History of computer science


tribe hominini ''homo sapiens'' modern humans living specimen history th century carl linnaeus introduced name ''homo sapiens'' species name th edition work ''systema naturae'' although without scientific description species specific characteristics ref name caroli linn systema natur ref since great apes considered closest relatives human beings based morphological similarity th century speculated closest living relatives humans chimpanzees genus ''pan'' gorilla genus ''gorilla'' based natural range creatures

Social science
Archaeology
Palaeoanthropology


home early humankind late black submitted proposal rockefeller foundation seeking financial support systematic excavation zhoukoudian establishment institute study human biology china zhoukoudian project came existence spring two years later cenozoic research laboratory geological survey china formally established first institution kind cenozoic laboratory opened new avenues study paleogeology paleontology china laboratory precursor institute vertebrate paleontology


gorge assigned new species ''homo habilis'' bernard ngeneo fieldworker working richard leakey discovered fossil knm er near lake turkana kenya knm er interpreted either distinct species ''homo rudolfensis'' alternatively evidence sexual dimorphism ''homo habilis'' ref name richard leakey reported earliest definitive examples anatomically modern ''homo sapiens'' site omo kibish ethiopia known omo remains late mary leakey excavated famous laetoli footprints tanzania demonstrated antiquity bipedality


milford h wolpoff tim white john hawks yohannes haile selassie sonia harmand bernard wood see also ''dawn humanity'' pbs film human evolution list human evolution fossils incredible human journey timeline human evolution references reading david r begun ''a companion paleoanthropology'' malden wiley blackwell winfried henke ian tattersall eds ''handbook paleoanthropology'' dordrecht springer external links http wwwjqjacobsnet anthro paleo indexhtml paleoanthropology essays http wwwjqjacobsnet contacthtml james q jacobs http wwwtalkoriginsorg faqs homs indexhtml fossil hominids http cogwebuclaedu ep paleoanthropologyhtml introduction aspects paleoanthropology http wwwbecominghumanorg becoming human paleoanthropology evolution human origins http wwwevampgde evolution department


''the world representation'' written arthur schopenhauer stated access vedas opened us upanishads eyes greatest advantage still young century enjoys previous ones believe influence sanscrit literature penetrate less deeply revival greek literature fifteenth century irish poet william butler yeats also inspired sanskrit literature however discovery world sanskrit literature moved beyond german british scholars intellectuals henry david thoreau

Humanities
Theology
Hindu theology
Sanskrit Studies


survive reproduce sexual selection theory competition mates individuals sex results differential mating reproduction kin selection changes gene frequency across generations driven least part interactions related individuals inclusive fitness sum individual 's reproductive success natural sexual selection plus effects individual 's actions reproductive success individual 's kin kin selection middle level evolutionary theories used hbe include theory parental investment predicts sex making largest investment lactation nurturing

Social science
Anthropology
Human Behavioral Ecology


analysing adaptive strategies human behavioral ecology twenty five ''evolutionary anthropology issues news reviews'' volume issue external links https docsgooglecom document uxupjp zvutn xe w fmhmqzsim xpb ycqc fbbeci human behavioral ecology bibliography maintained kermyt g anderson demography anthropology behavioral ecology behavioural sciences h sociobiology


great deal autonomy ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref land settlement also varied greatly peasants lived large settlements numbered many inhabitants others lived small groups families still others lived isolated farms spread countryside also areas pattern mix two systems ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref unlike late roman period sharp break legal status free peasant aristocrat possible

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history
Medieval


shrank civic monuments public buildings raided building materials establishment new kingdoms often meant growth towns chosen capitals ref name city gies gies ''life medieval city'' pp ref although jewish communities many roman cities jews suffered periods persecution conversion empire christianity officially tolerated subject conversion efforts times even encouraged settle new areas ref name jews loyn jews ''middle ages'' p ref rise islam early muslim conquests religious beliefs eastern


europe'' pp ref formal break known east west schism came papacy patriarchy constantinople clashed papal supremacy excommunicated led division christianity two churches western branch became roman catholic church eastern branch eastern orthodox church ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp ref ecclesiastical structure roman empire survived movements invasions west mostly intact papacy little regarded western bishops looked bishop rome religious political leadership many


battle poitiers halting advance muslim armies across pyrenees ref name bauer bauer ''history medieval world'' pp ref great britain divided small states dominated kingdoms northumbria mercia wessex east anglia descended anglo saxon invaders smaller kingdoms present day wales scotland still control native britons picts ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref ireland divided even smaller political units usually known tribal kingdoms control kings perhaps many local kings


eastern western clergy resulted conversion moravians bulgars bohemians poles magyars slavic inhabitants kievan rus' conversions contributed founding political states lands peoples states moravia bulgaria bohemia poland hungary kievan rus' ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp ref bulgaria founded danube delta around height incorporated vast regions along lower danube balkans carpathian basin last bulgarian nobles surrendered byzantine empire ref name curta curta ''southeastern europe'' pp nbsp ref art


services system known manorialism remained free peasants throughout period beyond ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref regions southern europe north practice assarting bringing new lands production offering incentives peasants settled also contributed expansion population ref name epstein epstein ''economic social history'' pp ref open field system agriculture commonly practiced europe especially northwestern central europe ref name pounds pounds ''historical geography europe'' p ref agricultural


recruiting ground upper levels secular clergy local parish priests often drawn peasant class ref name barber barber ''two cities'' pp ref townsmen somewhat unusual position fit traditional three fold division society nobles clergy peasants th th centuries ranks townsmen expanded greatly existing towns grew new population centres founded ref name barber barber ''two cities'' pp ref throughout middle ages population towns probably never exceeded percent total population ref name daily singman ''daily life''


empire first serious external threat empire since hungarian invasions mongols first shattered kievan rus' principalities invaded eastern europe ref name davies davies ''europe'' p ref bayeux tapestry detail showing william conqueror centre half brothers robert count mortain right odo bishop bayeux duchy normandy left thumb left capetian dynasty french monarchy slowly began expand authority nobility growing le de france exert control country th th centuries ref


medieval europe'' pp ref cathedral schools turn replaced universities established major european cities ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref philosophy theology fused scholasticism attempt th th century scholars reconcile authoritative texts notably aristotle bible movement tried employ systemic approach truth reason ref name maschol loyn scholasticism ''middle ages'' pp ref culminated thought thomas aquinas wrote ''summa theologica'' ''summary theology'' ref name colish colish ''medieval foundations'' pp ref medieval scholar making precise measurements th century manuscript


cathedral france well salisbury cathedral england ref name adams adams ''history western art'' pp ref stained glass became crucial element design churches continued use extensive wall paintings almost lost ref name benton benton ''art middle ages'' pp ref period practice manuscript illumination gradually passed monasteries lay workshops according janetta benton monks bought books shops ref name benton benton ''art middle ages'' p ref book hours developed form devotional book lay people metalwork


previously governed customary law lone exception trend england common law remained pre eminent countries codified laws legal codes promulgated castile poland lithuania ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp ref clerics studying astronomy geometry french early th century education remained mostly focused training future clergy basic learning letters numbers remained province family village priest secondary subjects trivium grammar rhetoric logic studied cathedral schools schools provided cities commercial secondary schools spread


italian towns one enterprise universities also spread throughout europe th th centuries lay literacy rates rose still low one estimate gave literacy rate per cent males per cent females ref name singman singman ''daily life'' p ref publication vernacular literature increased dante petrarch giovanni boccaccio th century italy geoffrey chaucer william langland c england fran ois villon christine de pizan c france much


literature remained religious character although great deal continued written latin new demand developed saints' lives devotional tracts vernacular languages ref name davies fed growth ''devotio moderna'' movement prominently formation brethren common life also works german mystics meister eckhart johannes tauler ref name keen keen ''pelican history medieval europe'' pp ref theatre also developed guise miracle plays put church ref name davies end


israel defense forces targeted destroyed building associated ongoing cyber attack definition ongoing debate cyberwarfare defined absolute definition widely agreed upon ref name ref name robinson ref majority scholars militaries governments use definitions refer state state sponsored actors ref name ref name ref name clarke definitions may include non state actors terrorist groups companies political ideological extremist groups hacktivists transnational criminal organizations depending context work examples definitions proposed experts field

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Cyberwarfare


infrastructure devastating example cutting undersea communication cables may severely cripple regions countries regards information warfare ability grid transformer station electrical power grid federal government united states admits electric power grid susceptible cyberwarfare united states department homeland security works industries identify vulnerabilities help industries enhance security control system networks federal government also working ensure security built next generation smart grid networks developed


general staff british army stated kind attack actors russia form system warfare seeks de legitimize political social system military strength based jowell o'donnell state propaganda deliberate systematic attempt shape perceptions manipulate cognitions direct behavior achieve response furthers desired intent propagandist p nbsp internet important means communication today people convey messages quickly across huge audience open


specific act considered act war examples cyberwarfare driven political motivations found worldwide russia began cyber attack georgian government website carried along georgian military operations south ossetia chinese nationalist hackers attacked cnn reported chinese repression tibet hackers armenia azerbaijan actively participated cyberwarfare part nagorno karabakh conflict azerbaijani hackers targeting armenian websites posting ilham aliyev 's statements jobs cyberwarfare become increasingly popular military four branches


target adversary information systems network ref name brantly p ''offensive cyber operations'' encompassing actions taken use computer networks disrupt deny degrade destroy information resident computers computer networks computers networks basic operations designed achieve tangible effects ref name brantly p civil potential targets internet sabotage include aspects internet backbones web internet service providers varying types data communication mediums network equipment would include web servers enterprise


material gain cause widespread destruction draw attention cause well publicized disruptions select targets anonymous hacktivist groups often portrayed media cyber terrorists wreaking havoc hacking websites posting sensitive information victims threatening attacks demands met however hacktivism actors politically motivated change world use fundamentalism groups like anonymous however divided opinion methods income generation cyber attacks including ransomware used generate income states


executive sentenced years passing information rocket space technology organization china targets united states included aerospace engineering programs space shuttle design c isr data high performance computers nuclear weapon design cruise missile data semiconductors integrated circuit design details us arms sales taiwan ref name epublicationsbondeduau ref china continues held responsible string cyber attacks number public private institutions united states india russia canada france chinese government denies involvement cyber spying campaigns administration maintains position china


threat rather victim increasing number cyber attacks reports china 's cyber warfare capabilities yet confirmed chinese government according fritz china expanded cyber capabilities military technology acquiring foreign military technology ref name http ref fritz states chinese government uses new space based surveillance intelligence gathering systems anti satellite weapon anti radar infrared decoys false target generators assist quest support informatisation military increased education soldiers cyber warfare improving information network military training


software powerhouse february information technology secretary j satyanarayana stated nciipc finalizing policies related national cyber security would focus domestic security solutions reducing exposure foreign technology ref name businesstodayintodayin steps include isolation various security agencies ensure synchronised attack could succeed fronts planned appointment national cyber security coordinator month significant economic physical damage india related cyber attacks november group calling


well many broadcasting stations kbs ytn mbc hacked computers affected one biggest attacks south korea faced years ref name global post ref although remains uncertain involved incident immediate assertions north korea connected threatened attack south korea 's government institutions major national banks traditional newspapers numerous times reaction sanctions received nuclear testing continuation foal eagle south korea 's annual joint military exercise


german intelligence agency bnd announced seeking hire hackers new cyber defence station unit march bnd president gerhard schindler announced agency observed five attacks day government authorities thought mainly originate china confirmed attackers far accessed data expressed concern stolen information could used basis future sabotage attacks arms manufacturers telecommunications companies government military agencies shortly edward snowden leaked details us national security agency 's cyber


us however cyber command set protect military whereas government corporate infrastructures primarily responsibility respectively department homeland security private companies ref name economist february top american lawmakers warned threat crippling attack telecommunications computer networks sharply rise ref name lipman according lipman report numerous key sectors us economy along nations currently risk including cyber threats public private facilities banking finance transportation manufacturing medical education government


unsophisticated amateur highly trained professional hackers cyberspace enemies target industry academia government well military air land maritime space domains much way airpower transformed battlefield world war ii cyberspace fractured physical barriers shield nation attacks commerce communication indeed adversaries already taken advantage computer networks power information technology plan execute savage acts terrorism also influence directly perceptions us government


illinois statewide terrorism intelligence center according ''foreign policy'' magazine nsa 's tailored access operations tao unit successfully penetrated chinese computer telecommunications systems almost years generating best reliable intelligence information going inside people 's republic china november sony pictures entertainment hack release confidential data belonging sony pictures entertainment spe june united states office personnel management opm announced target data breach targeting records


president emergency powers parts internet however three co authors bill issued statement instead bill narrowed existing broad presidential authority take telecommunications networks ref name nokillswitch http wwwinformationweekcom news government security showarticlejhtmlarticleid subsection news senators say cybersecurity bill 'kill switch' ''information week'' june retrieved june ref cyberpeace rise cyber warfighting domain led efforts determine cyberspace used foster peace example german civil rights panel fiff runs campaign cyberpeace control cyberweapons surveillance technology


'''earth systems engineering management''' esem discipline used analyze design engineer manage complex environmental systems entails wide range subject areas including anthropology engineering environmental science ethics philosophy core esem looks rationally design manage coupled human natural systems highly integrated ethical fashion ref name gorman gorman michael ''syllabus spring semester '' retrieved october http repo nttccvirginiaedu classes esem syllabushtml ref esem newly emerging area study taken root university virginia cornell universities throughout united states

Earth systems engineering and management


human artifact order maintain continued stability natural human systems need develop ability rationally design manage coupled human natural systems highly integrated ethical fashion earth systems engineering management esem capability ref name gorman esem developed individuals one particular note braden allenby allenby holds foundation upon esem built notion earth exists product human design ref name allenby allenby b r reconstructing earth technology


'''mastery learning''' initially called '''learning mastery''' also known mastery based learning instructional strategy educational philosophy first formally proposed benjamin bloom mastery learning maintains students must achieve level mastery eg knowledge test prerequisite knowledge moving forward learn subsequent information student achieve mastery test given additional support learning reviewing information tested cycle continues learner accomplishes mastery may move

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Mastery learning


treatments met strong controversy given basis refusal accept scientific evidence means transmission change government eventually led change policy new policies implemented widespread access hiv services another issue relates intellectual property illustrated case brazil debates arisen government policy authorizing domestic manufacture antiretroviral drugs used treatment hiv aids violation drug patents health workforce policy countries jurisdictions explicit policy strategy plan adequate numbers distribution

Applied science
Public administration
Health policy


systems research https webarchiveorg web http heapoloxfordjournalsorg ''health policy planning'' journal http historylshtmacuk centre history public health london school hygiene tropical medicine politics politics issue publicly funded health care


public purchasing programs several instruments sometimes combined policy mix address particular environmental problem since environmental issues many aspects several policy instruments may required adequately address one furthermore combination different policies may give firms greater flexibility policy compliance reduce uncertainty cost compliance ideally government policies carefully formulated individual measures undermine one another create rigid cost ineffective framework overlapping policies result unnecessary administrative costs increasing cost implementation help governments realize

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Environmental policy


defining implementing transformative agenda greening economy society whole achieve truly sustainable development europe particularly active field via set strategies actions programmes promote better research innovation building resource efficient climate resilient society thriving economy sync natural environment research innovation europe financially supported programme horizon also open participation worldwide unfccc research shows climate related projects policies involve women effective policies projects


investments without meaningful participation women less effective often increase existing gender inequalities women 's found climate solutions cross political ethnic boundaries particularly important regions entire ecosystems threat eg small island states arctic amazon areas people 's livelihoods depend natural resources eg fishing farming forestry history though clean air act response london 's great smog historical step forward air pollution control act first us federal legislation pertained air pollution


overall organizations becoming aware environmental risks performance requirements line iso standard developing environmental policies suitable organization statement outlines environmental performance organization well environmental objectives written top management organization document commitment continuous improvement complying legal requirements environmental policy objectives set governments environmental policy integration concept '''environmental policy integration''' epi refers process integrating environmental objectives non environmental policy areas


daniel boone needed skills travel uncharted wildernesses difficult terrains scoutcraft practiced native americans long arrival colonists native american scouts art scoutcraft ''woodcraft'' commonly known american old west passed early european pioneers nineteenth century moved scoutcraft began adopted parts military forces way wars battles fought changed american scout frederick russell burnham brought scoutcraft africa

Human physical performance and recreation


second matabele war introduced robert baden powell founder scouting movement ref name scoutingforboys ref baden powell first began forming idea programme training young men scoutcraft whilst scouting burnham matobo hills matabeleland part zimbabwe later baden powell wrote number books subject even started train make use adolescent boys famously siege mafeking second boer war scouting second boer war baden powell enjoyed celebrity status command mafeking set writing


former '''' 'subjective''''' often equated though necessarily individual individual 's intentions interpretations objective '''''objective''''' hand usually considered public external action outcome society primary question social theorists knowledge reproduces along chain subjective objective subjective say ''''''intersubjectivity''''' achieved historically qualitative methods attempted tease subjective interpretations quantitative survey methods also attempt capture individual subjectivities moreover qualitative methods take radical approach objective description ''in situ''

Social science
Sociology
Sociological Theory


present day postmodernism postmodernism adhering anti theory anti method believes due human subjectivity discovering objective truth impossible unachievable ref name essence postmodernist perspective one exists counter modernist thought especially mistrust grand theories ideologies objective truth touted modernist theory believed postmodernists impossible due ever changing nature society whereby ''truth'' also constantly subject change postmodernists purpose therefore achieve understanding observation rather data collection using micro


society human construction social phenomenology alfred sch tz influenced development social constructionism ethnomethodology originally developed edmund husserl '''postcolonialism''' postmodern approach consists reactions analysis colonialism ref group lower roman see said edward ''orientalism'' new york pantheon ref '''pure sociology''' theoretical paradigm developed donald black explains variation social life social geometry meaning locations social space recent extension idea fluctuations social space ie ' 'social time'' cause social conflict '''rational choice theory'''


seek understand means human infants begin acquire skills necessary perform functional member society '''social exchange theory''' proposes interactions occurs people partly based gained lost others example people think may date 'll look see person offer much perhaps include judging individual 's looks appearance social status ref name '''thomas theorem''' refers situations


frame analysis theory new social movements new culture ref group lower roman including theories james jasper jeff goodwin et al ref theories science technology institutional sociology science social construction technology actor network theory normalization process theory theories technology '''criminology''' scientific study crime criminals theories crime '''general theory crime''' refers proposition michael r gottfredson travis hirschi main factor criminal behaviour individual 's lack self control theorists distinguish differences exist criminals noncriminals considered classical control


bar magnitude variable since graphic design mapping adversely affect readability chart ref name nussbaumer knaflic ref mapping core competency data visualization ref name gershon data visualization roots field statistics therefore generally considered branch descriptive statistics however design skills statistical computing skills required visualize effectively argued authors art science ref name gershon ref research people read misread various types visualizations helping determine

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Data visualization


friedman main goal data visualization communicate information clearly effectively graphical means n't mean data visualization needs look boring functional extremely sophisticated look beautiful convey ideas effectively aesthetic form functionality need go hand hand providing insights rather sparse complex data set communicating key aspects intuitive way yet designers often fail achieve balance form function creating gorgeous data visualizations fail serve main purpose communicate information indeed


trends us federal spending revenue time scatterplot illustrating negative correlation two variables inflation unemployment measured points time author stephen described eight types quantitative messages users may attempt understand communicate set data associated graphs used help communicate message time series single variable captured period time unemployment rate year period line chart may used demonstrate trend ranking categorical subdivisions ranked ascending descending order


contrary general belief data visualization modern development since prehistory stellar data information location stars visualized walls caves found lascaux cave southern france since pleistocene era ref name whitehouseice ref physical artefacts mesopotamian clay tokens bc inca quipus bc marshall islands stick charts nd also considered visualizing quantitative information ref name dragicevic ref first documented data visualization tracked back bc turin papyrus map accurately illustrates distribution geological resources provides information


analysis tufte book visual display quantitative information paved way refining data visualization techniques statisticians progression technology came progression data visualization starting hand drawn visualizations evolving technical applications including interactive designs leading software visualization programs like sas sofa r minitab cornerstone allow data visualization field statistics data visualization applications focused unique individuals programming languages python javascript help make visualization quantitative data possibility


different university degrees eg mathematics economics psychology venn diagram venn diagram ''all'' possible logical relations finite collection different sets shows ''all'' possible logical relations finite collection different sets diagrams depict elements points plane sets regions inside closed curves venn diagram consists multiple overlapping closed curves usually circles representing set points inside curve labelled ''s'' represent elements set ''s'' points outside boundary represent elements set ''s'' lends intuitive visualizations


identifying data want visualised data driven like profit past ten years conceptual idea like specific organisation structured question answered one focus whether trying communicate information declarative visualisation trying figure something exploratory visualisation scott berinato combines questions give four types visual communication goals ref name four types visual communication follows idea illustration conceptual declarative ref name used teach explain simply concepts example organisation


brookhaven national laboratory simulated tennis match douglas ross innovated working mit transforming mathematic statements computer generated machine tool vectors taking opportunity create display scope image disney cartoon character electronics pioneer hewlett packard went public incorporating decade prior established strong ties stanford university founders alumni began decades long transformation southern san francisco bay area world 's leading computer technology hub known silicon valley field

Formal science
Computer science
Computer graphics


artc hd first complementary mos cmos gpu capable displaying high resolution color mode k resolution monochrome mode used number graphics cards terminals late ti introduced tms first fully programmable mos graphics processor ref name ti computer graphics terminals decade became increasingly intelligent semi standalone standalone workstations graphics application processing increasingly migrated intelligence workstation rather continuing rely central mainframe mini computers typical early move high resolution computer graphics


international exposition tsukuba links world 's powerful computer also field realistic rendering general rendering equation david immel james kajiya developed important step towards implementing global illumination necessary pursue photorealism computer graphics continuing popularity ''star wars'' science fiction franchises relevant cinematic cgi time lucasfilm industrial light magic became known go house many studios topnotch computer graphics film important advances


ms dos based personal computers apple iis macs amigas also allowed users program games skilled enough arcades advances made commercial real time graphics first dedicated real time graphics boards introduced arcades namco system taito air system professional side evans sutherland sgi developed raster graphics hardware directly influenced later single chip graphics processing unit gpu technology separate powerful chip used parallel processing cpu optimize graphics


area research computer graphics cgi nearly ubiquitous video pre rendered graphics nearly scientifically photorealistic real time graphics suitably high end system may simulate photorealism untrained eye texture mapping matured multistage process many layers generally uncommon implement texture mapping bump mapping isosurfaces normal mapping lighting maps including specular highlights reflection techniques shadow volumes one rendering engine using shaders maturing considerably shaders nearly necessity advanced work


created use raster graphics software images edited pixel level graphics old relatively limited computer video games graphing calculator games many mobile phone games mostly pixel art sprite graphics sprite two dimensional image animation integrated larger scene initially including graphical objects handled separately memory bitmap video display includes various manners graphical overlays originally sprites method integrating unrelated bitmaps appeared part


representation images array pixels typically used representation photographic images vector graphics consists encoding information shapes colors comprise image allow flexibility rendering instances working vector tools formats best practice instances working raster tools formats best practice times formats come together understanding advantages limitations technology relationship likely result efficient effective use


style primitives primitives basic units graphics system may combine create complex images models examples would sprites character maps video games geometric primitives cad polygons triangles rendering primitives may supported hardware efficient rendering building blocks provided graphics application rendering rendering generation image model means computer programs scene file contains objects strictly defined language data structure would contain geometry viewpoint texture


lighting shading information description virtual scene data contained scene file passed rendering program processed output digital image raster graphics image file rendering program usually built computer graphics software though others available plug ins entirely separate programs term rendering may analogy artist 's rendering scene although technical details rendering methods vary general challenges overcome producing image representation stored scene


generation processing rather purely aesthetic issues computer graphics often differentiated field visualization although two fields many similarities applications computer graphics may used following areas computational biology computational photography computational physics computer aided design computer simulation design digital art education graphic design infographics information visualization rational drug design scientific visualization special effects cinema video games virtual reality web design see also computer representation surfaces glossary computer graphics notes references reading l ammeraal k zhang ''computer


throughout housework ref name burkett elinor women 's rights movement ''encyclop dia britannica'' encyclop dia britannica inc feb wwwbritannicacom event womens movement nowiki https wwwbritannicacom event womens movement nowiki ref book immediately resonated many women became bestseller movement ignited movement also known women 's rights movement women 's liberation movement women fought equal rights personal freedom aspects life politics work family sexuality june national organization women created women 's rights activists betty friedan pauli murray shirley chisholm muriel fox advocate political social equality

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of gender


women although organization succeed right initially comfortable lobbying women 's reform washington congress passed equal rights amendment era despite victory feminism passage era led criticism anti feminists argued ratification era would result invalidation sodomy laws would lead legalization sex marriage era needed ratified states ten years fell short three second wave feminism


movement also combats sexism patriarchy system men hold power shown domination sexist culture women looked upon actions experiences men partake ref name fourth wave feminism began centers around sexual harassment rape culture body shaming one major distinctions wave use social media internet spread messages wave erupted young woman india died brutally gang raped another catalyst


expected learn reinforcement rewarding gender appropriate behavior punishing may seem deviant behavior socializes children genders ref name thorne ref children primary agent socialization parents young age children taught societal rules norms specific genders norms also known gender roles outline expected males females moment birth wards parental expectations child set gender example parents far likely engage sons rough physical play


however title vii civil rights act passed attempt ensure equal treatment growing number women entering workforce ref name conley dalton ''you may ask introduction thinking like sociologist'' th ed ww norton ref however women still subjected forms sexual harassment ranges form jokes threats ref name common form sexual harassment hostile environments aims make women feel unsafe uncomfortable ref name sexual harassment serves means men enforcing superiority women


status class action lawsuit ''dukes v wal mart stores inc'' charged wal mart sexist hiring promotion practices also studies done showed women higher paying positions would correlate increased chance depressive symptoms studies talked depression caused negative social experiences job social isolation negative social interactions weaken mental health women authority positions referenced men value status work place women ref name gender status leadership ref


name petts r j knoester c waldfogel j nd fathers paternity leave taking children 's perceptions father child relationships united states ''sex roles'' nowiki https doiorg nowiki ref despite low number male workers paternity leave wide range benefits household include assisting mothers childbirth recovery encouraging father involvement countries canada sweden offer paternity leave lower infant mortality better maternal health mental physical countries also demonstrate paternity leave economically possible however


inequality oppression privilege shaped interconnected axes identity mutually reinforced social interactions social political economic structures capitalism patriarchy institutionalized heteronormativity ref name sarah fenstermaker ref theory intersectionality argues race class gender markers identity social constructions theory argues assumption systems power relations normative hold individuals accountable character efforts ref name sarah fenstermaker west fenstermaker article ''doing difference'' offer models conceive gender race class distinct axes


biology culture embodying societally determined gender roles reinforce cultural ideals simultaneously shape temporarily permanently bodies perpetuates cultural ideal actually variation body type within male female sexes two sexes embodiment exaggerates perceived bodily differences gender categories social embodiment men women variable across cultures time examples women embodying gender norms across cultures include foot binding practices chinese culture neck rings african asian cultures corsets western


cultures another interesting phenomenon practice wearing high heels shifted masculine fashion feminine fashion time united states ideal body image dimensions changed women men body ideal female body shape becoming progressively slimmer body ideal men becoming progressively larger differences epitomized example children 's toys gi joe dolls depict physical ideals boys barbie dolls embody ideals girls beauty myth discussed naomi wolf 's book ''the beauty myth


due credit feminist reform cultures countries feminist sentiments push gender equality emerge result nation specific circumstances according exported beliefs western society advances female equality status often result national groups corporations individuals small groups one results globalization increased use female factory workers nonwestern countries mexico female worker ideal seen docile inexpensive labor stereotypical feminine traits


pakistani submarine sank frigate arabian sea resulting loss officers sailors ref name bharat ref ins ''vikrant'' launches alize aircraft damage inflicted pakistani navy stood gunboats minesweeper submarine destroyers patrol crafts belonging coast guard cargo supply communication vessels large scale damage inflicted naval base docks coastal town karachi three merchant navy ships nbsp ''anwar baksh'' ''pasni'' ''madhumathi'' nbsp ten smaller vessels captured ref name orbat ref around personnel lost servicemen

Applied science
Military sciences
Naval science
Naval tactics


navy aircraft carriers hms ''hermes'' hms ''invincible'' royal navy effectively zero horizon radar capability protect british naval taskforce several destroyers frigates sent radar picket duty form first line defense argentine air attacks result british lost type destroyer hms ''sheffield'' fire following argentine exocet missile strike following conflict royal navy modified westland sea king helicopters aew role navies including france spain italy since included aew aircraft helicopters carriers


optimal utilization laboratory testing clinical pathology one two major divisions pathology anatomical pathology often pathologists practice anatomical clinical pathology combination sometimes known general pathology similar specialties exist veterinary pathology clinical pathology divided subspecialties main ones clinical chemistry clinical hematology blood banking hematopathology clinical microbiology emerging subspecialties molecular diagnostics proteomics many areas clinical pathology overlap anatomic pathology serve medical directors clia certified laboratories clia law us department health

Natural science
Biology
Pathology
Clinical pathology


human services approved board certified phd sc md perform duties medical clinical laboratory director overlap includes immunoassays flow cytometry microbiology cytogenetics assay done tissue overlap anatomic clinical pathology expanding molecular diagnostics proteomics move towards making best use new technologies personalized medicine europe recently eflm chosen name specialists laboratory medicine define european clinical pathologists regardless training md phd pharmd france clinical pathology


creation current location beyond mere provenance recent work also employed new analysis techniques social network analysis understand artist 's reputation affected association artists exhibition see also sociology culture anthropology art art world art market private collection curator references reading bourdieu pierre '''the rules art genesis structure literary field''' stanford university press zolberg vera l '''constructing sociology arts''' cambridge university press deinhard hanna '''meaning expression toward sociology

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of art


art''' beacon press boston becker howard '''art worlds''' berkeley university california press raymonde moulin '''the french art market''' rutgers university press nakajima seio prosumption art '''american behavioral scientist''' vol april http abssagepubcom content short john paul https waybackarchive itorg http wwwsociologyorg content tier sociology artpdf art weltanschauung overview theory sociology art '''electronic journal sociology''' alain quemin globalization mixing visual arts empirical survey high culture globalization '''international sociology''' vol n july p nbsp harrison c white cynthia white '''canvases careers institutional


majority industrialized countries minimum wage many developing countries minimum wages regulated stipulated countries lack explicit laws sweden minimum wages negotiated labour market parties unions employer organizations collective agreements also cover non union workers workplaces collective agreements workplaces without collective agreements exist minimum wages non organized employers sign substitute agreements directly trade unions far swedish case illustrates countries without statutory regulation part labour market may regulated minimum wages


despite socialists continued gaining seats reichstag appease working class enacted variety paternalistic social reforms became first type social security health insurance act passed entitled workers health insurance worker paid two thirds employer one third premiums accident insurance provided old age pensions disability insurance followed laws restricted employment women children efforts however entirely successful working class largely remained unreconciled bismarck 's conservative government france first


unions trade unions also labour unions us organizations generally aim promote interests members law regulates wages benefits duties employees dispute management company trade union matters often described collective labour agreement cla trade unions trade unions organized groups workers engage collective bargaining employers countries require unions employers follow particular procedures pursuit goals example countries require unions poll membership approve strike


approve using members' dues political projects laws may govern circumstances procedures unions formed may guarantee right join union banning employer discrimination remain silent respect legal codes allow unions obligate members requirement comply majority decision strike vote restrict right work legislation parts united states different organization different countries trade union discuses employee behalf employer time trade union discussed


weak incorporating labour standards world trade organization 's wto operation proposed wto oversees primarily general agreement tariffs trade treaty aimed reducing customs tariffs barriers import export goods services capital member countries unlike ilo contravening wto rules recognized dispute settlement procedures opens country retaliation trade sanctions could include reinstatement targeted tariffs offender proponents called social clause inserted gatt agreements example amending article xx


sought take collective action strikes internationally however coordination challenged european union two controversial decisions ''laval ltd v swedish builders union'' group latvian workers sent construction site sweden local union took industrial action make laval ltd sign local collective bargaining agreement posted workers directive article lays minimum standards foreign workers workers receive least minimum rights would home country case place work lower minimum rights


india two decades later world bank criticized complexity lack modernization flexibility indian regulations constitution india articles c directly concern labour rights article states everyone equal law article specifically says state discriminate citizens article extends right equality opportunity employment appointment state article c gives everyone specific right form associations unions article prohibits trafficking forced labour article


right living wage conditions work ensuring decent standard life article inserted forty second amendment constitution india creates constitutional right codetermination requiring state legislate secure participation workers management undertakings ref name wboverview ref also read labour reforms government india ministry labour employment https labourgovin labour reforms indonesia indonesia essentially rebuilt labour law system early following regime change support ilo three statutes also constituted new legislative framework


personnel act united kingdom factory acts first one master servant act first laws regulating labour relations united kingdom employment law based upon law contract since significant expansion primarily due equality movement european union laws either acts parliament called statutes statutory regulations made secretary state act parliament case law developed various courts first significant expansion equal pay act


artifact would question 'interactions' architecture subject specific architecture suggests certain ways movements perceptions urban sociology sociology space term social space used pierre bourdieu others contrast architecture built environment abstract sense social constituted spatial structures georg simmel founded sociology space always watched architecture society simmel unfolded also urban sociology articles read chicago school question specific ways life big cities big cities

Social science
Sociology
Architectural sociology


adult education programs part educational leadership department cases entire department charged educating ''educational leaders'' specific specialization areas university leadership community college leadership community based leadership well school leadership masters education offered number universities around united states traditional online formats including university texas el paso university massachusetts pepperdine university saint mary 's university minnesota capella university northcentral university university scranton united states graduate programs tradition graduate education

Applied science
Education
Educational leadership


decades history food policy outside us federal government primary international agency focus food policy food agriculture organization fao united nations established four express purposes improve nutrition living standards member nations improve efficiency production distribution food agricultural products better conditions rural populations expand world economy way would ensure humanity 's freedom hunger fao hosted first world food conference rome adopted universal declaration

Applied science
Public administration
Food policy


myplate developed show proper nutrition practices reference place setting food groups fruits vegetables grains protein foods dairy allotted certain amount space plate showing public proportional amounts food eating meal ref name myplate national organic program nop regulates standards farm wants sell agricultural product organically produced ref name organic certification order agricultural product labeled organic synthetic fertilizers sewage sludge irradiation genetic engineering may used ref


eligibility criteria authorizing agriculture committees houses power define scope eligibility programs programs considered mandatory considered discretionary spending programs power bottom line hands appropriations committees house charged setting annual spending levels ref name wilde judicial branch us supreme court involved numerous decisions affected food policy around trade patent concerns food safety labeling systematic aggressive use court system challenge


women infants children wic effort ensure healthcare nutrition needs pregnant lactating low income women children age five approximately million women children https wwwfnsusdagov wic eligibility coverage rates eligible receive benefits wic time group million people participated program usage rate percent approximately million people took part national school lunch act created national school lunch program ensure low income children received fully partially subsidized meal


home delivered foods often referred meals wheels aim enp target low income elderly cities well rural settings means test use services drafters initial legislation wanted limit barriers use program older adults role obesity considering nutrition assistance nutrition assistance us takes place unique context given high prevalence diet related diseases diabetes cancer cardiovascular disease high adiposity obesity among adults children percent


known generally recognized safe gras designation food drug administration food substances exempt safety testing samples fruits vegetables available us consumers collected year tested residue pesticides results published annual pesticide data program pdp hosted usda several types policy instruments used try remedy risks health posed farming processing foods consumption government develop process rules explicitly state


politics politics impact countries political involvement typically influence solving issues dealing hunger poverty countries less political involvement may much food policy solution hunger complex include ample nutritious food intake per individual amount increase depends much food needed carry day day tasks optimize body systems challenges solution faces enough money afford cost food food


brian holmes ihde bruno latour paul levinson ernesto mayz vallenilla carl mitcham leo marx gilbert simondon lewis mumford jacques ellul bernard stiegler paul virilio g nter ropohl nicole c karafyllis richard sennett lvaro vieira pinto george grant yuk hui number important individual works published second half twentieth century paul durbin identified two books published turn century marking development philosophy technology academic subdiscipline canonical texts ''technology good life'' edited eric higgs andrew

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of technology


focused design epistemology ontology ethics engineering technology neutrality technological determinism idea features technology determine use role progressive society adapt benefit technological change alternative perspective would social determinism looks upon society fault development deployment technologies lelia green used recent gun massacres port arthur massacre dunblane massacre selectively show technological determinism social determinism according green technology thought neutral entity


standard grades gcses including english maths science preferably biology two highers levels mature students age twenty one option entering upon completion college access course experience jobs related health nursing assistance also worthy consideration course currently nursing three year course uk students choosing branch want study eg adult child mental health learning disability combinations two called dual field course consists balance coursework classes practical placements health care setting

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Nursing education


proposal accepted hospital medical college roper hospital training school nurses became school nursing medical college state south carolina medical college designated http academicdepartmentsmuscedu musc medical university south carolina school nursing became https wwwmuscedu nursing college nursing ''' ''' university maryland school nursing umson founded louisa parsons graduate nightingale fund school st thomas' hospital london''' '''umson one oldest largest nursing schools


become nurse western australia wa decide study university become registered nurse rn alternatively study technical education tafe become enrolled nurse en pathways require variety entry requirements whether passing year maths english human biology along receiving specific australian tertiary admission rank atar also known score university providing prior learning experiences legal clearances tafe either way individuals need aware requirements vary year year


nurse dialysis nurse education emergency nurse family health nurse fertility nurse gerontology aged care nurse infection control intensive care management medical nurse mental health nurse midwife neonatal intensive care nurse nurse educator nurse manager nurse practitioner occupational health nurse oncology nurse paediatric nurse peri operative nurse plastic surgery nurse practice nurse medical clinic rehabilitation nurse remote area nurse research rural nurse school nurse sexual health nurse surgical nurse wound management present aims among nurse educators arguments continue ideal balance practical preparation need educate future practitioner manage healthcare broader view


archaeology caa association founded association literary linguistic computing allc association computers humanities ach founded respectively ref name soon need standardized protocol tagging digital texts text encoding initiative tei developed ref name tei project launched published first full version ''tei guidelines'' may ref name hockney tei helped shape field electronic textual scholarship led extensible markup language xml tag scheme

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Digital humanities


animated archive distributed knowledge production performative access humanities gaming code software platform studies database documentaries repurposable content remix culture pervasive infrastructure ubiquitous scholarship keeping value open accessible many digital humanities projects journals open access creative commons licensing showing field 's commitment open standards open source open access designed enable anyone internet enabled device internet connection view website read article without pay well share content appropriate permissions digital humanities scholars use


endangered ecclesiastical secular documents related africans african descended peoples slave societies digital archive currently holds unique images dating th th centuries documents history million individuals extensive serial records history africans atlantic world also include valuable information indigenous european asian populations lived alongside involvement librarians archivists plays important part digital humanities projects recent expansion role covers


absence political commitment inadequate level diversity among practitioners inability address texts copyright institutional concentration well funded research universities ref name dhdebatesgccunyedu ref similarly berry fagerjord argued digital humanities focus need think critically implications computational imaginaries raise questions regard also foreground importance politics norms embedded digital technology algorithms software need explore negotiate close distant readings texts micro analysis macro analysis


usefully reconciled humanist work ref name auto ref alan liu argued digital humanists develop tools data metadata critically therefore eg debating 'ordered hierarchy content objects' principle disputing whether computation best used truth finding lisa samuels jerome mcgann put 'deformance' rarely extend critique full register society economics politics culture ref name auto ref concerns given rise emergent subfield critical digital humanities cdh blockquote key questions include make invisible become visible study


theology'' became widely used following protestant reformation used designate articles faith church officially formulated example dogmatic theology doctrinal statements dogmas formulated early church councils sought resolve theological problems take stance heretical teaching creeds dogmas came church councils considered authoritative binding christians church officially affirmed one purposes dogmatic theology formulate communicate doctrine


informational systems see also evolutionary programming evolutionary algorithm see also bioinformatics biosemiotics computational biology computational biomodeling medical cybernetics list biomedical cybernetics software references external links max planck institute biological cybernetics https archivetoday http wwwspringerlinkcom linkaspid journal biological cybernetics http wwwbiological cyberneticseu scientific portal biological cybernetics http biocybcsuclaedu ucla biocybernetics laboratory cybernetics branches biology

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Cybernetics
Biocybernetics


children young persons certain threats harms united kingdom united kingdom similar many countries around world operates wide variety systems safeguards protect children harm abuse protect children harm outside home life government use wide variety policy regulations guidance best practice includes limited regulation products services age restriction gambling tobacco alcohol driving movie certification game certification etc criminilising specific harm children providing harsher punishments within sentencing guidelines

Applied science
Social work 2
Child welfare


child means responsible person must fully understand product 's safe use intended purpose miss selling law contract suggesting product something n't selling products fully understand getting potentially hazardous child ultimate consumer health medical treatment may involve form physical contact case lack proper consent potential battery even assault person procurer must placed position assess potential risk child


intellectual development capacity reason based understandings making decisions social development competencies enter social relationships personal business emotional development likely capability take opportunities cause growth well perform reliably see children act '' child person object concern '' lady elizabeth butler sloss made oft quoted remark inquiry cleveland child abuse scandal medical discipline child welfare children young peoples act


second reading members parliament debate general principles bill parliament opposes bill may vote reject bill bill goes second reading bill sent select committee every clause bill examined members parliament support bill principle agree certain clauses propose amendments clauses stage following report back parliament bill go third reading minor amendments allowed

Social science
Political science
Singapore politics


film directed kamal ''goal'' film sinhala film ''goal '' official fifa world cup film ''goal dream begins'' sports drama film games ''goal '' video game game nintendo entertainment system ''dino dini 's goal'' game amiga atari st pc literature ''goal'' children 's novel children 's novel michael hardcastle ''the goal'' novel management oriented novel eliyahu goldratt uses goal organization charitable organisation founded irish humanitarian john o'shea goal website football news website owned footballco goal mac morn goll

Applied science
Military sciences
Strategy
Goal