mac morna character irish mythology global overseas adoptees' link south korean agency aids korean overseas adoptees goal agent programming language high level programming language programming rational agents game oriented assembly lisp video game programming language see also gaol jail prison remand center goal line disambiguation gol disambiguation gole disambiguation object disambiguation objective disambiguation purpose disambiguation targeting disambiguation


one important theories organizational psychology edwin locke gary p latham fathers goal setting theory provided comprehensive review core findings theory ref name locke latham ref summary locke latham found specific difficult goals lead higher performance either easy goals instructions best long feedback progress provided person committed goal person ability knowledge perform task according locke latham goals affect performance following ways ref

Applied science
Military sciences
Strategy
Goal


displaced initial problem resolved initial goal becomes impossible pursue famous example march dimes began organization fund fight polio disease effectively brought control polio vaccine transitioned organization combating birth defects ref name kirst ashman see also counterplanning decision making software direction fit goal agent programming language goal modeling goal orientation goal programming goal question metric gqm goal theory management objectives moving goalposts objectives key results okr polytely regulatory focus theory strategic management strategic planning swot


'''air''' layer gases retained earth 's gravity surrounds planet forms planetary atmosphere atmosphere earth protects life earth creating pressure allowing liquid water exist earth 's surface absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation warming surface heat retention greenhouse effect reducing temperature extremes day night diurnal temperature variation mole fraction ie number molecules dry air contains nitrogen oxygen argon carbon dioxide small amounts gases rounds n four significant digits

Applied science
Military sciences
Battlespace
Air


mesosphere nbsp km miles stratosphere nbsp km miles troposphere nbsp km miles ref name tropopauseheight ref exosphere exosphere outermost layer earth 's atmosphere ie upper limit atmosphere extends thermopause top thermosphere altitude nbsp km sea level nbsp km nbsp mi nbsp ft merges solar wind layer mainly composed extremely low densities hydrogen helium several heavier molecules including nitrogen oxygen carbon dioxide closer exobase


artificial satellites orbit earth thermosphere thermosphere second highest layer earth 's atmosphere extends mesopause separates mesosphere altitude thermopause altitude range height thermopause varies considerably due changes solar activity ref name thermosphere thermopause lies lower boundary exosphere also referred exobase lower part thermosphere earth 's surface contains ionosphere temperature thermosphere gradually increases height


phenomena aurora borealis aurora australis occasionally seen thermosphere international space station orbits layer layer many satellites orbiting earth present mesosphere mesosphere third highest layer earth 's atmosphere occupying region stratosphere thermosphere extends stratopause altitude mesopause sea level temperatures drop increasing altitude mesopause marks top middle layer atmosphere


turbulence relatively homogeneous layer ends ''turbopause'' found edge space accepted fai places mesopause altitude lies heterosphere includes exosphere thermosphere chemical composition varies altitude distance particles move without colliding one another large compared size motions cause mixing allows gases stratify molecular weight heavier ones oxygen nitrogen present near


radiation also becomes colder night higher elevations greenhouse effect directly related absorption emission effect gases atmosphere absorb emit infrared radiation interact sunlight visible spectrum common examples h sub sub refractive index distortive effect atmospheric refraction upon shape sun horizon refractive index air close greater systematic variations refractive index lead bending light rays long optical paths


quadratic formula expresses solution equation zero terms coefficients '''algebra''' ref bonesetting ref name crc press ref translit al jabr one broad areas mathematics general form algebra study mathematical symbols rules manipulating symbols unifying thread almost mathematics includes everything elementary equation solving study abstractions groups rings fields basic parts algebra called elementary algebra abstract parts

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra


advanced arithmetical system able calculations algorithmic fashion babylonians developed formulas calculate solutions problems typically solved today using linear equations quadratic equations indeterminate linear equations contrast egyptians era well greek chinese mathematics st millennium bc usually solved equations geometric methods described ''rhind mathematical papyrus'' euclid 's ''elements'' ''the nine chapters mathematical art'' geometric work greeks typified ''elements'' provided framework generalizing formulae beyond


''a'' ''a'' ''a'' multiplication ''a'' ''a'' ''a'' ''a'' sets operator combinations identity element example set positive natural numbers nbsp identity element addition inverse elements negative numbers give rise concept ''inverse elements'' addition inverse ''a'' written ''a'' multiplication inverse written ''a'' sup sup general two sided inverse element ''a'' sup sup satisfies property ''a'' ''a'' sup sup ''e'' ''a'' sup sup ''a'' ''e''


reading external links http wwwkhanacademyorg math algebra khan academy conceptual videos worked examples https wwwkhanacademyorg math algebra introduction algebra overview hist alg v origins algebra khan academy origins algebra free online micro lectures http algebrarulescom algebrarulescom open source resource learning fundamentals algebra https webarchiveorg web http wwwgreshamacuk eventasppageid eventid years algebra lecture robin wilson gresham college october available mp mp download well text file


methodology became widespread united states due efforts eben horsford charles w eliot working liebig 's laboratory horsford returned united states helped establish lawrence scientific school harvard university school modeled liebig 's methodology established first chemistry laboratory course two years later charles w eliot started volunteer laboratory eliot 's interests laboratory grew eventually took charge eliot later elected harvard 's president eliot also served powerful roles education allowed influence

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Chemistry education


common people reason use popular language era sources based random findings inscriptions vases written popular painters mistakes made atticists due imperfect knowledge attic greek even surviving greco latin glossaries roman period ref name augsburg http wwwfh augsburgde harsch chronologia lspost dositheus dos col html augsburg ref eg br br good day came br br want come us br br br br friend lucius br br indeed br br br 's

Applied science
Divinity
Scriptural study and languages
New Testament Greek


arabic persian sanskrit texts secular texts muslim poets eg works alaol novels introduced mid th century nobel laureate rabindranath tagore best known figure bengali literature world kazi nazrul islam notable activism anti british literature described rebel poet recognised national poet bangladesh ancient c ''charyapada'' manuscript preserved library rajshahi college first works bengali appeared th th centuries ce ref name sukumarseneng ref generally known ''charyapada''

Humanities
Languages and literature
Bengali Literature


history romani people references reading adams richard n ethnohistoric research methods latin american features ''anthropological linguistics'' bernal ignacio archeology written sources th international congress americanists vienna ''acta'' pp nbsp carrasco pedro la etnohistoria en meso rica th international congress americanists barcelona ''acta'' cline howard f introduction reflections ethnohistory ''handbook middle american indians guide ethnohistorical sources part '' vol pp nbsp austin university texas press fenton wn training historical ethnologists america ''american anthropologist'' gunnerson jh


write business letters annual reports differ significantly required write historical scientific research personal memoirs graduate studies doctoral programs composition studies available universities masters programs available universities programs commonly housed within english studies education programs however recently increasing number departments specifically dedicated field study eg composition studies writing rhetoric composition linguistics etc second language writing second language writing practice teaching english composition non native speakers writers english teaching

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Composition studies


composition course believes students need write find much know gain confidence ability express effectively ref name ref hairston also believes teachers design writing assignments encourage cross cultural awareness ref name addition beth daniell 's approach narratives literacy connecting college composition culture describes studies little narratives almost examine literacy particular local settings championed scholars seldom make theoretical statements claim valid literate cultures general literate cultures general would allow students


james ''rhetoric reality writing instruction american colleges '' carbondale southern illinois univ press connors robert j ''composition rhetoric backgrounds theory pedagogy'' pittsburgh u pittsburgh p corbett edward pj ''classical rhetoric modern student'' oxford severalmiss editions last crowley sharon ''composition university historical polemical essays'' pittsburgh u pittsburgh p cushman ellen ''the struggle tools oral literate strategies inner city community'' suny p faigley lester ''fragments rationality postmodernity subject composition'' pittsburgh u pittsburgh p finer


pitch identity across changes acoustical properties loudness temporal envelope timbre ref name zatorre importance cortical regions lateral pitch coding also supported studies human cortical lesions functional magnetic resonance imaging fmri brain ref name zatorre ref ref name johnsrude ref ref name penagos ref data suggest hierarchical system pitch processing abstract properties sound stimulus processed along processing pathways ''absolute pitch'' absolute pitch ap defined ability identify pitch musical tone produce musical tone given pitch

Social science
Psychology
Music psychology


affect word reading promoting specialization extra right sided note visual area process spatially relevant visual information ie pentagram bars etc neuroplastic effect might help prevent surface dyslexia music learning also involves formation novel audio visuomotor associations results ability detect incorrect association sounds corresponding musical gestures also allowing learn play musical instrument motor imagery previous neuroimaging studies consistently reported activity sma premotor areas well auditory cortices non musicians imagine hearing musical excerpts ref


affect music preference stability traits agreeableness neuroticism conscientiousness gender shown influence preference men choosing music primarily cognitive reasons women emotional reasons ref name chamorropremuzic ref relationships music preference also found mood ref name vuoskoski ref nostalgic association background music study background music focuses impact music non musical tasks including changes behavior presence different types settings styles music ref name kampfe ref laboratory settings music affect performance cognitive tasks memory attention comprehension positively negatively used extensively


university california los angeles ucla department near eastern languages cultures nelc established wolf leslau years doctoral program ucla largest program north america home institution professor emeritus hanns peter schmidt used read old iranian old indic indo iranistik led rahim shayegan also specializes ancient iran ucla hosted indo persian musical confluence gathering spanned several days focused history sitar

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Iranian studies


hazard cause much loss life injury female de miners lebanon set clear landmines evolution disaster thinking practice since seen progressively wider deeper understanding disasters happen accompanied integrated holistic approaches reduce impact society reducing risk occurs disaster risk reduction disaster risk management well managing impacts disasters occur disaster management widely embraced international agencies governments disaster planners civil society organisations drr embracing concept

Applied science
Public administration
Disaster research


building social systems vulnerability tool analyzing properties systems term resilience issues ecological sciences description system response change originally coming latin ' 'resilire'' bounce back first used present sense cs holling measure ability relationships within natural system persist ie organisms within system go extinct resilience ecological sense equilibrium differs stability ability system resist fluctuation


levels '''disaster research''' deals conducting field survey research group organizational community preparation response recovery natural technological disasters community wide crises related field anthropology study human populations environments events create utter chaos research long lasting effects multiple areas society including social organization political organization empowerment economic consequences environmental degradation human environmental adaptation interactions oral history traditional knowledge psychological consequences public health broader historical record affected region public health preparedness requires cultural awareness respect preparation different parties


faculty members university 's sociology criminal justice department engineering department direct disaster research center 's projects staff also includes postdoctoral fellows graduate students undergraduates research support personnel disaster research center maintains databases also serves repository materials collected agencies researchers contains items making complete collection social behavioral aspects disasters world studies field disaster research supported many diverse sources federal emergency management agency fema multidisciplinary


center earthquake engineering research national institute mental health national oceanic atmospheric administration sea grant program public entity risk institute social science research council us geological survey additionally numerous academic national policy boards realm disaster research national academy sciences national research council 's commission international disaster assistance board natural disasters national science foundation 's social hazard review panel us committee un decade natural disaster reduction major international conferences workshops growth interest disasters disaster management many conferences workshops


much extensive complex drr requires strong vertical horizontal linkages central local relations become important terms involving civil society organisations mean thinking broadly types organisation involve ie conventional ngos organisations trades unions religious institutions amateur radio operators us india universities research institutions communities organizations traditional emergency management civil defense thinking makes two misleading assumptions communities first sees forms social organisation voluntary community based organisations informal social groupings families irrelevant emergency action spontaneous actions affected


communities groups eg search rescue viewed irrelevant disruptive controlled authorities second assumption disasters produce passive 'victims' overwhelmed crisis dysfunctional behavior panic looting self seeking activities therefore need told behavior must controlled extreme cases imposition martial law plenty sociological research refute 'myths' alternative viewpoint informed considerable volume research emphasises importance communities local organisations disaster risk management


manat department atl ntico women affected floods reconstruct entire lives manat could longer recognise project team worked women find coped effects floods articulate networks reciprocity solidarity developed community findings highlighted resilience strategies community used respond extreme event researchers suggested similar strategies could used inform government actions reduce manage risk disasters also


defeat designated threat also provide multi hit capability minimized distortion surrounding areas transparent armour windows must also compatible night vision equipment new materials thinner lightweight offer better ballistic performance sought solid state components found widespread use various applications electro optical field including optical fibres guided lightwave transmission optical switches laser amplifiers lenses hosts solid state lasers optical window materials gas lasers infrared ir heat seeking devices missile guidance systems ir night vision ref name spie harris dc materials infrared windows

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Materials Science and Engineering
Ceramic engineering


ceramic engines require cooling system hence allow major weight reduction therefore greater fuel efficiency fuel efficiency engine also higher high temperature shown carnot 's theorem conventional metallic engine much energy released fuel must dissipated waste heat order prevent meltdown metallic parts despite desirable properties engines production manufacturing ceramic parts requisite precision durability difficult imperfection ceramic leads cracks


constitutes anywhere composition volume yielding array materials interesting thermomechanical properties ref name mod processing glass ceramics molten glass cooled gradually reheating annealing heat treatment glass partly crystallizes many cases called 'nucleation agents' added order regulate control crystallization process usually pressing sintering glass ceramics contain volume fraction porosity typically present sintered ceramics ref name kbu term mainly refers mix lithium aluminosilicates


shape example green brick squeezed squeezing stay way '''drying''' removing water binder formed material spray drying widely used prepare powder pressing operations dryers tunnel dryers periodic dryers controlled heat applied two stage process first heat removes water step needs careful control rapid heating causes cracks surface defects dried part smaller green part brittle necessitating careful handling since small impact cause crumbling breaking '''sintering'''


chemical eg sol gel polymer pyrolysis methods seeing increased use besides open structures formed tape extruded structures honeycomb catalyst supports highly porous structures including various foams example reticulated foam increasing use ref name densification consolidated powder bodies continues achieved predominantly pressureless sintering however use pressure sintering hot pressing increasing especially non oxides parts simple shapes higher quality mainly microstructural homogeneity needed larger size multiple parts per pressing advantage ref name sintering process


phase sintering involves faster diffusion processes may result abnormal grain growth strength ceramics material 's strength dependent microstructure engineering processes material subjected alter microstructure variety strengthening mechanisms alter strength material include mechanism grain boundary strengthening thus although yield strength maximized decreasing grain size ultimately small grain sizes make material brittle considered tandem fact yield strength parameter predicts plastic deformation material one make informed


modern scientific community describe spontaneous aggregation particles atoms molecules colloids micelles etc without influence external forces large groups particles known assemble thermodynamically stable structurally well defined arrays quite reminiscent one crystal systems found metallurgy mineralogy eg face centred cubic body centred cubic etc fundamental difference equilibrium structure spatial scale unit cell lattice parameter particular case thus self assembly emerging new strategy chemical synthesis nanotechnology molecular self assembly observed


various biological systems underlies formation wide variety complex biological structures molecular crystals liquid crystals colloids micelles emulsions phase separated polymers thin films self assembled monolayers represent examples types highly ordered structures obtained using techniques distinguishing feature methods self organization absence external forces addition principal mechanical characteristics structures biological ceramics polymer composites elastomers cellular materials evaluated emphasis bioinspired materials structures traditional approaches focus design methods biological materials using conventional synthetic


design sufficient determine explanatory variables affect response variable interest suspected significant explanatory variables left complicated design central composite design implemented estimate second degree polynomial model still approximation best however second degree model used optimize maximize minimize attain specific target response variable interest important rsm properties features ''orthogonality '' property allows individual effects k factors estimated independently without

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Response Surface Methodology


box 's original response surface modeling enabled chemical engineers improve process stuck saddle point years engineers able afford fit cubic three level design estimate quadratic model biased linear models estimated gradient zero box 's design reduced costs experimentation quadratic model could fit led long sought ascent direction see also box behnken design central composite design gradient enhanced kriging gek ioso method based response surface methodology optimal designs plackett burman design polynomial rational function modeling polynomial regression probabilistic design


astrolabe antikythera mechanism hellenistic world c bc roman egypt hero alexandria c ad made mechanical devices including automata programmable cart early mechanical devices used perform one another type calculations include planisphere mechanical computing devices invented abu rayhan al biruni c ad equatorium universal latitude independent astrolabe ab ish q ibr h al zarq l c ad astronomical analog computers medieval muslim astronomers engineers astronomical clock tower su song song dynasty castle clock

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
History of computer hardware


circumstances carry mechanism would jam fire destroyed least one machines believed schickard disheartened build another view back pascal 's calculator pascal invented machine still teenager blaise pascal started pioneering work calculating machines three years effort prototypes invented mechanical calculator built twenty machines called pascal 's calculator pascaline following ten years nine pascalines survived display


solve differential equations perform multiplication division using floating point representations punched cards unit record machines machines used world war ii cryptographic statistical processing well vast number administrative uses astronomical computing bureau columbia university performed astronomical calculations representing state art computing calculators curta calculator could also multiplication division th century earlier mechanical calculators cash registers accounting machines redesigned use electric motors gear position representation state


desire develop increasingly sophisticated computer move ahead faster anyone else could follow ada lovelace translated added notes ''sketch analytical engine'' luigi federico menabrea appears first published description programming ada lovelace widely regarded first computer programmer torres quevedo 's electromechanical arithmometer one several designs based babbage prototype automatically performed arithmetic operations used typewriter send commands print results following babbage although first unaware earlier work percy ludgate clerk


first binary electronic digital calculating device design semi electronic electro mechanical control electronic calculations used vacuum tubes capacitors fixed mechanically rotating drum memory however paper card writer reader unreliable regenerative drum contact system mechanical machine 's special purpose nature lack changeable stored program distinguish modern computers computers whose logic primarily built using vacuum tubes known first generation computers electronic programmable computer electronic digital programmable computing device used break german ciphers world war ii


machine execute set usually changing wires plugged patch panel plugboard reprogramming possible laborious process starting engineers working flowcharts designing new set often exacting process physically wiring patch panels stored program computers contrast designed store set instructions program memory typically memory stored data theory design von neumann architecture theoretical basis stored program computer proposed alan


edvac ace also used ''abbreviated computer instructions'' early form programming language manchester baby section rebuilt manchester baby first electronic stored program computer manchester baby world 's first electronic stored program computer built victoria university manchester frederic c williams tom kilburn geoff tootill ran first program nbsp june machine intended practical computer instead designed testbed williams tube first random access digital storage device invented freddie williams


magnetic memory diagram plane magnetic core memory x line coincident current setup x drive lines sense z inhibit arrows indicate direction current writing magnetic drum memories developed us navy ww ii work continuing engineering research associates era era part univac included drum memory announced february first mass produced computer ibm also announced kilobytes drum memory magnetic core memory


conditional branch theory atanasoff berry computer align right binary electronic programmable single purpose colossus mark align right february binary electronic program controlled patch cables switches harvard mark ibm ascc align right may decimal electro mechanical program controlled channel punched paper tape conditional branch debatable colossus mark align right june binary electronic program controlled patch cables switches theory zuse z


tables program rom yes manchester mark align right april binary electronic stored program williams cathode ray tube memory magnetic drum memory yes edsac align right may binary electronic stored program mercury delay line memory yes csirac align right november binary electronic stored program mercury delay line memory yes transistor computers bipolar junction transistor bipolar transistor invented onward transistors replaced vacuum tubes computer designs giving rise second generation


computers compared vacuum tubes transistors many advantages smaller require less power vacuum tubes give less heat silicon junction transistors much reliable vacuum tubes longer service life transistorized computers could contain tens thousands binary logic circuits relatively compact space transistors greatly reduced computers' size initial cost operating cost typically second generation computers composed large numbers printed circuit boards ibm standard modular system carrying one four logic gates flip flops university manchester


april hannover fair olivetti presented p world 's first complete pre assembled personal computer system central processing unit consisted two cards code named puce puce unlike personal computers built ttl components rather microprocessor one two floppy disk drives character plasma display column graphical thermal printer kbytes ram basic language weighed complete system significant step altair though never achieved success competition similar product


computer intentionally run reduced power find hot pluggable hard disks like hot pluggable vacuum tubes yesteryear continue tradition repair continuous operation semiconductor memories routinely errors operate although operating systems like unix employed memory tests start detect failing hardware today requirement reliable performance made even stringent server farms delivery platform google managed using fault tolerant software recover hardware failures even working concept replacing entire server farms fly service event


personal computers history software information age history society timeline computing list pioneers computer science vacuum tube computer notes ref references notes upon memoir translator german english translation mit noyce robert pages annotated references guide reading stibitz george online versions http plmsoxfordjournalsorg cgi reprint proceedings london mathematical society http wwwthocpnet biographies papers turing oncomputablenumbers pdf another link online wang reading http wwwbitsaversorg magazines computers automation computers automation magazine pictorial report computer field ''a pictorial introduction computers'' http wwwbitsaversorg magazines computers automation pdf ''a pictorial manual computers''


states across country criminal law encompassing domestic violence anti cruelty laws organizations growing number state local bar associations animal law committees ref name animallawprogram http wwwanimallawprogramorg articles newjersey lawyerpdf animal law program ref animal legal defense fund founded first organization dedicated promoting field animal law using law protect lives advance interests animals swiss canton zurich animal lawyer antoine goetschel employed canton government represent interests animals animal cruelty cases


also available specific field initially autonomous university barcelona uab catalan school universitat aut noma de barcelona law school first spanish university officially offer optional courses animal law animal welfare law comparative perspective derecho animal derecho del bienestar animal perspectiva comparada due student demand postgraduate degree animal law society established first edition master 's program animal law society launched currently accepting students eighth edition oct dec


computer science '''parallel algorithm''' opposed traditional serial algorithm algorithm multiple operations given time tradition computer science describe serial algorithms abstract machine models often one known random access machine similarly many computer science researchers used called parallel random access machine pram parallel abstract machine shared memory many parallel algorithms executed concurrently though general concurrent algorithms distinct concept thus concepts often conflated aspect algorithm parallel

Formal science
Computer science
Algorithms
Parallel algorithms


require results preceding step effectively carry next step called '' 's''' examples include iterative numerical methods newton 's method iterative solutions three body problem available algorithms compute pi sequential algorithms converted parallel algorithms using automatic parallelization ref name mxian ref motivation parallel algorithms individual devices become common since early substantial improvements multiprocessing systems rise multi core processors end single core processor performance rapidly increased via frequency


amputation spinal cord injury stroke traumatic brain injury debilitating injuries conditions treating patients physiatrists lead interdisciplinary team physical occupational recreational speech therapists nurses psychologists social workers outpatient settings physiatrists treat patients muscle joint injuries pain syndromes non healing wounds disabling conditions physiatrists trained perform injections joints muscle pain treatment option physiatrists also trained nerve conduction studies electromyography ref name lee ref history first half th century two unofficial specialties physical medicine

Applied science
Medicine and health
Rehabilitation medicine


bias maths may bring applied efforts understanding social phenomanon developments critical expository analysis rashevsky 's social behavior models written sociologist james coleman rashevsky 's models well model constructed simon raise question one connect theoretical models data sociology often take form surveys results expressed form proportions people believing something suggests deriving equations assumptions chances individual changing state

Social science
Sociology
Mathematical sociology


small interval time procedure well known mathematics stochastic processes coleman embodied idea book ''introduction mathematical sociology'' showed stochastic processes social networks could analyzed way enable testing constructed model comparison relevant data idea applied processes change social relations active research theme study social networks illustrated empirical study appearing journal science work coleman employed mathematical ideas drawn


way book showed rational choice theory could provide effective basis making transition micro macro levels sociological explanation important feature book use mathematical ideas generalizing rational choice model include interpersonal sentiment relations modifiers outcomes generalized theory captures original self oriented theory special case point emphasized later analysis theory rationality presupposition theory led debates among sociological theorists nevertheless many sociologists drew upon coleman formulation


'''feminist philosophy''' approach philosophy feminist perspective also employment philosophical methods feminist topics questions feminist philosophy involves reinterpreting philosophical texts methods order supplement feminist movement attempts criticise evaluate ideas traditional philosophy within feminist framework''' ref name gatens gatens ''feminism philosophy perspectives difference equality'' indiana university press ref ''' main features feminist philosophy united central concern gender also typically involves form commitment justice women whatever form

Humanities
Philosophy
Philosophical traditions and schools
Feminist philosophy


groups scientifically coined term ''group dynamics'' describe way groups individuals act react changing circumstances william schutz william schutz looked interpersonal relations stage developmental inclusion included control top dog affection belong schutz sees groups resolving issue turn order able progress next stage conversely struggling group devolve earlier stage unable resolve outstanding issues present stage schutz referred group dynamics interpersonal

Social science
Psychology
Group psychology


group common goal highly efficient cooperative basis tuckman later added fifth stage dissolution group called ''adjourning'' ''adjourning'' may also referred ''mourning'' ie mourning adjournment group model refers overall pattern group course individuals within group work different ways distrust persists group may never even get norming stage scott peck scott peck developed stages larger scale groups ie communities similar tuckman 's stages group development


group size large talented group members least moderate social skill strong norms specify appropriate behaviour ''supportive context'' occurs groups nested larger groups eg companies companies supportive contexts involves reward systems reward performance cooperation eg group based rewards linked group performance b educational system develops member skills c information materials system provides needed information raw materials eg computers ''expert coaching'' occurs rare occasions group members feel need help


individuals ref name hoggw additionally social identity approach group formation involves identifying individuals explicitly ''not'' identifying others say level psychological ' 'distinctiveness'' necessary group formation interaction individuals begin develop group norms roles attitudes define group internalized influence behaviour ''emergent groups'' arise relatively spontaneous process group formation example response natural disaster ''emergent response group'' may form groups characterized preexisting structure eg group membership allocated roles prior experience working together ref


interact every day well collection people watching movie theater constitute group past research identified four basic types groups include limited primary groups social groups collective groups categories ref name important define four types groups intuitive lay people example experiment participants asked sort number groups categories based criteria examples groups sorted sports team family people


time certain members may acquire status authority within group create known ''pecking order'' within group ref name forsyth status determined variety factors characteristics including specific status characteristics eg task specific behavioural personal characteristics experience diffuse status characteristics eg age race ethnicity ref name forsyth important group members perceive individual 's status warranted deserved otherwise may authority within group ref name forsyth status differentials may affect relative amount pay among group members


relationship two groups includes perceptions attitudes opinions behaviours towards one 's group well towards another group cases intergroup dynamics prosocial positive beneficial example multiple research teams work together accomplish task goal cases intergroup dynamics create conflict example fischer ferlie found initially positive dynamics clinical institution external authorities dramatically changed 'hot' intractable conflict authorities interfered embedded clinical model similarly underlying columbine high school shooting littleton colorado


enhance group distinctiveness minimize perception differences ingroup members remember detailed positive information ingroup negative information outgroup ref name gaertner ref even without intergroup interaction minimal group paradigm individuals begin show favouritism towards group negative reactions towards outgroup ref name gaertner conflict result prejudice stereotypes discrimination intergroup conflict highly competitive especially social groups long history conflict example rwandan genocide rooted group conflict ethnic hutu tutsi ref name hoggw contrast


several strategies developed reducing tension bias prejudice conflict social groups include ''contact hypothesis'' ''jigsaw classroom'' several categorization based strategies contact hypothesis intergroup contact theory gordon allport suggested promoting contact groups prejudice reduced suggested four optimal conditions contact equal status groups situation common goals intergroup cooperation support authorities law customs ref name pettigrew ref since studies done prejudice reduction variations contact hypothesis meta analytic review suggests


basic interests avoiding suffering afforded consideration similar interests human beings broadly speaking particularly popular discourse term animal rights often used synonymously animal protection animal liberation narrowly animal rights refers idea many animals fundamental rights treated respect individuals rights life liberty freedom torture may overridden considerations aggregate welfare advocates animal rights oppose assignment moral value fundamental protections basis species membership alone idea known

Humanities
Philosophy
Ethics
Animal rights


general nature worship religions banning killing animal religions animals considered unclean hindu buddhist societies abandoned animal sacrifice embraced vegetarianism rd century bce ref name garner pp garner pp ref one important sanctions jain hindu buddhist faiths concept ahimsa refraining destruction life according buddhist belief humans deserve preferential treatment living beings ref name grant ref dharmic interpretation doctrine prohibits killing living ref name grant islam animal rights


right life control environment company play physical health stephen r l clark mary midgley bernard rollin also discuss animal rights terms animals permitted lead life appropriate kind egalitarianism favors equal distribution happiness among individuals makes interests worse important better another approach virtue ethics holds considering act consider character actor kind moral agents rosalind hursthouse suggested


professor law philosophy rutgers law school newark leading abolitionist writer arguing animals need one right right owned everything else would follow paradigm shift writes although people would condemn mistreatment animals many countries laws seem reflect concerns practice legal system allows use animals however abhorrent law requires suffering unnecessary deciding counts unnecessary animal 's interests weighed interests human


philosophy university florida proposed contractarian approach based original position veil ignorance state nature thought experiment tests intuitions justice fairness john rawls 's ''a theory justice'' original position individuals choose principles justice kind society form primary social goods distributed unaware individual characteristics race sex class intelligence whether able bodied disabled rich poor therefore unaware role assume society form ref name rowlands p rowlands


would support inequality similar facts emerge humans animals differences rights erode facts drive equality ethical arguments run contrary instinct argues posner calls approach soft utilitarianism contrast singer 's hard utilitarianism argues roger scruton rights imply obligations roger scruton roger scruton british philosopher argued rights imply obligations every legal privilege wrote imposes burden one possess privilege right may duty scruton therefore regarded emergence animal rights


clark stephen r l ''the moral status animals'' oxford university press cohen carl http spotcoloradoedu heathwoo phil spr cohenpdf case use animals biomedical research ''new england journal medicine'' vol issue october pp nbsp cohen carl regan tom ''the animal rights debate'' rowman littlefield craig edward ed deontological ethics consequentalism ''routledge encyclopedia philosophy'' degrazia david ''animal rights short introduction'' oxford university press donovan josephine animal rights feminist theory greta gaard ''ecofeminism women animals nature'' temple university press francione gary ''rain without thunder


'''latin american literature''' consists oral written literature latin america several languages particularly spanish portuguese indigenous languages americas rose particular prominence globally second half th century largely due international success style known magical realism region 's literature often associated solely style th century literary movement known latin american boom famous exponent gabriel garc rquez latin american literature rich complex tradition literary production

Humanities
Languages and literature
Latin American Literature


followed innovated popular literary movements romanticism realism naturalism many also exploring ideas nationalism independence cultural independence spread across latin america time writers depicted latin american themes locations works literature questioned colonial order may emerged initially seventeenth century latin america rose popularity form resistance spain united states imperialist nations nineteenth century latin american writers sought latin american identity would later closely tied


novels indigenismo th century ''aves sin nido'' argentinian romantic writer juana manuela gorriti penned variety novels short stories ''la hija del mashorquero'' directed literary circle peru naturalist trail blazer peruvian mercedes cabello de carbonera penned ''blanca sol'' critique women 's lack practical work options society women writers nineteenth century often wrote inequalities latin america vestiges colonialism marginalization oppression indigenous peoples slaves women many works


miguel ngel asturias awarded nobel prize literature making magical realist metaphor heavy folkloristic sometimes politically charged novels widely known europe north america perhaps boom 's culmination arrived augusto roa bastos 's monumental ''yo el supremo'' important novelists period include chilean jos donoso guatemalan augusto monterroso cuban guillermo cabrera infante though literary boom occurred latin america commercial success works period tended move away positives modernization underway boom works often tended


diary post modernist giannina braschi narrator latin american boom shot macy 's make artist accuses boom capitalizing solitude writers however traded boom 's success see instance laura esquivel 's pastiche magical realism ''como agua para chocolate'' spanish language author impact united states roberto bola overall contemporary literature region vibrant varied ranging best selling paulo coelho isabel allende avant garde critically acclaimed work writers diamela eltit


award include jos emilio pacheco mexico juan gelman argentina nicanor parra chile sergio pitol mexico gonzalo rojas chile lvaro mutis colombia jorge edwards chile guillermo cabrera infante cuba mario vargas llosa per dulce mar loynaz cuba adolfo bioy casares argentina augusto roa bastos paraguay carlos fuentes mexico ernesto sabato argentina octavio paz mexico juan carlos onetti uruguay jorge luis borges argentina alejo carpentier cuba latin american authors prestigious literary award world nobel prize literature gabriela mistral chile miguel ngel asturias guatemala pablo neruda chile gabriel


peru ''' ''' ''todo verdor perecer '' eduardo mallea argentina ''' ''' ''vestido de noiva'' nelson rodrigues brazil ''' ''' ''ficciones'' jorge luis borges argentina ''' ''' ''a rosa povo'' carlos drummond de andrade brazil ''' ''' ''el se presidente'' miguel ngel asturias guatemala ''' ''' ''al filo del agua'' agust n ez mexico ''' ''' ''el nel'' ernesto sabato argentina ''' ''' ''ad n buenosayres'' leopoldo marechal argentina ''' ''' ''hombres de z'' miguel ngel asturias guatemala ''' ''' ''o tempo e vento'' rico ver ssimo brazil ''' ''' ''el aleph'' jorge luis borges argentina ''' ''' ''el reino de este mundo'' alejo carpentier cuba ''' ''' ''canto general'' pablo neruda chile ''' ''' ''el laberinto de la soledad'' octavio paz mexico


literature written spanish portuguese nationality argentine literature bolivian literature brazilian literature chilean literature colombian literature costa rican literature cuban literature dominican literature ecuadorian literature guatemalan literature honduran literature mexican literature nicaraguan literature panamanian literature paraguayan literature peruvian literature puerto rican literature salvadoran literature uruguayan literature venezuelan literature see also list latin american writers latin american poetry latino poetry criollismo chicano literature chicano poetry latin american boom mcondo latin american culture dictator novel nuyorican hispanic latino literature spanish language literature references reading ''the fsg book twentieth century latin american poetry anthology''


cosmos series '' ed harold bloom ''latin american writers volumes '' ed carlos sol ''philosophy literature latin america critical assessment current situation'' ed jorge gracia ''latin american literature th century guide'' ed leonard klein ''modern latin american fiction survey'' ed john king ''in retrospect essays latin american literature'' ed elizabeth rogers ''latin america literature'' ed c sar fern ndez moreno ''latin american fiction today symposium'' ed rose


origins humanist ideas west largely traced ancient greek philosophy prioritizes human morality similar concepts ideas also expressed elsewhere ancient world ancient india norway southern africa china european renaissance interest classical literature greece renewed humanistic ideas began evolve advances science technology philosophy enlightenment fostered secular world views creating many rational ethical associations movements th century merged form secular humanist associations th century etymology

Humanities
History
Philosophical history
Humanism


education curriculum methods humanists insisted importance classical literature providing intellectual discipline moral standards civilized taste elite educational approach reached contemporary era enlightenment enlightenment humanistic ideas resurfaced time religion classical literature science reason intellectualism advanced mind replaced god means understand world divinity longer dictating human morals humanistic values tolerance opposition slavery started take shape life changing technological discoveries allowed ordinary people face religion new


philosophers ludwig feuerbach friedrich nietzsche karl marx attacked religion several grounds theologians david strauss julius wellhausen questioned bible parallel utilitarianism developed britain works jeremy bentham john stuart mill utilitarianism moral philosophy centers attention human happiness aiming eliminate human animal pain giving attention supernatural phenomena europe us along philosophical critique theistic beliefs large parts society abandoned distanced religion ethical societies formed leading contemporary humanist movement advances


previous centuries made easy humanism non religious attitudes flourish western world even liberal countries however discrimination non believers still exists ongoing social debate humanists constant supporters civil liberties many parts world practicing faith region result persecution prosecution death rise rationalism scientific method followed late th century britain birth many rationalist ethical associations national secular society ethical union rationalist press association


humanism naturalistic philosophy rejects gods angels immortal souls supernatural phenomena universe natural studied science opposition various forms theism might come many philosophical historical domains convincing argument terms public opinion naturalism historical arguments fail convince public historical research often open interpretation similar reasons large parts population unconvinced arguments based aesthetics classical literature touches human souls holy scriptures ethics religion 's history slavery gay rights racism driven


creativity also recognizes importance moral questions way one interact people according one 's worldview examined using process dialogue generally humanist counseling aspires help people live good fulfilling meaningful life continual interpretation reflection humanist counseling originated post world war ii netherlands humanistic counseling different term humanist counseling based works psychologists carl rogers abraham maslow introduced positive humanistic psychology response viewed pessimistic view psychoanalysis early


philosophers kwasi wiredu jean godefroy bidima wiredu emphased need human interaction human become projected thought need democracy bidima added interaction enduringly since history humans constantly evolving socialist philosopher l opold dar senghor africans naturally leaning towards humanism socialism scientific epistemological basis intuition middle east wide held view middle east due dominance islam humanistic values found hostile environment unable


weddings namings coming age funerals according stephen law ceremonies rituals exist culture help humans express emotions rather magical effect participants american humanist association formed previous humanist associations journal ''the humanist'' continuation previous publication ''the humanist bulletin'' aha established humanist year award honor individuals promote science decades later became well recognized organization initiating progressive campaigns abortion rights opposing discriminatory policies resulted becoming


may seek reduce compensate factors reduce severity crashes comprehensive outline interventions areas seen management systems road safety study conducted finland revealed fatality risk increased collision type either pedestrian meeting vehicles addition management systems apply predominantly networks built areas another class interventions relates design roadway networks new districts interventions explore configurations network inherently reduce probability collisions interventions

Applied science
Transportation
Highway safety


world 's population '''have adequate laws address five risk factors''' speed drink driving helmets seat belts child restraints estimated motor vehicle collisions caused death around million people th century around number world war ii casualties comparatively poor improvements pedestrian safety become concern oecd level ''joint transport research centre oecd international transport forum'' jtrc convened international expert group published report entitled '' pedestrian safety urban space health '' according bitre australia agency changes growth


group note name ref align right ''na'' align right ref group note name align right align center ''na'' ''na'' align right align right align right align right align center estimated metropolitan align right align right ''na'' align right align right align center align right align right align right align right align center ref group note name align right align right align right align right align center ref group note name


drivers passengers see note br see note br colspan b real data actual numbers instead reported numbers police c mopeds included registered vehicles br vkm vehicle km br united states speed limit vary state state time effect


xtype date xaxisformat colors fe c fe aaf c fe c fe title united states title united states iihs title united states nhtsa title eu including uk title eu eu states including uk title eu care commission provisional data including uk title european union post brexit members eurostat title european union estimated yaxismin ygrid xgrid colspan eu source eu eu etsc eu provisional data eu source eurostat


according bitre traveled distance limited impact death trend oecd countries ref name bitregovau advocacy groups automobile association established united kingdom help motorists avoid police speed traps ref name hist ref became involved safety issues also erected thousands roadside warning signs ref name hist pedestrians association known living streets united kingdom formed press better road safety groups active countries international road federation issue area working group dedicated road


according excavator communal efforts large community hunter gatherers gallery widths px heights px file asikli hoyuk sarah c murray jpg reconstitution housing kl h k upper mesopotamia modern turkey file jar met vs jpg jar calcite alabaster syria late th millennium bc file mace head met vs jpg mace head late th millennium bc file alabaster pot mid euphrates region bce louvre museumjpg alabaster pot mid euphrates region bc louvre museum file alabaster pot mid euphrates region bce louvre museumjpg alabaster pot mid euphrates region bc louvre museum file seated female met vs jpg female statuette th millennium bc syria gallery chalcolithic period development

Humanities
History
Ancient history
History of Mesopotamia


name aker uruk period followed uruk period named sumerian city uruk period saw emergence urban life mesopotamia followed sumerian civilization late uruk period th nd centuries saw gradual emergence cuneiform script corresponds early bronze age may also called protoliterate period third millennium bc jemdet nasr period administrative tablet proto cuneiform jemdet nasr period bc probably city uruk jemdet nasr period named type site jemdet nasr generally dated


bc first distinguished basis distinctive painted monochrome polychrome pottery geometric figurative designs cuneiform writing system developed preceding uruk period refined language tablets written cannot identified certainty period thought sumerian texts deal administrative matters like rationing foodstuffs lists objects animals settlements period highly organized around central building controlled aspects society economy focused local


ishtar assyria ilushuma particular appears powerful king dominant ruler region made many raids southern mesopotamia bc bc attacking independent sumero akkadian city states region isin founding colonies asia minor become pattern throughout history ancient mesopotamia future rivalry assyria babylonia however babylonia exist time founded bc amorite prince named sumuabum reign erishum isin larsa old babylonian


nubian kushite dynasty well babylonia chaldea elam media persia urartu phoenicia aramea syria phrygia neo hittites hurrians northern arabia gutium israel judah moab edom corduene cilicia mannea parts ancient greece cyprus defeated exacted tribute scythia cimmeria lydia nubia ethiopia others neo babylonian empire neo babylonian empire second babylonian empire period mesopotamian history began bc ended bc preceding three centuries babylonia ruled fellow akkadian speakers northern neighbours assyria assyrians managed maintain babylonian loyalty


neo assyrian period whether granting increased privileges militarily finally changed bc death last strong assyrian ruler ashurbanipal babylonia rebelled nabopolassar chaldean chieftain following year alliance king cyaxares medes help scythians cimmerians city nineveh sacked bc assyria fell bc seat empire transferred babylonia first time since hammurabi classical antiquity late antiquity death ashurbanipal bc


convention rights child louise holt 's work subjectivity also connects wider ongoing interest emotional geography childhood youth bartos blazek although overlapping interests nonrepresentational children 's geographies also roots feminist theory notably approaches informed seminal texts important early development children 's geographies particularly sarah holloway 's work parenting local childcare cultures recently reinvigoration interest parenting driven theorisations emotions characterise intimacy parent carer child

Social science
Geography
Children'S Geographies


coleman also note centrality schools everyday life found almost every urban suburban neighbourhood children experience considerable time within environment day day lives role environment child 's life pivotal development especially respects inclusionary exclusionary processes society experienced firsthand schools maccrae maguire milbourne ref name maccrae maguire milbourne ref manifestation social exclusion bullying inter personal socio spatial aspect whose implications extensively researched within school boundaries


taxation provides means redistribute economic resources toward low income special needs tax revenue used transfer payments welfare benefits principles sound tax policy principles sound tax policy simplicity transparency neutrality stability principles serve touchstones policymakers taxpayers whole world '''simplicity''' tax codes easy taxpayers comply governments administer enforce main reason complexity tax code create real costs taxpayers

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy
Tax policy


tax holidays amnesties retroactive changes avoided governments '''equity fairness''' similar situated taxpayers taxed similarly includes vertical horizontal equity '''certainty''' tax rules clearly specified knowing tax paid determined certainty gives people confidence tax calculated correctly '''minimum tax gap''' well structured tax laws essential minimize non compliance appropriate enforcement efforts crucial prevent non compliance insufficient efforts result inequities revenue losses '''economic growth efficiency''' tax


based principle higher income individual higher personal income tax liability ie income goes pay vertical equity often achievable horizontal equity horizontal equity harder implement easy define undermined loopholes deductionssince method take consideration ability pay taxpayers nowadays one accepted taxation methods various countries around world ability pay principle says amount


trade across measures efficiency equality weighted benefits approach latter two relatively easy understand trade one judgement based contemplation efficiency equality weighted benefits approach focused total amount utility think compensation principle need care willingness pay tax people motivated pay consumer surplus getting higher principle willingness pay cost even cost higher


people projects taken compensation principle overcome difficulty taxation due intervening efficiency utilitarian curve paragraph mentioned social indifference curve becomes inverse proportional curve take position utilitarianism shape curve different curve becomes straight line means two different groups' utility make trade completely differentiation individuals group becomes meaningless society need care take balance welfare


grounded empirical study law set social practices aspect field social experience seen treating law justice fundamental institutions basic structure society mediating political economic interests culture normative order society establishing maintaining interdependence constituting sources consensus coercion social control irrespective whether sociology law defined sub discipline sociology approach within legal studies field research right remains intellectually dependent mainly

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of law


justice system ethnomethodology previously mentioned review tends overlooked many reviewers field since cannot easily assimilated theoretical interests one note however always offered radical thorough going way theorizing action interactionism although two approaches lot common compared traditions view society structural whole like marxism structural functionalism time center j maxwell atkinson collaborated paul drew sociologist university york became


strive gain retain autonomy function independently social institutions systems religion polity economy yet remains historically functionally linked institutions thus one objectives sociology law remains devise empirical methodologies capable describing explaining modern law 's interdependence social institutions social evolution converted law mighty perhaps important reference civilised life substituting traditional bonds conditioned identities blood territory new type subordination specifically legal


also social technique system behaviour regulation endowed special artificial linguistic form kept safe distance vague fluid colloquial language permanent state transformation corporations professional guilds lawmakers judges solicitors legal scholars idealised institutions conceived less tradition force systematisation process education oriented towards explanation evaluation juridical entities rules regulations statutes etc influential approaches within sociology law challenged definitions law terms official state law see example


single set state institutions thus according legal centralism customary laws religious laws properly called 'law' except far state chosen adopt treat normative order part law distinction often made weak strong versions legal pluralism weak version necessarily question main assumptions legal centralism recognises within domain western state law legal systems customary islamic law may also autonomous co existence thus


national public official legal system often secondary rather primary locus regulation criticism directed legal pluralism often uses basic assumptions legal positivism question validity theories legal pluralism aim criticising positivistic assumptions roger cotterrell explains pluralist conception understood part legal sociologist 's effort broaden perspectives law legal sociologist 's specification law might different presupposed lawyer practice relate indeed way incorporate latter must


luhmann 's systems theory transcends classical understanding object subject regarding communication 'action' basic element social system breaks traditional systems theory talcott parsons descriptions based cybernetic feedback loops structural understandings self organisation allows work towards devising solution problem humanised 'subject' perhaps challenging idea incorporated theory autopoiesis social systems defined terms human agency norms communications communication turn unity utterance


attitudes perceptions law among functionaries legal system judiciary latter refer attitude citizenry legal system law order generally feminism law always regarded one important sites engagement feminism pointed ruth fletcher feminist engagement law taken many forms years also indicates successful merging theory practice litigation campaigns reform legal education feminists engaged explicitly law legal profession


di studi su diritto e societ italy http wwwdirittoesocietait japanese association sociology law http wwwsocniiacjp hosha english eindexhtm brazilian sociology law association abrasd http wwwabrasdcombr journals ''the nordic journal law justice'' http wwwretfaerdorg ''zeitschrift f r rechtssoziologie'' http wwwluciusverlagcom zeitschriften ztschr rechtssoziologie zeitschrift fuer rechtssoziologiehtm ''law social inquiry'' http wwwwileycom bw journalaspref ''law society review'' ''the journal law society'' http wwwwileycom bw journalaspref x ''journal empirical legal studies'' ''canadian journal law society revue canadienne droit et soci '' since http wwwutpjournalscom cjls cjlshtml ''canadian journal women law'' since http wwwutpjournalscom cjwl cjwlhtml ''droit et soci '' paris france since http wwwredsmsh parisfr publications revue revue en lignehtm ''international journal sociology law'' since ''o ati socio legal


law scandinavia ''journal law society'' kalleberg ragnvald important task sociology strengthen defend rationality public discourse sociology vilhelm aubert ''acta sociologica'' kronman anthony ''max weber'' stanford university press kurczewski jacek legancy leon petra ycki law society studies editorial debate societas communitas lista c development sociology law case argentina rcsl newsletter autumn luhmann niklas ''law social system'' translated klaus ziegert oxford university press luhmann


niklas ''social systems'' stanford ca stanford university press luhmann niklas ''a sociological theory law'' london routedge kegan paul macaulay non contractual relations business american sociological review mcbarnet doreen ''conviction law state construction justice'' macmillan malinowski bronis aw ''crime custom savage society'' merry sally engle legal pluralism ''law society review'' maturana h r varela f j ''autopoiesis cognition'' boston reidel mathiesen thomas ''r tten samh llet en introduktion till r ttssociologin'' lund


construction ref name ref defining terrorism involves interpreting events determining causes definition process resulting presentation public manipulate public perceptions promote certain interests ref name field analyzes people motivated engage collective acts violence political change field states type violence social behavior relies communication shared competing norms values levels social self restraints ref name ref terrorists seen emerged societies radical norms values proved influential ref name sociological inquiry issues

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of terrorism


homeland security relatively new concepts social scientists academicians yet agree matter properly conceptualize ideas three sociological perspectives structural functionalism functionalism theory various social institutions processes society exists serve important necessary function keep society running sociological perspective draws work sociologists like mile durkheim gets name idea best way study society identify roles different aspects society play social deviance loosely understood taken


acceptable behavior people society rule broken society determines act deviant person become deviant social reaction act committed labeled deviant original act referred primary deviance labeled deviant causes person see deviants leads said person performing deviant acts act referred secondary deviance secondary deviance quickly turn stigma label changes way people see someone individuals view


time products broadly categorized either repeatable example script score improvised performance artists participate arts front audience called ''performers'' including actors magicians comedians dancers musicians singers performing arts also supported services artists essential workers songwriting stagecraft performers often adapt appearance tools costume stage makeup dance ballroom dance exhibition dance old french ' 'dancier'' unknown origin generally refers human movement either used form expression


style theatre takes forms opera ballet mime kabuki classical indian dance chinese opera mummers' plays multidisciplinary artistic works areas exist artistic works incorporate multiple artistic fields film opera performance art opera often categorized performing arts music word italian works opera combines several artistic disciplines singular artistic experience typical traditional opera entire work utilizes following sets visual arts costumes fashion acting dramatic performing arts libretto words story literature singers orchestra music


religions often mix traditional religion one converted way losing something valuable gaining something religious customs ref two abrahamic religions widespread across africa though mostly concentrated different areas replaced indigenous african religions often adapted african cultural contexts belief systems abrahamic religious beliefs especially monotheistic elements belief single creator god introduced traditionally polytheistic african religions rather early followers traditional african religions also found around world


african religions also elements fetishism shamanism veneration relics traditional vodun dancer enchanting gods spirits ganvie benin traditional african like ancient traditional religions around world based oral traditions traditions religious principles cultural identity passed stories myths tales one generation next community ones family also environment plays important role one 's personal life followers believe guidance ancestors spirits among many traditional african religions spiritual leaders kinds


might take accomplishing goal spirits followers traditional african religions pray various spirits well ancestors includes also nature elementary animal spirits difference powerful spirits gods often minimal african societies believe several high gods large amount lower gods spirits also religions single supreme chukwu nyame olodumare ngai roog etc recognize dual god goddess mawu lisa traditional african religions generally believe afterlife one spirit worlds ancestor worship


divination poetry'' nok new york baldick julian https booksgooglecom booksid jbzgsr bw cc ''black god afroasiatic roots jewish christian muslim religions'' syracuse university press barnes sandra ''africa 's ogun old world new'' bloomington indiana university press beier ulli ed ''the origins life death african creation myths'' london heinemann bowen pg '' https booksgooglecom books sayings ancient onehtmlid hegkaqaaiaaj sayings ancient one wisdom ancient africa '' theosophical publishing house us chidester david religions south africa pp nbsp cole herbert mbari ''art life among owerri igbo'' bloomington indiana university press danquah j b ''the akan doctrine god


interdisciplinary focus award master arts international policy studies schools also offer executive master 's degrees topics mid career individuals doctoral degrees include phds public policy policy studies public administration well doctor public administration dpa schools offer relatively short duration certificate programs aimed working policy analysts government managers public executives north america students typically pursue graduate public policy degree completed undergraduate degree either public administration political science field programs admit students undergraduate degree however students without

Applied science
Public administration
Public policy school


analysis french institute political studies sciences po complements core disciplines organizational sociology human security political economy leadership european commission erasmus mundus programme funded erasmus mundus master program public policy since program brings together four leading policy oriented schools eurorpe ibei spain central european university hungary international institute social studies erasmus university rotterdam netherlands department politics university york united kingdom europe wide erasmus mundus master program public policy czech republic department public social


policy program civil servants doctoral programme public policy governance fms wisdom banasthali vidyapith offers mba minor specialisation public policy csr political science public administration kautilya school public policy offers year full time residential master 's public policy mpp school offers five areas specializations ranging government finance social impact international affairs economic development justice fundamental rights school aims rebalance role society government business towards equity regenerative outcomes aim program impart experience


varied deep course brings together students diverse disciplines allows time internalize apply key concepts kautilya works simple philosophy policymaking takes place across diverse realms n't policy students come diverse disciplines public policy schools india include http wwwispporgin indian school public policy ispp new delhi http wwwispporgin indian institute technology bombay centre policy studies indian school business hyderabad school policy governance azim premji university bangalore indian institute public administration new delhi indian institute management ahmedabad indian institute management bangalore


paleovirology examines evolutionary history viruses paleobiological timescales paleobiochemistry uses methods principles organic chemistry detect analyze molecular level evidence ancient life microscopic macroscopic paleoecology examines past ecosystems climates geographies better comprehend prehistoric life taphonomy analyzes post mortem history example decay decomposition individual organism order gain insight behavior death environment fossilized organism paleoichnology analyzes tracks borings trails burrows impressions trace fossils left ancient organisms order gain insight behavior


fossils'' princeton princeton university press use biochemical ultramicroscopic analysis analyze microfossils bacteria archaea paul selden john nudds ''evolution fossil ecosystems'' chicago university chicago press recent analysis discussion paleoecology david sepkoski ''rereading fossil record growth paleobiology evolutionary discipline'' university chicago press pages history since mid th century focus revolutionary era early work stephen jay gould david raup paul


tasch ''paleobiology invertebrates'' new york john wiley sons applies statistics evolution sponges cnidarians worms brachiopods bryozoa mollusks arthropods shuhai xiao alan j kaufman eds ''neoproterozoic geobiology paleobiology'' new york springer science business media new book describes research fossils earliest multicellular animals plants especially ediacaran period invertebrates algae bernard ziegler r muir ''introduction palaeobiology'' chichester england e horwood classic british introductory textbook external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwnmnhsiedu paleo geotime paleobiology website


political control world war ii however subject received renewed interest around world technological functionalism us egalitarian reform opportunity europe human capital theory economics implied industrialization need technologically skilled labour force undermines class distinctions ascriptive systems stratification education promotes social mobility however statistical field research across numerous societies showed persistent link individual 's social class achievement suggested education could achieve limited social mobility ref name dictionary sociological studies showed schooling patterns reflected rather

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of education


core values education reflect economic political systems originally fueled education one important core value transmitted education system individualism principle independent self reliant early age children learn society seeks praises best individuals connected individualism self esteem also developed educational curriculum self esteem ability confidence one decisions therefore individualism allows growth self esteem cannot created without compared japanese students example curriculum japan focused


basil bernstein pierre bourdieu robbins ''pierre bourdieu volume ii'' sage publications london pp ref means children find success harder school due fact must learn new way 'being' relating world especially new way relating using language must also act instincts expectations subjective expectations influenced objective structures found school perpetuate social reproduction encouraging less privileged students eliminate system fewer fewer


barriers although choice without penalties '''identity''' drawing bourdieu 's ideas fuller adds theoretical understanding structure agency considering young people shape educational identity identity often result messages reflected example grades setting gendered expectations social location considered important role complex work considered importance understanding ways individuals identify within academic discourse discourse typically situates young people dichotomously achieve understanding


category education educational research ref name wos ref journals category sociology ref name wos ref references external links sage publishing academic journals english language journals american sociological association academic journals publications established quarterly journals sociology education education journals sociology journals


directional antenna high gain antenna transmits radio waves beam particular direction receives waves one direction radio waves travel vacuum speed light air close speed light wavelength radio wave distance meters adjacent crests wave inversely proportional frequency types electromagnetic waves besides radio waves infrared visible light ultraviolet x rays gamma rays also able carry information used communication

Journalism, media studies and communication


low frequency vlf nbsp khz nbsp km super high frequency shf nbsp ghz nbsp cm style text align center low frequency lf nbsp khz nbsp km extremely high frequency ehf nbsp ghz nbsp mm style text align center medium frequency mf nbsp khz tremendously high frequency thf nbsp ghz nbsp mm seen bandwidth range frequencies contained band equal increases exponentially frequency increases


band contains ten times bandwidth preceding band greater bandwidth available motivated continuing trend exploit higher frequencies throughout radio 's history regulation airwaves resource shared many users two radio transmitters area attempt transmit frequency interfere causing garbled reception neither transmission may received clearly ref name spectrum interference radio transmissions large economic cost life threatening example case interference emergency communications air traffic


provider divided small geographical areas called cells served separate base station antenna multichannel transceiver cell phones cell communicate antenna separate frequency channels assigned common pool frequencies p purpose cellular organization conserve radio bandwidth frequency reuse low power transmitters used radio waves used cell travel far beyond cell allowing frequencies reused geographically separated cells user carrying cellphone crosses one cell


another phone automatically handed seamlessly new antenna assigned new frequencies cellphones highly automated full duplex digital transceiver using ofdm modulation using two digital radio channels carrying one direction bidirectional conversation well control channel handles dialing calls handing phone another cell tower older g g g networks use frequencies uhf low microwave range nbsp mhz nbsp ghz cell phone transmitter adjusts power output use minimum power necessary communicate


orbit surface orbital period minutes satellite view phone minutes call handed another satellite one passes beyond local horizon therefore large numbers satellites required ensure least one satellite view continuously point earth satphone systems use satellites geostationary orbit satellites needed cannot used high latitudes


wired networks since anyone nearby wireless modem access signal attempt log radio signals wireless networks encrypted using wpalaptop computer wi fi typical home wireless router '' right '' connecting internet wireless lan ''wireless local area network'' ''wi fi'' based ieee standards widely used computer networks used implement local area networks without cables linking computers laptops cell phones video game consoles smart tvs printers home office together wireless router connecting


microwave transmitter connected dish antenna transmits beam microwaves another dish antenna receiver since antennas must line sight distances limited visual horizon microwave links used private business data wide area computer networks wans telephone companies transmit long distance phone calls television signals cities telemetry automated one way simplex transmission measurements operation data remote process device receiver monitoring telemetry used flight monitoring missiles drones satellites weather balloon radiosondes


frequencies leased different users direct broadcast satellite geostationary communication satellite transmits retail programming directly receivers subscriber 's homes vehicles earth satellite radio tv systems uses higher transmitter power communication satellites allow signal received consumers small unobtrusive antenna example satellite television uses downlink frequencies nbsp ghz k sub u sub band transmitted watts received relatively small satellite dishes mounted outside buildings radar military


air traffic controller us navy aircraft carrier monitors aircraft radar screen radar radiolocation method used locate track aircraft spacecraft missiles ships vehicles also map weather patterns terrain radar set consists transmitter receiver transmitter emits narrow beam radio waves swept around surrounding space beam strikes target object radio waves reflected back receiver direction beam reveals object 's location since radio waves travel constant speed close


blips light display called radar screen airport radar operates nbsp ghz microwave band large airports radar image displayed multiple screens operations room called tracon terminal radar approach control air traffic controllers direct aircraft radio maintain safe aircraft separation secondary surveillance radar aircraft carry radar transponders transceivers triggered incoming radar signal transmit return microwave signal causes aircraft show strongly radar screen


door drives car close leaves button pressed control transmits coded fsk radio signal receiver opener raising lowering door modern openers use nbsp mhz prevent thief using replay attack modern openers use rolling code system quadcopter popular remote controlled toy radio controlled models popular hobby playing radio controlled model boats cars airplanes helicopters quadcopters controlled radio signals handheld console joystick


university texas 's http lanicutexasedu latin american network information center http wwwlatinamericanstudiesorg latino studies resources http maclasorg mid atlantic council latin american studies http clahh netorg conference latin american history library guides latin american studies area studies

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Latin American studies


space frame used building structure tubular frame used competition car '''structural mechanics''' '''mechanics structures''' computation deformations deflections internal forces stresses ' 'stress equivalents'' within structures either design performance evaluation existing structures one subset structural analysis structural mechanics analysis needs input data structural loads structure 's geometric representation support conditions materials' properties output quantities may include support reactions stresses displacements advanced structural mechanics may include effects stability non linear behaviors mechanics structures field

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Structural mechanics


edition ''dragon'' issue rick swan thought basic rules produced good game advanced rules go overboard complications space atmosphere interface penalties require many calculations enemy vessel boardings much work swan concluded although fasa recommended players also buy ''battletech compendium'' ''mechwarrior'' role playing game thought game worked fine want zap spaceships laser guns n't need supplements ''battlespace'' set contains hallmarks classic board game 's easy learn difficult master

Applied science
Military sciences
Battlespace


galeries royales saint hubert shopping arcade belgium consumer behaviour broadest sense concerned consumers select decide use goods services '''consumer behaviour''' study individuals groups organizations activities associated purchase use disposal goods services consumer behaviour consists consumer 's emotions attitudes preferences affect buying behaviour consumer behaviour emerged distinct sub discipline marketing become interdisciplinary social science blends elements psychology sociology social anthropology anthropology ethnography marketing economics especially behavioural

Social science
Psychology
Consumer psychology


purchase decision including information search evaluating goods services payment methods including purchase experience ''use consumption activities'' concerns consumption usage experience including symbolic associations way goods distributed within families consumption units ' 'disposal activities'' concerns way consumers dispose products packaging may also include reselling activities ebay second hand markets consumer responses may ''emotional affective '' responses refer emotions feelings moods ''mental cognitive'' responses refer consumer 's thought processes


stimuli eg consumer characteristics situational factors marketing influences environmental factors well consumer responses ref name sandhusen sandhusen r l ''marketing'' cf https booksgooglecom booksid qlkaiq accc printsec frontcover ppa ref black box model related black box theory behaviourism focus extends beyond processes occurring ''inside'' consumer also includes ' 'relation'' stimuli consumer 's response decision model assumes purchase decisions occur vacuum rather occur real time affected stimuli including external environmental stimuli consumer 's momentary situation elements model


eg ran milk bread regular purchase consumer purchases product regular basis eg newspaper magazine dissatisfaction consumer satisfied current product service new needs wants lifestyle changes may trigger identification new needs eg arrival baby may prompt purchase cot stroller car seat baby related products purchase one product may trigger need accessories spare parts complementary goods services eg purchase printer leads need ink cartridges


strong contenders purchase specific brand names enter consumer 's consideration set based extent satisfy consumer 's purchasing objectives salience accessibility brand time making purchase decision implication brand names memorable likely accessible traditionally one main roles advertising promotion increase likelihood brand name included consumer 's evoked set repeated exposure brand names intensive advertising primary method increasing ''top mind brand awareness'' however


terms importance arrive total mental score rank product brand consideration purchase decision alternatives evaluated consumer firms resolve proceed actual purchase example consumer might say yes buy brand x one day self instruction make purchase known ''purchase intent'' purchase intentions strong yet imperfect predictor sales sometimes purchase intentions simply translate actual purchase signal marketing problem instance consumer may


change life concept subjective factor change consumer awareness people 's living standards continue increase incomes continue increase people 's life concepts constantly changing differences consumer personality internal motivations changes consumer awareness intensified market competition catalyst changes consumer awareness many companies launched branded products order gain foothold increasingly competitive market ref name face variety goods brands consumers' brand awareness matures people buy goods paying attention


motor cyclists namely harley owners rest harley davidson leveraged values subculture establishing harley owners group hog members 'goth' subculture share dress code subcultures important marketers several reasons firstly given subcultures represent sizeable market segments profitable influential obvious advantages developing selling products services meet needs subculture members secondly perhaps less obviously many new fads fashions emerge spontaneously within tribal groups trend spotters accordingly interested studying lifestyles activities


revenge buying compensatory nature therapeutic nature attempt consumers control external situation internal control well provide comfort security improvement well ref name samuel lins consumer decision styles shop pleasure said recreational shoppers number theorists argued certain fundamental decision making styles identified decision making style defined mental orientation characterising consumer 's approach making choices sproles kendall developed consumer style inventory csi consisting


manufacturers eg brochures specs '''referrals''' obtaining referrals friends relatives '''sales representatives''' talking sales reps retail outlets '''product guarantees''' looking formal guarantees warranties new product adoption diffusion innovations diffusion innovations according rogers successive groups consumers adopt innovation shown blue market share yellow eventually reach saturation level within consumer behaviour particular area interest study innovative new products services ideas technologies spread groups insights innovations diffused ie spread populations assist


attitude repeat patronage dick basu p nbsp thus definition loyalty attitudinal component behavioural component dick basu proposed four types loyalty based relative attitude patronage behaviour dick basu 's loyalty matrix loyalty characterised low relative attitude low repeat patronage behaviour may occur competing brands seen similar case new brands categories insufficient time elapsed loyalty become established spurious loyalty characterised low relative attitude high repeat patronage spurious loyalty occurs consumer undertakes


privileges access products services normally available non members acknowledge loyal customer 's vip status example hotel might recognise loyal patrons providing complimentary fruit bowl bottle champagne room arrival whereas reward programs motivated consumer 's desire material possessions recognition programs motivated consumer 's need esteem recognition status many commercial loyalty programs hybrid schemes combining elements reward recognition addition reward programs designed encourage loyalty certain reward programs designed


flexibility customer willingness adapt situations beyond control service improvement providing ideas suggestions may aid organization 's improvement positive word mouth referral recommendation favourable communication regarding brand product organization service benevolent act service willingness help employees performing service internet consumer behaviour traditional models consumer behaviour developed scholars fishbein ajzen howard sheth recently shun yunjie argued online consumer behaviour different offline behaviour consequence


encountered challenge courting consumers seek information online still prefer turn bricks mortar retailers purchase understand needs habits kinds online shoppers online marketers segmented consumer markets different kinds online behaviour accordance online behavioural characteristics lewis lewis identified five market segments based way consumers use internet purchase decision process directed information seekers users primarily look information product service online guarantee


exposure familiar imagery becomes incorporated consumer 's visual lexicon become fluent images higher levels visual fluency perceived familiar likeable friendly therefore likely chosen consumers typographic elements although studies shown pictorial imagery easier consumers process understand ref name choice typography remains indispensable element product design handwritten scripted fonts associated individuality femininity luxury sans serif fonts embody energy cleanliness modernity font size also shown


ie ''the decoy'' online print option seemed like better value significant number people switched option words ' 'decoy'' price assists framing value marketers use variety methods ''frame value'' eg quote monthly payment options rather single inclusive price choice fatigue research sheena iyengar experimented number gourmet jams display consumers faced large number alternatives jams consumers stopped looked actually made purchase however consumers faced


kahneman ''judgment uncertainty heuristics biases'' cambridge university press marketing analytics consumer theory


general agreement concerning applicability treatment addiction drugs alcohol heroin often also gambling similar characteristics well described scientific literature less agreement concerning definition treatment called addictive behavior sexual addiction internet addiction behaviors marked generally physiologic tolerance withdrawal doctors focusing addiction medicine medical specialists focus addictive disease special study training focusing prevention treatment diseases two routes

Applied science
Medicine and health
Addiction Medicine


''journal addiction medicine'' jam ''journal addictions nursing'' ''jama neurology'' see also addiction psychiatry american society addiction medicine narcology references reading latt noeline katherine conigrave jane marshall john saunders e jane marshall david nutt '' https globaloupcom academic product addiction medicine lang en cc us addiction medicine '' oxford oxford university press ''psychedelic medicine new evidence hallucinogens treatments'' vol michael j winkelman thomas b roberts editors westport ct praeger greenwood chapter halpern john h hallucinogens treatment alcoholism addictions chapter yensen richard dryer donna addiction despair soul successful psychedelic psychotherapy case study


chapter alper r kenneth lotsof howard use ibogaine treatment addictions chapter mabit jacques ayahuasca treatment addictions hughes ld http sumjdundeeacuk data uploads epub article sumj epubpdf healthcare students view addiction substance abuse ''scottish universities medical journal'' epub http wwwthelancetcom series addiction addiction series three parts ''the lancet'' external links http wwwisamweborg isam international society addiction medicine https wwwabpncom abpn american board psychiatry neurology http wwwabamnet abam american board addiction medicine https wwwasamorg asam american society addiction medicine http wwwaoaamorg aoaam american osteopathic academy addiction medicine substance related disorders


must punishment use value also solution would deter effectively less distress honderich utilitarianists may slightly disagree evil punishment justified authors agree purpose punishment reduce crime purpose directly relates principle distribution utilitarianism utilitarianists agree three ways reduce crime incapacitation deterrence reform main types prevention '' 'specific''' '''general''' prevention specific prevention aimed offender whilst general prevention

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of punishment


prison rehabilitate longer need commit crimes debate third point authors following example focusing rehabilitation third goal braithwaite petit bean walker others quoting reform bentham honderich mabbot acton still others mistakenly using two words interchangeably '''general prevention''' general prevention uses punishment offender prevent others committing crimes argued sending offender prison three effects firstly fear suffering similar


fate offender general public deterred committing similar crimes lessnoff secondly sending offender prison proclamation issued specifying morally wrong disobey law lastly fear moral influence intermediate linkunconscious inhibitions crimeestablishes condition habitual lawfulness andenaes number issues associated utilitarian justification punishment firstly utilitarianism allows innocents punished moberly states utilitarianism account direct partaker crime apprehended people may punished


united states first second third generations immigrants displayed distinct characteristics second generation immigrants immigrant parents witnessed historical events unfolding mid twentieth century developed distinct social identity popular american culture late american historian marcus lee hansen observed distinct differences attitudes toward ethnic identity second generation third generation children whereas second generation anxious assimilate third generation sentimentally invested ethnicity sociologist dalton conley defines one 's ethnic quality affiliation however twenty first century immigrants

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of immigration


order understand perceptions immigrants formed constructed symbolic interactionism theory utilized immigration united states rise since ref name sobczak ref public opinion polls demonstrated percentage americans wanted immigration decreased low immediately prior begun upward incline late time thereafter increased dramatically ref name sobczak one reasons negative native response increased immigration often negative images immigrants elicited media


social capital held people together decreased sense anomie among immigrants sense aimlessness despair arises longer reasonably expect life predictable immigration therefore served mechanism social networks built among immigrant populations period intense resocialization prevalent cases anomic suicide transnationalism contemporary sociological analysis immigration explored within concept transnationalism analysis perhaps concerned relational dimensions immigration particularly terms ways families


circumstances presented us full title mill 's work principles political economy applications social philosophy ref name backhouse jn keynes discussion john neville keynes perhaps first use phrase applied economics noted english school john stuart mill john elliott cairnes nassau william senior believed political economy positive abstract deductive science school made clear distinction political economy applications practice school thought general body theory could established

Social science
Economics
Applied economics