someone part washington political establishment elected president world stage carter brokered camp david accords israel egypt iranian students stormed us embassy tehran took americans hostage resulting iran hostage crisis hostage crisis continuing stagflation carter lost election republican ronald reagan january minutes carter 's term office ended remaining us captives held us embassy iran released ending day hostage crisis rise


republican party leaders acknowledge stature social scientists theodore caplow et al argue republican party nationally moved right center toward center moved right add democratic party nationally moved left center toward center moved toward right center close presidential election governor george w bush al gore helped lay seeds political polarization come vote decisive states new mexico florida


crisis unpopularity president bush iraq war along financial crisis led election barack obama first multiracial president african american ancestry election obama reluctantly continued war effort iraq august declared combat operations ended however american soldiers military personnel kept iraq assist iraqi forces help protect withdrawing forces work counter terrorism december war declared formally last troops left country time


according diener suh subjective well based idea person thinks feels life important carol ryff 's six factor model psychological well initially published additional testing factors published postulates six factors key well namely self acceptance personal growth purpose life environmental mastery autonomy positive relations others according corey keyes collaborated carol ryff uses term flourishing central concept mental well three components namely hedonic cq subjective

Social science
Psychology
Positive psychology


''meaning'' also known purpose prompts question discovering figuring clear puts everything context work relationships parts life finding meaning learning something greater one 's self despite potential challenges working meaning drives people continue striving desirable goal ''accomplishments'' pursuit success mastery unlike parts perma sometimes pursued even accomplishments result positive emotions meaning relationships noted accomplishments activate elements perma


engaging work religion spirituality leisure good sleep exercise social class lifestyle differences better coping methods subjective health think health boniwell writes well related age physical attractiveness money basic needs met gender women often depressed also often joyful educational level children although add meaning life moving sunnier climate crime prevention housing objective health doctors say sonja lyubomirsky book ''the happiness'' provides advice guidance improve happiness


research without informed consent ref name soldz ref soldz also criticized csf training trying build beat attitudes toward combat might soldiers trained resiliently view combat growth opportunity likely ignore estimate real dangers thereby placing comrades civilians heightened risk harm ref name soldz chronicle higher education carried debate singal seligman whether csf well second decade solid evidence effectiveness singal cited studies said failed find measurable benefits


qin dynasty required details age height bodily features ref name ref passports ''zhuan'' determined person 's ability move throughout imperial counties points control even children needed passports one year less mother 's care may needed ref name medieval islamic caliphate form passport ''bara'a'' receipt taxes paid border controls place ensure people paid ''zakah'' muslims ''jizya'' dhimmis taxes could travel freely

Applied science
Public administration
Immigration policy


world produced modest reduction total number people infected strict border controls economic harm tourism industry lost income social harm people unable travel family matters reasons travel bans lifted many people expected resume traveling however travel especially business travel may decreased long term lower cost alternatives teleconferencing virtual events preferred possible long term impact decline business travel international conferencing rise


virtual online equivalents concerns raised effectiveness travel restrictions contain spread covid aspects contemporary border control policies complex address variety distinct phenomena depending circumstances political priorities state implementing consequently several aspects border control vary nature importance region region air maritime borders addition land borders countries also apply border control measures airspace waters jurisdiction measures control access air maritime territory well extractible resources


eg fish minerals fossil fuels united nations convention law sea unclos states exercise varying degrees control different categories territorial waters internal waters waters landward baseline state complete sovereignty even innocent passage allowed without explicit permission said state lakes rivers considered internal waters territorial sea state 's territorial sea belt coastal waters extending kilometres baseline coastal state would overlap another state 's territorial sea border taken


circulation infectious disease appeared rumour confirmed known cases ''foul'' bill health absence clean bill health implies place vessel cleared infected contagious disease two latter cases would render vessel liable quarantine blockquote another category biosecurity measures adopted border control organisations mandatory vaccination result prevalence yellow fever across much african continent significant portion countries region require arriving passengers


customs authority enforces import export goods may restricted forbidden case customs controls enforce policies ref name chowdhury chowdhury f l evasion customs duty bangladesh unpublished mba dissertation submitted monash university australia ref customs enforcement borders also entail collecting excise tax preventing smuggling dangerous illegal goods customs duty tariff tax importation usually exportation unusually goods many countries border controls arriving passengers many international airports road crossings separated red


airports ports travellers checked customs sanitary phytosanitary sps measures customs measures protect humans animals plants diseases pests contaminants agreement application sanitary phytosanitary measures concluded uruguay round multilateral trade negotiations establishes types sps measures jurisdiction permitted impose examples sps tolerance limits residues restricted use substances labelling requirements related food safety hygienic requirements quarantine requirements certain countries sanitary phytosanitary measures focuses extensively curtailing regulating import


rules details border controls surveillance conditions permission enter schengen area may granted exhaustively detailed schengen borders code ref name schengen borders code regulation ec european parliament council march establishing community code rules governing movement persons across borders schengen borders code https eur lexeuropaeu lexuriserv lexuriservdouri celex r en oj l april p ref persons crossing external borders inbound outbound subject check border guard exception regular cross border commuters


generally seek limit unauthorised travel across international border frequently implemented populist response refugees economic migrants india bangladesh barrier nbsp km long fence barbed wire concrete high currently construction ref name centre fenced km along indo bangladesh border ref 's stated aim limit unauthorised migration ref name channel project run several delays clear completion date project yet ref name centre fenced km along indo bangladesh border similar india 's barrier bangladesh proposed wall america


thus clearly separated enables easier transfers domestic international flights requires international transit passengers clear border checkpoint even final destination outside america border checkpoint place goods individuals moving across borders inspected compliance border control measures access controlled borders often limited number checkpoints crossed without legal sanctions arrangements treaties may formed allow mandate less restrained crossings eg schengen agreement land border checkpoints land ports entry contrasted customs


serve curtail unauthorised passage two sides south korea additional fenced area civilian control line ccl start demilitarised zone ccl line designates additional buffer zone demilitarised zone within distance kilometres southern limit line demilitarised zone purpose limit control entrance civilians area order protect maintain security military facilities operations near demilitarised zone commander th us


naturalisation citizenship although often conflated immigration laws vary around world well according social political climate times acceptance immigrants sways widely inclusive deeply nationalist isolationist countries frequently maintain laws regulate rights entry exit well internal rights duration stay freedom movement right participate commerce government national laws regarding immigration citizens country regulated international law united nations' international covenant


owned land areas nations open borders travel within nation travel though authoritarian states may limit freedom internal movement citizens example former ussr however handful nations deregulated open borders nations example european countries schengen agreement open belarus russia border open borders used common among nations however became less common first world war led regulation open borders making less common longer


residents often denied official services education medical care sometimes subject social political discrimination essence denial social services outside individual 's registered area residence functions internal border control measure geared toward dissuading migration within mainland h kh u system vietnam similar hukou system mainland china local authorities issue household household registration book ' 's h kh u'' basic biographical information household member recorded ' 's h kh u'' ultimate legal proof


needs register kt residential status new address move happens across provincial borders person sign kt registration migrant workers students temporarily residing outside province national municipality permanent residence need apply kt registration ref name vtjsoutheast navigating matrix regulations tough public security apparatus manages ''h kh u'' system also difficult deal especially one poor migrant worker little formal education yet


''h kh u'' remains absolutely crucial especially poor tied access welfare benefits case children right attend public school migrant family saigon kt kt registration subsidised medical care poverty assistance almost free schooling reach ref name vtrowman much like counterpart mainland china denial services outside individual 's place registered residence resulting system internal border control serves dissuade internal migration another example malaysian states sabah sarawak maintained


israeli palestinian life among restrictive world additionally blockade gaza strip results de facto domestic customs immigration border palestinians order clear internal border controls palestinians required obtain variety permits israeli authorities depending purpose area travel legality impact network internal border controls controversial b'tselem israeli non governmental organisation monitors human rights palestine argues breach rights guaranteed international covenant economic social


cultural rights particular right livelihood right acceptable standard living right satisfactory nutrition clothing housing right attain best standard physical mental health b'tselem also argues restrictions ill wounded pregnant palestinians seeking acute medical care contravention international law states medical professionals sick must granted open passage israeli supreme court deemed measures acceptable security reasons ''haaretz' 's amira hass argues policy defies one principles oslo accords


file vehicles queuing checkpointjpg vehicles queuing kalandia checkpoint palestine august file huwwara checkpoint palestinejpg huwwara checkpoint south palestinian city nablus ref name al haq http wwwalhaqorg documentation weekly focuses palestinians suffer ill treatment huwwara checkpoint palestinians suffer ill treatment huwwara checkpoint al haq december ref file seversk checkpointjpg central entry checkpoint closed city seversk tomsk oblast russia file barentsburg leninjpg consequence svalbard 's unique immigration status exclusion rest norway border control purposes city barentsburg predominantly russian hosts world 's second northernmost statue lenin northernmost pyramiden file andorra grens jpg border post france andorra microstate de facto follows schengen


rights cross border unimpeded provided jay treaty canada border services agency closed post cornwall island instead requiring travellers proceed checkpoint city cornwall consequence arrangement residents island required clear border controls proceeding north ontarian mainland well proceeding south akwesasne territory new york thus constituting internal controls canadian perspective perspective akwesasne nation similarly travelling canada quebec portion


whether ref name omalleyb ref person born resided always since birth person laboured continuously ten years agreed area employer lived continuously area fifteen years black natives laws amendment act amended native urban areas consolidation act stipulating black people age required carry passes black person could stay urban area hours unless allowed section ref name o'malley chrono ref natives abolition passes


union permitted place stamp passport person subject immigration control stamping prohibited imposition control person subject passport stamps may occasionally take form sticker stamps entry stamps japan depending nationality visitor may receive stamp unless specifically requested eu efta citizen travelling eu efta country albania ref name parlamental https wwwparlamental wp content uploads ligj pdf ref north macedonia ref name mvrgovmk http wwwmvrgovmk upload documents zakon za grani ena kontrolapdf ref countries issue exit stamps addition entry


existent passport stamps unable present landing slip departure affect traveller 's ability clear immigration file xijiulong rujingjpg thumb entry stamp issued juxtaposed controls hong kong west kowloon railway station file xijiulong mainland port exit stampjpg thumb exit stamp issued juxtaposed controls hong kong west kowloon railway station chinese passport file china visa stampjpg entry exit stamps issued shanghai pudong international airport italian passport file hong kong passport stampsjpg entry exit stamps issued hong kong international airport hong kong macau ferry terminal italian passport file hong kong china ferry


terminal entry stampjpg entry stamp issued hong kong china ferry terminal thai passport gallery exit controls entry stamp lewiston queenston bridge ontario canada conducts border control stamps passports upon entry whilst countries implement border controls entry exit jurisdictions instance america canada implement exit controls land borders collect exit data foreign nationals airlines information sharing neighbouring countries' entry border controls countries consequently n't issue exit stamps even travellers require stamps entry similarly australia singapore


countries europe maintain controversial exit visa systems addition regular border controls instance uzbekistan requires citizens obtain exit visas prior leaving countries fellow cis nations eastern europe several countries arabian peninsula require exit visas foreign workers kafala system meaning sponsorship system russia occasionally requires foreigners overstay obtain exit visas since one cannot exit russia without valid visa czechia similar policy similarly foreign citizen granted temporary residence permit russia needs exit visa take


traditionally take form adhesive sticker occasionally stamp affixed page individual 's passport equivalent document visas policies different purposes depending priorities jurisdiction ranging ensuring visitors pose national security risk sufficient financial resources simply functioning tax tourists case countries like mauritius leisure destinations issue visas arrival electronic visas electronic travel authorisations visitors visas may include limits duration foreigner 's stay areas within


maintaining australia 's universal visa system essence nationals european union european economic area still theoretically issued visas burden posed system minimal satisfy eu 's requirement visa reciprocity part states whose nationals accorded visa free access schengen area ref name evisitor ref evisitor available citizens european union member states countries evisitor issued free charge allows holder visit australia unlimited times months per visit month


land ferry using passport issued government bermuda british overseas territories citizen entering canadian citizen travellers brazil normally require visa enter canada eligible apply eta held canadian visa within years prior applying currently hold valid non immigrant american visa travellers still may enter canada land sea without valid canadian visa ''pakistan'' visitors several jurisdictions may enter pakistan tourism without obtaining visa


kingdom'' citizens kuwait oman qatar uae obtain electronic visa waiver evw online enter united kingdom ref name oman evisa ref nationality travel history many nations implement border controls restricting entry people certain nationalities visited certain countries instance georgia refuses entry holders passports issued republic china ref name timatic ref similarly since april nationals bangladesh pakistan sudan syria yemen iran banned entering parts eastern libya control tobruk government ref name timatic majority arab countries


boarding state railway thailand trains cross actual borderline several minutes departing station passengers thailand entering malaysia also processed using counters separate counters processing entries exits either country '''united kingdom schengen area''' border control travel united kingdom schengen area features significant prescreening juxtaposed controls programme travel ferry rail includes customs immigration prescreening sides channel tunnel ref immigration prescreening ferry passengers


passenger boats check performed boarding expedited border controls certain countries trade blocs establish programmes high frequency low risk travellers expedite border controls subjecting lighter automated checks priority border control facilities countries citizens residents access automated facilities available foreigners following expedited border control programmes currently effect apec business travel card abtc apec business travel card abtc expedited border control programme business travellers apec economies excluding canada america provides visa exemptions


netherlands united kingdom america clear border controls using automated facilities system currently used travellers years age older however trial way may potentially lower age eligibility use egate people eligible epassport years age years age new zealand egates utilise biometric technology comparing picture face epassport picture takes gate order confirm identity make sure egate travellers


applications well processing asylum claims ''state local law enforcement agencies'' officers police forces established state county municipal governments across america deputised ice detain undocumented migrants pursuant immigration nationality act section g section g ice trains authorises state local law enforcement officers identify process detain undocumented migrants encounter daily law enforcement activity g programme criticised increasing racist profiling police undermining community safety fear deportation discourages undocumented migrants reporting crimes talking


security borders india matters connected therewith ref name itbp act ref ref name histort itbp ref first head itbp designated inspector general balbir singh police officer previously belonging intelligence bureau itbp started battalions since restructuring undergone expansion force battalions sanctioned strength '''''' directorate general immigration indonesian ''direktorat jenderal imigrasi'' primary agency tasked border control indonesia '''''' ''iranian immigration passport police'' immigration passport police office


coast guard formal border controls stop people doubtful cases ask police take '''''' immigration checkpoints authority ica border control agency singapore ministry home affairs ica responsible border control border customs services immigration enforcement singapore ica accountable parliament minister home affairs agency charge maintaining border checkpoints land commands tuas command woodlands command woodlands train checkpoint old woodlands checkpoint closed traffic except motorcycles


international human rights law matter controversy travel restrictions australian citizens covid pandemic covid pandemic australia adopted policy denying entry citizens arriving jurisdictions perceived pose high risk covid transmission ref name abcausban https wwwabcnetau religion australias india travel ban legal moral ref additionally australia adopted broad policy restricting entry country individuals located overseas including australian citizens resulting large number australian citizens stranded abroad ref name f ausban https wwwfrance com en asia pacific stranded abroad australians lodge un petition govt right return home ref australia 's policies regard citizens undermined principle international law state must permit entry


od imam hussain medical university also launched doctor optometry program chairman imam hussain medical university dr sabir hussain babachan vowed regulate od curriculum according international standard philippines optometry regulated professional regulation commission philippines eligible licensing candidate must satisfactorily completed doctor optometry course accredited institution demonstrate good moral character previous record professional misconduct professional organizations optometry philippines include optometric association philippines integrated philippine association optometrists inc ipao saudi arabia saudi

Applied science
Medicine and health
Optometry


required become licensed province wish practice regulation professions within provincial jurisdiction therefore regulation optometry unique individual provinces territories ontario optometrists licensed college optometrists ontario representation canada profession represented canadian association optometrists province ontario ontario association optometrists designated representative optometrists provincial government scope practice optometrists canada trained licensed primary eye care providers provide optical


microbiology sensory perceptual psychology biochemistry statistics epidemiology optometrists required obtain continuing education credit hours maintain licensure number hours varies state optometrists prescribing schedule controlled substances required renew dea license every years oceania australia australia currently five recognized courses optometry one course seeking obtain accreditation optometry council australia new zealand bachelor vision science master optometry bvissci moptom deakin university bachelor medical science vision science master optometry flinders university bachelor vision science master


academy advancement science baas published report calling teaching pure science training scientific habit mind progressive education movement supported ideology mental training sciences baas emphasized separately pre professional training secondary science education way future baas members could prepared initial development science teaching slowed lack qualified teachers one key development founding first london school board discussed school curriculum another initiation courses supply

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Science education


secondary school studies reports conferences arranged committee new york american book company https archiveorg details reportcommittee studgoog read book online ref nea published results work conference committees ref name nea according committee ten goal high school prepare students well life contributing well good society another goal prepare students succeed college committee supported citizen science approach focused mental training withheld performance science studies consideration


school teaches students understand issues world children interested world around chemistry teachers attract interest turn educating students subject chemistry practical based subject meaning class time spent working completing experiments biology education biology education characterized study structure function heredity evolution living organisms biology study living organisms different fields including morphology physiology anatomy behavior origin distribution depending country education level


physics research students' conceptions shown pre instructional everyday ideas students bring physics instruction stark contrast physics concepts principles achieved kindergarten tertiary level quite often students' ideas incompatible physics views also holds true students' general patterns thinking reasoning country australia england wales science education australia compulsory year students choose study one branches mentioned


science education australia last decade falling interest science fewer year students choosing study science year problematic years students form attitudes pursue science careers issue unique australia happening countries world china educational quality china suffers typical classroom contains students million students china largest educational system world however percent students complete rigorous ten year


program formal schooling ref name many countries science curriculum includes sequenced courses physics chemistry biology science education given high priority driven textbooks composed committees scientists teachers science education china places great emphasis memorization gives far less attention problem solving application principles novel situations interpretations predictions ref name ref united kingdom english welsh schools science compulsory subject national curriculum pupils years age must study science generally


future success various institutions society legal political system instruments ruling class domination serve interests marx believed western society developed four main epochs primitive communism ancient society feudal society capitalist society primitive communism represented societies pre history provides example classless society societies divided two major classes master slaves ancient society lords serfs feudal society capitalist wage laborers capitalist society weber sees class economic terms argues

Social science
Sociology
Social conflict theory


lines torres vedras field works old armies roman legions presence enemy entrenched camps nightly move early modern warfare troops used field works block possible lines advance examples include lines stollhofen built start war spanish succession lines weissenburg built orders duke villars lines ne plus ultra winter lines torres vedras trenches siege

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Trench warfare


rock behind cover often able kill several approaching foes closed position attacks across open ground became even dangerous introduction rapid firing artillery exemplified french high explosive fragmentation rounds increases firepower outstripped ability infantry even cavalry cover ground firing lines ability armour withstand fire would take revolution mobility change french german armies adopted different tactical doctrines french relied attack speed surprise


south north sea coast belgium end october whole front belgium france solidified lines trenches lasted last weeks war mass infantry assaults futile face artillery fire well rapid rifle machine gun fire sides concentrated breaking enemy attacks protecting troops digging deep ground buildup forces western front became stalemated struggle equals decided attrition frontal assaults


designed thinner native product unable cut ref name canada 's army p ''canada 's army'' p ref geography confined static subterranean nature trench warfare resulted developing peculiar form geography forward zone conventional transport infrastructure roads rail replaced network trenches trench railways critical advantage could gained holding high ground meant minor hills ridges gained enormous significance many slight hills valleys subtle nameless front line encroached


choose weapons many selected grenades knives pistols fn pistols highly regarded work never available adequate quantities colt model pocket hammerless savage model star bonifacio echeverria ruby pistols widely used various mechanical devices invented throwing hand grenades enemy trenches germans used ''wurfmaschine'' spring powered device throwing hand grenade ref name sheffield ref french responded ''sauterelle'' british leach trench catapult west spring gun varying degrees success accuracy catapult


weapons largely replaced rifle grenades mortars ref name britannica wikilink available article bombthrowers ref germans employed ''flammenwerfer'' flamethrowers war first time french june british july hooge technology infancy use common end portability reliability improved used documented battles became weapon choice ''sto truppen'' stormtroopers team six ''pioniere'' combat engineers per squad


trench system employed scientific manner carefully calculated fields fire moment 's notice accurate burst could fired enemy 's parapet break wire equally could used light artillery bombarding distant trenches heavy machine guns required teams eight men move maintain keep supplied ammunition made impractical offensive manoeuvres contributing stalemate western front german soldier mp one machine gun nest theoretically able mow


could used precede infantry advances creeping barrage engage counter battery duels try destroy enemy 's guns artillery mainly fired fragmentation high explosive shrapnel later war gas shells british experimented firing thermite incendiary shells set trees ruins alight however armies experienced shell shortages first year two world war due underestimating usage intensive combat knowledge gained combatant nations russo japanese war daily artillery fire consumed ten times daily factory output


rate fire initially gun would need register aim known target view observer order fire precision battle process gun registration would often alert enemy attack planned towards end artillery techniques developed enabling fire delivered accurately without registration battlefield gun registration done behind lines pre registered guns brought front surprise attack french soldiers operating compressed air trench mortar millimetre calibre mortars lobbed


quickly burned via eyes wounds causing blindness intense suffering mustard gas also property heavier air causing sink hills therefore trenches casualties mustard gas unlikely fit fight yet mustard gas casualties died added burden long term care casualties mustard gas actually increased overall effectiveness compared immediately lethal gas agents british mark iv tank displays tadpole tail extension crossing especially wide trenches experiment successful


mercy dog sangar fortification underground living references '''notes''' '''bibliography''' external links johnson patrick http newsbbccouk hi depth stm depth century mud fire bbc news june historic films photos showing '' trench warfare world war '' http wwweuropeanfilmgatewayeu node trench efg multilingual europeanfilmgatewayeu world war tanks http wwwtanks encyclopediacom world war tanksphp tanks encyclopedia https wwwyoutubecom watchv v zwfx youtube video excavated restored british wwi trench near ypres http wwwatlasobscuracom articles sanctuary wood preserved trenches sanctuary wood ypres belgium https docsonlinetv trench warfare trench warfare apocalypse world war https wwwbritannicacom topic trench warfare trench warfare britannicacom article https wwwyoutubecom watchv mpfag dwck youtube video hill messines ridge site huge underground explosion


stresses enacted upon diagenesis available study principle superposition critical interpretation sedimentary sequences older metamorphic terrains fold thrust belts sediments often intensely folded deformed recognising younging indicators graded bedding critical interpretation sedimentary section often deformation metamorphic structure region folding sediments analysed principle original horizontality states sediments deposited angle repose types sediment essentially horizontal thus younging direction

Natural science
Earth science
Sedimentology


'''proof theory''' major branch ref name wang according wang pp proof theory one four domains mathematical logic together model theory axiomatic set theory recursion theory barwise consists four corresponding parts part proof theory constructive mathematics ref mathematical logic represents proofs formal mathematical objects facilitating analysis mathematical techniques proofs typically presented inductively defined data structures plain lists boxed lists trees constructed according axioms rules inference logical system consequently proof

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Mathematical logic
Proof theory


provability logic gl g del l b captures provable peano arithmetic one takes modal analogues hilbert bernays derivability conditions l b 's theorem provable provability implies provable basic results concerning incompleteness peano arithmetic related theories analogues provability logic example theorem gl contradiction provable provable contradiction provable g del 's second incompleteness theorem also modal analogues fixed point theorem robert solovay proved


earth 's mantle colors span red green blue decreasing temperatures hot less dense lower boundary layer sends plumes hot material upwards cold material top moves downwards '''heat transfer''' discipline thermal engineering concerns generation use conversion exchange thermal energy heat physical systems heat transfer classified various mechanisms thermal conduction thermal convection thermal radiation transfer energy phase changes engineers also consider transfer mass differing chemical species mass transfer form advection either cold

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Heat transfer


flux thermodynamic driving force flow heat heat flux quantitative vectorial representation heat flow surface ref name njit ref engineering contexts term ''heat'' taken synonymous thermal energy usage origin historical interpretation heat fluid ''caloric'' transferred various causes ref name lienhard ref also common language laymen everyday life transport equations thermal energy fourier 's law mechanical momentum newton 's law fluids mass transfer fick 's laws diffusion similar ref name faghri ref


instance excellent reflector poor insulator effectiveness radiant barrier indicated '' 'reflectivity''' fraction radiation reflected material high reflectivity given wavelength low emissivity wavelength vice versa specific wavelength reflectivity emissivity ideal radiant barrier would reflectivity would therefore reflect percent incoming radiation vacuum flasks dewars silvered approach ideal vacuum space satellites use multi layer insulation consists many layers


exchangers used refrigeration air conditioning systems radiator car heat pipe another heat transfer device combines thermal conductivity phase transition efficiently transfer heat two solid interfaces applications architecture efficient energy use goal reduce amount energy required heating cooling architecture condensation air currents cause cosmetic structural damage energy audit help assess implementation recommended corrective procedures instance insulation improvements air sealing structural leaks addition energy efficient windows doors smart meter


cause lower rate heat transfer skin covered order ensure one portion body significantly hotter another portion heat must distributed evenly bodily tissues blood flowing blood vessels acts convective fluid helps prevent buildup excess heat inside tissues body flow blood vessels modeled pipe flow engineering system heat carried blood determined temperature surrounding tissue diameter


physics laser cooling used achieve temperatures near absolute zero nbsp c nbsp f atomic molecular samples observe unique quantum effects occur heat level doppler cooling common method laser cooling sympathetic cooling process particles one type cool particles another type typically atomic ions directly laser cooled used cool nearby ions atoms technique allows cooling ions atoms cannot laser cooled directly magnetic cooling magnetic evaporative cooling process lowering temperature


compound words root photo used appeared late describe research field whose goal use light perform functions traditionally fell within typical domain electronics telecommunications information processing etc photonics field began invention laser developments followed laser diode optical fibers transmitting information erbium doped fiber amplifier inventions formed basis telecommunications revolution late th century provided infrastructure internet though coined earlier

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Materials Science and Engineering
Photonics


modulation light light sources photonics commonly uses semiconductor based light sources light emitting diodes leds superluminescent diodes lasers light sources include single photon sources fluorescent lamps cathode ray tubes crts plasma screens note crts plasma screens organic light emitting diode displays generate light liquid crystal displays lcds like tft screens require backlight either cold cathode fluorescent lamps often today leds characteristic research semiconductor light sources frequent use iii v semiconductors instead classical semiconductors like silicon germanium due


blueprint navigational aid content information rich systems subset data architecture usable data aka information constructed designed arranged fashion useful empirically holistic users data practice organizing information content functionality web site presents best user experience information services easily usable findable applied web design development conceptual framework surrounding information providing context awareness location sustainable structure

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Information architecture


commerce religion government much europe displaced many purposes french italian english end th century john amos comenius one many people tried reverse trend wrote complete course learning latin covering entire school curriculum culminating ''opera didactica omnia'' work comenius also outlined theory language acquisition one first theorists write systematically languages learned methods teaching languages held language acquisition must

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Language education


completely ineffective died completely though reality even oldest methods still use eg berlitz version direct method proponents new methods sure ideas new correct could conceive older ones enough validity cause controversy turn caused emphasis new scientific advances tended blind researchers precedents older work ref name diller p nbsp two major branches field language learning empirical theoretical


world languages become core subject along main subjects english maths science countries australia common nowadays foreign language taught schools subject language education referred lote language english majority english speaking education centers french spanish german popular languages study learn english second language esl also available students whose first language english unable speak required standard


timna valley contains evidence copper mining years ago process transition neolithic chalcolithic middle east characterized archaeological stone tool assemblages decline high quality raw material procurement use north africa nile valley imported iron technology near east followed near eastern course bronze age iron age development however iron age bronze age occurred simultaneously much africa transition ancient history bronze age image ox drawn plow accompanied

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history
Prehistoric


soup eventually bread early agriculture time planting stick used replaced primitive plow subsequent centuries around time round stone tower preserved meters high meters diameter built jericho chalcolithic c bce pictographic proto writing known proto cuneiform appears sumer records begin kept according majority specialists first mesopotamian writing actually still pictographic proto writing stage tool record keeping little connection spoken language c


buddhism n't necessarily share view instead hinduism theravada buddhism speak falling back nonexistence escaping cycle reincarnation rather eternal life death ref name batchelor secular buddhism ''journal global buddhism '' ref geographical classification according charles joseph adams field comparative religion common geographical classification discerns ref name eb main world religions follows ref name eb middle eastern religions including judaism christianity islam zoroastrianism variety ancient cults east asian religions religious communities china japan korea

Humanities
Theology
Comparative Religion


th century ce origin spread islam many common aspects islam judaism islam developed gradually became major religion closest judaism opposed christianity originated interaction ancient greek roman hebrew cultures judaism similar islam fundamental religious outlook structure jurisprudence practice many traditions within islam originating traditions within hebrew bible post biblical jewish traditions practices known collectively ''isra'iliyat'' historical interaction christianity islam connects fundamental ideas


islam christianity judaism christianity neopaganism christianity paganism christianity vodou christianity mormonism christianity theosophy mormonism mormonism christianity mormonism islam mormonism judaism confucianism confucianism eastern religions confucianism western religions hinduism hinduism religions ayyavazhi hinduism buddhism hinduism hindu islamic relations jainism hinduism hinduism sikhism hinduism judaism islam islam religions christianity islam hindu islamic relations islam jainism islamic jewish relations islam sikhism mormonism islam jainism buddhism jainism islam jainism jainism sikhism


began march involved airstrikes apparent violation laws war fourth geneva convention ' 'relative protection civilian persons time war'' first adopted based parts hague convention iv two additional protocols adopted third one added completing updating geneva conventions protocol ' 'relating protection victims international armed conflicts'' protocol ii ' 'relating protection victims non international armed conflicts'' protocol iii ' 'relating adoption additional distinctive emblem''

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
War crimes


leipzig trials wwi world governments started try systematically create code war crimes would defined first outline law ''instructions government armies united states field'' also known lieber code small number german military personnel first world war tried german supreme court alleged war crimes london charter nuremberg trials modern concept war crime developed auspices nuremberg trials based


class c crimes humanity committed world war ii international criminal court bodies hundreds vietnamese villagers killed us soldiers lai massacre july international criminal court treaty based court located hague came prosecution war crimes committed date several nations notably united states china russia israel criticized court united states still participates observer article rome statute provides jurisdiction


citizens non contracting states accused committing crimes territory one state parties war crimes defined statute established international criminal court includes grave breaches geneva conventions willful killing causing great suffering serious injury body health torture inhumane treatment unlawful wanton destruction appropriation property forcing prisoner war serve forces hostile power depriving prisoner war fair trial unlawful deportation


death penalty war criminals bangladesh liberation war former libyan leader muammar gaddafi indicted allegedly ordering killings protesters civilians crimes humanity libyan civil war however killed could stand trial october yoshijir umezu general imperial japanese army seishir itagaki war minister empire japan hermann g ring commander chief luftwaffe ernst kaltenbrunner adolf eichmann high ranking members ss wilhelm keitel generalfeldmarschall head oberkommando der wehrmacht erich raeder gro admiral


gul mudin killed means throwing fragmentary grenade shooting rifle next victim marach agha came months later gibbs alleged shot placed kalashnikov next body soldiers reported taking fingers victims posting social media five soldiers gibbs morlock holmes michael wagnon adam winfield accused murder aggravated assault among charges libyan government detention migrants libyan government caught crossfire


eg satellite launch actuarial science provides data collection measurement estimating forecasting valuation tools provide financial underwriting data management assess marketing opportunities nature risks actuarial science often helps assess overall risk catastrophic events relation underwriting capacity surplus reinsurance fields actuarial science used design price reinsurance retrocession arrangements establish reserve funds known claims future claims catastrophes development pre formalization elementary mutual aid agreements pensions arose antiquity early roman empire associations

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Actuarial science


however many earlier forms surety aid would often fail due lack understanding knowledge initial development th century period advances mathematics germany france england time rapidly growing desire need place valuation personal risk scientific basis independently compound interest studied probability theory emerged well understood mathematical discipline another important advance came london draper named john graunt showed predictable patterns longevity


value liabilities assets changing discount rate assumption concept inconsistent financial economics potential modern financial economics theory complement existing actuarial science recognized actuaries mid twentieth century late early distinct effort actuaries combine financial theory stochastic methods established models ideas financial economics became increasingly influential actuarial thinking actuarial science started embrace sophisticated mathematical modelling finance today profession practice educational syllabi many actuarial


applied range applications outside traditional fields insurance pensions etc one notable example use us states actuarial models set criminal sentencing guidelines models attempt predict chance offending according rating factors include type crime age educational background ethnicity offender however models open criticism providing justification discrimination specific ethnic groups law enforcement personnel whether statistically correct self fulfilling correlation remains debate another example use actuarial


membranophones chordophones aerophones system classification updated several times sachs hornbostel still continues updated periodically one update system made sachs addition th category electrophones category encompassing instruments produce music electronically sachs' book ''the history musical instruments'' meant comprehensive compilation descriptions instruments many cultures functions within societies book primarily divided four chronological periods instruments early instruments antiquity middle ages modern occident periods

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Organology


medical dilemmas purpose scope field bioethics addressed broad swathe human inquiry ranging debates boundaries life eg abortion euthanasia surrogacy allocation scarce health care resources eg organ donation health care rationing right refuse medical care religious cultural reasons bioethicists often disagree among precise limits discipline debating whether field concern ethical evaluation questions involving biology medicine subset questions bioethicists would narrow ethical evaluation


hastings center daniel brock harvard university medically trained clinician ethicists mark siegler university chicago joseph fins cornell university lawyers nancy dubler albert einstein college medicine jerry menikoff federal office human research protections political scientists like francis fukuyama religious studies scholars including james childress theologians like lisa sowle cahill stanley hauerwas field formerly dominated formally trained philosophers become increasingly interdisciplinary critics even claiming methods analytic philosophy harmed field 's development


anne donchin sherwin 's book ''no longer patient feminist ethics health care'' credited one first full length books published topic feminist bioethics points shortcomings current bioethical theories ref name sherwin 's viewpoint incorporates models oppression within healthcare intend marginalize women people color immigrants people disabilities since created ''international journal feminist approaches bioethics'' done much work legitimize feminist work theory bioethics ref name ethical issues gene therapy gene therapy involves ethics


genetic diagnosis resources clinical ethics consultation convention human rights biomedicine references external links http wwwieputmedu bioethic bioethics entry ''internet encyclopedia philosophy'' https myoutubecom watchv rp xgwy xh menu bioethics http platostanfordedu entries feminist bioethics feminist bioethics ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' ethics philosophy biology


became singular meaning terms einstein equations became infinite nature surface quite understood time arthur eddington showed singularity disappeared change coordinates see eddington finkelstein coordinates although took georges lema tre realize meant singularity schwarzschild radius non physical coordinate singularity ref name hoofthist ref arthur eddington however comment possibility star mass compressed schwarzschild radius book noting einstein 's theory allows us rule

Natural science
Space science
Astrophysics
Black holes


neutron star commonly used equations state would limit value ref name prl ref class wikitable style float right margin em em black hole classifications class approx br mass approx br radius supermassive black hole style text align center style text align center au intermediate mass black hole style text align center style text align center km earth stellar black hole style text align center style text align center nbsp km micro black hole style text align center ''m'' style text align center nbsp mm black holes commonly classified according mass independent angular momentum ''j'' size


black hole determined radius event horizon schwarzschild radius proportional mass ''m'' math r mathrm frac gm c approx frac odot mathrm km math ''r'' schwarzschild radius mass sun black hole nonzero spin electric charge radius smaller q math extremal black hole could event horizon close math r mathrm frac gm c math event horizon ref group note image bh escape svg caption inside event horizon paths bring particle closer center black hole longer possible


horizon prolong experience accelerating away slow descent limit reach singularity crushed infinite density mass added total black hole happens torn apart growing tidal forces process sometimes referred spaghettification noodle effect case charged reissner nordstr rotating kerr black hole possible avoid singularity extending solutions far possible reveals hypothetical possibility exiting


image created light emitted far side accretion disc bent around black hole 's gravity well escaped means possible perspectives see entire disc even directly behind shadow prior eht detected magnetic fields outside event horizon sagittarius even discerned properties field lines pass accretion disc found complex mixture ordered tangled existence magnetic fields predicted theoretical


frequencies signals called quasi periodic oscillations thought caused material moving along inner edge accretion disk innermost stable circular orbit frequency linked mass compact object thus used alternative way determine mass candidate black holes galactic nuclei alfv n waves flow base black hole jets astronomers use term active galaxy describe galaxies unusual characteristics unusual spectral line emission strong radio emission theoretical observational studies


name nasa ref although supermassive black holes expected found agn galaxies' nuclei carefully studied attempts identify measure actual masses central supermassive black hole candidates notable galaxies supermassive black hole candidates include andromeda galaxy ngc ngc ngc ngc ngc oj apm sombrero galaxy ref name kormendyrichstone ref widely accepted center nearly every galaxy active ones contains supermassive black hole ref name king ref close observational


violation property called unitarity argued loss unitarity would also imply violation conservation energy ref name giddings ref though also disputed ref name unruh recent years evidence building indeed information unitarity preserved full quantum gravitational treatment problem one attempt resolve black hole information paradox known black hole complementarity firewall paradox introduced goal demonstrating black hole complementarity fails solve information paradox according quantum field theory curved spacetime


italian public schools religious education italian public schools controversial studying catholic religion important understand italy 's historic cultural artistic heritage others considered contrast constitutional principles secularity religious freedom also appropriate increasingly diverse society ref name giorda believe religious education exclusive competence families churches therefore opposed religious education public schools ref name giorda however study religion always optional choice public primary secondary schools history

Applied science
Divinity
Field ministry
Religious education


religions taught within scholastic curriculum history religious aspects also integrated within philosophy education italian lyceums latvia latvia since parents primary school students grades choose christian classes ethics christian classes interdenominational based common lutheran roman catholic orthodox baptist old believer grounds netherlands netherlands distinction made public special schools special schools teach basis religion philosophy life vision education public school lessons based


poland religious education optional state schools parents decide whether children attend religion classes ethics classes none since grades religion ethics classes counted towards grade point average romania religious education optional romanian state schools parents freely choose religion children study majority religious classes focus romanian orthodox faith majority religion country turkey institutional education general religious education particular centralized turkey approach began unity education law


neutral impartial classroom however finding suggests position may desirable teacher report also details teachers consistently found fair tolerant views religions world views strong agreement amongst teachers sampled contributes character development teachers strongly agreeing agreeing sentiment teachers religious faith likely think religions promote good character later published journal article differences


mid nineties major advancements made commercial use internet amazon launched started online bookstore grew become nowadays largest online retailer worldwide selling food toys electronics apparel successful stories online marketplaces include ebay etsy ibm agency ogilvy mather began use foundation solutions expertise market leader conducting business internet term e business ref name pettit ref ceo louis v gerstner jr prepared invest billion


market new brand ref name meyer ref conducting worldwide market research october ibm began eight page piece ''the wall street journal'' would introduce concept e business advertise ibm 's expertise new field ref name pettit ibm decided ''not'' trademark term e business hopes companies would use term create entirely new industry ref name meyer however proved successful differentiate ibm launched million campaign e business infrastructure capabilities ref name meyer since time terms e business e commerce


software firewalls encryption list ref name pitts university pittsburgh comp e business resource group security guidelines publication august ref ref name canada industry canada industrie canada industry canada aug web nov http wwwicgcca eic site dir ectnsf eng h uw html ref privacy confidentiality confidentiality extent businesses makes personal information available businesses individuals ref name west westfall joseph privacy electronic information individual santa clara university markkula center applied ethics web nov http wwwscuedu ethics publications submitted westfall privacyhtml ref business confidential information must remain secure accessible intended recipient however becomes even difficult dealing


unreadable messages decrypted order understandable usable someone key identifies data certain person company public key encryption actually two keys used one public one private public one used encryption private one decryption level actual encryption adjusted based information key simple slide letters completely random mix letters relatively easy implement


security reliability integrity issues ref name see also electronic commerce electronic commerce modeling language large business applications digital economy types e commerce shopping cart software references business terms web development web applications e commerce


travel examples public transport include city buses trolleybuses trams light rail passenger trains rapid transit metro subway underground etc ferries public transport cities dominated airlines coaches intercity rail high speed rail networks developed many parts world public transport systems run along fixed routes set embarkation disembarkation points prearranged timetable frequent services running headway eg every minutes opposed scheduled specific time day however public transport trips include modes travel passengers

Applied science
Transportation
Mass transit


predecessors reduced fares stimulated greater transit use two years richmond success thirty two thousand electric streetcars operating america electric streetcars also paved way first subway system america electric streetcars steam powered subways considered however people believed riders would avoid smoke filled subway tunnels steam engines boston built first subway united states electric streetcar line mile tunnel tremont street 's retail district cities new york quickly followed constructing hundreds miles


eight days within month passes aimed tourists allowing free discounted entry many tourist attractions typically include zero fare public transport within city period tickets may particular route directions whole network free travel pass allowing free unlimited travel within system sometimes granted particular social sectors example students elderly children employees ''job ticket'' physically mentally disabled zero fare public transport services funded full means collecting fare passengers normally heavy subsidy commercial sponsorship


meeting people concentration diverted interacting fellow travelers due steering activities adding said public transport becomes location inter social encounters across boundaries social ethnic types affiliation economic tram tunnel bratislava slovakia connection embankment city centre investment public transport secondary positive effects local economy ref name aptapdf ref economic activity resulting every dollar spent ref name ptorg many businesses rely access transit system particular cities countries access


separatists would build attempt realize puritan utopia religious writers included increase mather william bradford author journal published ''history plymouth plantation '' others like roger williams nathaniel ward fiercely argued state church separation others thomas morton cared little church morton 's ''the new english canaan'' mocked puritans declared local native americans better people ref name skipp skipp francis e ''american literature'' barron 's educational ref late writings described conflicts interaction indians seen writings

Humanities
Languages and literature
World literature
American literature


greater diversity opinion religious political life seen literature time population colonies numbered approximately thirty years later reached ref name baym nina growth communities therefore social life led people become interested progress individuals shared experience colonies new ideas seen popularity benjamin franklin 's ''autobiography'' even earlier franklin cadwallader colden whose book ''the history


siblings fell love without knowing related next decade important women writers also published novels susanna rowson best known novel ''charlotte tale truth'' published london ref name parker patricia l parker patricia l charlotte temple susanna rowson ''the english journal'' ''jstor'' web march ref novel reissued philadelphia title ''charlotte temple'' ''charlotte temple'' seduction tale written third person warns listening voice love counsels resistance also wrote


introductory notes ''literary movements'' july march http wwwwsuedu campbelld amlit earamnovhtm ref many novels popular economic infrastructure time allow writers make living writing alone charles brockden brown earliest american novelist whose works still commonly read published ''wieland'' published ''ormond'' ''edgar huntly'' ''arthur mervyn'' novels gothic genre first writer able support income generated publications alone washington irving completed first major book


group writers connected harvard university cambridge massachusetts included james russell lowell henry wadsworth longfellow oliver wendell holmes sr ralph waldo emerson ralph waldo emerson former minister published essay ''nature'' argued men dispense organized religion reach lofty spiritual state studying interacting natural world emerson 's work influenced writers formed movement known transcendentalism emerson also influenced public lectures among leaders transcendental movement henry david thoreau nonconformist


masterpiece ''the scarlet letter'' drama woman cast community committing adultery hawthorne 's fiction profound impact friend herman melville first made name turning material seafaring days exotic sea narrative novels inspired hawthorne 's focus allegories psychology melville went write romances replete philosophical speculation ''moby dick'' adventurous whaling voyage becomes vehicle examining themes obsession nature evil human struggle elements short novel ''billy


included edwin markham william vaughn moody journalistic critics including ida tarbell lincoln steffens labeled muckrakers henry brooks adams 's literate autobiography ''the education henry adams'' also depicted stinging description education system modern life race common issue well seen work pauline hopkins published five influential works similarly sui sin far wrote chinese american experiences maria cristina mena wrote mexican american experiences prominent among mid western western american writers willa cather wallace stegner


nobel prize literature world war ii subject several major novels norman mailer 's ''the naked dead'' joseph heller 's ''catch '' kurt vonnegut jr 's ''slaughterhouse five'' korean war source trauma protagonist ''the moviegoer'' southern author walker percy winner national book award attempt exploring dislocation man modern age ref name nyt conversations kimball roger https querynytimescom gst fullpagehtmlres f e f bc existentialism semiotics iced tea review conversations walker percy ''new york times'' august accessed september ref noteworthy novels


works adapted film delillo rose literary prominence publication novel ''white noise'' work broaching subjects death consumerism doubling piece comic social criticism began writing career ''americana'' listed harold bloom among preeminent contemporary american writers company figures philip roth cormac mccarthy thomas pynchon ref name bloom novelists ref novel ''underworld'' chronicles american life immediately cold war usually considered masterpiece also


psalms however translators' intention create literature create hymns could used worship ref name skipp among lyric poets important figures anne bradstreet wrote personal poems family homelife pastor edward taylor whose best poems ''preparatory meditations'' written help prepare leading worship michael wigglesworth whose best selling poem ''the day doom'' describes time judgment published year anti puritan charles ii restored british throne followed two years later ''god 's controversy


new england'' nicholas noyes also known doggerel verse th century th century saw increasing emphasis america fit subject matter poets trend evident works philip freneau ndash also notable unusually sympathetic attitude native americans reflective skepticism toward american culture ref name lubbers ref however late colonial era poetry generally influenced contemporary poetry europe work rebecca hammond lard still relevant today writing environment well also human nature th


nobody th century first edition american poetry arguably reached peak early mid th century noted writers wallace stevens ''harmonium'' ''the auroras autumn'' eliot ''the waste land'' robert frost ''north boston'' ''new hampshire'' hart crane ''white buildings'' epic cycle ''the bridge'' ezra pound ''the cantos'' william carlos williams epic poem new jersey hometown ''paterson'' marianne moore e e cummings edna st vincent millay


national book award whose long poem ''garbage'' earned another theodore roethke ''the waking'' pulitzer prize poetry james merrill epic poem communication dead ''the changing light sandover'' pulitzer prize poetry louise gl ck ''the wild iris'' pulitzer prize poetry ''faithful virtuous night'' national book award additionally living american author publishing primarily written poetry awarded nobel prize literature ws merwin ''the carrier ladders'' pulitzer prize poetry


contrast remained dependent european models although many playwrights attempt apply forms american topics themes immigrants westward expansion temperance etc time american playwrights created several long lasting american character types especially yankee negro indian exemplified characters jonathan sambo metamora addition new dramatic forms created tom shows showboat theater minstrel show among best plays period james nelson barker 's ''superstition fanatic father'' anna cora mowatt 's ''fashion life new york''


nathaniel bannister 's ''putnam iron son ' '' dion boucicault 's ''the octoroon life louisiana'' cornelius mathews 's ''witchcraft martyrs salem'' realism began influence american drama partly howells also europeans ibsen zola although realism influential set design staging audiences loved special effects offered popular melodramas growth local color plays also showed subdued less romantic tone reflected effects civil war continued social turmoil american psyche ambitious


harpsichordist first violinist see concertmaster approach modern times revived several music directors music period conducting playing piano synthesizer may also done musical theatre pit orchestras communication typically mostly non verbal performance however rehearsals frequent interruptions allow conductor give verbal directions music played sung conductors act guides orchestras choirs conduct choose works performed study scores may make certain

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Conducting


mold orchestras precisely thus could idiosyncratic techniques modern conductors spend less time given orchestra must get results much less rehearsal time standardized technique allows communication much rapid nonetheless conductors' techniques still show great deal variety particularly use left hand facial eye expression body language st century conductor 's score batons lit extra large conductor 's music stand women conductors almost unheard ranks leading orchestral conductors th th centuries today


communicate effectively ensemble ability communicate nuances phrasing expression gestures also beneficial conducting gestures preferably prepared beforehand conductor studying score may sometimes spontaneous distinction sometimes made orchestral conducting choral conducting typically orchestral conductors use baton often choral conductors grip baton varies conductor conductor beat tempo beginning piece music conductor raises hands hand use single hand indicate


commence music preparatory beat orchestra choir begins upbeat beat music typically indicated conductor 's right hand without baton hand traces shape air every bar measure depending time signature indicating beat change downward upward motion images show common beat patterns seen conductor 's point view downbeat indicates first beat bar upbeat indicates beat first note piece


performers see example piece conductor beat two two ictus points beats per bar conductor would hold two fingers front chest cases short pause movements symphony concerto dance suite brief pause gives orchestra choir members time turn pages part ready start next movement string players may apply rosin wipe sweat hands handkerchief reed players may


national cemetery roles conductor vary great deal different conducting positions different ensembles cases conductor also musical director symphony choosing program entire season including concerts guest conductors concerto soloists pop concerts senior conductor may attend auditions new members orchestra ensure candidates playing style tone conductor prefers candidates meet highest performance standards choral conductors hired prepare choir


'''medical physics''' profession deals application concepts methods physics prevention diagnosis treatment human diseases specific goal improving human health well since medical physics included health profession according international standard classification occupation international labour organization although medical physics may sometimes also referred ''biomedical physics'' ''medical biophysics'' ''applied physics medicine'' ''physics applications medical science'' ''radiological physics'' ''hospital radio physics'' however medical physicist specifically health professional specialist


reality crime united states subverted constructed reality ephemeral swamp gas criminology long focussed society defines criminal behavior crime general looking crime social constructionism lens see evidence support criminal acts social construct abnormal deviant acts become crime based views society ref name lindgren etal ref another explanation crime relates social constructionism individual identity constructs result deviant behavior ref name lindgren etal someone constructed identity

Social science
Sociology
Interpretive sociology
Social constructionism


imprint academic restivo croissant j social constructionism science technology studies handbook constructionist research ed ja holstein jf gubrium guilford ny schmidt j ''histories discourses rewriting constructivism'' exeter imprint academic searle j ''the construction social reality'' new york free press shotter j ''conversational realities constructing life language'' thousand oaks ca sage stewart j zediker k e witteborn ''together communicating interpersonally social construction approach'' th ed los angeles ca roxbury weinberg ''contemporary social constructionism key themes'' philadelphia pa temple university press


earliest texts internal medicine ayurvedic anthologies charaka role internal medicine physicians internal medicine specialists also known general internal medicine specialists general medicine physicians commonwealth countries specialist physicians trained manage particularly complex multisystem disease conditions single organ disease specialists may trained deal may asked tackle undifferentiated presentations cannot easily fitted within expertise single organ specialty dyspnea fatigue weight loss chest pain confusion change conscious state may manage serious acute illnesses affect multiple

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine


organ systems time single patient may manage multiple chronic diseases comorbidities single patient may general internal medicine specialists provide necessarily less expertise single organ specialists rather trained specific role caring patients multiple simultaneous problems complex comorbidities perhaps complex explain treatment diseases localised single organ confusion meaning internal medicine role internist internists qualified physicians postgraduate training internal


constructed contraction joints direct natural cracking pavement pavements use reinforcing steel jrcps constructed contraction joints reinforcing steel control cracking pavement high temperatures moisture stresses within pavement creates cracking reinforcing steel holds tightly together transverse joints dowel bars typically placed assist transferring load vehicle across cracking crcps solely rely continuous reinforcing steel hold pavement 's natural transverse cracks together prestressed concrete pavements also used construction

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Transportation engineering
Highway engineering


handbook highway engineering ed tw fwa crc press ref throughout highway 's life level serviceability closely monitored maintained one common method used maintain highway 's level serviceability place overlay pavement 's surface ref name fpod three general types overlay used flexible pavements asphalt concrete overlay portland cement concrete overlay ultra thin portland cement concrete overlay concrete layer conventional pcc overlay placed unbonded top flexible surface typical thickness ultra thin pcc overlay inches nbsp cm less ref name fpod


dry regardless well aspects road designed constructed adequate drainage mandatory road survive entire service life excess water highway structure inevitably lead premature failure even failure catastrophic ref name drainage ksaibati khaled kolkman laycee l highway drainage systems design handbook highway engineering ed tw fwa crc press ref highway drainage system site specific complex depending geography region many methods proper drainage may applicable highway engineer must


two commonly used types pavement surfaces used highway construction hot mix asphalt portland cement concrete pavement surface courses provide smooth safe riding surface simultaneously transferring heavy traffic loads various base courses underlying subgrade soils ref name construction hot mix asphalt layers hot mix asphalt surface courses referred flexible pavements superpave system developed late offered changes design approach mix design specifications quality testing materials ref name construction construction effective long lasting asphalt pavement requires


diagnosis physical examination following examples methods diagnosis able performed normal physical examination schober 's test tests flexion lower back multiple joint inspection musculoskeletal examination screening musculoskeletal exam smse rapid assessment structure function general musculoskeletal exam gmse comprehensive assessment joint inflammation regional musculoskeletal exam rmse focused assessments structure function inflammation combined special testing specialized laboratory tests eg erythrocyte sedimentation rate rheumatoid factor anti ccp anti citrullinated protein antibody ana anti nuclear antibody x rays ultrasounds imaging methods affected joints

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Rheumatology


pharmacological treatment became dominant surgical interventions became rarer references external links http wwwrhumatologieorg association des medecins rhumatologues du quebec http wwwrheumatologyorg american college rheumatology http wwweularorg european league rheumatism http wwwcorronaorg consortium rheumatology researchers north america inc http wwwrheumatologyorguk british society rheumatology http wwwrheumca en canadian rheumatology association https webarchiveorg web http wwwrheumatologyorg arhp association rheumatology health professionals


university press ref different approaches may consider factors contribute economic convergence non convergence across households regions countries theories development economics mercantilism physiocracy world gdp per capita nbsp ce earliest western theory development economics mercantilism developed th century paralleling rise nation state earlier theories given little attention development example scholasticism dominant school thought medieval feudalism emphasized reconciliation christian theology ethics rather development th th century school salamanca credited earliest

Social science
Economics
Development economics


marshall plan led major criticism theory assumes conditions found developing countries found post wwii europe ref name economic development structural change theory structural change theory deals policies focused changing economic structures developing countries composed primarily subsistence agricultural practices modern urbanized industrially diverse manufacturing service economy two major forms structural change theory w lewis' ''two sector surplus model'' views agrarian societies consisting large amounts surplus labor


development structural change approaches development economics faced criticism emphasis urban development expense rural development lead substantial rise inequality internal regions country two sector surplus model developed criticized underlying assumption predominantly agrarian societies suffer surplus labor actual empirical studies shown labor surpluses seasonal drawing labor urban areas result collapse agricultural sector patterns development approach


esteban ray ''q'' index defined math q sum n left frac tfrac tfrac right times math ' 's sub sub '' represents size group ''i'' percentage total population intended capture social distance existing ethnic groups within area ref name montalvo jose g early researchers jonathan pool considered concept dating back account tower babel linguistic unity may allow higher levels development ref name pool jonathan ref pointing obvious oversimplifications subjectivity definitions data collection


secondary higher education government policy stability tariffs subsidies fair court systems available infrastructure availability medical care prenatal care clean water ease entry exit trade equality income distribution example indicated gini coefficient advise governments macroeconomic policies include policies affect economy education enables countries adapt latest technology creates environment new innovations cause limited growth divergence economic growth lies high rate acceleration technological change small number


david e bloom professor economics demography harvard school public health fran ois bourguignon professor economics director paris school economics robin burgess professor economics london school economics director international growth centre francesco caselli professor economics london school economics paul collier author ''the bottom billion'' attempts tie together series traps explain self fulfilling nature poverty lower end development scale partha dasgupta professor economics university cambridge dave donaldson


field development list research institutions specialized development ideasrepec economics economic globalization


way jesus muhammad executed iranian authorities bah u 'll h claimed prophet faced exile imprisonment life son abdu'l bah released confinement made teaching trips europe united states abdu'l bah 's death leadership religion fell grandson shoghi effendi bah annually elect local regional national spiritual assemblies govern religion 's affairs every five years members national spiritual assemblies elect


stresses unity people explicitly rejecting racism nationalism heart bah teachings goal unified world order ensures prosperity nations races creeds classes letters written bah u 'll h various people including heads state collected assembled canon bah scripture includes works son abdu'l bah b b regarded bah u 'll h 's forerunner prominent among bah literature ''kit b aqdas'' ''kit b q n'' ''some answered questions'' ''the dawn breakers'' etymology english word ''bah '' used either


still suffers intense persecution abdu'l bah 's death marks end bah call heroic age religion b b shrine b b haifa israel evening may siyyid al muhammad shiraz gained first convert took title b b gate referring later claim status mahdi shi islam followers therefore known b b b b 's teachings spread islamic clergy saw blasphemous followers came increased persecution torture conflicts escalated


minority iran panama belize second largest international religion bolivia zambia papua new guinea third largest international religion chad kenya social practices exhortations following examples bah u 'll h 's teachings personal conduct required encouraged followers bah age individually recite obligatory prayer day using fixed words form addition daily obligatory prayer bah offer daily devotional prayer meditate study sacred scripture adult bah observe nineteen day fast year


pays impact environment respect waste management generally refers requirement waste generator pay appropriate disposal unrecoverable material history throughout history amount waste generated humans insignificant due low levels population density exploitation natural resources common waste produced pre modern times mainly ashes human biodegradable waste released back ground locally minimum environmental impact tools made wood metal generally reused passed generations however

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Environmental management
Waste management


sanitation general quality urban life streets became choked filth due lack waste clearance regulations calls establishment municipal authority waste removal powers occurred early corbyn morris london proposed preservation health people great importance proposed cleaning city put one uniform public management filth beconveyed thames proper distance country ref name lewis ref however mid th


keep recyclables compostables landfill three streams collected curbside fantastic bin system blue recyclables green compostables black landfill bound materials provided residents businesses serviced san francisco 's sole refuse hauler recology city 's pay throw system charges customers volume landfill bound materials provides financial incentive separate recyclables compostables discards city 's department environment 's zero waste program led city achieve diversion highest diversion rate north america businesses


may related income property values commercial industrial waste disposal typically charged commercial service often integrated charge includes disposal costs practice may encourage disposal contractors opt cheapest disposal option landfill rather environmentally best solution use recycling financing solid waste management projects overwhelming city government especially government see important service render citizen donors grants funding mechanism dependent interest


rate pyrolysis increases temperature industrial applications temperatures nbsp c nbsp f slow pyrolysis produces gases solid charcoal pyrolysis hold promise conversion waste biomass useful liquid fuel pyrolysis waste wood plastics potentially produce fuel solids left pyrolysis contain metals glass sand pyrolysis coke convert gas compared process incineration certain types pyrolysis processes release less harmful products contain alkali metals sulphur chlorine however pyrolysis waste yields gases impact environment hcl


holistic approach seeks reconcile agriculture local communities natural processes common benefit nature livelihoods agroecology inherently multidisciplinary including sciences agronomy ecology environmental science sociology economics history others ref name dalgaard agroecology uses different sciences understand elements ecosystems soil properties plant insect interactions well using social sciences understand effects farming practices rural communities economic constraints developing new production methods cultural factors determining farming practices system properties agroecosystems studied may include productivity stability sustainability equitability agroecology


today use agroecological practices nutrient cycling intercropping occurs across hundreds years many different cultures ref name gari ref indigenous peoples also currently make large proportion people using agroecological practices involved movement move farming agroecological paradigm pre wwii academic thought according gliessman francis ''et al'' agronomy ecology first linked study crop ecology klages work study crops best grown ref name francis ref name gliess gliessman stephen r agroecology ecological processes sustainable


caused public aware environmental costs agricultural production caused research sustainability starting ref name dalgaard view socio economic context fundamental used article ''agroecologia del tropico americano'' montaldo argues context cannot separated agriculture designing agricultural practices ref name francis miguel altieri studied consolidation farms cropping systems impact pest populations gliessman socio economic technological ecological components gave rise producer choices food production systems ref name francis edens ''et al''


dynamics noss ref name meffe ref umbrella flagship species example ''umbrella species'' monarch butterfly lengthy migrations aesthetic value monarch migrates across north america covering multiple ecosystems requires large area exist protections afforded monarch butterfly time umbrella many species habitats umbrella species often used ''flagship species'' species giant panda blue whale tiger mountain gorilla monarch butterfly capture public 's attention attract support

Applied science
Public administration
Conservation biology


earth 's ecosystems extensive scientists difficulty estimating number species lost ref name ehrlich ref say rates deforestation reef destruction wetland draining human acts proceeding much faster human assessment species latest ''living planet report'' world wide fund nature estimates exceeded bio regenerative capacity planet requiring earths support demands placed natural resources ref name wwflpr ref holocene extinction art scape image showing relative importance animals rain forest summary


world sudden disappearance bees leaving empty hives colony collapse disorder ccd uncommon however month period beekeepers across united states reported ccd losses colonies sudden demographic loss bee numbers placing strain agricultural sector cause behind massive declines puzzling scientists pests pesticides global warming considered possible causes another highlight links conservation biology insects forests climate change mountain pine beetle ''dendroctonus ponderosae'' epidemic


similar procedure place october ontario ministry education ome implemented dpa policy elementary schools grades government also requires students grades including special needs provided opportunities participate minimum twenty minutes sustained moderate vigorous physical activity school day instructional time united states shape nation report national association sport physical education part shape america american heart

Human physical performance and recreation


conducting researchers baylor scott white universities studying effect harmonica playing patients copd order determine helps improve lung function ref name copd harmonica ref another example active music therapy takes place nursing home japan therapists teach elderly play easy use instruments overcome physical difficulties ref name bunne method ref models approaches music therapist kenneth bruscia stated ''model'' comprehensive approach assessment treatment evaluation includes theoretical principles clinical indications contraindications goals methodological guidelines specifications characteristic use

Applied science
Medicine and health
Music therapy


refers technique used natural alternative medicine involves using mental imagery help physiological psychological ailments patients ref name voicesno ref practitioner often suggests relaxing focusing image use imagination discussion aim find constructive solutions manage problems bonny applied psychotherapeutic method field music therapy using music means guiding patient higher state consciousness healing constructive self awareness take place music considered co therapist importance gim children


premature infants female singing voices also effective soothing premature infants despite born premature infants show preference sound female singing voice making beneficial instrumental music '''promotion healthy sucking reflex''' using pacifier activated lullaby device music therapists help promote stronger sucking reflexes also reducing pain perception infant gato box small rectangular instrument stimulates prenatal heartbeat sound soft rhythmic manner also effective aiding sucking behaviors ref name gato pbs ref music therapist uses


fingers tap drum rather using mallet rhythm supports movement feeding promotes healthy sucking patterns improving sucking patterns babies able coordinate important dual mechanisms breathing sucking swallowing needed feed thus promoting growth weight gain treatment proves effective infants able leave hospital earlier '''multimodal stimulation music''' combining music lullabies multi modal stimulation premature infants discharged nicu sooner infants receive therapy multi modal stimulation mms includes applications auditory


shown benefit decreased heart rate therapeutic uses well promoting healthy sleep patterns lower respiratory rates improve sucking behavior '''infant stimulation''' type intervention uses musical stimulation compensate lack normal environmental sensory stimulation found nicu sound environment nicu provides disruptive music therapy mask unwanted auditory stimuli promote calm environment reduces complications high risk failure thrive infants parent infant bonding also affected noise nicu turn delay interactions parents


noise familiar buffers patient overwhelming extraneous noise environment others suggest music serves sort mediator social interactions providing vessel interact others without requiring much cognitive load ref name referencea aphasia broca 's aphasia non fluent aphasia language disorder caused damage broca 's area surrounding regions left frontal lobe non fluent aphasia able understand language fairly well struggle language production syntax neurologist oliver sacks author ''musicophilia tales music brain'' studied


name manasco ref name norton ref unable speak fluently patients non fluent aphasia often able sing words phrases even sentences cannot express otherwise mit harnesses singing ability patients non fluent aphasia means improve communication although exact nature depends therapist general mit relies use intonation rising falling voice rhythm beat speed train patients produce phrases verbally ref name norton mit common words phrases turned melodic phrases generally starting two step sing song patterns eventually emulating typical


known psychiatric disorders tentiative evidence music therapy may benefit adults children psychiatric disorders adults weak evidence suggest people schizophrenia may benefit addition music therapy along standard treatment regieme ref name ref ref name potential improvements include decreased aggression less hallucinations delusions social functioning quality life people schizophrenia schizophrenia like disorders ref name ref name ref addition moderate low quality evidence suggests music therapy addition standard care improves global state mental state including negative


treatments bereavement used evaluated music therapy models found successful treating grief bereavement rosner kruse hagl practice music therapy practice working together clients music promote healthy change bruscia abrams american music therapy association amta defined practice music therapy behavioral science concerned changing unhealthy behaviors replacing adaptive ones use musical stimuli davis gfeller thaut brief history use


created none survived long n't national association music therapy founded new york clinical training certification requirements created american association music therapy created though time called urban federation music therapists certification board music therapists created strengthened practice music therapy trust given american music therapy association formed merger national american associations


using song music bc music used healing egyptian priest physicians ref name ref plato said music affected emotions could influence character individual aristotle taught music affects soul described music force purified emotions aulus cornelius celsus advocated sound cymbals running water treatment mental disorders music therapy practiced bible david played harp rid king saul bad spirit sam ref name howellsosborn ref early bc hippocrates played music mental


staying healthy robert burton wrote th century classic work ''the anatomy melancholy'' music dance critical treating mental illness especially melancholia rise understanding body mind terms nervous system led emergence new wave music healing eighteenth century earlier works subject athanasius kircher 's ''musurgia universalis'' even early eighteenth century books michael ernst ettm ller 's ''disputatio effectus musicae hominem'' disputation effect music man


medicine arguing stimulation nerves caused music could directly improve harm health throughout th century impressive number books articles authored physicians europe united states discussing use music therapeutic agent treat mental physical illness ref name ref name knight ref music therapy ca western viewpoint music therapy th st centuries evidence based allied healthcare profession grew aftermath world wars ii particularly


red cross director hospital music wwi reconstruction hospitals columbia university musicotherapy teacher founder national association music hospitals author ''harriet ayer seymour'' music therapist wwi veterans author researcher lecturer teacher founder ''national foundation music therapy'' author first music therapy textbook published us several physicians also promoted music therapeutic agent time period ref name knight ref name us first music therapy bachelor 's degree program established michigan state college university ref name knight


fundamental criteria derived acoustic physics indian association music therapy established dr dinesh c sharma motto use pleasant sounds specific manner like drug due course time green medicine ref name iamtnetin ref also published ''international journal music therapy'' issn popularize promote music therapy research international platform suvarna nalapat studied music therapy indian context books ''nadalayasindhu ragachikitsamrutam'' ''music therapy management education administration'' ''ragachikitsa'' accepted textbooks music therapy indian arts


music therapy trust india another venture country started margaret lobo founder director otakar kraus music trust work began lebanon hamda farhat introduced music therapy lebanon developing inventing therapeutic methods triple method treat hyperactivity depression anxiety addiction post traumatic stress disorder met great success working many international organizations training therapists educators doctors norway norway recognized important country


changes philosophy regarding care psychiatric patients well influx wwii veterans veterans administration hospitals renewed interest music programs patients ref name knight ref name many musicians volunteered provide entertainment primarily assigned perform psychiatric wards positive changes patients' mental physical health noted nurses volunteer musicians many degrees music education becoming aware powerful effects music could patients realized specialized training necessary ref name knight ref name first music therapy bachelor 's degree program established


three others one master 's degree program quickly following michigan state college university university kansas master 's degree college pacific chicago musical college alverno college ''national association music therapy'' namt professional association formed ref name first music therapy credential us registered music therapist rmt instituted namt ref name knight american music therapy association amta founded merger national association music therapy namt founded


duty military families family member developmental physical emotional intellectual disorder currently programs davis monthan air force base resounding joy inc music institute chicago partner efmp services provide music therapy services eligible military family members ref name amta music therapy programs primarily target active duty military members treatment facility order provide reconditioning among members convalescing army hospitals although music therapy programs benefit military rather wide range clients including us air force american navy us marines corp


neutral mutation left chance genetic drift direction evolutionary change driven mutations occur cannot captured models change frequency existing alleles alone ref name mccandlish ref name casillasbarbadilla ref origin fixation view population genetics generalizes approach beyond strictly neutral mutations sees rate particular change happens product mutation rate fixation probability ref name mccandlish four processes selection natural selection includes sexual selection fact traits make likely organism survive reproduce

Natural science
Biology
Genetics
Population genetics


red line subsequent deleterious mutation larger proportionate effect organism 's fitness antagonistic epistasis blue black line shows non epistatic case fitness product contributions loci epistasis means phenotypic fitness effect allele one locus depends alleles present loci selection act single locus phenotype arises development complete genotype however many population genetics models sexual species single locus models fitness


mutation g happens often mutation g genotypes tend evolve different insertion vs deletion mutation biases different taxa lead evolution different genome sizes ref name petrov ref developmental mutational biases also observed morphological evolution example according phenotype first theory evolution mutations eventually cause genetic assimilation traits previously induced environment ref name palmer ref ref name west eberhard ref mutation bias effects superimposed processes selection would favor either one two