canon law society great britain ireland assisted canon law society australia new zealand canadian canon law society http wwwintratextcom x lat htm codex canonum ecclesiarum orientalium original text latin http wwwintratextcom x eng htm code canons oriental churchs defective english translation http wwwintratextcom x lat htm codex iuris canonici original text latin https wwwscribdcom doc salvific law salvific character law historical overview salvific law http wwwaherefordorg canonlaw code canon law notes commentary articles bibliography '''anglican''' https webarchiveorg web http wwwcofeanglicanorg churchlawlegis canons canons church england http wwwecclawsocorguk ecclesiastical law society christian terminology religious law


front cothon military port carthage carthage 's warships biremes anchored overview carthage built promontory sea inlets north south city 's location made master mediterranean 's maritime trade ships crossing sea pass sicily coast tunisia carthage built affording great power influence two large artificial harbors built within city one harboring city 's massive navy warships mercantile trade walled tower overlooked

Humanities
History
Ancient history
Carthage


th rd centuries sculptures sarcophagi became works art bronze engraving stone carving reached zenith elevation land promontory seashore north east called sidi bou sa twice high sea level byrsa runs ridge several times reaching continues northwestward along seashore forms edge plateau like area byrsa sea newer urban developments lay northern districts punic ruins byrsa


sent tunis cardinal charles lavigerie apostolic archaeological mission audollent http wwwmediterranee antiquefr auteurs fichiers abc audollent carthage cart htm p cites delattre lavigerie effect locals still knew area ancient city name ''cartagenna'' ie reflecting latin ''n'' stem ''carth gine'' auguste audollent divides area roman carthage four quarters ''cartagenna'' ''derm che'' ''byrsa'' ''la malga'' cartagenna derm che correspond lower city including site punic carthage byrsa associated upper city punic times walled citadel


phoenicians carthaginians well known secrecy thus ancient writings little major interest left us carthage phoenicia country origin city founders various phoenician punic compositions alluded ancient classical authors single work even fragment survived original idiom indeed single phoenician manuscript survived original language translation cannot therefore access directly line thought contour worldview expressed words


physics process light interacts surfaces explained using physics physics explains behavior optics core part imaging systems sophisticated image sensors even require quantum mechanics provide complete understanding image formation process ref name szeliski also various measurement problems physics addressed using computer vision example motion fluids neurobiology neurobiology specifically study biological vision system last century extensive study eyes neurons brain structures devoted processing visual stimuli humans

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Computer vision


environment could provided computer vision system acting vision sensor providing high level information environment robot fields beside mentioned views computer vision many related research topics also studied purely mathematical point view example many methods computer vision based statistics optimization geometry finally significant part field devoted implementation aspect computer vision existing methods realized various combinations software hardware methods


set images specific content content specified different ways example terms similarity relative target image give images similar image x utilizing reverse image search techniques terms high level search criteria given text input give images contain many houses taken winter cars computer vision people counter purposes public places malls shopping centres '''pose estimation'''estimating position orientation specific object relative camera example application


technique would assisting robot arm retrieving objects conveyor belt assembly line situation picking parts bin '''optical character recognition''' ocr identifying characters images printed handwritten text usually view encoding text format amenable editing indexing ''eg'' ascii ''' code reading'' 'reading codes data matrix qr codes '''facial recognition''' ''' shape recognition technology''' srt people counter systems differentiating human beings head shoulder patterns objects motion analysis several tasks relate motion estimation image


point image point moving relative image plane ''ie'' apparent motion motion result corresponding point moving scene camera moving relative scene scene reconstruction given one typically images scene video scene reconstruction aims computing model scene simplest case model set points sophisticated methods produce complete surface model advent imaging


image coordinate system correct noise reduction assure sensor noise introduce false information contrast enhancement assure relevant information detected scale space representation enhance image structures locally appropriate scales '''feature extraction''' image features various levels complexity extracted image data ref name davies typical examples features lines edges ridges localized interest points corners blobs points complex features may related texture shape motion '''detection segmentation''' point processing decision made image


systems order hundreds thousands frames per second applications robotics fast real time video systems critically important often simplify processing needed certain algorithms combined high speed projector fast image acquisition allows measurement feature tracking realised egocentric vision systems composed wearable camera automatically take pictures first person perspective vision processing units emerging new class processor complement cpus graphics processing units gpus role ref name rise vpus ref see also computational


early rome improvements tactics equipment reflected thousand years earlier first iranians reach iranian plateau forced assyrians undertake similar reform nonetheless romans would continue rely mainly heavy infantry supported auxiliary cavalry late roman empire migration period auxiliary cavalryman army late roman empire cavalry played increasingly important role spatha classical sword throughout st millennium adopted standard model empire 's cavalry forces th century evolved

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Cavalry


bc king wuling zhao ruler former state jin ordered commanders troops adopt trousers nomads well practice nomads' form mounted archery hone new cavalry skills ref name ebrey bas relief soldier horse saddle stirrups tomb chinese emperor taizong tang r c adoption massed cavalry china also broke tradition chariot riding chinese aristocracy battle use since ancient shang dynasty c


right anything ref qianlong emperor ceremonial armor horseback painted giuseppe castiglione dated many occasions chinese studied nomadic cavalry tactics applied lessons creating potent cavalry forces others simply recruited tribal horsemen wholesale armies yet cases nomadic empires proved eager enlist chinese infantry engineering case mongol empire sinicized part yuan dynasty chinese recognized early han dynasty bc ad


saddle attached stirrup least th century oldest reliable depiction rider paired stirrups found jin dynasty tomb year ad ref name dien http wwwsilk roadcom artl stirrupshtml dien albert stirrup effect chinese military history ref chinese invention horse collar th century also great improvement breast harness allowing horse haul greater weight without heavy burden skeletal structure ref name needham volume part needham volume part ref ref name needham volume part needham volume part ref


korea horse warfare korea first started ancient korean kingdom gojoseon since least rd century bc influence northern nomadic peoples yemaek peoples korean warfare roughly first century bc ancient kingdom buyeo also mounted warriors cavalry goguryeo one three kingdoms korea called ''gaemamusa'' renowned fearsome heavy cavalry force king gwanggaeto great often led expeditions baekje gaya confederacy buyeo later yan japanese invaders cavalry th


horses sindhu kamboja regions finest breed services kambojas cavalry troopers utilised ancient wars jaos writes famous horses said come either sindhu kamboja latter ie kamboja indian epic mahabharata speaks among finest horsemen coin chandragupta ii vikramaditya one powerful emperors gupta empire times referred golden age india rajput warrior horseback mahabharata speaks esteemed cavalry kambojas sakas yavanas


''mudra rakashas'' ''visakha dutta'' jaina work ''parishishtaparvan'' refer chandragupta 's c bc c bc alliance himalayan king ''parvataka'' himalayan alliance gave chandragupta formidable composite army made cavalry forces shakas yavanas kambojas kiratas parasikas bahlikas attested mudra rakashas mudra rakshasa hordes helped chandragupta maurya defeat ruler magadha placed chandragupta throne thus laying foundations mauryan dynasty northern india cavalry hunas kambojas also attested raghu vamsa epic poem sanskrit poet


kalidasa raghu kalidasa believed chandragupta ii ''vikaramaditya'' ad well known gupta dynasty late mediaeval era kamboja cavalry also formed part gurjara pratihara armed forces eighth th centuries ad come bengal pratiharas latter conquered part province ancient kambojas organised military ' 'sanghas'' shrenis corporations manage political military affairs arthashastra kautiliya well mahabharata record described ''ayuddha jivi'' ''shastr opajivis'' nations arms also means kamboja cavalry


regular army cavalry regiments increased number six ten among custer 's us th cavalry regiment little bighorn fame african american us th cavalry regiment us th cavalry regiment black units along others cavalry infantry collectively became known buffalo soldiers according robert utley frontier army conventional military force trying control conventional military methods people behave like conventional enemies indeed quite often enemies difficult military assignments whether


regiment dismounted incorporated additional infantry battalions austro hungarian opponents plagued shortage trained infantry obliged progressively convert horse cavalry regiments dismounted rifle units starting late middle east middle east sinai palestine campaign mounted forces british indian ottoman australian arab new zealand retained important strategic role mounted infantry cavalry egypt mounted infantry formations like new zealand mounted rifles brigade australian light horse anzac mounted division operating mounted infantry drove german ottoman forces


back romani magdhaba rafa egyptian sinai peninsula stalemate gaza beersheba line march october beersheba captured australian mounted division 's th light horse brigade mounted charge succeeded coordinated attack british infantry yeomanry cavalry australian new zealand light horse mounted rifles brigades series coordinated attacks egyptian expeditionary force infantry mounted troops also successful battle mughar ridge british infantry divisions desert mounted


corps drove two ottoman armies back jaffa jerusalem line infantry mainly dismounted cavalry mounted infantry fought judean hills eventually almost encircle jerusalem occupied shortly pause operations necessitated german spring offensive western front joint infantry mounted infantry attacks towards amman es salt resulted retreats back jordan valley continued occupied mounted divisions summer australian mounted division armed swords september successful breaching


many parts eastern front another consideration logistic capacity required support large motorized forces exceeded necessary mounted troops main usage soviet cavalry involved infiltration front lines subsequent deep raids disorganized german supply lines another role pursuit retreating enemy forces major frontline operations breakthroughs italian last mounted sabre charge italian cavalry occurred august isbuscenski russia squadron savoia cavalry regiment charged th siberian infantry regiment remainder regiment together


volunteer cavalry militia unit established currently organized official part massachusetts organized militia ref name nl ref national lancers maintain three units troops b c serve ceremonial role assist search rescue missions ref name nl july national lancers ordered active state service guard camp curtis guild democratic national convention ref name nl governor 's horse guard connecticut maintains two companies trained urban crowd control ref name special california state guard stood th mounted operations


detachment search rescue cavalry unit social status beginning civilization th century ownership heavy cavalry horses mark wealth amongst settled peoples cavalry horse involves considerable expense breeding training feeding equipment little productive use except mode transport reason often decisive military role cavalry typically associated high social status clearly seen feudal system lord expected enter combat armored horseback bring


entourage lightly armed peasants foot landlords peasant levies came conflict poorly trained footmen would ill equipped defeat armored knights later national armies service officer cavalry generally badge high social status instance prior officers british cavalry regiments came socially privileged background considerable expenses associated role generally required private means even became possible officers line infantry regiments live pay options open poorer cavalry officers


british army light dragoons british army panserbataljonen norwegian army queen 's yeomanry british army reserve light cavalry regiment queen 's royal hussars british army regulares spanish morocco royal dragoon guards british army royal lancers british army royal scots dragoon guards carabiniers greys british army royal wessex yeomanry british army reserve armoured regiment royal yeomanry british army reserve light cavalry regiment savage division north caucasus savari italian north african scottish north irish yeomanry british army reserve light cavalry regiment sipahi ottoman south alberta light horse canadian army spahi french north african tagmata byzantine united states cavalry


notable horse cavalrymen georgios stanotas commander hellenic army 's cavalry division world war ii didier courr ges major french army member cole nationale d' quitation 's cadre noir olympian summer olympics edwin ramsey lieutenant colonel th cavalry regiment world war ii recipient distinguished service cross led last cavalry charge american military history gallery gallery file troop b st cavalry regiment washington national guardjpg washington national guard cavalry pictured tacoma washington file french heavy cavalry paris august jpg french cuirassiers wearing breastplates helmets parade paris


used provide corrective feedback helping achieve desired performance systems designed perform without requiring human input called automatic control systems cruise control regulating speed car multi disciplinary nature control systems engineering activities focus implementation control systems mainly derived mathematical modeling diverse range systems overview modern day control engineering relatively new field study gained significant attention th century advancement technology broadly defined classified practical application control theory control engineering plays

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Control theory
Control engineering


etc open loop response characteristics applied specification typically gain phase margin bandwidth characteristics may evaluated simulation including dynamic model system control coupled compensation model modern mimo system design modern control theory carried state space deal multiple input multiple output mimo systems overcomes limitations classical control theory sophisticated design problems fighter aircraft control limitation frequency domain analysis possible modern design system represented greatest advantage


systems many continuous systems components including mechanical fluid biological analog electrical components digital controllers similarly design technique progressed paper ruler based manual design computer aided design computer automated design cad made possible evolutionary computation cad applied tuning predefined control scheme also controller structure optimisation system identification invention novel control systems based purely upon performance requirement independent specific control scheme resilient control systems extend traditional focus addressing planned disturbances frameworks


fields economics artificial intelligence one might say goal find internal model obeys good regulator theorem example economics accurately stock commodities trading model represents actions market easily control market extract useful work profits ai example might chatbot modelling discourse state humans accurately model human state eg telephone voice support hotline better manipulate human eg

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Control theory


equations called nominal parameters never known absolute precision control system behave correctly even connected physical system true parameter values away nominal advanced control techniques include line identification process see later parameters model calculated identified controller running way drastic variation parameters ensues example robot 's arm releases weight controller adjust consequently order ensure correct performance analysis analysis robustness siso single


one decentralized control decentralization helpful many ways instance helps control systems operate larger geographical area agents decentralized control systems interact using communication channels coordinate actions deterministic stochastic systems control stochastic control problem one evolution state variables subjected random shocks outside system deterministic control problem subject external random shocks main control strategies every control system must guarantee first stability closed loop behavior linear systems obtained


true performance index closed loop control system together pid controllers mpc systems widely used control technique process control robust control deals explicitly uncertainty approach controller design controllers designed using ''robust control'' methods tend able cope small differences true system nominal model used design early methods bode others fairly robust state space methods invented sometimes found lack robustness examples modern robust control techniques include h infinity loop shaping developed


time '''united kingdom''' civil defence service disbanded followed arp onset growing tensions east west service revived civil defence corps civilian volunteer organization tasked take control aftermath major national emergency principally envisaged cold war nuclear attack although authority home office centralized administrative establishment corps administered locally corps authorities general every county corps authority

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Civil defense


however remained committed civil defence namely isle man civil defence corps civil defence ireland republic ireland united states various civil defense agencies replaced federal emergency management agency fema became part department homeland security focus shifted nuclear war hazards approach comprehensive emergency management natural disasters emergence new threats terrorism caused attention focused away traditional civil defense new forms civil protection emergency management


attack effects blast fires radiation one prepared countries nuclear attack switzerland almost every building switzerland ''abri'' shelter initial nuclear bomb explosion followed fall many people use safe protect valuables photos financial information switzerland also air raid nuclear raid sirens every village dirty bomb radiologically enhanced weapon dirty bomb uses explosive spread radioactive material theoretical risk weapons used terrorists


railheads ones denton texas mount weather virginia measures would include continual government inventories grain silos strategic national stockpile uncapping strategic petroleum reserve dispersal lorry transportable bridges water purification mobile refineries mobile de contamination facilities mobile general special purpose disaster mortuary facilities disaster mortuary operational response team dmort dmort wmd aids temporary housing speed civil recovery individual scale one means preparation exposure nuclear fallout obtain potassium iodide ki tablets safety measure protect


civilians enter fallout shelters protect assets staffing response always full problems civil defense emergency attack conventional full time emergency services dramatically overloaded conventional fire fighting response times often exceeding several days capability maintained local state agencies emergency reserve provided specialized military units especially civil affairs military police judge advocates combat engineers however traditional response massed attack civilian population centers maintain mass trained force volunteer emergency workers studies world war ii showed


human made disasters alike worldwide protection managed united nations office coordination humanitarian affairs ocha countries jordan singapore see singapore civil defence force civil defense essentially organization fire brigade countries however civil defense government managed volunteer staffed organization separate fire brigade ambulance service threat cold war eased number civil defense organizations disbanded mothballed case royal observer corps united kingdom


used mean cryonics popular culture press etymology word ''cryogenics'' stems greek '' cryos '' ndash cold '' genis '' ndash generating cryogenic fluids cryogenic fluids boiling point kelvins class wikitable fluid boiling point k helium helium hydrogen neon nitrogen air fluorine argon oxygen methane industrial


earth martin waldseem ller produced globular world map large panel world wall map ''universalis cosmographia'' bearing first use name america portuguese cartographer diego ribero author first known planisphere graduated equator italian cartographer battista agnese produced least manuscript atlases sea charts johannes werner refined promoted werner projection equal area heart shaped world map projection generally called cordiform projection used th th centuries time iterations map type arose notable


wayfinding land surveying property management medieval times written directions get somewhere common use maps renaissance cartography began seen metaphor power ref name political leaders could lay claim territories use maps greatly aided religious colonial expansion europe commonly mapped places renaissance holy land religious places late late rome florence venice dominated map making trade started


apparent woodcut intaglio improve quality late fifteenth century style relief craftsmanship developed using fine chisels carve wood rather commonly used knife intaglio lines engraved workable metals typically copper sometimes brass engraver spreads thin sheet wax metal plate uses ink draw details engraver traces lines stylus etch plate beneath ref name ref engraver also use styli prick holes along drawn lines trace along


visual variables size shape color pattern composition symbols brought together interactions major effects map reading grouping visual hierarchy typography labeling text serves number purposes map especially aiding recognition features labels must designed positioned well effective layout map image must placed page whether paper web media along related elements title legend additional maps text images elements


world body mapping giscience professionals well ica member organizations british cartographic society bcs registered charity uk dedicated exploring developing world maps society cartographers supports uk practising cartographer encourages maintains high standard cartographic illustration cartography geographic information society cagis promotes us research education practice improve understanding creation analysis use maps geographic information society serves forum exchange original concepts techniques approaches experiences


categories backdoor backdoor computer system cryptosystem algorithm secret method bypassing normal authentication security controls may exist many reasons including original design poor configuration may added authorized party allow legitimate access attacker malicious reasons regardless motives existence create vulnerability backdoors hard detect detection backdoors usually discovered someone access application source code intimate knowledge

Formal science
Computer science
Computer security


via monitoring faint electromagnetic transmissions generated hardware tempest specification nsa referring attacks multi vector polymorphic attacks surfacing new class multi vector polymorphic cyber threats combined several types attacks changed form avoid cybersecurity controls spread phishing example phishing email disguised official email fictional bank sender attempting trick recipient revealing confidential information confirming phisher 's website note misspelling words ' 'received'' ' 'discrepancy''


vehicles september united states department transportation announced initial safety standards called states come uniform policies government government military computer systems commonly attacked activists ref name tel profile ref ref name bbcprofile ref ref name publications ref foreign powers ref name npr ref ref name cnn ref local regional government infrastructure traffic light controls police intelligence agency communications personnel records student records financial systems also potential targets largely computerized passports government id cards control access facilities use rfid vulnerable cloning internet things


security experts cyber hygiene relates personal hygiene computer viruses relate biological viruses pathogens however term ''computer virus'' coined almost simultaneously creation first working computer viruses term ''cyber hygiene'' much later invention perhaps late internet pioneer vint cerf since adopted congress senate united states fbi eu institutions ref name heads state ref name response breaches responding attempted security breaches often difficult variety reasons including


identifying attackers difficult may operate proxies temporary anonymous dial accounts wireless connections anonymizing procedures make back tracing difficult often located another jurisdiction successfully breach security also often gained enough administrative access enable delete logs cover tracks sheer number attempted attacks often automated vulnerability scanners computer worms large organizations cannot spend time pursuing law enforcement officers often lack skills interest budget pursue attackers addition identification attackers across


incident response organized approach addressing managing aftermath computer security incident compromise goal preventing breach thwarting cyberattack incident identified managed time intrusion typically escalates damaging event data breach system failure intended outcome computer security incident response plan contain incident limit damage assist recovery business usual responding compromises quickly mitigate exploited vulnerabilities restore services processes minimize losses incident response planning


machines connected internet ref name multiple rome laboratory hundred intrusions made unidentified crackers rome laboratory us air force 's main command research facility using trojan horses hackers able obtain unrestricted access rome 's networking systems remove traces activities intruders able obtain classified files air tasking order systems data furthermore able penetrate connected networks national aeronautics space administration 's goddard space flight center wright patterson air force base defense contractors private sector organizations posing


birth addresses fingerprints current former government employees well anyone undergone government background check believed hack perpetrated chinese hackers ashley madison breach ashley madison data breach july hacker group known impact team successfully breached extramarital relationship website ashley madison created avid life media group claimed taken company data user data well breach impact team dumped emails company 's ceo prove point threatened dump customer


safety canada partnered stopthinkconnect coalition non profit private sector government organizations launched cyber security cooperation program also run getcybersafe portal canadian citizens cyber security awareness month october public safety canada aims begin evaluation canada 's cybersecurity strategy early ref name government canada china china 's central leading group internet security informatization established february leading small group lsg chinese communist party headed general secretary xi jinping staffed relevant party


discovery conduct thereby substantially reducing likelihood described activities result civil criminal violation law computer fraud abuse act usc united states cyber command also known uscybercom mission direct synchronize coordinate cyberspace planning operations defend advance national interests collaboration domestic international partners role protection civilian networks us federal communications commission 's role cybersecurity strengthen protection critical communications infrastructure assist maintaining reliability


advancement opportunities terminology following terms used regards computer security explained access authorization restricts access computer group users use authentication systems systems protect either whole computer interactive login screen individual services ftp server many methods identifying authenticating users passwords identification cards smart cards biometric systems anti virus software consists computer programs attempt identify thwart eliminate computer viruses malicious software malware applications executable code


security review architectures frameworks interoperability perspective external links computer security cryptography cyberwarfare data protection information governance malware


algorithm often expressed using big notation best worst average case complexity visualization quicksort algorithm average case performance math mathcal n log n math best worst average case complexity refer three different ways measuring time complexity complexity measure different inputs size since inputs size ''n'' may faster solve others define following complexities best case complexity complexity solving problem best input size ''n'' average case complexity complexity solving problem

Formal science
Computer science
Theory of computation
Computational complexity theory


boolean circuits quantum turing machines monotone circuits etc resource resources bounded bound two properties usually stated together polynomial time logarithmic space constant depth etc complexity classes complicated definitions fit framework thus typical complexity class definition like following set decision problems solvable deterministic turing machine within time ''f'' ''n'' complexity class known dtime ''f'' ''n'' bounding computation time concrete function ''f'' ''n'' often yields complexity classes depend chosen


machine space sup poly ''n'' sup colspan non deterministic space nspace ''f'' ''n'' non deterministic turing machine space ''f'' ''n'' nl non deterministic turing machine space log ''n'' npspace non deterministic turing machine space poly ''n'' nexpspace non deterministic turing machine space sup poly ''n'' sup logarithmic space classes necessarily take account space needed represent problem turns pspace npspace expspace nexpspace savitch 's theorem important complexity classes include bpp zpp rp defined using probabilistic turing


hardest problems ''c'' thus class np complete problems contains difficult problems np sense ones likely p problem p nbsp nbsp np solved able reduce known np complete problem sub sub another problem sub sub would indicate known polynomial time solution sub sub polynomial time solution sub sub would yield polynomial time solution sub sub similarly np problems reduced set finding np complete problem solved polynomial time


run time math sqrt n log n math graphs ''n'' vertices although recent work babai offers potentially new perspectives integer factorization problem computational problem determining prime factorization given integer phrased decision problem problem deciding whether input prime factor less ''k'' efficient integer factorization algorithm known fact forms basis several modern cryptographic systems rsa algorithm integer factorization problem '''np''' '''co np''' even


international year crystallography iycr org july ref development x ray diffraction crystallography see study crystals based physical measurements geometry using goniometer involved measuring angles crystal faces relative theoretical reference axes crystallographic axes establishing symmetry crystal question position space crystal face plotted stereographic net wulff net lambert net pole face plotted net point labelled miller

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Materials Science and Engineering
Crystallography


process mathematically predicted diffraction patterns hypothesized model structure compared actual pattern generated crystalline sample ideally researchers make several initial guesses refinement converge answer models refined predicted patterns match great degree achieved without radical revision model painstaking process made much easier today computers mathematical methods analysis diffraction data apply ''patterns'' turn result waves diffract orderly arrays hence crystallography applies


observing members given group br br dance human behaviour composed dancer perspective usually shared audience members dancer culture purposeful individual choice social learning play role intentionally rhythmical culturally patterned sequences nonverbal body movement mostly performed ordinary motor activities motion time space effort inherent aesthetic value notion appropriateness competency viewed dancer culture symbolic potential dance categorized described choreography repertoire


movements historical period place origin important distinction drawn contexts theatrical participatory dance although two categories always completely separate may special functions whether social ceremonial competitive erotic martial sacred liturgical forms human movement sometimes said dance like quality including martial arts gymnastics cheerleading figure skating synchronized swimming marching bands many forms athletics performance participation members american jazz dance company perform formal group routine concert dance setting theatrical dance also


express story told choreographer dancers rhythm rhythm dance deeply linked history practice american dancer ted shawn wrote conception rhythm underlies studies dance something could talk forever still finish ref name shawn shawn ted ''dance must'' dennis dobson ltd london p ref musical rhythm requires two main elements first regularly repeating pulse also called beat tactus establishes tempo second pattern accents rests establishes character


common use term foot describe fundamental rhythmic units poetry scholes dancer musician offers support view stating steady measures music two three four beats bar equal balanced phrases regular cadences contrasts repetitions may attributed incalculable influence dance upon music mile jaques dalcroze primarily musician teacher relates study physical movements pianists led discovery musical sensations rhythmic nature call muscular nervous response


system musical time man made artificial thing manufactured tool whereas rhythm something always existed depends man continuous flowing time human minds cut convenient units suggesting music might revivified return values time perception dancing early th century american dancer helen moller stated simply rhythm form harmony color beginning bound music poetry dancing together union indissoluble approaches tang dynasty female


ballet artists marie rambert eurythmy developed rudolf steiner marie steiner von sivers combines formal elements reminiscent traditional dance new freer style introduced complex new vocabulary dance important founders new style martha graham doris humphrey began work since time wide variety dance styles developed see modern dance african american dance developed everyday spaces rather dance studios schools companies tap dance disco jazz dance swing dance hip hop dance lindy hop


classical pas de deux file frontaerialgif '''acrobatic dance''' acro dancer performs front aerial file toerisejpg dancer performs toe rise rises kneeling position standing position tops feet file jitterbug wolcott fsajpg '''social dance''' dancers juke joint dance jitterbug early th century dance would go influence swing jive jazz dance file tanzturnier jpg latin ballroom dancers perform tango file bootsajpg gumboot dance evolved stomping signals used coded communication labourers south african mines file harlekin columbine tivoli denmarkjpg harlequin columbina mime theater


register referred dental register ref ref name bdatimeline however others could legally describe dental experts dental consultants practice dentistry united kingdom became fully regulated dentists act required registration anyone practising dentistry british dental association formed sir john tomes president played major role prosecuting dentists practising illegally ref name years dentists united kingdom regulated general dental council korea taiwan japan finland sweden brazil chile united states canada

Applied science
Medicine and health
Dentistry


drills operated perhaps skilled bead crafters ref name bbc reconstruction ancient form dentistry showed methods used reliable effective earliest dental filling made beeswax discovered slovenia dates years ago dentistry practised prehistoric malta evidenced skull abscess lanced root tooth dating back around bc ancient sumerian text describes tooth worm cause dental caries ref name adahistory ref evidence belief also found ancient india egypt japan china


chronic tooth infection instruments used dental extractions date back several centuries th century guy de chauliac probably invented dental pelican resembling pelican 's beak used perform dental extractions late th century pelican replaced dental key turn replaced modern forceps th century dental needle nose pliers designed fauchard late th century use prosthodontics first book focused solely dentistry artzney buchlein ref name history dentistry first dental textbook written


per se reflects natural ongoing process world modern western mysticism new age philosophy often use term 'the divine' noun latter sense non specific principle gives rise world acts source wellspring life latter cases faiths promote deference happens monotheisms rather suggests path action bring practitioner conformance divine law ''ahimsa'' nbsp 'no harm' nbsp buddhist hindu faiths ' 'de'' ''te'' nbsp 'virtuous action' nbsp taoism


precious promises ye might partakers divine nature escaped corruption world lust latter day saints prominent conception divine entities church jesus christ latter day saints lds church godhead divine council three distinct beings elohim father jehovah son jesus holy spirit joseph smith described nontrinitarian godhead god father jesus christ individual physical bodies holy spirit distinct personage spirit body smith


roots process organogenesis new roots grow root meristems located tip root new stems leaves grow shoot meristems located tip shoot branching occurs small clumps cells left behind meristem yet undergone cellular differentiation form specialized tissue begin grow tip new root shoot growth meristem tip root shoot termed primary growth results lengthening root

Natural science
Biology
Developmental biology


popular among researchers one sense models whole animal kingdom another sense models human development difficult study directly ethical practical reasons model organisms useful elucidating broad nature developmental mechanisms detail sought differ humans plants thale cress ''arabidopsis thaliana'' ref name friedman ref vertebrates frog ''xenopus'' ref name friedman ''x laevis'' ''x tropicalis'' good embryo supply especially suitable microsurgery zebrafish ''danio rerio'' good embryo supply well developed genetics chicken ''gallus


distributed systems vary soa based systems massively multiplayer online games peer peer applications computer program runs within distributed system called '' 'distributed program''' distributed programming process writing programs many different types implementations message passing mechanism including pure http rpc like connectors message queues ''distributed computing'' also refers use distributed systems solve computational problems ' 'distributed computing'' problem divided many tasks solved one computers communicate via message

Formal science
Computer science
Distributed computing


typically related graphs often graph describes structure computer network ''is'' problem instance illustrated following example example consider computational problem finding coloring given graph ''g'' different fields might take following approaches centralized algorithms graph ''g'' encoded string string given input computer computer program finds coloring graph encodes coloring string outputs result parallel algorithms graph ''g'' encoded


neighbours nbsp perform arbitrary local computation nbsp send new messages neighbors systems central complexity measure number synchronous communication rounds required complete task complexity measure closely related diameter network let ''d'' diameter network one hand computable problem solved trivially synchronous distributed system approximately ''d'' communication rounds simply gather information one location ''d'' rounds solve problem inform node solution ''d'' rounds hand


cases mouse many digital art programs devices drawing instrument releases small amount material onto surface leaving visible mark common support drawing paper although materials cardboard wood plastic leather canvas board used temporary drawings may made blackboard whiteboard drawing popular fundamental means public expression throughout human history one simplest efficient means communicating ideas ref name sbtcmodule ref wide availability drawing instruments makes drawing one

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Drawing


sphere also diffeomorphic sphere admit one smooth structure conjecture true dimensions classification results known false dimension due milnor spheres important tools studying differential topology smooth manifolds include construction smooth topological invariants manifolds de rham cohomology intersection form well smoothable topological constructions smooth surgery theory construction cobordisms morse theory important tool studies smooth

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Differential topology


smooth structure ref name kervaire ref constructions smooth manifold theory existence tangent bundles ref name lashof ref done topological setting much work others cannot one main topics differential topology study special kinds smooth mappings manifolds namely immersions submersions intersections submanifolds via transversality generally one interested properties invariants smooth manifolds carried diffeomorphisms another special kind smooth mapping morse theory another branch differential topology topological information


overt applications theory infinitesimals study geometry precursor modern calculus based study subject euclid 's ''elements'' notion tangency line circle discussed archimedes applied method exhaustion compute areas smooth shapes circle volumes smooth three dimensional solids sphere cones cylinders ref name struik little development theory differential geometry antiquity beginning renaissance development calculus newton leibniz

Formal science
Mathematics
Differential Geometry


onto flat plane consequence later theorema egregium gauss calculus osculating circle first systematic rigorous treatment geometry using theory infinitesimals notions calculus began around calculus first developed gottfried leibniz isaac newton time recent work ren descartes introducing analytic coordinates geometry allowed geometric shapes increasing complexity described rigorously particular around time pierre de fermat newton leibniz began study plane curves investigation


nikolai lobachevsky hyperbolic geometry non euclidean geometry throughout period development projective geometry dubbed single important work history differential geometry ref name spivak spivak comprehensive introduction differential geometry vol publish perish incorporated ref gauss produced ''disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas'' detailing general theory curved surfaces ref name gauss gauss cf disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas vol typis dieterichianis ref ref name spivak ref name struik struik dj outline history differential geometry ii isis vol pp jstor wwwjstororg stable ref work


tangent space point riemannian geometry generalizes euclidean geometry spaces necessarily flat though still resemble euclidean space point infinitesimally ie first order approximation various concepts based length arc length curves area plane regions volume solids possess natural analogues riemannian geometry notion directional derivative function multivariable calculus extended notion covariant derivative tensor many concepts analysis differential equations generalized setting


spaces whose curvature necessarily constant closest analogues ordinary plane space considered euclidean non euclidean geometry pseudo riemannian geometry pseudo riemannian geometry generalizes riemannian geometry case metric tensor need positive definite special case lorentzian manifold mathematical basis einstein 's general relativity theory gravity finsler geometry finsler geometry ''finsler manifolds'' main object study differential manifold ''finsler metric'' banach norm defined tangent space riemannian manifolds special


single bivector valued one form called shape operator applications examples differential geometry applied fields science mathematics physics differential geometry many applications including differential geometry language albert einstein 's general theory relativity expressed according theory universe smooth manifold equipped pseudo riemannian metric describes curvature spacetime understanding curvature essential positioning satellites orbit around earth differential geometry also indispensable study gravitational lensing


private schools opened across country offered specialized technical training anyone enrolled employees one company starting milwaukee public schools began opening free vocational programmes third american population lived cities population reach rest correspondence techniques adopted australia vast distances especially active university queensland established department correspondence studies south africa university south africa formerly examining certification body started present distance education

Applied science
Education
Distance education


grown become ''mega universities'' term coined denote institutions students covid pandemic covid pandemic resulted closure vast majority schools worldwide many schools moved online remote learning platforms including limited zoom cisco webex google classroom google meet microsoft teams l edgenuity concerns arose impact transition students without access internet enabled device stable internet connection ref name aristovnik et al ref distanced education covid pandemic interrupted synchronous learning many students teachers educators


approach traditional face face clinical supervision rehabilitation counseling problems solutions rehabilitation education ref fields online learning programmes available united states states k level internet forums online discussion group online learning community contribute distance education experience research shows socialization plays important role forms distance education ref name sre ref ecourses available websites khan academy masterclass many topics paced self paced models distance education uses paced format similar traditional campus based models


self discipline distance education important complete knowledge software tools used learning results study washington state community college students showed distance learning students tended drop often traditional counterparts due difficulties language time management study skills according dr pankaj singhm director nims university distance learning benefits may outweigh disadvantages students technology driven society however indulging use educational technology disadvantages considered describes multiple


outline ''otto peters distance education industrialization teaching learning'' saba f distance education united states past present future ''educational technology'' stubblefield harold w patrick keane ''adult education american experience colonial period present'' taylor j c fifth generation distance education ''e journal instructional science technology'' e jist terry evans h david murphy ed ''international handbook distance education'' bingley emerald group publishing limited walsh ''unlocking gates leading universities opening access


person 's personal development unable progress first stage trust vs mistrust takes place infancy positive virtue first stage hope infant learning trust hope supportive group people second stage autonomy vs shame doubt positive virtue takes place early childhood child learns become independent discovering capable whereas child overly controlled feelings inadequacy reinforced lead

Social science
Psychology
Developmental psychology


interaction among two settings indirectly linked example father 's job requiring overtime ends influencing daughter 's performance school longer help homework macrosystem broader taking account social economic status culture beliefs customs morals example child wealthier family sees peer less wealthy family inferior reason lastly chronosystem refers chronological nature life events interact change individual circumstances transition example mother losing


children learn hands experience social interactions members culture unlike piaget claimed timely sensitive intervention adults child edge learning new task called zone proximal development could help children learn new tasks adult role often referred skilled master whereas child considered learning apprentice educational process often termed cognitive apprenticeship martin hill stated world reality apply mind child technique called scaffolding


goal accounts lev vygotsky suggested development progress stages rather developmental process begins birth continues death complex structure finality rather viewpoint developmental processes proceed continuously thus development analyzed instead treated product obtain k warner schaie expanded study cognitive development adulthood rather stable adolescence schaie sees adults progressing application cognitive abilities modern cognitive development integrated


study ref name bruning ref every developmental investigation characterized terms whether underlying strategy involves ''experimental'' ''correlational'' ''case study'' approach ref name achenbach ref ref name prentice hall ref experimental method involves actual manipulation various treatments circumstances events participant subject exposed ref name prentice hall ''experimental design'' points cause effect relationships ref name shaffer ref method allows strong inferences made causal relationships manipulation one independent variables subsequent behavior measured dependent variable ref name prentice hall advantage using research method permits determination


human life piaget 's theory cognitive development suggested early reflexes building blocks infant sensorimotor development example tonic neck reflex may help development bringing objects infant 's field view ref name butterworth ref reflexes walking reflex appear replaced sophisticated voluntary control later infancy may infant gains much weight birth strong enough use reflex reflex subsequent development functionally different ref name bremner ref also suggested reflexes example moro


parents high parental warmth responsiveness demandingness rate low negativity conflict ref name taylor ref parents assertive intrusive overly restrictive ref name baumrind ref method parenting associated positive social academic outcomes beneficial outcomes authoritative parenting necessarily universal among african american adolescents authoritative parenting associated academic achievement without peer support achievement ref name taylor children raised authoritative parents likely become independent self reliant socially accepted academically successful well behaved less likely report depression


definition ''classificatory'' pick ing certain ''kinds'' behaviour rather ''analytical'' focus ing attention particular ''aspect'' behaviour form imposed influence scarcity affirmed previous economists usually centred studies analysis wealth wealth created production distributed consumed wealth grow said economics used study things war outside usual focus war goal winning sought '''end''' generates cost


harshly critical mercantilists described physiocratic system imperfections perhaps purest approximation truth yet published subject classical political economy publication adam smith 's ''the wealth nations'' considered first formalisation economic thought alt picture adam smith facing right publication adam smith 's ''the wealth nations'' described effective birth economics separate discipline book identified land labour capital three factors production


observed four asian tigers sometimes economic hypothesis ''qualitative'' ''quantitative'' expositions economic reasoning often use two dimensional graphs illustrate theoretical relationships higher level generality mathematical economics application mathematical methods represent theories analyze problems economics paul samuelson 's treatise ''foundations economic analysis'' exemplifies method particularly maximizing behavioral relations agents reaching equilibrium book focused examining class statements called ''operationally meaningful theorems'' economics theorems conceivably refuted empirical data ref name foundations ref empirical research


key economic efficiency based theoretical empirical considerations different individuals nations may different real opportunity costs production say differences stocks human capital per worker capital labour ratios according theory may give comparative advantage production goods make intensive use relatively abundant thus ' 'relatively'' cheaper input even one region absolute advantage ratio outputs inputs every type output may still specialize output comparative advantage thereby


factors production land capital theories developed concept called human capital referring skills workers possess necessarily actual work although also counter posing macro economic system theories think human capital contradiction terms development economics development economics examines economic aspects economic development process relatively low income countries focusing structural change poverty economic growth approaches development economics frequently incorporate social political factors criticisms general criticisms dismal science derogatory alternative name


subject described main change economics since around major universities many colleges major school department academic degrees awarded subject whether liberal arts business professional study see bachelor economics master economics private sector professional economists employed consultants industry including banking finance economists also work various government departments agencies example national treasury central bank national bureau statistics dozens prizes awarded economists


know ref name britannica among ancient greek philosophers plato distinguished inquiry regarding know inquiry regarding exists particularly ''republic'' ''theaetetus'' ''meno'' ref name britannica number important epistemological concerns also appeared works aristotle ref name britannica subsequent hellenistic period philosophical schools began appear greater focus epistemological questions often form philosophical skepticism ref name britannica instance pyrrhonian skepticism pyrrho sextus empiricus held eudaimonia flourishing happiness good life could attained application epoch suspension


george berkeley rationalists including ren descartes baruch spinoza gottfried leibniz ref name britannica debate often framed using question whether knowledge comes primarily sensory experience empiricism whether significant portion knowledge derived entirely faculty reason rationalism according scholars dispute resolved late th century immanuel kant whose transcendental idealism famously made room view though knowledge begins experience means follows knowledge arises experience contemporary historiography


would epistemologically justified similar vein indian philosopher bk matilal drew navya ny ya fallibilist tradition respond gettier problem nyaya theory distinguishes ''know p'' ''know one knows p'' different events different causal conditions second level sort implicit inference usually follows immediately episode knowing p knowledge ' 'simpliciter'' gettier case examined referring view gangesha upadhyaya late th century takes true belief knowledge thus true belief acquired wrong route may


earlier paper predates development reliabilism alvin goldman writes causal theory knowing knowledge requires causal link truth proposition belief proposition similar view also defended hilary kornblith ''knowledge place nature'' although view meant capture empirical scientific conception knowledge analysis everyday concept knowledge ref name kornblith ref kornblith turn takes elaborating naturalized epistemology framework first suggested wvo quine value problem generally assume


example consider father 's brother uncle know true solely virtue understanding terms mean philosophers call propositions analytic synthetic propositions hand distinct subjects predicates example would father 's brother black hair kant stated mathematical scientific statements analytic priori propositions necessarily true knowledge attributes mathematical physical subjects get logical inference distinction first foremost meaning therefore


regress problem eventually terminate logical argument statements require justification still considered rational justified john pollock stated blockquote justify belief one must appeal justified belief means one two things case either beliefs justified holding without able justify basis belief else justified belief infinite regress potential justification nebula theory


thought reasons need arises position motivated part desire avoid seen arbitrariness circularity chief competitors foundationalism coherentism prominent defense infinitism given peter klein foundherentism intermediate position known foundherentism advanced susan haack foundherentism meant unify foundationalism coherentism haack explains view using crossword puzzle analogy whereas example infinitists regard regress reasons taking form single line continues indefinitely


college university apprenticeship regions education compulsory certain age movements education reforms improving quality efficiency education towards relevance students' lives efficient problem solving modern future society large evidence based education methodologies right education recognized governments united nations global initiatives aim achieving sustainable development goal promotes quality education etymology etymologically word education derived latin word '' duc ti '' breeding bringing


fall rome ce china confucius bce state lu country 's influential ancient philosopher whose educational outlook continues influence societies china neighbours like korea japan vietnam confucius gathered disciples searched vain ruler would adopt ideals good governance analects written followers continued influence education east asia modern era aztecs schools noble youths called calmecac would receive rigorous religious military training


oriented towards communicating next generation experience intellectual heritage past purpose individual development integration community fall rome catholic church became sole preserver literate scholarship western europe church established cathedral schools early middle ages centres advanced education establishments ultimately evolved medieval universities forebears many europe 's modern universities high middle ages chartres cathedral operated famous influential chartres cathedral school medieval universities western christendom


significant role transmission knowledge science culture china europe translating works europe like euclid 's elements chinese scholars thoughts confucius european audiences enlightenment saw emergence secular educational outlook europe much modern traditional western eastern education based prussian education system countries today full time education whether school otherwise compulsory children certain age due proliferation compulsory education combined population growth unesco calculated next


schools sands school summerhill school walden 's path peepal grove school sudbury valley school krishnamurti schools open classroom schools charter schools another example alternative education recent years grown numbers us gained greater importance public education system time ideas experiments paradigm challenges may adopted norm education friedrich fr bel 's approach early childhood education th century germany incorporated contemporary kindergarten classrooms influential writers thinkers included swiss humanitarian johann heinrich pestalozzi


young people educational settings involves wide range people curriculum developers inspectors school principals teachers school nurses students etc institutions vary according different contexts ref name ref schools deliver education support rest education system various elements education policies guidelines school policies refer curricula learning materials well pre service teacher training programmes school environment physical infrastructures psychological school climate also guided school policies ensure well students


shape methodologies taught material curriculum formal education decided political decision makers along federal agencies state education agency united states development goals world map indicating education index according human development report joseph chimombo pointed education 's role policy instrument capable instilling social change economic advancement developing countries giving communities opportunity take control destinies agenda sustainable development adopted united nations un general assembly september calls new vision address


small classes years early grades increased high school graduation rates students low income families ref name finn ref psychology educational psychology study humans learn educational settings effectiveness educational interventions psychology teaching social psychology schools organizations terms educational psychology school psychology often used interchangeably educational psychology concerned processes educational attainment general population sub populations gifted children specific disabilities knowledge day donetsk ukraine educational psychology


raley intelligence intelligence important factor individual responds education higher scores intelligence metrics tend perform better school go higher levels education effect also observable opposite direction education increases measurable intelligence studies shown educational attainment important predicting intelligence later life intelligence closely correlated intelligence years old educational attainment learning modalities much interest learning modalities styles last two


sense concerned concepts aims methods discipline ref name poee ref part field education field applied philosophy drawing fields metaphysics epistemology axiology philosophical approaches speculative prescriptive analytic address questions pedagogy education policy curriculum well process learning name example might study constitutes upbringing education values norms revealed upbringing educational practices limits legitimization education academic discipline


meta ethics always accompanied philosophical ethics example aristotle implies less precise knowledge possible ethics spheres inquiry regards ethical knowledge depending upon habit acculturation way makes distinctive kinds knowledge meta ethics also important ge moore 's ''principia ethica'' first wrote called ''the naturalistic fallacy'' moore seen reject naturalism ethics open question argument made thinkers look second order questions ethics earlier scottish philosopher david hume


view person acts accordance virtue person good content unhappiness frustration caused wrong leading failed goals poor life therefore imperative people act accordance virtue attainable practice virtues order content complete happiness held ultimate goal things civic life wealth made worthwhile benefit employed practice virtues practice virtues


evaluated without relativism p nbsp indeed rational debate rational choice among rival traditions possible p nbsp ''complete conduct principles st century'' ref name ethics john newton phd ''complete conduct principles st century'' ref blended eastern virtue ethics western virtue ethics modifications suit st century formed part contemporary virtue ethics ref name ethics mortimer j adler described aristotle 's nicomachean ethics unique book western tradition moral philosophy ethics sound practical undogmatic one major trend


ill health pain fear avoided living essentially good barring pain illness death feared fear considered source unhappiness conquering fear death would naturally lead happier life epicurus reasoned afterlife immortality fear death irrational life death person would alive suffer fear worry would non existent death irrational fret circumstances exist one 's state death


habermas believes agreement parties crucial moral decision reached like kantian ethics discourse ethics cognitive ethical theory supposes truth falsity attributed ethical propositions also formulates rule ethical actions determined proposes ethical actions universalisable similar way kant 's ethics ref name shabani payrow shabani p ref habermas argues ethical theory improvement kant 's ethics ref name shabani rejects dualistic framework kant 's ethics kant distinguished phenomena world


always ethical remainder cannot taken account often even recognized theorists find narrative following nietzsche foucault genealogy helpful tool understanding ethics narrative always particular lived experiences complexity rather assignment idea norm separate individual actions zygmunt bauman says postmodernity best described modernity without illusion illusion belief humanity repaired ethic principle postmodernity seen light accepting messy nature humanity


derive categories typically vary context lead situational ethics situated ethics philosophers often view aesthetics etiquette arbitration fundamental percolating bottom imply existence rather explicitly prescribe theories value conduct study descriptive ethics may include examinations following ethical codes applied various groups consider aesthetics basis ethics personal moral core developed art storytelling influential one 's later ethical choices informal theories etiquette tend less rigorous situational


also paracrine mechanisms chemical communication cells within tissue organ autocrine signals chemical acts cell intracrine signals chemical acts within cell neuroendocrine signal classical hormone released blood neurosecretory neuron see article neuroendocrinology hormones griffin ojeda identify three different classes hormones based chemical composition amines amines norepinephrine epinephrine dopamine catecholamines derived single amino acids case tyrosine thyroid hormones triiodothyronine


endocrine society provides information endocrine related conditions educational organizations focus one endocrine related conditions include american diabetes association human growth foundation american menopause foundation inc thyroid foundation america north america principal professional organizations endocrinologists include endocrine society american association clinical endocrinologists american diabetes association lawson wilkins pediatric endocrine society american thyroid association europe http wwwese hormonesorg european society endocrinology ese https wwweurospeorg european society paediatric endocrinology espe main organisations representing professionals fields


giuseppe flajani antonio giuseppe testa respectively english physician caleb hillier parry friend edward jenner late th century thomas addison first describe addison 's disease thomas addison william bayliss ernest starling performed experiment observed acid instilled duodenum caused pancreas begin secretion even removed nervous connections two response could produced injecting extract jejunum mucosa jugular vein showing factor


context known human psychology ethology involves research animal behaviour context known animal anatomy physiology neurobiology phylogenetic history furthermore early comparative psychologists concentrated study learning tended research behaviour artificial situations whereas early ethologists concentrated behaviour natural situations tending describe instinctive two approaches complementary rather competitive result different perspectives occasionally conflicts opinion matters substance addition twentieth century comparative psychology developed

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Ethology


performed newly hatched chicks stimulates mother regurgitate food offspring examples classic studies tinbergen egg retrieval behaviour effects supernormal stimulus behaviour graylag geese one investigation kind study waggle dance dance language bee communication karl von frisch learning habituation habituation simple form learning occurs many animal taxa process whereby animal ceases responding stimulus often response innate behaviour essentially animal learns


physiologist ivan pavlov observed dogs trained associate food ringing bell would salivate hearing bell imprinting imprinting moose imprinting enables young discriminate members species vital reproductive success important type learning takes place limited period time lorenz observed young birds geese chickens followed mothers spontaneously almost first day hatched discovered response could imitated arbitrary stimulus eggs


group researchers started giving potatoes beach soon started venturing onto beach picking potatoes sand cleaning eating ref name wilsonsociobiology ref one year later individual observed bringing potato sea putting water one hand cleaning behaviour soon expressed individuals living contact gave birth behaviour also expressed young form social transmission teaching teaching highly specialized aspect


order among poultry every time group poultry cohabitate certain time length establish pecking order groups one chicken dominates others peck without pecked second chicken peck others except first chickens higher pecking order may times distinguished healthier appearance compared lower level chickens pecking order establishing frequent violent fights happen established broken individuals enter group case pecking order


third phase ref first integrated circuits hybrid integrated circuit invented jack kilby texas instruments monolithic integrated circuit chip invented robert noyce fairchild semiconductor ref name saxena ref mosfet metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor mos transistor invented mohamed atalla dawon kahng btl ref name computerhistory ref ref name computerhistory transistor ref ref name triumph ref first truly compact transistor could miniaturised mass produced wide range uses ref name moskowitz revolutionized electronics industry ref name chan ref ref name grant ref becoming widely used electronic device world ref name computerhistory transistor ref name golio ref ref name computerhistory ref

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Electrical Engineering


steven hofstein rca laboratories ref name computerhistory digital ref mos technology enabled moore 's law doubling transistors ic chip every two years predicted gordon moore silicon gate mos technology developed federico faggin fairchild since mosfet basic building block modern electronics ref name triumph ref name nytimescom mass production silicon mosfets mos integrated circuit chips along continuous mosfet scaling miniaturization exponential pace predicted moore 's law since led revolutionary changes technology economy culture thinking ref name feldman ref apollo program culminated


software aspects computing optics photonics optics photonics deals generation transmission amplification modulation detection analysis electromagnetic radiation application optics deals design optical instruments lenses microscopes telescopes equipment uses properties electromagnetic radiation prominent applications optics include electro optical sensors measurement systems lasers fiber optic communication systems optical disc systems eg cd dvd photonics builds heavily optical technology supplemented modern developments optoelectronics mostly involving semiconductors laser systems optical amplifiers novel materials eg metamaterials related disciplines


considered two separate forces view changed publication james clerk maxwell 's ''a treatise electricity magnetism'' interactions positive negative charges shown mediated one force four main effects resulting interactions clearly demonstrated experiments electric charges '''' '''' one another force inversely proportional square distance unlike charges attract like ones repel magnetic poles states polarization individual points attract repel one

Natural science
Physics
Electromagnetism


reference magnetic field transforms field nonzero electric component conversely moving electric field transforms nonzero magnetic component thus firmly showing phenomena two sides coin hence term electromagnetism information see classical electromagnetism special relativity covariant formulation classical electromagnetism extension nonlinear phenomena magnetic reconnection solar plasma gives rise solar flares complex magnetohydrodynamical phenomenon maxwell equations ''linear'' change sources charges currents results proportional change fields


electromagnetic units leading different unit sub systems including gaussian esu emu heaviside lorentz among choices gaussian units common today fact phrase cgs units often used refer specifically cgs gaussian units see also abraham lorentz force aeromagnetic surveys computational electromagnetics double slit experiment electromagnet electromagnetic induction electromagnetic wave equation electromagnetic scattering electromechanics geophysics introduction electromagnetism magnetostatics magnetoquasistatic field optics relativistic electromagnetism wheeler feynman absorber theory references reading web sources textbooks general references external links http wwwunitconversionorg unit converter magnetic field strengthhtml magnetic field strength converter http scienceworldwolframcom physics electromagneticforcehtml electromagnetic force eric weisstein 's world physics


modern technologies used electric power electric current used energise equipment electronics deals electrical circuits involve active electrical components vacuum tubes transistors diodes integrated circuits associated passive interconnection technologies electrical phenomena studied since antiquity though progress theoretical understanding remained slow seventeenth eighteenth centuries theory electromagnetism developed th century end century electricity put industrial residential use electrical engineers rapid expansion electrical technology time transformed industry


invented john bardeen walter houser brattain bell labs followed bipolar junction transistor early transistors relatively bulky devices difficult manufacture mass production basis ref name moskowitz ref followed silicon based mosfet metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor mos transistor invented mohamed atalla dawon kahng bell labs ref name computerhistory ref ref name computerhistory transistor ref ref name triumph ref first truly compact transistor could miniaturised mass produced wide range uses leading silicon revolution ref name feldman ref solid state devices started becoming prevalent


particles either direction even directions positive negative convention widely used simplify situation electric arc provides energetic demonstration electric current process electric current passes material termed electrical conduction nature varies charged particles material travelling examples electric currents include metallic conduction electrons flow conductor metal electrolysis ions charged atoms flow liquids plasmas electrical sparks particles


building serves protect ref name nahin ref electric potential aa cells nbsp sign indicates polarity potential difference battery terminals concept electric potential closely linked electric field small charge placed within electric field experiences force brought charge point force requires work electric potential point defined energy required bring unit test charge infinite distance slowly point usually measured volts one volt


potential one joule work must expended bring charge one coulomb infinity ref name uniphysics definition potential formal little practical application useful concept electric potential difference energy required move unit charge two specified points electric field special property ''conservative'' means path taken test charge irrelevant paths two specified points expend energy thus unique value potential difference may


must also lie parallel conductor 's surface otherwise would produce force move charge carriers even potential surface electric field formally defined force exerted per unit charge concept potential allows useful equivalent definition electric field local gradient electric potential usually expressed volts nbsp per nbsp metre vector direction field line greatest slope potential equipotentials lie closest together ref name duffin electromagnets magnetic field circles around current rsted 's discovery


perform useful task components electric circuit take many forms include elements resistors capacitors switches transformers electronics electronic circuits contain active components usually semiconductors typically exhibit non linear behaviour requiring complex analysis simplest electric components termed passive linear may temporarily store energy contain sources exhibit linear responses stimuli ref name alexander ref resistor perhaps simplest passive circuit elements name suggests resists current dissipating energy heat resistance


consequence motion charge conductor metals example resistance primarily due collisions electrons ions ohm 's law basic law circuit theory stating current passing resistance directly proportional potential difference across resistance materials relatively constant range temperatures currents materials conditions known 'ohmic' ohm unit resistance named honour georg ohm symbolised greek letter nbsp resistance


difference one volt stores charge one coulomb capacitor connected voltage supply initially causes current accumulates charge current however decay time capacitor fills eventually falling zero capacitor therefore permit steady state current instead blocks ref name alexander inductor conductor usually coil wire stores energy magnetic field response current current changes magnetic field inducing voltage ends conductor


small change physical dimensions takes place ref name crystallography bioelectrogenesis microbial life prominent phenomenon soils sediment ecology resulting anaerobic respiration microbial fuel cell mimics ubiquitous natural phenomenon organisms sharks able detect respond changes electric fields ability known electroreception ref name biodynamics ref others termed electrogenic able generate voltages serve predatory defensive weapon ref name electroreception order gymnotiformes best known example electric eel detect stun prey via high voltages generated


modified muscle cells called electrocytes ref name electroreception ref name morris animals transmit information along cell membranes voltage pulses called action potentials whose functions include communication nervous system neurons muscles ref name neural science ref electric shock stimulates system causes muscles contract action potentials also responsible coordinating activities certain plants ref name neural science cultural perception william gladstone asked scientist michael faraday electricity valuable faraday answered one day sir may tax ref name conversation ref th early th century electricity part everyday


jules verne ''tom swift'' books ref name van riper masters electricity whether fictional real including scientists thomas edison charles steinmetz nikola tesla popularly conceived wizard like powers ref name van riper electricity ceasing novelty becoming necessity everyday life later half th century required particular attention popular culture ' 'stops'' flowing ref name van riper event usually signals disaster ref name van riper people ''keep'' flowing


rotated globe could removed used source experiments electricity mid th century french chemist charles fran ois de cisternay du fay discovered two types static electricity like charges repel whilst unlike charges attract du fay announced electricity consisted two fluids '' vitreous '' latin '' glass '' positive electricity '' resinous '' negative electricity ''two fluid theory'' electricity opposed benjamin franklin 's ''one fluid theory'' later centurylate diagram galvani 's experiment frog legs charles augustin

Natural science
Chemistry
Electrochemistry


leclanch patented new cell eventually became forerunner world 's first widely used battery zinc carbon cell ref name lai keith james laidler https booksgooglecom booksid lrlpbh cc pg pa world physical chemistry oxford university press pp ref svante arrhenius published thesis ''recherches sur la conductibilit galvanique des lectrolytes'' investigations galvanic conductivity electrolytes results author concluded electrolytes dissolved water become varying degrees split dissociated electrically opposite positive negative ions paul h roult charles hall developed efficient method hall h roult process


electrode oxidation occurs cathode electrode reduction takes place electrodes made sufficiently conductive materials metals semiconductors graphite even conductive polymers electrodes electrolyte contains ions freely move galvanic cell uses two different metal electrodes electrolyte positively charged ions oxidized form electrode metal one electrode undergo oxidation anode undergo reduction cathode metal anode oxidize going oxidation


late th century josiah willard gibbs formulated theory predict whether chemical reaction spontaneous based free energy math delta g delta g circ rt ln q math ''g'' change gibbs free energy ''g'' cell potential ''q'' equal ''t'' absolute temperature kelvin ''r'' gas constant ''q'' reaction quotient found dividing products reactants using products reactants aqueous gaseous gibbs' key contribution formalize understanding effect


metal sub sub h sup sup e sup sup h sub sub global reaction process fe sub sub h sup sup fe sup sup h sub sub standard emf iron rusting ''e'' ''e'' cathode ''e'' anode ''e'' v v v iron corrosion takes place acid medium h sup sup ions come reaction carbon dioxide atmosphere water forming carbonic acid fe sup sup ions oxidize following equation fe sup sup sub sub h sub sub fe sub sub sub sub h sub sub h sup sup iron iii oxide hydrate known


substance produced electrode grams ''q'' total electric charge passed solution coulombs ''n'' valence number substance ion solution electrons per ion ''m'' molar mass substance grams per mole second law faraday devised laws chemical electrodeposition metals solutions formulated second law electrolysis stating '' amounts bodies equivalent ordinary chemical action equal quantities electricity naturally associated '' words quantities


electrochemistry references bibliography ebbing darrell gammon steven https booksgooglecom booksid vrm tiujcsc pg pa general chemistry https booksgooglecom booksid navq ztgsd c pg pa nobel lectures chemistry volume world scientific swaddle thomas wilson https booksgooglecom booksid hxpotkys x c pg pa inorganic chemistry industrial environmental perspective academic press brett cma brett amo electrochemistry principles methods applications oxford university press wiberg egon wiberg nils holleman arnold frederick https booksgooglecom booksid mtth g deic pg pa inorganic chemistry academic press external links physical chemistry


meeting uk 's admiralty led foundation ergonomics society used encompass studies engaged world war ii expression ''human factors'' predominantly north american ref name therp ref term adopted emphasize application methods non work related situations human factor physical cognitive property individual social behavior specific humans may influence functioning technological systems terms human factors ergonomics essentially synonymous ref name iso domains

Human physical performance and recreation


applications ref name meister space age created new human factors issues weightlessness extreme g forces tolerance harsh environment space effects mind body widely studied information age dawn information age resulted related field human computer interaction hci likewise growing demand competition among consumer goods electronics resulted companies industries including human factors product design using advanced technologies human kinetics body mapping movement patterns heat zones companies able manufacture purpose specific garments including full body


insure safety workers example state nevada risk management department established set ground rules agencies responsibilities employees responsibilities ref name ref agency responsibilities include evaluating workstations using risk management resources necessary keeping osha records ref name see specific workstation ergonomic policies responsibilities nbsp click ref name methods recently methods used evaluate human factors ergonomics ranged simple questionnaires complex expensive usability labs common human factors methods listed '''ethnographic analysis ''' using methods derived ethnography


modern notation requires would perfectly apparent without notation singer versed counterpoint see also ancient music early music festivals history music list baroque composers list early music ensembles list medieval composers list renaissance composers neo medieval music citations reading davidson audrey ekdahl ''aspects early music performance'' new york ams press donington robert ''the interpretation early music'' new revised edition london boston faber faber epp maureen brian e power eds ''the sounds sights performance early

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Early music


may roche jerome elizabeth roche ''a dictionary early music troubadours monteverdi'' london faber music association faber faber new york oxford university press uk cloth uk pbk us cloth sherman bernard ''inside early music conversations performers'' new york oxford university press stevens denis ''early music'' revised edition yehudi menuhin music guides london kahn averill first published ''musicology'' london macdonald co ltd external links http wwwmedievalorg emfaq early music faq http wwwrenwkscom renaissance workshop company company saved many rare


species abundance biomass distribution organisms context environment patterns biodiversity effect ecosystem processes ecology practical applications conservation biology wetland management natural resource management agroecology agriculture forestry agroforestry fisheries city planning urban ecology community health economics basic applied science human social interaction human ecology word ecology kologie coined german scientist ernst haeckel became rigorous science late th century evolutionary concepts relating adaptation natural selection cornerstones modern ecological theory ecosystems dynamically


persist maintain stable population sizes ref name wiens ecological niche central concept ecology organisms sub divided ''fundamental'' ' 'realized'' niche fundamental niche set environmental conditions species able persist realized niche set environmental plus ecological conditions species persists ref name wiens ref name hutchinson b ref name begon hutchinsonian niche defined technically euclidean hyperspace whose ' 'dimensions'' defined environmental variables whose ' 'size'' function number values environmental values


trophism among species biodiversity within ecosystems organized trophic pyramids vertical dimension represents feeding relations become removed base food chain toward top predators horizontal dimension represents abundance biomass level ref name duffy relative abundance biomass species sorted respective trophic level naturally sort 'pyramid numbers' ref name elton species broadly categorized autotrophs primary producers heterotrophs consumers detritivores decomposers autotrophs organisms produce food production


species concept used extensively conservation tool criticized poorly defined operational stance difficult experimentally determine species may hold keystone role ecosystem furthermore food web theory suggests keystone species may common unclear generally keystone species model applied ref name mills ref name polis complexity complexity understood large computational effort needed piece together numerous interacting parts exceeding iterative memory capacity human mind global patterns biological diversity complex


smaller parts scientific holism differs mysticism appropriated term example metaphysical holism identified trend increased exterior thickness shells different species reason thickness increase understood reference principles natural selection via predation without need reference understand biomolecular properties exterior shells ref name wilson relation evolution ecology evolutionary biology considered sister disciplines life sciences natural selection life history development adaptation populations inheritance examples concepts thread equally


salamander social gatherings amoeba ref name tinbergen ref name hamner ref name strassmann ref name sakurai ref name anderson adaptation central unifying concept behavioural ecology behaviours recorded traits inherited much way eye hair colour behaviours evolve means natural selection adaptive traits conferring functional utilities increases reproductive fitness ref name gould ref name wilson '''mutualism ''' leafhoppers ''eurymela fenestrata'' protected ants ''iridomyrmex purpureus'' mutualistic relationship ants protect leafhoppers predators stimulate feeding leafhoppers return leafhoppers feeding plants exude honeydew anus


provides energy nutrients tending ants ref name eastwood predator prey interactions introductory concept food web studies well behavioural ecology ref name ives prey species exhibit different kinds behavioural adaptations predators avoid flee defend many prey species faced multiple predators differ degree danger posed adapted environment face predatory threats organisms must balance energy budgets invest different aspects life history growth feeding mating socializing modifying habitat hypotheses posited behavioural ecology generally based


opportunities science cognitive development children engaged complexity natural world ecosystems relate importantly human ecology ultimate base foundation global economics every commodity capacity exchange ultimately stems ecosystems earth ref name liu ref name mea ref name de groot ref name aguirre restoration management ref width align right ecology employed science restoration repairing disturbed sites human intervention natural resource management environmental impact assessments edward wilson predicted st century


agriculture contributes rising atmospheric greenhouse gas levels transformation global carbon cycle next century projected raise planetary temperatures lead extreme fluctuations weather alter species distributions increase extinction rates effect global warming already registered melting glaciers melting mountain ice caps rising sea levels consequently species distributions changing along waterfronts continental areas migration patterns breeding grounds tracking prevailing shifts climate large sections permafrost also melting create new mosaic flooded areas increased rates


ref name liu ref ref name lobert ref ref name loehle ref ref name loehle ref ref name lovelock ref ref name lovelock ref ref name macarthur ref ref name mackenzie ref ref name marsh ref ref name mason ref ref name may ref ref name mccann ref ref name mea ref ref name meysman ref ref name mikkelson ref ref name miles ref ref name mills ref ref name molnar ref ref name morrone ref ref name nachtomy ref ref name nebel ref ref name neeman ref ref name nishiguchi ref ref name noss ref ref name noss ref ref name novikoff ref ref name obryan ref ref name odum ref ref name odum ref ref name oksanen ref ref name o'neill ref ref name o'neil ref ref name ostfeld ref ref name pagani ref ref name page ref ref name palmer ref ref name palumbi ref ref name parenti ref ref name pearman ref ref name pearson ref ref name pianka ref ref name pimm ref ref name pimm ref ref name pockman ref ref name polis ref ref name polis ref ref name prentice ref ref name purvis ref ref name reznick ref ref name ricklefs ref


ref name rosenzweig ref ref name sakurai ref ref name scheffer ref ref name schneider ref ref name schoener ref ref name scholes ref ref name sherman ref ref name shimeta ref ref name shurin ref ref name siverton ref ref name simberloff ref ref name sinclair ref ref name smith ref ref name stadler ref ref name stauffer ref ref name steele ref ref name strassmann ref ref name strook ref ref name stuart fox ref ref name svennin ref ref name swenson ref ref name tansley ref ref name thompson ref ref name tierney ref ref name tinbergen ref ref name turchin ref ref name turnbaugh ref ref name ulanowicz ref ref name urlwelcome ilter ilter ref ref name vandermeer ref ref name vitt ref ref name wagtendonk ref ref name waples ref ref name webb ref ref name whittaker ref ref name wiens ref ref name wiens ref ref name wilbur ref ref name wilcove ref ref name wilkinson ref ref name wilson ref ref name wills ref ref name wilson ref ref name wilson b ref ref name wilson ref ref name wolf ref ref name worm ref ref name write ref


much human behavior output psychological adaptations evolved solve recurrent problems human ancestral environments evolutionary psychology simply subdiscipline psychology evolutionary theory provide foundational metatheoretical framework integrates entire field psychology way evolutionary biology biology ref name cosmides evolutionary psychologists hold behaviors traits occur universally cultures good candidates evolutionary adaptations ref name psychology schacter et al pp ref including abilities infer others' emotions discern kin non kin identify prefer healthier mates cooperate others

Social science
Psychology
Evolutionary psychology


represent human psychological nature according steven pinker single theory large set hypotheses term also come refer particular way applying evolutionary theory mind emphasis adaptation gene level selection modularity evolutionary psychology adopts understanding mind based computational theory mind describes mental processes computational operations example fear response described arising neurological computation inputs perceptional data eg visual image spider


structure universally shared amongst species solve important problems survival reproduction evolutionary psychologists seek understand psychological mechanisms understanding survival reproductive functions might served course evolutionary history ref name buss p ref might include abilities infer others' emotions discern kin non kin identify prefer healthier mates cooperate others follow leaders consistent theory natural selection evolutionary psychology sees humans often conflict others including mates relatives instance mother may wish wean offspring breastfeeding


potential explanation spiders snakes threat human ancestors throughout pleistocene whereas guns rabbits flowers thus mismatch humans' evolved fear learning psychology modern environment ref name pinker ref ref name hagen ref mismatch also shows phenomena supernormal stimulus stimulus elicits response strongly stimulus response evolved term coined niko tinbergen refer non human animal behavior psychologist deirdre barrett said supernormal stimulation governs behavior humans powerfully


must provide exceptional benefits fitness ref name gaulin perception accurately mirrors world animals get useful accurate information senses ref name gaulin scientists study perception sensation long understood human senses adaptations surrounding worlds ref name gaulin depth perception consists processing half dozen visual cues based regularity physical world ref name gaulin vision evolved respond narrow range electromagnetic energy plentiful pass objects ref name gaulin sound waves go around corners interact obstacles creating complex pattern


many emotions universal ref name gaulin found evidence humans share least five basic emotions fear sadness happiness anger disgust ref name gaulin social emotions evidently evolved motivate social behaviors adaptive environment evolutionary adaptedness ref name gaulin example spite seems work individual establish individual 's reputation someone feared ref name gaulin shame pride motivate behaviors help one maintain one 's standing community self esteem one 's estimate one 's status ref name moralanimal ref name gaulin motivation neurobiological basis reward system


open new experiences may advantageous given particular niche family structure important note shared environmental influences play role personality always less importance genetic factors however shared environmental influences often decrease near zero adolescence completely disappear language according steven pinker builds work noam chomsky universal human ability learn talk ages basically without training suggests language acquisition distinctly human psychological adaptation


differences referred parental investment theory size differences gametes anisogamy fundamental defining difference males small gametes sperm females large gametes ova trivers noted anisogamy typically results different levels parental investment sexes females initially investing trivers proposed difference parental investment leads sexual selection different reproductive strategies sexes sexual conflict example suggested sex invests less offspring generally compete access higher investing sex increase