number electrical signals tight deterministic timing resolution led development quantum controllers enable interfacing qubits scaling systems support growing number qubits additional challenge quantum decoherence one greatest challenges involved constructing quantum computers controlling removing quantum decoherence usually means isolating system environment interactions external world cause system decohere however sources decoherence also exist examples include quantum gates lattice vibrations background thermonuclear spin


times faster could done summit generally considered world 's fastest computer claim subsequently challenged ibm stated summit perform samples much faster claimed researchers since developed better algorithms sampling problem used claim quantum supremacy giving substantial reductions closing gap sycamore classical supercomputers december group ustc implemented type boson sampling photons photonic quantum computer jiuzhang demonstrate quantum supremacy authors claim classical contemporary supercomputer would

Formal science
Computer science
Quantum computing


holographic principle skeptics like gil kalai doubt quantum supremacy ever achieved physicist mikhail dyakonov expressed skepticism quantum computing follows number continuous parameters describing state useful quantum computer given moment must sup sup could ever learn control sup sup continuously variable parameters defining quantum state system answer simple ''no never'' candidates physical realizations physically implementing quantum computer many different candidates pursued among distinguished


efficiently solved quantum computer bounded error called bqp bounded error quantum polynomial time formally bqp class problems solved polynomial time quantum turing machine error probability class probabilistic problems bqp quantum counterpart bpp bounded error probabilistic polynomial time class problems solved polynomial time probabilistic turing machines bounded error known math mathsf bpp subseteq bqp math widely suspected math mathsf bqp subsetneq bpp math intuitively would mean quantum computers


associated class decision problems tmath mathsf p p ref name bernvazi subclass pspace speculated advances physics could lead even faster computers instance shown non local hidden variable quantum computer based bohmian mechanics could implement search item database math sqrt n math steps slight speedup grover 's algorithm runs math sqrt n math steps note however neither search method would allow quantum computers solve np complete problems polynomial time ref name auto ref theories quantum gravity theory loop


quantum gravity may allow even faster computers built however defining computation theories open problem due problem time within physical theories currently obvious way describe means observer submit input computer one point time receive output later point time ref name ref see also chemical computer wave systems dna computing electronic quantum holography intelligence advanced research projects activity kane quantum computer list emerging technologies list quantum processors magic state distillation


https quantumcomputingmadeeasycom quantum computing made easy satalia blog lectures https wwwyoutubecom playlistlist pl e fd b e quantum computing determined video lectures michael nielsen http wwwquiproconeorg protected dd lectureshtm video lectures david deutsch https webarchiveorg web http wwwquantwareups tlsefr ihp lectures institut henri poincar slides videos https webarchiveorg web http nanohuborg resources online lecture introduction quantum computing edward gerjuoy lomonaco sam http wwwcseeumbcedu lomonaco lectureshtml oxfordlectures four lectures quantum computing given oxford university july models computation quantum cryptography information theory computational complexity theory classes computers theoretical computer science open problems computer related introductions emerging technologies


renormalization procedure feynman diagrams qft finally arose complete theoretical framework operator field theory renormalization accepted physicists legitimate necessary schwinger happy talk given international symposium history particle physics fermilab said blockquote pressure account experimental results produced certain theoretical structure perfectly adequate original task demanded simplification generalization new vision required like silicon chip recent years feynman diagram

Natural science
Physics
Mathematical physics
Quantum field theory


bringing computation masses eventually one put together piecemeal approach loses attraction quantum field theory must deal bose einstein fields fermi dirac fields fully equivalent footing challenge renormalization theory quantum electrodynamics individual view julian schwinger blockquote challenge led six papers theory quantized fields published physical review schwinger felt new theory far important renormalization work received nobel prize


non renormalizability given tremendous success qed many theorists believed years qft could soon provide understanding microscopic phenomena interactions photons electrons positrons contrary optimism qft entered yet another period depression lasted almost two decades first obstacle limited applicability renormalization procedure perturbative calculations qed infinite quantities could eliminated redefining small finite number physical quantities namely mass charge electron dyson proved


tom kibble proposed famous physical review letters papers gauge symmetry yang mills theories could broken mechanism called spontaneous symmetry breaking originally massless gauge bosons could acquire mass combining earlier theory glashow salam ward idea spontaneous symmetry breaking steven weinberg wrote theory describing electroweak interactions leptons effects higgs boson theory first mostly ignored ref name coleman brought back light gerard 't hooft 's proof non abelian gauge


result failed garner widespread interest due iron curtain supersymmetry took theoretical community work julius wess bruno zumino among four fundamental interactions gravity remains one lacks consistent qft description various attempts theory quantum gravity led development string theory type two dimensional qft conformal symmetry ref name polchinski jo l scherk john schwarz first proposed string theory could ''the'' quantum theory gravity condensed matter physics although quantum field


harmonic oscillator quantum harmonic oscillator displacement classical harmonic oscillator described math x frac sqrt omega e omega frac sqrt omega e omega math complex number normalised convention oscillator 's frequency note displacement particle simple harmonic motion equilibrium position confused spatial label quantum field quantum harmonic oscillator promoted linear operator math hat x math math hat x frac sqrt omega hat e omega frac sqrt omega hat dagger


feynman diagrams external points fewer vertices use feynman rules obtain expression term precise math lang omega phi x cdots phi x n omega rang math equal sum expressions corresponding connected diagrams external points connected diagrams every vertex connected external point lines components totally disconnected external lines sometimes called vacuum bubbles interaction theory discussed every vertex must four legs realistic applications scattering amplitude certain interaction decay rate


remove cut calculations theory merely indicates new physical phenomena appear scales new theory necessary theories quantisation renormalisation procedures outlined preceding sections performed free theory '' '' sup sup theory real scalar field similar process done types fields including complex scalar field vector field dirac field well types interaction terms including electromagnetic interaction yukawa interaction example quantum electrodynamics


contains dirac field representing electron field vector field representing electromagnetic field photon field despite name quantum electromagnetic field actually corresponds classical electromagnetic four potential rather classical electric magnetic fields full qed lagrangian density math mathcal l bar psi left gamma mu partial mu right psi frac f mu nu f mu nu e bar psi gamma mu psi mu math dirac matrices math bar psi psi dagger gamma math math f mu nu partial mu nu partial nu mu math electromagnetic field strength parameters theory bare electron mass bare elementary charge first


referred gauge symmetry theory gauge symmetries form group every spacetime point case qed successive application two different local symmetry transformations math e alpha x math math e alpha' x math yet another symmetry transformation math e alpha x alpha' x math math e alpha x math element group thus qed said gauge symmetry photon field may referred gauge boson abelian group meaning result regardless order elements applied qfts also


two degrees freedom said redundant apparently different ways writing related gauge transformation fact describe state photon field sense gauge invariance real symmetry reflection redundancy chosen mathematical description account gauge redundancy path integral formulation one must perform called faddeev popov gauge fixing procedure non abelian gauge theories procedure introduces new fields called ghosts particles corresponding ghost fields called ghost particles


cannot detected externally rigorous generalisation faddeev popov procedure given brst quantization spontaneous symmetry breaking spontaneous symmetry breaking mechanism whereby symmetry lagrangian violated system described illustrate mechanism consider linear sigma model containing real scalar fields described lagrangian density math mathcal l frac left partial mu phi right left partial mu phi right frac mu phi phi frac lambda left phi phi right math real parameters theory admits global symmetry math phi r ij phi j quad r mathrm n math lowest energy state ground state


batalin vilkovisky approach quantizing gauge theories furthermore perturbative path integral methods typically understood formal computational methods inspired finite dimensional integration theory ref name ren gerald b folland ''quantum field theory tourist guide mathematicians'' mathematical surveys monographs volume american mathematical society chapter ref given sound mathematical interpretation finite dimensional analogues ref name nguyen ref since ref name buchholz ref theoretical physicists mathematicians attempted organise qfts set axioms order establish existence concrete models relativistic qft mathematically rigorous way study properties


necessarily include unifying fundamental interactions single mathematical framework however many approaches quantum gravity string theory try develop framework describes fundamental forces theories often referred theory everything others loop quantum gravity make attempt instead make effort quantize gravitational field kept separate forces one difficulties formulating quantum gravity theory quantum gravitational effects appear length scales near planck scale around sup sup meters scale

Natural science
Physics
Mathematical physics
Quantum gravity


far smaller hence accessible far higher energies currently available high energy particle accelerators therefore physicists lack experimental data could distinguish competing theories proposed ref group nb quantum effects early universe might observable effect structure present universe example gravity might play role unification forces cf text wald cited ref ref group nb quantization geometry spacetime see also article planck length examples ref thus thought experiment approaches


curved non minkowskian backgrounds full quantum theory gravity shown many promising early results analogous way development quantum electrodynamics early part th century physicists considered quantum mechanics classical electromagnetic fields consideration quantum field theory curved background led predictions black hole radiation phenomena unruh effect particles exist certain accelerating frames stationary ones pose difficulty considered curved background unruh effect occurs even


flat minkowskian backgrounds vacuum state state least energy may may contain particles problem time conceptual difficulty combining quantum mechanics general relativity arises contrasting role time within two frameworks quantum theories time acts independent background states evolve hamiltonian operator acting generator infinitesimal translations quantum states time contrast general relativity treats time dynamical variable relates directly matter moreover requires hamiltonian constraint vanish


geometrodynamics ho ava lifshitz gravity macdowell mansouri action noncommutative geometry path integral based models quantum cosmology regge calculus shape dynamics string nets quantum graphity supergravity twistor theory canonical quantum gravity experimental tests emphasized quantum gravitational effects extremely weak therefore difficult test reason possibility experimentally testing quantum gravity received much attention prior late however past decade physicists realized evidence quantum gravitational effects guide development theory since theoretical development slow field phenomenological quantum gravity


domains including natural social sciences fine art religion journalism digital media fiction history cartography architecture along traditional domains politics law ancient greeks highly valued public political participation rhetoric emerged crucial tool influence politics consequently rhetoric remains associated political origins however even original instructors western speech sophists disputed limited view rhetoric according sophists gorgias successful rhetorician could speak convincingly topic regardless experience field method suggested rhetoric could means

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Rhetoric


implicit tactics identification found immense range sources among many scholars since pursued burke 's line thought james boyd white sees rhetoric broader domain social experience notion constitutive rhetoric influenced theories social construction white argues culture reconstituted language language influences people people influence language language socially constructed depends meanings people attach language rigid changes depending situation usage language rhetorical author white would say


advocated democratic advancement rhetorical art harvard 's founding boylston professorship rhetoric oratory sparked growth rhetorical study colleges across united states ref name bedfordstmartinscom harvard 's rhetoric program drew inspiration literary sources guide organization style recently studies conducted examining rhetoric used political speech acts illustrate political figures persuade audiences purposes debate clubs lyceums also developed forums common citizens could hear speakers sharpen debate skills american lyceum particular seen educational


departments english well music enjoyed resurgence renaissance nearly every author wrote music romantic era discussed rhetoric joachim burmeister wrote little difference music nature oration christoph bernhard latter half century said art music attained height day may indeed compared rhetoric view multitude figures knowledge relationship rhetoric knowledge old interesting philosophical problem partly


different assumptions nature knowledge fairly clear knowledge primarily concerned commonly known truth rhetoric primarily concerned statements effects audience word rhetoric may also refer empty speak reflects indifference truth sense rhetoric adversarial knowledge plato famously criticized sophists rhetoric persuaded people sentence friend socrates death regardless true however rhetoric also used construction true arguments identifying


eloquence speaking use rhetoric also found ancient biblical tradition ancient greece earliest mention oratorical skill occurs homer 's ''iliad'' heroes like achilles hector odysseus honored ability advise exhort peers followers ''laos'' army wise appropriate action rise democratic ''polis'' speaking skill adapted needs public political life cities ancient greece much revolved around use oratory medium political


art rhetoric aristotle says rhetoric counterpart literally antistrophe dialectic antistrophe greek ode responds patterned structure strophe form two sections whole sung two parts chorus art rhetoric follows structurally patterned art dialectic arts discourse production thus dialectical methods necessary find truth theoretical matters rhetorical methods required practical matters adjudicating somebody 's guilt innocence charged


liberal humanism lives today liberal arts general education requirements colleges universities around world quintilian quintilian ad began career pleader courts law reputation grew great vespasian created chair rhetoric rome culmination life 's work ''institutio oratoria'' ''institutes oratory'' alternatively ''the orator 's education'' lengthy treatise training orator discusses training perfect orator birth old age process reviews


book covers inventio much emphasis abundance variation ''copia'' means plenty abundance copious cornucopia books focus ways introduce maximum amount variety discourse instance one section ''de copia'' erasmus presents two hundred variations sentence another works extremely popular praise folly also considerable influence teaching rhetoric later th century orations favour qualities madness spawned type exercise popular elizabethan grammar schools later


philosopher whose models argumentation great influence modern rhetorical theory ''uses argument'' important text modern rhetorical theory argumentation theory richard vatz rhetorician responsible salience agenda meaning spin conceptualization rhetoric later revised agenda spin model conceptualization emphasizes persuader responsibility agenda spin creates theory notable agent focused perspective articulated ''the authentic book persuasion'' kendall hunt derived summer ''philosophy rhetoric'' article myth rhetorical situation richard weaver


circumstance considers particulars situation argument preferred liberals gloria anzald mestiza borderland rhetorician well mexican american poet pioneer field chicana lesbian feminism mestiza borderland rhetoric focused ones' formation identity disregarding societal discourse labels ref name lunsford ref mestiza rhetoric one viewed world discovering one 's self others others' self process one accepted living world contradictions ambiguity ref name lunsford anzaldua learned balance cultures mexican eyes


analysis typically discourse therefore principles rhetorical analysis would difficult distinguish discourse analysis however rhetorical analytic methods also applied almost anything including objects car castle computer comportment generally speaking rhetorical analysis makes use rhetorical concepts ethos logos kairos mediation etc describe social epistemological functions object study object study happens type discourse speech poem joke newspaper article aim rhetorical analysis simply describe claims


analysts attempt avoid question use rhetoric successful accomplishing aims speaker others however preeminent point rhetoric strategically effective rhetoric accomplish question allows shift focus speaker 's objectives effects functions rhetoric strategies ''rhetorical strategies'' efforts made authors persuade inform readers rhetorical strategies employed writers refer different ways persuade reader according gray various


focuses story construction narrative directs interpretation situation mid however study rhetorical criticism began move away precise methodology towards conceptual issues conceptually driven criticism operates abduction according scholar james jasinski argues emerging type criticism thought back forth text concepts explored time concepts remain works progress understanding terms develops analysis text criticism considered rhetorical


carolina press kuypers jim ed ''purpose practice pedagogy rhetorical criticism'' lanham md lexington press kuypers jim andrew king ''twentieth century roots rhetorical studies'' westport ct praeger macdonald michael ed ''the oxford handbook rhetorical studies'' oxford handbooks new york oxford univ press mateus samuel https wwwacademiaedu introdu ret rica c xxi introdu ret rica c xxi covilh livros labcom pernot laurent ''rhetoric antiquity'' washington dc catholic univ america press rorty lie oksenberg ed ''essays aristotle 's rhetoric'' berkeley ca university california press sloane thomas ''encyclopedia rhetoric'' oxford


first pmbok project management body knowledge draft mention opportunities modern project management school recognize importance opportunities opportunities included project management literature since eg pmbok became significant part project risk management years articles titled opportunity management also begin appear library searches opportunity management thus became important part risk management modern risk management theory deals type external events positive negative positive risks called ''opportunities'' similarly risks opportunities specific mitigation

Applied science
Business
Risk management


strategies exploit share enhance ignore practice risks considered usually negative risk related research practice focus significantly threats opportunities lead negative phenomena target fixation method part methods consist following elements performed less following order identify threats assess vulnerability critical assets specific threats determine risk ie expected likelihood consequences specific types attacks specific assets identify ways reduce risks prioritize risk reduction measures '''the risk


insurer avoid risks avoided without sacrificing entity 's goals reduce others retain rest review evaluation plan initial risk management plans never perfect practice experience actual loss results necessitate changes plan contribute information allow possible different decisions made dealing risks faced risk analysis results management plans updated periodically two primary reasons evaluate whether previously selected security controls still applicable effective evaluate possible


risk ' 'schedule variance due risk'' ''rs'' rs p sorting value puts highest risks schedule first intended cause greatest risks project attempted first risk minimized quickly possible slightly misleading ' 'schedule variances'' large p small vice versa equivalent risk rms ''titanic'' sinking vs passengers' meals served slightly wrong time probable increase cost associated risk ''cost variance due


goals risk management methods security leader 's role esrm manage risks harm enterprise assets partnership business leaders whose assets exposed risks esrm involves educating business leaders realistic impacts identified risks presenting potential strategies mitigate impacts enacting option chosen business line accepted levels business risk tolerance medical devices medical devices risk management process identifying evaluating mitigating risks associated harm people damage property environment risk management


topology induced metric math math turns identical standard topology induced order math math theorems like intermediate value theorem essentially topological nature often proved general setting metric topological spaces rather math mathbb r math often proofs tend shorter simpler compared classical proofs apply direct methods sequences '''' 'sequence''''' function whose domain countable totally ordered set domain usually taken natural numbers ref name gaughan ref although occasionally convenient also consider

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Real analysis


function math f mathbb r math said '''''absolutely continuous''''' '''''on''''' math math every positive number math varepsilon math positive number math delta math whenever finite sequence pairwise disjoint sub intervals math x x ldots x ny n math math math satisfies math sum k n k x k delta math math sum k n f k f x k varepsilon math absolutely continuous functions continuous consider case ''n'' definition collection absolutely continuous functions ''i'' denoted ac ''i'' absolute continuity fundamental concept lebesgue theory integration allowing formulation


known '''' 'derivative math f math math math ''''' function math f' math possibly defined subset math mathbb r math '''' 'derivative''''' '''' 'derivative function''''' '''''of''''' ''''' math f math ''''' derivative exists everywhere function said '''' 'differentiable''''' simple consequence definition math f math continuous ''''' math math ''''' differentiable differentiability therefore stronger regularity condition condition describing smoothness function continuity possible function continuous entire real line differentiable anywhere see weierstrass 's nowhere differentiable continuous function


way exponential function logarithm trigonometric functions inverses extended functions complex variable fourier series fourier series decomposes periodic functions periodic signals sum possibly infinite set simple oscillating functions namely sines cosines complex exponentials study fourier series typically occurs handled within branch mathematics mathematical analysis fourier analysis integration integration formalization problem finding area bound curve related problems determining length curve volume


generalization integration riemann sense lebesgue led formulation concept abstract measure spaces fundamental concept measure theory finally generalization integration real line curves surfaces higher dimensional space brought study vector calculus whose generalization formalization played important role evolution concepts differential forms smooth differentiable manifolds differential geometry closely related areas geometry topology see also list real analysis topics time scale calculus unification


precise definition separates sport leisure activities varies sources closest international agreement definition provided sportaccord association largest international sports federations including association football athletics cycling tennis equestrian sports therefore ' 'de facto'' representative international sport sportaccord uses following criteria determining sport ref name sportaccord element competition way harmful living creature rely equipment provided single supplier excluding proprietary games arena football

Human physical performance and recreation


judging boxing mixed martial arts victory assigned judges neither competitor lost end match time history roman bronze reduction myron 's discobolos nd century ad artifacts structures suggest sport china early bc gymnastics appears popular china 's ancient past monuments pharaohs indicate number sports including swimming fishing well developed regulated several thousands years ago ancient egypt egyptian sports included javelin throwing high jump wrestling ancient persian sports


match fixing participant participants deliberately work ensure given outcome rather simply playing win doping drugs competitive nature sport encourages participants attempt enhance performance use medicines means increasing volume blood bodies artificial means sports recognised ioc sportaccord required implement testing programme looking list banned drugs suspensions bans placed participants test positive banned substances violence violence sports involves


viewership great advertising space reported sold second slot ref name sb amateur professional women 's volleyball team us university sport undertaken amateur professional semi professional basis depending whether participants incentivised participation usually payment wage salary amateur participation sport lower levels often called grassroots sport ref name council ref name white paper ref popularity spectator sport recreation non participants led sport becoming major business right incentivised


olympics ref name infoplease exceptions boxing wrestling technology lights melbourne cricket ground indicate decision third umpire makes following review technology plays important part modern sport necessary part sports motorsport used others improve performance sports also use allow field decision making sports science widespread academic discipline applied areas including athlete performance use video analysis fine tune technique equipment improved running


improve self esteem enhance social bonds provide participants feeling purpose ref name high quality evidence shows effectiveness interventions increase sports participation community sports mass media campaigns educational sessions policy changes also high quality studies investigate effect interventions promoting healthy behavior change community politics benito mussolini used fifa world cup held italy showcase fascist italy ref name world fascism ref adolf hitler also used summer olympics held berlin


sport sullivan george ''the complete sports dictionary'' new york scholastic book services p main topic articles books sports


used summarize population data numerical descriptors include mean standard deviation continuous data like income frequency percentage useful terms describing categorical data like education census feasible chosen subset population called sample studied sample representative population determined data collected sample members observational experimental setting descriptive statistics used summarize sample data however drawing sample contains element randomness hence numerical descriptors

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics


probability already examined medieval law philosophers juan caramuel method least squares first described adrien marie legendre karl pearson founder mathematical statistics modern field statistics emerged late th early th century three stages first wave turn century led work francis galton karl pearson transformed statistics rigorous mathematical discipline used analysis science industry politics well galton 's contributions included introducing concepts


also made possible new methods impractical perform manually statistics continues area active research example problem analyze big data statistical data big data collection big sampling full census data cannot collected statisticians collect sample data developing specific experiment designs survey samples statistics also provides tools prediction forecasting statistical models use sample guide entire population important truly represents overall population representative sampling assures inferences conclusions safely


conclusion effect changes values predictors independent variables dependent variables two major types causal statistical studies experimental studies observational studies types studies effect differences independent variable variables behavior dependent variable observed difference two types lies study actually conducted effective experimental study involves taking measurements system study manipulating system taking additional measurements using procedure determine


random vector given column vector iid variables ref name piazza piazza elio probabilit e statistica esculapio ref population examined described probability distribution may unknown parameters statistic random variable function random sample probability distribution statistic though may unknown parameters consider function unknown parameter estimator statistic used estimate function commonly used estimators include sample mean unbiased sample variance sample covariance random variable function


parameter desirable properties estimators include umvue estimators lowest variance possible values parameter estimated usually easier property verify efficiency consistent estimators converges probability true value parameter still leaves question obtain estimators given situation carry computation several methods proposed method moments maximum likelihood method least squares method recent method estimating equations null hypothesis alternative hypothesis interpretation statistical information


errors null hypothesis fails rejected actual difference populations missed giving false negative standard deviation refers extent individual observations sample differ central value sample population mean standard error refers estimate difference sample mean population mean statistical error amount observation differs expected value residual amount observation differs value estimator expected value assumes given sample also called


frequentist perspective claim even make sense true value random variable either true value within given interval however true data sampled given plan construct confidence interval probability yet calculated interval cover true value point limits interval yet observed random variables one approach yield interval interpreted given probability containing true


statistics may used predicatively performance art card trick based markov process works time occasion predicted using statistical methodology statistics used predicatively create art statistical stochastic music invented iannis xenakis music performance specific though type artistry always come expected behave ways predictable tunable using statistics specialized disciplines statistical techniques used wide range types scientific


arts though reputation michelangelo perhaps put long held idea rest high renaissance artists michelangelo leone leoni giambologna could become wealthy ennobled enter circle princes period sharp argument relative status sculpture painting much decorative sculpture buildings remained trade sculptors producing individual pieces recognised level painters th century earlier sculpture also attracted middle class students although slower painting women sculptors took longer appear women

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Sculpture


elsewhere convention used minor figures shown engaged activity captives corpses conventions make statues males darker females ones conventionalized portrait statues appear early dynasty ii bce exception art amarna period ahkenaten periods dynasty xii idealized features rulers like egyptian artistic conventions changed little greek conquest egyptian pharaohs always regarded deities deities much less common


neighbouring etruscans greatly influenced greek trading partners etruscan speciality near life size tomb effigies terracotta usually lying top sarcophagus lid propped one elbow pose diner period expanding roman republic began conquer greek territory first southern italy entire hellenistic world except parthian far east official patrician sculpture became largely extension hellenistic style specifically roman elements hard disentangle especially much greek sculpture survives


elegant exaggerated columnar elongation south transept portal show naturalistic style increasing detachment wall behind awareness classical tradition trends continued west portal reims cathedral years later figures almost round became usual gothic spread across europe italy nicola pisano son giovanni developed style often called proto renaissance unmistakable influence roman sarcophagi sophisticated crowded compositions including sympathetic handling


korea japan gallery width px height px file gandharadonorfrieze jpg gandhara frieze devotees holding plantain leaves purely hellenistic style inside corinthian columns st nd century ce buner swat pakistan victoria albert museum file windgod jpg fragment wind god boreas hadda afghanistan file demetrius met coinjpg coin demetrius bactria reigned circa bce invaded northern india file bouddha hadda guimet jpg stucco buddha head painted hadda afghanistan rd th centuries file poseidongandharajpg gandhara poseidon ancient orient museum file pharroandardoxshojpg buddhist gods pancika left hariti right rd century gandhara file taller buddha bamiyan destructionjpg taller buddha bamiyan c ce


nd millennium bce replica file asokanpillar cropjpg ashoka pillar vaishali bihar c bce file column sanchijpg stupa gateway sanchi c ce perhaps earlier densely packed reliefs file buddha sarnathjpg buddha sarnath th th century ce file elephanta touristsjpg colossal trimurti elephanta caves file ellora cave jpg rock cut temples ellora file shrine four jinas rishabhanatha adinatha parshvanatha neminatha mahavira lacma jpg jain shrine rishabhanatha parshvanatha neminatha mahavira th century file natarajametjpg hindu chola period file hindu deity vishnu indian art asian art museum san franciscojpg typical medieval frontal standing statue vishnu file khajuraho jpg khajuraho temple


jpg one anitist maitum anthropomorphic pottery sarangani philippines c bc ad file bodhisattava avalokiteshvara chaiya art jpg bronze avalokiteshvara chaiya torso chaiya southern thailand srivijayan art c th century file muzium negara kl jpg bronze avalokiteshvara bidor perak malaysia c th th century file filippine provincia di agusan immagine hindu statuetta oro massiccio xiii secolojpg anitist agusan image agusan del sur philippines th th century file cambogia visnu dintorni di prasat rup arak stile din kulen ca jpg vishnu prasat rup arak kulen khmer art cambodia c file mindanao bangsamoro islamic art jpg anitist


decorated geometric forms tops carved figures animals people various objects poles placed next graves associated death ancestral world culture known great zimbabwe left impressive buildings sculpture eight soapstone zimbabwe birds appear special significance mounted monoliths modern zimbabwean sculptors soapstone achieved considerable international success southern africa 's oldest known clay figures date ce cylindrical heads mixture human animal features gallery


abstract sculpture impacted expanded alexander calder len lye jean tinguely frederick kiesler pioneers kinetic art modernist sculptors largely missed huge boom public art resulting demand war memorials two world wars public commissioning bodies became comfortable modernist sculpture large public commissions abstract figurative became common picasso commissioned make maquette huge high public sculpture called ''chicago picasso'' design ambiguous somewhat controversial


modern sculpture forms practiced outdoors environmental art environmental sculpture often full view spectators light sculpture street art sculpture site specific art also often make use environment ice sculpture form ephemeral sculpture uses ice raw material popular china japan canada sweden russia ice sculptures feature decoratively cuisines especially asia kinetic sculptures sculptures designed move include mobiles snow sculptures usually carved single block snow side weighing


various applications computer science theory relational algebra philosophy formal semantics foundational appeal together paradoxes implications concept infinity multiple applications made set theory area major interest logicians philosophers mathematics contemporary research set theory covers vast array topics ranging structure real number line study consistency large cardinals history georg cantor mathematical topics typically emerge evolve interactions among many researchers set theory however founded

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Mathematical logic
Set theory


single paper georg cantor property collection real algebraic numbers ref name cantor ref since th century bc beginning greek mathematician zeno elea west early indian mathematicians east mathematicians struggled concept infinity especially notable work bernard bolzano first half th century modern understanding infinity began motivated cantor 's work real analysis meeting cantor richard dedekind influenced cantor 's thinking culminated cantor 's paper


axiom power set introduces impredicativity type circularity definitions mathematical objects scope predicatively founded mathematics less commonly accepted zermelo fraenkel theory much greater constructive mathematics point solomon feferman said scientifically applicable analysis developed using predicative methods ludwig wittgenstein condemned set theory philosophically connotations mathematical platonism wrote set theory wrong since builds nonsense fictitious symbolism pernicious idioms nonsensical


talk numbers wittgenstein identified mathematics algorithmic human deduction need secure foundation mathematics seemed nonsensical techniques proof' rfm iii require foundation rfm vii cannot given self evident foundation pr wvc rfm iv since set theory invented provide mathematics foundation minimally unnecessary moreover since human effort necessarily finite wittgenstein 's philosophy required ontological commitment radical constructivism finitism meta mathematical statements wittgenstein included


axiom choice law excluded middle formulated manner corresponding classical formulation set theory perhaps spectrum distinct ways unique type theory principles may proven consequence principles variety formulations axiomatic principles allows detailed analysis formulations required order derive various mathematical results set theory mathematical education set theory gained popularity foundation modern mathematics support idea


understood scientific social sciences came forth moral philosophy time influenced age revolutions industrial revolution french revolution ref name kuper ' 'social sciences'' developed sciences experimental applied systematic knowledge bases prescriptive practices relating social improvement group interacting entities ref name socialcolumbian ref name peck beginnings social sciences th century reflected grand encyclopedia diderot articles jean jacques rousseau pioneers growth social sciences also reflected


social research large statistical surveys undertaken various parts united states europe another route undertaken initiated mile durkheim studying social facts vilfredo pareto opening metatheoretical ideas individual theories third means developed arising methodological dichotomy present social phenomena identified understood championed figures max weber fourth route taken based economics developed furthered economic knowledge hard science last path correlation knowledge social values antipositivism verstehen sociology max weber


history occasionally classified social science united states national endowment humanities includes history definition humanities applied linguistics however national research council classifies history social science historical method comprises techniques guidelines historians use primary sources evidence research write history social science history association formed brings together scholars numerous disciplines interested social history law trial criminal court old bailey london social science


policy political science also studies power international relations theory great powers superpowers political science methodologically diverse although recent years witnessed upsurge use scientific method proliferation formal deductive model building quantitative hypothesis testing approaches discipline include rational choice classical political philosophy interpretivism structuralism behaviouralism realism pluralism institutionalism political science one social sciences uses methods techniques relate kinds inquiries sought primary sources historical documents interviews official records well secondary


use diversity research methods collect quantitative qualitative data draw upon empirical techniques engage critical theory ref name common modern methods include case studies historical research interviewing participant observation social network analysis survey research statistical analysis model building among approaches since late many sociologists tried make discipline useful purposes beyond academy results sociological research aid educators lawmakers administrators developers others interested resolving social problems formulating public policy subdisciplinary areas evaluation research methodological assessment public sociology early


covers international relations study foreign affairs global issues among states within international system international education comprehensive approach intentionally prepares people active engaged participants interconnected world legal management social sciences discipline designed students interested study state legal elements library science interdisciplinary field applies practices perspectives tools management information technology education areas libraries collection organization preservation dissemination information resources political economy information management consists


program evaluation first focuses around definition important considerations often include much program costs per participant program could improved whether program worthwhile whether better alternatives unintended outcomes whether program goals appropriate useful theory social theorists emphasize subjective nature research writers espouse social theory perspectives include various types following critical theory examination critique society culture drawing knowledge across social sciences humanities disciplines dialectical materialism philosophy karl marx


climate change ref name ref argued misallocation resources urgent puzzle current juncture work change human behavior mitigate climate change whereas natural science climate change already well established decades centuries handle adaptation ref name see also general outline social science structure agency national nothing day methods ethnography participatory action research representation theory areas geographic information science people frantz fanon web dubois edward said al kindi ibn khaldun augustine


dialectic social science paul baran http wwwhumanitiescommissionorg american academy ''commission humanities social sciences'' academic disciplines branches science


notated np instead v category transitive verb defined element requires two nps subject direct object form sentence notated np np means category searches right indicated np object generates function equivalent vp np turn represents function searches left np produces sentence tree adjoining grammar categorial grammar adds partial tree structures categories stochastic probabilistic grammars network

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Syntax


phrase structure grammars augmented additional operations syntactic movement goal analyzing particular language specify rules generate expressions well formed language seek identify innate domain specific principles linguistic cognition line wider goals generative enterprise generative syntax among approaches adopt principle autonomy syntax assuming meaning communicative intent determined syntax rather way around generative syntax proposed late noam


language status genre generator license cecill website computer


leadership sexology physician magnus hirschfeld outspoken advocate sexual minorities founding scientific humanitarian committee first advocacy homosexual transgender rights hirschfeld also set first institut f r sexualwissenschaft institute sexology berlin library housed volumes photographs large collection art objects people around europe visited institute gain clearer understanding sexuality treated sexual concerns dysfunctions hirschfeld developed system identified numerous actual hypothetical types sexual intermediary


list sexologists notable contributors field sexology year birth sigmund freud magnus hirschfeld alfred kinsey carl friedrich otto westphal richard freiherr von krafft ebing albert eulenburg auguste henri forel sigmund freud wilhelm fliess havelock ellis eugen steinach robert latou dickinson albert moll edvard westermarck clelia duel mosher eugene wilhelm aka numa praetorius magnus hirschfeld iwan bloch theodoor hendrik van de velde max marcuse otto gross ernst gr fenberg bronis aw malinowski ref name google ref harry benjamin


relief reaching romans held ground two walls besieged gauls facing starvation eventually surrendered relief force met defeat caesar 's auxiliary cavalry sicarii zealots defended masada ad defeated roman legions built ramp nbsp high fortress 's west wall roman persian wars siege warfare extensively used sides medieval period arabia muhammad 's era early muslims led islamic prophet muhammad made extensive use sieges military campaigns first use

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Siege


invasion banu qaynuqa according islamic tradition invasion banu qaynuqa occurred ad banu qaynuqa jewish tribe expelled muhammad allegedly breaking treaty known constitution medina ref name ishaq ref name watt ref pinning clothes muslim woman led stripped naked muslim killed jew retaliation jews turn killed muslim man escalated chain revenge killings enmity grew muslims banu qaynuqa leading siege fortress ref name ishaq ref ref name mubarakpuri ref ref


trenches protect conceal attacking troops step process besiegers would ask besieged surrender forlorn hope stormed breach successfully defenders could expect mercy emerging theories castles earlier years formidable obstacles easily breached new weapons example spain newly equipped army ferdinand isabella able conquer moorish strongholds granada held centuries invention cannons early th century italian architect leon battista alberti wrote


time diseases especially typhus constant danger encamped armies outside fortress often forced premature retreat sieges often army lasted longest important element strategy besieging army whether allow encamped city surrender usually preferable graciously allow surrender save casualties set example future defending cities city allowed surrender minimal loss life much better city held


japanese counter attacks bases supplied air casualties flown returning aircraft japanese attacked strength chindits abandoned bases either moved new bases back allied lines post second world war french troops seeking cover trenches dien bien phu sarajevo residents collecting firewood winter siege marawi several times cold war western powers use airbridge expertise berlin blockade june september western powers flew flights providing west berlin


forces create strategic distraction rather take siege conclusion neighbouring cambodia time known khmer republic khmer rouge used siege tactics cut supplies phnom penh government held enclaves attempt break government continue fighting easter offensive siege l c vietnam occurred arvn troops us advisers air power successfully defeated communist forces battle l c pitted arvn men force three times size peak


long police siege unlike traditional military sieges police sieges tend last hours days rather weeks months years britain siege involves perpetrators considered british government terrorists assault take place civilian authorities hand command control military threat action ended balcombe street siege iranian embassy siege ended military assault deaths one hostage takers see also ''battleplan'' documentary tv series blitzkrieg


pogroms mass murders particularly employed authoritarian regimes often occurs cultures societies perceived possessing undesirable traits acting engineers used simple effective tool violence rather difficult time consuming methods persuasion logic r nbsp ingthorsson states human biological creature birth shaped person social influences upbringing socialisation sense social construction product society history dutch industrialist jc van marken nl introduced term ' 'sociale

Social science
Sociology
Applied sociology
Social engineering


tesser strong likes dislikes ingrained genetic make tesser speculated individuals disposed hold certain strong attitudes result inborn personality traits physical sensory cognitive skills attitudes also formed result exposure different experiences environments learning process numerous studies shown people form strong attitudes toward neutral objects way linked emotionally charged stimuli ref name kassin saul steven fein hazel r markus '''' th ed belmont ca wadsworth cengage learning ref attitudes also involved

Social science
Psychology
Social psychology


type schema stereotype generalized set beliefs particular group people incorrect ultimate attribution error stereotypes often related negative preferential attitudes prejudice behavior discrimination schemas behaviors eg going restaurant laundry known ' 'scripts'' self concept self concept whole sum beliefs people self concept made cognitive aspects called self schemas beliefs people guide processing self referential information ref name example athlete university would multiple selves


would process different information pertinent self student would oneself would process information pertinent student taking notes class completing homework assignment etc athlete would self processes information things related athlete recognizing incoming pass aiming shot etc selves part one 's identity self referential information relies appropriate self process react self part one 's identity much difficult one react


number group biases however interfere effective decision making example group polarization formerly known risky shift occurs people polarize views extreme direction group discussion problematic phenomenon groupthink collective thinking defect characterized premature consensus incorrect assumption consensus caused members group failing promote views consistent views members groupthink occurs variety situations including isolation group presence highly


zimbardo 's stanford prison study simulated exercise involving students playing prison guards inmates ostensibly showed far people would go role playing days guards became brutal cruel prisoners became miserable compliant initially argued important demonstration power immediate social situation capacity overwhelm normal personality traits subsequent research contested initial conclusions study example pointed participant self selection may affected participants' behavior ref name revisitingsfe ref


social media social media worldwide one influenced something never encounter real life social media became single important activity adolescents' even older adults' lives replication crisis many social psychological research findings proven difficult replicate leading argue social psychology undergoing replication crisis ref name osc ref replication failures unique social psychology found fields science factors identified social psychological research led field undergo current crisis firstly


''social psychology'' see also association psychological social studies crowd psychology intergroup relations european association social psychology fuzzy trace theory list biases judgment decision making list publications social psychology list social psychologists sociological approach social psychology society personality social psychology society experimental social psychology socionics notes references external links http wwwsocialpsychologyorg social psychology network https webspaceshipedu cgboer socpsyhtml social psychology basics https journalsplosorg plosone browse social psychology social psychology ''plos'' subject area page http wwwall psychologycom social psychologyhtml social psychology ''all psychology'' information resources page behavioural sciences


integrated master science degree software engineering since software engineering undergraduate degrees established many universities standard international curriculum undergraduate software engineering degrees se defined steering committee funding association computing machinery ieee computer society us universities offer software engineering degrees teach computer science engineering principles practices first software engineering master 's degree established seattle university since graduate software engineering degrees made available many

Formal science
Computer science
Software engineering


cole de technologie sup rieure university uqam universit du qu bec montr al mandated ieee develop software engineering body knowledge swebok become iso standard describing body knowledge covered software engineer ref name iso ref profession legal requirements licensing certification professional software engineers vary around world uk licensing legal requirement assume use job title software engineer areas canada alberta british columbia ontario quebec software engineers hold professional


http wwwalaorg acrl sites alaorgacrl files content conferences pdf baird pdf extinguishing slow fires cooperative preservation efforts http wwwclirorg pubs film filmhtml slow fires preservation human record https wwwimdbcom title tt ''slow fires'' imdb preservation library archival science

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Slow fire


early development classical mechanics isaac newton 's view space absolute sense existed permanently independently whether matter space natural philosophers notably gottfried leibniz thought instead space fact collection relations objects given distance direction one another th century philosopher theologian george berkeley attempted refute visibility spatial depth ''essay towards new theory vision'' later metaphysician immanuel kant said concepts space time empirical

Applied science
Military sciences
Battlespace
Space


place belonging ren descartes descartes set replace aristotelian worldview theory space motion determined natural laws words sought metaphysical foundation mechanical explanation theories matter motion cartesian space euclidean structure infinite uniform flat defined contained matter conversely matter definition spatial extension thing empty space ref name cartesian notion space closely linked theories nature body mind


style width px sum angles triangle style width px ratio circumference diameter circle style width px measure curvature hyperbolic infinite euclidean elliptical gauss poincar carl friedrich gauss henri poincar although prevailing kantian consensus time non euclidean geometries formalised began wonder whether physical space


bands electromagnetic spectrum cyberspace public space term used define areas land collectively owned community managed name delegated bodies spaces open private property land culturally owned individual company use pleasure abstract space term used geography refer hypothetical space characterized complete homogeneity modeling activity behavior conceptual tool used limit extraneous variables terrain psychology psychologists first


modes production consumption capital affect affected developments transportation technology advances create relationships across time space new markets groups wealthy elites urban centers annihilate distances affect perception linearity distance book ''thirdspace'' edward soja describes space spatiality integral neglected aspect calls trialectics three modes determine inhabit experience understand world argues critical theories humanities social sciences study


differences ensembles size fluctuations also average quantities distribution particles correct ensemble corresponds way system prepared characterized words ensemble reflects knowledge system ref name tolman class wikitable sortable rowspan colspan thermodynamic ensembles ref name gibbs microcanonical canonical grand canonical fixed variables microscopic features div class plainlist div div class plainlist center math z sum k e e k k b math

Natural science
Physics
Statistical mechanics


non equilibrium statistical mechanics ''h'' theorem term statistical mechanics coined american mathematical physicist j willard gibbs probabilistic mechanics might today seem appropriate term statistical mechanics firmly entrenched shortly death gibbs published ''elementary principles statistical mechanics'' book formalized statistical mechanics fully general approach address mechanical systems macroscopic microscopic gaseous non gaseous ref name gibbs gibbs' methods initially derived framework classical mechanics however generality found adapt easily later quantum


synergy collectively perform useful function issues requirements engineering reliability logistics coordination different teams testing evaluation maintainability many disciplines necessary successful system design development implementation ultimate decommission become difficult dealing large complex projects systems engineering deals work processes optimization methods risk management tools projects overlaps technical human centered disciplines industrial engineering process systems engineering mechanical engineering manufacturing engineering production engineering control engineering software engineering electrical engineering cybernetics aerospace engineering organizational studies civil engineering project management systems engineering ensures

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems engineering


validation considering complete problem system lifecycle includes fully understanding stakeholders involved oliver et al claim systems engineering process decomposed ''systems engineering technical process'' ''systems engineering management process'' within oliver 's model goal management process organize technical effort lifecycle technical process includes ''assessing available information'' ' 'defining effectiveness measures'' ''create behavior model'' ''create structure model'' ''perform trade analysis'' ''create sequential build test plan'' ref name okk ref depending application although several models


technical specifications successfully bridged scope scope systems engineering activities ref name sef http wwwdaumil publications publicationsdocs sefguide pdf ''systems engineering fundamentals'' defense acquisition university press ref one way understand motivation behind systems engineering see method practice identify improve common rules exist within wide variety systems keeping mind principles systems engineering nbsp holism emergent behavior boundary et al nbsp applied system complex otherwise provided systems thinking employed levels besides defense aerospace many information technology based companies software development firms


industries field electronics communications require systems engineers part team analysis incose systems engineering center excellence secoe indicates optimal effort spent systems engineering total project effort ref name sevalue time studies shown systems engineering essentially leads reduction costs among benefits ref name sevalue ref however quantitative survey larger scale encompassing wide variety industries conducted recently studies underway determine effectiveness quantify benefits systems engineering systems engineering


imitation analogue representation real world process structure conceptual mathematical physical tool assist decision maker together definitions broad enough encompass physical engineering models used verification system design well schematic models like functional flow block diagram mathematical ie quantitative models used trade study process section focuses last ref name nasa main reason using mathematical models diagrams trade studies provide estimates system effectiveness performance technical attributes cost set


systems engineers list types systems engineering management cybernetics model based systems engineering operations management structured systems analysis design method system systems engineering sose system accident systems architecture systems development life cycle systems thinking eg theory constraints value stream mapping system information modelling references reading blockley godfrey p '' https wwwicevirtuallibrarycom doi book didse differently systems rethinking infrastructure second edition '' ice publications london buede dm miller wd '' http wwwwileycom wileycda wileytitle productcd xhtml engineering design systems models methods third edition '' john wiley sons chestnut h ''systems engineering methods'' wiley gianni et al eds ''modeling


living part cell nucleus organelles cytoplasm ''experimental systematics'' identifies classifies animals based evolutionary units comprise species well importance evolution factors mutations genetic divergence hybridization considered evolutionary units ref name ref specific branches researchers able determine applications uses modern day systematics applications include studying diversity organisms differentiation extinct living creatures biologists study well understood relationships making many different diagrams trees cladograms phylogenetic trees phylogenies etc including


taxonomic attributes used provide evidence relationships phylogeny taxa inferred kinds taxonomic characters include morphological characters general external morphology special structures eg genitalia internal morphology anatomy embryology karyology cytological factors physiological characters metabolic factors body secretions genic sterility factors molecular characters immunological distance electrophoretic differences amino acid sequences proteins dna hybridization dna rna sequences restriction endonuclease analyses molecular differences behavioral characters courtship ethological isolating mechanisms behavior patterns ecological characters habit habitats food seasonal variations parasites hosts geographic characters


protestant populations foundational work social research served distinguish sociology disciplines psychology works karl marx max weber emphasized relationship religion economic social structure society contemporary debates centered issues secularization civil religion cohesiveness religion context globalization multiculturalism contemporary sociology religion may also encompass sociology irreligion instance analysis secular humanist belief systems sociology religion distinguished philosophy religion

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of religion


set assess validity religious beliefs process comparing multiple conflicting dogmas may require peter l berger described inherent methodological atheism whereas sociology religion broadly differs theology assuming indifference supernatural theorists tend acknowledge socio cultural reification religious practice classical sociology classical seminal sociological theorists late th early th century mile durkheim max weber karl marx greatly interested religion effects society like plato aristotle ancient greece enlightenment philosophers


certainly rewarded next harder rich man enter kingdom heaven camel pass eye needle suffer oppression poverty life cultivating spiritual wealth rewarded kingdom god hence marx 's famous line religion opium people soothes dulls senses pain oppression scholars recently noted contradictory dialectical metaphor referring religion


individual seem important subject durkheim treats extensively famous ''the division labour society'' religious systems increasingly focus individual salvation conscience durkheim 's definition religion ''elementary forms'' follows religion unified system beliefs practices relative sacred things say things set apart forbidden beliefs practices unite one single moral community called church adhere ref name swain https archiveorg details elementaryformso durk ''the elementary forms religious life '' translated joseph ward swain p ref


functional definition religion meaning explains religion ' 'does'' social life essentially unites societies durkheim defined religion clear distinction sacred profane effect paralleled distinction god humans definition also stipulate exactly may considered sacred thus later sociologists religion notably robert neelly bellah extended durkheimian insights talk notions civil religion religion state american civil religion example might said set sacred things flag


ordered place need ontological security therefore societies forms knowledge perform psychological task inability science offer psychological emotional comfort explains presence influence non scientific knowledge human lives even rational world functionalism unlike symbolic anthropology phenomenology functionalism points benefits social organization non scientific belief systems provide scientific knowledge fails deliver belief systems seen encouraging social order social stability ways rationally based knowledge cannot perspective existence


subsequent decline non rational belief beliefs magic witchcraft disappeared others religion become marginalized rationalist perspective led secularization theories various kinds ref name wilson typology religious groups diagram church sect typology continuum including church denomination sect cult new religious movement institutionalized sect one common typology among sociologists religious groups classified ecclesias denominations sects cults commonly referred scholarship new religious movements ref name hampshire beckford ref church sect typology origins work max weber


sent educational authorities european parents would put secular teaching united states schools much time local authorities american parents however unenlightened could fire teachers berger also notes unlike europe america seen rise evangelical protestantism born christians ref name dawson dawson andrew ''sociology religion'' hymns ancient modern ltd ref bryan wilson bryan r wilson writer secularization interested nature life society dominated scientific knowledge work tradition


categories questions explanations animal behavior two categories species level two individual level species level categories often called ultimate explanations function ie adaptation behavior serves evolutionary process ie phylogeny resulted functionality individual level categories often called proximate explanations development individual ie ontogeny proximate mechanism eg brain anatomy hormones sociobiologists interested behavior explained logically result selective pressures history species thus often interested instinctive


intuitive behavior explaining similarities rather differences cultures example mothers within many species mammals including humans protective offspring sociobiologists reason protective behavior likely evolved time helped offspring individuals characteristic survive parental protection would increase frequency population social behavior believed evolved fashion similar types nonbehavioral adaptations coat fur sense smell individual genetic advantage fails


life trying help fellow soldier example raises question altruistic genes passed soldier dies without children within sociobiology social behavior first explained sociobiological hypothesis finding evolutionarily stable strategy matches observed behavior stability strategy difficult prove usually predict gene frequencies hypothesis supported establishing correlation gene frequencies predicted strategy expressed population altruism social insects littermates explained


justice sikh tradition nowiki ni nowiki ref name justice related term ' 'dharam'' sikhism connotes 'moral order' righteousness derived become distinct etymologically related hindu concept dharma ref name justice according tenth sikh guru guru gobind singh states pashaura singh professor sikh studies one must first try peaceful means negotiation pursuit justice fail legitimate draw sword defense righteousness sikhism considers attack dharam attack


leadership including leading wars issued orders hukamnamas ref name mcleod p ref ten gurus authority tanjore style painting late th century depicting ten sikh gurus bhai bala bhai mardana term guru comes sanskrit ''gur '' meaning teacher enlightener guide mentor traditions philosophy sikhism established ten gurus ref name panjab publishers ref ref name nesbitt ref guru added reinforced message taught previous resulting creation sikh religion guru nanak first guru appointed disciple successor guru gobind


granth sahib compositions seven sikh gurus guru nanak guru angad guru amar das guru ram das guru arjan guru teg bahadur guru gobind singh also contains traditions teachings thirteen hindu bhakti movement ' 'sants'' saints ramananda namdev among others two muslim saints namely kabir sufi sheikh farid ref name shapiro ref name p text comprises '' abads'' line compositions ref name shacklexvii poetically rendered set rhythmic ancient north indian classical music ref name king anna king jl brockington intimate love divine indic religions orient blackswan


developed guru angad ref name shacklexvii language shares indo european roots found numerous regional languages india teachings group sikh musicians golden temple complex vision guru granth sahib states torkel brekke society based divine justice without oppression kind ref name brekke granth begins ''m l mantra'' iconic verse received guru nanak directly akal purakh god traditional mul mantar goes ik oankar nanak hosee bhee sach one god exists truth name creative power without fear without enmity timeless form


puranas secular stories variety sources called ''charitro pakhyan'' tales protect careless men perils lust five versions ''dasam granth'' exist authenticity ''dasam granth'' modern times become one debated topics within sikhism text played significant role sikh history modern times parts text seen antipathy discussion among sikhs ref name jdeol janamsakhis janams kh literally ''birth stories'' writings profess biographies guru nanak although scripture strictest sense provide


post calendar released sgpc named bandi chhor divas sikhs celebrate guru hargobind 's release gwalior fort several innocent raja kings also imprisoned mughal emperor jahangir day continues commemorated day hindu festival diwali lights fireworks festivities hola mohalla tradition started guru gobind singh starts day sikhs celebrate holi ref name mcleod p ref sometimes referred ''hola'' ref name roy p ref guru gobind singh modified holi three day hola mohalla extension festival martial arts extension started


sikh history ref name oberoi p ref udasis believe guruship gone sri chand since man pious habits addition nanak 's son ref name oberoi p guru angad joining guru nanak 's commune worked ''pujari'' priest religious teacher centered around hindu goddess durga ref name fenech p ref name colesambhi p nanak 's advice guru angad moved kartarpur khadur wife khivi children living able bridge divide followers udasis guru angad continued work started guru nanak widely


sikh scripture insulting muslims ram rai agreed mistake changed ram rai thus pleased aurangzeb displeased guru har rai excommunicated elder son nominated younger son guru har krishan succeed aurangzeb responded granting ram rai jagir land grant ram rai founded town enjoyed aurangzeb 's patronage town came known dehradun ''dehra'' referring ram rai 's shrine sikhs followed ram rai came known ramraiya sikhs ref name mcleod p ref however according rough estimates


capital lahore punjab gallery guru gobind singh inaugurated khalsa collective body initiated sikhs sikh temporal authority year created community combines spiritual purpose goals political military duties ref name granthfinalguru ref name parrinderp shortly death guru gobind singh proclaimed gur granth hib sikh holy scripture ultimate spiritual authority sikhs sikh khalsa 's rise power began th century time growing militancy mughal rule creation sikh empire began guru


numerous muslims india moved pakistan according news reports sikhs remain pakistan population dwindling country 's estimated nbsp million population sikh sects sikh sects sub traditions within sikhism believe alternate lineage gurus different interpretation sikh scriptures believe following living guru hold concepts differ orthodox khalsa sikhs ref name syan p ref ref name takhar p major historic sects sikhism included udasi nirmala nanakpanthi khalsa sahajdhari namdhari kuka nirankari sarvaria ref name oberoi p ref namdhari sikhs


name singh kalsi ref sikh migration canada began th century led creation significant sikh communities predominantly south vancouver surrey british columbia brampton ontario today temples newspapers radio stations markets cater large multi generational indo canadian groups sikh festivals vaisakhi bandi chhor celebrated canadian cities largest groups followers world outside punjab sikhs also migrated east africa west africa middle east southeast asia united kingdom united states australia communities developed sikhs migrated


punjab fill gaps imperial labour markets early twentieth century significant community began take shape west coast united states smaller populations sikhs found within many countries western europe pakistan mauritius malaysia philippines fiji nepal china afghanistan iran singapore united states many countries prohibitions sikhism major prohibitions include hair removal cutting removing hair body part strictly forbidden including shaving trimming facial nostril hairs amritdhari formally baptized keshdhari non baptized practicing sikhs intoxication


earliest stars formed million years big bang ref name nat ref article published october reported detection mm massive star forming galaxy billion light years away obscured clouds dust ref name williamslabbe ref mass sup sup solar masses showed star formation rate times high milky way ref name uanews ref notable pathfinder objects mwc first discovered estimated years old vla first exemplar class protostar type

Natural science
Space science
Numerical simulations
Star formation


star later preponderance atoms core becomes helium stars like sun begin fuse hydrogen along spherical shell surrounding core process causes star gradually grow size passing subgiant stage reaches red giant phase stars least half mass sun also begin generate energy fusion helium core whereas massive stars fuse heavier elements along series concentric shells star like sun exhausted nuclear fuel core collapses

Natural science
Space science
Stellar astrophysics
Stellar evolution


burning hydrogen instead hydrogen fusion proceed almost whole star helium slightly massive stars expand red giants helium cores massive enough reach temperatures required helium fusion never reach tip red giant branch hydrogen shell burning finishes stars move directly red giant branch like post asymptotic giant branch agb star lower luminosity become white dwarf ref name endms star initial mass able reach temperatures high enough fuse helium


main sequence begins fuse hydrogen shell outside core core increases mass shell produces helium depending mass helium core continues several million one two billion years star expanding cooling similar slightly lower luminosity main sequence state eventually either core becomes degenerate stars around mass sun outer layers cool sufficiently become opaque massive stars either changes cause hydrogen shell


flash nuclear power released helium flash large order sup sup times luminosity sun days ref name ryannorton sup sup times luminosity sun roughly luminosity milky way galaxy seconds ref name prialnik ref however energy consumed thermal expansion initially degenerate core thus cannot seen outside star ref name ryannorton ref name prialnik ref name deupree ref due expansion core hydrogen fusion overlying layers slows total energy generation decreases star


may completely destroyed supernova energy greatly exceeding gravitational binding energy rare event caused pair instability leaves behind black hole remnant ref name hammer http wwwmpa garchingmpgde hammer lager pairpdf pair instability supernovae hypernovae nicolay j hammer accessed may ref past history universe stars even larger largest exists today would immediately collapse black hole end lives due photodisintegration stellar evolution low mass left cycle high mass right cycle stars examples italics stellar remnants star


burned fuel supply remnants take one three forms depending mass lifetime white black dwarfs star resulting white dwarf compressed approximately volume earth white dwarfs stable inward pull gravity balanced degeneracy pressure star 's electrons consequence pauli exclusion principle electron degeneracy pressure provides rather soft limit compression therefore given chemical composition white dwarfs higher mass smaller volume


atomic nucleus thin overlying layer degenerate matter chiefly iron unless matter different composition added later neutrons resist compression pauli exclusion principle way analogous electron degeneracy pressure stronger stars known neutron stars extremely small order radius nbsp km bigger size large city phenomenally dense period rotation shortens dramatically stars shrink due conservation angular momentum observed rotational periods neutron stars range milliseconds revolutions per second several


establishing managing electronic communication trading partners complex requirements configuration processes work flows essential management network supply chain specialization enables companies improve overall competencies way outsourced manufacturing distribution done allows focus core competencies assemble networks specific best class partners contribute overall value chain thereby increasing overall performance efficiency ability quickly obtain deploy domain specific supply chain expertise without developing maintaining entirely unique

Applied science
Military sciences
Logistics
Supply chain management


service become integral part marketing thus links marketing channel customers ie links manufacturers wholesalers retailers outsourcing partnerships includes outsourcing procurement materials components also outsourcing services traditionally provided house logic trend company increasingly focus activities value chain distinctive advantage outsource everything else movement particularly evident logistics provision transport storage inventory control increasingly


steady supply goods stores lower cost create strategic vendor partnerships suppliers ref name referenceb wal mart identified selected suppliers met demand time offered best prices goods made strategic relationship vendors offering assuring long term high volume purchases exchange lowest possible prices ref name referencec thus company managed source products suppliers bulks lower prices enables company offer competitive prices


''conflict minerals'' mined sourced democratic republic congo create report available general public sec detailing due diligence efforts taken results audit chain suppliers vendors reporting companies expected provide appropriate supporting information incidents like savar building collapse victims led widespread discussions corporate social responsibility across global supply chains wieland handfield suggest companies need audit products suppliers supplier auditing needs go beyond


existing supply chain design obsolete supply chain professionals need aware changes production business climate affect supply chains create alternative supply chains need arises ref name auto research project undertaken michigan state university 's broad college business input participating organisations main issues concern supply chain managers identified capacity resource availability talent recruitment complexity threats challenges supply chain risks compliance cost purchasing issues keeping frequent changes regulation identified particular concern supply chain consultants may provide expert knowledge order assess


management ism certified purchasing manager cpm international supply chain education alliance iscea certified demand driven planner cddp chartered institute supply chain management ciscm awards certificate chartered supply chain management professional cscmp procurement high high high high high high low low high high high low high strategic sourcing high high high low high low low low low low low high new product development low


high low high low high high high high technology high high low high high high low high high high high high theory constraints high low low low high low low high low low high high operational accounting high high high low high low low low low high low low


focused oxford elsevier hopp w supply chain science chicago waveland press kallrath j maindl ti real optimization sap apo springer kaushik kd cooper industrial marketing management volume issue january pages kouvelis p chambers c wang h ''supply chain management research production operations management review trends opportunities'' production operations management vol pp nbsp larson pd halldorsson logistics versus supply chain management international survey international journal logistics research application vol issue simchi levi kaminsky p


visitors may hidden inside boxes even priests know look like believed capable benevolent destructive deeds warnings good conduct ignored mete punishment called often taking form illness sudden death referred regarded essentially malevolent destructive offerings prayers given gain blessings dissuade engaging destructive actions shinto seeks cultivate ensure harmonious


''kojiki'' amaterasu sent grandson ninigi rule japan giving curved beads mirror sword symbols japanese imperial authority amaterasu remains probably japan 's venerated cosmology afterlife shinto creative principle permeating life known associated within traditional japanese thought concept overarching duality good evil concept encompasses misfortune unhappiness disaster although correspond precisely western concept evil eschatology shinto texts


concepts afterlife modern shinto places greater emphasis life afterlife mythological stories like ''kojiki'' describe realm dead although plays role modern shinto modern shinto ideas afterlife largely revolve around idea spirit survives bodily death continues assist living years becomes part family ancestral spirits sometimes thought reside mountains descend take part agricultural events shinto 's afterlife beliefs also include


fees various regional national shinto groups contribute disaster relief funds shinto seen important places kami venerated kept clean neglected edo period common kami shrines demolished rebuilt nearby location order remove pollutants ensure purity continued recent times certain sites ise grand shrine moved adjacent site every two decades separate shrines also merged process known


branch evergreen strips paper attached waving often followed additional act purification priest sprinkles water salt brine assembled wooden box called acts purification accomplished petitions known spoken followed appearance commence slow circular motion main altar offerings presented placed table


usually focused protecting crops pests threats autumn festivals known primarily focus thanking rice harvest festival new rice held across many shinto shrines november emperor also conducts ceremony mark festival presents first fruits harvest midnight winter festivals called often feature welcoming spring expelling evil calling good influences future little difference


homes places business also put gateway pine arrangement pine branches plum tree bamboo sticks also displayed smaller colourful purpose keep away misfortune attract good fortune many places new year celebrations incorporate naked festivals men dressed loincloth engage particular activity fighting specific object immersing river common feature festivals processions parades known raucous many participants


code expanded ''jogan gishiki'' circa ''engi shiki'' jingikan shrines designated official shrines given specific privileges responsibilities hardacre saw jingikan institutional origin shinto early th century emperor tenmu commissioned compilation legends genealogies japan 's clans resulting completion ''kojiki'' designed legitimate ruling dynasty text created fixed version various stories previously circulating oral tradition ''kojiki'' omits reference buddhism


part sought ignore foreign influences emphasise narrative stressing indigenous elements japanese culture several years later ''nihon shoki'' written unlike ''kojiki'' made various references buddhism aimed foreign audience texts sought establish imperial clan 's descent sun amaterasu although many differences cosmogonic narrative provided quickly ''nihon shoki'' eclipsed ''kojiki'' terms influence texts written time also drew oral traditions regarding ''sendari kuji hongi''


buddhas beings achieved enlightenment could either pure spirits buddhas transformations buddhas attempt help sentient beings nara period period hosted many changes country government religion capital moved heij ky modern day nara ad empress genmei due death emperor practice necessary due shinto belief impurity death need avoid pollution however practice moving capital


deity human form ref name national diet library http wwwndlgojp constitution e shiryo shoshihtml emperor imperial rescript denying divinity professing humanity ''national diet library'' ref post war headquarters association shinto shrines shibuya tokyo us occupation new japanese constitution drawn enshrined freedom religion separated religion state measure designed eradicate state shinto part emperor formally declared shinto rituals performed imperial family became private affair disestablishment ended government subsidies shrines gave


chirality standard model provided theory gravity consistent quantum effects ref name duff p another feature string theory many physicists drawn high degree uniqueness ordinary particle theories one consider collection elementary particles whose classical behavior described arbitrary lagrangian string theory possibilities much constrained physicists argued five consistent supersymmetric versions theory ref name duff p although handful

Natural science
Physics
Mathematical physics
String theory


entropy natural logarithm number different states molecules also called ''microstates'' give rise macroscopic features twentieth century physicists began apply concepts black holes systems gases entropy scales volume physicist jacob bekenstein suggested entropy black hole instead proportional ' 'surface area'' event horizon boundary beyond matter radiation lost gravitational attraction ref name bekenstein combined ideas physicist stephen hawking ref


looks like solid cylinder cross section copy hyperbolic disk time runs along vertical direction picture surface cylinder plays important role ads cft correspondence hyperbolic plane anti de sitter space curved way point interior actually infinitely far boundary surface ref name maldacena p three dimensional anti de sitter space like stack hyperbolic disks one representing state universe given time resulting spacetime looks like


context ads cft correspondence black hole corresponds configuration particles boundary anti de sitter space particles obey usual rules quantum mechanics particular evolve unitary fashion black hole must also evolve unitary fashion respecting principles quantum mechanics hawking announced paradox settled favor information conservation ads cft correspondence suggested concrete mechanism black holes might preserve information ref name hawking applications nuclear physics magnet levitating


number exotic states matter including superconductors superfluids states described using formalism quantum field theory phenomena difficult explain using standard field theoretic techniques condensed matter theorists including subir sachdev hope ads cft correspondence make possible describe systems language string theory learn behavior ref name merali far success achieved using string theory methods describe transition superfluid insulator superfluid system electrically neutral atoms


forerunner world sheet conformal theory virasoro understood remove poles wrong sign residues using constraint states claud lovelace calculated loop amplitude noted inconsistency unless dimension theory charles thorn peter goddard richard brower went prove wrong sign propagating states dimensions less equal yoichiro nambu holger bech nielsen leonard susskind recognized theory could given description space time terms strings


original ramond neveu schwarz strings separately inconsistent needed combined resulting theory tachyon proven space time supersymmetry john schwarz michael green year alexander polyakov gave theory modern path integral formulation went develop conformal field theory extensively daniel friedan showed equations motions string theory generalizations einstein equations general relativity emerge renormalization group equations two dimensional field theory schwarz green discovered duality


exotic properties background independence one fundamental properties einstein 's general theory relativity background independent meaning formulation theory way privilege particular spacetime geometry one main criticisms string theory early manifestly background independent string theory one must typically specify fixed reference geometry spacetime possible geometries described perturbations fixed one book ''the trouble physics'' physicist lee smolin perimeter institute theoretical physics


combination geography ethnography created concrete counterpart rather theoretical sociology contrast utrecht school social geography emerged early sought study relationship social groups living spaces post war period continental europe german language geography focus connection social groups landscape developed hans bobek wolfgang hartke second world war ref group note though term sozialgeographie used first call systematic consideration social groups within german language

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Social geography


influenced existentialism analytical ecological approach human geography one developed edgar kant native estonia later lund university called anthropo ecology awareness temporal dimension social life would lead formation time geography works torsten h gerstrand sven godlund see also geographical segregation history geography human ecology sociology space notes references reading textbooks jackson peter susan j smith exploring social geography boston london allen


unwin p smith susan j et al eds sage handbook social geographies london sage p valentine gill social geographies space society new york prentice hall p werlen benno sozialgeographie eine einf hrung ed bern et al haupt p newcastle social geographies collective social geographies introduction rowman littlefield international others gregory derek john urry eds social relations spatial structures basingstoke et al macmillan p gregory derek geographical imaginations cambridge blackwell p hampl martin reality society geographical environmental


several disciplines approaches contributed often contentious field semantics one crucial questions unites different approaches linguistic semantics relationship form meaning major contributions study semantics derived studies related subjects syntax semantics interface pragmatics ref name partee semantic level language interacts modules levels like syntax language traditionally divided linguistics typical talk terms interfaces regarding interactions modules levels semantics

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Semantics


studies put forth leonard talmy george lakoff dirk geeraerts bruce wayne hawkins cognitive semantic frameworks developed talmy take account syntactic structures well lexical semantics linguistic theory investigates word meaning theory understands meaning word fully reflected context meaning word constituted contextual relations ref name cruse cruse '' https booksgooglecom booksid xdsbaet ussc printsec frontcover v onepage q f false lexical semantics '' cambridge university press cambridge massachusetts ref therefore distinction degrees participation well modes participation made ref name cruse


x code abap code add x giving x code cobol code set x x code batch code incf x code common lisp code x x add def code postscript code x code forth various ways developed describe semantics programming languages formally building mathematical logic operational semantics meaning construct specified computation induces executed machine particular interest ''how'' effect computation


increase sensitivity sd method semantic biases responses people within culture educational background prototype theory another set concepts related fuzziness semantics based prototypes work eleanor rosch led view natural categories characterizable terms necessary sufficient conditions graded fuzzy boundaries inconsistent status constituent members one may compare jung 's archetype though concept archetype sticks static concept post structuralists


successful systems viewed application engineering techniques engineering systems well application systems approach engineering efforts systems engineering integrates disciplines specialty groups team effort forming structured development process proceeds concept production operation disposal systems engineering considers business technical needs customers goal providing quality product meets user 's needs user centered design process systems thinking crucial part user centered design processes

Applied science
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Systems science
Systems theory


ref concept received extensive focus book ''general system theory foundations development applications'' ref name gst bertalanffy aimed bring together one heading organismic science observed work biologist wanted use word ' 'system'' principles common systems general ''general system theory'' wrote ref name gst preface von bertalanffy 's ''perspectives general system theory'' ervin l szl stated ref name l szl ervin preface ''perspectives general system theory'' l von bertalanffy edited edgar taschdjian new york george


caused single failure quantitative fta used compute top event probability usually requires computer software cafta electric power research institute saphire idaho national laboratory industries use fault trees event trees event tree starts undesired initiator loss critical supply component failure etc follows possible system events series final consequences new event considered new node tree added split probabilities taking either branch probabilities

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Safety Engineering


range top events arising initial event seen oil gas industry offshore offshore oil gas industry uses qualitative safety systems analysis technique ensure protection offshore production systems platforms analysis used design phase identify process engineering hazards together risk mitigation measures methodology described american petroleum institute recommended practice c ''analysis design installation testing basic surface safety systems offshore production platforms'' technique uses system analysis methods determine safety requirements protect


safety issue emergency eg us calls placed probabilistic risk assessment created close relationship safety reliability component reliability generally defined terms component failure rate external event probability used quantitative safety assessment methods fta related probabilistic methods used determine system mean time failure mtbf system availability probability mission success failure reliability analysis broader scope safety analysis non critical failures considered hand higher failure rates considered acceptable non critical systems safety generally cannot


achieved component reliability alone catastrophic failure probabilities sup sup per hour correspond failure rates simple components resistors capacitors complex system containing hundreds thousands components might able achieve mtbf hours meaning would fail sup sup sup sup per hour system failure catastrophic usually practical way achieve sup sup per hour failure rate redundancy adding equipment impractical usually expense least expensive form design often inherently fail safe


ideas reception bearing resolution ancient modern controversy logic oxford university press critical edition prepared introduced peter harold nidditch nidditch tells us foreword presents us complete critically established unmodernized text aims historically faithful locke 's final intentions present text based original fourth edition ''essay'' readings early authorized editions adopted appropriate form necessary recorded otherwise textual notes

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