meithnav/squad huggingface dataset:
Some legal scholars, such as John Baker of LSU, theorize that Madison's initial proposed language—that Congress should make no law regarding the establishment of a "national religion"—was rejected by the House, in favor of the more general "religion" in an effort to appease the Anti-Federalists. To both the Anti-Federalists and the Federalists, the very word "national" was a cause for alarm because of the experience under the British crown. During the debate over the establishment clause, Rep. Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts took issue with Madison's language regarding whether the government was a national or federal government (in which the states retained their individual sovereignty), which Baker suggests compelled Madison to withdraw his language from the debate.

Question: What is John Baker of LSU's profession?
Answer: legal scholars

Question: Why was a more general "religion" used in the language of the First Amendment?
Answer: to appease the Anti-Federalists

Question: Why was the word "national" a cause for alarm to both Federalists and Anti-Federalists?
Answer: because of the experience under the British crown

Question: Who took issue with Madison's language during the debate over the establishment clause?
Answer: Elbridge Gerry

Question: What was Elbridge Gerry's constituency? 
Answer: Massachusetts
Others, such as Rep. Roger Sherman of Connecticut, believed the clause was unnecessary because the original Constitution only gave Congress stated powers, which did not include establishing a national religion. Anti-Federalists such as Rep. Thomas Tucker of South Carolina moved to strike the establishment clause completely because it could preempt the religious clauses in the state constitutions. However, the Anti-Federalists were unsuccessful in persuading the House of Representatives to drop the clause from the first amendment.

Question: Where was Representative Roger Sherman from?
Answer: Connecticut

Question: Why did Sherman believe the establishment clause was unnecessary? 
Answer: Constitution only gave Congress stated powers

Question: What power was not granted to Congress by the Constitution?
Answer: establishing a national religion

Question: What was Tucker concerned the establishment clause could preempt?
Answer: religious clauses in the state constitutions

Question: Where was Representative Thomas Tucker from?
Answer: South Carolina
Protestantism is a form of Christian faith and practice which originated with the Protestant Reformation,[a] a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three major divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Anglicanism is sometimes considered to be independent from Protestantism.[b] The term derives from the letter of protestation from Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical.

Question: What type of faith is Protestantism?
Answer: Christian

Question: Whose teachings were once considered to be heretical?
Answer: Martin Luther

Question: Other than Protestantism, what are the other two divisions of Christianity?
Answer: Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy

Question: Who wrote a letter protesting the condemnation of Martin Luther?
Answer: Lutheran princes

Question: What was the name of the movement that started Protestantism?
Answer: the Protestant Reformation
Collectively encompassing more than 900 million adherents, or nearly forty percent of Christians worldwide, Protestantism is present on all populated continents.[t] The movement is more divided theologically and ecclesiastically than either Eastern Orthodoxy or Roman Catholicism, lacking both structural unity and central human authority. Some Protestant churches do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership (notably, the Anglican Communion), while others are confined to a single country, or even are solitary church bodies or congregations (such as the former Prussian Union of churches). Nondenominational, evangelical, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity.

Question: What percentage of Christians are Protestant?
Answer: nearly forty percent

Question: Which continents have some form of Protestantism?
Answer: all populated continents

Question: What types of Protestantism are increasing?
Answer: Nondenominational, evangelical, independent and other churches

Question: What Protestant church has members around the world?
Answer: the Anglican Communion

Question: How many people are considered Protestant?
Answer: more than 900 million
The name Anabaptist, meaning "one who baptizes again", was given them by their persecutors in reference to the practice of re-baptizing converts who already had been baptized as infants. Anabaptists required that baptismal candidates be able to make their own confessions of faith and so rejected baptism of infants. The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that since infant baptism was unscriptural and null and void, the baptizing of believers was not a re-baptism but in fact their first real baptism. As a result of their views on the nature of baptism and other issues, Anabaptists were heavily persecuted during the 16th century and into the 17th by both Magisterial Protestants and Roman Catholics.[aa] While most Anabaptists adhered to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount, which precluded taking oaths, participating in military actions, and participating in civil government, some who practiced re-baptism felt otherwise.[ab] They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, and Hutterites and some historians tend to consider them as outside of true Anabaptism. Anabaptist reformers of the Radical Reformation are diveded into Radical and the so-called Second Front. Some important Radical Reformation theologians were John of Leiden, Thomas Müntzer, Kaspar Schwenkfeld, Sebastian Franck, Menno Simons. Second Front Reformers included Hans Denck, Conrad Grebel, Balthasar Hubmaier and Felix Manz.

Question: What does the word Anabaptist describe?
Answer: one who baptizes again

Question: Who named the Anabaptists?
Answer: their persecutors

Question: What baptism do Anabaptists reject?
Answer: baptism of infants

Question: Who persecuted the Anabaptists in the 16th century?
Answer: Magisterial Protestants and Roman Catholics

Question: Hans Denck was considered what type of reformer?
Answer: Second Front Reformers
World literature was enriched by the works of Edmund Spenser, John Milton, John Bunyan, John Donne, John Dryden, Daniel Defoe, William Wordsworth, Jonathan Swift, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Edgar Allan Poe, Matthew Arnold, Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, Theodor Fontane, Washington Irving, Robert Browning, Emily Dickinson, Emily Brontë, Charles Dickens, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Thomas Stearns Eliot, John Galsworthy, Thomas Mann, William Faulkner, John Updike, and many others.

Question: What did John Milton do for world literature?
Answer: enrich

Question: Samuel Taylor is listed as enriching what?
Answer: World literature

Question: What women writers were listed as contributors to world literature?
Answer: Emily Dickinson, Emily Brontë

Question: Edgar Allen Poe added value to literature in what area?
Answer: World
Greece was accused of trying to cover up the extent of its massive budget deficit in the wake of the global financial crisis. The allegation was prompted by the massive revision of the 2009 budget deficit forecast by the new PASOK government elected in October 2009, from "6–8%" (estimated by the previous New Democracy government) to 12.7% (later revised to 15.7%). However, the accuracy of the revised figures has also been questioned, and in February 2012 the Hellenic Parliament voted in favor of an official investigation following accusations by a former member of the Hellenic Statistical Authority that the deficit had been artificially inflated in order to justify harsher austerity measures.

Question: What was Greece accused of covering up the extent of?
Answer: its massive budget deficit

Question: What prompted the allegation of Greece's covering up its budget deficit? 
Answer: massive revision

Question: When did the Parliament vote in favor of an investigation?
Answer: February 2012

Question: Who voted in favor of an official investigation of the accusations?
Answer: Hellenic Parliament

Question: What did a former member of the Hellenic Statistical Authority say the deficit had been inflated to justify?
Answer: harsher austerity measures
Most of the differences in the revised budget deficit numbers were due to a temporary change of accounting practices by the new government, i.e., recording expenses when military material was ordered rather than received. However, it was the retroactive application of ESA95 methodology (applied since 2000) by Eurostat, that finally raised the reference year (1999) budget deficit to 3.38% of GDP, thus exceeding the 3% limit. This led to claims that Greece (similar claims have been made about other European countries like Italy) had not actually met all five accession criteria, and the common perception that Greece entered the Eurozone through "falsified" deficit numbers.

Question: What were the majority of the differences in the revised budget due to the temporary changing of?
Answer: accounting practices

Question: What did retroactively applying the ESA95 methodology result in raising the budget deficit to?
Answer: 3.38% of GDP

Question: By how much did the budget deficit of Greece exceed the 3% limit in the reference year of 1999?
Answer: .38%

Question: What other European country were claims similar to those levied against Greece made?
Answer: Italy

Question: When were expenses recorded by the new government?
Answer: when military material was ordered rather than received
In 2010 Piraeus handled 513,319 TEUs, followed by Thessaloniki, which handled 273,282 TEUs. In the same year, 83.9 million people passed through Greece's ports, 12.7 million through the port of Paloukia in Salamis, another 12.7 through the port of Perama, 9.5 million through Piraeus and 2.7 million through Igoumenitsa. In 2013, Piraeus handled a record 3.16 million TEUs, the third-largest figure in the Mediterranean, of which 2.52 million were transported through Pier II, owned by COSCO and 644,000 were transported through Pier I, owned by the Greek state.

Question: How many TEUs did Piraeus handle in 2010?
Answer: 513,319

Question: What amount of TEUs did Thessaloniki handle in 2010?
Answer: 273,282

Question: How many million of people passed through Greece's ports in 2010?
Answer: 83.9 million

Question: What record amount of TEUs did Piraeus handle in 2013?
Answer: 3.16 million

Question: What organization owns Pier II in Piraeus? 
Answer: COSCO
To a large extent, the minority leader's position is a 20th-century innovation. Prior to this time congressional parties were often relatively disorganized, so it was not always evident who functioned as the opposition floor leader. Decades went by before anything like the modern two-party congressional system emerged on Capitol Hill with official titles for those who were its official leaders. However, from the beginning days of Congress, various House members intermittently assumed the role of "opposition leader." Some scholars suggest that Representative James Madison of Virginia informally functioned as the first "minority leader" because in the First Congress he led the opposition to Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton's fiscal policies.

Question: When was the minority leader position created? 
Answer: 20th-century

Question: Why was minority leader position created?
Answer: not always evident who functioned as the opposition floor leader

Question: Who is sometimes considered the first funcioning "Minority Leader?"
Answer: James Madison

Question: Who was Treasury Secretary at time of first congress?
Answer: Alexander Hamilton
In January 1917, the Watch Tower Society's legal representative, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, was elected as its next president. His election was disputed, and members of the Board of Directors accused him of acting in an autocratic and secretive manner. The divisions between his supporters and opponents triggered a major turnover of members over the next decade. In June 1917, he released The Finished Mystery as a seventh volume of Russell's Studies in the Scriptures series. The book, published as the posthumous work of Russell, was a compilation of his commentaries on the Bible books of Ezekiel and Revelation, plus numerous additions by Bible Students Clayton Woodworth and George Fisher. It strongly criticized Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in the Great War. As a result, Watch Tower Society directors were jailed for sedition under the Espionage Act in 1918 and members were subjected to mob violence; charges against the directors were dropped in 1920.

Question: Who was elected as the Watch Tower Society's president in January of 1917?
Answer: Joseph Franklin Rutherford

Question: When did Rutherford release The Finished Mystery?
Answer: June 1917,

Question: What had Rutherford been before being elected the group's president?
Answer: legal representative

Question: Who did the Finished Mystery strongly criticize? 
Answer: Catholic and Protestant clergy

Question: What were Watch Tower Society directors jailed for?
Answer: sedition
The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments made from headquarters (and later, also by branch committees). It was announced that, starting in September 2014, appointments would be made by traveling overseers. In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the Governing Body. Since Knorr's death in 1977, the position of president has been occupied by Frederick Franz (1977–1992) and Milton Henschel (1992–2000), both members of the Governing Body, and since 2000 by Don A. Adams, not a member of the Governing Body. In 1995, Jehovah's Witnesses abandoned the idea that Armageddon must occur during the lives of the generation that was alive in 1914 and in 2013 changed their teaching on the "generation".

Question: In 1976 whose power in Watch Tower Society was diminished?
Answer: president

Question: When was the offices of restored to the Witness congregations?
Answer: 1972

Question: When did Knorr die? 
Answer: 1977

Question: Starting in September 2014, who was responsible for making appointments in the Church?
Answer: traveling overseers

Question: Who has been president of the Society since 2000?
Answer: Don A. Adams
Baptism is a requirement for being considered a member of Jehovah's Witnesses. Jehovah's Witnesses do not practice infant baptism, and previous baptisms performed by other denominations are not considered valid. Individuals undergoing baptism must affirm publicly that dedication and baptism identify them "as one of Jehovah's Witnesses in association with God's spirit-directed organization," though Witness publications say baptism symbolizes personal dedication to God and not "to a man, work or organization." Their literature emphasizes the need for members to be obedient and loyal to Jehovah and to "his organization,"[note 2] stating that individuals must remain part of it to receive God's favor and to survive Armageddon.

Question: What is a requirement for being considered a member of Jehovah's Witnesses?
Answer: Baptism

Question: What aren't considered valid when performed by other denominations?
Answer: previous baptisms

Question: What do Witness publications say baptism symbolizes a person's personal dedication to?
Answer: God

Question: Jehovah Witnesses' literature puts emphasis on the obedience to not only Jehovah but also to his what?
Answer: organization

Question: Individuals must remain Jehovah Witnesses if they wish to receive what from God?
Answer: favor
Jehovah's Witnesses believe their religion is a restoration of first-century Christianity. Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body, which assumes responsibility for interpreting and applying scripture. The Governing Body does not issue any single, comprehensive "statement of faith", but prefers to express its doctrinal position in a variety of ways through publications published by the Watch Tower Society. Their publications teach that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive revelation, in which God gradually reveals his will and purpose, and that such enlightenment or "new light" results from the application of reason and study, the guidance of the holy spirit, and direction from Jesus Christ and angels. The Society also teaches that members of the Governing Body are helped by the holy spirit to discern "deep truths", which are then considered by the entire Governing Body before it makes doctrinal decisions. The religion's leadership, while disclaiming divine inspiration and infallibility, is said to provide "divine guidance" through its teachings described as "based on God's Word thus ... not from men, but from Jehovah."

Question: What do Jehovah Witnesses believe their religion is a restoration of?
Answer: first-century Christianity

Question: Who establishes the doctrines of the Jehovah Witnesses? 
Answer: the Governing Body

Question: Where does the Governing Body express its doctrinal position?
Answer: through publications published by the Watch Tower Society

Question: How does God reveal his will and purpose?
Answer: gradually

Question: What is the Jehovah Witnesses' leadership said to provide?
Answer: divine guidance
Though Jehovah's Witnesses do not accept blood transfusions of whole blood, they may accept some blood plasma fractions at their own discretion. The Watch Tower Society provides pre-formatted durable power of attorney documents prohibiting major blood components, in which members can specify which allowable fractions and treatments they will personally accept. Jehovah's Witnesses have established Hospital Liaison Committees as a cooperative arrangement between individual Jehovah's Witnesses and medical professionals and hospitals.

Question: What are Jehovah Witnesses allowed to accept at their discretion? 
Answer: blood plasma fractions

Question: What pre-formatted durable power of attorney documents are provided by the Watch Tower Society to prohibit?
Answer: major blood components

Question: What can Jehovah's Witnesses' members specify on the canned legal forms from the WTS?
Answer: allowable fractions and treatments they will personally accept

Question: What cooperative arrangement did Jehovah's Witnesses establish?
Answer: Hospital Liaison Committees

Question: The Hospital Liaison Committees serve to bridge between hospitals, medical professionals and who?
Answer: individual Jehovah's Witnesses
A sociological comparative study by the Pew Research Center found that Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States ranked highest in statistics for getting no further than high school graduation, belief in God, importance of religion in one's life, frequency of religious attendance, frequency of prayers, frequency of Bible reading outside of religious services, belief their prayers are answered, belief that their religion can only be interpreted one way, belief that theirs is the only one true faith leading to eternal life, opposition to abortion, and opposition to homosexuality. In the study, Jehovah's Witnesses ranked lowest in statistics for having earned a graduate degree and interest in politics.

Question: Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States ranked highest in people whose education extended no further than what?
Answer: high school graduation

Question: Compared to other religions, Jehovah's Witnesses have the highest frequency of doing what with the Bible outside of religious services?
Answer: reading

Question: What religion ranks highest in frequency of religious attendance? 
Answer: Jehovah's Witnesses

Question: Statistically, what is a Jehovah's Witnesses likely not to care about at all?
Answer: politics

Question: What do few Jehovah's Witnesses earn?
Answer: a graduate degree
Former members Heather and Gary Botting compare the cultural paradigms of the religion to George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-four, and Alan Rogerson describes the religion's leadership as totalitarian. Other critics charge that by disparaging individual decision-making, the religion's leaders cultivate a system of unquestioning obedience in which Witnesses abrogate all responsibility and rights over their personal lives. Critics also accuse the religion's leaders of exercising "intellectual dominance" over Witnesses, controlling information and creating "mental isolation", which former Governing Body member Raymond Franz argued were all elements of mind control.

Question: What do former Jehovah's Witnesses members Heath and Gary Botting compare the culture of the religion to?
Answer: Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-four

Question: Who describes the Jehovah's Witnesses' leadership as being totalitarian? 
Answer: Alan Rogerson

Question: How do the leaders of the Jehovah's Witnesses cultivate a system of unquestioning obedience?
Answer: disparaging individual decision-making

Question: What do critics of the Jehovah's Witnesses accuse the religion's leaders of exercising over members?
Answer: "intellectual dominance"

Question: What did former Governing Body member Raymond Franz argue the methods employed by the religion were all elements of?
Answer: mind control
The religion's failure to report abuse allegations to authorities has also been criticized. The Watch Tower Society's policy is that elders inform authorities when required by law to do so, but otherwise leave that action up to the victim and his or her family. The Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse found that of 1006 alleged perpetrators of child sexual abuse identified by the Jehovah's Witnesses within their organization since 1950, "not one was reported by the church to secular authorities." William Bowen, a former Jehovah's Witness elder who established the Silentlambs organization to assist sex abuse victims within the religion, has claimed Witness leaders discourage followers from reporting incidents of sexual misconduct to authorities, and other critics claim the organization is reluctant to alert authorities in order to protect its "crime-free" reputation. In court cases in the United Kingdom and the United States the Watch Tower Society has been found to have been negligent in its failure to protect children from known sex offenders within the congregation and the Society has settled other child abuse lawsuits out of court, reportedly paying as much as $780,000 to one plaintiff without admitting wrongdoing.

Question: What has the Jehovah's Witnesses failure to report to authorities been criticized? 
Answer: abuse allegations

Question: Of the 1006 alleged perpetrators of child sexual abuse identified by Jehovah's Witnesses within their organization since 1950, how many were reported to secular authorities?
Answer: not one

Question: Why are the Jehovah's Witnesses reluctant to alert authorities to abuse?
Answer: to protect its "crime-free" reputation

Question: What have courts in both the UK and the US found the Watch Tower Society to have been for failing to protect children from sexual predators within the congregation?
Answer: negligent

Question: How much has the Society reportedly paid to settle lawsuits without admitting any wrongdoing?
Answer: as much as $780,000 to one plaintiff
Jonas Bronck (c. 1600–43) was a Swedish born emigrant from Komstad, Norra Ljunga parish in Småland, Sweden who arrived in New Netherland during the spring of 1639. He became the first recorded European settler in the area now known as the Bronx. He leased land from the Dutch West India Company on the neck of the mainland immediately north of the Dutch settlement in Harlem (on Manhattan island), and bought additional tracts from the local tribes. He eventually accumulated 500 acres (about 2 square km, or 3/4 of a square mile) between the Harlem River and the Aquahung, which became known as Bronck's River, or The Bronx. Dutch and English settlers referred to the area as Bronck's Land. The American poet William Bronk was a descendant of Pieter Bronck, either Jonas Bronck's son or his younger brother.

Question: When was Jonas Bronck born?
Answer: 1600

Question: When did Bronck reach the New York area?
Answer: spring of 1639

Question: Where did Bronck emigrate from?
Answer: Småland, Sweden

Question: What entity did Bronck get his land from?
Answer: the Dutch West India Company

Question: How much land did Bronck eventually own?
Answer: 500 acres
The Bronx is home to several Off-Off-Broadway theaters, many staging new works by immigrant playwrights from Latin America and Africa. The Pregones Theater, which produces Latin American work, opened a new 130-seat theater in 2005 on Walton Avenue in the South Bronx. Some artists from elsewhere in New York City have begun to converge on the area, and housing prices have nearly quadrupled in the area since 2002. However rising prices directly correlate to a housing shortage across the city and the entire metro area.

Question: Where are many of the Bronx's playwrights from?
Answer: Latin America and Africa

Question: How many seats does the Pregones' new theater have?
Answer: 130

Question: What does the Pregones specialize in?
Answer: Latin American work

Question: When did the Pregones' new theater open?
Answer: 2005

Question: Where is the Pregones' new theater?
Answer: on Walton Avenue in the South Bronx
The Bronx has also become home to a peculiar poetic tribute, in the form of the Heinrich Heine Memorial, better known as the Lorelei Fountain from one of Heine's best-known works (1838). After Heine's German birthplace of Düsseldorf had rejected, allegedly for anti-Semitic motives, a centennial monument to the radical German-Jewish poet (1797–1856), his incensed German-American admirers, including Carl Schurz, started a movement to place one instead in Midtown Manhattan, at Fifth Avenue and 59th Street. However, this intention was thwarted by a combination of ethnic antagonism, aesthetic controversy and political struggles over the institutional control of public art.

Question: When was the Lorelei Fountain written about?
Answer: 1838

Question: Where was Heinrich Heine born?
Answer: Düsseldorf

Question: When was Heine born?
Answer: 1797

Question: When did Heine die?
Answer: 1856

Question: What ethnicity is Carl Schurz?
Answer: German-American
In 1899, the memorial, by the Berlin sculptor Ernst Gustav Herter (1846–1917), finally came to rest, although subject to repeated vandalism, in the Bronx, at 164th Street and the Grand Concourse, or Joyce Kilmer Park near today's Yankee Stadium. (In 1999, it was moved to 161st Street and the Concourse.) In 2007, Christopher Gray of The New York Times described it as "a writhing composition in white Tyrolean marble depicting Lorelei, the mythical German figure, surrounded by mermaids, dolphins and seashells."

Question: When did Herter die?
Answer: 1917

Question: When was Herter born?
Answer: 1846

Question: What was Herter's career?
Answer: sculptor

Question: Where was Herter's Heine memorial placed in 1899?
Answer: 164th Street and the Grand Concourse, or Joyce Kilmer Park

Question: Where was Herter's Heine memorial moved in 1999?
Answer: 161st Street and the Concourse
Humanism is a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers critical thinking and evidence (rationalism, empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition. The meaning of the term humanism has fluctuated according to the successive intellectual movements which have identified with it. Generally, however, humanism refers to a perspective that affirms some notion of human freedom and progress. In modern times, humanist movements are typically aligned with secularism, and today humanism typically refers to a non-theistic life stance centred on human agency and looking to science rather than revelation from a supernatural source to understand the world.

Question: What can be seen as of essential importance to a practiced of humanism?
Answer: human beings

Question: What is a common tenant of humanism?
Answer: freedom and progress

Question:  What can be credited for the changes in the definition of humanism? 
Answer: intellectual movements

Question: These days humanism could be viewed as a form of what?
Answer: secularism

Question: Instead of turning to a spiritual or divine source practicers of humanism turn to what?
Answer: science
During the French Revolution, and soon after, in Germany (by the Left Hegelians), humanism began to refer to an ethical philosophy centered on humankind, without attention to the transcendent or supernatural. The designation Religious Humanism refers to organized groups that sprang up during the late-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It is similar to Protestantism, although centered on human needs, interests, and abilities rather than the supernatural. In the Anglophone world, such modern, organized forms of humanism, which are rooted in the 18th-century Enlightenment, have to a considerable extent more or less detached themselves from the historic connection of humanism with classical learning and the liberal arts.

Question:  At the time of the French Revolution what previous focus of humanism was removed?
Answer: supernatural

Question: Protestantism differs from Humanism in its focus is on what?
Answer: supernatural

Question: What do current tenants humanism have their origins in?
Answer: 18th-century Enlightenment

Question: What was a name for humanism believers who emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?
Answer: Religious Humanism
In 1808 Bavarian educational commissioner Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer coined the term Humanismus to describe the new classical curriculum he planned to offer in German secondary schools, and by 1836 the word "humanism" had been absorbed into the English language in this sense. The coinage gained universal acceptance in 1856, when German historian and philologist Georg Voigt used humanism to describe Renaissance humanism, the movement that flourished in the Italian Renaissance to revive classical learning, a use which won wide acceptance among historians in many nations, especially Italy.

Question:  In what year did the term humanism gain yet another layer of meaning?
Answer: 1808

Question: Who can be credited with assisting the word humanism with finding a home in the English language?
Answer: Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer

Question: Who was responsible for yet another definition of the philosophy in 1856?
Answer: Georg Voigt

Question: What nation was highly receptive to the new definition of this concept?
Answer: Italy
In the high Renaissance, in fact, there was a hope that more direct knowledge of the wisdom of antiquity, including the writings of the Church fathers, the earliest known Greek texts of the Christian Gospels, and in some cases even the Jewish Kabbalah, would initiate a harmonious new era of universal agreement. With this end in view, Renaissance Church authorities afforded humanists what in retrospect appears a remarkable degree of freedom of thought. One humanist, the Greek Orthodox Platonist Gemistus Pletho (1355–1452), based in Mystras, Greece (but in contact with humanists in Florence, Venice, and Rome) taught a Christianised version of pagan polytheism.

Question:  What is one religious text that was thought to eventually lead to a peace between all?
Answer: the Jewish Kabbalah

Question: Who gave followers of Humanism the ability to think out of bounds?
Answer: Renaissance Church authorities

Question: Who gave followers of Humanism the ability to think out of bounds?
Answer: era of universal agreement

Question: What cities may have influenced the beliefs of Gemistus Pleto?
Answer: Florence, Venice, and Rome
After 1517, when the new invention of printing made these texts widely available, the Dutch humanist Erasmus, who had studied Greek at the Venetian printing house of Aldus Manutius, began a philological analysis of the Gospels in the spirit of Valla, comparing the Greek originals with their Latin translations with a view to correcting errors and discrepancies in the latter. Erasmus, along with the French humanist Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, began issuing new translations, laying the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation. Henceforth Renaissance humanism, particularly in the German North, became concerned with religion, while Italian and French humanism concentrated increasingly on scholarship and philology addressed to a narrow audience of specialists, studiously avoiding topics that might offend despotic rulers or which might be seen as corrosive of faith. After the Reformation, critical examination of the Bible did not resume until the advent of the so-called Higher criticism of the 19th-century German Tübingen school.

Question: When are these texts first able to reach a large amount of people?
Answer: 1517

Question: When are these texts first able to reach a large amount of people?
Answer: Erasmus

Question:  Erasmus can be said to have lit the match that sparked a radical change in thinking in his era along with who?
Answer: Lefèvre d'Étaples

Question: What text still remained without the type of thorough review that others texts had received by the 18th century?
Answer: the Bible
The words of the comic playwright P. Terentius Afer reverberated across the Roman world of the mid-2nd century BCE and beyond. Terence, an African and a former slave, was well placed to preach the message of universalism, of the essential unity of the human race, that had come down in philosophical form from the Greeks, but needed the pragmatic muscles of Rome in order to become a practical reality. The influence of Terence's felicitous phrase on Roman thinking about human rights can hardly be overestimated. Two hundred years later Seneca ended his seminal exposition of the unity of humankind with a clarion-call:

Question:  What author had a great impact in Rome?
Answer: P. Terentius Afer

Question: Who was able to spread the idea of equality among all through his words?
Answer: Terence

Question: From where did this school of thought emerge?
Answer: the Greeks

Question: Who again issued the same type of challenge centuries later
Answer: Seneca

Question: What was the name of the main belief Terence offered
Answer: universalism
Better acquaintance with Greek and Roman technical writings also influenced the development of European science (see the history of science in the Renaissance). This was despite what A. C. Crombie (viewing the Renaissance in the 19th-century manner as a chapter in the heroic March of Progress) calls "a backwards-looking admiration for antiquity", in which Platonism stood in opposition to the Aristotelian concentration on the observable properties of the physical world. But Renaissance humanists, who considered themselves as restoring the glory and nobility of antiquity, had no interest in scientific innovation. However, by the mid-to-late 16th century, even the universities, though still dominated by Scholasticism, began to demand that Aristotle be read in accurate texts edited according to the principles of Renaissance philology, thus setting the stage for Galileo's quarrels with the outmoded habits of Scholasticism.

Question: Who felt that looking to these ancient documents for new ideas was not the way to mover forward?
Answer: A. C. Crombie

Question:  Closer examination of what information allowed for further progress in scientific knowledge?
Answer: technical writings

Question: What group was neutral about this issue as they felt the subject unimportant? 
Answer: Renaissance humanists

Question:  When did even the scholars and professors began to at least end to examine the works of Aristotle?
Answer: 16th century,
Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory and B. F. Skinner's Behaviorism. The approach emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity. Psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow introduced a positive, humanistic psychology in response to what they viewed as the overly pessimistic view of psychoanalysis in the early 1960s. Other sources include the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology.

Question: Who wotked with Carl Rogers on humanistic phycology?
Answer: Abraham Maslow

Question: What is human phycology?
Answer: psychological perspective

Question: In what century did humanistic phycology rise in prominence?
Answer: 20th century

Question: They introduced it in response to what?
Answer: psychoanalysis
Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards, possibly as the result of a Mars-sized object with about 10% of the Earth's mass impacting the planet in a glancing blow. Some of this object's mass merged with the Earth, significantly altering its internal composition, and a portion was ejected into space. Some of the material survived to form an orbiting moon. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans.

Question: The initial state of earth was what?
Answer: molten

Question: What formed on the outside of the earth after it cooled?
Answer: a solid crust

Question: How does the mass of the moon compare to earth?
Answer: about 10% of the Earth's mass

Question: What created a primordial atmosphere on earth?
Answer: Outgassing and volcanic activity

Question: Ice from what source helped to create earths oceans?
Answer: comets

Question: Powerful volcanism contributed to cause early earth to be in what state?
Answer: molten

Question: What occurred in the atmosphere of the earth after the crust was formed?
Answer: water began accumulating

Question: What size of object may have created the moon?
Answer: Mars

Question: When water was creating the oceans what was happening to atmospheric water vapor?
Answer: Condensing
With the initial investment of £4,200, the new trial force of the Thames River Police began with about 50 men charged with policing 33,000 workers in the river trades, of whom Colquhoun claimed 11,000 were known criminals and "on the game." The force was a success after its first year, and his men had "established their worth by saving £122,000 worth of cargo and by the rescuing of several lives." Word of this success spread quickly, and the government passed the Marine Police Bill on 28 July 1800, transforming it from a private to public police agency; now the oldest police force in the world. Colquhoun published a book on the experiment, The Commerce and Policing of the River Thames. It found receptive audiences far outside London, and inspired similar forces in other cities, notably, New York City, Dublin, and Sydney.

Question: What was the initial size of the Thames River Police force?
Answer: 50

Question: How many dock workers were the Thames River Police policing?
Answer: 33,000

Question: How many dock workers did Colquhoun say were criminals?
Answer: 11,000

Question: When was the Thames River Police made a public service?
Answer: 28 July 180

Question: How much cargo theft did the Thames River Police prevent in its first year?
Answer: £122,000
In the American Old West, policing was often of very poor quality.[citation needed] The Army often provided some policing alongside poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses.[citation needed] Public organizations were supplemented by private contractors, notably the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, which was hired by individuals, businessmen, local governments and the federal government. At its height, the Pinkerton Agency's numbers exceeded those of the United States Army.[citation needed]

Question: What were the Old West's local police options?
Answer: poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses

Question: Which military branch helped the Old West's inadequate local police?
Answer: The Army

Question: Which military branch did the Pinkertons exceed at their height?
Answer: Army

Question: Which private contractor acted as police for businesses?
Answer: Pinkerton National Detective Agency
Despite popular conceptions promoted by movies and television, many US police departments prefer not to maintain officers in non-patrol bureaus and divisions beyond a certain period of time, such as in the detective bureau, and instead maintain policies that limit service in such divisions to a specified period of time, after which officers must transfer out or return to patrol duties.[citation needed] This is done in part based upon the perception that the most important and essential police work is accomplished on patrol in which officers become acquainted with their beats, prevent crime by their presence, respond to crimes in progress, manage crises, and practice their skills.[citation needed]

Question: What do some police departments make detectives go back to periodically?
Answer: patrol duties

Question: Where do some think the most important police work happens?
Answer: on patrol

Question: How do patrol officers affect crime?
Answer: prevent crime by their presence
One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch), which demands that the infectious agent be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease. These postulates were first used in the discovery that Mycobacteria species cause tuberculosis. Koch's postulates can not be applied ethically for many human diseases because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a pathogen produced as a pure culture. Often, even clearly infectious diseases do not meet the infectious criteria. For example, Treponema pallidum, the causative spirochete of syphilis, cannot be cultured in vitro - however the organism can be cultured in rabbit testes. It is less clear that a pure culture comes from an animal source serving as host than it is when derived from microbes derived from plate culture. Epidemiology is another important tool used to study disease in a population. For infectious diseases it helps to determine if a disease outbreak is sporadic (occasional occurrence), endemic (regular cases often occurring in a region), epidemic (an unusually high number of cases in a region), or pandemic (a global epidemic).

Question: What is one way of proving that a given disease is infectious?
Answer: satisfy Koch's postulates

Question: What must an infectious agent only be identified in to satisfy the first of Koch's postulates?
Answer: patients and not in healthy controls

Question: What is Koch's second postulate?
Answer: patients who contract the agent also develop the disease

Question: Why can't Koch's postulates be applied ethically for many human diseases?
Answer: because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual

Question: What is the causative spirochete of syphilis? 
Answer: Treponema pallidum
Infectious diseases are sometimes called contagious disease when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g., influenza). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious/transmissible/communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as "contagious", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called quarantine) of victims. However, this specialized connotation of the word "contagious" and "contagious disease" (easy transmissibility) is not always respected in popular use.

Question: When are infectious diseases called contagious diseases? 
Answer: when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person

Question: What is a contagious disease a subset of?
Answer: infectious disease

Question: What sets a contagious disease after from a standard infectious disease?
Answer: especially infective or easily transmitted

Question: Diseases with vector transmission or sexual transmission don't often require what type of isolation?
Answer: medical

Question: What is not always respected in popular use?
Answer: specialized connotation of the word "contagious"
Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly. In practice most minor infectious diseases such as warts, cutaneous abscesses, respiratory system infections and diarrheal diseases are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about the cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in a community, and other epidemiological considerations. Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified. The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is benign.

Question: What does diagnosis of an infectious sometimes involve identifying? 
Answer: an infectious agent either directly or indirectly

Question: Many minor infectious diseases are diagnosed by what type of presentation?
Answer: clinical

Question: How are minor infectious diseases treated?
Answer: without knowledge of the specific causative agent

Question: What can be identified given sufficient effort?
Answer: all known infectious agents

Question: Why is it often not worth bothering to identify an infectious agent?
Answer: greatly outweighed by the cost
Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is microscopy. Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be carried out with simple instruments, such as the compound light microscope, or with instruments as complex as an electron microscope. Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under the light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification. Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with biochemical staining techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with antibody based techniques. For example, the use of antibodies made artificially fluorescent (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen. A fluorescence microscope is then used to detect fluorescently labeled antibodies bound to internalized antigens within clinical samples or cultured cells. This technique is especially useful in the diagnosis of viral diseases, where the light microscope is incapable of identifying a virus directly.

Question: What is microscopy used for?
Answer: diagnosis of infectious disease

Question: What do virtually all culture techniques rely on at some point?
Answer: microscopic examination

Question: What can samples obtained from patients viewed directly under?
Answer: light microscope

Question: When is microscopy exquisitely specific?
Answer: when used in combination with antibody based techniques.

Question: What can antibodies with artificial fluorescence be directed to do? 
Answer: bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen