meithnav/squad huggingface dataset:
The Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai (NHK, the Japan Broadcasting Corporation) began conducting research to "unlock the fundamental mechanism of video and sound interactions with the five human senses" in 1964, after the Tokyo Olympics. NHK set out to create an HDTV system that ended up scoring much higher in subjective tests than NTSC's previously dubbed "HDTV". This new system, NHK Color, created in 1972, included 1125 lines, a 5:3 aspect ratio and 60 Hz refresh rate. The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), headed by Charles Ginsburg, became the testing and study authority for HDTV technology in the international theater. SMPTE would test HDTV systems from different companies from every conceivable perspective, but the problem of combining the different formats plagued the technology for many years.

Question: What is the Japan Broadcasting Corporation called?
Answer: Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai

Question: What does NHK stand for in Japan?
Answer: Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai

Question: What year was NHK Color created?
Answer: 1972

Question: What was the aspect ratio of the NHK Color?
Answer: 5:3

Question: What organization became the authority on testing and studying international HDTV technology? 
Answer: The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE)
Despite delays in some countries, the number of European HD channels and viewers has risen steadily since the first HDTV broadcasts, with SES's annual Satellite Monitor market survey for 2010 reporting more than 200 commercial channels broadcasting in HD from Astra satellites, 185 million HD capable TVs sold in Europe (£60 million in 2010 alone), and 20 million households (27% of all European digital satellite TV homes) watching HD satellite broadcasts (16 million via Astra satellites).

Question: According to the 2010 Satellite Monitor market survey, how many HD capable TV's were sold in Europe?
Answer: 185 million

Question: According to the 2010 Satellite Monitor market survey, how many European households were watching HD broadcasts? 
Answer: 20 million

Question: How many pounds were spent in Europe on HD capable TVs in 2010?
Answer: £60 million

Question: What percentage of European digital satellite TV homes were watching HD broadcasts in 2010?
Answer: 27%

Question: The number of European HD channels and viewers has done what since the first HDTV broadcasts?
Answer: risen steadily
The optimum format for a broadcast depends upon the type of videographic recording medium used and the image's characteristics. For best fidelity to the source the transmitted field ratio, lines, and frame rate should match those of the source.

Question: A broadcasts optimum format depends on what two things?
Answer: the type of videographic recording medium used and the image's characteristics

Question: For best fidelity to the source, what three things should match the source? 
Answer: transmitted field ratio, lines, and frame rate

Question: For best fidelity to the source, the transmitted field ratio, lines, and frame rate should match what? 
Answer: those of the source

Question: The type of videographic recording medium used and the image's characteristics determine what?
Answer: The optimum format for a broadcast
Non-cinematic HDTV video recordings intended for broadcast are typically recorded either in 720p or 1080i format as determined by the broadcaster. 720p is commonly used for Internet distribution of high-definition video, because most computer monitors operate in progressive-scan mode. 720p also imposes less strenuous storage and decoding requirements compared to both 1080i and 1080p. 1080p/24, 1080i/30, 1080i/25, and 720p/30 is most often used on Blu-ray Disc.

Question: What two formats are typically used to recorde non-cinematic HDTV video intended for broadcast?
Answer: 720p or 1080i

Question: Which format is typically used for internet distribution of HD video?
Answer: 720p

Question: Most computer monitors operate in what mode?
Answer: progressive-scan

Question: 1080i, 1080p, and 720p are often used on what kind of disc. 
Answer: Blu-ray
In the United States, as part of the FCC's plug and play agreement, cable companies are required to provide customers who rent HD set-top boxes with a set-top box with "functional" FireWire (IEEE 1394) on request. None of the direct broadcast satellite providers have offered this feature on any of their supported boxes, but some cable TV companies have. As of July 2004[update], boxes are not included in the FCC mandate. This content is protected by encryption known as 5C. This encryption can prevent duplication of content or simply limit the number of copies permitted, thus effectively denying most if not all fair use of the content.

Question: Prior to 2004, what were US cable companies required to provide customers who rent HD set-top boxes?
Answer: a set-top box with "functional" FireWire (IEEE 1394) on request

Question: When were boxes with "functional" FireWire no longer included in the FCC mandate?
Answer: July 2004

Question: Content is now protected by what encryption?
Answer: 5C

Question: What can 5c encryption prevent?
Answer: duplication of content or simply limit the number of copies permitted
Knots do not necessarily influence the stiffness of structural timber, this will depend on the size and location. Stiffness and elastic strength are more dependent upon the sound wood than upon localized defects. The breaking strength is very susceptible to defects. Sound knots do not weaken wood when subject to compression parallel to the grain.

Question: What is wood's breaking strength susceptible to? 
Answer: defects

Question: Depending on the placement and size of a knot, what property of structural timber can be affected?
Answer: stiffness

Question: What do stiffness and elastic strength depend on more than defects?
Answer: sound wood

Question: What direction of compression in relation to its grain won't weaken wood with sound knots in it?
Answer: parallel
In heartwood it occurs only in the first and last forms. Wood that is thoroughly air-dried retains 8–16% of the water in the cell walls, and none, or practically none, in the other forms. Even oven-dried wood retains a small percentage of moisture, but for all except chemical purposes, may be considered absolutely dry.

Question: What does wood retain in its cell walls despite being air-dried?
Answer: water

Question: Air-dried wood keeps up to what percentage of the water in its cell walls?
Answer: 16

Question: What kind of dried wood retains a small quantity of water but is considered absolutely dry?
Answer: oven-dried
Wide-ringed wood is often called "second-growth", because the growth of the young timber in open stands after the old trees have been removed is more rapid than in trees in a closed forest, and in the manufacture of articles where strength is an important consideration such "second-growth" hardwood material is preferred. This is particularly the case in the choice of hickory for handles and spokes. Here not only strength, but toughness and resilience are important. The results of a series of tests on hickory by the U.S. Forest Service show that:

Question: What term is sometimes used for wood with wide rings?
Answer: second-growth

Question: Do young trees grow more quickly in open stands or in a closed forest?
Answer: open stands

Question: What property is important to manufacturers who use "second-growth" hardwood?
Answer: strength

Question: What specific kind of "second-growth" hardwood is often used to make handles and spokes? 
Answer: hickory

Question: What organization tested hickory to find out about its properties?
Answer: U.S. Forest Service
Following World War II, Britain retained control of both British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland as protectorates. In 1945, during the Potsdam Conference, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland, but only under close supervision and on the condition — first proposed by the Somali Youth League (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) and the Somali National League (SNL) — that Somalia achieve independence within ten years. British Somaliland remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960.

Question: Along with British Somaliland, what country in the region was a British protectorate after the Second World War?
Answer: Italian Somaliland

Question: At what meeting did the United Nations give Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland?
Answer: the Potsdam Conference

Question: Along with the Somali Youth League and Somali National League, what was an early Somali political organization?
Answer: Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali

Question: How many years would Italy have to allow Italian Somaliland to become independent? 
Answer: ten

Question: In what year was the British protectorate over British Somaliland ended?
Answer: 1960
The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, first used by Bruni.[A] For Europe as a whole, 1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. Depending on the context, events such as Christopher Columbus's first voyage to the Americas in 1492, the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, or the Protestant Reformation in 1517 are sometimes used. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period. For Spain, dates commonly used are the death of King Ferdinand II in 1516, the death of Queen Isabella I of Castile in 1504, or the conquest of Granada in 1492. Historians from Romance-speaking countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts: an earlier "High" and later "Low" period. English-speaking historians, following their German counterparts, generally subdivide the Middle Ages into three intervals: "Early", "High", and "Late". In the 19th century, the entire Middle Ages were often referred to as the "Dark Ages",[B] but with the adoption of these subdivisions, use of this term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages, at least among historians.

Question: What date is usually given as the beginning of the Middle Ages?
Answer: 476

Question: Who was the first writer to date the Middle Ages from 476?
Answer: Bruni

Question: When is the Middle Ages generally considered to have ended?
Answer: 1500

Question: In what year did the Turks conquer Constantinople?
Answer: 1453

Question: When did Ferdinand II die?
Answer: 1516
The Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) split the empire into separately administered eastern and western halves in 286; the empire was not considered divided by its inhabitants or rulers, as legal and administrative promulgations in one division were considered valid in the other.[C] In 330, after a period of civil war, Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) refounded the city of Byzantium as the newly renamed eastern capital, Constantinople. Diocletian's reforms strengthened the governmental bureaucracy, reformed taxation, and strengthened the army, which bought the empire time but did not resolve the problems it was facing: excessive taxation, a declining birthrate, and pressures on its frontiers, among others. Civil war between rival emperors became common in the middle of the 4th century, diverting soldiers from the empire's frontier forces and allowing invaders to encroach. For much of the 4th century, Roman society stabilised in a new form that differed from the earlier classical period, with a widening gulf between the rich and poor, and a decline in the vitality of the smaller towns. Another change was the Christianisation, or conversion of the empire to Christianity, a gradual process that lasted from the 2nd to the 5th centuries.

Question: In what year did Diocletian begin his reign?
Answer: 284

Question: When was the Roman Empire split into western and eastern administrative divisions?
Answer: 286

Question: What was the name of the city previously located on the site of Constantinople?
Answer: Byzantium

Question: During what century was the Roman conversion to Christianity considered complete?
Answer: 5th

Question: When did the rule of Constantine end?
Answer: 337
By the end of the 5th century the western section of the empire was divided into smaller political units, ruled by the tribes that had invaded in the early part of the century. The deposition of the last emperor of the west, Romulus Augustus, in 476 has traditionally marked the end of the Western Roman Empire.[E] The Eastern Roman Empire, often referred to as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart, had little ability to assert control over the lost western territories. The Byzantine emperors maintained a claim over the territory, but none of the new kings in the west dared to elevate himself to the position of emperor of the west, Byzantine control of most of the Western Empire could not be sustained; the reconquest of the Italian peninsula and Mediterranean periphery by Justinian (r. 527–565) was the sole, and temporary, exception.

Question: Who was the last Western Roman Emperor?
Answer: Romulus Augustus

Question: When did the reign of the last Western Roman Emperor end?
Answer: 476

Question: What is another name for the Eastern Roman Empire?
Answer: Byzantine Empire

Question: What Eastern Roman Emperor reconquered Italy?
Answer: Justinian

Question: When did Justinian's reign end?
Answer: 565
In the Eastern Empire the slow infiltration of the Balkans by the Slavs added a further difficulty for Justinian's successors. It began gradually, but by the late 540s Slavic tribes were in Thrace and Illyrium, and had defeated an imperial army near Adrianople in 551. In the 560s the Avars began to expand from their base on the north bank of the Danube; by the end of the 6th century they were the dominant power in Central Europe and routinely able to force the eastern emperors to pay tribute. They remained a strong power until 796. An additional problem to face the empire came as a result of the involvement of Emperor Maurice (r. 582–602) in Persian politics when he intervened in a succession dispute. This led to a period of peace, but when Maurice was overthrown, the Persians invaded and during the reign of Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641) controlled large chunks of the empire, including Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor, until Heraclius' successful counterattack. In 628 the empire secured a peace treaty and recovered all of its lost territories.

Question: Who defeated the Eastern Roman Empire near Adrianople in 551?
Answer: Slavic tribes

Question: What tribe received tribute from the Eastern Roman emperors in the 6th century?
Answer: the Avars

Question: Near what river were the Avars originally based?
Answer: the Danube

Question: During the reign of what Emperor did the Persians occupy Egypt?
Answer: Heraclius

Question: In what year did the reign of Maurice end?
Answer: 602
The ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Empire survived the movements and invasions in the west mostly intact, but the papacy was little regarded, and few of the western bishops looked to the bishop of Rome for religious or political leadership. Many of the popes prior to 750 were more concerned with Byzantine affairs and eastern theological controversies. The register, or archived copies of the letters, of Pope Gregory the Great (pope 590–604) survived, and of those more than 850 letters, the vast majority were concerned with affairs in Italy or Constantinople. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where Gregory had sent the Gregorian mission in 597 to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. Irish missionaries were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and the 7th centuries, going first to England and Scotland and then on to the continent. Under such monks as Columba (d. 597) and Columbanus (d. 615), they founded monasteries, taught in Latin and Greek, and authored secular and religious works.

Question: When did Gregory the Great become pope?
Answer: 590

Question: About how many of Gregory's letters were concerned with Constantinople or Italy?
Answer: 850

Question: In what region of Western Europe did the pope have influence?
Answer: Britain

Question: When did the Gregorian mission travel to Britain?
Answer: 597

Question: When did Columbanus die?
Answer: 615
The Carolingian dynasty, as the successors to Charles Martel are known, officially took control of the kingdoms of Austrasia and Neustria in a coup of 753 led by Pippin III (r. 752–768). A contemporary chronicle claims that Pippin sought, and gained, authority for this coup from Pope Stephen II (pope 752–757). Pippin's takeover was reinforced with propaganda that portrayed the Merovingians as inept or cruel rulers, exalted the accomplishments of Charles Martel, and circulated stories of the family's great piety. At the time of his death in 768, Pippin left his kingdom in the hands of his two sons, Charles (r. 768–814) and Carloman (r. 768–771). When Carloman died of natural causes, Charles blocked the succession of Carloman's young son and installed himself as the king of the united Austrasia and Neustria. Charles, more often known as Charles the Great or Charlemagne, embarked upon a programme of systematic expansion in 774 that unified a large portion of Europe, eventually controlling modern-day France, northern Italy, and Saxony. In the wars that lasted beyond 800, he rewarded allies with war booty and command over parcels of land. In 774, Charlemagne conquered the Lombards, which freed the papacy from the fear of Lombard conquest and marked the beginnings of the Papal States.[L]

Question: What dynasty consisted of descendants of Charles Martel?
Answer: Carolingian

Question: In what year did the Carolingians take over Neustria?
Answer: 753

Question: Who led the coup that gained control over Austrasia?
Answer: Pippin III

Question: When did Stephen II become pope?
Answer: 752

Question: Along with Charles, who was the son of Pippin?
Answer: Carloman
Charlemagne planned to continue the Frankish tradition of dividing his kingdom between all his heirs, but was unable to do so as only one son, Louis the Pious (r. 814–840), was still alive by 813. Just before Charlemagne died in 814, he crowned Louis as his successor. Louis's reign of 26 years was marked by numerous divisions of the empire among his sons and, after 829, civil wars between various alliances of father and sons over the control of various parts of the empire. Eventually, Louis recognised his eldest son Lothair I (d. 855) as emperor and gave him Italy. Louis divided the rest of the empire between Lothair and Charles the Bald (d. 877), his youngest son. Lothair took East Francia, comprising both banks of the Rhine and eastwards, leaving Charles West Francia with the empire to the west of the Rhineland and the Alps. Louis the German (d. 876), the middle child, who had been rebellious to the last, was allowed to keep Bavaria under the suzerainty of his elder brother. The division was disputed. Pepin II of Aquitaine (d. after 864), the emperor's grandson, rebelled in a contest for Aquitaine, while Louis the German tried to annex all of East Francia. Louis the Pious died in 840, with the empire still in chaos.

Question: Who was Charlemagne's only living son in 813?
Answer: Louis the Pious

Question: How long did Louis the Pious reign?
Answer: 26 years

Question: When did the reign of Louis the Pious end?
Answer: 840

Question: Who ruled Italy after Louis the Pious?
Answer: Lothair I

Question: Who was the middle son of Louis the Pious?
Answer: Louis the German
The breakup of the Carolingian Empire was accompanied by invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes. The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the Vikings, who also raided the British Isles and settled there as well as in Iceland. In 911, the Viking chieftain Rollo (d. c. 931) received permission from the Frankish King Charles the Simple (r. 898–922) to settle in what became Normandy.[Q] The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual Magyar assault until the invader's defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. The breakup of the Abbasid dynasty meant that the Islamic world fragmented into smaller political states, some of which began expanding into Italy and Sicily, as well as over the Pyrenees into the southern parts of the Frankish kingdoms.

Question: What group settled in Iceland during this period?
Answer: the Vikings

Question: Who was king of the Franks in 899?
Answer: Charles the Simple

Question: In what region of modern-day France did the Vikings settle?
Answer: Normandy

Question: What group was defeated at the Battle of Lechfeld?
Answer: Magyar

Question: In what year did the Battle of Lechfeld occur?
Answer: 955
Efforts by local kings to fight the invaders led to the formation of new political entities. In Anglo-Saxon England, King Alfred the Great (r. 871–899) came to an agreement with the Viking invaders in the late 9th century, resulting in Danish settlements in Northumbria, Mercia, and parts of East Anglia. By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred's successors had conquered Northumbria, and restored English control over most of the southern part of Great Britain. In northern Britain, Kenneth MacAlpin (d. c. 860) united the Picts and the Scots into the Kingdom of Alba. In the early 10th century, the Ottonian dynasty had established itself in Germany, and was engaged in driving back the Magyars. Its efforts culminated in the coronation in 962 of Otto I (r. 936–973) as Holy Roman Emperor. In 972, he secured recognition of his title by the Byzantine Empire, which he sealed with the marriage of his son Otto II (r. 967–983) to Theophanu (d. 991), daughter of an earlier Byzantine Emperor Romanos II (r. 959–963). By the late 10th century Italy had been drawn into the Ottonian sphere after a period of instability; Otto III (r. 996–1002) spent much of his later reign in the kingdom. The western Frankish kingdom was more fragmented, and although kings remained nominally in charge, much of the political power devolved to the local lords.

Question: When did Alfred the Great begin his reign?
Answer: 871

Question: What was the kingdom of Kenneth MacAlpin?
Answer: the Kingdom of Alba

Question: Of what dynasty was Otto I a member?
Answer: Ottonian dynasty

Question: What group did Otto I defeat?
Answer: Magyars

Question: In what year did Otto I become Holy Roman Emperor?
Answer: 962
In Eastern Europe, Byzantium revived its fortunes under Emperor Basil I (r. 867–886) and his successors Leo VI (r. 886–912) and Constantine VII (r. 913–959), members of the Macedonian dynasty. Commerce revived and the emperors oversaw the extension of a uniform administration to all the provinces. The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors John I (r. 969–976) and Basil II (r. 976–1025) to expand the frontiers of the empire on all fronts. The imperial court was the centre of a revival of classical learning, a process known as the Macedonian Renaissance. Writers such as John Geometres (fl. early 10th century) composed new hymns, poems, and other works. Missionary efforts by both eastern and western clergy resulted in the conversion of the Moravians, Bulgars, Bohemians, Poles, Magyars, and Slavic inhabitants of the Kievan Rus'. These conversions contributed to the founding of political states in the lands of those peoples—the states of Moravia, Bulgaria, Bohemia, Poland, Hungary, and the Kievan Rus'. Bulgaria, which was founded around 680, at its height reached from Budapest to the Black Sea and from the Dnieper River in modern Ukraine to the Adriatic Sea. By 1018, the last Bulgarian nobles had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire.

Question: Of what dynasty was Leo VI a member?
Answer: Macedonian

Question: During what period did Constantine VII reign?
Answer: 913–959

Question: When did Basil I's rule begin?
Answer: 867

Question: During what century did John Geometres flourish?
Answer: 10th

Question: In approximately what year was Bulgaria founded?
Answer: 680
Other sections of society included the nobility, clergy, and townsmen. Nobles, both the titled nobility and simple knights, exploited the manors and the peasants, although they did not own lands outright but were granted rights to the income from a manor or other lands by an overlord through the system of feudalism. During the 11th and 12th centuries, these lands, or fiefs, came to be considered hereditary, and in most areas they were no longer divisible between all the heirs as had been the case in the early medieval period. Instead, most fiefs and lands went to the eldest son.[R] The dominance of the nobility was built upon its control of the land, its military service as heavy cavalry, control of castles, and various immunities from taxes or other impositions.[S] Castles, initially in wood but later in stone, began to be constructed in the 9th and 10th centuries in response to the disorder of the time, and provided protection from invaders as well as allowing lords defence from rivals. Control of castles allowed the nobles to defy kings or other overlords. Nobles were stratified; kings and the highest-ranking nobility controlled large numbers of commoners and large tracts of land, as well as other nobles. Beneath them, lesser nobles had authority over smaller areas of land and fewer people. Knights were the lowest level of nobility; they controlled but did not own land, and had to serve other nobles.[T]

Question: In what centuries did fiefs become hereditary?
Answer: 11th and 12th

Question: In this period, who usually inherited fiefs?
Answer: the eldest son

Question: What were castles originally built out of?
Answer: wood

Question: What group constituted the lowest nobility?
Answer: Knights

Question: In what century were castles first built?
Answer: 9th
The High Middle Ages was the formative period in the history of the modern Western state. Kings in France, England, and Spain consolidated their power, and set up lasting governing institutions. New kingdoms such as Hungary and Poland, after their conversion to Christianity, became Central European powers. The Magyars settled Hungary around 900 under King Árpád (d. c. 907) after a series of invasions in the 9th century. The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular kings, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the entire Christian world; the Papal Monarchy reached its apogee in the early 13th century under the pontificate of Innocent III (pope 1198–1216). Northern Crusades and the advance of Christian kingdoms and military orders into previously pagan regions in the Baltic and Finnic north-east brought the forced assimilation of numerous native peoples into European culture.

Question: Along with Poland, what Central European kingdom was formed during the High Middle Ages?
Answer: Hungary

Question: Who was king when the Magyars settled in Hungary?
Answer: Árpád

Question: When did the papacy of Innocent III begin?
Answer: 1198

Question: Along with France and Spain, the kings of what country consolidated power in the High Middle Ages?
Answer: England

Question: In approximately what year did the Magyars settle in Hungary?
Answer: 900
During the early High Middle Ages, Germany was ruled by the Ottonian dynasty, which struggled to control the powerful dukes ruling over territorial duchies tracing back to the Migration period. In 1024, they were replaced by the Salian dynasty, who famously clashed with the papacy under Emperor Henry IV (r. 1084–1105) over church appointments as part of the Investiture Controversy. His successors continued to struggle against the papacy as well as the German nobility. A period of instability followed the death of Emperor Henry V (r. 1111–25), who died without heirs, until Frederick I Barbarossa (r. 1155–90) took the imperial throne. Although he ruled effectively, the basic problems remained, and his successors continued to struggle into the 13th century. Barbarossa's grandson Frederick II (r. 1220–1250), who was also heir to the throne of Sicily through his mother, clashed repeatedly with the papacy. His court was famous for its scholars and he was often accused of heresy. He and his successors faced many difficulties, including the invasion of the Mongols into Europe in the mid-13th century. Mongols first shattered the Kievan Rus' principalities and then invaded Eastern Europe in 1241, 1259, and 1287.

Question: What dynasty controlled Germany in the early High Middle Ages?
Answer: Ottonian

Question: What dynasty ruled Germany starting in 1024?
Answer: Salian

Question: When did Henry IV's reign begin?
Answer: 1084

Question: The clash between Henry IV and the pope was part of what greater conflict?
Answer: Investiture Controversy

Question: What was the regnal name of Frederick I Barbarossa's grandson?
Answer: Frederick II
In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry crossbowmen, as well as sappers and engineers. Crossbows, which had been known in Late Antiquity, increased in use partly because of the increase in siege warfare in the 10th and 11th centuries.[AB] The increasing use of crossbows during the 12th and 13th centuries led to the use of closed-face helmets, heavy body armour, as well as horse armour. Gunpowder was known in Europe by the mid-13th century with a recorded use in European warfare by the English against the Scots in 1304, although it was merely used as an explosive and not as a weapon. Cannon were being used for sieges in the 1320s, and hand-held guns were in use by the 1360s.

Question: In what century did Europeans become aware of gunpowder?
Answer: 13th

Question: Who was recorded as using gunpowder in 1304?
Answer: the English

Question: Against whom was gunpowder used in 1304?
Answer: the Scots

Question: In what decade were siege cannon known to have been used?
Answer: 1320s

Question: What led to the increased use of armor in the 12th century?
Answer: The increasing use of crossbows
Monastic reform inspired change in the secular church. The ideals that it was based upon were brought to the papacy by Pope Leo IX (pope 1049–1054), and provided the ideology of the clerical independence that led to the Investiture Controversy in the late 11th century. This involved Pope Gregory VII (pope 1073–85) and Emperor Henry IV, who initially clashed over episcopal appointments, a dispute that turned into a battle over the ideas of investiture, clerical marriage, and simony. The emperor saw the protection of the Church as one of his responsibilities as well as wanting to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands, but the papacy insisted on the Church's independence from secular lords. These issues remained unresolved after the compromise of 1122 known as the Concordat of Worms. The dispute represents a significant stage in the creation of a papal monarchy separate from and equal to lay authorities. It also had the permanent consequence of empowering German princes at the expense of the German emperors.

Question: During what century did the Investiture Controversy occur?
Answer: 11th

Question: When did the reign of Pope Leo IX begin?
Answer: 1049

Question: What pope was involved in the Investiture Controversy?
Answer: Pope Gregory VII

Question: In what year was the Concordat of Worms agreed to?
Answer: 1122

Question: What secular rulers did the Concordat of Worms increase the power of?
Answer: German princes
Throughout the 14th century, French kings sought to expand their influence at the expense of the territorial holdings of the nobility. They ran into difficulties when attempting to confiscate the holdings of the English kings in southern France, leading to the Hundred Years' War, waged from 1337 to 1453. Early in the war the English under Edward III (r. 1327–77) and his son Edward, the Black Prince (d. 1376),[AF] won the battles of Crécy and Poitiers, captured the city of Calais, and won control of much of France.[AG] The resulting stresses almost caused the disintegration of the French kingdom during the early years of the war. In the early 15th century, France again came close to dissolving, but in the late 1420s the military successes of Joan of Arc (d. 1431) led to the victory of the French and the capture of the last English possessions in southern France in 1453. The price was high, as the population of France at the end of the Wars was likely half what it had been at the start of the conflict. Conversely, the Wars had a positive effect on English national identity, doing much to fuse the various local identities into a national English ideal. The conflict with France also helped create a national culture in England separate from French culture, which had previously been the dominant influence. The dominance of the English longbow began during early stages of the Hundred Years' War, and cannon appeared on the battlefield at Crécy in 1346.

Question: When did the Hundred Years' War begin?
Answer: 1337

Question: What was the nickname of Edward III's son Edward?
Answer: the Black Prince

Question: When did the reign of Edward III begin?
Answer: 1327

Question: Along with Poitiers, what was the site of a notable victory by Edward III's England over the French?
Answer: Crécy

Question: What decade saw the victories of Joan of Arc?
Answer: 1420s
Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It has traditionally focused largely on the study of the systems of phonemes in particular languages (and therefore used to be also called phonemics, or phonematics), but it may also cover any linguistic analysis either at a level beneath the word (including syllable, onset and rime, articulatory gestures, articulatory features, mora, etc.) or at all levels of language where sound is considered to be structured for conveying linguistic meaning. Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages.

Question: What is phonology a branch of?
Answer: linguistics

Question: What kind of systems are the traditional focus of phonology? 
Answer: phonemes

Question: The study of sign language is a part of what?
Answer: Phonology
Phonology is often distinguished from phonetics. While phonetics concerns the physical production, acoustic transmission and perception of the sounds of speech, phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language or across languages to encode meaning. For many linguists, phonetics belongs to descriptive linguistics, and phonology to theoretical linguistics, although establishing the phonological system of a language is necessarily an application of theoretical principles to analysis of phonetic evidence. Note that this distinction was not always made, particularly before the development of the modern concept of the phoneme in the mid 20th century. Some subfields of modern phonology have a crossover with phonetics in descriptive disciplines such as psycholinguistics and speech perception, resulting in specific areas like articulatory phonology or laboratory phonology.

Question: What branch of linguistics is phonology distinguished from?
Answer: phonetics

Question: What kind of linguistics is phonetics considered to be a part of?
Answer: descriptive

Question: Phonology is generally considered a part of the theoretical side of what discipline?
Answer: linguistics

Question: When was the phonome's modern concept developed?
Answer: mid 20th century

Question: What subfield of modern phonology other than phsycholinguistics crosses over with phonetics? 
Answer: speech perception
Natural phonology is a theory based on the publications of its proponent David Stampe in 1969 and (more explicitly) in 1979. In this view, phonology is based on a set of universal phonological processes that interact with one another; which ones are active and which are suppressed is language-specific. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processes act on distinctive features within prosodic groups. Prosodic groups can be as small as a part of a syllable or as large as an entire utterance. Phonological processes are unordered with respect to each other and apply simultaneously (though the output of one process may be the input to another). The second most prominent natural phonologist is Patricia Donegan (Stampe's wife); there are many natural phonologists in Europe, and a few in the U.S., such as Geoffrey Nathan. The principles of natural phonology were extended to morphology by Wolfgang U. Dressler, who founded natural morphology.

Question: Whose publications started the theory of Natural phonology?
Answer: David Stampe

Question: According to Stampe what is phonology based on?
Answer: a set of universal phonological processes

Question: Aside from being active what other condition can the universal phonological processes exist in?
Answer: suppressed

Question: Who is the number two natural phonologist?  
Answer: Patricia Donegan

Question: Who was the founder of natural morphology?
Answer: Wolfgang U. Dressler
Part of the phonological study of a language therefore involves looking at data (phonetic transcriptions of the speech of native speakers) and trying to deduce what the underlying phonemes are and what the sound inventory of the language is. The presence or absence of minimal pairs, as mentioned above, is a frequently used criterion for deciding whether two sounds should be assigned to the same phoneme. However, other considerations often need to be taken into account as well.

Question: What type of language study involves trying to deduce underlying phonomes?
Answer: phonological

Question: Aside from finding out what underlying phonemes are there what does the phonological study of a language try to find out about the language?
Answer: sound inventory

Question: What kind of speaker data does studying a language phonologically involve examining? 
Answer: native
In addition to the minimal units that can serve the purpose of differentiating meaning (the phonemes), phonology studies how sounds alternate, i.e. replace one another in different forms of the same morpheme (allomorphs), as well as, for example, syllable structure, stress, feature geometry, accent, and intonation.

Question: What do phonemes differentiate? 
Answer: meaning

Question: Aside from phonemes what is studied by phonology?
Answer: how sounds alternate

Question: The study of syllable structure is part of what discipline?
Answer: phonology
By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remain in use in some specialized applications such as education (control systems) and aircraft (slide rule).

Question: By what decade were analog computing devices rendered obsolete?
Answer: 50s

Question: Analog computers remain in use in what industries?
Answer: education (control systems) and aircraft (slide rule).
The Romans interacted with and later conquered parts of Mauretania, an early state that covered modern Morocco, western Algeria, and the Spanish cities Ceuta and Melilla during the classical period. The people of the region were noted in Classical literature as Mauri, which was subsequently rendered as Moors in English.

Question: What made up Mauretania?
Answer: Morocco, western Algeria, and the Spanish cities Ceuta and Melilla

Question: Who conquered parts of Mauretania?
Answer: The Romans

Question: During what period did Mauretania exist? 
Answer: the classical period.

Question: Where were the people of the region noted? 
Answer: in Classical literature

Question: What is Mauri in English? 
Answer: Moors
Numerous communities of dark-skinned peoples are present in North Africa, some dating from prehistoric communities. Others are descendants of the historical Trans-Saharan trade in peoples and/or, and after the Arab invasions of North Africa in the 7th century, descendants of slaves from the Arab Slave Trade in North Africa.

Question: Where was the Arab Slave Trade?
Answer: North Africa

Question: When were the Arab Invasions?
Answer: the 7th century

Question: Where were numerous dark-skinned communities? 
Answer: North Africa

Question: When did these communities begin?
Answer: some dating from prehistoric communities.

Question: Who are they descendants of?
Answer: Trans-Saharan trade in peoples
In early 1991, non-Arabs of the Zaghawa tribe of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign, segregating Arabs and non-Arabs (specifically people of sub-Saharan African descent). Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan's non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of "deftly manipulat(ing) Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid and ethnic cleansing.

Question: When did the Arab apartheid intensify? 
Answer: early 1991

Question: Who felt persecuted due to the apartheid?
Answer: non-Arabs of the Zaghawa tribe

Question: Where did these people live?
Answer: Sudan

Question: Who controlled the government?
Answer: Sudanese Arabs

Question: What was the government being accused of?
Answer: deftly manipulat(ing) Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid and ethnic cleansing.
American University economist George Ayittey accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens. According to Ayittey, "In Sudan... the Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid." Many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practising Arab apartheid.

Question: Who accused the Arab government of practicing acts of racism?
Answer: George Ayittey

Question: Who executed the apartheid?
Answer: the Arab government

Question: Who was excluded?
Answer: blacks

Question: Where were they?
Answer: Sudan

Question: What is George Ayittey's profession? 
Answer: economist
Sandra Laing is a South African woman who was classified as Coloured by authorities during the apartheid era, due to her skin colour and hair texture, although her parents could prove at least three generations of European ancestors. At age 10, she was expelled from her all-white school. The officials' decisions based on her anomalous appearance disrupted her family and adult life. She was the subject of the 2008 biographical dramatic film Skin, which won numerous awards.

Question: Who was featured in the movie "Skin"?
Answer: Sandra Laing

Question: What year was the movie "Skin" made?
Answer: 2008

Question: At was age was Sandra Laing expelled from school?
Answer: age 10

Question: What is Sandra Laing's ethnicity? 
Answer: South African

Question: How many generations of European Ancestors does Sandra Laing have?
Answer: three
In the post-apartheid era, the Constitution of South Africa has declared the country to be a "Non-racial democracy". In an effort to redress past injustices, the ANC government has introduced laws in support of affirmative action policies for Blacks; under these they define "Black" people to include "Africans", "Coloureds" and "Asians". Some affirmative action policies favor "Africans" over "Coloureds" in terms of qualifying for certain benefits. Some South Africans categorized as "African Black" say that "Coloureds" did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid. "Coloured" South Africans are known to discuss their dilemma by saying, "we were not white enough under apartheid, and we are not black enough under the ANC (African National Congress)".[citation needed]

Question: What laws did they introduce to support blacks?
Answer: affirmative action policies

Question: Who does the term "black" people include?
Answer: "Africans", "Coloureds" and "Asians"

Question: What did South Africa's Constitution Declare to be?
Answer: a "Non-racial democracy"

Question: Who makes the "Coloured" people feel "Not black enough"?
Answer: ANC (African National Congress)

Question: Who is favored more under the affirmative action policies? 
Answer: "Africans
In 2008, the High Court in South Africa ruled that Chinese South Africans who were residents during the apartheid era (and their descendants) are to be reclassified as "Black people," solely for the purposes of accessing affirmative action benefits, because they were also "disadvantaged" by racial discrimination. Chinese people who arrived in the country after the end of apartheid do not qualify for such benefits.

Question: Who declared Chinese South Africans as "Black People"?
Answer: the High Court in South Africa

Question: What year did this ruling happen?
Answer: 2008

Question: Why was this classification made?
Answer: solely for the purposes of accessing affirmative action benefits

Question: What Chinese people did not qualify for benefits?
Answer: Chinese people who arrived in the country after the end of apartheid

Question: Why did some Chinese citizens qualify for benefits? 
Answer: they were also "disadvantaged" by racial discrimination.
Genetic studies have found significant African female-mediated gene flow in Arab communities in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries, with an average of 38% of maternal lineages in Yemen are of direct African descent, 16% in Oman-Qatar, and 10% in Saudi Arabia-United Arab Emirates.

Question: How many people in Yemen have African lineage? 
Answer: average of 38%

Question: How many people in Oman-Qatar have African lineage?
Answer: 16%

Question: How many people in Saudi Arabia-United Arab Emirates have African lineage?
Answer: 10%

Question: Genetic studies have found which gene in Arab communities?
Answer: African female-mediated gene
Indigenous Australians have been referred to as "black people" in Australia since the early days of European settlement. While originally related to skin colour, the term is used to today to indicate Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander ancestry in general and can refer to people of any skin pigmentation.

Question: Who has been referred to as "black people"?
Answer: Indigenous Australians

Question: What was the original term related to?
Answer: skin colour

Question: Since when have Indigenous Australians been referred to as black?
Answer: since the early days of European settlement

Question: What does the term relate to know in reference to Australians? 
Answer: to indicate Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander ancestry
By the 1900s, nigger had become a pejorative word in the United States. In its stead, the term colored became the mainstream alternative to negro and its derived terms. After the African-American Civil rights movement, the terms colored and negro gave way to "black". Negro had superseded colored as the most polite word for African Americans at a time when black was considered more offensive. This term was accepted as normal, including by people classified as Negroes, until the later Civil Rights movement in the late 1960s. One well-known example is the identification by Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. of his own race as "Negro" in his famous speech of 1963, I Have a Dream. During the American Civil Rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, some African-American leaders in the United States, notably Malcolm X, objected to the word Negro because they associated it with the long history of slavery, segregation, and discrimination that treated African Americans as second-class citizens, or worse. Malcolm X preferred Black to Negro, but later gradually abandoned that as well for Afro-American after leaving the Nation of Islam.

Question: When did "nigger" become a pejorative word?
Answer: By the 1900s

Question: What term replaced negro as mainstream?
Answer: colored

Question: What term followed "negro" and "colored"?
Answer: "black"

Question: What movement sprouted this change in rhetoric? 
Answer: the African-American Civil rights movement

Question: Who led the Civil Rights movement?
Answer: Reverend Martin Luther King