meithnav/squad huggingface dataset:
Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.:27.2

Question: What causes the directionality of DNA strands?
Answer: the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases

Question: What is known as the 3' end?
Answer: an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose

Question: What is known as the 5' end?
Answer: an exposed phosphate group

Question: What type of synthesis occurs in the 5'→3' direction?
Answer: Nucleic acid synthesis

Question: Why does DNA replication and transcription occur in the 5'→3' direction?
Answer: because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile
Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) typically store their genomes on a single large, circular chromosome. Similarly, some eukaryotic organelles contain a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes.:14.4 Prokaryotes sometimes supplement their chromosome with additional small circles of DNA called plasmids, which usually encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals. For example, the genes for antibiotic resistance are usually encoded on bacterial plasmids and can be passed between individual cells, even those of different species, via horizontal gene transfer.

Question: What are prokaryotes?
Answer: bacteria and archaea

Question: How do prokaryotes store their genomes?
Answer: on a single large, circular chromosome

Question: What type of chromosome do some eukaryotic organelles contain?
Answer: a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes

Question: Small circles of DNA that encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals are called what?
Answer: plasmids

Question: What allows genes for antibiotic resistance to be passed between individual cells?
Answer: horizontal gene transfer
The structure of a gene consists of many elements of which the actual protein coding sequence is often only a small part. These include DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA.

Question: Often, how large a part of the structure of a gene is the protein coding sequence?
Answer: often only a small part

Question: What often plays only a small part in the structure of a gene? 
Answer: the actual protein coding sequence

Question: What is one of the many elements that the structure of a gene consists of?
Answer: DNA regions that are not transcribed

Question: What is another element of the structure of a gene?
Answer: untranslated regions of the RNA

Question: What elements does the structure of a gene consist of?
Answer: DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA
Firstly, flanking the open reading frame, all genes contain a regulatory sequence that is required for their expression. In order to be expressed, genes require a promoter sequence. The promoter is recognized and bound by transcription factors and RNA polymerase to initiate transcription.:7.1 A gene can have more than one promoter, resulting in messenger RNAs (mRNA) that differ in how far they extend in the 5' end. Promoter regions have a consensus sequence, however highly transcribed genes have "strong" promoter sequences that bind the transcription machinery well, whereas others have "weak" promoters that bind poorly and initiate transcription less frequently.:7.2 Eukaryotic promoter regions are much more complex and difficult to identify than prokaryotic promoters.:7.3

Question: What do all genes contain that is required for their expression?
Answer: a regulatory sequence

Question: How is a promoter sequence recognized?
Answer: by transcription factors and RNA polymerase

Question: What results when genes have more than one promoter?
Answer: messenger RNAs (mRNA) that differ in how far they extend in the 5' end

Question: What does a "strong" promoter sequence do?
Answer: bind the transcription machinery well

Question: What does a "weak" promoter sequence do?
Answer: bind poorly and initiate transcription less frequently
Many prokaryotic genes are organized into operons, with multiple protein-coding sequences that are transcribed as a unit. The products of operon genes typically have related functions and are involved in the same regulatory network.:7.3

Question: What are most prokaryotic genes organized into?
Answer: operons

Question: What are multiple protein coding sequences transcribed as?
Answer: a unit

Question: What sort of functions do the products of operon genes typically have?
Answer: related functions

Question: What type of network are the products of operon genes typically involved with?
Answer: the same regulatory network

Question: What type of coding sequences do prokaryotic genes typically have?
Answer: multiple protein-coding sequences
In all organisms, two steps are required to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the protein it specifies. First, the gene's DNA is transcribed to messenger RNA (mRNA).:6.1 Second, that mRNA is translated to protein.:6.2 RNA-coding genes must still go through the first step, but are not translated into protein. The process of producing a biologically functional molecule of either RNA or protein is called gene expression, and the resulting molecule is called a gene product.

Question: How many steps are required to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the specified protein?
Answer: two steps are required

Question: What is the first step to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the protein it specifies?
Answer: the gene's DNA is transcribed to messenger RNA (mRNA)

Question: What is the second step to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the protein it specifies?
Answer: mRNA is translated to protein

Question: What step must RNA-coding genes still go through?
Answer: the first step

Question: What is the process of producing a biologically functional molecule of either RNA or protein called?
Answer: gene expression
The nucleotide sequence of a gene's DNA specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein through the genetic code. Sets of three nucleotides, known as codons, each correspond to a specific amino acid.:6 Additionally, a "start codon", and three "stop codons" indicate the beginning and end of the protein coding region. There are 64 possible codons (four possible nucleotides at each of three positions, hence 43 possible codons) and only 20 standard amino acids; hence the code is redundant and multiple codons can specify the same amino acid. The correspondence between codons and amino acids is nearly universal among all known living organisms.

Question: What specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein?
Answer: The nucleotide sequence of a gene's DNA

Question: What are sets of three nucleotides known as?
Answer: codons

Question: What does each codon correspond to?
Answer: a specific amino acid

Question: What indicates the beginning and end of the protein coding region?
Answer: a "start codon", and three "stop codons"

Question: How many possible codons are there?
Answer: There are 64 possible codons (four possible nucleotides at each of three positions, hence 43 possible codons)
Transcription produces a single-stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA, whose nucleotide sequence is complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed.:6.1 The mRNA acts as an intermediate between the DNA gene and its final protein product. The gene's DNA is used as a template to generate a complementary mRNA. The mRNA matches the sequence of the gene's DNA coding strand because it is synthesised as the complement of the template strand. Transcription is performed by an enzyme called an RNA polymerase, which reads the template strand in the 3' to 5' direction and synthesizes the RNA from 5' to 3'. To initiate transcription, the polymerase first recognizes and binds a promoter region of the gene. Thus, a major mechanism of gene regulation is the blocking or sequestering the promoter region, either by tight binding by repressor molecules that physically block the polymerase, or by organizing the DNA so that the promoter region is not accessible.:7

Question: What does transcription produce?
Answer: a single-stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA

Question: How does the nucleotide sequence of mRNA compare to DNA?
Answer: complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed

Question: What is used as a template to generate a complementary mRNA?
Answer: The gene's DNA

Question: Why does the mRNA match the sequence of the gene's DNA coding strand?
Answer: because it is synthesised as the complement of the template strand

Question: What is the enzyme called that performs transcription?
Answer: an RNA polymerase
Organisms inherit their genes from their parents. Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent's genome. Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent.:1

Question: Where do organisms inherit their genes from?
Answer: from their parents

Question: How much of an asexual organism's genome is inherited from its parents?
Answer: a complete copy

Question: How many copies of each chromosome does a sexual organism have?
Answer: two copies of each chromosome

Question: How many sets of chromosomes does a sexual organism inherit from each parent?
Answer: one complete set from each parent

Question: Why do sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome?
Answer: because they inherit one complete set from each parent
The growth, development, and reproduction of organisms relies on cell division, or the process by which a single cell divides into two usually identical daughter cells. This requires first making a duplicate copy of every gene in the genome in a process called DNA replication.:5.2 The copies are made by specialized enzymes known as DNA polymerases, which "read" one strand of the double-helical DNA, known as the template strand, and synthesize a new complementary strand. Because the DNA double helix is held together by base pairing, the sequence of one strand completely specifies the sequence of its complement; hence only one strand needs to be read by the enzyme to produce a faithful copy. The process of DNA replication is semiconservative; that is, the copy of the genome inherited by each daughter cell contains one original and one newly synthesized strand of DNA.:5.2

Question: What does the growth, development, and reproduction of organisms rely on?
Answer: cell division

Question: In cell division, what two cells are created? 
Answer: identical daughter cells

Question: What specialized enzyme is responsible DNA replication?
Answer: DNA polymerases

Question: Why does the sequence of one strand completely specify the sequence of its complement?
Answer: Because the DNA double helix is held together by base pairing

Question: What one word characterizes the process of DNA replication?
Answer: semiconservative
After DNA replication is complete, the cell must physically separate the two copies of the genome and divide into two distinct membrane-bound cells.:18.2 In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) this usually occurs via a relatively simple process called binary fission, in which each circular genome attaches to the cell membrane and is separated into the daughter cells as the membrane invaginates to split the cytoplasm into two membrane-bound portions. Binary fission is extremely fast compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cell division is a more complex process known as the cell cycle; DNA replication occurs during a phase of this cycle known as S phase, whereas the process of segregating chromosomes and splitting the cytoplasm occurs during M phase.:18.1

Question: What is one thing the cell must do once DNA replication is compete?
Answer: physically separate the two copies of the genome

Question: What is another thing the cell must do once DNA replication is complete?
Answer: divide into two distinct membrane-bound cells

Question: In binary fission, what shape is each genome?
Answer: circular

Question: In binary fission. when does each genome separate into daughter cells?
Answer: as the membrane invaginates to split the cytoplasm

Question: Compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes, with what speed does binary fission occur?
Answer: extremely fast
During the process of meiotic cell division, an event called genetic recombination or crossing-over can sometimes occur, in which a length of DNA on one chromatid is swapped with a length of DNA on the corresponding sister chromatid. This has no effect if the alleles on the chromatids are the same, but results in reassortment of otherwise linked alleles if they are different.:5.5 The Mendelian principle of independent assortment asserts that each of a parent's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes; which allele an organism inherits for one trait is unrelated to which allele it inherits for another trait. This is in fact only true for genes that do not reside on the same chromosome, or are located very far from one another on the same chromosome. The closer two genes lie on the same chromosome, the more closely they will be associated in gametes and the more often they will appear together; genes that are very close are essentially never separated because it is extremely unlikely that a crossover point will occur between them. This is known as genetic linkage.

Question: When can an event called genetic recombination or crossing-over sometimes occur?
Answer: During the process of meiotic cell division

Question: If the alleles on the chromatids are the same, what effect arises from genetic recombination? 
Answer: no effect

Question: If the alleles on the chromatids are different, what effect arises from genetic recombination? 
Answer: reassortment of otherwise linked alleles

Question: Each of a parent's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes according to what Mendelian principle?
Answer: independent assortment

Question: In genetic linkage, what sort of point is extremely unlikely to occur?
Answer: a crossover point
Most mutations within genes are neutral, having no effect on the organism's phenotype (silent mutations). Some mutations do not change the amino acid sequence because multiple codons encode the same amino acid (synonymous mutations). Other mutations can be neutral if they lead to amino acid sequence changes, but the protein still functions similarly with the new amino acid (e.g. conservative mutations). Many mutations, however, are deleterious or even lethal, and are removed from populations by natural selection. Genetic disorders are the result of deleterious mutations and can be due to spontaneous mutation in the affected individual, or can be inherited. Finally, a small fraction of mutations are beneficial, improving the organism's fitness and are extremely important for evolution, since their directional selection leads to adaptive evolution.:7.6

Question: What are mutations that have no effect on an organism's phenotype called?
Answer: silent mutations

Question: What are mutations that do not change the amino acid sequence called?
Answer: synonymous mutations

Question: What are mutations that lead to amino acid sequence changes but leave the protein functioning similarly called?
Answer: conservative mutations

Question: What is a result of deleterious mutations?
Answer: Genetic disorders

Question: What does the directional selection of beneficial mutations lead to?
Answer: adaptive evolution
Genes with a most recent common ancestor, and thus a shared evolutionary ancestry, are known as homologs. These genes appear either from gene duplication within an organism's genome, where they are known as paralogous genes, or are the result of divergence of the genes after a speciation event, where they are known as orthologous genes,:7.6 and often perform the same or similar functions in related organisms. It is often assumed that the functions of orthologous genes are more similar than those of paralogous genes, although the difference is minimal.

Question: What are genes with a most recent common ancestor called?
Answer: homologs

Question: What is one reason for homologs to appear?
Answer: gene duplication within an organism's genome

Question: What are genes that occur from duplication within an organism's genome called?
Answer: paralogous genes

Question: What are genes that result from divergence of the genes after a speciation event called?
Answer: orthologous genes
The most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages is gene duplication, which creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome. The resulting genes (paralogs) may then diverge in sequence and in function. Sets of genes formed in this way comprise a gene family. Gene duplications and losses within a family are common and represent a major source of evolutionary biodiversity. Sometimes, gene duplication may result in a nonfunctional copy of a gene, or a functional copy may be subject to mutations that result in loss of function; such nonfunctional genes are called pseudogenes.:7.6

Question: What is the most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages?
Answer: gene duplication

Question: What creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome?
Answer: gene duplication

Question: What are the genes that result from eukaryotic gene duplication called?
Answer: paralogs

Question: What type of copy can gene duplication sometimes result in?
Answer: nonfunctional

Question: What are functional copies of a gene which have a loss of function due to mutation called?
Answer: pseudogenes
Gene nomenclature has been established by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) for each known human gene in the form of an approved gene name and symbol (short-form abbreviation), which can be accessed through a database maintained by HGNC. Symbols are chosen to be unique, and each gene has only one symbol (although approved symbols sometimes change). Symbols are preferably kept consistent with other members of a gene family and with homologs in other species, particularly the mouse due to its role as a common model organism.

Question: What committee has established gene nomenclature for every known human gene?
Answer: HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)

Question: How can the gene nomenclature be accessed? 
Answer: through a database maintained by HGNC

Question: How many symbols does each gene have?
Answer: only one

Question: With what is it preferred that symbols are kept consistent with?
Answer: homologs in other species

Question: What type of model does the mouse play a role for?
Answer: common model
Independence was unilaterally declared on 24 September 1973. Recognition became universal following the 25 April 1974 socialist-inspired military coup in Portugal, which overthrew Lisbon's Estado Novo regime.

Question: When was independence declared?
Answer: 24 September 1973

Question: What date was independence considered universal? 
Answer: 25 April 1974

Question: What event caused the recognition to be universal?
Answer: socialist-inspired military coup

Question: Where did a coup take place?
Answer: Portugal

Question: Who was overthrown in the coup?
Answer: Lisbon's Estado Novo regime
Guinea-Bissau is bordered by Senegal to the north and Guinea to the south and east, with the Atlantic Ocean to its west. It lies mostly between latitudes 11° and 13°N (a small area is south of 11°), and longitudes 13° and 17°W.

Question: What country is on the north border of Guinea-Bissau?
Answer: Senegal

Question: What country is on the south border of Guinea-Bissau?
Answer: Guinea

Question: What is to the west of Guinea-Bissau?
Answer: Atlantic Ocean

Question: What latitudes does Guinea-Bissau mostly lie between?
Answer: 11° and 13°N

Question: What longitudes does Guinea-Bissau mostly lie between?
Answer: 13° and 17°W
220th Street is the highest numbered street on Manhattan Island. Marble Hill is also within the borough of Manhattan, so the highest street number in the borough is 228th Street. However, the numbering continues in the Bronx up to 263rd Street. The lowest number is East First Street—which runs in Alphabet City near East Houston Street—as well as First Place in Battery Park City.

Question: What is the highest numbered street on Manhattan Island?
Answer: 220th Street

Question: What is the highest street number within the borough of Manhattan?
Answer: 228

Question: What is the highest street number in the Bronx?
Answer: 263

Question: Where is First Place located?
Answer: Battery Park City

Question: Where is East First Street located?
Answer: Alphabet City
13th Street is in three parts. The first is a dead end from Avenue C. The second starts at a dead end, just before Avenue B, and runs to Greenwich Avenue, and the third part is from Eighth Avenue to Tenth Avenue.

Question: 13th Street is divided into how many parts?
Answer: three

Question: The first part of 13th Street is a dead end from which Avenue?
Answer: C

Question: Where does the second part of 13th Street end?
Answer: Greenwich Avenue

Question: Which street has its third section between Eighth Avenue and Tenth Avenue?
Answer: 13th Street
23rd Street is another main numbered street in Manhattan. It begins at FDR Drive and ends at Eleventh Avenue. Its length is 3.1 km/1.9m. It has two-way travel. On 23rd Street there are five local subway stations:

Question: Where does 23rd Street begin?
Answer: FDR Drive

Question: Where does 23rd Street end?
Answer: Eleventh Avenue

Question: What is the length of 23rd Street in kilometers?
Answer: 3.1 km

Question: Does traffic move in one or two ways on 23rd Street?
Answer: two-way

Question: How many local subway stations are on 23rd Street?
Answer: five
The Ottoman Empire, believed to be about to collapse, was portrayed in the press as the sick man of Europe". The Balkan states, with the partial exception of Bosnia and Albania, were primarily Christian. Starting in 1894 the Ottomans struck at the Armenians on the explicit grounds that they were a non-Muslim people and as such were a potential threat to the Muslim empire within which they resided. The Hamidian Massacres aroused the indignation of the entire Christian world. In the United States the now aging Julia Ward Howe, author of the Battle Hymn of the Republic, leaped into the war of words and joined the Red Cross. Relations of minorities within the Ottoman Empire and the disposition of former Ottoman lands became known as the "Eastern Question," as the Ottomans were on the east of Europe.

Question: How was the Ottoman Empire portrayed in the press?
Answer: as the sick man of Europe

Question: The Balkan states were primarily what religion? 
Answer: Christian

Question: When did the Ottomans strike at the Armenians?
Answer: 1894

Question: What are the grounds on which the Ottomans struck at the Armenians?
Answer: the explicit grounds that they were a non-Muslim people

Question: What aroused the indignation of the entire Christian world?
Answer: The Hamidian Massacres
It now became relevant to define the east of the eastern question. In about the middle of the 19th century "Near East" came into use to describe that part of the east closest to Europe. The term "Far East" appeared contemporaneously meaning Japan, China, Korea, Indonesia and Viet Nam; in short, the East Indies. "Near East" applied to what had been mainly known as the Levant, which was in the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Porte, or government. Those who used the term had little choice about its meaning. They could not set foot on most of the shores of the southern and central Mediterranean from the Gulf of Sidra to Albania without permits from the Ottoman Empire.

Question: When did "Near East" come into use to describe the part of the east closest to Europe?
Answer: middle of the 19th century

Question: In short, the term Far East appeared to name this area
Answer: the East Indies

Question: "Near East" applied to this mainly known area
Answer: the Levant

Question: What was the jurisdiction of the Levant in? 
Answer: the Ottoman Porte

Question: What was needed to set foot on most of the shores of the southern and central Mediterranean? 
Answer: permits from the Ottoman Empire
Some regions beyond the Ottoman Porte were included. One was North Africa west of Egypt. It was occupied by piratical kingdoms of the Barbary Coast, de facto independent since the 18th century. Formerly part of the empire at its apogee. Iran was included because it could not easily be reached except through the Ottoman Empire or neighboring Russia. In the 1890s the term tended to focus on the conflicts in the Balkan states and Armenia. The demise of the sick man of Europe left considerable confusion as to what was to be meant by "Near East". It is now generally used only in historical contexts, to describe the countries of Western Asia from the Mediterranean to (or including) Iran. There is, in short, no universally understood fixed inventory of nations, languages or historical assets defined to be in it.

Question: What was one region included that was occupied by piratical kingdoms?
Answer: North Africa west of Egypt

Question: Where were the piratical kingdoms from? 
Answer: Barbary Coast

Question: Why was Iran included in the collection of regions? 
Answer: because it could not easily be reached except through the Ottoman Empire or neighboring Russia

Question: What did the term Near East focus on in the 1890s?
Answer: the conflicts in the Balkan states and Armenia

Question: The demise of what left considerable confusion as to what was to be meant by "Near East" 
Answer: of the sick man of Europe
The geographical terms "Near East" and "Far East" referring to areas of the globe in or contiguous to the former British Empire and the neighboring colonies of the Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish and Germans, fit together as a pair based on the opposites of far and near, suggesting that they were innovated together. They appear together in the journals of the mid-19th century. Both terms were used before then with local British and American meanings: the near or far east of a field, village or shire.

Question: The terms "Near East" and "Far East" referring to areas of the globe in or contiguous to the former British Empire and the neighboring colonies fit together as a pair based on what? 
Answer: the opposites of far and near

Question: When do the terms "Near East" and "Far East" appear together in journals? 
Answer: the mid-19th century

Question: The term Near East and Far East were used in British and American meanings when referring to what? 
Answer: the near or far east of a field, village or shire.
There was a linguistic predisposition to use such terms. The Romans had used them in near Gaul / far Gaul, near Spain / far Spain and others. Before them the Greeks had the habit, which appears in Linear B, the oldest known script of Europe, referring to the near province and the far province of the kingdom of Pylos. Usually these terms were given with reference to a geographic feature, such as a mountain range or a river.

Question: Who used the terms near Gaul?
Answer: The Romans

Question: The appearance of what culture using the terms appears in Linear B?
Answer: the Greeks

Question: Usually the terms were given when referencing what?  
Answer: a geographic feature
Ptolemy's Geography divided Asia on a similar basis. In the north is "Scythia this side of the Himalayas" and "Scythia beyond the Himalayas." To the south is "India on this side of the Ganges" and "India beyond the Ganges." Asia began on the coast of Anatolia ("land of the rising sun"). Beyond the Ganges and Himalayas (including the Tien Shan) were Serica and Serae (sections of China) and some other identifiable far eastern locations known to the voyagers and geographers but not to the general European public.

Question: What divided Asia on a similar basis? 
Answer: Ptolemy's Geography

Question: "Scythia this side of the Himalayas" is located where? 
Answer: In the north

Question: "India on this side of the Ganges" is located where? 
Answer: To the south

Question: "Scythia beyond the Himalayas" is located where? 
Answer: In the north

Question: Where did Asia begin? 
Answer: on the coast of Anatolia
By the time of John Seller's Atlas Maritima of 1670, "India Beyond the Ganges" had become "the East Indies" including China, Korea, southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific in a map that was every bit as distorted as Ptolemy's, despite the lapse of approximately 1500 years. That "east" in turn was only an English translation of Latin Oriens and Orientalis, "the land of the rising sun," used since Roman times for "east." The world map of Jodocus Hondius of 1590 labels all of Asia from the Caspian to the Pacific as India Orientalis, shortly to appear in translation as the East Indies.

Question: When was John Seller's Atlas Maritima?
Answer: 1670

Question: What had "India Beyond the Ganges" become? 
Answer: the East Indies

Question: China, Korea, southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific were included in what? 
Answer: "the East Indies"

Question: What was only an English translation of Latin Oriens and Orientalis, "the land of the rising sun"?
Answer: "east"

Question: What year did Jodocus Hondius make his world map? 
Answer: 1590
Elizabeth I of England, primarily interested in trade with the east, collaborated with English merchants to form the first trading companies to the far-flung regions, using their own jargon. Their goals were to obtain trading concessions by treaty. The queen chartered the Company of Merchants of the Levant, shortened to Levant Company, and soon known also as The Turkey Company, in 1581. In 1582, the ship The Great Susan transported the first ambassador, William Harebone, to the Ottoman Porte (government of the Ottoman Empire) at Constantinople. Compared to Anatolia, Levant also means "land of the rising sun," but where Anatolia always only meant the projection of land currently occupied by the Republic of Turkey, Levant meant anywhere in the domain ruled by the Ottoman Porte. The East India Company (short for a much longer formal name) was chartered in 1600 for trade to the East Indies.

Question: Where was Elizabeth I from?
Answer: England

Question: What was Elizabeth primarily interested in? 
Answer: trade with the east

Question: Who did Elizabeth I collaborate with?
Answer: English merchants

Question: What was the goal of the first trading companies?
Answer: obtain trading concessions by treaty

Question: What company was charted in 1600 for trade to the East Indies?
Answer: The East India Company
It has pleased western historians to write of a decline of the Ottoman Empire as though a stable and uncontested polity of that name once existed. The borders did expand and contract but they were always dynamic and always in "question" right from the beginning. The Ottoman Empire was created from the lands of the former eastern Roman Empire on the occasion of the latter's violent demise. The last Roman emperor died fighting hand-to-hand in the streets of his capital, Constantinople, overwhelmed by the Ottoman military, in May, 1453. The victors inherited his remaining territory in the Balkans.

Question: What has pleased western historians?
Answer: to write of a decline of the Ottoman Empire

Question: What was always in question from the beginning of the Ottoman Empire? 
Answer: The borders

Question: What was the Ottoman Empire created from?
Answer: the lands of the former eastern Roman Empire

Question: How did the last Roman emperor die?
Answer: fighting hand-to-hand in the streets

Question: Where was the Roman emperor's capital?
Answer: Constantinople
The populations of those lands did not accept Turkish rule. The Turks to them were foreigners with completely different customs, way of life, and language. Intervals when there was no unrest were rare. The Hungarians had thrown off Turkish rule by 1688. Serbia was created by the Serbian Revolution, 1815–1833. The Greek War of Independence, 1821–1832, created modern Greece, which recovered most of the lands of ancient Greece, but could not gain Constantinople. The Ottoman Porte was continuously under attack from some quarter in its empire, primarily the Balkans. Also, on a number of occasions in the early 19th century, American and British warships had to attack the Barbary pirates to stop their piracy and recover thousands of enslaved Europeans and Americans.

Question: The populations did not accept what?
Answer: Turkish rule

Question: The Hungarians had thrown off Turkish rule by what year? 
Answer: 1688

Question: What created Serbia?
Answer: the Serbian Revolution

Question: When was the Serbian Revolution?
Answer: 1815–1833

Question: When was the Greek War of Independence?
Answer: 1821–1832
Until about 1855 the words near east and far east did not refer to any particular region. The far East, a phrase containing a noun, East, qualified by an adjective, far, could be at any location in the "far east" of the speaker's home territory. The Ottoman Empire, for example, was the far East as much as the East Indies. The Crimean War brought a change in vocabulary with the introduction of terms more familiar to the late 19th century. The Russian Empire had entered a more aggressive phase, becoming militarily active against the Ottoman Empire and also against China, with territorial aggrandizement explicitly in mind. Rethinking its policy the British government decided that the two polities under attack were necessary for the balance of power. It therefore undertook to oppose the Russians in both places, one result being the Crimean War. During that war the administration of the British Empire began promulgating a new vocabulary, giving specific regional meaning to "the Near East," the Ottoman Empire, and "the Far East," the East Indies. The two terms were now compound nouns often shown hyphenated.

Question: Until what year did the words near east and far east not refer to any particular region? 
Answer: 1855

Question: What brought a change in vocabulary?
Answer: The Crimean War

Question: The Russian Empire became more militarily active against who?
Answer: the Ottoman Empire

Question: Who decided the two polities under attack were necessary for the balance of power? 
Answer: the British government

Question: What empire began promulgating a new vocabulary?
Answer: the British Empire
"Near East" remained popular in diplomatic, trade and journalistic circles, but a variation soon developed among the scholars and the men of the cloth and their associates: "the Nearer East," reverting to the classical and then more scholarly distinction of "nearer" and "farther." They undoubtedly saw a need to separate the Biblical lands from the terrain of the Ottoman Empire. The Christians saw the country as the land of the Old and New Testaments, where Christianity had developed. The scholars in the field of studies that eventually became Biblical archaeology attempted to define it on the basis of archaeology.

Question: What remained popular in diplomatic, trade and journalistic circles?
Answer: "Near East"

Question: What variation soon developed among the scholars and the men of the cloth and their associates?
Answer: "the Nearer East,"

Question: There was a need to separate what from the terrain of the Ottoman Empire?
Answer: the Biblical lands

Question: What did the Christians see the country as?
Answer: the land of the Old and New Testaments

Question: How did the scholars attempt their definition? 
Answer: on the basis of archaeology
The change is evident in the reports of influential British travellers to the Balkans. In 1894, Sir Henry Norman, 1st Baronet, a journalist, travelled to the Far East, afterwards writing a book called The Peoples and Politics of the Far East, which came out in 1895. By "Far East" he meant Siberia, China, Japan, Korea, Siam and Malaya. As the book was a big success, he was off to the Balkan states with his wife in 1896 to develop detail for a sequel, The People and Politics of the Near East, which Scribners planned to publish in 1897. Mrs. Norman, a writer herself, wrote glowing letters of the home and person of Mme. Zakki, "the wife of a Turkish cabinet minister," who, she said, was a cultivated woman living in a country home full of books. As for the natives of the Balkans, they were "a semi-civilized people."

Question: Reports from who made the change evident?
Answer: influential British travellers

Question: Where did Sir Henry Norman travel in 1894
Answer: the Far East

Question: What book did Sir Henry Norman write after traveling to the Far East?
Answer: The Peoples and Politics of the Far East

Question: What year did Sir Henry Norman's book come out? 
Answer: 1895
If the British Empire was now going to side with the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire had no choice but to cultivate a relationship with the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was supported by the German Empire. In a few years these alignments became the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance (already formed in 1882), which were in part a cause of World War I. By its end in 1918 three empires were gone, a fourth was about to fall to revolution, and two more, the British and French, were forced to yield in revolutions started under the aegis of their own ideologies.

Question: The Ottoman Empire had no choice but to develop their relationship with what country?
Answer: Austro-Hungarian Empire

Question: Who supported the Austro-Hungarian Empire?
Answer: the German Empire

Question: Who did the British Empire side with?
Answer: the Russian Empire

Question: The formation of the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance partly caused what?
Answer: World War I

Question: By what year were three empires gone? 
Answer: 1918
The term middle east as a noun and adjective was common in the 19th century in nearly every context except diplomacy and archaeology. An uncountable number of places appear to have had their middle easts from gardens to regions, including the United States. The innovation of the term "Near East" to mean the holdings of the Ottoman Empire as early as the Crimean War had left a geographical gap. The East Indies, or "Far East," derived ultimately from Ptolemy's "India Beyond the Ganges." The Ottoman Empire ended at the eastern border of Iraq. "India This Side of the Ganges" and Iran had been omitted. The archaeologists counted Iran as "the Near East" because Old Persian cuneiform had been found there. This usage did not sit well with the diplomats; India was left in an equivocal state. They needed a regional term.

Question: When was the term middle east common as a noun and adjective?
Answer: the 19th century

Question: The middle east was not common in diplomacy and what other context?
Answer: archaeology

Question: Where did the "Far East" derive from? 
Answer: Ptolemy's "India Beyond the Ganges."

Question: Where did the Ottoman Empire end?
Answer: the eastern border of Iraq

Question: Why did archaeologists count Iran as "The Near East"?
Answer: because Old Persian cuneiform had been found there
The term "Near and Middle East," held the stage for a few years before World War I. It proved to be less acceptable to a colonial point of view that saw the entire region as one. In 1916 Captain T.C. Fowle, 40th Pathans (troops of British India), wrote of a trip he had taken from Karachi to Syria just before the war. The book does not contain a single instance of "Near East." Instead, the entire region is considered "the Middle East." The formerly Near Eastern sections of his trip are now "Turkish" and not Ottoman.

Question: When did the term "Near and Middle East" hold stage?
Answer: a few years before World War I

Question: What proved to be less acceptable to a colonial point of view?
Answer: The term "Near and Middle East,"

Question: When did Captain T.C. Fowle write of a trip he had taken from Karachi to Syria?
Answer: 1916

Question: Who were the 40th Pathans?
Answer: (troops of British India

Question: In the book Fowle wrote, what is the entire region considered?
Answer: "the Middle East.
Parallel with the growth of specialized agencies for conducting or supporting statescraft in the second half of the 20th century has been the collection of resources for scholarship and research typically in university settings. Most universities teaching the liberal arts have library and museum collections. These are not new; however, the erection of these into "centres" of national and international interest in the second half of the 20th century have created larger databases not available to the scholars of the past. Many of these focus on the Ancient Near East or Near East in the sense of Ancient Near East.

Question: What do most universities teaching liberal arts have? 
Answer: library and museum collections

Question: What has had parallel growth of in the 20th century?
Answer: the collection of resources

Question: What are these resources collected for?
Answer: for scholarship and research
Zhejiang, as the heartland of the Jiangnan (Yangtze River Delta), remained the wealthiest area during the Six Dynasties (220 or 222–589), Sui, and Tang. After being incorporated into the Sui dynasty, its economic richness was used for the Sui dynasty's ambitions to expand north and south, particularly into Korea and Vietnam. The plan led the Sui dynasty to restore and expand the network which became the Grand Canal of China. The Canal regularly transported grains and resources from Zhejiang, through its metropolitan center Hangzhou (and its hinterland along both the Zhe River and the shores of Hangzhou Bay), and from Suzhou, and thence to the North China Plain. The débâcle of the Korean war led to Sui's overthrow by the Tang, who then presided over a centuries-long golden age for the country. Zhejiang was an important economic center of the empire's Jiangnan East Circuit and was considered particularly prosperous. Throughout the Tang dynasty, The Grand Canal had remained effective, transporting grains and material resources to North China plain and metropolitan centers of the empire. As the Tang Dynasty disintegrated, Zhejiang constituted most of the territory of the regional kingdom of Wuyue.

Question: When did the Six Dynasties end?
Answer: 589

Question: What was the wealthiest area during the Six Dynasties?
Answer: Zhejiang

Question: Which dynasty restored and expanded the network that became the Grand Canal of China?
Answer: the Sui dynasty

Question: What river was one of the Grand Canal of China's hinterlands?
Answer: the Zhe River
"In 1727 the to-min or 'idle people' of Cheh Kiang province (a Ningpo name still existing), the yoh-hu or 'music people' of Shanxi province, the si-min or 'small people' of Kiang Su (Jiangsu) province, and the Tanka people or 'egg-people' of Canton (to this day the boat population there), were all freed from their social disabilities, and allowed to count as free men." "Cheh Kiang" is another romanization for Zhejiang. The Duomin (Chinese: 惰民; pinyin: duò mín; Wade–Giles: to-min) are a caste of outcasts in this province.

Question: What do 'to-min' mean?
Answer: idle people

Question: What does 'yoh-hu' mean?
Answer: music people

Question: What does 'si-min' mean?
Answer: small people

Question: What does Tanka mean? 
Answer: egg-people

Question: What is 'Keh Chiang' a romanization for?
Answer: Zhejiang
Zhejiang's main manufacturing sectors are electromechanical industries, textiles, chemical industries, food, and construction materials. In recent years Zhejiang has followed its own development model, dubbed the "Zhejiang model", which is based on prioritizing and encouraging entrepreneurship, an emphasis on small businesses responsive to the whims of the market, large public investments into infrastructure, and the production of low-cost goods in bulk for both domestic consumption and export. As a result, Zhejiang has made itself one of the richest provinces, and the "Zhejiang spirit" has become something of a legend within China. However, some economists now worry that this model is not sustainable, in that it is inefficient and places unreasonable demands on raw materials and public utilities, and also a dead end, in that the myriad small businesses in Zhejiang producing cheap goods in bulk are unable to move to more sophisticated or technologically more advanced industries. The economic heart of Zhejiang is moving from North Zhejiang, centered on Hangzhou, southeastward to the region centered on Wenzhou and Taizhou. The per capita disposable income of urbanites in Zhejiang reached 24,611 yuan (US$3,603) in 2009, an annual real growth of 8.3%. The per capita pure income of rural residents stood at 10,007 yuan (US$1,465), a real growth of 8.1% year-on-year. Zhejiang's nominal GDP for 2011 was 3.20 trillion yuan (US$506 billion) with a per capita GDP of 44,335 yuan (US$6,490). In 2009, Zhejiang's primary, secondary, and tertiary industries were worth 116.2 billion yuan (US$17 billion), 1.1843 trillion yuan (US$173.4 billion), and 982.7 billion yuan (US$143.9 billion) respectively.

Question: What is Zhejiang's own development model dubbed?
Answer: Zhejiang model

Question: What is the Zhejiang model based on prioritizing and encouraging?
Answer: entrepreneurship

Question: What direction is the economic heart of Zhejiang moving toward?
Answer: southeast

Question: What was the annual real growth of urbanites in Zhejiang in 2009?
Answer: 8.3%

Question: What was Zhejiang's nominal GDP in yuan for 2011?
Answer: 3.20 trillion
In mid-2015 the government of Zhejiang recognised folk religion as "civil religion" beginning the registration of more than twenty thousand folk religious associations. Buddhism has an important presence since its arrival in Zhejiang 1,800 years ago.

Question: What year did the government of Zhejiang recognise folk religion as 'civil religion'?
Answer: 2015

Question: When did Buddhism arrive in Zhejiang?
Answer: 1,800 years ago

Question: What has an important presence in Zhejiang since its arrival 1,800 years ago?
Answer: Buddhism

Question: What part of 2015 did the government of Zhejiang recognise folk religion as 'civil religion'?
Answer: mid

Question: More than how many thousand folk religious organisations were registered in Zhejiang in 2015?
Answer: twenty
The Ministers and Chiefs of the Defence Staff are supported by a number of civilian, scientific and professional military advisors. The Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Defence (generally known as the Permanent Secretary) is the senior civil servant at the MoD. His or her role is to ensure the MoD operates effectively as a department of the government.

Question: Who is supported by civilian, scientific, and professional military advisors?
Answer: The Ministers and Chiefs of the Defence Staff

Question: What is the Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Defence generally known as?
Answer: Permanent Secretary

Question: Where does the Permanent Secretary serve as the senior civil servant?
Answer: MoD

Question: What is the role of the Permanent Secretary?
Answer: to ensure the MoD operates effectively as a department of the government
Colour broadcasts started at similarly higher resolutions, first with the US NTSC color system in 1953, which was compatible with the earlier monochrome systems and therefore had the same 525 lines of resolution. European standards did not follow until the 1960s, when the PAL and SECAM color systems were added to the monochrome 625 line broadcasts.

Question: What year did color broadcasts start in the US?
Answer: 1953,

Question: How many lines of resolution did the US NTSC color system have in 1953?
Answer: 525

Question: When did Europe begin color broadcasts?
Answer: 1960s

Question: The PAL and SECAM were color systems where?
Answer: Europe

Question: How many lines of resolution were the European monochrome broadcasts?
Answer: 625