meithnav/squad huggingface dataset:
Beta testing comes after alpha testing and can be considered a form of external user acceptance testing. Versions of the software, known as beta versions, are released to a limited audience outside of the programming team known as beta testers. The software is released to groups of people so that further testing can ensure the product has few faults or bugs. Beta versions can be made available to the open public to increase the feedback field to a maximal number of future users and to deliver value earlier, for an extended or even indefinite period of time (perpetual beta).[citation needed]

Question: What typically comes after the Alpha stage in the development and testing of software?
Answer: Beta testing

Question: To whom is the beta testing released to?
Answer: limited audience outside of the programming

Question: What is it called when a public test continues indefinitely?
Answer: perpetual beta
Bottom Up Testing is an approach to integrated testing where the lowest level components (modules, procedures, and functions) are tested first, then integrated and used to facilitate the testing of higher level components. After the integration testing of lower level integrated modules, the next level of modules will be formed and can be used for integration testing. The process is repeated until the components at the top of the hierarchy are tested. This approach is helpful only when all or most of the modules of the same development level are ready.[citation needed] This method also helps to determine the levels of software developed and makes it easier to report testing progress in the form of a percentage.[citation needed]

Question: What three components make up Bottom Up Testing?
Answer: modules, procedures, and functions

Question: Bottom Up Testing helps facilitate the testing of what?
Answer: the testing of higher level components

Question: What does Bottom Up Testing also help with once the process has been repeated over and over again at all levels?
Answer: makes it easier to report testing progress in the form of a percentage
Renewable energy technologies are getting cheaper, through technological change and through the benefits of mass production and market competition. A 2011 IEA report said: "A portfolio of renewable energy technologies is becoming cost-competitive in an increasingly broad range of circumstances, in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific economic support," and added that "cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are set to continue." As of 2011[update], there have been substantial reductions in the cost of solar and wind technologies:

Question: What is getting cheaper as a result of technilogical change?
Answer: Renewable energy technologies

Question: As of what year have there been substantial reductions in the cost of solar and wind technologies?
Answer: 2011

Question: What group stated that "cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are set to continue?"
Answer: IEA
The Muslims took control of the Island in 904, after decades of fierce fighting, and the Emirate of Sicily was established. Muslim rule on the island lasted for about 120 years and was marked by cruelty and brutality against the native population, which was reduced into near slavery[clarification needed] and Christian churches across the island were all completely destroyed.[page needed] Palermo (Balarm during Arab rule) displaced Syracuse as the capital city of Sicily. It was said to have then begun to compete with Córdoba and Cairo in terms of importance and splendor. For more than one hundred years Palermo was the capital of a flourishing emirate. The Arabs also introduced many agricultural crops which remain a mainstay of Sicilian cuisine.

Question: How long did Muslim control of Palermo last?
Answer: 120 years

Question: What did the Arabs introduce that continues to be relevant to Palermo's culture today?
Answer: agricultural crops

Question: How were the indigenous Palermo population treated under Muslim rule?
Answer: reduced into near slavery
The so-called "Sack of Palermo" is one of the major visible faces of the problem. The term is used to indicate the speculative building practices that have filled the city with poor buildings. The reduced importance of agriculture in the Sicilian economy has led to a massive migration to the cities, especially Palermo, which swelled in size, leading to rapid expansion towards the north. The regulatory plans for expansion was largely ignored in the boom. New parts of town appeared almost out of nowhere, but without parks, schools, public buildings, proper roads and the other amenities that characterise a modern city.

Question: To what does the term "Sack of Palermo" refer?
Answer: speculative building practices that have filled the city with poor buildings

Question: Why did Palermo substancially grow in size?
Answer: reduced importance of agriculture in the Sicilian economy has led to a massive migration to the cities

Question: What did Palermo expansion lack?
Answer: t parks, schools, public buildings, proper roads and the other amenities that characterise a modern city
The cathedral has a heliometer (solar "observatory") of 1690, one of a number built in Italy in the 17th and 18th centuries. The device itself is quite simple: a tiny hole in one of the minor domes acts as pinhole camera, projecting an image of the sun onto the floor at solar noon (12:00 in winter, 13:00 in summer). There is a bronze line, la Meridiana on the floor, running precisely N/S. The ends of the line mark the positions as at the summer and winter solstices; signs of the zodiac show the various other dates throughout the year.

Question: What is a heliometer?
Answer: solar "observatory"

Question: What name is given to the bronze line on the floor of a heliometer?
Answer: la Meridiana

Question: Which direction does la Meridiana run?
Answer: precisely N/S

Question: What image is projected on the floor of the heliometer?
Answer: the sun
Several dozen radioisotopes have been characterized. 65Zn, which has a half-life of 243.66 days, is the most long-lived radioisotope, followed by 72Zn with a half-life of 46.5 hours. Zinc has 10 nuclear isomers. 69mZn has the longest half-life, 13.76 h. The superscript m indicates a metastable isotope. The nucleus of a metastable isotope is in an excited state and will return to the ground state by emitting a photon in the form of a gamma ray. 61Zn has three excited states and 73Zn has two. The isotopes 65Zn, 71Zn, 77Zn and 78Zn each have only one excited state.

Question: How many radioisotopes of zinc have been discovered?
Answer: Several dozen

Question: What is the longest half life of the isotopes?
Answer: 243.66

Question: What does the superscript m represent?
Answer: metastable isotope

Question: How many excited states does 61Zn have? 
Answer: three

Question: How many excited states does 73Zn have?
Answer: two

Question: What is the most long lived radio isotope?
Answer: 65Zn

Question: What is the half life of 72Zn?
Answer: 46.5 hours

Question: How many nuclear isomers does zinc have?
Answer: 10

Question: What does the superscript "m" indicate?
Answer: metastable isotope

Question: What does a metastable isotope do to return to ground state from an excited state?
Answer: emitting a photon in the form of a gamma ray
Neoclassical architecture was introduced in Malta in the late 18th century, during the final years of Hospitaller rule. Early examples include the Bibliotheca (1786), the De Rohan Arch (1798) and the Hompesch Gate (1801). However, neoclassical architecture only became popular in Malta following the establishment of British rule in the early 19th century. In 1814, a neoclassical portico decorated with the British coat of arms was added to the Main Guard building so as to serve as a symbol of British Malta. Other 19th century neoclassical buildings include RNH Bighi (1832), St Paul's Pro-Cathedral (1844), the Rotunda of Mosta (1860) and the now destroyed Royal Opera House (1866).

Question: When was Malta introduced to neoclassical architecture?
Answer: late 18th century

Question: What was the ruler at the time of neoclassical introduction?
Answer: Hospitaller

Question: When was RNH Bighi built?
Answer: 1832

Question: In what year did the St Paul's Pro-Cathedral get built? 
Answer: 1844
Some stations that broadcast from smaller cities are private affiliates of the CBC, that is, stations which are owned by commercial broadcasters but predominantly incorporate CBC programming within their schedules. Such stations generally follow the CBC schedule, airing a minimum 40 hours per week of network programming. However, they may opt out of some CBC programming in order to air locally produced programs, syndicated series or programs purchased from other broadcasters, such as CTV Two, which do not have a broadcast outlet in the same market. In these cases, the CBC programming being displaced may be broadcast at a different time than the network, or may not be broadcast on the station at all. Most private affiliates generally opt out of CBC's afternoon schedule and Thursday night arts programming. Private affiliates carry the 10 p.m. broadcast of The National as a core part of the CBC schedule, but generally omitted the 11 p.m. repeat (which is no longer broadcast). Most private affiliates produce their own local newscasts for a duration of at least 35 minutes. Some of the private affiliates have begun adding CBC's overnight programming to their schedules since the network began broadcasting 24 hours a day.

Question: What are private affiliates?
Answer: stations which are owned by commercial broadcasters but predominantly incorporate CBC programming within their schedules

Question: Minimally, how many hours are devoted weekly to network programming in CBC's private affiliates?
Answer: 40

Question: Which broadcast do affiliates generally carry?
Answer: 10 p.m
The range is mostly located in the United States but extends into southeastern Canada, forming a zone from 100 to 300 mi (160 to 480 km) wide, running from the island of Newfoundland 1,500 mi (2,400 km) southwestward to Central Alabama in the United States.[discuss] The range covers parts of the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, which comprise an overseas territory of France. The system is divided into a series of ranges, with the individual mountains averaging around 3,000 ft (910 m). The highest of the group is Mount Mitchell in North Carolina at 6,684 feet (2,037 m), which is the highest point in the United States east of the Mississippi River.

Question: What country do the Appalachian mountains extend into?
Answer: Canada

Question: How large is the zone in Canada?
Answer: 100 to 300 mi

Question: Where does it start in Canada?
Answer: Newfoundland

Question: Where does it end in the US? 
Answer: Central Alabama

Question: What island is included in the range?
Answer: Saint Pierre and Miquelon
While exploring inland along the northern coast of Florida in 1528, the members of the Narváez expedition, including Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, found a Native American village near present-day Tallahassee, Florida whose name they transcribed as Apalchen or Apalachen [a.paˈla.tʃɛn]. The name was soon altered by the Spanish to Apalachee and used as a name for the tribe and region spreading well inland to the north. Pánfilo de Narváez's expedition first entered Apalachee territory on June 15, 1528, and applied the name. Now spelled "Appalachian," it is the fourth-oldest surviving European place-name in the US.

Question: What area did the Narvaez expedition explore?
Answer: northern coast of Florida

Question: When did the Narvaez expedition explore Florida?
Answer: 1528

Question: What did they transcribe Florida's name as? 
Answer: Apalchen

Question: What was the name eventually used for?
Answer: as a name for the tribe and region spreading well inland to the north
In addition to the true folded mountains, known as the ridge and valley province, the area of dissected plateau to the north and west of the mountains is usually grouped with the Appalachians. This includes the Catskill Mountains of southeastern New York, the Poconos in Pennsylvania, and the Allegheny Plateau of southwestern New York, western Pennsylvania, eastern Ohio and northern West Virginia. This same plateau is known as the Cumberland Plateau in southern West Virginia, eastern Kentucky, western Virginia, eastern Tennessee, and northern Alabama.

Question: What area is usually grouped with the Appalachians? 
Answer: dissected plateau to the north and west of the mountains

Question: What mountains does that region include?
Answer: Catskill Mountains

Question: What is the plateau known as in West Virginia?
Answer: Cumberland Plateau
In Pennsylvania, there are over sixty summits that rise over 2,500 ft (800 m); the summits of Mount Davis and Blue Knob rise over 3,000 ft (900 m). In Maryland, Eagle Rock and Dans Mountain are conspicuous points reaching 3,162 ft (964 m) and 2,882 ft (878 m) respectively. On the same side of the Great Valley, south of the Potomac, are the Pinnacle 3,007 feet (917 m) and Pidgeon Roost 3,400 ft (1,000 m). In West Virginia, more than 150 peaks rise above 4,000 ft (1,200 m), including Spruce Knob 4,863 ft (1,482 m), the highest point in the Allegheny Mountains. A number of other points in the state rise above 4,800 ft (1,500 m). Snowshoe Mountain at Thorny Flat 4,848 ft (1,478 m) and Bald Knob 4,842 ft (1,476 m) are among the more notable peaks in West Virginia.

Question: How many summits in PA are over 2,500 ft? 
Answer: over sixty summits

Question: How tall are the summits of Mount Davis and Blue Knob?
Answer: over 3,000 ft

Question: How tall are Eagle Rock and Dans Mountain?
Answer: 3,162 ft (964 m) and 2,882 ft

Question: How tall is the Pinnacle?
Answer: 3,007 feet

Question: How many peaks are over 4,000 feet in WV?
Answer: more than 150 peaks
In eastern Pennsylvania the Great Appalachian Valley, or Great Valley, was accessible by reason of a broad gateway between the end of South Mountain and the Highlands, and many Germans and Moravians settled here between the Susquehanna and Delaware Rivers forming the Pennsylvania Dutch community, some of whom even now speak a unique American dialect of German known as the "Pennsylvania German language" or "Pennsylvania Dutch." These latecomers to the New World were forced to the frontier to find cheap land. With their followers of both German, English and Scots-Irish origin, they worked their way southward and soon occupied all of the Shenandoah Valley, ceded by the Iroquois, and the upper reaches of the Great Valley tributaries of the Tennessee River, ceded by the Cherokee.

Question: Where did a lot of Germans settle? 
Answer: between the Susquehanna and Delaware Rivers

Question: What dialect was created because of this?
Answer: Pennsylvania German language

Question: Where did these Germans eventually occupy?
Answer: all of the Shenandoah Valley
In physics, energy is a property of objects which can be transferred to other objects or converted into different forms. The "ability of a system to perform work" is a common description, but it is difficult to give one single comprehensive definition of energy because of its many forms. For instance, in SI units, energy is measured in joules, and one joule is defined "mechanically", being the energy transferred to an object by the mechanical work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton.[note 1] However, there are many other definitions of energy, depending on the context, such as thermal energy, radiant energy, electromagnetic, nuclear, etc., where definitions are derived that are the most convenient.

Question: What is a property of objects which can be transferred to other objects or converted into different forms?
Answer: energy

Question: In SI units, energy is measured in what measurement?
Answer: joules

Question: Mechanically, one joule is defined as what?
Answer: the energy transferred to an object by the mechanical work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton
Energy transfer can be considered for the special case of systems which are closed to transfers of matter. The portion of the energy which is transferred by conservative forces over a distance is measured as the work the source system does on the receiving system. The portion of the energy which does not do work during the transfer is called heat.[note 4] Energy can be transferred between systems in a variety of ways. Examples include the transmission of electromagnetic energy via photons, physical collisions which transfer kinetic energy,[note 5] and the conductive transfer of thermal energy.

Question: What can be considered for the special case of systems which are closed to transfers of matter?
Answer: Energy transfer

Question: The portion of energy which does not do work during the transfer is called what?
Answer: heat

Question: Give one example of how energy can be transferred between systems?
Answer: transmission of electromagnetic energy via photons
In the 1772 First Partition of Poland, the Prussian king Frederick the Great annexed neighboring Royal Prussia, i.e. the Polish voivodeships of Pomerania (Gdańsk Pomerania or Pomerelia), Malbork, Chełmno and the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, thereby bridging the "Polish Corridor" between his Prussian and Farther Pomeranian lands and cutting remaining Poland off the Baltic Coast. The territory of Warmia was incorporated into the lands of former Ducal Prussia, which, by administrative deed of 31 January 1773 were named East Prussia. The former Polish Pomerelian lands beyond the Vistula River together with Malbork and Chełmno Land formed the Province of West Prussia with its capital at Marienwerder (Kwidzyn). The Polish Partition Sejm ratified the cession on 30 September 1773, whereafter Frederick officially went on to call himself a King "of" Prussia.

Question: In what year was Royal Prussia annexed?
Answer: 1772

Question: In what year was the territory of Warmia incorporated? 
Answer: 31 January 1773

Question: What was ratified in 1773 in Prussia?
Answer: The Polish Partition Sejm
In April 1946, northern East Prussia became an official province of the Russian SFSR as the "Kyonigsbergskaya Oblast", with the Memel Territory becoming part of the Lithuanian SSR. In June 1946 114,070 German and 41,029 Soviet citizens were registered in the Oblast, with an unknown number of disregarded unregistered persons. In July of that year, the historic city of Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad to honour Mikhail Kalinin and the area named the Kaliningrad Oblast. Between 24 August and 26 October 1948 21 transports with in total 42,094 Germans left the Oblast to the Soviet Occupation Zone (which became East Germany). The last remaining Germans left in November 1949 (1,401 persons) and January 1950 (7 persons).

Question: What year did East Prussia become an official province of Russia?
Answer: 1946

Question: In who's honor was the city named Kaliningrad from  Konigsberg? 
Answer: Mikhail Kalinin

Question: Between August 24th and October 26th how many German's left the Oblast to the Soviet Occupation zone?
Answer: 42,094
The word Ottoman is a historical anglicisation of the name of Osman I, the founder of the Empire and of the ruling House of Osman (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Osman's name in turn was derived from the Persian form of the name ʿUthmān عثمان of ultimately Arabic origin. In Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAliyye-yi ʿOsmâniyye (دَوْلَتِ عَلِيّهٔ عُثمَانِیّه), (literally "The Supreme State of the Ottomans") or alternatively Osmanlı Devleti (عثمانلى دولتى).[dn 5] In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ("Ottoman Empire") or Osmanlı Devleti ("The Ottoman State").

Question: An anglicization of the name Osman I results in what word?
Answer: Ottoman

Question: What house was the founder of the Ottoman empire?
Answer: House of Osman

Question: What was another name for the Ottoman Dynasty? 
Answer: House of Osman

Question: What is the origin of Osman's name?
Answer: Arabic

Question: In a literal sense what was the Ottoman empire referred to as?
Answer: The Supreme State of the Ottomans
The effective military and bureaucratic structures of the previous century came under strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans. The Ottomans gradually fell behind the Europeans in military technology as the innovation that fed the Empire's forceful expansion became stifled by growing religious and intellectual conservatism. But in spite of these difficulties, the Empire remained a major expansionist power until the Battle of Vienna in 1683, which marked the end of Ottoman expansion into Europe.

Question: Poor rule by what class of people strained the empire?
Answer: Sultans

Question: Europeans gained on the Ottoman empire in what type of technology? 
Answer: military technology

Question: What types of conservative beliefs slowed the expansion of the empire?
Answer: religious and intellectual

Question: What battle took place in 1683?
Answer: Battle of Vienna

Question: The empire ceased its expansion into what area after a battle in 1683?
Answer: Europe
The Crimean War (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. The financial burden of the war led the Ottoman state to issue foreign loans amounting to 5 million pounds sterling on 4 August 1854. The war caused an exodus of the Crimean Tatars, about 200,000 of whom moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration. Toward the end of the Caucasian Wars, 90% of the Circassians were ethnically cleansed and exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus and fled to the Ottoman Empire, resulting in the settlement of 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians in Turkey.[page needed] Some Circassian organisations give much higher numbers, totaling 1–1.5 million deported or killed.

Question: During what years did the Crimean War take place?
Answer: 1853–1856

Question: On what date did the Ottoman empire issue foreign loans to deal with the cost of the war?
Answer: 4 August 1854

Question: Roughly 200,000 individuals of what group left Crimea during the war?
Answer: Crimean Tatars

Question: Roughly 90% of what group were pushed from their homes or ethnically cleansed during the Caucasian Wars?
Answer: Circassians

Question: Where did Circassians settle to when leaving their homes in the Caucasus?
Answer: Turkey
As the Ottoman state attempted to modernize its infrastructure and army in response to threats from the outside, it also opened itself up to a different kind of threat: that of creditors. Indeed, as the historian Eugene Rogan has written, "the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East" in the nineteenth century "was not the armies of Europe but its banks." The Ottoman state, which had begun taking on debt with the Crimean War, was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1875. By 1881, the Ottoman Empire agreed to have its debt controlled by an institution known as the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, a council of European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain. The body controlled swaths of the Ottoman economy, and used its position to insure that European capital continued to penetrate the empire, often to the detriment of local Ottoman interests.

Question: What historian wrote that banks were the single greatest threat to mid-east independence? 
Answer: Eugene Rogan

Question: In what year did the Ottoman Empire declare bankruptcy?
Answer: 1875

Question: What was the administration that the empire used to control its debt called?
Answer: Ottoman Public Debt Administration

Question: Who served on the debt controlling administration of the Ottoman Empire?
Answer: European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain.

Question: European capital in the Ottoman empire resulted in what?
Answer: the detriment of local Ottoman interests
Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, the state organisation of the Ottoman Empire was a simple system that had two main dimensions, which were the military administration and the civil administration. The Sultan was the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The Ottomans practiced a system in which the state (as in the Byzantine Empire) had control over the clergy. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran remained important in Ottoman administrative circles. According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders within the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.

Question: What was the highest ranked person in the Ottoman Empire until the 19th century?
Answer: Sultan was the highest position

Question: On type of system were the civil administrations of the empire based on? 
Answer: local administrative units based on the region's characteristics

Question: Who had control over the clergy in the Ottoman empire?
Answer: the state

Question: What was the main responsibility of the Ottoman state as it relates to lands?
Answer: to defend and extend the land of the Muslims

Question: What type of practice guided the Ottoman state in its responsibilities?
Answer: orthodox Islamic practice
Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts. A great part of this desire for local and foreign manuscripts arose in the 15th Century. Sultan Mehmet II ordered Georgios Amiroutzes, a Greek scholar from Trabzon, to translate and make available to Ottoman educational institutions the geography book of Ptolemy. Another example is Ali Qushji -an astronomer, mathematician and physicist originally from Samarkand- who became a professor in two madrasas, and influenced Ottoman circles as a result of his writings and the activities of his students, even though he only spent two or three years before his death in Istanbul.

Question: In what century did the Ottoman's start to desire foreign manuscripts?
Answer: 15th Century

Question: Which sultan ordered a Greek scholar to do translations of work by Ptolemy?
Answer: Sultan Mehmet II

Question: Who did an Ottoman sultan order to translate work by Ptolemy?
Answer: Georgios Amiroutzes

Question: How many years did Ali Qushji spend in Istanbul?
Answer: two or three years

Question: Where was Ali Qushji from?
Answer: originally from Samarkand
Philosophy of space and time is the branch of philosophy concerned with the issues surrounding the ontology, epistemology, and character of space and time. While such ideas have been central to philosophy from its inception, the philosophy of space and time was both an inspiration for and a central aspect of early analytic philosophy. The subject focuses on a number of basic issues, including whether or not time and space exist independently of the mind, whether they exist independently of one another, what accounts for time's apparently unidirectional flow, whether times other than the present moment exist, and questions about the nature of identity (particularly the nature of identity over time).

Question: Which philosophy branch is concerned with issues surrounding ontology?
Answer: Philosophy of space and time

Question: The philosophy of space and time was inspired by what kind of philosophy?
Answer: early analytic philosophy

Question: The  philosophy of space and time focuses on whether or not time and space exist independently of what?
Answer: the mind

Question: The  philosophy of space and time focuses what kind of flow within time? 
Answer: unidirectional
In Book 11 of St. Augustine's Confessions, he ruminates on the nature of time, asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not." He goes on to comment on the difficulty of thinking about time, pointing out the inaccuracy of common speech: "For but few things are there of which we speak properly; of most things we speak improperly, still the things intended are understood."  But Augustine presented the first philosophical argument for the reality of Creation (against Aristotle) in the context of his discussion of time, saying that knowledge of time depends on the knowledge of the movement of things, and therefore time cannot be where there are no creatures to measure its passing (Confessions Book XI ¶30; City of God Book XI ch.6).

Question: Which christian philosopher ruminated on time?
Answer: St. Augustine

Question: What did St. Augustine comment on in Book 11, regarding thinking about time?
Answer: the difficulty

Question: Who presented the first philosophical argument for the reality of Creation? 
Answer: Augustine

Question: What did Augustine say that the knowledge of time depended on?
Answer: the knowledge of the movement of things

Question: Where did Augustine say time could not appear?
Answer: where there are no creatures to measure its passing
In the early 11th century, the Muslim physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen or Alhazen) discussed space perception and its epistemological implications in his Book of Optics (1021), he also rejected Aristotle's definition of topos (Physics IV) by way of geometric demonstrations and defined place as a mathematical spatial extension. His experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to changes in the understanding of the visual perception of space, contrary to the previous emission theory of vision supported by Euclid and Ptolemy. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhacen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things."

Question: Which 11th century Muslim physicist discussed space perception and its epistemological implications? 
Answer: al-Haytham

Question: Which 11th century book discussed space perception and its epistemological implications?
Answer: Book of Optics

Question: Whose definition of topos did Alhazen reject?
Answer: Aristotle's

Question: Alhazen's  experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to the change of understanding of what?
Answer: Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things

Question: Alhazen stated that without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us what about spatial perception?
Answer: next to nothing
In the classical case, the invariance, or symmetry, group and the covariance group coincide, but, interestingly enough, they part ways in relativistic physics. The symmetry group of the general theory of relativity includes all differentiable transformations, i.e., all properties of an object are dynamical, in other words there are no absolute objects. The formulations of the general theory of relativity, unlike those of classical mechanics, do not share a standard, i.e., there is no single formulation paired with transformations. As such the covariance group of the general theory of relativity is just the covariance group of every theory.

Question: The symmetry group of the general theory of relativity includes what?
Answer: all differentiable transformations

Question: What else besides  invariance, or symmetry and group part ways in relativistic physics?
Answer: the covariance group

Question: Which theory does the relativity depart from?
Answer: classical mechanics

Question: What are not pair with transformations in the theory of relativity?
Answer: single formulation

Question:  The covariance group of the general theory of relativity is the covariance group of how many theories?
Answer: every
But in statistical mechanics things get more complicated. On one hand, statistical mechanics is far superior to classical thermodynamics, in that thermodynamic behavior, such as glass breaking, can be explained by the fundamental laws of physics paired with a statistical postulate. But statistical mechanics, unlike classical thermodynamics, is time-reversal symmetric. The second law of thermodynamics, as it arises in statistical mechanics, merely states that it is overwhelmingly likely that net entropy will increase, but it is not an absolute law.

Question: How are things in statistical mechanics? 
Answer: complicated

Question: What are superior to classical thermodynamics?
Answer: statistical mechanics

Question: In order to explain glass breaking, Fundamental laws of physics can be paired with what? 
Answer: a statistical postulate

Question: Is statistical mechanics asymmetric or symmetric in regards to time-reversal?
Answer: symmetric

Question: What kind of law is the second law of thermodynamics, as it arises in statistical mechanics?
Answer: not an absolute law
The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 8,800 BCE according to the ASPRO chronology in the Levant (Jericho, Israel). As with the PPNA dates, there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. This system of terminology, however, is not convenient for southeast Anatolia and settlements of the middle Anatolia basin. This era was before the Mesolithic era.[citation needed] A settlement of 3,000 inhabitants was found in the outskirts of Amman, Jordan. Considered to be one of the largest prehistoric settlements in the Near East, called 'Ain Ghazal, it was continuously inhabited from approximately 7,250 – 5,000 B.

Question: When did the The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) era start?
Answer: around 8,800 BCE

Question: What era followed the  The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) era?
Answer: the Mesolithic era

Question: How many settlers were found in Jordan?
Answer: 3,000 inhabitants

Question: What is the name of one of the biggest prehistoric settlements in the Near East?
Answer: Ain Ghazal
In southeast Europe agrarian societies first appeared in the 7th millennium BC, attested by one of the earliest farming sites of Europe, discovered in Vashtëmi, southeastern Albania and dating back to 6,500 BC. Anthropomorphic figurines have been found in the Balkans from 6000 BC, and in Central Europe by c. 5800 BC (La Hoguette). Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are the Sesklo culture in Thessaly, which later expanded in the Balkans giving rise to Starčevo-Körös (Cris), Linearbandkeramik, and Vinča. Through a combination of cultural diffusion and migration of peoples, the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC. The Vinča culture may have created the earliest system of writing, the Vinča signs, though archaeologist Shan Winn believes they most likely represented pictograms and ideograms rather than a truly developed form of writing. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture built enormous settlements in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine from 5300 to 2300 BC. The megalithic temple complexes of Ġgantija on the Mediterranean island of Gozo (in the Maltese archipelago) and of Mnajdra (Malta) are notable for their gigantic Neolithic structures, the oldest of which date back to c. 3600 BC. The Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni, Paola, Malta, is a subterranean structure excavated c. 2500 BC; originally a sanctuary, it became a necropolis, the only prehistoric underground temple in the world, and showing a degree of artistry in stone sculpture unique in prehistory to the Maltese islands. After 2500 BC, the Maltese Islands were depopulated for several decades until the arrival of a new influx of Bronze Age immigrants, a culture that cremated its dead and introduced smaller megalithic structures called dolmens to Malta. In most cases there are small chambers here, with the cover made of a large slab placed on upright stones. They are claimed to belong to a population certainly different from that which built the previous megalithic temples. It is presumed the population arrived from Sicily because of the similarity of Maltese dolmens to some small constructions found in the largest island of the Mediterranean sea.

Question: When did agrarian societies start to arise in Southeast Europe?
Answer: 7th millennium BC

Question: Where was one of earliest farming sites in Europe found?
Answer: Vashtëmi, southeastern Albania

Question: What type of sculptures were found in the Balkans from 6000 BC?
Answer: Anthropomorphic figurines

Question: What trend led to Neolithic traditions spreading to northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC? 
Answer: cultural diffusion and migration of peoples

Question: Who possibly created the earliest system of writing?
Answer: The Vinča culture
Osmotic diarrhea occurs when too much water is drawn into the bowels. If a person drinks solutions with excessive sugar or excessive salt, these can draw water from the body into the bowel and cause osmotic diarrhea. Osmotic diarrhea can also be the result of maldigestion (e.g., pancreatic disease or Coeliac disease), in which the nutrients are left in the lumen to pull in water. Or it can be caused by osmotic laxatives (which work to alleviate constipation by drawing water into the bowels). In healthy individuals, too much magnesium or vitamin C or undigested lactose can produce osmotic diarrhea and distention of the bowel. A person who has lactose intolerance can have difficulty absorbing lactose after an extraordinarily high intake of dairy products. In persons who have fructose malabsorption, excess fructose intake can also cause diarrhea. High-fructose foods that also have a high glucose content are more absorbable and less likely to cause diarrhea. Sugar alcohols such as sorbitol (often found in sugar-free foods) are difficult for the body to absorb and, in large amounts, may lead to osmotic diarrhea. In most of these cases, osmotic diarrhea stops when offending agent (e.g. milk, sorbitol) is stopped.

Question: What occures with osmotic diarrhea?
Answer: s when too much water is drawn into the bowels

Question: What causes osmotic diarrhea?
Answer: If a person drinks solutions with excessive sugar or excessive salt, these can draw water from the body into the bowel

Question: How do osmotic lazatives work?
Answer: alleviate constipation by drawing water into the bowels

Question: What can cause osmotic diarrhea in healthy people?
Answer: too much magnesium or vitamin C or undigested lactose
Inflammatory diarrhea occurs when there is damage to the mucosal lining or brush border, which leads to a passive loss of protein-rich fluids and a decreased ability to absorb these lost fluids. Features of all three of the other types of diarrhea[clarification needed] can be found in this type of diarrhea. It can be caused by bacterial infections, viral infections, parasitic infections, or autoimmune problems such as inflammatory bowel diseases. It can also be caused by tuberculosis, colon cancer, and enteritis.[citation needed]

Question: When does inflammatory diarrhea occur?
Answer: when there is damage to the mucosal lining or brush border

Question: What happens with inflammatory diarrhea?
Answer: a passive loss of protein-rich fluids and a decreased ability to absorb these lost fluids

Question: What can cause inflammatory diarrhea?
Answer: bacterial infections, viral infections, parasitic infections, or autoimmune problems

Question: What other causes are there for inflammatory diarrhea?
Answer: tuberculosis, colon cancer, and enteritis.
Given that water contamination is a major means of transmitting diarrheal disease, efforts to provide clean water supply and improved sanitation have the potential to dramatically cut the rate of disease incidence. In fact, it has been proposed that we might expect an 88% reduction in child mortality resulting from diarrheal disease as a result of improved water sanitation and hygiene. Similarly, a meta-analysis of numerous studies on improving water supply and sanitation shows a 22–27% reduction in disease incidence, and a 21–30% reduction in mortality rate associated with diarrheal disease.

Question: What is a major means of the spread of diarrhea disease?
Answer: water contamination

Question: What has cut the rate of diarrhea disease incidents? 
Answer: clean water supply and improved sanitation

Question: What would be the reduction in deisease incedence if there was better water and sanitation?
Answer: 22–27% reduction in disease incidence
However, in English, the term madrasah usually refers to the specifically Islamic institutions. A typical Islamic school usually offers two courses of study: a ḥifẓ course teaching memorization of the Qur'an (the person who commits the entire Qurʼan to memory is called a ḥāfiẓ); and an ʻālim course leading the candidate to become an accepted scholar in the community. A regular curriculum includes courses in Arabic, tafsir (Qur'anic interpretation), sharīʻah (Islamic law), hadiths (recorded sayings and deeds of Muhammad), mantiq (logic), and Muslim history. In the Ottoman Empire, during the Early Modern Period, the study of hadiths was introduced by Süleyman I. Depending on the educational demands, some madaris also offer additional advanced courses in Arabic literature, English and other foreign languages, as well as science and world history. Ottoman madaris along with religious teachings also taught "styles of writing, grammary, syntax, poetry, composition, natural sciences, political sciences, and etiquette."

Question: What is the English connotative understanding of the word madrash? 
Answer: Islamic institutions

Question: What is taught through a hifz class or set of classes?
Answer: memorization of the Qur'an

Question: What is shariah?
Answer: Islamic law

Question: What is the discipline taught in mantiq courses?
Answer: logic

Question: What set of courses does someone need to take for preparation to be considered as a scholar?
Answer: ʻālim
People of all ages attend, and many often move on to becoming imams.[citation needed] The certificate of an ʻālim, for example, requires approximately twelve years of study.[citation needed] A good number of the ḥuffāẓ (plural of ḥāfiẓ) are the product of the madaris. The madaris also resemble colleges, where people take evening classes and reside in dormitories. An important function of the madaris is to admit orphans and poor children in order to provide them with education and training. Madaris may enroll female students; however, they study separately from the men.[citation needed]

Question: What age groups are usually enrolled in madaris?
Answer: all ages

Question: How long does someone have to be enrolled in alim courses to earn a certificate or graduate?
Answer: approximately twelve years

Question: In what ways are madaris similar to western colleges?
Answer: people take evening classes and reside in dormitories

Question: Why do madaris extend enrollment to children of less fortunate circumstances?
Answer: provide them with education and training

Question: What is the format for co-education for women in madaris?
Answer: they study separately from the men
Ibn Sīnā refers to the secondary education stage of maktab schooling as a period of specialisation when pupils should begin to acquire manual skills, regardless of their social status. He writes that children after the age of 14 should be allowed to choose and specialise in subjects they have an interest in, whether it was reading, manual skills, literature, preaching, medicine, geometry, trade and commerce, craftsmanship, or any other subject or profession they would be interested in pursuing for a future career. He wrote that this was a transitional stage and that there needs to be flexibility regarding the age in which pupils graduate, as the student's emotional development and chosen subjects need to be taken into account.

Question: What type of skills did Ibn Sina state children should learn in secondary education?
Answer: manual skills

Question: According to Ibn Sina, at what age should children choose a direction for their education?
Answer: 14

Question: According to Ibn Sina, what is needed to support transition at the secondary stage of education?
Answer: flexibility

Question: What should secondary training provide a student in the secondary stage of school? 
Answer: future career
Most analyses place Kerry's voting record on the left within the Senate Democratic caucus. During the 2004 presidential election he was portrayed as a staunch liberal by conservative groups and the Bush campaign, who often noted that in 2003 Kerry was rated the National Journal's top Senate liberal. However, that rating was based only upon voting on legislation within that past year. In fact, in terms of career voting records, the National Journal found that Kerry is the 11th most liberal member of the Senate. Most analyses find that Kerry is at least slightly more liberal than the typical Democratic Senator. Kerry has stated that he opposes privatizing Social Security, supports abortion rights for adult women and minors, supports same-sex marriage, opposes capital punishment except for terrorists, supports most gun control laws, and is generally a supporter of trade agreements. Kerry supported the North American Free Trade Agreement and Most Favored Nation status for China, but opposed the Central American Free Trade Agreement.[citation needed]

Question: Who said Kerry was the 'top Senate liberal'?
Answer: the National Journal

Question: When was Kerry called the 'top Senate liberal'?
Answer: 2003

Question: What was Kerry's actual career voting rank for 'liberalness'?
Answer: 11th most liberal

Question: What trade agreement did Kerry support?
Answer: North American Free Trade Agreement

Question: What trade agreement did Kerry oppose?
Answer: Central American Free Trade Agreement
The northwestern portion of Rajasthan is generally sandy and dry. Most of this region are covered by the Thar Desert which extends into adjoining portions of Pakistan. The Aravalli Range does not intercept the moisture-giving southwest monsoon winds off the Arabian Sea, as it lies in a direction parallel to that of the coming monsoon winds, leaving the northwestern region in a rain shadow. The Thar Desert is thinly populated; the town of Jodhpur is the largest city in the desert and known as the gateway of thar desert. The desert has some major districts like Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Bikaner and Nagour. This area is also important defence point of view. Jodhpur airbase is Indias largest airbase and military, BSF bases are also situated here. A single civil airport is also situated in Jodhpur. The Northwestern thorn scrub forests lie in a band around the Thar Desert, between the desert and the Aravallis. This region receives less than 400 mm of rain in an average year. Temperatures can exceed 48 °C in the summer months and drop below freezing in the winter. The Godwar, Marwar, and Shekhawati regions lie in the thorn scrub forest zone, along with the city of Jodhpur. The Luni River and its tributaries are the major river system of Godwar and Marwar regions, draining the western slopes of the Aravallis and emptying southwest into the great Rann of Kutch wetland in neighboring Gujarat. This river is saline in the lower reaches and remains potable only up to Balotara in Barmer district. The Ghaggar River, which originates in Haryana, is an intermittent stream that disappears into the sands of the Thar Desert in the northern corner of the state and is seen as a remnant of the primitive Saraswati river.

Question: Dry and sandy conditions are indicative of which region of Rajasthan? 
Answer: The northwestern portion

Question: Which desert is in the northwestern part of Rajasthan?
Answer: the Thar Desert

Question: What is the most populous city in the Thar Desert?
Answer: Jodhpur

Question: What are the names of the major districts of the Thar?
Answer: Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Bikaner and Nagour

Question: Rainfall in the Thar Desert region is less than what amount each year on avarage?
Answer: 400 mm