meetara-lab/vectorstore-women_health huggingface dataset:
A FACT SHEET FROM THE OFFICE ON WOMEN’S HEALTH

Female Genital Mutilation or Cutting

Female genital mutilation or cutting (FGM/C), sometimes 
called female circumcision or female genital mutilation, 
means piercing, cutting, removing, or sewing closed all or 
part of a girl’s or woman’s external genitals for no medical 
reason. FGM/C is often a part of the culture in countries 
where it is practiced. But FGM/C has no health benefits and 
can cause long-term health problems. FGM/C is against the 
law in the United States and many other countries. 

Q: What are the different types of FGM/C?
A: The World Health Organization describes four major  
types of FGM/C:

• Type 1: Partial or total removal of the clitoris. This is

also called “clitoridectomy.”

• Type 2: Partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia

(the inner and outer “lips” that surround the vagina)
also called “clitoridectomy.”

• Type 2: Partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia

(the inner and outer “lips” that surround the vagina)

• Type 3: Sewing the labia together to make the vaginal
opening smaller. This is called infibulation. The clitoris
may be left in place.

• Type 4: All other harm to the female genitalia for

nonmedical purposes, including pricking, piercing,
cutting, scraping, and cauterization (burning)

Q: Where is FGM/C done?
A: FGM/C is done mostly in parts of northern and central  
Africa, in the southern Sahara, and in parts of the Middle 
East and Asia. Some immigrants in the United States and 
Western Europe from these countries also practice FGM/C, 
or may send their daughters back to their family homeland 
for FGM/C. Other immigrant families stop practicing FGM/C 
once they are in a new country.
Q: Why is FGM/C done?
A: Different communities and cultures have different
reasons for practicing FGM/C. Social acceptability is the 
most common reason. Families often feel pressure to have 
their daughter cut so she is accepted by their community. 

www.womenshealth.gov | 1-800-994-9662

Other reasons may include:

• To help ensure a woman remains a virgin

until marriage

• Hygiene. Some communities believe that the external

female genitals that are cut are unclean.

• Rite of passage. In some countries, FGM/C is a part of the
ritual that a girl goes through to be considered a woman.

• Condition of marriage. In some countries, a girl or woman

is cut in order to be considered suitable for marriage.

• Belief that FGM/C increases sexual pleasure for

the man

• Religious duty, although no religion’s holy texts

require FGM/C
is cut in order to be considered suitable for marriage.

• Belief that FGM/C increases sexual pleasure for

the man

• Religious duty, although no religion’s holy texts

require FGM/C

Q: How does FGM/C affect a girl’s or woman’s
health immediately after the cutting?
A: Immediate medical problems can include:
• Severe pain. Girls usually don’t get any pain medicine

before or after they are cut.

• Serious bleeding

• Infection of the wound. Girls can develop fever or

shock and may even die if the infection is not treated.

• Trauma. Girls are held down, often against their will,

and may not understand why.

• Problems going to the bathroom, including burning

and pain

• Tetanus and other infectious diseases, such as HIV,

from unsterilized cutting tools
and may not understand why.

• Problems going to the bathroom, including burning

and pain

• Tetanus and other infectious diseases, such as HIV,

from unsterilized cutting tools

• Death. Researchers do not know how many girls die
because of FGM/C. Few records are kept, and deaths
that may have been caused by FGM/C are often not
reported as being related to FGM/C.
Q: How does FGM/C affect a girl’s or woman’s
health in the long term? 
A: Long-term health problems include:
• Infections, such as genital abscesses (sores filled with
pus that must be drained) and infectious diseases such
as hepatitis B

• Problems having sex. Extra scar tissue from FGM/C
(most common after type 2 or type 3) can cause pain,
especially during sex.

• Depression and anxiety. Girls may not understand  
what was done to them or why. Girls or women who  
have already been cut and are living in the United  
States may be disgraced or humiliated when they 
receive medical care.
Female Genital Mutilation or Cutting

2

• Problems urinating and painful menstrual periods.
Some women are left with only a small opening for  
urinating and menstrual bleeding. They may not be  
able to pass all of their menstrual blood or urine. This
can cause infections, pain, and periods that are longer  
than normal.

• Fistula, an opening between the urethra and vagina  
that lets urine run into the vagina. This can happen
when the urethra is damaged during FGM/C. Fistula  
causes incontinence and other problems, including
odors, and can cause girls and women to become
social outcasts.

• Problems during and after childbirth. Women may be
at risk for longer labor and cesarean section. They are  
also more at risk for excessive bleeding after childbirth.

For more information…
For more information about FGM/C, call the OWH Helpline at 1-800-994-9662 or contact the following organizations:

Office of Global Affairs, HHS 
202-690-6174 • www.globalhealth.gov
Office of Global Affairs, HHS 
202-690-6174 • www.globalhealth.gov

Refugee Women’s Alliance
206-721-0243 • www.rewa.org

U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) 
202-712-4810 • www.usaid.gov

Refugee Women’s Health Clinic 
602-344-1445 • www.refugeewomensclinic.org

American College of Obstetricians 
and Gynecologists  
Female Genital Cutting: Clinical Management 
of Circumcised Women • sales.acog.org/
Female-Genital-Cutting-Clinical-Management-of-
Circumcised-Women-Second-Edition-P349.aspx

World Health Organization (WHO)
Eliminating female genital mutilation: An  
interagency statement • apps.who.int/iris/bitstr
eam/10665/43839/1/9789241596442_eng.pdf

Fact sheet: female genital mutilation 
www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/
Fact sheet: female genital mutilation 
www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/

This fact sheet was reviewed by:
• Crista Johnson-Agbakwu, M.D., M.Sc., FACOG, IF, Founder and Director, Refugee Women’s Health Clinic, Obstetrics & Gynecology, Maricopa Integrated  
Health System; Research Assistant Professor, Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Arizona College of Medicine – Phoenix; Assistant Research Professor,
School of Social Work, Southwest Interdisciplinary Research Center (SIRC), College of Public Programs, Arizona State University

• Bettina Shell-Duncan, Ph.D., M.S., Professor, Department of Anthropology and Adjunct Professor of Global Health, University of Washington

• Nicole Warren, Ph.D., M.P.H., Assistant Professor, Johns Hopkins School of Nursing, and Certified Nurse Midwife, Johns Hopkins Hospital
• Nicole Warren, Ph.D., M.P.H., Assistant Professor, Johns Hopkins School of Nursing, and Certified Nurse Midwife, Johns Hopkins Hospital

All material contained on this page is free of copyright restrictions and may be copied, reproduced, or duplicated without permission of the Office on 
Women’s Health in the Department of Health and Human Services. Citation of the source is appreciated.

Content last updated: May 30, 2018. Content last reviewed: March 24, 2015.

www.womenshealth.gov | 1-800-994-9662

www.youtube.com/WomensHealthgov

www.facebook.com/HHSOWH

www.twitter.com/WomensHealth
A FACT SHEET FROM THE OFFICE ON WOMEN’S HEALTH

Relationships, Safety, and Violence    

Every woman has the right to live her life safely 
and free of violence. Yet one in four women in the 
United States experiences intimate partner violence,1 
including domestic abuse, verbal and emotional 
abuse, and stalking. Women experience violence in 
many ways, from physical abuse to sexual assault and 
from financial abuse to sexual harassment or human 
trafficking. Whatever form it takes, violence against 
women can have serious long-term physical and 
emotional effects. If you’ve experienced violence or 
abuse, it is never your fault, and you can get help.

Q: Am I being abused?
A: 
family member: 

Signs of abuse may include a partner or 

•  Keeping track of everything you do, where you go, 

and who you’re with 

•  Being jealous, controlling, or angry

•  Demeaning you (putting you down or humiliating 

you in front of others)

•  Physically hurting, or threatening to hurt, you or
and who you’re with 

•  Being jealous, controlling, or angry

•  Demeaning you (putting you down or humiliating 

you in front of others)

•  Physically hurting, or threatening to hurt, you or 

your loved ones

•  Make a safety plan to leave. You don’t have to 

leave an abusive relationship right away. A safety 
plan with a safe place to go and a list of important 
documents and medicines to take will help if you 
need to leave in a hurry. 

•  Save the evidence. Keep evidence of abuse, such 

as pictures of your injuries or threatening emails or 
texts, in a place the abuser cannot get to. 

•  Talk to someone. This might be a supportive 
family member, friend, co-worker, or spiritual 
leader. Look for ways to get emotional help, like a 
support group or mental health professional.

•  Consider getting a restraining order. Protection orders,
•  Consider getting a restraining order. Protection orders, 

often called restraining orders, are meant to keep 
you safe from a person who is harassing or hurting 
you. The police can arrest a person who violates a 
restraining order and charge them with a crime.

Q: What should I do if I’ve been sexually assaulted 
or raped?
A: If you can, get away from the person who 
assaulted you and get to a safe place as fast as you can. 

•  Forcing you to have sex or other intimate activity

•  Don’t wash or clean your body. Don’t wash, 

Q: What can I do if I’m being abused?
A: Your safety is the most important concern. If you 
are in immediate danger, call 911. 

If you are not in immediate danger, consider these options: 

•  Get medical care. If you are injured, go to a local 
hospital emergency room or urgent care center.
If you are not in immediate danger, consider these options: 

•  Get medical care. If you are injured, go to a local 
hospital emergency room or urgent care center. 

•  Call a helpline for free, anonymous help. Call 
one of the hotlines listed on this fact sheet for 
24-hour support and numbers for other resources, 
such as local domestic violence shelters. 

www.womenshealth.gov | 800-994-9662

brush, or clean any part of your body, including 
your teeth. You might wash away important 
evidence. Don’t change clothes, if possible. Don’t 
touch or change anything at the scene of the 
assault. That way, the local police will have physical 
evidence from the person who assaulted you.

•  Get medical care. Call 911 or go to your nearest 
hospital emergency room. The doctor or nurse 
may give you medicine to prevent HIV and some 
other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and 
emergency contraception to prevent pregnancy.
Relationships, Safety, and Violence  

2
2

Ask if there is a sexual assault forensic examiner 
(SAFE) or a sexual assault nurse examiner (SANE) 
available. This person has special training to use a 
rape kit to collect evidence.

• If you think you were drugged, talk to the hospital

staff about testing for date rape drugs, such as
Rohypnol and GHB (gamma-hydroxybutyric acid).
Date rape drugs pass through the body quickly and
may not be detectable by the time you get tested.

• Reach out for help. The hospital staff can

connect you with local sexual assault and rape
resources that can help you cope with emotions
and trauma afterward.

Q: What are the effects of violence against women?
A: Violence against women, including sexual or
physical violence, is linked to physical and mental 
health problems. 

Physical effects of sexual violence can include:

• Vaginal bleeding or pelvic pain

• Unwanted pregnancy

• Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

• Trouble sleeping or nightmares
Physical effects of sexual violence can include:

• Vaginal bleeding or pelvic pain

• Unwanted pregnancy

• Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

• Trouble sleeping or nightmares

• Health problems such as arthritis, asthma,

digestive problems, heart problems, and problems
with the immune system

• Report the assault or rape to the police. You do

not have to decide whether to press charges while
at the hospital. An advocate or counselor can help
you understand how to report the crime.

• Chronic pain

• Migraine headaches

• Stress

• If the person who assaulted you was a stranger,

write down as many details as you can remember
about the person and what happened.

Long-term mental health effects can include: 

• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

• Depression

• Anxiety

For more information…
about relationships, violence and safety, call the OWH Helpline at 800-994-9662 or contact the 
following organizations:
• Depression

• Anxiety

For more information…
about relationships, violence and safety, call the OWH Helpline at 800-994-9662 or contact the 
following organizations: 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 
(CDC), HHS 
800-232-4636 • www.cdc.gov

National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs 
212-714-1141 • www.avp.org/index.php

National Domestic Violence Hotline 
800-799-SAFE (7233) • www.the hotline.org

National Sexual Assault Hotline  
800-656-HOPE (4673) • www.rainn.org 

Victim Connect Resource Center, National 
Center for Victims of Crime 
855-484-2846 • www.victimconnect.org

All material contained in this fact sheet is free of copyright restrictions and may be copied, reproduced, or duplicated without permission of the 
Office on Women’s Health in the Department of Health and Human Services. Citation of the source is appreciated.
1 Reference: Smith, S.G., Chen, J., Basile, K.C., Gilbert, L.K., Merrick, M.T., Patel, N., Walling, M., & Jain, A. (2017). The National Intimate Partner 
and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010-2012 State Report. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease 
Control and Prevention.

Page last updated: October 5, 2017. Content last reviewed: May 15, 2017.

www.facebook.com/HHSOWH

www.twitter.com/WomensHealth

www.youtube.com/WomensHealthgov

www.womenshealth.gov | 800-994-9662

Relationships, Safety, and Violence
Sexual Assault

Sexual assault is any type of forced or coerced sexual 
contact or behavior that happens without consent. 
Sexual assault includes rape and attempted rape, child 
molestation, and sexual harassment or threats. In the 
United States, nearly one in five women has been 
raped, and almost half of women have experienced 
another type of sexual assault. If you have been 
sexually assaulted, it is not your fault. 

Q: What does “consent” mean in sexual assault?
A: Consent is a clear “yes” to sexual activity. Not 
saying “no” does not mean you have given consent.

Your consent means:

  •   You know and understand what is going on 
(you are not unconscious or blacked out or 
intellectually disabled). 

  •  You know what you want to do. 

  •   You are able to say what you want to do. 

  •   You are sober (not under the influence of alcohol 

or drugs). 

Sometimes you cannot give legal consent to sexual 
activity or contact. For example, you cannot consent if 
you are:
•   You are sober (not under the influence of alcohol 

or drugs). 

Sometimes you cannot give legal consent to sexual 
activity or contact. For example, you cannot consent if 
you are:

  •   Threatened, forced, coerced, or manipulated  

into agreeing

  •   Not physically able to (you are drunk, high, 

drugged, passed out, or asleep)

  •   Not mentally able to (due to illness or disability)

  •   Younger than 16 (in most states) or 18  

(in other states)

www.womenshealth.gov | 800-994-9662

Q:  How can I get help after a sexual assault?
A: If you are in danger or need medical care, 
call 9-1-1. If you can, get away from the person who 
assaulted you and get to a safe place as fast as you can.

After a sexual assault, you may feel fear, shame, 
guilt, or shock. These feelings are normal. It may be 
frightening to think about talking about the assault, 
but it is important to get help. You can call these 
organizations any time, day or night:
•   National Sexual Assault Hotline,  

800-656-HOPE (4673) 

  •   National Domestic Violence Hotline,  

800-799-SAFE (7233) or 800-787-3224 (TTY) 

Q:  How can I lower my risk of sexual assault? 
A: You cannot always prevent sexual assault. But you 
can take steps to help stay safe in general:

  •   Go to parties or gatherings with friends.  
Arrive together, check in with each other,  
and leave together. 

  •   Look out for your friends, and ask them to look 

out for you. If a friend is acting out of character, 
or seems too drunk to stay safe in general, get her 
to a safe place. 

  •   Have a code word you can text to your family 

and friends that means “Come get me, I need 
help” or “Call me with a fake emergency.” 

A FACT SHEET FROM THE OFFICE ON WOMEN’S HEALTHA FACT SHEET FROM THE OFFICE ON WOMEN’S HEALTH
Sexual Assault

2

  •   Download an app on your phone. Some apps
A FACT SHEET FROM THE OFFICE ON WOMEN’S HEALTHA FACT SHEET FROM THE OFFICE ON WOMEN’S HEALTH
Sexual Assault

2

  •   Download an app on your phone. Some apps 

share your location with your friends or the police 
if you need help. You can also set up an app to 
send you texts throughout the night to make sure 
you’re safe. If you don’t respond, the app will 
notify police. 

  •   Avoid drinks in punchbowls or other containers 
that can be easily “spiked” (when alcohol is 
added to a drink without permission). If you think 
that you or one of your friends has been drugged, 
call the police. Tell them what happened so that 
you can be tested for the right drugs. 

  •   Know your limits when using alcohol or drugs. 
Don’t let anyone pressure you into drinking or 
doing more than you want to. 

  •   Trust your instincts. If you find yourself alone 
with someone you don’t know or trust, leave. If 
you feel uncomfortable in any situation for any 
reason, leave.
•   Trust your instincts. If you find yourself alone 
with someone you don’t know or trust, leave. If 
you feel uncomfortable in any situation for any 
reason, leave. 

  •   Be aware of your surroundings. Especially if you 
are walking alone, avoid talking on your phone or 
listening to music with headphones. Stay in busy, 
well-lit areas. 

For more information…
For more information about sexual assault, call the OWH Helpline at 800-994-9662 or contact the  
following organizations:

Division of Violence Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), HHS 
800-232-4636 • www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/index.html 

Office on Violence Against Women, U.S. Department of Justice
202-514-2000 • www.ovw.usdoj.gov

National Center for Victims of Crime
202-467-8700 • www.victimsofcrime.org

National Sexual Violence Resource Center
877-739-3895  • www.nsvrc.org 

This fact sheet was reviewed by:
National Center for Victims of Crime
202-467-8700 • www.victimsofcrime.org

National Sexual Violence Resource Center
877-739-3895  • www.nsvrc.org 

This fact sheet was reviewed by:

Kathleen C. Basile, Ph.D., Lead Behavioral Scientist, Division of Violence Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control,  
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Karen M. Galbraith, L.S.W., Training Projects Specialist, Pennsylvania Coalition Against Rape/National Sexual Violence Resource Center

Joyce Lukima, M.S., M.S.W., Vice President of Services, Pennsylvania Coalition Against Rape/National Sexual Violence Resource Center

All material contained on this page is free of copyright restrictions and may be copied, reproduced, or duplicated without permission of the Office 
on Women’s Health in the Department of Health and Human Services. Citation of the source is appreciated.

Content last updated: September 18, 2015. 

Content last reviewed: May 21, 2015. 

www.facebook.com/HHSOWH
Content last updated: September 18, 2015. 

Content last reviewed: May 21, 2015. 

www.facebook.com/HHSOWH

www.twitter.com/WomensHealth

www.youtube.com/WomensHealthgov

www.womenshealth.gov | 800-994-9662
CERVICAL CANCER

About Gynecologic Cancer

There are five main types of cancer that affect a woman’s 
reproductive organs: cervical, ovarian, uterine, vaginal, 
and vulvar. As a group, they are referred to as gynecologic 
(GY-neh-kuh-LAH-jik) cancer. (A sixth type of gynecologic 
cancer is the very rare fallopian tube cancer.) 

This fact sheet about cervical cancer is part of the Centers for 
Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) Inside Knowledge: About 
Gynecologic Cancer campaign. The campaign helps women get 
the facts about gynecologic cancer, providing important “inside 
knowledge” about their bodies and health.

What is cervical cancer?

Cancer is a disease in which cells 
in the body grow out of control. 
Cancer is always named for the part 
of the body where it starts, even if it 
spreads to other body parts later.
Cancer is a disease in which cells 
in the body grow out of control. 
Cancer is always named for the part 
of the body where it starts, even if it 
spreads to other body parts later. 

When cancer starts in the  
cervix, it is called cervical cancer. 
The cervix is the lower, narrow  
end of the uterus. The cervix 
connects the vagina (the birth canal) 
to the upper part of the uterus. The 
uterus (or womb) is where a baby 
grows when a woman is pregnant.

Cervical cancer is the easiest 
gynecologic cancer to prevent 
with regular screening tests and 
follow-up. It also is highly curable 
when found and treated early.

Are there tests that can prevent cervical cancer or find it early?

There are two tests that can either help prevent cervical cancer or find it early: 

•   Depending on your age, your doctor may recommend you have a Pap 

test, or an HPV test, or both tests together.

•   The Pap test (or Pap smear) looks for precancers, cell changes, on the
•   Depending on your age, your doctor may recommend you have a Pap 

test, or an HPV test, or both tests together.

•   The Pap test (or Pap smear) looks for precancers, cell changes, on the 

cervix that can be treated, so that cervical cancer is prevented. The Pap 
test also can find cervical cancer early, when treatment is most effective. 

 The Pap test only screens for cervical cancer. It does not screen for any 
other gynecologic cancer.

•   The HPV test looks for HPV—the virus that can cause precancerous 

cell changes and cervical cancer. 

Who gets cervical cancer?

All women are at risk for cervical 
cancer. It occurs most often in 
women over age 30. Each year, 
approximately 12,000 women in the 
United States get cervical cancer.

The human papillomavirus (HPV) 
is the main cause of cervical 

Fallopian Tube
Ovary 
Uterus
Cervix
Vagina
Vulva
The human papillomavirus (HPV) 
is the main cause of cervical 

Fallopian Tube
Ovary 
Uterus
Cervix
Vagina
Vulva

cancer. HPV is a common virus 
that is passed from one person to 
another during sex. Most sexually 
active people will have HPV at 
some point in their lives, but few 
women will get cervical cancer. 

What are the symptoms?

Early on, cervical cancer may 
not cause signs and symptoms. 
Advanced cervical cancer may 
cause bleeding or discharge from 
the vagina that is not normal for you, 
such as bleeding after sex. If you have 
any of these signs, see your doctor. 
They may be caused by something 
other than cancer, but the only 
way to know is to see your doctor.

cdc.gov/cancer/knowledge

800-CDC-INFO
When should I get tested  
for cervical cancer?