IMPROVEMENTS IN ROTARY ENGINES MOVED BY THE EXPANSIVE POWER OF FLUIDS. IN THE MEANS OF GIVING THEM SUCI Power, and in THE MACHINERY AND APPLICATION OF THE SAME.” PROVISIONAL SP
Year: 1875

page_text: LETTERS PATENT to Richard Boyman Boyman, of Park Hill, Clapham
Park Surrey, for the Invention of "IMPROVEMENTS IN ROTARY ENGINES
MOVED BY THE EXPANSIVE POWER OF FLUIDS. IN THE MEANS OF GIVING
THEM SUCI Power, and in THE MACHINERY AND APPLICATION OF THE SAME.”
PROVISIONAL SPECIFICATION left by the said Richard Boyman
Boyman at the Office of the Commissioners of Patents, with his
Petition, on the 7th January 1875.
"6
1, RICHARD BOYMAN BOYMAN, of Park Hill, Clapham Park, Surrey,
do hereby declare the nature of the said Invention for IMPROVEMENTS
IN ROTARY ENGINES MOVED BY THE EXPANSIVE POWER OF FLUIDS, IN THE MEANS
OF GIVING THEM SUCH POWER, AND IN THE MACHINERY AND APPLICATION OF THE
BAMF," to be as follows:-
Letters Patent, dated the 29th of October 1873, No. 3515, were
granted to me for "Improvements in Rotary Engines for Using Steam
or other Expansive Fluids," and which in the Specification thereof is
Price 8.1

page_text: 66
called the rotary cellular engine," one of which is without cut-off for
expanding the steam, and without condensing or exhausting it.
My present improvements consist of eight things.
1. In making such engine to combine three things.- (1.) The greatest
area for the action of the motive power with (II.) the fewest cells, and
(III.) a right angle action all round the wheel. The object is to get a
more efficient and regular mechanical movement than even the much
exalted crank, whose efficiency is to a right angle power all round like
mine only as twice the diameter is to the circumference about 63 to 100,
or 2 to 31416.
2. My next improvement is in making the ring valve to start, stop, and
reverse my rotary cellular engine more simply than is described in the
Specification of the said Letters Patent of the 29th October 1873. Also
to regulate the power of such engine for the purposes herein-after
mentioned, and which valve I now call the ring regulating valve.
3. My next improvement is in using confined water, hydrogen gas,
oil, glycerine, or alcohol,andgiving them their expansive power as prime
movers (1) by fuel, and (2) by slaked lime.
4. My next improvement is in doing the same thing without fuel or
artificial heat by utilizing the power of natural heat and cold to expand
confined fluids; if water, at its maximum density and contraction, which
is at a temperature of 39° Fahrenheit. These fluids are to be used over
and over again as the medium for holding heat as the prime mover to
work engines; and my present improvements, instead of steam, pursuant
to the same laws as were discovered by me in October 1873, and which
are enunciated in the Provisional and Final Specifications of the said
Letters Patent of that month and year.
5. The fifth improvement is a safety valve designed for such great
pressures as the said prime movers will exert. Also to work a damper
in the funnel to regulate the draught to prevent as much as possible
any of the motive power escaping through the safety valve. For if
none escape, the first supply, whether of steam, water, gas, oil, alcohol,
or glycerine will last a long time. Because I do not discharge or con-
dense them, but use the fluid continuously, merely as the medium for
holding the prime mover, heat, to be converted into motion and power,
as explained in the said Specifications.

page_text: 6. The sixth improvement is a force pump to feed my engine worked
by one of my pump rotary engines.
7. The next improvement is a condensed and heated air whistle, and
gong or bell, as no issue of steam will be used by my system.
And 8. In neutralizing to some extent, if not entirely, the frictional
weight of my rotary engine on its axle.
The object of the first two mechanical improvements is to simplify my
said rotary cellular engine, to regulate its power, and to reduce weight,
space, and cost. The object of using confined heated water, hydrogen
gas, or other fluid, over and over again as the medium for holding heat,
instead of using steam over and over again for such purpose, is that
fuel may be expended only to generate sensible heat, for this alone
can be utilized. In doing this I save about 91 per cent. of fuel now
wasted in latent heat in all the engines of the world, as explained at
page 7, paragraphs 5 and 6, and at page 8, paragraphs 8 and 9 of the
Specification of the said Letters Patent of the 29th of October 1873:
The first of my present improvements, as observed before, is in making
my rotary cellular engine of the greatest area with the fewest cells, and
for the motive power to act at right angles all round the wheel. For
this purpose describe a circle and divide it into four equal parts of 90
degrees each, and the cross being equally divided will make four right
angles at the centre. Suppose now the wheel is required to be driven
round from the right hand to the left. Describe a horizontal line from
the top of the cross to the right of the same length as the arm beneath
it, and this will then form one horizontal cell, with the mouth to the
right. From the arm of the cross on the right drop a perpendicular of
the same length as such arm, and this will then form another cell with
its mouth downwards. Make two more cells on the other side of the
cross in the same way, the mouth of the top cell being upwards, and the
mouth of the bottom cell being horizontal to the left. These cells must
have sides, so as to be open only at their mouth, and such a wheel will
then combine the three things required,-the greatest area, with fewest
cells, and acting at right angles. This improved wheel of the required
width will have similar cells reserved for backing, for railways, tram-
ways, steam and aerial navigation. It will be surrounded by its motive
power and fixed to an axle in my fixed circular case for the motive
power to push against to drive the wheel; for such fixed circular case is

page_text: one of the essential requisites of my present improvements, as it is one
of the essential and distinguishing features of my Invention of the rotary
cellular engine for which I obtained the said Letters Patent of the 29th of
October 1873, as will be seen at pp. 5, 21, and 51, of the said Provisional
and Final Specifications thereof. This wheel will have four arms, which
must be made into arcs (1) to reduce their resistance as they move
against the motive power in which the wheel works; I think however
that they will drag their motive power round with them, and so make
the resistance to motion the mere friction of the motive power against
the polished surface of the fixed case. Another reason for turning the
four arms into arcs is that all the radii of pressures upon them may meet
at the axle and be neutralized.
This improvement is an extension of the same principles of my Inven-
tion as are embodied in the two wheels, shewn in Figure 3, Sheet 2, and
in Figure 11, Sheet -5, of the Drawings annexed to the Specification of
the said Letters Patent of the 29th of October 1873; and a further
extension of such principles is this:-In each of the arcs of these arms a
tangential cell can be made in the direction of motion to increase still
more the area for the push of the motive power. As the fluid pressure
will also act upon the surface of these four arms as well as in the four
cells, I am told on good theoretical and practical authority that the
fluid pressure must be equal in all directions, and consequently that
such a wheel being in the nature of a polygon will not move. "You
cannot," it is said, "make any pressure upon any part of a body
'immersed in a fluid without having also an equal pressure in the
opposite direction to keep the body in equilibrium, consequently the
"motive power in which the body works cannot move it." Only this
authoritative and positive assertion induces me to risk my knowledge of
the same forces acting in different directions and at different angles by the
following Invention for taking off the assumed neutralizing pressure on
the four arms of my rotary cellular engine. But as the unknown and
untried may contain unknown possibilities, it is better to provide against
their occurrence. For this purpose strong rollers will be fixed to the
sides of the fixed case and project into circular grooves equal to the
diameters of the rollers made round the sides of the arms of the wheel.
Hence such neutralizing pressures, if any, will be borne by such rollers
and be reduced to the mere co-efficient of metal friction. I maintain,
however, that the mathematical and mechanical principles on which I

page_text: have designed the wheel before described give to the forces acting at
right angles all round it a greater efficiency than even the crank, that is,
an efficiency of the circumference to twice the diameter, and this is
approximately as 100 to 63, or 31416 to 2. I also maintain that a
force acting uniformly round four arcs set on an axis in opposite
directions must pass through the axis and be there neutralized. Hence
such a wheel surpasses the crank not merely in efficiency but in
uniformity of power and of motion, and combines a prime mover, crank,
and fly wheel in one without the defects of the present engines and crank,
andwithout expanding, condensing, or exhausting the fluid; consequently
without the machinery used for such purposes.
My second improvement is in making more simply the starting,
stopping, and reversing ring valve of my rotary cellular engine described
in the Specification of my said Letters Patent of the 29th of Oct. 1873;
also to regulate its power not there possessed.
66
In page 48, paragraph 114, it is said, "Should it be found that
"the steam will escape from wheel to wheel by the axle in the
different wheels referred to, the division between the forward and
"backing wheel must be made wide enough for a stuffing box and be
open all round to get at it." There is however this objection to
having the forward and backing wheels in two separate cases. They
would require four sides, four stuffing boxes, and two ring valves with
their separate levers, one for going forward and the other backward.
Besides this complication and expense there is no mechanical means of
regulating the power of my engine. Hence my present Invention is to
do this and to enclose the forward and backing wheels in the same case,
and to have only two sides, two stuffing boxes, and one ring regulating
valve to start, stop, and reverse both wheels, and thus save weight, space,
and first cost. I want also to prevent the motive power in one of the
cases from being discharged and wasted on the engine being reversed
under the circumstances mentioned in my said Specifications of 1873,
No. 3515, page 47, the last 3 lines of paragraph 113. For these purposes
I propose to have only one ring regulating valve to work both the forward
and backing wheel in the same case in this way-The improved wheel
before described with reversed cells, or one of those shewn in Figures 3
and 11, of the Drawings annexed to the said Specification, No. 3515, will
be immersed in the motive power in the fixed case. Suppose now that a
cylinder, which I call the ring regulating valve, be made of the width of.

page_text: the wheel to slide easily over both the forward and backing cells, to
revolve with them. So long as the ring valve.covers both the forward
and backing cells the wheel cannot move, because the motive power in
them will push against the ring valve in opposite directions equally.
But when the ring valve is drawn on one side so as to open one circle of
cells whilst the other cells are covered, the motive power will then push
against the circular fixed case at one end and against the back of the
movable cells at the other, and so drive the wheel round. Hence on
this principle one ring valve will be sufficient to start, stop, and reverse
the wheel in the same case, and also to regulate its power as herein-
after mentioned. One of my contrivances for working such ring
regulating valve is this:-Suppose something like a pitchfork.be inside
the case of my rotary engine with a short handle to pass through the side
of the case. One prong of the fork would work one side of the ring valve
and the other prong the other side, to push and pull the valve evenly.
Each prong will have a wheel at the end and work in a groove made
round the side of the ring valve. This groove will be so made and of
such width, that when cells and ring valve are revolving together, the
groove in such valve cannot touch the wheels or the prongs of the fork
which work such ring valve.
Another mode of moving this valve backwards and forwards is by
means of a worm made in the side of the case to avoid a stuffing box.
The rod of the fork inside the case must then be divided into a ball-and-
socket joint, so that when the engineer turns the handle outside the
case, the rod inside can only be pushed or pulled and not turned.
Before the case is closed the rod which works the ring valve will be
properly marked to shew the engineer what movement will be sufficient
to open and close the forward and backing cells, and also to regulate its
power. And a dial will be fixed outside with something like this:-
On, full;" and on the other side of the dial:-"Back,,,
full." And the stopping point will also be indicated.
My third improvement is not mechanical, but the discovery, as it seems
to me, of new motive powers, the application of which can be by my
rotary cellular engine described in the Provisional and Final Specifica-
tions of the said Letters Patent of the 29th of Oct. 1873, and by the
present improvements thereon. This discovery is that water so confined
that it can only expand against the working part of the engine and
prevented from turning into steam by being heated below the boiling

page_text: point, which is 212° of Fahrenheit, and used over and over again, will
become the future prime mover of the world. Another prime mover is
hydrogen gas forced into a proper receiver heated and used over and over
again in the same way as steam is by my system as the medium for con-
veying heat to work my rotary cellular engine, and the present improve-
ments thereon.
The discovery of these prime movers is the sequel of my said Letters
Patent of the 29th of Oct. 1873, and the Specification thereof, for the
Patent begins with this title, "Improvements in Rotary Engines for
Using Steam or other Expansive Fluids," and the Specification thereof
thus ends, "I wish moreover to say that I do not confine my engine to
"the use of steam, because I believe it may be to a great extent if not
"entirely superseded." My ideas had not then grown to maturity on
this matter, and I was too busy in completing the Inventions therein
described to work out such ideas as I have done since writing those words
in April last, 1874.
It is here desirable to understand the distinction I draw between what
I call direct and indirect prime movers. Air, water, hydrogen gas, oil,
glycerinc,and mercury aredirect prime movers, because fuel is not unpro-
fitably expended in internal work, that is, in changing the nature of the
molecules which compose these fluids, and thus imparting latent heat to
them, which cannot be utilized in work. The tens of millions of tons of
coal, and consequently of money, now wasted every year in latent heat
throughout the world will be seen in the Specification of my said Letters
Patent of the 29th Oct. 1873, page 6, paragraph 3, pp. 7, 8, and 9.
But there is no latent heat in the fluids before mentioned, so that all the
heat imparted to them is sensible, and can be utilized in work. Air is
the only direct prime mover that has hitherto been used, chiefly by
Stirling, Siemens, Ericsson, Napier, Rankine, and others, and air is the
only direct prime mover mentioned in my Specification of the said
Letters Patent of the 29th Oct. 1873. Steam is an indirect prime
mover, because about 91 per cent. of fuel (including the waste in such
great boilers to make up for the loss of heat in the cylinders) is unpro-
fitably expended in tearing asunder the atoms of water and converting it
into steam. So prodigious is the power required to do this, and so great
the intensity of heat expended, that out of 1212° of heat consumed in
the process only about 275° of heat are sensible for use at a mean pressure
or 30 lbs. above the atmosphere. But I convert steam itself into a direct

page_text: prime mover (after the first evaporation of water) by using the steam
over and over again in my rotary engine, according to the laws discovered
by me in October 1873, and enunciated in the Provisional and Final
Specifications of the said Letters Patent of the 29th of Oct. 1873. Thus
the use of all direct prime movers is for the same purpose as using steam
over and over again, namely, to save the loss of about 91 per cent. of
fuel in latent heat in converting water into steam, and I believe I am
the first discoverer of the laws of nature to save this loss, and the first
inventor of a proper machine to apply such laws, as will be seen by
reference to the Provisional and Final Specifications before referred to,
especially at page 50 and 51.
To understand my discovery of heated water and hydrogen gas under
proper confinement as new prime movers it is necessary to know tho
scientific terms I use; the difference between what I call mere thermo-
metrical temperature and mechanical heat. The former is the temperature
imparted by nature, and also to steam by the combustion of fuel, but its
mechanical effect the thermometer canot tell. Mechanical heat is a
unit of heat, one degree imparted to a unit of water one pound in weight,
at its maximum density and contraction, which is when its temperature
is about 39 degrees Fahrenheit.
The result is that the value of 434 of one unit of mechanical heat is
approximately 330 foot lbs. per square inch of water 1 foot high, that is,
every degree of Fahrenheit imparted to such weight of water = 434 lbs.
will exert a pressure of and is capable of producing a mechanical effect
of 330 foot lbs. per square inch. Hence 2305 square inches are required
to give the mechanical effect due to a unit of heat imparted to a unit
of weight, one pound of water. And this is 2-305 × 330 = 760-65 foot
lbs. This is the surprising power of nearly 760-63 =
14 horses per
second for only one unit of heat imparted to one pound of water per
second.
550
Water heated under confinement and used over and over again as a
prime mover is based on the following principles:-Heat is the source of
life, power, and motion. Hence, heated air, water, steam, oil, gas, alcohol,
glycerine, or any other fluid is not the life or power itself, but only the
medium of holding and transmitting it to a machine, to be converted
into motion and power. When therefore the invisible motion of invisible
heat is converted into the visible motion of machines the heat has gone

page_text: out of its medium, and this is left behind just so much colder to receive
fresh heat. It follows therefore that the best prime mover in the world
must be that fluid which can hold the greatest quantity of heat in the
smallest space, because that will reduce most the size, weight, and cost
of engines, boilers, and fluid. It is not necessary to explain here by
what process of thought I was led to water as that fluid which com-
bined what I sought, or why it does so; it is sufficient to say, what is well
known in science, that the specific heat of water (capacity for holding
heat) is volume for volume greater than that of any known body, solid
or fluid. Since then water is as universal as the air we breathe, and
since salt water will do as well as fresh, used over and over again,
according to the laws and application discovered by me, water must
necessarily become the future prime mover of the world.
The mean pressure of all the engines of the world is not so much as
30 lbs. per square inch through the stroke. But to be on the safe side,
that is, to reduce as much as the present practice will permit, the large
area of piston required for steam of the same weight as water to produce
the same mechanical effect, I will take a boiler pressure of 30 lbs. above
the atmosphere and the same pressure throughout the stroke; I found
then by mathematical analysis the following remarkable difference
between the power of steam and water of the same volume, one cubic
foot, and at the same temperature 275° Fahrenheit. The theoretical
mechanical effect in steam is only 144 × 49-71 = 7158-24 foot lbs. above
the atmosphere, whereas in water it is approximately B at = 380 × 144
× 275° 13,068,000 foot lbs. This is 13,008.000 = 90-750 foot lbs. per
square inch, whilst steam of the same volume and temperature gives a
theoretical mechanical effect of only 49'71 foot lbs. per square inch.
146
The formulæ used for the steam.analysis were Scott Russell's for the
temperature, Tate's for the weight of a cubic foot of steam, and my own
two formulæ prior to 1860 for finding the mechanical effect in the steam.
But the mathematical analysis of the mechanical effect of heated water
under confinement is all my own. It was, too, from such analysis that
I found the mechanical equivalent due to one degree of Fahrenheit
imparted to 434 lbs. of water which is 330 foot lbs. per square inch.
And as it is necessary to give some scientific nomenclature to every
new physical truth to distinguish it, I have ventured to call the above

page_text: =
Boyman's constant, B 330 foot lbs. per square inch for thermal-
hydrodynamics, for so I call this new science of heated water as the fluid
medium of heat as a prime mover. But the saving of space, weight,
and cost in engines and boilers by using water instead of steam cannot
be compared to the importance of saving about 91 per cent of fuel now
wasted in the present engines, as shewn at p. 7 and 8 of the Specification
of my said Letters Patent of the 29th of Oct. 1873. This great loss
however is already saved by using steam over and over again pursuant
to the laws discovered by me, and by my Invention of the rotary cellular
engine to apply them, as enunciated and described in such Specification.
Hence using water over and over again as a prime mover will not save
fuel when the same steam is used over and over again on my system,
but will save considerable space, weight, and cost of my rotary engine.
212°
If water can expand sufficiently and be heated and cooled fast enough
to be used in reciprocating engines, the present loss of about 91 per
cent. in latent heat in such engines can only be saved by preventing
the water being converted into steam as well in such engines as in mine.
Therefore the water must never be raised even to boiling point
Fahrenheit, much more to 275°. But it was necessary to take the
present average pressure of steam throughout the stroke in order to
compare water and steam as prime movers at the same weight, volume,
and temperature.
-
I have now shewn how the discovery of a new force of nature far
superior to steam as a prime mover was made, namely, by purc
mathematical analysis and induction, the highest calculus of the human
mind and the most unerring. It is by the same process that the greatest
discoveries have been and can alone be made, because inductive
philosophy proceeds from small things to great, from particulars to
generals, from facts to principles, from phenomena to laws, from the
senses what we see-to ideas which we do not but by which we create
new images and forms. It is thus that induction works from the known
to the unknown, making that real and useful to the world which beforc
had only a divine but not a human existence.
L
Now I have explained my discovery of heated water properly applied,
as a prime mover instead of steam, I have also described my Invention
of the rotary cellular engine, and its present improvements to apply such
discovery. I have also discovered what are the laws and dimensions of

page_text: the action of heated water, and devised the proper formulæ to embody
them. It seems desirable therefore to give them here for the practical
application of my discovery, and to shew that heated water as a prime
mover has been brought for the first time within the domain of the
exact sciences approximately:-

page_text: reduced to 39° before filling my engine), t:
=
(T-d). is the normal
breadth of the wheel, equal one inch. If, therefore, a very great power
is required in a very small diameter of my rotary wheel, and the whole
area A cannot be got in a wheel one inch broad, but only an area = a,
then b =
A
a
If, on the other
feet lbs. <B
inches. The diameter of the wheel d in inches is a good
guide to the number of square inches of the right angle cells which can
be got in in one inch broad of the wheel; hence a = d.
hand, a power less than my constant B be wanted, then b
of an inch.
n is the number of revolutions of my
second; its mean velocity in feet per second;
mean diameter of the wheel.
=
B
rotary engine per
3.1416 and d the
We believe in a new truth in physics in proportion to our under-
standing the reason of it. Now the reason why heated water properly
applied is capable of exerting a force far beyond the power of steam is
plain enough, like everything else when the reason for it is found out;
water is practically speaking incompressible, especially when the air is
expelled by boiling. This has been known from the time of Bacon's
remarkable experiment in his Novum Organon, published in 1620; but
I can nowhere find the reason for the incompressibility of water; it is
because the atoms which compose it are all but infinitely small and
numerous. Thus they are so closely packed together that there is no
air, or heat, or space between the atoms to be compressed. Hence the
quantity of heat which any body, fluid or solid, can hold must be
proportional to the number, and not to the magnitude of atoms which
compose it, and thus it is found that my mathematical analysis, which
gives so great a power to heated water, is founded on reason and the
realities of nature.
:
To discover the best prime mover it is necessary to understand atomic
dynamics, for so I call this science, in order to find out that fluid which
holds the greatest number of atoms in the smallest space; it is necessary
also to understand the laws of molecular attraction and cohesion, to save
the waste of about 91 per cent. of fuel expended in all the engines in
the world, in doing internal work among the molecules of water, to
overcome their mutual attraction, and send them flying apart in steam.
The knowledge of these laws of atomic dynamics and molecular
attraction led me to the further discovery that hydrogen gas is, weight

page_text: for weight with water, about 34 times more powerful as a prime mover.
The reason is that this gas, being the very essence of heat and light,
holds 34 times more atoms in the same space as the same weight of
water, and 16 times as many atoms as oxygen; it follows that hydrogen
gas will hold 34 times as many units of heat as water of the same
weight.
My Invention for using it as a prime mover is this:-By a force
pump I force the gas into my rotary engine, and to compare its power
with water I must take the same weight of gas, equal to 434 lbs. in one
square inch, one foot high. It will then be capable of exerting a
mechanical effect equal to 3.4 × B = 3.4 × 3301122 foot lbs. por
square inch for only one degree of temperature imparted to it, assuming
that we can deal with it as we can with water. In such case the
formulæ before given will apply to hydrogen gas, by turning B into
BH 34 x 350 =1122 foot lbs. per square inch. This prime mover
will also be used, as I use steam and water as prime movers, over and
over again in my rotary engine and improvements, all of them being the
mere fluid medium for the motion of heat to be converted by the engine
into mechanical motion.
=
No boiler in the ordinary meaning of the word will be required for
these or any other direct prime movers, used according to the laws and
Inventions discovered by me in October 1873, and enunciated in the
Provisional and Final Specifications of the said Letters Patent of the
29th of Oct. 1873, because no fluid will be condensed or sent into the
atmosphere but will be used over and over again, so that no boiler will
be wanted to keep up fresh supplies to my engines, as in the present
ones, for the area of piston is in every case very small compared with
the boilers necessary to supply the pistons with steam; but though only
the few inches of water which make the push against my engine can
transmit the motion of heat to be converted into mechanical motion,
I propose to have a small tubular boiler with the fluid in it communi-
cating with the fluid in the case of my rotary engine, the flue of which
boiler can circle the case all round and meet at the top for the draught,
with the usual lagging to prevent the heat escaping.
My third improvement is in the means of giving expansive power to
confined water, compressed gas, air, oil, or other direct prime movers,
not requiring heat to convert them into something else; it is, however,

page_text: only by clearly understanding the laws of nature that we can make new
discoveries and invent the proper organism to apply them; it seems
necessary then that I should first explain the laws referred to to shew
why coal is not requisite to give expansive power to fluids used over and
over again, according to the laws discovered by me in October 1873, and
explained in my Provisional and Final Specifications before referred to.
In one square inch of steam one foot long the atoms of power are so few
that although heated up to 275° they can only exert a pressure of 30 lbs.
above the atmosphere, and a mechanical effect of only 49'71 foot lbs.,
and even to get this poor result (1212° - 275° =) 937° of heat are latent
and lost, for if the whole 1212° were sensible, neither steam nor boilers,
nor engines could be used, since they would all be red hot, even in
daylight; but in the same volume of water as the steam (one foot long
and one square inch area) the atoms of power are so many that only
one degree of heat will give them a pressure and mechanical effect of
330 foot lbs., and this too without any part of the loss of 937°, as in
B =
=
steam.
The discovery of these physical truths, of the wide difference between
intensity of heat and mechanical heat due to their different number of
atoms; naturally led me to believe that the coal fields of England and
other nations might be saved in all the engines in the world by some
heating power not intense enough to generate steam but sufficient to
impart any quantity of heat to fluids at the moderate temperature of
10 or 20 degrees of Fahrenheit. For this purpose I propose to utilizo
the ideas expressed some 20 years ago, when walking over some of the
chalk cliffs of England, that they contained exhaustless stores of heat
and power, for good slaked lime from limestone or chalk in sufficient
quantities will generate heat enough to raise the temperature of water
at least 50°. But only two degrees imparted to confined water, as I usc
it, will give it an expansive power = 2 B = 2 x 330660 foot lbs.
per square inch, which is more than 600 = 22 times greater than the
mean pressure of steam at 275°, besides wasting 937° of heat in the
process. I propose then to use slaked lime to give expansive power to
the fluids before mentioned in this way:-The case containing my rotary
engine and its fluid will be surrounded by another case, large enough to
contain sufficient lime to generate the required heat. A pump worked
by my engine will draw the water to slake the lime from the water in
30

page_text: navigation, or from a tank in locomotives and wells for manufactures,
and when all the heat is got from the lime it can be sold for other
purposes.
My further improvement is in the means of giving expansive power to
confined water, compressed hydrogen gas, oil, or other direct prime
movers without fuel, lime, or any other artificial heat. This is by
applying the laws of nature to man's use, the exhaustless expansive
powers of natural heat and cold throughout the world, now lost as prime
movers; and such laws and their application are these:-Water at a
temperature of about 39° Fahrenheit can contract no more, it therefore
expands on both sides of the scale, by heat above 39° and by cold below
it. This law of nature therefore gives to man a perpetual spring of
power by applying it properly.
A separate tank well lagged to prevent the external temperature
getting inside, or my rotary case temporarily lagged for the same
purpose, will contain water reduced to the temperature of 39°. A lump
or two of ice from the vast stores of all great cities and towns will enable
this to be done in summer, if not done in winter, for my case will only
want once filling for years perhaps unless the water be allowed to escape.
Such case must be filled to the brim and immediately screwed down, in
order that the case may be full of water at its maximum density and
contraction, or 39° Fahrenheit, for every degree of temperature of the
internal water above or below 39° will lose B = 330 foot lbs. per square
inch of power, though not of fuel in this case, since there is none. The
external temperature will then pass through the copper case, and give the
internal water an expansive power equal to B =
830 foot lbs. per square
inch for every degree of heat above or every degree of cold below the
temperature of the internal water, though of the mechanical value of
cold I am not so sure as of heat; my hypothesis however is that every
degree of cold below 39° Fahrenheit will give to confined water the same
expansive power as every degree of heat above 39° = B = 830 foot lbs. per
square inch. For hot countries the temperature of the internal water
may be much higher than 30°, except for great powers. By this means
of giving expansive power to confined fluids, that is, without coal or other
artificial heat, it is important that the case which contains the rotary
engine and fluid should be made of metal of the greatest conductivity, in
order that the external heat may pass through it with sufficient rapidity
(1) to supply heat to the fluid as fast as the heat is converted into
-

page_text: =
of my Invention is by copper for the boiler or case, because if we take
the conductivity of silver as the standard 100, that of copper is about
74, whilst iron is only about 12. If however the external heat should be
found not to pass through copper sufficiently fast to give the required
number of revolutions a second for locomotives, steam navigation, and
other purposes, I propose to adopt the principle of virtual velocities, that
is, to make up in power what is wanting in velocity, and to get this by
multiplying gear.
The changes of temperature in every country are great and frequent,
which we cannot regulate as we can the temperature, pressure, and
expansion of steam to increase or decrease the engine power; it becomes
necessary therefore to regulate the power of my rotary engine by some
mechanical means; this I do by the ring regulating valve before
described in this way:-Find the dimensions of the engine by the
formulæ before given, making the value of the temperature t, say, only
one degree = B = 330 foot lbs. per square inch, taking fuel for less than
one degree above or below 39°. The area of cells A and breadth of
engine 6 will then be in proportion, and a similar wheel with reverse
cells must be added. The ring regulating valve will cover all these cells
when at rest, and the engineer will draw it back by the means before
described and uncover the cells proportional to the power required.
Suppose then that the temperature all of a sudden rises eight times the
number of degrees imparted, these will increase the engine power eight
times, and if at sea will double the speed of the vessel (if her bows be
long enough), pursuant to the laws of the squares and cubes of fluid
resistance and power to overcome it, and such increase of speed will cost
nothing. If however it be required to keep the engine at the same
power, for this purpose or manufactures the engineer has simply to
reduce the area of the cells by pushing the ring regulating valve over as
large an area of cells as will be equivalent to the rise in temperature and
increase in power, and the motion of the ring valve will be graduated
for such purpose. I propose however to make the rise and fall of tem-
perature of the fluid regulate the power of my engine on the same
principle as will be explained in my 5th and 6th improvements, that for
regulating the damper when fuel is used. This I believe is the first
engine yet invented with the mechanical means of having its power

page_text: regulated either by the engineer or automatically. The expansive power
of fluids thus obtained as a prime mover without artificial heat by
simply understanding and obeying the laws of nature will make engines
always ready for use at any moment, day or night, without preparation,
since all that is required is to turn the expansive power on and off by the
ring valve. Such an engine seems to me to realize the prediction of the
mechanical horse at p. 9, paragraph 12, and p. 10, par. 13, of the Speci-
fication of the said Letters Patent of the 29th of Oct., 1873, only in this
case the mechanical horse will neither want coal to eat nor water to
drink, the first supply of the latter being sufficient. This engine is the
nearest approach I know of to perpetual motion, because it is getting
something for nothing, but not something out of nothing, for that it
impossible for us, because all power must come from without not from
within to man, nature, or machines, so that no more can be got out of
any thing that has first been put into it by some one, consequently as
we cannot create we cannot destroy power. Hence the sum of power
and of motion, of cause and effect in the universe, is a constant quantity,
which we can neither increase nor decrease, shewing the unity, per
manence, and equivalence of force in all its various transformations.
Now these laws of nature I follow strictly in my Invention, for she gives
us in confined water at its lowest point of contraction 39° an inde
structible spring of power, which is effected by every degree of tem-
perature above or below 39° to the extent of more than half a horse-
power = B = 330 foot lbs. on every square inch of the confined water.
We then have the sun to act on this indestructible spring of water as a
primę mover, illimitable in power and everlasting in duration. Thus I
merely apply and utilize the power of nature which I find ready to my
hand, no one before has thought of to my knowledge, and so conquer
nature by a combination of her own laws in hot and cold countries
alike.
My fifth improvement is a safety valve required for the great pressures
and use for motive power, and in a damper to regulate the draught when
fuel is employed to give the expansive power to my fluid. A cylinder
will be open to the heated water, and its piston P will be rigidly con-
nected with another piston p in the same cylinder of a little less area
than the larger piston P, and also open to the water. Hence there will
be a greater pressure on the larger piston than on the smaller, so that
P-p lbs. will be the resultant pressure on the safety valve instead of
that equal to P.

page_text: The safety valve will be so enclosed that when the water escapes
through it the water will be conveyed to the force pump to prevent the
mechanical heat in the water from being wasted. This makes my sixth
improvement, for such pump will only be required to work when the
water escapes to return it to the boiler. It is then desirable to make the
force pump begin to return the water when it cscapes, and to stop when
it has no more water to return, which I propose in this way-For this
purpose one of my rotary engines, which I will call the pump engine for
distinction, will either be in a separate case or in the driving engine
case; if in the latter the driving shaft will pass through the hollow
shaft of the pump engine, which will rest on its own supports, so that
the driving engine cannot drive the pump engine. The latter will have
on it an eccentric to work the pump, and the pump engine will be
worked by the same kind of ring valve as the driving engine is, as before
described, and this ring valve will have a cog wheel on its rod which
passes through the case. This rod will be turned round in a kind of
screw in the side of the case instead of being pushed in and out as in the
ring valve before described for working the driving engine; hence the
rod inside the case must be divided, and the part screwed round must
work in a socket in the other part of the rod in order to push and pull
that part and not turn it round. The cog wheel on the rod outside the
case will be moved by a rack on the rod which works through the case
of the safety valve, so that when the excess of water pressure in the case
raises the safety valve the rack attached to it will work the ring valve
on the engine pump which will open its cells, and it will then work the
feed pump; and when safety valve closes again its rack will make the
ring valve close the cells of the pump engine which will then cease to
work. A self-acting damper in the funnel to reduce and increase the
draught can be worked in the same way.
When external temperature gives expansive power to the fluid in my
case the case should be made strong enough to bear the increase of
pressure due to the highest range of temperature, for any escape of water
reduces its internal expansive power, which, as before observed, should
be kept at its maximum density.
My 7th improvement is a condensed and heated air whistle instead of
the present steam whistle. A cylinder and piston, say, of one or two
square inches area, will be open to the pressure of the heated water.
This piston will work another one much larger in an equally large

page_text: cylinder called the air cylinder, fitted with an atmospheric valve opening
inside the cylinder and with the usual whistle cock and sounder. Part of
the air cylinder may be inside the case to heat the compressed air to
give it greater tension. The pressure of the heated water in the case
will push the piston and compress the air for the engineer to turn on
and off like the present steam whistle. A safety valve may be required
in the air cylinder. When the air is exhausted a power lever must
be made to act by a screw or wheel upon the piston rod inside the air
cylinder to force it back again. A partial vacuum will then be made in
such cylinder, when the external atmosphere will open the valve in the
air cylinder and fill it again.
A simpler warner is a shrill bell or gong properly hung. Fix a wheel
with spokes or hammers to the driving axle, and when it is required to
be given let the sounder down to the hammers and draw it away again
when not wanted.
Should it be found that the expansion of the water is not sufficient to
give the reciprocating motion required for the 5th and 7th improvement
one of my small rotary engines must be used with an eccentric. For
the new principle embodied in my engines I believe never before done is
that the distance between the immovable fulcrum for the push of the
power and movable wheel for motion is a constant quantity, and so is
peculiarly adapted for prime movers of small expansion.
My eighth and last improvement is to neutralize the weight of my
rotary engine on the axle when at work to reduce to a minimum the loss
of power from friction. Two equal and opposite forces acting on the
same body neutralize each other. To produce this let two cylinders and
pistons open at bottom to the pressure of the motive power be fixed in
the case for supports of the axle of my rotary engine. The tops of the
piston rods must be large enough and scooped out for the axle to revolve
in. The area of the cylinders and pistons must be made proportional to
the upward pressure of the motive power to the downward weight or
pressure of the revolving engine, and to the downward pressure of the
motive power on the parts of the axle working in the hollows of the
pistons. Hence the nearer the downward and upward pressures are to
each other the less the loss of power from the friction of the weight of
the engine when revolving on its axle.
Another Invention is my water stuffing box. A cylinder somewhat
larger than the axle will be fixed to the case, through which the axle of

page_text: the rotary engine passes. This cylinder will be kept filled with water of
a higher pressure than the motive fluid in the case by a force pump
worked by the engineer or otherwise (1) to prevent the motive fluid
escaping past the axle, and (2) to lubricate it.
SPECIFICATION in pursuance of the conditions of the Letters Patent,
filed by the said Richard Boyman Boyman in the Great Scal Patent
Office on the 6th July 1875.
TO ALL TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME, I, RICHARD
BOYMAN BOYMAN, of Park Hill, Clapham Park, Surrey, send greeting.
WHEREAS Her most Excellent Majesty Queen Victoria, by Her
Letters Patent, bearing date the Seventh day of January, in the year
of our Lord One thousand cight hundred and seventy-five, in the thirty-
eighth year of Her reign, did, for Herself, Her heirs and successors, give
and grant unto me, the said Richard Boyman Boyman, Her special
licence that I, the said Richard Boyman Boyman, my executors, admin-
istrators, and assigns, or such others as I, the said Richard Boyman
Boyman, my executors, administrators, and assigns, should at any time
agree with, and no others, from time to time and at all times thereafter
during the term therein expressed, should and lawfully might make,
use, exercise, and vend, within the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland, the Channel Islands, and Isle of Man, an Invention for
"IMPROVEMENTS IN ROTARY ENGINES MOVED BY THE EXPANSIVE POWER OF FLUIDS
IN THE MEANS OF GIVING THEM SUCH POWER. AND IN THE MACHINERY AND APPLI-
CATION OF THE SAME," upon the condition (amongst others) that I. the
said Richard Boyman Boyman, my executors or administrators, by an
instrument in writing under my, or their, or one of their hands and
seals, should particularly describe and ascertain the nature of the said
Invention, and in what manner the same was to be performed, and
cause the same to be filed in the Great Seal Patent Office within six
calendar months next and immediately after the date of the said Letters
Patent.
NOW KNOW YE, that I, the said Richard Boyman Boyman do hereby
declare the nature of my said Invention, and in what manner the same
is to be performed, to be particularly described and ascertained in and

page_text: by the following statement thereof, reference being had to the accom-
panying Drawings, that is to say:-
1. In the Provisional Specification 1 have described my improved
cellular engine to combine three things, (1), the greatest area for the
5 action of the motive power with (II.), the fewest number of cells, and
(III.), to get a right angle action all round the wheel. But there is
one other requisite, which is to get these with the longest leverage of
the wheel in order to combine the greatest power in the smallest space
to save costs and weight. The cellular engine combining the three
things before mentioned is shewn in Sheet 3, Figure 7, but I prefer that
it should combine the fourth requisite, the longest loverage for the action
of the motive power. 1 find that this can be best done, and so combine
the four things required by dispensing with the four right angle cells in
Figure 7, and continuing all round the wheel (as in Figure 8) the
tangential cells shown in Figure 7, for Figure 8 has the same number
cells as Figure 7, but the former act at a longer leverage and at a better
angle. The tangential cells in Figure 7 are referred to as tangential
cells in that part of the Provisional Specification which describes the
formation of the said wheel shewn in Sheet 3, Figure 7.
2. I will now describe my improvements in rotary engines moved by
the expansive power of fluids, in the means of giving them such power,
and the machinery and application of the same. Sheet I., Figure 1, is a
vertical section of my tangential cellular engine with 12 cells parallel to
its side with boiler in longitudinal section attached; Figure 2 is a cross
vertical section of it with front view of boiler; Figure 3 is the equilibrium
ring valve shown apart from the wheel. a is the double-acting wheel to
go ahead and to back; a', a', &c., are the tangential cells in one-half of
the wheel a when it is revolving in the direction indicated by the full
line arrow; a arc similar cells, the reverse way in the other half of the
wheel, when it is revolving in the contrary direction, as indicated by the
dotted line arrow, and is shewn in Sheet 2, Figure 5; a' is the mid web
of the wheel a; a' are the lateral ribs of the wheel a; a³ are the side
webs of the wheel a and are loose, and in the form of a disc, and are
bolted to the wheel, as shewn; a are the packing rings at the sides and
division of the wheel to make the three revolving discs steam-tight to
prevent steam passing from one wheel to the other, and into the case
in which the wheel revolves; for this reason, when steam expands
its pressure is reduced though the sum of expansions, when fully

page_text: expended is more than the initial pressure; but whilst expanding its
pressure is reduced, so that the less cannot overcome the greater;
therefore steam cannot expand in steam; if then the steam escaped
from the cells into the case, as soon as that became full of the same
pressure steam the result would most likely be the same as if the wheel
were wholly immersed in steam, and if so the steam in the wheel could
no longer expand, and it would consequently stop. To prevent this and
to save two stuffing boxes at the wheel shaft b any steam which may
escape from the two ends of the wheel into the case is carried off by the
two exhaust pipes c³.
3. To continue Sheet 1 c is the wheel case; c' are expansion cells in
that half of the case c when the wheel is revolving in the direction
indicated by the full line arrow; care similar cells in the other half of
the case, when the wheel is revolving in the contrary direction indicated
by the dotted line arrow, and which expansion cells are shewn in
Sheet 2, Figure 5; care induction passages to cells c'; c' are similar
passages to cells c³; c³, induction space; c, the flue space jacketing the
induction space c³; c' are clear spaces between sides of wheel and case;
is the throat of flue space connecting space c" with smoke box of
boiler; c is the funnel from flue space c"; c" is the lateral covers of the
case c, and secured to it by the screws, as shewn; c¹³, the bearings in
covers c" for carrying the shaft b; c are the two passages connecting
induction space and boiler; and c" is the lagging to case c.
4. As regards the equilibrium ring valves, d is the ring valve to the
tangential cells a' and the expansion cells c'; d', the ring valve to the
tangential cells a' and the expansion cells c; d the induction openings
in d. The ring valve d and the expansion cells c¹ are shewn in Figure 2
in section through the induction openings and passages c³ to fully
illustrate the construction of those parts. ', the induction openings in
d'; ', strengthening wings to ring valves d and d'; d³ and dª valve rods
to the valves & and d' respectively; ď, ď, starting levers to valves d
and d'. These levers are fitted with the usual locking apparatus. d'and
d" are stuffing boxes to the valve rods d³ and do; e is the lubricator;
are pipes and channels for conveying the lubricating matter to the
packing of the three revolving discs; f is the boiler fitted with the
usual appurtenances of pressure guage, water guage.injector, differential
safety valve, &c.; f', furnace; f³, smoke tubes; f', smoke box;
f', lagging; g is the waste pipe to carry away from the side of wheel

page_text: equilibrium ring valve for both halves of the wheel; Figures 1, 2, and 3,
in Sheet 1, are similarly figured; a is the tangential cellular wheel; a', a',
are the cells for moving the wheel in the direction of the full lined arrow;
a², a², are the cells for moving the wheel in the contrary direction;
a³ is the mid web of the wheel; a' are the lateral ribs; a³, the side
ribs; is the wheel shaft; c, the case of the wheel; c³ and c¹ are
induction passages respectively for the cells a¹ and a².
These passages
are in the fixed circular stop c". This stop (made very thin) is fixed
between the cellular wheel and ring valve (1) to stop the entrance of the
motive power at the curved parts of the cells, and (2) to give the ring
valve solid parts to move over when opening and shutting the cells;
care induction spaces; c is the flue space jacketting the induction
space c³; c³, clear space between side of wheel and cover (c¹³); care
eduction pipes to carry off from the space c' into the flue space c+ any
leakage from the steam-tight piston disc; c' is the throat of flue space
c"; c" is the funnel to flue space; c", the lateral covers of the case c;
care bearings in the covers c"; c¹³, two passages connecting induction
space c³ with boiler; c" is the lagging; c are the internal lateral covers
at the side of the wheel to support the circular stop c"; d is the ring
valve; ³, &, are the induction openings in d for the a' and a³ cells
respectively; &, starting lever; &, stuffing box; e, lubricator; e' are
pipes and channels from lubricator to the two steam-tight piston ends of
wheel; p, rack fixed at the back of ring valve; p', sector for actuating
through the rack p the ring valve d; p³, the spindle which carries the
sector p¹.
7. Figure 11, Sheet 3. d is the ring valve; d³, valve rod; &, stuffing
box; d, bell crank starting lever; q, link connecting. Figure 12. d is
the ring valve; d³, valve rod; d, stuffing box; r, screwed bearing in
which the screwed end of the valve rod turns; 7', hand fly wheel to
work ring valve.
8. The difference between this wheel and the one shewn in Sheets 1 and
2 consists in 5 things,-1, there are only 8 instead of 12 cells; 2, there
are no expansion cells in the case of the wheel; 3, there is one steam port
to every cell; 4, the wheel is not divided in the middle to prevent the
motive power from getting from one wheel into the other; and 5, only
one ring valve and one lever, move the wheel either
way, to go forwards
or backwards. I thus get rid of one steam-tight revolving disc in the

page_text: middle of the wheel and its friction, one ring valve, and one rack sector
and lever, and also the repair of these parts. The principles which
occurred to me are these:-Steam offers no pressure resistance to the
motion of a body if the steam cannot expand. If then the ring valve
works close to the wheel cells (and not as in Sheet 1 some distance from
them), the steam will have no room to expand to resist the cells when
moving against the steam, so that the resistance will be merely that due
to friction and not to pressure. It matters not therefore if the steam
escapes from the working half of the wheel to the reversed cells of the
other half. In this way I get rid of the middle steam tight revolving
disc.
'
=
9. As regards working the forward and backing wheel with only onc
ring valve: Suppose the two ring valves in Sheet 1 are joined together,
they will be so set in reference to the cells in cach half of the wheel that
the ring valves will entirely open the ports and cells of one half, and
entirely close those of the other half of the wheel. Then the two ring
valves being joined and moved together, say one-fourth of the width of
the ports and cells, those of one half of the wheel will be closed and
open, and those of the other half will be opened and closed. The
cells of the latter half of the wheel are reversed and therefore the steam
will act against them, and so neutralize of the action of the steam in
the cells of the other half of the wheel. Hence the effect of moving the
ring valve only over the steam ports and cells will be equal to half
power of the wheel, and another + movement of the ring valve will be to
stop the locomotive or steam ship, because the steam will act equally
against the reversed cells of both halves of the wheel. Thus one half of
the cells of both halves of the wheel will always be open, and half of the
cells always shut wheen the wheel is done with and also when it is
started. So too by continuing the motion of the ring valve before.
mentioned as far as it will go the wheel will be reversed at full
It is in this way I carry out the principle of my improved cellular
engine, mentioned in my Provisional Specification in these words,
"My present Invention is to enclose the forward and backing wheels in
the same case, and so have only two sides, two stuffing boxes, and one
66
65
power.
ring valve to start, stop, and reverse both wheels, and thus save
"weight, space, and first cost." The two steam-tight revolving discs in
this wheel are instead of the two stuffing boxes in the Provisional
Specification for the reasons explained in paragraph 2.

page_text: 10. Sheet 4. This shews the application of my improved cellular
engine and machinery to locomotives to get sufficient bite with the least
unprofitable load. Figure 13 is a side elevation; Figure 14 is a front
elevation; and Figure 15, plan of ditto; Figures 16 and 17 are the
details of what I call the warner, instead of the present steam whistle;
h is my improved cellular engine; i is the frame of locomotive to which
the rotary cellular wheel h is secured; this is not fixed on springs, but
its connections are, which will give sufficient play to prevent injury
from jolts and jars. j is the steam pipe between boiler and wheel h;
k and k¹ are levers for working the two ring valves of the respective
halves of the wheel for forward and backward motion; and k³ are the
shafts on which the levers and are fixed; and k³ are rods con-
and with the ring valves; / is the
necting the levers on the shafts
force pump for supplying boiler; l', eccentric and rod fixed on wheel
shaft for working the pump 1; 1³, feed pipe between pump and boiler;
ľ, check valve to feed pipe ; *, feed water tank; is the surplus pipe
and cock to allow the excess of feed water to return to tank ', for it is
better I think to keep the pump going in this way than to throw it in
and out of gear to work only when wanted; 1 is the suction pipe to
pump; m, chimney damper; m', differential damper valve for working
the chimney damper; m², pinion on damper spindle; m³, lever with
tooth segment on one end. This lever is moved by the rising and
falling of the valve spindle, and by means of the sector at the damper
gives motion to the pinion m³, and thus regulates the damper m;
n, differential safety valve; n', spring balance and lever for increasing
the pressure on valve; n³, waste pipe to carry waste water from safety
valve back to tank ; o is the case of the warner; o' is the striker
fixed to the axle of the locomotive wheels, and always revolving when
they do; o are the gongs or bells; o is the handle lever, by moving
which forwards or backwards the gongs o are brought within the range
of the strikers o' or removed from their reach; o' are the link and lever
connections between handle o" and gongs o³; and o³ is a T headed pipe
for concentrating and directing the sound given by the warner o.
11. Sheet 5. Figure 18 is a vertical section parallel to its side of my
cight-celled tangential rotary engine moved by the expansive power of
confined water, oil, air, or gas, compressed or not, heated by slaking lime
in the outer case. The slaking process. is donc by pumping water from
a tank into the reservoir of lime in the outer case. There is an inlet

page_text: The
and outlet in the case for charging and discharging the lime.
motive power space contains a differential safety valve to let any excess
of pressure escape. The wheel has a circular stop, similar to that in
Sheet 3, Figure 8, for the same purpose, and a ring valve with rack
sector and starting lever for turning the motive power on and off, similar
to the arrangement described in Sheet 3, Figure 8, and these parts are
similarly lettered as those in Figure 8.
12. Figure 19 is a vertical section parallel to its side of a 6-celled
tangential rotary engine for domestic and other small purposes, which I
call the domestic motor. In this arrangement the prime mover, water,
steam, oil, compressed air, or gas in the inner case is heated by rows of
gas jets impinging on the case containing the motive power, such jets
having sufficient air openings for combustion, the hot air from which
passes round the motive power holder, as shewn. The motive power has
a differential safety valve and rod connecting the levers of the safety
valve and gas cock to regulate the quantity by the rising or falling of the
This
valve to supply the right amount of heat to the prime mover.
wheel has also a circular stop and a slide valve with rack on the
back with pinion and hand fly wheel to turn the motive power on
and off.
13. Figure 20 is a vertical section parallel to its sides of an eight-
celled tangential rotary engine whose prime mover is confined water, oil,
air, or gas, compressed or not, which derives its expansive power from
the natural heat of the atmosphere pursuant to the laws of nature
herein-after explained, and which cellular engine I call "the solar
hydro motor." It should be made of copper, because it is I think the
best conductor of heat, after silver. This engine has also, like the two
engines in Figures 18 and 19, a differential safety valve, with thin
circular stop, ring valve, rack, sector, and lever for starting and stopping
the solar hydro motor.
14. Figures 21 and 22 shew the application of my improved cellular
rotary engine for steam navigation to go ahead and back. These Figures
are a plan and vertical longitudinal section of the midship portion of a
vessel with two of my rotary engines, each between a pair of my hydro-
reaction propellers with their connections to raise them into the ship
when wanted to turn it into a sailing ship. I shew the application of

page_text: my cellular rotary engines to my system of propulsion instead of to the
screw, because that and the paddle wheel are sure to be superseded by
my system; for in 1860 I discovered the laws which govern and control
the action of the screw and paddle wheel, which are impulse pursuant
to which all the paddle wheel and screw vessels in the world begin with
a loss of 687 per cent. of coals at their present relative velocities
of V = 1.25 v. I also discovered that hydro-propulsion, which is my
system, is governed by the laws of reaction, and therefore begins with
no loss at all. These discoveries, and the application of the laws of
reaction propulsion, and its machinery, are explained in the Speci-
fications of my Patents of the 3rd March 1870, No. 623, and the
10th of April 1871, No. 944, in Sheet 1, the latter being my discovery
of the type of least resistance with greatest capacity.
hydro-reaction propellers; y', the cellular rotary engines; and y, the
boilers.
y are the
15. The following is a description of the different parts of the Figures
in Sheet 5-Figure 18 is the "lime heated motor." a is the tan-
gential cellular engine; c³, the water space; c, circular stop; d, ring
valve; w, lime holder; 2, force pump; ", eccentric for working it;
, feed pipe between pump and water space; l', feed water tank; ľ³,
surplus pipe and cock so arranged that the excess of water supplied by
the pump above the quantity required by the wheel may be pumped
back to the tank. This is instead of throwing the pump in and out of
gear. 1. suction pipe to pump; s, differential safety valve; t, inlet to
lime holder; t', outlet to same; e, lubricator of the water-tight ends of
the wheel, made with springs to keep them tight; p, rack; p', sector;
d, starting and stopping lever.
16. Figure 19 is the domestic motor. a is the tangential cellular
engine; c, circular space for the prime mover; c", circular stop, as in
Sheet 3, Figure 8; u, slide valve with rack on back; u, pinion; u*,
hand fly wheel; x, heated air space from gas jets; s, differential safety
valve; s', connecting rod; s³, gas pipe with jets and cock s³, connected
to safety valve lever by rod s' to regulate the supply of heat to motive
power; c, chimney.

page_text: explained in Sheet 3, Figure 8; d, ring valve; p, rack; p', sector; d,
starting and stopping lever.
18. Figure 23 is a mechanical equivalent for the cells of my engine.
It is a wheel or drum revolving steam-tight like all my other cellular
engines, for the reasons explained in paragraph 2, for which purpose the
circumference must be fitted with spring or other packing like the
present pistons of engines. It is probable that by the parallelogram of
pressures the prime mover may cause such mere drum to revolve, but
then another law comes into operation, that of thermo-dynamics. This
is the foundation of all my cellular rotary engines, by which alone their
prime movers can work them. It is thus explained in the Provisional
Specification of my Letters Patent of the 29th of October 1873, No. 3515,
p. 3, line 20. "By the fundamental law of thermo-dynamics the work
done by my wheel will be a function of the two limits of compression
"and expansion, between which the wheel works." If then the prime
mover can expend tangentially in such a wheel as that shewn in
Figure 23, it will move; if the prime mover cannot expand, such a
wheel will not move. Lubricator, ring valve, rack, starting and stopping
lever, and other parts of the other wheels are not here shewn, because
they are abundantly shewn in the other Drawings, and before explained.
Figure 24 is a transverse section shewing another method of con-
struction. a is the wheel; a", packing rings; c³, motive power space;
c', space between the sides of wheel and case; c³, eduction pipes to carry
off leakage into flue space c; c", the funnel to cº; d, ring valve.
19. I prepared my Provisional Specification at great length under the
impression that it was not necessary to repeat any part of it in the Final
Specification, believing that the former was an integral part of the latter.
I am however told that I must repeat here the formulæ and general
principles of my discoveries and Inventions. I will therefore give (1),
the formulæ for finding approximately the power of my improved cellular
engines when confined heated water used over and over again is the
prime mover, and which engine I will call the thermal hydro-motor;
(2), when steam is used over and over again as the prime mover; and
(3), the general principles of the prime movers applied by such improved
cellular engines.

page_text: centre of its axle to the centre of the back of the cell.
of revolutions of the wheel per second, and d its diameter
n is the number
22 STAY KORMULA FOR MY CELLULar Engine.
2r.
of revolutions of the wheel per second, and & its diameter
=2r.
22 STRAY FORMULA FOR my Cellular Engine.
IP:
550 HP
2 Trn PAp
feet lbs.
550 IP
A
=
2rn Pp
square inches
"
550 IP
b =
inches
T
27rn Psp
- 1.
2.
3.
These symbols mean as follows:—w, r, n, A, p, are the same as in the
formulæ for the thermal hydro motor, and P is the mean steam
pressure of one square inch at the back of one cell. b is the breadth of
the wheel, the divisor meaning the horse-power for only one square inch.
For the velocity of the wheel o, number of revolutions n, and diameter d,
see the formula 7 for the thermal hydro-motor, paragraph 20; but as
both are new sciences I do not confine myself to these formulæ nor
pledge myself to their accuracy, giving them merely as some guide to
the power and proportions of my improved cellular engine. The number
of cells for any given diameter of wheel for water, steam, compressed
air, hydrogen gas, or other prime mover can be best found from the
Drawings.
I
23. Whilst writing this Specification I have come upon a fundamental
error in science, as it seems to me, which I think should be mentioned
here, because it has a practical bearing on my present Inventions and the
above formulæ. A steam pressure P is called P foot lbs., and it is
assumed to be equal to a weight of the same pressure falling through
one foot, that is, it is assumed that one foot of steam of the pressure P
will raise a weight equal P inch after inch through one foot, from which
assumption P has been called foot lbs.
24. I have however discovered by mathematical analysis of the two
following formulæ, that any given steam pressure P will raise a weight
equal only through one foot. One formula is for the maximum
theoretical power of one foot of steam used by pressure = 2.3026
(P+147) log. n, where P is the boiler pressure, and n is the theo-
retical number of feet into which one foot of steam pressure P can
expand = P+147. Since then one inch of steam can expand itself,
1

page_text: into only of the distance that one foot can, one inch can exert only
of the power, for one inch of steam weighs only of one foot, and so
can hold only of the quantity of heat of one foot.
VI
25. No law of Nature can contradict another law; if it does we may
be sure that one if not both are wrong; but if both exactly agree we
may be pretty sure that both are true. Now by the fundamental laws
of Nature, the conservation and correlation of force, the same weight of
steam at the same temperature used dynamically, that is, according to
the laws of gravitation, must possess the same force as when used by
pressure. The laws of gravitation for force and motion are embodied in
my formula w lbs. V is the velocity of steam found by my formula
herein-after given; 9 is the earth's attraction 32-2 feet, and w the
weight of one foot of steam of one square inch area. Therefore by the
above laws, the conservation and correlation of force, w = 2.3026
(P + 14·7) log. n. Since then wis the weight of one foot of steam, one
inch weighs only hence
only hence the dynamic force of one inch
only be v
Xlbs.
= 3028 (+17) log. lbs.; consequently one inch
of a steam pressure = P foot lbs. can only possess a power and raise a
weight of lbs. through one foot or P lbs. one inch.
12
'
12
=
V2
can
26. The practical bearing of this discovery on my cellular engine is
this: If it be tried by raising weights, the steam can only raise of
the weight expected, so that the large difference will be considered as
the loss and condemnation of my engine. If however it be tried in over-
coming a fluid resistance, no such loss will be assumed, because the laws
of fluid resistance are in exact accordance with those of fluid pressure,
and so verify each other. For let R lbs. = the resistance of water to a
ship, which by my formula of 1857 is 2 Va (V-v) lbs., then of the
water pushed aside inch after inch will weigh only ½ of R lbs., and so
only require of the fluid power to overcome it.
27. All these rotary engines must be enclosed, as shewn in Sheet 2, 3
Figure 4, and must be made steam and water tight, and have eduction
nines to Provent the motiva

page_text: 28. The principle of the differential safety valve and chimney damper
is explained in the Provisional Specification, but which I am told must
be repeated here. The little cylinder holding the two pistons connected
together will be open to the motive power, top and bottom, and one
piston will be of larger area than the other, hence the difference of
pressure beneath one piston and upon the other connected with it will
be the weight or spring which such differential valve will have to
overcome.

page_text: or discharged into the air twice every revolution of the engine. Besides
this monstrous and unscientific loss there is the further loss of the unused
sensible heat, and the boiler losses of intense draught and radiation
required to make good the cylinder losses.
31. The object of my improved cellular engines is to save the whole of
the loss of latent heat, back action, and part of the other losses of the
present boilers and engines; but how mine do so can only be under-
stood by understanding the laws which govern the prime movers applied
to such engines. Now no fluid is capable of producing motion by
expansion unless heated, except by cold below 39° Fahrenheit. There-
fore steam, water, or any other fluid is nothing more than the medium
of transmitting heat to a machine to be changed into motion. Hence
heated water can be used direct as a prime mover without being con-
verted into steam, provided the heat will pass through it fast enough.
And this seems to be settled by water being flashed into steam fast
enough to supply the rapid reciprocations of locomotive engines per
second. To use water then as a prime mover my boilers and engines
must be filled with cold water, so as to leave no room for it to expand,
except by the heat in it being changed into motion. The same water will
then be used over and over again by being supplied with fresh heat as
it is converted into motion. In this way I propose to save the great
loss of latent and unused heat in all the engines of the world, which,
including the boiler losses, amounts to from 85 to 92 per cent. of the
coal consumed.
32. A column of water only one foot high and one square inch area
possesses such a multiplicity of atoms that only one degree of heat,
Fahrenheit, will give it a pressure === B = 330 lbs., whilst 1212° of heat
(latent and sensible) are required to give the same volume of steam a
pressure of only 15 lbs. It follows that quantity and not intensity of
heat is required to give water its expansive power. The same remarkable
law of nature applies also to air, oil, hydrogen gas, or other liquids which
do not require to have their atoms or molecules torn asunder by the
power of heat to convert them into something else, as water does to be
converted into steam. I call therefore air, water, oil, and hydrogen gas
direct prime movers, and steam an indirect one. But when steam is
once got I convert it into a direct prime mover by my cellular engine
by using the steam over and over again like water and other direct

page_text: prine movers, as one meano
motion, instead of wasting the steam every stroke by condensing or
exhausting it with all its latent heat and sensible unused heat, as is
now done.
4734
33. Steam and water combined will I think make a good prime mover
to drive my cellular engine, steam for the motive power, and water to
fill the cells. Because it is about 025 130 times denser than steam at
240 lbs. pressure above the atmosphere at which I propose using steam!
Water will therefore save some friction of the steam-tight revolving sides
of my wheel, which need not be so tightly packed for water as for steam.
34. As regards the means of giving expansive power to the direct
prime movers air, water, oil, and hydrogen gas, since these require
quantity and not intensity of heat to give them expansive power, one of
my Inventions is the use of slaked lime by my improved cellular engines
as the means of giving such direct prime movers expansive power to
drive such engines.
35. Another means of doing so is by using the natural heat and cold
of the atmosphere without any artificial heat, except when the ten-
perature is about 39° Fahrenheit. For, as shewn in my Provisional
Specification, God, whom men call Nature, has given to such a common
and costless thing as water the singular power of expanding both above
and below a temperature of about 39° Fahrenheit, above by heat, below
by cold, a power which He has not given to any other fluid that I know
of. Since then fresh or salt water and heat and cold are universal as
the air we breathe these powers of nature, properly combined and
applied, ought to give an indestructible spring and inexhaustible store
of motive power in all parts of the world without fuel. For suppose ice
or other refrigerating means be used in summer to cool the water for
my cellular engine down to 39° Fahrenheit. If the natural temperature
be summer heat, say 75°, and my boiler and engine be filled and
screw down with water at 39° the difference of temperature would be
(75-39=) 36°. Hence, according to my theory and formulæ given in
paragraph 19, this would give to such confined water at 39° the great
motive power of Bt 330 × 36 = 11880 lbs. per square inch. And in
India and other Eastern climates of higher temperature a still greater
DGwer.
-

page_text: 36. So, too, when the natural temperature of water is below
39° Fahrenheit, it must be warmed above such natural temperature as
many degrees towards 39° as are required for the same purpose to enable
the atmosphere to expand it to a degree of cold above freezing. Sup-
pose, for instance, a pressure of 600 lbs. per square inch is required in
my cells, the water must be cooled or warmed
1-818, say two
degrees below or above the natural temperature of the water, according
to the time of year, and at such temperature the water must fill my
engine. The exact temperature of 39°, at which such engine would
stop, must in winter be provided against by taking sufficient fuel.
COU
-
$30
37. I need scarcely say that this natural means of giving water
expansive power to drive my improved cellular engines depends on the
atmospheric temperature passing through the metal and water fast
enough for the purpose required. To ensure this it may be necessary to
have several cellular engines on the same shaft, and to prevent some of
them receiving the heat or cold of the atmosphere until the others are
working, so that all might not stop at the same time. But this does not
seem will be required, judging from the rapid passage of 1212° of heat
through the iron and water of the present boilers, fast enough to convert
it into steam for locomotive cylinders, especially as only two or three
degrees of heat will be required for my solar hydro motor. Great care
must be taken to regulate the draught to prevent such an increase of
pressure in my engine as would rise the safety valve to let out the
artificial heated or cooled confined water, because what was left would
then have room to expand without producing motion. In such case
more water pumped in, heated or cooled to the temperature of that in
the cells, would make good the loss.
38. According to my knowledge of atomic dynamics, for so I call the
science of prime movers, that fluid can exert the greatest power in the
smallest space for a given temperature which contains the greatest
number of atoms for the heat to endow with expansive power. If then
air or hydrogen gas be used as prime movers of my cellular engines such
prime movers should be forced into my boilers and engines by a force
pump until the air or gas attains the density required, and cooled in the
process; for what is required for a prime mover is great density and low
temperature.

page_text: enlarge its volume. Only practice can determine these losses, but 10
per cent. seems to nię to be ample, whilst in latent heat, unused sensible
heat, and back action, the losses of all the present engines of the world
are from 85 to 92 per cent. of fuel. But adding the further loss of
screw and paddle wheel propulsion I made the whole loss in 1873 come
to about 97 per cent. in steam navigation, as shown in page 8 of the
Specification of my said Letters Patent of the 29th of October 1873.
42. We have seen that when the cells are full of steam the wheel is as
completely in equilibrium as if they were empty, or filled in with wood
or metal. If then an opening be made in the case for steam to enter in
the direction of the cell the equilibrium of the wheel is destroyed by
introducing an extraneous force. Since then this is not counteracted by
any other force the heat in the fluid (if it possess greater expansive power
than the resistance) will make room for itself in the direction of motion
in which to enlarge its volume, and so will go out of the cells in the form
of work. Hence the resistance overcome, and the distance through
which each cell acted upon is pushed, will be together the exact
mechanical equivalent of the quantity of the heat that has gone out of
the fluid in the cells. For the same amount of energy expended must
appear in an equal amount of energy gained.
43. Until I clearly understood that an expansive fluid cannot produce
or counteract motion without enlarging its volume I was troubled about
my wheel in the following way:--The driving steam from the ports
(used as it is in my wheel by pressure and not by velocity, and the
distinction is an important one) presses in the cells equally in all
directions. Since then the area of the largest parts of the cells is more
than twice the area of the back of the cells it is confidently predicted
that the greater pressure will either neutralize the less or waste so much
power by such prejudicial pressure on the larger area of the cells as will
make my Invention utterly worthless. But I maintain, 1, that there is
no such prejudicial pressure from the driving steam, because it cannot
cncrease its volume in the direction of such larger area of cell, even
assuming that there were no equal pressure in the cells on the opposite
side of the wheel; 2, that if there be such prejudicial pressure it passes
through the axle and becomes ncutralized by equal and opposite
pressures pursuant to the parallelogram of pressures and resolution of
forces, shewn in Sheet 3, Figure 6, and described in paragraph 6.

page_text: 44. It is said in my Provisional Specification that I found by a
mathematical process of my own that one degree of heat, Fahrenheit,
imparted to a column of confined water one foot high and one square
inch area would impart to it a mechanical effect of B = 330 lbs., called
by some foot lbs. The method of arriving at this result will be found
in such Provisional Specification enrolled at the Patent Office, but not
in the printed copy, for part of such Specification was ordered to be
struck out, and as I could not very well separate the parts I preferred
omitting the whole. I think however that it is incumbent on me to
show how this constant of B = 330 lbs. was got, that no material error, if
there be any in my method, should find its way into practice. The
following analysis is therefore transferred from the said Provisional
Specification of the 7th of January 1875.
c
45. The mean pressure of all the present engines is not so much I
think as 30 lbs. on the square inch throughout the stroke. But to be on
the safe side, that is, to make the present practice less rather than more
cumbersome by a larger area of cylinder and piston due to a less pressure,
I will take the mean pressure at 30 lbs., and then give the pressure of
the same weight of water not converted into steam at the same tem-
perature as 30 lbs. above the atmosphere. A cubic foot of fresh water
weights 625 lbs., and cubic foot of steam at a temperature of 275°
Fahrenheit, and pressure of 30 lbs. above the atmosphere weighs about
1043 lbs. Hence 'a cubic foot of water under such pressure will
generate
599-02, but sny (in round numbers for convenience of
calculating) 600 cubic feet of steam. By my formula, prior to 1860,
the velocity of steam of a boiler pressure B above the atmosphere is,―
+17 log. n, where n = B+7. B is
weight of a cubic foot of steam =
9-20
1013
-
V146 128
the boiler pressure; W, the
147
9-59
(' being the number of cubic feet of steam by Tate's formula prior to
1800, which I then put into logarithms for convenience, thus,-
Log. (C12-54-3132343 (log. (B + 14.7) 9301}
-

page_text: 46. From V I find the theoretical force of steam by my formula,
fw lbs., where y is the final velocity imparted by gravitation to a
falling body at the end of the first second
= 82-2 feet, and wis the
weight of one foot of steam of one square inch area at the pressure B.
Therefore by Tate's formula for C, mine, for f=w, and for V as above,
and allowing nothing for the reduction of the velocity V through even
the best mouth-piece (which is 5'9 per cent.), the theoretical effect of a
boiler pressure of 30 lbs. above the atmosphere is f=49-71 lbs., above the
atmospheric equal a gross pressure of (49.71 + 14.7 =) 64-41 lbs.
Therefore the gross theoretical power which one cubic foot of water
evaporated into 600 cubic feet of steam at the above pressure can exert
is 600 × 144 × 64·41 = 5,565,024 lbs. But one cubic foot of confined
water, at the same temperature of 275°, is capable of exerting the
mechanical effect of B u t = 330 x 144 × 275° = 13.068,000 lbs. And
this in a space of one square foot instead of only 5,565,024 lbs. in a space
of 600 square feet. The reason is, I think, that even the same weight of
steam at the same temperature as the water which generated such steam
is composed of much fewer atoms, and so cannot hold the same quantity
of heat as water can at the same temperature as the steam.
47. This is not an exact mathematical analysis, because a higher
boiler pressure should be taken sufficient when cut off to give a mean
pressure of 30 lbs. during the stroke; but this would require a com-
plexity of Figures which are unnecessary for such a gross comparison.
Besides, the temperature due to such higher boiler pressure would give
a still greater pressure to water of such higher temperature, and there-
fore be more favorable to my discovery of confined heated water
as a prime mover. For according to my calculation in paragraph 46
we can get from water at a temperature of only 275° a pressure of
= 90,750 lbs. per square inch, and this I think is nearly equal
to the force of gunpowder at so high a temperature as 2000° centi-
grade. But steam as we have seen at the same temperature as water
and in the same space can only exert a mechanical pressure of 49.71 lbs.
per square inch above the atmosphere.
12068000
144

page_text: as the power of an infant is to that of a giant. This shows then how
desirable it is for the practical purposes of mankind to see if mathe-
matical analysis really does give a result at all approximate to a pressure
of 330 lbs. per square inch of water for only one degree Fahrenheit, since
steam requires 275° to exert a pressure of only 49'71 lbs. above the

page_text: 5'0
51. The verification of these two formulæ by experiments in 1843, is
mentioned for the purpose of establishing on the imperishable basis of
the laws of physics, my present discovery of the surprising force of
confined heated water as a prime mover, for assume that the specific
heat of steam were as great as that of water, it is plain that no body can
receive from another more heat or energy than it had itself. Therefore
one cubic foot of water must be capable of exerting the same power as
the 600 cubic feet of steam; and this we have found (by my two
formulæ) is equal to 5,565 021 = 10118 horse-power, but as shown in
paragraph 50, the specific heat of steam at 275° is only 424, whilst that
of water is 1, therefore the cubic foot of water at that temperature
must hold sufficient units of heat to exert the mechanical effect of
13,125,057 lbs. 13125057
-
28,863 horse-power, and this in the
small area of only one square foot. In this way I got my constant
B: 330 lbs. in the Provisional Specification. For the mechanical effect
per square inch of confined water, one foot high and heated only one
degree of Fahrenheit must be approximately B
= 331.4 lbs.
But for the convenience of round numbers in calculating, I take the
mechanical equivalent of one degree of heat at B 330 lbs. per square
inch. This was the constant used in the calculation at paragraph 46,
instead of the above 3314, which accounts for the mechanical effect
there given as only 13,068,000 lbs., instead of 13,125,057 lbs. as
above.
550-021
+421
"
=
=
560
-=
=
13125057
144x275
-
52. The mathematical process by which my constant of B 330 lbs.
was found as contained in the Provisional Specification, and here gives
a result below what has been got by the experiments of Mayer, Clausius,
Helmholtz, Waterston, Rankine, and others; more especially by
Dr. Joule, of Manchester, whose experiments are now universally
adopted. For, in the words of the late Regius Professor Rankine, "the
mechanical equivalent of a unit of heat, that is, the number of foot
'pounds of mechanical energy which must be expended in order to raise
"the temperature of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit, is
"772 foot pounds." "The Steam Engine and other Prime Movers,”.
1859. p X X X 1. The reason why this great force, nearly 1.5 horse-
power is necessary to impart only a single degree of heat to only one
pound of water, is I think because of the multiplicity of atoms in water,
every one of which has to be raised one degree. Now a column of water

page_text: one foot high and one square inch area at 39° weighs nearly 434 lbs.
Hence Joule's experiments give (772 × 434) 335 foot lbs. per square
inch for one degree of heat, which is 5 lbs. more per square inch than
my constant of B = 330 lbs. given in the Provisional Specification.
This then is an agreement between pure mathematical analysis and
experiments near enough for a prime mover.
:
:
53. These experiments of Meyer, Clausius, Joule, and others have
been known in England, France, and Germany for about a quarter of a
century. For they are found in all works on heat and thermo-dynamics
that I have seen, more especially in the great and exhaustive work of
Professor Tyndall, "Heat a Mode of Motion." But in 'none of their
works have I met with any suggestion about using heated water as a
prime mover in lieu of steam, though one would think that the
experiments of these emiment men would have led them to so evident a
result; but it is more remarkable I think that no one who has written on
steam in the most scientific nations during the last hundred years, from
Watt in 1765, to Tyndall in 1875, should have reasoned in the simple
and obvious way before mentioned, this is, that steam cannot exert any
more power than the water it came from; why not then use water direct
as a prime mover in so much less space, and save also about 937° of
heat in generating steam? It is by this common sense and simple
method that great discoveries are made, yet not only is this method the
last to be thought of, but not even experiments as we have seen teach
anything even to the eminent men who have made them. It would
seem therefore that great discoveries and Inventions are the independent
growth of the human mind from its own germ, pursuant to its own
immaterial laws, unaided by the reasoning or experiments of others;
even as the great oak grows from the little acorn by its own material
laws, unaided by its surroundings.
54. Moreover, it does not seem to have occurred to any one that steam
has every bad and water every good quality that can be combined for a
prime mover. 1. Steam is the most wasteful product known, and of
coal the most precious commodity, the source of all manufactures,
wealth, comfort, and convenience. Steam, for instance, begins with a
loss of heat, and consequently of coal almost incredible, as much as
(1212° – 275° =) 937° at a gross pressure of 64.41 lbs. 2. To flash water
into steam fast enough to supply the cylinders, especially of locomotives,
-

page_text: the furnace must be made very fierce and the draught rapid. This
wastes more coal in radiation of heat and its escape up the funnel besides
injuring the boilers. 3. To get the requisite work out of steam in the
present engines (though not in mine) it must be expanded; this gives so
small a mean pressure per square inch that large and cumbrous engines
are required, and an extra valve for expansion, besides which it cools
large surfaces which must be reheated at a further loss of coal. 4. A
small pressure with high temperature which precludes the use of steam of
much greater pressure, because the increased temperature would prevent
efficient lubrication. 5. Stean as a medium for containing heat is so rare
that the pistons and piston rods must be packed tight enough to prevent
the escape of steam which entails further loss of coal in overcoming the
friction. 6. The great loss of life and property from boiler explosions.
Here it may be interesting to record what is stated in the last report of
the "Manchester Steam Users' Association," published in the Times of
May 17th 1875. It is there said that "in the 20 years of its existence
"the Association has recorded a loss of more than 1,000 lives from
"explosions of engine boilers." The loss of life elsewhere and destruction
of property. are not given. Now there is a harmony of evil in things
evil, as there is a harmony of good in things good, and thus we find that
the engine through which so evil a power acts is as bad as the power;
for it is the most complicated, ponderous, costly, and wasteful machine
in the world, an evil spirit in an evil body!
=
55. Water, on the contrary, is just as beneficent a prime mover as
steam is a malevolent one. 1. It simply requires to be warmed, for only
5 degrees above its natural temperature in the boiler will give it the
surprising power of B t = 330 × 5° 1650 lbs. per square inch, instead
of the feeble pressure of 6441 lbs. with 275°; consequently water does
not begin with any loss, much more with 937° of heat, like steam.
2. The temperature of only 5° will permit slow combustion and a
sluggish draught, and thus save coal in the boiler from radiation of heat
and its escape up the chimney. Hence, neither steam jet, blower, or
tall shaft will be required. .3. No cut-off expansion is needed, because,
as the water will not be artificially cooled or exhausted, no heat can get
out of the cells except in the shape of friction, motion, and work.
Hence, the mean pressure in them will be about that in the boiler, and
so greatly reduce the size, weight, and cost. 4. A great pressure with
low temperature which will permit of efficient lubrication at small cost.

page_text: "
"
October 1873, p. 3, line 15, the following principle is laid down as the
foundation of my Invention:-"The steam in the cells will drive them
"round until cell after cell comes again to a steam opening. By this
"time the temperature of steam in the cells will be reduced, and con-
'sequently its pressure in proportion to the work done in overcoming
'the resistance of the wheel. The stronger steam will then rush into
'the cell of weaker steam, and so continue the action of the wheel.
"Hence, by the fundamental law of thermo-dynamics, the work done
"by my wheel will be a function of the two limits of compression and
'expansion between which the wheel works," meaning of course the
compression and expansion of the motive power.
66
59. Now, in the application of an expansive power by a new engine
never before tried, and pursuant to laws never before discovered, we
cannot tell prior to experiment how such power will conduct itself in
such an engine. I will, however, explain what may occur by not
exhausting or not condensing the steam:-Suppose the supply of fresh
heat to the cooler steam in the cells be only equal to the demand, that
is, to the motion of the wheel and work done, as I believe, the wheel will
then work without requiring the cells to be relieved by condensing or
exhausting the steam in them; but if, what I cannot understand, the
supply of heat be greater than the demand, and if the cells should in
consequence get so choked with steam as to leave no room for expansion
the wheel would no doubt stop; or if the steam can expand only a very
little, the wheel would work proportionally feeble, though without any
waste of power.
60. Such result, however unexpected, might not be inconsistent with
theprinciple of thermo-dynamics enunciated in mysaid Provisional Speci-
fication of the 29th of October 1873 before extracted, for it is there
expressly said that "the work done by my wheel would be a function of
"the two limits of compression and expansion between which the wheel
"works." Now expansion can only be proportional to the space for it. It
will then be seen by such Provisional and Final Specifications of 1873,
also by the claim therein at p. 51, line 10, and by Sheet 1 of the Drawings
annexed thereunto, that I use my cellular engine to exhaust or condense
the steam in the cells in order to carry out such law of thermo-dynamics.
Hence I no more confine my present improved cellular engines to not
condensing and not exhausting the steam than the former ones.

page_text: 61. What then I now do is to carry out the principles laid down in
such Provisional and Final Specifications, and in my present ones, in a
different and better way than is done by my first cellular engine. For
instance, in the claims for that engine, at p. 51 of the said Final Speci-
fication it is described as "a fixed circular case for steam in cells to push
"against to give rotary motion to an engine by the pressure of steam or
"other motive fluid." I have however since come to a doubt, if not to
the conclusion, that the steam cannot so act because it is carried round
the wheel in the cells, so that the room for the steam to expand in can
never encrease, therefore it cannot, I think, give motion to the wheel.
But at the steam ports the steam is not confined and carried round by
the wheel, and so it can expand to the extent of its push against the
cells. Hence to enable the steam in the cells to expand all round I have
corresponding cells in the case of my improved cellular engine, which I
call expansion cells, as shown in Sheets 1 and 2.
62. Thus every cell will act like the cut-off expansion valve in the
present engines, and carry each cell full of steam from expansion cell to
expansion cell in the case, until the steam is expanded to the required
extent. And even if such expansion cells should get full of the same
pressure steam as in the ports expansion will still take place from such
cells, as from the ports, to the extent of the push of the steam. In this
way every cell will be acted upon by the prime mover all round the
wheel instead of only at the ports, and so reduce the size, weight, and
cost of my improved cellular engine. This is, I think, a great improve-
ment, and though different to my former cellular engines these cells in
the case are substantially the same in principle and purpose. The same
principle of getting the push of the motive power against every cell all
round the wheel is carried out in some of my other cellular engines
without expansion cells in the case by having a steam port to every cell
round the wheel, as shown in Sheets 3 and 5. Moreover, the cells in my
present rotary engines differ from my former cellular engines, by being
made tangential to the wheel. The object is that the motion of the
wheel may be as nearly as possible in the direction of the pressure of the
steam from the ports and expansion cells. This I consider is one of the
fundamental principles of my improved wheel, because this I know will
work by reason of the scientific principles on which it was designed, as
explained in paragraph 39, but which tangential cells are either not
embodied at all or to the same extent in any of my previous cellular
engines, which therefore I think will not work,

page_text: 63. Another material difference is that such previous engines are sur-
rounded by steam on both sides, so that the axle on each side would
become heated, and close stuffing boxes would be required. To prevent
both these drawbacks to simplicity and to the use of very high-pressure
steam, I do not let it accumulate between the wheel and case on either
side of my present improved engine as it does in the former. Hence
much higher pressure steam can be used in my improved cellular engine
without closing stuffing boxes, and so reduce the size, weight, and cost of
my engines.
64. But steam is prevented accumulating between the wheel and case
of my present cellular engines for a far more important purpose, namely,
to enable them to work, for I am doubtful if one of my former cellular
engines shown in the Drawings of the said Specification of Letters
Patent of the 29th of October 1873 will even move, because they are
surrounded with steam. Even those in Sheets 1, 2, and 3 of such Speci-
fication are so surrounded, for if steam can exert pressure at all a small
quantity will exert the same pressure as a great quantity. Take water,
for instance. Were a large ship in a close-fitting dock, so close all round
as to have only an inch or so between, and if water were then pumped
in, it would float the great ship as well as the open sea would. On the
same principle my cellular wheels before referred to in Sheets 1, 2, and 3,
& Figure 11, Sheet 5, of my previous Specification of 1873, are as com-
pletely pressed upon by the steam all round as the two wheels in Sheet 4,
and Figures 9 and 10 in Sheet 5 of such Specification.
65. When steam from a boiler attains its full velocity outside of it, it
will overcome the pressure inside and enter into it, because, as I dis-
covered in 1842, the force exerted by a jet of steam of say 120 lbs.pressure
is equal to about 298'39 lbs.per square inch, excluding the loss of velocity
through its mouthpiece, as found by my formular for V before given;
but steam in a boiler or case cannot give motion to itself, because it has
no room to expand in. It will burst its envelope and raise a safety
valve, for then it has room; but only motion can impart motion, and
motion requires space. If, then, this theory be true the mere insertion
of a cellular engine or any other body in steam (as in all my former
engines) cannot give it power to do what it could not do before. Such
at any rate is the reasoning which led me to prevent the steam accumu-
lating between the wheel and case of my present engine by having a pipe
on each side to carry the steam away, either to increase the draught or

page_text: not as may be required. This, then, is another fundamental differenco
between my present and all my former rotary cellular engines.
66. As regards leakage or friction, unless the interstice of leakage on
cach side of the wheel and case is very small indeed it will entail
considerable waste of coal due to the great velocity of steam, but in
every prime mover there must be either friction or leakage. The former
entails loss of power, wear, and cost of reparation, which in steam
navigation for long voyages and abroad may be difficult, for want of the
necessary tools and skilled workmen. Now as regards leakage, there is
a favorable law for it for my cellular engines which should, I think, be
pointed out. It is desirable, for instance, to keep the diameter of the
prime mover as small as possible for steam navigation, especially for
war ships of shallow draft, to protect the prime mover; and a small
diameter is also convenient for locomotives, cabs, carts, carriages,streets,
and tramways. Now the horse power required by my cellular engine
can be got in breadth, and however broad it is, even if six feet, it can
only have two sides through which the motive power can escape.
67. It follows, 1, that the loss from leakage is inversely as the horse
power, the diameter and interstice being the same; 2, that the loss is
directly as the diameter, the breadth and interstice being the same; for
in the latter case the expenditure of power and loss from leakage increase
or decrease simultaneously with the diameter. Morcover the higher the
pressure of steam the more favorable does this law of leakage become,
because the velocity of steam by no means increases proportional to
its pressure, as will be seen by my formula for V, before given. Thus at
a pressure of 120 lbs. above the atmosphere, V 8174 feet a second
whilst at double the pressure, 340 lbs., V 3764 feet only.
-
68. With heated water as the prime mover the loss from leakage will
not be so much, because the velocity of escape will be so much less.
For taking the weight of a cubic foot of steam at a pressure of 240 lbs.
above the atmosphere at 4754 lbs., and salt water at 6418 lbs. it is
01-18 135 times denser. But then again a small quantity of heated
water contains much more units of heat than steam of the same volume,
as shown in my Provisional Specification. Therefore considering this,
and the great velocity of steam, even through the narrowest slit with
sharp edges, it may be found more economical to make the two sides of
4751

page_text: my wheel like expanding pistons, to prevent leakage as in the present
reciprocating engines. If however the cells require to be relieved of the
steam to give room for expansion, the best way I think will be by
leakage through the interstice in each side of the wheel where it
revolves. For this would at the same time save friction, power in over-
coming it, and cost of reparation. In such application the steam must
not be allowed to accumulate in the case, but must either be led to
the chimney, to the air, or to a condenser; one of which is shewn in
Figure 1 of the Drawings annexed to the Specification of my said
Letters Patent of the 29th October 1873.
69. If the ends of my cellular engine be made like expanding pistons
to revolve steam-tight, the loss from friction cannot I think be more
than that of two pistons of a double reciprocating engine of the same
power. This is mentioned to point out that it is the only material loss
that I can find in my present cellular engine. Because heat can only
be expended in motion, and no heat in my cells can get out of them
except in motion. The weight and axle friction, steel or iron, of my
rotary engine must be much less than the 14 tons revolving friction of a
pair of locomotive driving wheels; whilst the weight of the screw and
shaft of the Hercules ironclad is 47 tons 10 cwt. The friction of steam
round the circumference of the case as the wheel revolves is so small
for such great practical purposes as mine, that such loss may be neglected.
So I think may be the cooling of the cells by the expansion of the
stcam because each cell will be acted upon by hot steam so many times
in a second, that the metal will not have time to cool much if any; hence
little or no heat will be wasted to reheat the cells, as in the extensive
surface of the present engines.

page_text: low velocities. These are, 1, no waste of coal by latent heat; 2, none by
back action; 3, great density of fluid with low temperature; 4, no
danger from explosion; and 5, no noise in using. Moreover my engine
has none of the complications and consequent cost of the present
engines; no double cylinders, piston rods with their stuffing-boxes,
crank, fly wheels, parallel motion, expansion gear, condenser, vacuum
or air pump; yet such an engine gives a more efficient and regular
mechanical motion than the long vaunted crank which, is to my engine
only as twice the diameter is to the circumference, about 63 to 100, or
2 to 31416. Now all these essentials of a universal prime mover are
wanting in steam and in the present reciprocating engines. Nor does
any rotary engine that I have heard of prevent these evils.
71. Even then if not necessary in a Specification, it does not seem to
me to be out of place in the description of a philosophic prime mover,
governed by new laws, those discovered by me in 1873, to say that it is
the result of two convictions:-(1.) The unity of principle in diversity
of action which runs through all nature, and makes the whole material
world kin connected together by a few simple laws. And it was the
same philosophic axiom of mine which led also to my previous dis-
coveries, those in naval architecture, in fluid resistance, and in propulsion
in both its branches, impulse and reaction. (2.) That there is no such
thing in nature as a law of loss, since everything in the world is changed
but nothing lost. As regards my first axiom, the unity of principle in
diversity of action. It occurred to me in 1873 that the pressure of steam
ought to turn a wheel just as efficiently as the pressure of water does.
There is no reason in the nature of things why steam should not. This
iden led to my rotary cellular engine. As regards my second axiem,
that there is no such thing as a law of loss in the world; this led to the
true understanding of the nature and laws of heat, consequently that
the loss of so precious a production as coal in the present prime
mover, of from 85 to 90 per cent. could not be pursuant to the laws of
nature, and was consequently due to the ignorance of man. Therefore
it could not be necessary to condense or exhaust the steam by which out
of 1212° of heat about 900° are wasted. Such then is the reasoning by
harmonies and analogies, and by the unity of principle in variety of
action, the results of a universal and unchangeable scientific law, whi.h
led to the discovery of the true laws of steam and of their proper
application.

page_text: 72. But this philosophy of science, by which alone all great discoveries
have been and can be made, cannot be found in the present prime mover,
for its characteristic distinction is the separate condenser discovered by
Watt in 1765, whilst the characteristic distinction of my cellular engine
is without one, having discovered in 1873 that the separate condenser is
a false principle of science, because, as we have seen, for every pound of
water evaporated the separate condenser entails a loss of about 77 per
cent. of coal in latent heat to begin with, and the engine and boiler
together loses from 85 to 90 per cent. Now as there is no loss in nature
such an exhausting loss in all the engines of the world of the most
precious commodity in it is opposed to nature, and what is opposed to
nature cannot be true science.
73. Besides the separate condenser being a false principle the recip-
rocating engine is another false principle, as it seems to me, because this
too is opposed to nature, since there is no other reciprocating motion in
the universe, all the motions of the heavenly being rotary. I abandon
therefore the traditional type of engine in five principle things besides
other minor ones:-1, the separate condenser; 2, cut-off expansion;
3, a reciprocating motion; 4, the crank; and 5, back action, with its
loss of power, and consequently of coal. Hence in saving 77 per cent.
of coal now lost in latent heat to begin with, and in adopting a rotary
motion, I follow the economy and simplicity of nature more closely in
a prime mover than any one has yet done to my knowledge. This then
is another reason why I think that my present cellular engine will be
the future prime mover of the world, as mentioned in paragraph 70;
for in the noble philosophy of Bacon, one of the very few prose sentences
the mind retains:—“ Homo, naturæ minister et interpres, tantum facit
"et intelligit, quantum de naturæ ordine re vel mente observaverit;
"nec amplius scit aut potest."
74. Yet all the philosophers, engineers, and mathematicians of
scientific nations, who have written on steam and the steam engine for
the last 100 years, have combined in considering the separate condenser
and crank as among the greatest and most important inventions of
mankind. The chief writers on this subject are Muirhead, "Life of
Watt"; Scott Russell, "Steam Engine"; Balfour Stewart, "Conser-
vation of Energy;" Arago, "Eloge of Watt"; and Tyndall, "Heat, a
Mode of Motion." Speaking of the great loss of the present steam
engine this distinguished philosopher says at page 121:-" Nor is this loss

page_text: "
to be avoided, for the amount of heat converted into work depends
'upon two things, the temperature as it enters the cylinder and its tem-
'perature as it enters the condenser.” Watt himself, in a letter to
Dr. Roebuck of the 23rd August 1765, says :-"I expect almost totally
"to prevent waste of steam, and consequently bring the machine to its
ultimatum." Muirhead, 1859, p. 161. Yet even now, after a century
of improvements, the steam engine is so radically unsound that it loses
from 85 to 90 per cent. of coal; nevertheless, Dr. Anderson, C.E.,
F.R.S.E., late Superintendent of Machinery to the War Department,
thus speaks so recently as the present month of Watt and the separate
condenser:-" Watt's mind was full of Black's speculations on latent
"heat, and the radical defects of the Newcomen engine, which he
"thought out deductively in various directions before the glimpse of a
"separate condenser came upon him like an inspiration; even then it
was vague and abstract, but by continuous thinking it took a concrete
form that would afford the practical condenser." Engineer, June 4th
1875. A strange "inspiration," indeed, that has wasted in the hundred
years it has been in use as many million tons of coal as would almost
pay off the national debts. An engine which is now wasting only in
this country
38 857 000 × 83 = 33,028.450 tons of coul every year. The
annual consumption is taken from Hunt's Mineral Statistics for 1873.
"Nor is this loss to be avoided," as one of the first philosophers of our
time tells us in paraph 74; and now I have shown, by so complete a
departure as mine from the whole science of steam, and type of the
present engine, and the first authorities, what I am told it is necessary
to do, the novelty of my laws and of their application.
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75. The nearest approach to my present Invention known to me is the
wheel with which Mr. James Pilbrow and I made experiments in 1843,
contained in his Patent of 1842, No. 9354, but the principle governs the
application. Unless then I point out the fundamental difference in the
laws of physics which govern that wheel and mine, the similarity of the
two wheels might lead to the mistake (which might be serious) that
their principle was the same, though essentially different, a difference
which no one I think can explain but myself. In 1842 I took out the
above Patent in his name, and the following part of his Specification
(page 3) was written by me:--"I was satisfied that steam possessed an
“impulsive power of the utmost efficiency, entirely different to what

page_text: "
' had been supposed, for the full expansive power not being given out.
"laterally must have gone somewhere." The latter part is the first
germ I have met with of the conservation and correlation of force, for
since no force can destroy itself it must go somewhere and do something.
This principle enunciated (1875-1842), 33 years ago, I have at last
carried out in my present cellular engine, because as heat cannot destroy
itself no heat can get out of my cells without a mechanical equivalent of
work in the motion of the wheel, except of course in axle friction and
such like unproductive but immaterial work. Thus nature herself
teaches us in the indestructibility of force how unnecessary in my engine
is cut off steam expansion and its complications.
"
66
66
76. At page 2 of the said Specification of Mr. Pilbrow of 1842 I
further say—"Feeling a strong conviction that the whole power of the
steam was to be obtained by some more simple means than the
present costly, complicated, and ponderous machine, and that a power
so easily raised need not be so laboriously applied, I undertook a long
"series of experiments to discover how this was to be done." These
experiments are contained in a quarto book of 52 pages, in my hand-
writing and possession, thus endorsed, "Steam experiments, began 23rd
“February, and ended 1st November 1842." Not one of these has any
bearing on my discovery of the laws of steam in 1873, or on my pres:nt
application of expansive fluids, although Mr. Pilbrow's wheel and mine
are so much alike. It is therefore necessary to explain the different laws
of physics which govern the two wheels.
77. His wheel (for it was his Invention, although his Patent and
experiments were at my expense) was called "The Injet Reaction
Rotary Engine." Thus its very name telis its principle, since it was
driven by the injet and reaction of a jet of steam, besides being an
exhausting engine, and consequently losing some 77 per cent. of ccal in
latent heat for every pound of water evaporated. This engine was
investigated in 1843 by Mr. Brunel, and Canon Moseley, then Professor
of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King's College, one of the first
mathematicians and men of science of his time. His report on such
engine in my possession, dated "Wandsworth, 22nd August, 1843,"
shows that such a wheel to produce its maximum effect must be driven
by the jet of steam at one half of its velocity. Now by my formula
given in paragraph 45 the velocity of a jet of steam at 120 lbs. pressure
above the atmosphere is 3174 feet a second. Hence a velocity of wheel
"

page_text: =
at half that, equal to 1587 feet a second, was impracticable; therefore
the Injet Reaction Engine so patented by me in 1842 was abandoned in
1843 by Professor Moseley, Mr. Brunel, Mr. Pilbrow, and myself. It
did not occur to any of us to try to save the great loss of fuel in latent
heat. The laws which govern that wheel I call impulse, the maximum
efficiency of which, as we have seen, is when V 2 e, that is, when the
velocity of the prime mover V moves at twice the velocity of the body
moved, v; laws which I verified with water in 1869. The laws which
govern my cellular engine I call pressure, for these require no relative
velocity for maximum efficiency like impulse. And to the best of my
belief I am the first and only Inventor who has thought of using steam,
heated water, air, or any other expansive power by itself, to drive a
wheel by pressure, as contra-distinguished from impulse, which is
velocity, and which, as I have said, is the principle of Mr. Pilbrow's
wheel.
78. Besides a great saving in simplicity, weight, cost, and coal, my
wheel has two advantages over the reciprocating engine which might
not be known if not pointed out. (1.) Being a continuous rotary
motion, and governed by pressure, it is equally adapted as a prime
mover for very high as well as for very low velocities. (2.) A rotary
motion is the most economical, regular, and enduring motion known in
mechanics, even with locomotive axles under great pressures. The sides
of my wheel will be made like expanding pistons, and will soon wear
themselves true and keep truc, because they must always revolve like on
axle over the same part, and every part at the same speed. This will
insure that uniformity of endurance which is the highest reach of the
art of mechanics. This is not so with the present engine, for their
pistons travel faster in the middle of the stroke than at the beginning
and end; they thus wear the cylinder unequally, which leads to piston
leakage and consequent loss of power.
79. As I have made three previous attempts to supersede the present
engine it may be necessary to explain the difference between them. My
first attempt was by the experiments made with Mr. Pilbrow in 1842,
before mentioned in paragraph 75, and which ended in the Patent
so taken out in his name on the 23rd of November, 1842. My second
attempt was in 1860, as will be seen by my Patents in my own name of
the 10th May, 1860. No. 1155; that was by the reaction of one foot of
steam, and failed because I then discovered a new law, as I believe,

page_text: which I called "The Time of Repose of Bodies." This taught me that
every body required to be acted upon a certain time before it can be
moved. Since then one foot of steam at 120 lbs. pressure acted for only
the of a second, it had not the required time to produce the proper
effect of force.
46
66
66
"
80. But my predictions contained at p. 23 of that Specification,
17 years ago, have led at length to their realization. "It is wrong," I
then observed, "to say that the great Watt exhausted steam, for he
seems to have known little or nothing of the latent force and work
accumulated in latent heat, and which too he wasted. Nor had he
'any knowledge of the velocity or dynamic force of steam, which he
"found so feeble from unphilosophical experiments that he abandoned
"his application of it. He was a great engineer and able mathematician,
'but not a great discoverer, and one man, however great, cannot do
"everything. He worked according to the light vouchsafed to him,
"and the requirements of his age, and it was a great light, for the
"requirements of his age were great. But though he did enough for
his country and mankind to become one of the world's greatest
'benefactors, he only nursed the infancy of steam and set it on its
"legs; the gigantic strength of its manhood has yet to be developed.
But when by ceaseless reiteration men take for granted that a science
'is exhausted, they no longer search in the right direction, but seck
'the new, when the old is the better path." The truth of the remark
that "Watt only nursed the infancy of steam and set it on its legs," is
scen in the fact that his best engines burnt 10 lbs. of coal per horse
power per hour, and at his death in 1819 wasted about 95 per cent. of
coal. And now I have shewn that the long boasted power of even
steam itself, compared with water, volume for volume, is as the power of
a dog to that of an elephant.
66
66
56
"6
"
81. Neither my attempt in 1842 nor in 1860 to supersede the present
engine was for the purpose of saving the great loss of fuel wasted in
latent heat, for I did not know or realize the fact until October 1873,
that steam was not the prime mover of the engine, but that the heat in it
was. This knowledge led me to make a third attempt to supersede the
present engines, as will be seen in my Patent of the 29th October 1873,
the first attempt of any one I believe to save the loss of latent heat.
But, as I have said before, I have a doubt, if not conviction, that nonc
of my cellular engines therein described will move or work properly,

page_text: 66
for the reasons before given, which may be thus summed up:—
(1), because being all more or less surrounded by steam the pressure
decreases with expansion (though the sum of the expansions is greater
than the initial pressure) and the less cannot overcome the greater, and
so it cannot move the wheel immersed in steam; (2), because the cells
are not inclined at the proper angle for motion, inasmuch as they can
only move in a circular direction, whilst the steam acts on them in
another direction. These ideas therefore led me to make this my fourth
attempt to supersede the present engine, and thus it may be realize at
last; my prediction of 33 years ago at page 3 of the Specification of
Mr. Pilbrow of the 23rd of November 1842, No. 9354; I there say :—
'Instead of using steam with the same simplicity as water the power
'which steam possesses from velocity has hitherto been destroyed, the
แ 'steam being cut off, as it is called, to allow it to expand from a state
of comparative rest. Having thus departed from the simplicity of
nature, a complication of beams, levers, connecting rods, pistons,
"valves, eccentrics, and expansive gear, and vast cylinders of ponder-
'able matter became necessary to enable the steam to expand over
'large areas of surface, merely to give back to the more simple
'operations of Nature that power which is taken from her by com-
"plexity; whereas by using it its more natural, and therefore more
"simple state, precisely the same advantage may be obtained by
"machinery as cheap, simple, and as easy of construction as the water
wheel."
64
66
GB
66
66
66
:
82. Now it was pursuant to my own philosophic axiom, the unity of
principle in diversity of action, that the same idea of a water wheel
which occurred to me in 1842 for steam occurred to me again in 1873,
but now without an opening for condensing or exhausting the steam;
for observe the difference between an elastice and non-clastice prime
mover. The water wheel must have an opening for the discharge of
the used water, because its power is derived from pressure or the gravita-
tion of a stream. If then no water could get out no more could get
in to continue the motion of the wheel. But the power of steam is
derived from its internal heat, and this goes out of the wheel in the form
of motion and so leaves the steam behind just so much cooler for fresh
heat to come in to continue the motion of the wheel. This reasoning is
confirmed by the fact that there is no law of loss in the world, con-
sequently no law of steam by which it must necessary lose from 900
to 1000 of latent heat, besides the unused sensible heat.

page_text: 83. I have shewn what a long interval there is between theory and
practice. In this case (1875 - 1842 =) 33 years from my experiments
with Mr. Pilbrow's wheel. Hence discoveries and Inventions are not
made but grow, do not spring perfect from the mind of man like the
fabled Minerva from the brain of Jupiter, all wisdom, all complete, but
require to be thought out, developed, enlarged, and improved, before
they can be worked with absolute completeness and simplicity. Thus
as it seems to me on the same principle of progress on which the world
and all that therein is were designed, man begins in complexity and
waste and ends in simplicity and economy.
84. I should not have entered so fully into the above particulars if
the present improvements were mere mechanical Inventions, patent and
understandable on the face of them, and governed by no laws of physics.
But, as I have shown, my rotary engines are the embodiment of some of
the ideas that were enunciated by me in the Specification of the Patent
of Mr. James Pilbrow (1875-1842) 33 years ago, and which I
abandoned in 1843 after no little expense in experiments. My present
wheel morcover is so like his that mine would most likely be considered
a re-Patenting of an old Invention, had I not shown that they are
governed by distinct laws; his wheel by velocity and an exhausting one,
mine by pressure and a non-condensing and non-exhausting one. Besides
which my cellular engine is governed by laws discovered by me in
October 1873, and which the Specification of my Letters Patent of that
year and of the present show, have been overlooked by the first
authorities on steam and the steam engine since the time of Watt.
Then again, the Patent Offices of the world are crowded with schemes
of rotary and other engines. And lastly, I have myself made three
previous attempts to supersede the present engine; in 1842, in 1860,
and in 1873. Since then no one but myself understands the several
differences between all these engines, both in principle and application,
nobody else can explain them:
85. Suppose for instance it be found necessary to relieve the cells of
my wheel of the steam, by condensing or exhausting, to enable the
steam to expand, though I do not think so, it might be said that such a
wheel is identical with that of Mr. Pilbrow, only mine discharges the
steam through the sides, instead of at the top. But there is this
fundamental difference, even in exhausting the steam:-In his wheel
the loss of latent heat is proportional to the whole area of the steam jet,

page_text: "
and the loss of sensible heat is proportional to the loss of velocity of the
steam, when his wheel revolves at less than feet per second; it was
therefore found so wasteful of coal that we abandoned it as observed
before. In my wheel on the other hand there is no loss at all
from relative velocities, whilst the loss of latent heat (if leakage be
required) will be proportional only to the insterstice on each side of the
wheel where it revolves, and therefore less wasteful than the present
engines. Moreover such leakage is inversely proportional to the power,
as shown in paragraphs GG to 68. It seems then to me that new laws
and new Inventions should be explained in the fullest and plainest
manner possible.
86. Since then my Invention is governed by its own laws, discovered
by me in 1873, I venture to think it must be considered more as a
philosophic than a mere mechanical Invention. Now it is the province
of the philosopher to evolve order and certainty from chaos and
uncertainty by discovering the laws of nature. The province of the
Inventor is to design the best and simplest organism through which
such laws may act with the greatest efficiency at the least cost. Tho
province of the mathematician is to devise the proper formulæ to embody
the laws of physics, to enable the practical man to work with the
requisite scientific reason and accuracy, instead of making many and
costly experiments. And the province of the constructive engineer is to
make such Inventions work properly, that is, with the least friction and
weight of material with the greatest strength. These I have done
(excepting the last, which cannot be done here) so far as untried laws
and their application will permit, and I know of no other way of
explaining the nature of my Invention, and in what manner the same
is to be performed," "or of making the nature of my claims clearly
understood; but here a new light has just reached me, which I must needs
make public.
87. The confirmation of an abstract discovery of a new truth in
physics by the experiments of eminent philosophers unacquainted with
it is of the highest kind. Now it only occurred to me at this part of my
Specification, when all was engrossed but the claims, to test my discovery
in paragraphs 23 to 20, that the mechanical equivalent of the heat of
stram is only lbs. through one foot by the experiments of Helmholtz

page_text: A1
= 5.2 lbs.
=
91. Thus the difference between Joule's experiments with heated
water, universally adopted as I have said, and my pure mathematical
discovery of the mechanical equivalent of heat in steam in paragraphs
23 to 26 is only (5·4—5·2 — ) ·2, which is as near an agreement between
theory and experiment as can be reasonably expected, especially con-
sidering the 4 somewhat complicated formulæ used for the purpose, as
herein-after given in paragraph 93; for the difference shown by analysis
is very great between what the power of steam really is, 54 or 5*2 foot
lbs., and what it is asserted to be, 64'41 foot lbs., according to the late
Regius Professor Rankine and the Schools.
92. It must not however be thought that my cellular engine will
overcome a resistance equal ✓ lbs. through one foot, because steam is
not cut off and expanded in my engines, except it may be in the one
shown in Sheets 1 and 2. But the others can do no more than overcome
a resistance = lbs. through one foot, because only full pressure steam
is used in my engines throughout. Still it loses nothing by not cutting
off and expanding, as the present engines would do by not expanding,
because, 1, my engine neither condenses nor exhausts the steam; and 2,
the force of heat can no more destroy itself than any other force. Hence
the expenditure of heat in my engine will only be proportional to the
initial pressure exerted and converted into motion.
93. The Divine laws of gravitation are the first and highest of all
laws, and are the only foundation of all we know of the force and motion
of bodies. Now these laws are embodied in my formula ( w lbs.)
and has been used in discovering the identity of steam impulse and
pressure in paragraph 25, and of thermodynamics. Hence the above
analysis seems to me one of the most important yet made in atomic
dynamics and molecular physics in the whole range of practical science.
For no other analysis that I know of confirms the thought and labour of
so many independent enquirers. It confirms, for instance, the formulæ
of Weisbach for the mechanical effect of steam 2.3026 (B14.7)
log n; mine for its velocity V = 146-128 11+147 log. 12; mine also
+
W

page_text: V
for impulse to lbs.; Tato's for the weight of steam (adapted to my
notation) log. (C-12·5) = 4-313245 - (ing. (+147) 9301);
Scott Russell's formula for the temperature of steam (also adapted to
my notation), log. (t + 121) = (1557634 log (7) + 2.5224442;
and such analysis also confirms the accuracy of Joulc's experiments,
that the mechanical equivalent of one unit of heat imparted to one unit
of water is 772 lbs. These formulæ and their value are extracted from
my Specification of 1860, No. 1155, page 8 to 10, shewing that they
were devised 15 years ago, and are now used for the first time in proof
of my discovery in paragraph 23 to 26, viz., that the mechanical effect
of steam is only foot lbs. instead of P fcot lbs., as assumed by me
and others.
the
94. This harmony between the laws of steam impulse, pressure, and
thermodynamics is no undesigned coincidence, but another verification of
my axiom which led to the present and all my other discoveries,
แ 'unity of principle in diversity of action," for only the persistent and
consistent operation of one and the same Divine law in the many modifi-
cations of it shewn in the above four different formulæ could give such
uniformity of results in such diversity of action, especially as some of
these results-those of elastic fluids-can only be found by the aid of
logarithms. How true and exact then must logarithms be. Hence it
is now established for the first time that the same quantity of heat in
the same weight of fluid will produce the same mechanical effect in
steam impulse, steam pressure, and water pressure when the proper
allowance is made for the specific heats of the different fluids. Moreover
the present analysis confirms the experiments made in 1843 by Professor
Moseley, Mr. Pilbrow, and myself on the dynamic force of steam made
for the purpose of testing my theory in 1842 of the identity of its
dynamic force and pressure, as explained in paragraph 50. And, lastly,
the several results and formulæ before given are further instances of the
primal and all pervading laws of the conservation and correlation of
force, on which the universe and all that it contains seem to have been
designed.

page_text: my improved cellular engine will do also for carts, cabs, waggons, and
carriages, it did not seem necessary to encumber my Specification with
similar Drawings.
:
96. The other thing I omitted to say in its proper place is this:—
When nature changes the heat of steam into motion she does two things;
1, work proportional to the heat expended, and 2, cools the steam by
expansion in doing it. Nature thus makes her own condenser in the
steam itself in order to receive fresh heat to continue her work, not a
separate condenser with its complication of air pump and valves as in
the present engine; hence she plainly teaches man that these and the
consequent loss of 900° of latent heat form no part of her laws. Now
wherever there is a beneficent law to save waste and to simplify, and all
the laws of nature are beneficent, there must needs be the means of
applying them or they would be useless to mankind. But water as wo
know expands by cold below as well as by heat above 39°. I have then
assumed for my solar hydro motor that when water expands by cold and
does work, it generates heat to be in a condition to receive fresh cold to
carry on its work, just as water and steam when expanding by heat
generate cold to be in a condition to receive fresh heat for the same
purpose. If however my hypothesis is wrong the solar motor cannot I
think be worked by cold but only by natural heat, by the confined fluid
being first cooled below the temperature of the atmosphere as already

page_text: the means of giving such confined direct prime movers expansive power
to work my said improved cellular engines.
4. I claim the application by such engines of confined water artificially
cooled, as many degrees towards 39° Fahrenheit as are necessary for the
natural heat of the atmosphere to give such water the expansive power
per square inch required, as before explained. So too when the
temperature of water is below 39° Fahrenheit, I claim the application
by my said engine of water artificially warmed above its natural
temperature, as many degrees towards 39° as are required for the same
purpose, as before explained. I do not however confine to water this
method of getting motive power without fuel, but apply such natural
heat by my Inventions to confined oil, air, and gas (compressed or not)
sufficiently cooled below the temperature of the atmosphere, before being
put into my improved cellular engine.
5. I claim copper as the metal to make the last-mentioned engine as
a better conductor of heat than iron, to transmit the natural temperature
of the atmosphere to the motive power.
6. I claim the several tangential cellular engines, single equilibrium
ring valve machinery, and application of the same, substantially as
herein-before described and shewn in the Drawings annexed hereto, for
using as a prime mover the expansive power of heat in the fluids, and in
the manner before mentioned.
7. I claim in combination therewith the double equilibrium ring valve,
warner, and differential damper regulator, as herein-before described and
shewn in the Drawings.
In witness whereof, I, the said Richard Boyman Boyman, have
hereunto set my hand and seal, this Sixth day of July, Onc
thousand cight hundred and seventy-five.
R. BOYMAN BOYMAN. (L.S.)
R. BOYMAN BOYMAN. (L.S.)