IMPROVEMENTS IN NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
Year: 1849

page_text: CHRISTOг
TO ALL TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME, I, JOHN
CHRISTOPHERS, of Heavitree, in the County of. Devon, formerly Merchant
and Shipowner, send greeting.
WHEREAS Her present most Excellent Majesty Queen Victoria, by Her
Royal Letters Patent under the Great Seal of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland, bearing date at Westminster, the Twelfth day of October,
One thousand eight hundred and forty-nine, in the-thirteenth year of Her
reign, did, for Herself, Her heirs and successors, give and grant unto me,
the said John Christophers, my exors," adiñors, and assigns, Her especial
licence, full power, sole privilege and authority, that I, the said John Christo-
phers, my exors, adñiors, and assigns, and such others as I, the said John
Christophers, my exors, adñiors, or assigns, should at any time agree with,
and no others, from time to time and at all times during the term of years
therein expressed, should and lawfully might make, use, exercise, and vend,
within England, Wales, and the Town of Berwick-upon-Tweed, and in the
Islands of Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, Sark, and Man, and in all Her said
Majesty's Colonies and Plantations abroad, my Invention of "IMPROVEMENTS IN
NAVAL ARCHITECTURE;" in which said Letters Patent is contained a proviso,
that I, the said John Christophers, should cause a particular description of
the nature of my said Invention, and in what manner the same is to be
performed, by an instrument in writing under my hand and seal, to be
inrolled in Her 'said Majesty's High Court of Chancery within six calendar
months next and immediately after the date of the said in part recited Letters

page_text: Patent, as in and by the same, reference being thereunto had, will more fully
and at large appear..
NOW KNOW YE, that in compliance with the said proviso, I, the said
John Christophers, do hereby declare that the nature of my said Invention,
and the manner in which the same is to be performed, are fully described
and ascertained in and by the following statement thereof, reference being
had to the Drawings hereunto annexed, and to the figures and letters marked
thereon, that is to say:-
My Invention embraces various improvements in the hull and other com-
ponent parts of ships or vessels when ready to proceed on a voyage.
My first improvement concerns the mode of steering ships and other vessels,
whether navigating salt water or fresh, and my mode is of so opposite a
character to that in use that I propose to call mine by the distinctive name of
the "safety rudder" system, which, entirely dispensing with any rudder at the
stern post, is to steer by a pair or two rudders, placed in the fore body of the
vessel, or at some distance on the foreside of the foremost stern post, one of
the twin rudders being placed near the starboard side of the keel, and the
other twin rudder near the port or larboard side of the keel, and the rudders
should be placed abreast of each other, or as nearly abreast of each other as
convenient. Any vessel with one main keel and two semi-keels, or bilge logs,
may have a safety rudder placed either on the outer side of each semi-keel or
bilge log, or on each side of the main keel. Any vessel with two keels may
have a safety rudder on the outer side of each keel, and the safety rudders
can be affixed to the sides of a vessel instead of near any keel.
Annexed hereto, are Drawings, in which Figure 1 P, exhibits a safety
rudder when the helm is put hard-up and at a right angle with the keel;
Figure 1 Q, exhibits an end-on view of the rudder when it is not in operation
and lies parallel with the keel; Figure 1 R, shews a vertical view of the fin
part of the rudder; A is the rudder shaft; B is the fin; C, C, C, are the bolts
through the fin and rudder shaft; D is the collar round the rudder shaft; E is
the bolt through the rudder shaft, and upon which the rudder hangs; F, F,
are the two bolts through the rudder shaft, by which the tiller is secured. A
flat iron band of an Egyptian letter Y shape round the rudder head, and
extending to two or three feet upon the tiller with two or three bolts through
the tiller and the tail of the Y, secures the tiller to the rudder; G is a shackle
for lifting the rudder in and out of the cylinder. The dotted lines parallel
with the rudder shaft denote a cylinder, through which the rudder shaft
traverses; and Figure 1 S, is an enlarged plan of the collar D. By those
Figures it will be seen that the fin or paddle, or blade part of the rudder is

page_text: confined to the lower end of the rudder shaft, and consequently differs from
the common rudder, in which the blade or fin part of the rudder is continued.
nearly the same width from the keel upwards to nearly the water's surface,
and which upward continuation of the blade is one of the causes of some ships
steering hard and disabling their rudders at sea. In sea-going vessels I prefer
generally to fix the position of the safety rudders near the keel at about one-
fourth of the vessel's length from her prow. Thus if a vessel be one hundred
feet long at the keel, I should usually fix the rudders at about twenty-five
feet from her forefoot, as being less likely to befoul the cable or to become
injured when fixed there than if they were fixed much nearer to the forefoot.
Moreover in a heavy sea the rudder, when fixed at about one-fourth of the
vessel's length from the forefoot, will not be lifted out of the sea, as it might
sometimes be if fixed to the forefoot.
When the spot is determined on, I fill up the room and space between two
floor timbers with fore-and-aft pieces of hard wood for about two feet, beam-
wise, on each side of the keelson and keel, and then fasten down the ceiling.
The space between the upper side of the garboard strake and the under side of
the ceiling, where the hard wood is placed, is rather longer fore-and-aftwise at
the ceiling than at the garboard strake, so as to receive corresponding pieces
of hard wood, and thus to prevent any pressure upon the garboard strake.
This hard wood is to have a hole cut through it for the purpose of receiving a
stout lead pipe, which pipe also passes through both the ceiling and the
garboard strake.
The distance of the hole from the side of the keel is governed by the thick-
ness of the rudder shaft when the fin or paddle is attached to it, remembering
that it is necessary that the rudder, when not in operation, should lay flat or
almost flat against the side of the keel. Round the lead pipe the ceiling and
garboard strake are caulked, and then the edges of the lead pipe are carefully
beat down, so as to prevent water from getting in between the garboard
strake and the ceiling.
The diameter of the hole of the lead pipe is governed by the thickness of
the rudder shaft, and supposing that shaft to be for a vessel of two hundred
tons burden, and of round iron three inches diameter, then the size of the hole
of that lead pipe should be at least four inches diameter, thus leaving a clear
space of one inch unfilled by the rudder shaft.
Through that lead pipe the rudder shaft will have to traverse, and to
prevent the shaft from chafing against that lead pipe, I bolt two cast-iron plates
to the garboard strake and floors, one plate close to the fore side of the hole,
and the other close to the after side of the hole. These plates are each about

page_text: fourteen inches fore-and-aftwise, about seven inches beamwise, and one inch
thick; and each has a semicircular space in the end, so as when they are bolted
to the bottom, those two semicircular spaces form a circular aperture of three
inches and a quarter in diameter; thus there will be left in that hard metal.
aperture a clear space of a quarter of an inch unfilled by the rudder shaft.
I then fix in the hold directly over the already described lead pipe a cast-
iron hollow cylinder, extending from the ceiling to four inches above the deck
on which the helmsman stands. The diameter of the hole of this cylinder is.
at least four inches; the thickness of the iron is about three-quarters of an
inch; and at the lower end of the cylinder, and cast to, and forming part of
the cylinder, is a flange an inch thick. The shape of this flange is an oblong
square about ten inches fore and aftwise, and about seven inches beamwise,
and through its centre the four-inch hole is of course continued. In the.
fore part of the flange are two bolt holes, and in the after part of the flange
are also two bolt holes to receive four screw bolts, and after placing tarred
felt between the ceiling and the flange, the flange is to be firmly screwed
down to the ceiling, and hard wood pieces already described as fixed between
the garboard strake and ceiling; care to be taken that the flange is securely.
and tightly fastened so that no water shall get in between the flange and the
ceiling. There is no reason why the lead pipe and iron cylinder should not
be made quite as tight as any part of a ship's bottom, and even tighter than
the shaft hole in a screw propelled vessel. Of course, the hole in the cylinder
at the deck, and the hole at the garboard strake are in a straight line with
each other, because it is through the two holes that the rudder shaft bas
to traverse. In some vessels it may be desirable to encase the cylinder singly
with four planks of about two inches thick, nailed together, securing the casing
within cleats at the ceiling, and partners at the beams. Round the upper
part of the rudder shaft, abreast of the top of the iron cylinder, is a mixed
metal collar of the shape shewn by Figure 1 S. The greatest diameter of
that collar is six inches, so that it entirely covers the edge of the cylinder, and
its smallest diameter should just fill the hole of the iron cylinder. The hole
in the collar should be three inches and a quarter, so as to allow the rudder
shaft to move freely. Immediately above that collar a copper or mixed metal
bolt is fixed through the rudder shaft, and each end of the bolt projects about
an inch and a half outside the shaft. That bolt should be three-quarters of
an inch diameter, and upon that bolt the rudder will be suspended, when hung,
so that the rudder will rest upon the cylinder and floor timbers, and not upon
the deck. The object of having the collar of mixed metal is that the rudder
shaft may traverse easier in the hole than if the collar were of iron; and the

page_text: object of the copper or mixed metal bolt is that, when necessary, it may be
more easily driven out than if it were of iron. To heavy rudders round each
projecting end of the collar bolt may be attached a cast-iron roller, so that the
rudder may, by the assistance of the two rollers, traverse upon the collar with
greater facility than if there were no rollers, or to underneath the middle of
the tiller there may be attached a lignum vitae roller of sufficient diameter to
just touch the deck.
When the collar and bolt are attached to the rudder shaft, the shaft is let
down through the cylinder until the collar butts upon the top of the cylinder,
and then the fin is fastened to the lower end of the shaft, and thus the rudder
is all complete and ready to receive the tiller. Although that will be the
usual course adopted when the vessel is on blocks or the ground, yet there is
no objection to hanging the rudders while the vessel is afloat; but then the
fixing the collar and the bolt on the upper part of the rudder shaft must be
deferred, until after the head of the shaft shall be drawn up through the
water and iron cylinder to the deck. Prior to such drawing up of the shaft,
of course the fin will be fastened to the lower end of the shaft.
The heel of the rudder shaft may be made to pivot on a piece of good cast
iron, with a socket in it, about two inches deep, bolted to the keel; but in
that case the shaft could not be drawn up into the cylinder while the vessel is
afloat, and therefore the rudders must then be always hung when she is on
blocks or the ground. For the supposed wrought-iron rudder shaft three
inches diameter, and for a vessel of two hundred tons burden, the size of the
fin or paddle part of the rudder may be about twenty-four inches wide, and
about twelve inches deep. The depth of the keel however may in some degree
govern the depth of the fin, for it must not be quite so deep in the water as
the under part of the keel, and there must be a clear space of a quarter of an
inch between the upper edge of the fin and the two hard metal plates bolted to
the garboard strake. When the fin is made shallower than the above given
proportion, then its width may be increased, and when the keel allows it to be
made deeper than the above proportion, the width may be diminished. The
ranker or deeper the keel, the less will a vessel roll, and the better wind she
will hold.
The size of the fin may have to be varied according to the shape and the
length of the vessel. The above given size, however, is probably the most
suitable for a vessel with a round midship section and fine ends, with a
moderate length of floor, fore-and-aftwise. The fin may be of wrought iron,
or wood and wrought iron combined, or good cast iron; but if of wood and
wrought iron, then there should be two or three wrought-iron braces fastened

page_text: to the lower end of the shaft, and the remainder of the fin may consist of wood.
The shape of the fin is shewn by Figures 1 P, 1 Q, and 1 R, by which it will
be perceived that there is a hole through it depthwise of the fin, just the exact
size to receive the lower part of the rudder shaft and three horizontal bolt
holes through both the fin and the shaft for driving bolts through to connect
the fin with the shaft. Those bolts have a small head at one end, and the
other end is to be clenched upon the fin. The rudder on one side of the keel
is of course the same size and shape as on the other side of the keel, and when
fixed in their places it will be ascertained how much the heel of the shaft and
the fore end of the fin extend from the side of the keel. I then bolt on a
tapering piece of hard wood to each side of the keel, close to the fore end of the
fin, for the purpose of preventing the fin of the rudder traversing, more forward
than sufficient to form an angle of about ninety degrees with the keel, and also
for the purpose of preventing an abrupt contact of the water with the fore end
of the fin, and likewise of protecting the fore end of the fin from injury by
striking against wreck at sea or the ground while the vessel is making head
way. The after end of the tapering piece of wood should be shod with metal.
The size of the tapering piece of wood should be about five feet in length, the
same depth as the keel and in breadth, that is beamwise of the ship; it should
at the after end extend rather outside, the thickest part of the fin tapering
gradually to an eighth of an inch at the fore end. Previous to fixing this
tapering piece of wood, the rudder should be hung in its place, in order that
there may be no mistake in preventing the fin, when the helm is put hard up,
from traversing forward beyond an angle of about ninety degrees from the
keel. To protect the heel of the rudder shaft and the lower edge of the fin
from injury by striking on the ground if the vessel gets ashore, a metal shoe
tapering at both ends may be bolted to the under part of the keel about four
feet long, and wide enough to cover the beamwise thickness of both fins; but
as vessels with my safety rudders are much less likely to get ashore than
vessels with the common rudder, I do not consider the shoe to be essentially
necessary.
The preceding relates to the safety rudders for vessels which are not to be
copper bottomed, but the leading features of the safety rudder plan for iron
fastened vessels will apply equally to coppered vessels.
In the latter, however, à lead cylinder should be substituted for the iron
cylinder through which the rudder is hung, and upon the lead flange of the
lead cylinder is placed a cast-iron plate with a hole in its centre, just large
enough to admit the external size of this lead cylinder. The size of the iron
plate should be about ten inches long, about seven inches wide, and one inch

page_text: thick, and there are four bolts in the plate corresponding with the four bolt
holes in the flange of this lead cylinder. The plate and lead flange and tarred
felt are then screw-bolted to the ceiling, and hard wood pieces, already
Over this lead
described as fixed between the ceiling and garboard strake.
cylinder is loosely placed an iron cylinder, without a flange, extending from the
iron plate at the heel of the lead cylinder to four inches above the deck on
which the helmsman stands. The use of this iron cylinder is to receive the
weight of the rudder instead of allowing the rudder to traverse solely upon
the lead cylinder. A mixed metal cylinder may however be substituted for
the just described double cylinder of lead and iron. Two mixed metal plates,
bolted to the bottom and garboard strake, should be substituted for the similarly
bolted two cast-iron plates, herein-before described. The rudder shaft may be of
copper or good mixed metal, and so may be the fin, though there is no objection
to there being two or three mixed metal braces fastened to the lower end of the
shaft, and then the remainder of the fin may be composed of wood, covering
the wood with sheet copper. Should the double cylinder of lead and iron be
adopted, then the collar round the upper part of the rudder shaft, abreast of the
top of the cylinder, will require to be about seven inches in its largest diameter.
If in coppered vessels it is desired to make the heel of the rudder pivot on
metal bolted to the keel and bottom, that metal, instead of being cast-iron,
should be of good mixed metal. In vessels with upright stems navigating
smooth waters, I would generally place the twin safety rudders near the fore-
foot, one rudder on the starboard side of the stem and the other rudder on the
port or larboard side of the stem. The shape of the rudder may be the same
as in sea-going vessels, but instead of traversing in a cylinder the rudder shaft
of vessels employed in smooth water navigation may traverse in metal eye
bolts fixed to the side of the stem. The eyes of these bolts must be just the
size to allow the rudder shaft to traverse in them freely, and the eye bolts are
clenched upon the opposite side of the stem. Immediately above the upper-
most eye bolt, a mixed metal collar should be placed round the rudder shaft,
and above that collar a copper or mixed metal bolt is fixed through the rudder
shaft, each end of the bolt projecting sufficiently beyond the shaft to bear the
weight of the rudder when traversing upon the collar. It will probably be
desirable to fix the eye bolts to the stem near the hood ends, but in the up and
down direction they should all be in a straight line with each other from the
lowermost to the uppermost eye bolt. Close above where the upper edge of
the fin part of the rudder swings, the lowermost eye bolt is to be fixed, and
the uppermost eye bolt should be fixed to the stem near where the tiller will
be attached to the rudder shaft, and there should be a sufficient number of

page_text: intervening eye bolts to keep the rudder shaft perfectly steady. To prevent
the fin from traversing forward beyond an angle of about ninety degrees from
the keel, I fix pieces or a piece of hard wood or metal to the stem on the fore
side of the rudder shaft. The after edge of this piece of wood or metal is
rather thicker at the forefoot than the thickest part of the fin, and above the
fin this piece of wood or metal is the same thickness as the rudder shaft, and
this piece of wood or metal tapers off to nothing at near the forepart of the stem.
And to protect the heel of the rudder shaft and the lower edge of the fin from
injury, a metal shoe may be bolted to the under part of the keel at the forefoot,
and this shoe, of course, to be wide, enough to cover the beamwise thickness
of both fins. In vessels with their stems raking forward as usual from the
forefoot to the head of the stem, and in which the twin rudders shall be placed
on the foreside of the hood ends, the lower part of the rudder shaft may be so
crooked as to enable the fin to present a flat surface to the body of the water
instead of an angular surface. When the safety rudders are attached to the
sides of a vessel, metal braces with eyes to receive the rudder shaft are fastened
to the plank and frame and ceiling.
If any shipowner should wish to have his vessel fitted with twin safety
rudders in the entrance part of the bow, abaft the hood ends, a piece of metal
with a socket in it, about two inches deep, might be bolted to each side of the
keel 'for the purpose of receiving the heel of the rudder shaft, and of allowing
the shaft to pivot on its heel, and, of course, there must be a metal cylinder for
each rudder from the bottom to the deck for the purpose of receiving the
ŕudder shaft.. Between the metal piece bolted to the keel and the lower part
of the cylinder, there may in some instances be a considerable space, and then
some eye bolts or metal braces, with eyes just the size to allow the rudder
shaft to traverse in them freely, should be fixed to the bottom so as to keep
the shaft firmly in its position. To prevent the fin of the rudder from
traversing forward beyond an angle of about ninety degrees from the keel, I
fix pieces or a piece of hard wood or metal to the bottom on the foreside of
the fin and rudder shaft. The after edge of this piece of wood or metal is
rather thicker abreast of the fin than the thickest part of the fin, and above
the fin this piece of wood or metal is the same thickness as the rudder shaft,
and this piece of wood or metal is of sufficient size fore and aftwise as to
taper off to nothing and prevent an abrupt contact of the water with the
shaft and the fore end of the fin. The shackle at the head of the rudder
shaft is for lifting the rudder in and out of the cylinder, and the two holes
in the rudder head are for attaching a tiller, and the kind of tiller to be used
may be varied according to convenience or fancy.
Or, a wheel or screw,

page_text: .or wheel and pinion, or other contrivance may be adopted, always recollecting
that, as my twin rudders act independently of each other, a moving power to
each is requisite. A man at each tiller would prevent the now too frequent
wild steerage, and inasmuch as long yarns keep helmsmen wide awake, there
will be advantage at night in having two rudders instead of one, while by day,
in a moderate size vessel, one man can generally tend both rudders. Perhaps
the most convenient way of steering with the twin rudders is, when the fin is
flat against the keel, to let the tiller point from the rudder head directly
across the deck towards the plankshear. To the middle line of the deck
nearly abreast of the rudder heads, are fitted two bits, which may be secured
to two cast-iron sockets, bolted to the deck and to ledges underneath the
deck, and to each bit is fixed a steering wheel, the axle of which is placed
crosswise of the deck instead of, as usual, lengthwise. To each rudder there.
is, of course, a pair of tiller ropes, one of which ropes leads forward a short
distance from the end of the tiller to a single block in the middle line of the
deck, and the other rope leads aft a short distance to another single block in
the middle line of the deck, and then the ropes traverse round the barrel of
the wheel.
If it be deemed advisable to place the two wheels abaft the mainmast,
each pair of tiller ropes or chains may lead through a single block in the
middle line of the deck, and a double block attached to a staunchion abreast
of the rudder head, and pass through metal thimbles attached to staunchions
and other blocks placed abaft, abreast of, and to the wheel.
When a common tiller is used, it may point aft from the rudder head,
and two bits in the middle line of the deck, fixed abreast of the after end of
the tiller, will be found useful for attaching sheaves or blocks to assist in
working the inner tiller ropes, and for keeping the fins of the rudder parallel
with the keel. When the look-out exclaims "breakers ahead," the confusion
into which the crew are often thrown, and the frequent impossibility of
ascertaining the extent of the danger, preclude any definite course of safe
action; but with my safety rudders the course taken will almost always be to
check the vessel's speed, and the cry "stop her" will instantly cause both
helms to be put hard up, by which her impetus will be greatly diminished, and
if that do not enable her to wholly escape the danger, it will at all events
prevent her striking against the rocks with such force as now too often causes
her immediate and total wreck.
When to check the vessel's progress both twin rudders are put hard up,
each fin forms a right angle with the keel; and when the rudders are not
required to perform any kind of operation, the fins lay parallel with the keel.

page_text: Notwithstanding I prefer the twin rudders in the fore-body, yet an owner of
some kinds of vessels may desire to have them placed in the midship body,
and to steer the vessel either end foremost, with only one pair of rudders. In
that case the rudders may be placed at or near the mid-length of the keel,
and then there will be no tapering pieces to prevent the rudders traversing
beyond an angle of ninety degrees from the keel, because each rudder, in
order to steer either end foremost, would require to range over a semicircle,
or one hundred and eighty degrees. If the rudders be so placed in the mid-
ship body, a piece of metal with a socket in it, about two inches deep, might be
bolted to each side of the keel, for the purpose of receiving the heel of the
rudder shaft and of allowing the shaft to pivot on its heel; and, of course, there
must be a metal cylinder for each rudder from the bottom to the deck, for the
purpose of receiving the rudder shaft.
If any shipowner object to have his vessel fitted with the twin rudders in
her fore-body or midship body, they might be fitted to her after-body, say in
her run, somewhere between the foreside of the foremost sternpost and the
midship floor.
In that case the heel of each rudder should be placed at least so far on the
foreside of the foremost sternpost as will keep the aftmost end of the fin
some distance on the foreside of the foremost sternpost, and, therefore, so that
no part of the fin shall project aft beyond the fore part of any portion of any
sternpost. But any shipowner, wishing to place the twin rudders in the run,
must forego their laying-to advantages, unless the master lays the vessel to,
with her sternpost to the wind. Moreover, unless the fins were larger, the
vessel would not be so quickly turnable as if the rudders were in her fore-body.
If the rudders be placed in the run, a piece of metal, with a socket in it about
two inches deep, might be bolted to each side of the keel for the purpose of
receiving the heel of the rudder shaft and of allowing the shaft to pivot on its
heel, and, of course, there must be a metal cylinder for each rudder from the
bottom to the deck for the purpose of receiving the rudder shaft. Between
the metal piece bolted to the keel and the lower part of the cylinder, there
may in some instances be a considerable space, and then some eye bolts or
metal braces with eyes, just the size to allow the rudder shaft to traverse in
them freely, should be fixed to the bottom, so as to keep the shaft firmly in its
position. To prevent the fin of the rudder from traversing forward beyond
an angle of about ninety degrees from the keel, I fix picces or a piece of hard
wood or metal to the bottom on the fore side of the fin. The after edge of this
piece of wood or metal is rather thicker abreast of the fin than the thickest
part of the fin, and above the fin I fix a piece of wood or metal of the same

page_text: thickness as the rudder shaft. These pieces of wood or metal taper off to
nothing, and also prevent an abrupt contact of the water with the rudder shaft
and fore end of the fin. In whatever part of the vessel the safety rudders
may be placed, it is desirable that the rudder shafts should be at right angles
with the surface of the water when she is making great head way; but if any
deviation from that arrangement be made, it should only be to make the head
of the rudder shaft rake a trifle aft from the heel of the shaft, for the raking
aft would tend to make the fin become a lever to raise the bow out of the
water and to make her turn easier; whereas any raking forward would tend to
depress the bow, and thereby render the turning operation more difficult.
Having described the nature of my safety system of steering vessels, and
how the same may be performed, it remains for me to state that my claim for
this improvement is neither for the shape of the twin rudders, nor for any par-
ticular parts or dimensions of the rudders, nor for either of the detailed plans
of hanging rudders, nor for any thing connected with the tillers or wheels;
but what I claim is the steering ships and other vessels by a pair of rudders
placed in the fore-body of the vessel, or at some distance on the foreside of
the foremost sternpost, one twin rudder being placed in the port or larboard
half of the vessel, and the other twin rudder in the starboard half of the vessel,
and I claim that as my improvement, whether the twin rudders be hung in
my described modes, or any other mode.
My second improvement consists in adopting improved means on board ships
and other vessels for their better ventilation, and for diluting the bilge water,
which I do in the following manner :-In a great part of the vessel, between
every two frames, I introduce a lead or gutta percha or india-rubber pipe, by
boring a hole in the waterway to receive the pipc. As the hole in the pipe,
for the convenience of stopping it with wine or beer bottle corks, is to be
seven-eighths of an inch diameter, and as the thickness of the lead or other
material may be about one-eighth of an inch, the external diameter of the
pipe will be about one inch and one-eighth; and the length of every pipe must
be governed by the size of the vessel, because the pipe should lead from the
waterway down between the ceiling and outside plank to about a level with
the upper part of the floor timbers at their centre. The lead pipe should be
firmly secured at the waterway by screwing or nailing, and therefore should
have a flange at its upper end, or there may be metal or other flange attached
to the gutta percha or india-rubber pipe. The purpose of these pipes is to
allow rain water falling on the deck, or pure sea water pumped up on the
deck, to pass down through the pipes to the floor timbers with rather con-
siderable force, and thus not only dilute the impure bilge water, but also stir
.
:

page_text: up the gas which that bilge water contains, and, cause it to ascend and escape
by the following described ventilators in the plankshear :-Between every two
frames in the plankshear, or in the quickwork or spirketting, I bore a seven-
eighth inch hole, and as the holes are usually kept open, except at sea in bad
weather, they become a perpetual means of ventilation by allowing any foul
air generated in the ship's hold to escape into the atmosphere without
endangering the health of the crew or passengers, and without exposing the
ship's frame to injury from the bilge water gas. A brass plate about two inches
square and one-fourth of an inch thick, with a seven-eighths inch hole in the
centre, may be nailed upon every hole in the plankshear. As rain water does
not generate deleterious matter like sea water, whenever there is heavy rain
the scupper holes should be stopped, and the corks should be taken out of the
diluting pipes, so as to permit the rain water to flow down to the floor timbers,
pumping the ship after sufficient water has flowed down. In the absence of
rain water or of other fresh water, pure sea water may be allowed to flow
down every morning at deck washing.
Having formerly applied similar ventilators to ships, I do not claim them
separately as part of this improvement, neither do I claim the diluting
pipes separately; but what I do claim is the combination of the ventilators
with the diluting pipes, for the purpose of purifying and ventilating ships and
vessels, in the manner described.
My third improvement consists in constructing and fastening the frames of
vessels in a different manner from what is customary.
.
In my system of framing, the timbers will not be subject to be split in driving
the bolts and treenails; the poulticing plan of bevelling chocks at the butts of
the timbers will be got rid of, and the frame to the end of the ship's existence
will be infinitely stronger than the usual mode of building. For vessels of
about two hundred tons burden, each of my frames, which is to be understood
embraces the frame on both sides of the vessel, will be generally composed of
five pieces of timber, namely, the floor timber, two middle timbers, which s
I call middlers, being one on each side of the vessel, and two top timbers,
being one on each side of the vessel. The heads and heels of all those five
timbers are cut off square, and I unite every heel and head together by a hard
wood dowell fixed between every head and heel, so that the five timbers are in
'a continuous line with each other from the plankshear on one side of the vessel
down to the keel, and up to the plankshear on the other side of the vessel;
hence there are no foothooks in those frames, and consequently there are
no foothooks by the side of either the floor timbers or top timbers. The
squared heel of the top timber butts upon the squared head of the middler,

page_text: and the squared heel of the middler butts upon the squared head of the floor
timber. In large ships, or in ships of war with more curved sides than mer-
chant ships, it may sometimes be necessary to increase the number of timbers
from five to seven or even to nine timbers, and in that case the middlers will
have to be increased accordingly. Thus there may be in some vessels, first
middlers, secoud middlers, and third middlers, and of course, they should all
be respectively united to each other, and to the floor timbers and top timbers
by wooden dowells, in the manner already described. When a floor timber
chances to be rather longer in one arm than the other arm, the shortening a
middle timber may possibly be preferable to shortening the long arm of such
floor timber. In order to compensate for the absence of foothooks at the sides
of tlie other timbers, I place the floor timbers much nearer to each other than
in the usual mode of building ships; and in vessels where the room and space
is now twenty-four inches, I propose to reduce it, that is, the room and space
to about fourteen inches; thus, by my mode of building there will be many more
floor timbers than by the usual mode of building. But as the iron riders
hercin-after mentioned, and which are to be bolted to my wood frame, and the
sides of the vessel may save much crooked timber, and as the frame will prove
much stronger in that part which is now the weakest, particularly when the
ship touches the ground, I believe that the difference of cost will ultimately
prove to be in favor of my mode of building. Upon each head of every floor
timber, and upon every head and heel of every other timber, I fix a flat iron'
band tightly over it, so as to prevent its being split by driving bolts or treenails
into near the heel or head of such timber. These iron bands are to be so strong
as to bear a considerable strain; and for the floorhead of a vessel of about two
hundred tons burden, I recommend the size of the iron to be one inch wide
and three-eighths of an inch thick. The inner and outer sides of the floorhead
should be cut just sufficiently to admit the band being fixed on, so that it
may
be flush with the moulded parts of the floorhead, but neither the foreside nor
the aftside of the floorhead need be cut at all. The heels and heads of the
middlers and top timbers are to have iron bands fixed in the same manner, but
the thickness at the head of the top timber may be only one quarter of an inch.
Upon the head of the stem, as well as the stern post, an iron band should be
fixed. The iron bands, when convenient, may be driven on while hot, so that
when they cool they will be tighter on the timber than if they were driven on
in a cold state. The size of the iron bands will of course vary according to the
size of the vessel, but lest their width should interfere with boring holes for
bolts or treenails, I do not recommend the bands for the floorheads of a ship
of one thousand tons burden to exceed one and a half inch in width, and half:

page_text: an inch in thickness. When the vessel is all in frame, I slightly nail to the
frame a part of the upper deck beams' clamp, and I use the words "a part of,"
because the beams' clamp is to be in two thicknesses instead of one thickness;
and when such part is nailed on throughout the entire length of the vessel, I
bolt iron stringers on the frame abreast of the upper deck beams ends, also
throughout the entire length of the vessel. These iron stringers are com-
posed of a double tier of flat bars of iron, the lower edge of the lower tier
resting on the upper edge of the beams' clamp, and the upper edge of the
upper tier being on a level with the under side of the water way, there must be
ample opening left between the two tiers of iron bars for air, and for bolting
any lodging knees that may be fixed to the beams.
For a vessel of two hundred tons burden, the thickness of these iron
stringers is to be half an inch, and the length of the bars should be fifteen
feet at the least. Their width will be governed by the moulded size of the
beams' ends; for instance, if the beams' ends be moulded seven and a half
inches, allowing one and a-half inch opening between the two tier of bars, the
width of each bar will be three inches. If there be a stout hanging knee to
every end of every upper deck beam and no lodging knees be deemed neces-
sary, then the two tier of bars forming the upper deck beams' stringer should
be placed close together, edge to edge, leaving about an inch and half
opening for the air between the uppermost edge of the iron stringer and the
under side of the water way. The bars should be so shifted as that the middle
of an upper bar should be nearly abreast the butt of two lower bars, and the
middle of a lower bar should be nearly abreast the butt of two upper bars.
Every bar should be bolted to every timber, and the holes in the bars to
receive the bolts should be countersunk, so as to receive the head of my herein-
after described clip bolt. The size of the bolts should be half an inch, and the
holes in their smallest parts should be five-eighths of an inch, so that there
may be no difficulty in driving the bolts through the stringers, and so that the
heads of the bolts may be quite flush with the outer surface of the bars.
Having many years ago invented and applied similar iron bars to the fortifying
several vessels employed in the seal and whale fisheries, I do not claim these
iron bars as any novelty. In the main body of the vessel the bolts should go
through the stringers, and also through both the timber and the outside plank
abreast of the beams' ends, and then be clenched upon metal rings, or square
plates let into such outside plank, and forward and aft of the main body; the
bolts should also go through the timber and outside plank and clench upon the
outside plank, unless it be in any instance thought more desirable to clench
upon the timbers before the plank is worked on such fore and after parts of the,

page_text: vessel. The fore ends of the stringers should be bolted to the stem, and the
after ends should be bolted to the stern post, so as to tie the vessel all round,
and thus attain the important object of binding all her frame together at a very
moderate expense.
It is to be understood that similar iron stringers may be applied abreast of
the hold beams, and of any lower deck beams of a vessel, as well as abreast of
the upper deck beams. And there are two further objects to be gained by
these iron stringers; one is, that of, preventing any beam from pressing upon
merely one timber, and the other is, that of preventing a vessel from breaking
the shear by want of a long binder placed edgewise on the frame abreast of the
beams' ends. Thus, the usual weakness of a vessel at the beams' ends will,
by these iron stringers, be materially strengthened; and if the bars of iron be
procured direct from any iron master's works with the holes already made in
the bars, the additional strength will be obtained at moderate cost. When
there is a stout hanging knee to every end of every hold, beam, or any lower
deck beam, and no lodging knees be deemed necessary, then the two tier of
bars forming the hold beams' or lower deck beams stringer should be placed
close together, edge to edge, leaving no opening there for the air, and thus the
width of the bars forming these last-mentioned stringers may be increased to
the entire moulded size of the beams' ends. The iron stringers being bolted,
I ease away the shores, and then force in the beams of as great a length
as possible, beginning with the mast beams of the upper deck, and after
the upper deck beams are all in their places, then I jam in the hold beams
and other beams below the upper deck, also beginning with the mast beams.
The object in jamming in the beams is to prevent their subsequent work-
ing, for by forcing the beams in of as great a length as possible, the
subsequent tendency of the frame may be to collapse and not to expand,
and thus the whole frame, including the beams, will be more firmly bound
together than if the beams were not forced in. When a hold beam, or.
lower deck beam is intended to butt abreast of the middle line of a frame,
such beam should not be jammed into its intended place until the iron
riders herein after mentioned shall have been bolted to the sides of the vessel,
and then it may perhaps be desirable for such beam to be made in two parts,
scarfing and bolting them together after each part has been butted upon the
iron stringers. To do this it may be necessary to cut a mortise through each
end of such beam, and therefore such ends may be rather stouter than they.
would be if no mortise were required to be cut. But if the riders do not
extend above the upper edge of the clamp of such hold beam, or lower deck
beam, then the beam should be jammed into its intended place before the
riders shall be fixed to the sides of the vessel. Before the beams are kneed or

page_text: otherwise fastened, the outside planking and ceiling are to be completed,
taking care that the outer thickness of the beams' clamps shall have ample
shift with the butts of the inner thickness, and thus afford more strength
against vertical pressure. The upper deck beams, and also any hold or lower
deck beams intended to be kneed with lodging knees, may now be fastened.
I then introduce iron riders, which are flat bars of iron placed upon the
ceiling over the middle line of every wood frame, and are extended from near
the keelson to such part of the top timber as will enable the upper part of the
rider to be bolted with two bolts through substantial parts of the top timber
and the outside planking. There is, of course, one rider on one side of
the hold, and another rider on the opposite side of the hold, and each
rider is to be bolted through the frame and the outside planking with
about six bolts, which are to be clenched upon rings on the outside of
the planking. In this manner the five timbers composing the frame will be
firmly and permanently united together, and then, but not till then, the vessel
be caulked: For a vessel of two hundred tons burden, I recommend the
may
width of each rider to be three inches, and its thickness one inch. The size of
the smallest part of the bolt holes should be three quarters of an inch, so as to
easily receive a five-eighths of an inch bolt, and the holes should be so counter-
sunk as to receive the head of a clip bolt, and thus make all smooth with the
surface of the rider. When the vertical knee of a hold beam, or lower
deck beam is to be bolted to near the] middle line of a wood frame, then
instead of the iron rider being placed precisely over such middle line, the rider
may be placed a little towards the fore or after edge of the wood frame, so as
to enable the vertical knee to be bolted through a substantial part of the
timber. Whenever it is desirable from the size of the vessel or other cause
that a rider should be in two lengths instead of one length, then the two
lengths should so overlap each other that there may be two of the bolts
through the overlapping parts, which two bolts should also go through the
outside planking. In sharp bottomed or round bottomed vessels I extend the
heel of every rider to near the middle of the upper surface of the floor timber,
and this I do by cutting a mortise out of the keelson about two inches in
towards the middle line of the keelson, and of just sufficient size to admit the
heel of the rider. Although for general purposes I believe the above described
iron riders, placed upon the ceiling and bolted through the wood frame and
outside plank, will prove the best protective against injury to the hull of a
vessel, yet for some objects iron bracers on the side of the frame between the
ceiling and outside planking may be substituted for the riders, and in that
cases the bracers may be extended from the centre of the moulded part of the
floor timbers to a substantial part of the top timbers; and if these bracers were

page_text: moulded to the form of the bottom with the edgewise of the bars placed
depthwise and breadthwise of the vessel, they, though only half an inch thick
in a two hundred ton vessel, would bear a great strain, and in the event of the
vessel getting ashore would prove useful. Of course, these bracers should be
bolted to the moulded part of the frame, but short clip bolts, herein-after
described, would answer for that purpose. Notwithstanding I believe that the
just described kind of wood frame for vessels, and the iron bands over the heads
and heels of the timbers, and the iron stringers for the beams, are all and each
both new and useful; yet I do not claim either separately, nor do I confine
myself to the defined dimensions; but what I do claim for this improvement in
constructing and fastening the frames of vessels, is,-
Firstly, the combination of the three parts, namely, the described kind of
wood frame, the iron bands over the heads and heels of the timbers, and the
iron stringers with iron riders.
And what I claim secondly is, the combination of the three parts, namely,
the described kind of wood frame, the iron bands over the heads and heels of
the timbers, and the iron stringers with the iron bracers.
My fourth improvement consists of a new mode of fastening the beams
to the sides of vessels. Figure 4 shews a Drawing of an intended substitute
for a lodging knee, which I call a kneeson, and in a vessel of two hundred tons
burden, this kneeson in its flat part may be about two and a half feet long,
three inches wide, and one inch thick. In its bolt part it must be sufficiently
long to extend from the hold side surface of the herein-before mentioned iron
stringers to the outside of the outside planking, where it is to be clenched
upon a metal ring or square plate. The diameter of the bolt part is one
inch. When that kneeson is applied, a seven-eighths of an inch hole must be
bored through the outside planking abreast of the side of the beam, and also
abreast of the opening between the two iron bars which form the iron stringer.
The bolt part of the kneeson is then driven into the hole until the two shoulders
of the flat part butt hard against the iron stringers, and then the flat part of
the kneeson is bolted to the beam, and my herein-after described clip bolts
would answer the purpose; and when that is done, the end of the kneeson bolt
is strongly clenched upon a ring or a plate on the outside planking. When
kneesons are above the copper line, they would be more securely bolted to the
outside plank if the ring for clenching were placed upon the plank without
making any cavity in the plank to receive the ring. This remark may also be
applied to the bolts of any knees, which are above the copper line, and in
addition to the stringer fastening the projecting rings protect the plank from
chafing. Frigates and line of battle ships, whose sides are materially weak-

page_text: ened by the holes for the gun-ports, would be essentially strengthened by the
iron stringers and kneesons. There may be two kneesons to every beam end;
and they will probably be found stronger than lodging knees, because the
strain upon the bolt part of the kneeson is kept to a continually straight line
from the side of the beam, and consequently the strain is more direct than the
throat bolt of any lodging knee.
I do not, however, make any claim for the kneeson separately, or for its.
dimensions; but what I do claim for this improved mode of fastening the
beams to the sides of vessels is, the combination of the kneeson with the iron
stringers, herein-before described.
My fifth improvement consists in making the outside planking of a vessel
from the gunwale to the keel in two thicknesses of plank instead of only one
thickness, and in fastening such outside planking with my herein-after
described clip treenails and clip bolts. In a vessel of two hundred tons burden,
the inside thickness should be one inch, and the outside thickness two inches,
except the wales and any other, planks, which are usually thicker than the
chief part of the outside planking. The objects of two thicknesses for the
outside planking are four-fold, namely, first, the shifting the butts so as to add
to the strength when the pressure is vertical; second, the covering the butts
when the pressure is lateral, so as to prevent any butt from starting outwards;
third, the faying the both thicknesses closer to the timbers than if there were
only one thickness; and fourth, the creating a stop for the caulking of the
outside plank. The inside thickness is slightly nailed to the timbers, and the
both thicknesses are then fastened to the wood frame with my clip bolts or
clip treenails. The clip bolts in a bottom three inches thick should be three
quarters of an inch diameter, and eight inches long below the hold beams, and
five-eighths of an inch diameter, and eight inches long above the hold beams.
The clip treenails are to be of corresponding strength with the clip bolts, but
the length of the clip treenails should be governed by the size of the frame,
because they are to extend from the outside of the outside planking to the hold
surface of the wood frame. By fastening the outside planking to the timbers
before fixing the ceiling, there will be opportunity to see that the outside
planks are fastened to substantial parts of the timbers, and the objectionable
plan of driving treenails from the outside planks against the ceiling, thereby
tendering to force the ceiling away from the frame, will be avoided. Every
shipbuilder knows that it is important for the strength of the hull of a vessel
that all the planks should be always kept in the closet and firmest contact
with the frame. Of course, as usual butt bolts and some other bolts will.go
through both outside plank and ceiling, and clench upon the ceiling, but such

page_text: usual through bolts should not be driven until after the ceiling has been
properly fastened with clip bolts. In small vessels the shear strake should be
only in one thickness, because if in two thicknesses there might not be wood
enough to bolt the plankshear to the shear strake. Having many years ago
caused several vessels to be built with the outside planking in two thicknesses, and
fastened with jagged bolts, I make no claim for that improvement, or for the
defined dimensions; but what I do claim is the combination of the two thick-
nesses of outside planking, with their fastening by my herein-after described
clip bolts or clip treenails, or partly by clip bolts, and partly by clip treenails.
My sixth improvement consists in making the ceiling of a vessel in two
thicknesses of plank, instead of only one thickness, and in fastening such
ceiling with my herein-after described clip bolts. Previous to fastening the
ceiling, the holes for the chain bolts should be bored, taking care that every
hole be as near as possible in the middle of a timber as well as in about the
middle of an outside plank, and after the ceiling is fastened, then the holes for
the chain bolts should be bored through the ceiling also. In a vessel of two
hundred tons burden, the thickness of the plank next the frame should be one
inch, and the hold side thickness one and a half inch, except any other planks
which are usually thicker than the chief part of the ceiling. The objects of
two thicknesses. for the ceiling are threefold, namely, first, the shifting the
butts so as to add to the strength when the pressure is vertical; second, the
covering the butts when the pressure is lateral, so as to prevent any butt
from starting inwards; and third, the creating a stop for the caulking of the
ceiling. It may be here remarked, that I conceive the caulking the ceiling
of vessels is of, some importance, because it prevents filth from accumulating
in the watercourses, and it also prevents grain and some other kinds of com-
modities from falling through the crevices of the ceiling,.choking the pumps,
and causing the vessel to become waterlogged. By making a watercourse
upon every floor timber, as well as under every floor timber, the water. will
find its way freely to the pumps; and without cutting the floor timbers, those
watercourses can be easily made when the ceiling and outside planking are
each in two thicknesses, by letting the width of the planks next the frame
close to the keelson and keel be narrow, say only about three inches wide,
and then leaving a clear space. of about two inches, as well at the limber
5 strake as at the garboard strake, between the narrow strake and the next
plank of ceiling and outside planking respectively, next the frame. One edge
of the narrow strake of ceiling should, be inserted into a rabbet, which is to be
cut out of the keelson at its junction with the floor timbers, and one edge of
the narrow strake of the outside planking will lay in the rabbet of the keel.

page_text: The thickness of the plank of ceiling next the frame is slightly nailed to the
timbers, and the both thicknesses are then fastened with clip bolts. For the
ceiling the clip bolts may always be of iron; and in a ceiling two and a half
inches thick, they should be five-eighths diameter, and seven inches long below
the hold beams, and half an inch diameter and seven inches long above the hold
beams. In some vessels I have caused a groove for a watercourse to be cut
in the under side of the limber strake, about one and a half inch wide and one
inch deep.
Having many years ago caused several vessels to be built with the ceiling
in two thicknesses and fastened with jagged bolts, I make no claim for that
improvement, neither do I make any claim for the described plan for water-
courses, because I caused that plan to be adopted' in building other vessels
also many years ago, nor do I make any claim in respect of dimensions;
but what I do claim is, the combination of the two thicknesses of ceiling with
their being chiefly fastened by my herein-after described clip bolts.
My seventh improvement consists in making the upper deck of a vessel
in two thicknesses of plank instead of only one thickness, and in fastening
such deck with my herein-after described clip bolts. In a vessel of
two hundred tons burden, the under thickness of the deck should be
one inch, and the upper thickness should be two inches; and as the chief
object of the two thicknesses is to create a stop to the caulking, the under
plank which is slightly nailed to the beams need not be so narrow as is usual
for the plank of upper decks. In order not to diminish the thickness of
waterways in the parts where the scupper holes will be fixed, the waterways
are not to be in two thicknesses, but there is to be a rabbet on the inner edge,
leaving only an inch thickness on a small part of the under side of the rabbet,
so as to be flush with the under thickness of the deck, and thus create a stop
for the caulking at the waterway seam. The under planks may be placed upon
the beams diagonally, but I prefer the under plank to be placed longitudinally,
because greater lengths can be worked, and the longer the lengths of the
plank the fewer will be the butts and the greater the strength. The clip
bolts for the deck of the above sized vessel should be three-eighths of an inch
diameter, and seven and a half inches long.
Having many years ago caused several vessels to be built with the deck in
two thicknesses and fastened with jagged bolts, I make no claim for that
improvement, or for the defined dimensions; but what I do claim is, the
combination of the two thicknesses of deck with their fastening by my herein-
after described clip bolts.
My eighth improvement consists in equipping ships and other vessels with

page_text: two new sails, or what I believe to be two new sails, one of which sails, called
by me a courson, is a substitute for the square sail or course now bent to or
hoisted up to lower yards; and the other sail, which I call a triangle, is a
substitute for the trapizium-shaped sails now used on shipboard. Figure 8 P,
is a Drawing shewing a plan of the two new sails when attached to the lower
mast; A is a lower mast; B is the lower yard; C is the courson, which, as
may be perceived by the Drawing, is almost a triangle, or it may be made a
complete triangle; D is the foot of the courson, which may be about three.
feet spread; E is the part of the deck, in the middle line of which the tack
of the courson is affixed; F is the line of deck; G is a gaff attached to the
mast at a few feet above the deck, and to which gaff the triangle is bent; His
a boom by which the triangle may be worked, or the triangle may be worked
without a boom upon a horse or with sheets like a jib; I is the triangle; J is
the rough tree rail. The topmast slides up and down on the aft-side of the
lower mast instead of on the fore-side. To prevent the coursons from bearing
so hard against the shrouds as the common courses, I suggest that some of the
foremost of the shrouds should be placed further aft than usual; and to secure
the lower masts better than they commonly are, the chain plates should be
placed nearer to each other than usual, allowing none to be further apart from
each other than about two feet at the plankshear. As the courson is a triangle,
or almost a triangle, with only one tack and no sheet, and as it therefore has
not the usual two tacks and two sheets which a square course has, the opera-
tions of raising the fore and main tacks, and hauling home the fore and main
sheets every time a ship stays, will be wholly superseded. And as a boomed
triangle may work itself, a vessel with the two new sails in turning to wind-
ward can be more easily and smartly handled. Guys or stays, from near the
head of the triangle gaff, lead to the sides of the vessel near the topmast back-
stays, which prevent the gaff from bagging away to leeward like a cutter's gaff,
and enable the triangle to stand close to the wind, provided jump stays from
lower cap to lower cap be used. Coursons and triangles may be applied to all
the masts of any vessels with any number of masts. And in order to prevent
the lower mastheads of vessels from being carried away so often as they are
now, some of the after of each gang of shrouds may lead to the cap part of
the masthead, instead of all the shrouds leading to the trussel-trees' part of the
masthead.
0
Although I believe each of the two described sails to be both new and
useful, yet my claim for this improvement is not for either the courson or the
triangle separately; but what I claim is, the combination of a courson with

page_text: à triangle, and also combined therewith the topmast sliding up and down on
the aft side of the lower mast of any ship of vessel.
My ninth improvement consists in making the yard of a ship or vessel out
of two small spars instead of one large spar, which I do by uniting the two
small spars together at their butts or largest ends by a hollow wrought-iron
cylinder, and a wood dowell fixed to the large ends of the two spars. Instead
of a dowell to lessen the pressure upon the centre of the cylinder, there may
be a tenon in the large end of one of the halves of the yard, and a mortise in
the other half; or, a bolt may be inserted into the butts of both halves; or
part of a short metal tube may be so fitted to the butt end of one of the halves,
that the butt end of the other half may enter the other part of the metal tube.
One half of the cylinder is then fixed round the butt end of one half of the
yard, and then the butt end of the other half of the yard is inserted into
the other half of the cylinder. The length of a cylinder for a yard of eight
inches diameter in the slings, should be about five feet, and the thickness of
the iron about one quarter of an inch, and there should be two or more bolts
through each half of the cylinder to secure the large ends of the yard firmly
to the cylinder, first fixing the dowell, as before mentioned, to the large ends of
the yard. The ends of the bolts may be secured from working out by molten
lead, as herein-after described for the pins of ships' blocks.
What I claim in respect of this improvement is that of making a vessel's
yard out of two small spars, each being naturally grown to nearly the tapering
shape of each half of the yard, instead of making the yard out of one large
spar, uniting the two small spars together by a dowell or other means, and an
iron cylinder in the described manner.
My tenth improvement consists of a substitute for a ship's or vessel's dead-
eyes, which substitute I call live-eyès. Figure 10 P, shews a plan of an upper
live-eye with a shroud attached; Figure 10 Q, shews a plan of the lower
live-eye affixed to the chain bolt. A is the frame of the upper live-eye, which
is wrought out of stout flat iron into a kind of ship's thimble, nearly of the
shape of a horse-shoe, and the score in the thimble is suitable to receive the
shroud. This frame could be made of cast iron, but I do not recommend it.
B is the frame of the lower live-eye, also of flat wrought iron, formed into a
shape like that or somewhat like that in the Drawing. C, C, are the two
bolts with a shoulder at every end to prevent the frames from collapsing
D, D, are the two cast-iron rollers, each with three grooves or scores in it
'properly shaped to receive and support half the circumference of the lanyard
E, E, are 'the two bolts, which pass through the live-eye frames and rollers

page_text: and upon which bolts the rollers revolve. The ends of the bolts E, E, are
rivetted to the outside of the frames; F is the chain bolt; G is a bolt which
secures the chain bolt to the lower live-eye; H is the score, in roller D, of
Figure 10 P, round which the lanyard is spliced, and then rove round both
rollers as usual, fastening the end of the lanyard to the shroud. For a rope
shroud of eight inches in circumference, the thickness of the wrought iron in
the centre of each side of frame 'A should be half an inch, and the iron of
frame B should be three inches wide, and half an inch thick. The diameter of
the rollers in their largest part is about four and a half inches, and at the
scores about three and a half inches, and the length of the rollers is
about four and a half inches. Though I prefer them to be of metal, yet
lignum vitae might answer in some vessels. Three metal or wood sheaves
could be substituted for either of the rollers, or six for both rollers, but
they would not be so strong as the grooved roller, and as they are also
The size
objectionable upon other grounds, they ought never to be used.
of the bolts C, C, is one inch, and of E, E, one and a quarter of an inch,
and in making the holes in the frames for the bolts E, E, care should be taken
so that the lanyard shall have no room to get out of the scores of either the
upper or lower live-eye roller, when the lee shrouds are slack.
About fifteen years ago I applied rollers with rims, but without scores or
grooves, to the setting up ships' bobstays, and, therefore, it is not the setting
up by rollers system that I claim generally as my present improvement;
but what I do claim is, the setting up ships and vessels shrouds by live-eyes,
with grooved or scored rollers, in the manner herein-before described.
My eleventh improvement consists in making the sheaves of ships' blocks
in a different manner from what is usual, by which improvement the ropes will
run easier, and the blocks will be less expensive to make, and I accomplish it
by placing a brass or other metal tube in the centre of the sheave, and then
running molten lead or other soft metal into notches or grooves between the
tube and the sheave, so as that when the lead cools the tube is prevented from
starting from its position until entirely worn.out.
Figures 11 P, 11 Q, 11 R, and 11 S, shew four distinct sheaves, in which
my tubes are fixed. A is the tube which is as long as the sheave is thick;
B is the hole for the block pin; C is the wood or iron part of the sheave;
D, D, are the holes where the molten lead is poured in, and the red lines shew
the parts filled by the molten lead.
The straight dotted lines in Figures 11 P, and 11 Q; shew where notches or
grooves are cut in the centre line of the outer side of the tube. The circular

page_text: dotted lines in the C parts of Figures 11 Q, 11 R, and 11 S, shew where
grooves are turned in the centre line of the inner side of the aperture in which
the tube is placed, and the circular dotted line in the tube part of Figure 11 R,
shews where a groove is turned in the centre line of the outer side of the tube.
The grooves for a five-inch sheave are about one-eighth of an inch deep, and
about one-fourth of an inch wide. The holes D, D, in Figure 11 P, are one-
quarter of an inch in diameter; they go entirely through the sheave, and near
the side surfaces of the sheave those holes are concave, three-eighths of an inch
liameter, and after the lead is poured in, all four cavities, as well as the groove
in the tube, are filled up with lead. The holes D, D, in the C part of Figure
11. Q, extend only into the groove; the holes D, D, in the tube of Figure 11 R,
extend only into the groove, and the holes D, D, in the tribe of Figure 11 S,
are drilled quite through the centre of the tube, and all the D, D, holes in
Figures 11 Q, 11 R, and 11 S, are only just the size requisite for pouring in
the lead, or about three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. Lead may be saved
by puttying parts of the grooves before casting in the lead. The tube should
just fit the aperture in the C part of the sheave, and it will be perceived, that
when the molten lead has been poured into the D, D, holes, the tube is per-
manently fixed, and thus becomes at less expense an effectual substitute for
the common mode of bushing or coaking ships' blocks without the same
tendency to split the sheaves.
What I claim in respect of this improvement is, the fixing by molten lead
or other soft metal a brass or other metal tube into the centre of the wood or
iron sheaves of ships' blocks.
My twelfth improvement consists in preventing the pins of ships' blocks
from splitting the shell and from falling or working out of the pin holes
while in use on shipboard, which I do by countersinking the pin holes in the
outer surfaces of the iron strap, or of the wood shell if there be no iron strap,
and by introducing into the pin holes a pin of such a peculiar form, as with the
assistance of molten lead or other soft metal secures the pin to the block until
the lead is cut out with a spike, nail, or a chisel or other instrument. This pin
which fits rather slackly into the pin hole has nearly close to each end a groove
turned in it all round about, one-fourth of an inch wide and about one-eighth of
an inch deep; or, instead of a groove a shoulder or a notch may be cut into
two parts of the pin nearly close to its end. Neither end of the pin need
project beyond the outer surface of the iron strap or of the wood shell, if it be
not iron strapped. When the pin is inserted into the block, molten lead is to
'be run into the concavity at the pin's ends, so as to fill up both that concavity

page_text: and the groove or notch, and thus the pin becomes firmly secured to the block
without driving the pin tightly into the iron strap or wood shell; and when the
lead is cut out of a concavity it can be recast at sea as well as elsewhere.
For this improvement my claim is for fastening block pins into ships' blocks
by molten lead or other soft metal.
My thirteenth improvement consists of an improved treenail for fastening the
outside and inside planks to the timbers of ships and other vessels, and which
I call a clip treenail. Its shape is shewn by Figure 13, by which it will be
seen that in addition to an enlarged head; it has towards its end a shoulder all
round the wood, which shoulder is formed by tapering the treenail for a short
distance between the point and the head. When the treenail is driven into a
plank and timber, the shoulder prevents the treenail from starting away from the
timber; and as the enlarged head prevents the plank from starting away from
the timber, the plank becomes firmly clipped to the frame. Nothing tends
more to the permanent strength and tightness of a ship than the close adhesion
of the planks to the timbers, and the fastenings ought therefore to be of such
a kind as that neither the operation of caulking nor the straining of the vessel
shall at any time or in any degree force the planks away from the timbers.
The diameter of the treenail is the same near the end as in the middle, and to
insure the shoulder holding properly, it must be turned in a lathe or other
machine and so that the shoulder shall be at a sharp right angle with the
treenail hole, and when driven as usual into a smaller hole than the size of
the treenail, the point of the shoulder shall have a tendency to cut into
the timber and thus prevent the treenail from ever starting away from the
timbers. This clip treenail will probably draw the plank closer to the
timbers than a common treenail, although the latter should go through both
plank and ceiling. When the outside plank is not drawn close to the frame;
the friction of the bilge water diminishes the size of the treenails, and thus the
fastening becomes very insecure. Before driving any treenail, I recommend
the hole as well as end of the trcenail to be smeared with hot vegetable tar;
or, if just before driving the treenail it were immersed in hot tallow or hot
linseed oil, the treenails would be much more durable than at present. To
receive the enlarged head of the treenail, the outer part of the treenail hole
in the plank may be triflingly enlarged with a cooper's bung borer. The
rounding of the treenail head is to prevent its splitting while driving.
Regarding this improved treenail, I make no claim for either the enlarged
head or the turned shoulder separately; but what I do claim is the above
particularly described clip treenail, with the turned shoulder combined with
the enlarged head for fastening vessels' timbers and planks together...

page_text: My fourteenth improvement consists of an improved metal bolt for fastening
the deck plank, the ceiling, and the outside planks to the beams and timbers
of ships and other vessels, and which I call a clip bolt. Its shape is shewn by
Figure 14, by which it will be seen that, in addition to an inversed conical head,
it has near its end a shoulder all round the metal, which shoulder is formed by
tapering the bolt for a short distance between the point and the head. When
the bolt is driven into a plank and beam or timber, the shoulder prevents the
bolt from starting outwards again, and as the conical head prevents the plank
from starting outwards, the plank becomes firmly clipped to the beam or
timber. Nothing tends more to the permanent strength and tightness of a
ship than the close adhesion of the outside and inside planks to the timbers,
and the fastenings ought, therefore, to be of such a kind as that neither the
operation of caulking nor the straining of the vessel shall at any time or in
any degree force the planks away from the timbers. When the outside plank
is not drawn close to the frame, the friction of the bilge water diminishes the
size of even copper bolts, and thus the fastening becomes very insecure. The
diameter of the bolt is the same near the end as in the middle, and to insure
the shoulder holding properly, it must be turned in a lathe or other machine,
and so that the shoulder shall be at a sharp right angle with the bolt hole, and
when driven as usual into a smaller hole than the size of the bolt, the point of
the shoulder shall have a tendency to cut into the timber, and thus prevent the
bolt from starting outwards again. This clip bolt will be exceedingly useful
for ships' decks and hood ends, and other parts where the bolts are not re-
quired to go through and clench. Before driving any bolt, I recommend the bolt
and the hole to be smeared with tallow or oil.
Having many years ago caused several vessels to be fastened entirely with
irregularly jagged, conically headed bolts, I make no claim for that bolt or
either of its parts; but what I do claim is, the above particularly described
clip bolt with the turned shoulder, combined with the inversed conical head
for fastening a vessel's planks to her beams and timbers.
The preceding are the fourteen improvements, Nos. 1' to 14, both inclusive,
which I claim as my Invention under the said Letters Patent, and though I
believe the following eleven improvements, Nos. 15 to 25, both inclusive, to
be also both new and useful, yet I do not make any claim for them. (that is,
the following eleven), and they are mentioned in this Specification to shew that
I have invented them.
My fifteenth improvement consists in better securing the bolts of the
shackles of chain cables, which better security I afford by using lead for the
pins of the shackles instead of wood or iron. The outer parts of each pin hole

page_text: of the bow part of a shackle are made a little concave, and then molten lead
or other soft metal is cast into the pin hole, so as to fill up not only all the
internal parts of the pin hole of the bow part of the shackle and the hole
through the shackle bolt, but likewise both concave parts made in the outer
parts of the pin holes in the bow of the shackle; or, a lead pin with an
inversed conical head, to fit one of the concavities of the hole in the outer part
of the bow part of a shackle, may be put into the pin hole of the shackle, rivet-
ting the end of the pin into the other concavity. With a spike nail the lead can
be quickly cut out of one of the concavities, and then the pin may be driven
out more easily than if the pin were of iron, and lead can be again cast into
the pin holes at sea as elsewhere. And inasmuch as that lead is neither
subject to decay nor to be perforated by the worms which abound in all hot
countries, the leaden pin will be found far preferable to a wooden pin.
My sixteenth improvement in naval architecture consists in placing the
hawseholes of vessels nearly close to the stem; therefore the holes may have
to be cut out of the knight heads, and instead of the hawsepipes being round
externally, they should be square externally, so as to get a firmer bedding
upon the wood without so much tendency to split the wood upon which they
bear. Hawseholes so placed will enable the vessel to ride at anchor more
head to wind, and prevent her shearing about to the annoyance of herself as
well as her neighbours.
My seventeenth improvement consists in strengthening the under part and
sides of the keel, the upper part and sides of the keelson, and the under part
and fore side of the fore foot of a vessel, and protecting them from chafing and
twisting and breaking, which I do by bolting to them bars of flat iron similar
to those for the beam stringers, herein-before specified.
My eighteenth improvement consists in introducing iron pillars into the
ship's hold between the centre lines of the keelson and the beanis, so as to
prevent the beams from working up and downwise as they are prone to do in
heavy seas when deeply laden, and thus making the beams work at their
ends where they are fastened to the sides of the ship. The iron pillars
are formed out of thick round bar iron, and a conical shoulder is made near
each end of every pillar. Two oblong square pieces of cast iron, each with a
semicircular conical hole, and which when placed together shall form a
conical hole just sufficient to receive the end of the pillar, are then made to
clasp the shoulder. There are four countersunk bolt holes in the two pieces.
of cast iron, and through those holes are driven four clip bolts, and when the
bolts are driven in, the pillars can neither move up nor down, nor in any. other

page_text: manner. The too frequent habit of knocking down the beam staunchions in
ships' holds often does much greater injury to ships than the additional freight
earned.
My nineteenth improvement consists in making the pump well of an iron
hollow cylinder with a flange at the heel, bolting the flange with felt upon the
ceiling to two floor timbers. This will be found desirable when it is intended
to make the ceiling perfectly tight, so as to form a second skin as tight as the
outside bottom.
My twentieth improvement consists in making the lower masts of large
ships in two or more lengths of wood, inserting the small end of one length
into a deep square socket of another length, and then placing a long wrought-
iron cylinder over the joint, screw bolting the upper and lower ends of the
cylinder to the wood to prevent the mast from twisting.
My twenty-first improvement consists in forming the lower mast out of
four spars pyramidically placed in the vessel; their bases rest in the hold on
cross-steps which extend several feet across the keelson, and the pyramid
tapers gradually to the mast head where the four spars meet and are braced
together 'by the trussel-trees and cap. By this plan the masts and rigging
might be secured without throwing any pressure upon the sides of a ship, for
as every one of the four spars passes through the deck and is fixed to a step
in the lower part of the ship's hold, there is no pressure elsewhere than upon
the ship's keelson and floors.
My twenty-second improvement consists in substituting for a ship's futtock
shrouds, wood or iron stays, which extend from the ends of the lower cross trees
to the upper part of the lower mast head. The wood or iron stays are then
ratlined, and thus the men will reach the topsail yards when on the gap easier,
and the lower yards will brace up sharper than they do now; and as some of
the after of each gang of lower shrouds can lead to the cap, instead of all the
shrouds leading to the trussel tree, the mast head would be better supported
than it is now.
My twenty-third improvement consists of a new mode of fastening chain top-
sail sheets to the topsails, which enables the sail to be attached to and
detached from the sheets in a moment, without the risk of the sheets detaching
themselves. I make two half shackles of iron, and in one end of one half
shackle I make an oblong square hole, and in the other end I make a round
eye. In the other half shackle I make at one end a toggle, just the size to fit
the above-mentioned oblong square hole, and in the other I make a round eye.
The two round eyes are to be connected with each other by an intervening

page_text: small link. And when the two shackles are placed at right angles with each
other, the toggle is inserted into the oblong square hole, where it will remain
until some person unshackles it by raising the lower half shackle to a right
angle with the upper half shackle, and then withdrawing the toggle from the
oblong square hole.
.
My twenty-fourth improvement consists in securing a rim of metal to a wood
sheave of a ship's block, which I do by drilling four holes in the rim, cutting
four notches in the wood sheave, placing the rim upon the sheave, and then
casting molten lead into the four holes so as to fill up the notches and the
holes. To prevent the metal rim from chafing the wood shell, the rim should
be about one-sixteenth of an inch less thick than the wood part of the sheave.
The advantage of a metal rim is that it admits of a deeper score to receive
the rope, which deeper score supports the rope better and prevents the injury
which the rope is exposed to by great pressure on so nearly a flat surface as
there is in the score of a common wood sheave.
.
My twenty-fifth improvement consists in making a temporary rudder, "
which is composed of two fins, out of some short pieces of plank placed over
each other crosswise, and bolted or nailed together. As the fins of a
temporary rudder will be attached to the sides of the vessel, one fin on each
side, and as, therefore, they will be nearer the surface of the water, their size
must be larger than if the fins were near the keel. In one side of each fin,
there are holes to reeve large rope or small chain, which is to serve the
purpose of hinges and to keep the fins in a vertical position in the water, and
they are then fastened to part of a bower cable, which is put overboard and
brought round the vessel's bottom abreast of the foremast, and then bowsed
taut. A rope guy- from the outer end of each fin leads aft where the guy is
fixed to prevent the fins, traversing forward beyond an angle of about ninety
degrees from the vessel's side, and there is a rope leading forward from the
outer end of each fin to a block at the end of a topsaid yard, temporarily fixed
on the deck a short distance abaft the stem, which latter rope leads inboard
tó a tackle or tiller, and thus the vessel is steered.
In witness whereof, I, the said John Christophers, have hereunto set
my hand and seal, this Twelfth day of April, in the year of our
Lord One thousand eight hundred and fifty.
JOHN (L.S.) CHRISTOPHERS.

page_text: AND BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the Twelfth day of April, in the
year of our Lord 1850, the aforesaid John Christophers came before our
said Lady the Queen in Her Chancery, and acknowledged the Specification
aforesaid, and all and every thing therein contained and specified, in form
above written. And also the Specification aforesaid was stamped according
to the tenor of the Statute made for that purpose..
Enrolled the Twelfth day of April; in the year of our Lord One thousand
eight hundred and fifty.