Abstract:
Micro-electro-mechanical (MEM) translational tabs are introduced for enhancing and controlling aerodynamic loading of lifting surfaces. These microtabs are mounted at or near the trailing edge of lifting surfaces, deploy approximately normal to the surface, and have a maximum deployment height on the order of the boundary layer thickness. Deployment of this type of device effectively changes the camber, thereby affecting the lift generated by the surface. The effect of these microtabs on lift is as powerful as conventional control surfaces such as ailerons. Application of this simple yet innovative lift enhancement and control device will permit the elimination of some of the bulky conventional high-lift and control systems and result in an overall reduction in system weight, complexity and cost.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
   This application claims priority from, and is a 35 U.S.C. §111(a) continuation of, co-pending PCT international application serial number PCT/US01/31667 filed on Oct. 9, 2001 which designates the U.S. and which claims priority from U.S. provisional application Ser. No. 60/239,427 filed on Oct. 10, 2000, incorporated herein by reference. 

   STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT 
   Not Applicable 
   INCORPORATION-BY-REFERENCE OF MATERIAL SUBMITTED ON A COMPACT DISC 
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   NOTICE OF MATERIAL SUBJECT TO COPYRIGHT PROTECTION 
   A portion of the material in this patent document is subject to copyright protection under the copyright laws of the United States and of other countries. The owner of the copyright rights has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent document or the patent disclosure, as it appears in the United States Patent and Trademark Office publicly available file or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright rights whatsoever. The copyright owner does not hereby waive any of its rights to have this patent document maintained in secrecy, including without limitation its rights pursuant to 37 C.F.R. §1.14. 
   BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
   1. Field of the Invention 
   This invention pertains generally to aerodynamic load control devices, and more particular to a translational device for controlling lift of an airfoil. 
   2. Description of Related Art 
   Aerodynamic load control devices are common on lifting surfaces on airplanes, rotorcraft, wind turbines and other lift generating systems. In an airplane, an aileron is a typical aerodynamic control device used to change the lift and drag properties of the airfoil. Despite their lift enhancement properties, however, conventional aileron devices tend to be bulky and heavy and often require complex systems for actuation and support. Also, these devices are prone to flutter and as a result require special attention in the design and development stage. In addition, conventional devices tend to require intensive and costly maintenance throughout the lifespan of the system. 
   A conventional control surface or simple flap is a separate moveable lifting surface that typically occupies the aft 20% to 30% of the chord of a lifting surface. 
   As illustrated in  FIG. 1 , in a conventional airfoil  10 , rotating the control surface or flap  12  about its hinge point  14  results in a change in surface camber which in turn causes a change in the circulation of the air flow  16  and, thus, the lift  18  of the entire lifting surface. For example, raising flap  12  to position  20  will cause a decrease in lift, while lowering flap  12  to position  22  will cause an increase in lift. It is well known that the optimum location for subsonic lift control in aircraft is at the trailing edge of an airfoil since small changes in the flow field near the trailing edge can result in large changes in the overall flow field. The trailing-edge geometry of a lifting airfoil or surface has a significant influence on the aerodynamic performance of the airfoil at subsonic and transonic flow conditions. 
   One example of small changes in the flow field near the trailing edge creating large changes in the overall flow field is the trailing-edge blowing concept. Here, large increases in lift are obtainable when tangential surface blowing occurs over a rounded trailing edge. This pneumatic concept can greatly simplify high-lift system complexity and also replace the control surfaces on aircraft. The major problems with this concept are 1) the complexity, weight, and cost associated with the piping of substantial amounts of high-pressure air, (2) the increase in engine size and, hence, weight and cost, necessitated by the loss in engine mass flow for the pneumatic system, or the need for pumps (many small ones or one or two large ones) to generate the required mass flow, and (3) the problem of making this concept reliable and failsafe; i.e., a loss in engine power or an engine failure should not result in a loss of airplane control. 
   Instead of trailing-edge blowing, it may be easier to deploy a small trailing-edge flap for lift control. An example of such a device is a “Gurney-flap” which consists of a small (approximately 0.01×airfoil-chord), fixed vertical tab mounted perpendicular to the lower (pressure) surface at the trailing edge.  FIG. 2  shows the relationship between the coefficient of lift, C L , and angle of attack, α, for a 0.125c Gurney-flap in comparison to a clean airfoil. While Gurney-flaps enhance lift in the linear range as shown in  FIG. 2 , they may also cause a significant drag penalty especially at low lift conditions, such as cruise flight. This drag penalty is the main reason why Gurney-flaps are used on only a few aircraft configurations for which high maximum lift is more important than low cruise drag. To avoid the drag penalty, miniature split flaps hinged to the airfoil lower surface have been conceptualized. While these split flaps would be stowed during cruise so as to eliminate drag, their implementation has been hampered by the fact that the aft portion of an airfoil with a sharp trailing edge does not provide sufficient structural support or volume for hinges and deployment hardware based on conventional manufacturing technology. 
   BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
   In accordance with the present invention, the foregoing problems are solved by using small, tab-like, translational elements that are imbedded in the trailing-edge region of the airfoil. When activated, the translational elements deploy outward and have a maximum height of a few percent of the chord length of the airfoil. Downward deflection augments airfoil camber and, hence, lift, whereas upward deflection decreases lift. The effect of these translational elements on lift is as powerful as a conventional flight control surface such as an aileron. 
   By way of example, and not of limitation, a plurality of actively controlled micro-electro-mechanical (MEM) translational elements are installed in the trailing edge region of lifting surfaces. These MEMs tabs are small (e.g., approximately 1% of chord), are robust and versatile, can range anywhere from microns to centimeters in width, and can extend in length up to several millimeters which is on the order of the boundary layer thickness. In one embodiment, the translational elements are mounted forward of a “sharp” or tapered trailing edge of the airfoil, deploy normal to the surface, and are designed to both extend and retract. In an alternative embodiment, the translational elements are mounted at edge of a blunt trailing edge. Deployment of this type of device in either configuration modifies the camber distribution of the airfoil section, and hence the lift generated. 
   Application of this rather simple but innovative lift control system based on microfabrication techniques will permit the elimination of conventional control systems and, hence, result in a significant reduction in weight, complexity, and cost. Also due to the miniature size of these tabs, their activation and response times are expected to be much faster than that of conventional trailing edge devices. Further objects and advantages of the invention will be brought out in the following portions of the specification, wherein the detailed description is for the purpose of fully disclosing preferred embodiments of the invention without placing limitations thereon. 

   
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWING(S) 
     The invention will be more fully understood by reference to the following drawings which are for illustrative purposes only: 
       FIG. 1  is schematic side view of an airfoil employing a conventional aerodynamic load control device illustrating the movement of an aileron for increasing and decreasing lift. 
       FIG. 2  is a graph showing the relationship between coefficient of lift, C L , and angle of attack, α, for a 0.125c Gurney-flap in comparison to a clean airfoil. 
       FIG. 3  is a schematic side view of an airfoil employing a translational aerodynamic load control device according to the present invention forward of the trailing edge. 
       FIG. 4  is a detailed schematic view of the translational element of  FIG. 3  shown extended upward to decrease lift. 
       FIG. 5  is a detailed schematic view of the translational element of  FIG. 3  shown retracted for cruise. 
       FIG. 6  is a detailed schematic view of the translational element of  FIG. 3  shown extended downward to increase lift. 
       FIG. 7  is a graph showing the relationship between the coefficient of lift and angle of attack corresponding to the positions of the translational element shown in  FIG. 4  through  FIG. 6 . 
       FIG. 8  is a schematic side view of an alternative embodiment of an airfoil employing a translational aerodynamic load control device where the translational elements are installed at the blunt trailing edge according to the invention. 
       FIG. 9  is a detailed schematic view of the translational element of  FIG. 8  shown extended upward to decrease lift. 
       FIG. 10  is a detailed schematic view of the translational element of  FIG. 8  shown retracted for cruise. 
       FIG. 11  is a detailed schematic view of the translational element of  FIG. 8  shown extended downward to increase lift. 
       FIG. 12  is an exploded schematic view of a translational stage according to the present invention. 
       FIG. 13  is an assembled view of the translational stage shown in  FIG. 12 . 
       FIG. 14  is a schematic view of a two element array of translational stages shown in  FIG. 13 . 
       FIG. 15  is a perspective schematic view of the underside of an airfoil with an eight element linear array of translational stages shown in  FIG. 13 . 
       FIG. 16  is a schematic side view in cross-section of the trailing edge portion of an airfoil showing a translational stage of  FIG. 14  in the retracted position. 
       FIG. 17  is a schematic side view in cross-section of the trailing edge portion of an airfoil showing a translational stage of  FIG. 14  in the extended position. 
       FIGS. 18A through 18E  is a flow diagram showing an example of steps employed in the fabrication of the translational stage shown in  FIG. 12  and  FIG. 13 . 
       FIG. 19  is a graph showing the relationship between coefficient of lift, C L , and translational element location in percent of chord from trailing edge for a GU25-5(11)-8 airfoil at an angle of attack α=0 and Re=1.0×10 6 . 
       FIG. 20  is a graph showing the relationship between coefficient of drag, C D , and translational element location in percent of chord from trailing edge for a GU25-5(11)-8 airfoil at an angle of attack α=0 and Re=1.0×10 6 . 
       FIG. 21  is a graph showing the relationship between the ratio of coefficient of lift, C L , to coefficient of drag, C D , and translational element location in percent of chord from trailing edge for a GU25-5(11)-8 airfoil at an angle of attack α=0 and Re=1.0×10 6 . 
       FIG. 22  is a graph showing the predicted relationship between coefficient of lift, C L , and angle of attack, α, for a GU25-5(11)-8 airfoil and Re= 1 . 0 × 10   6  with and without a translational element according to the invention. 
       FIG. 23  is a graph showing the relationship between force coefficients and translational element height in percent of chord. 
   

   DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
   Referring more specifically to the drawings, for illustrative purposes the present invention is embodied in the apparatus and methods generally shown in  FIG. 3  through  FIG. 23 . It will be appreciated that the apparatus may vary as to configuration and as to details of the parts, and that the method may vary as to the specific steps and sequence, without departing from the basic concepts as disclosed herein. 
   Referring first to  FIG. 3 , in accordance with the present invention a plurality of translational elements are installed in the trailing-edge region  24  of lifting surfaces of airfoil  10  for load control instead of conventional control systems.  FIG. 4  through  FIG. 6  depict such a configuration. In  FIG. 4 , one such translational element (tab)  26  is shown in an upward extended position to cause a decrease in lift. In  FIG. 5  translational element  26  is shown in a fully retracted position which would be the case during aircraft cruise conditions. In  FIG. 6 , translational element  26  is shown in a downward extended position to cause an increase in lift. The amount of extension of translational element  26  can be variable or extension can be controlled to simply be “on/off”. 
   Referring also to  FIG. 7 , the effect of these translational elements on lift is shown to be as powerful as a conventional flight control surface.  FIG. 7  shows the relationship between the lift coefficient, C L , and angle of attack where: 
                     C   L     =     Lift       1   2     ⁢   ρ   ⁢           ⁢     v   2     ⁢   S         ,                 ρ   =     fluid   ⁢           ⁢   density       ,                 v   =     flow   ⁢           ⁢   velocity       ,   and               S   =     platform   ⁢           ⁢   area   ⁢           ⁢   of   ⁢           ⁢     wing   ⁢           .                   
for translational element with a height of 0.01 c and position of 0.05 c forward of the trailing edge, wherein c=chord. Line  30  shows the characteristics with the translational element deployed downward, line  32  shows the characteristics with the translational element retracted, and line  34  depicts the characteristics with the translational element deployed upward. As can be seen, a translation element with a height of one percent of the chord deployed downward near the trailing edge is demonstrated to increase the lift at zero angle of attack by approximately 35%.
 
   Note in  FIG. 3  through  FIG. 6  that airfoil  10  employs a tapered or sharp trailing edge  28  and that the translational elements are positioned forward of the trailing edge  28 . Alternatively, airfoil  10  could employ a blunt trailing edge  36  as shown in  FIG. 8  through  FIG. 11 . In  FIG. 9 , translational element  26  is shown in an upward extended position to cause a decrease in lift. In  FIG. 10  translational element  26  is shown in a fully retracted position which would be the case during aircraft cruise conditions. In  FIG. 11 , translational element  26  is shown in a downward extended position to cause an increase in lift. 
   It will be appreciated that the specific implementation of the translational elements will vary with the scale of the lifting surface. For example, one embodiment involves the application of micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) technology. In accordance with this embodiment, a plurality of such translational elements would be fabricated in silicon using anisotropic etching and produced in predefined arrays of arbitrary geometry. Each element within an array could be individually actuated to produce a variable trailing-edge geometry for the lifting surface. Furthermore, use of a serrated pattern for the trailing-edge geometry may have a beneficial effect on the performance characteristics of the lifting surface. The translation elements can be actuated mechanically and/or magnetically using known techniques. When activated, the translational elements deploy outward; that is, they attain an extended position. Downward extension augments airfoil camber and, hence, lift whereas upward extension decreases lift. The size of each translational element can range anywhere from microns to centimeters in width and extension with thicknesses up to several millimeters. 
   Preferably, translational element  26  comprises a sliding component in a “dovetail” microfabricated translational stage  38  having the configuration shown in  FIG. 12  and  FIG. 13 . The translational stage shown in  FIG. 12  and  FIG. 13  comprises a base  40  having a plurality of dovetail-shaped receptacles  42 , a slider  44  having a plurality of dovetail-shaped fingers  46  that slidably mate with receptacles  42 , and an extender  48  that is coupled to slider  44 . To assemble the translational stage, extender  48  is bonded to slider  44  using a conventional bonding technique and fingers  46  are slidably inserted into receptacles  42 . The dovetail joint configuration provides a natural interlock to prevent slider  44  and extender  48 , which together form translational element  26 , from falling out of base  40 . 
   For use with an airfoil, a plurality of translational stages  38  are arranged into a linear array by bonding the stages to a support member  50  as shown in  FIG. 14 , thereby forming a modular track.  FIG. 15  shows an example of a portion of an airfoil with an array of eight translational stages. Approximately thirty stages are needed to cover a 3-foot airfoil section where the length, height and width of each assembly are approximately 20 mm×5 mm×1.2 mm, respectively. Note also that  FIG. 15  illustrates that translational elements  26  can be individually controllable. Each translational stage can be retracted as shown in  FIG. 16  or extended as shown in  FIG. 17 . 
   Dovetail translational stages of various sizes can be easily fabricated in this manner ranging in width length from, for example, 100 μm to 12 cm. To be used as a lift control device for an airfoil, an extender translation distance should be on the order of a few millimeters on small chord sections with larger sections requiring a proportional increase in actuation distances. While typical translation limits for conventional MEMs devices are at best a few hundred microns, one of the primary advantages of the dovetail translational stages used here is their relatively large translational capability. In addition, the joint design allows for “packaging” in the small space at the trailing edge of airfoils. This structure thus provides a simple, interconnecting, sliding assembly that is small and lightweight. By using microfabrication techniques, these “microtab” type translational elements can be designed and sized to fit the aerodynamic application. 
   Referring to  FIG. 12 ,  FIG. 13  and  FIG. 18A  together, the translational stages are preferably fabricated on a silicon wafer  100  coated with silicon nitride  102 . Conventional chemical etching techniques are used to readily produce the translational stages in predefined arrays of arbitrary geometry. In a typical fabrication process, a chrome mask with the design pattern is created. Taking into account the silicon crystalline orientation, the mask is patterned and transferred to a silicon wafer as shown in  FIG. 18B . Next, as depicted in  FIG. 18C , silicon is removed in the areas not covered by the photoresist  104  to form the uniform dovetails with 54.7 degree etch angles. This is accomplished using conventional plasma (RIE) and chemical etching (KOH and HF) processes. As shown in  FIG. 18D , the etched wafer is then chemically cleaned and fusion bonded to a separate handle wafer  106 , and the bridging portions  108  are removed. A final silicon nitride coat  110  is applied to create a nearly flawless and frictionless surface for the sliding tabs. Base  40  and slider  44  are then diced to size as shown in  FIG. 12  and extender  48  is bonded to slider  44  to form an assembly as shown in  FIG. 13 . While all pieces are fabricated from silicon coated with silicon nitride, it will be appreciated that the design allows for exchange of materials. Careful processing results in dovetails with very smooth and precise interlocking qualities and tolerances of a few microns. Such tolerances are unachievable using conventional machining tools. The dovetail design is also self-cleaning as any dust or dirt would be removed from the tracks. A typical yield for a four-inch wafer is approximately 20–25 assemblies. 
   Static load tests on the translational stages assemblies show that these structures can withstand normal loads of approximately 1.7 N. Given that silicon nitride has a coefficient of friction of approximately 0.4, target actuation forces necessary to activate these tabs are estimated to be about 0.7 N. 
   It will be appreciated that actuation of the translational elements is an important aspect of commercial realization of the invention. Actuation methods not only need to be able to extend distances of millimeters but must also be able to supply the necessary activation energy. The MEMS translational stages are simple to actuate, robust, and lightweight. For micro-devices, electrostatic and electromechanical methods are predominant due to the minute size and application compatibility. Using conventional magnetic actuation methods, dovetail devices of the type described can be accelerated to over 100 mm/sec in 10 msec with less than 700 μN of force. Translational distances between one micron and 8 cm can also be achieved. However, while magnetic actuation is easily achievable in a controlled laboratory environment, it may not be practical for commercial commercially. For flight vehicles, pneumatic, hydraulic, and mechanical systems have been the conventional means of actuation. Since conventional flight controls are exposed to much higher loads and harsher conditions they require greater activation energies and tend to be large and heavy. With target voltage limits, cost, space and weight restrictions, piezo-electric, hydraulic and pneumatic devices were not considered. A design requiring compressed air canisters or hydraulic reservoirs was not desired. High power consumption devices were also considered unsuitable. 
   Various methods of actuation investigated include a mechanical linear actuator, a rod and motor linkage, and a shape memory alloy (SMA) assembly. A number of push-pull linear actuators were assembled to test their feasibility. Although the actuators provided adequate travel distance, the non-linearity in the activation force of the mechanical actuators proved to be a limitation. Also an estimated eight to ten actuators would be needed to drive twenty to thirty translational elements which increases the weight significantly. A mechanical linkage using rods and radio control (R/C) motors appears to be most feasible for initial prototype testing. 
   With recent development and commercialization of shape memory alloys (SMA), a possible solution is presented using SMA wire. Since these translational elements are “micro” in fabrication and design but are “macro” in performance and effect, it seems fitting that to actuate such a device a combination of mechanical and electrical methods be utilized. A prototype actuation mechanism using SMA wire was been sized to investigate the feasibility of such a method. Based on manufacturer&#39;s data, using Flexinol wire of 0.003″ diameter, the required extension length is achievable. With some wing construction modifications to incorporate length and heat dissipation requirements of the wires, SMA activation shows promise. 
   EXAMPLE 
   A GU25-5(11)-8 airfoil was chosen for testing, although numerous other airfoils could have been chosen as well. The GU25-5(11)-8 was selected for its larger trailing edge volume and nearly flat bottom surface. The thick trailing edge provides the volume needed to retract the translational elements. Also, the nearly flat lower surface makes it easy to install translational elements. The GU25-5(11)-8 airfoil was developed at the University of Glasgow as one of a series of high lift, low-drag airfoils. 
   Experiments were conducted using three, 12-inch chord, 33.5 inch span test airfoil models. One airfoil was used to perform validation tests and to develop a consistent data set for comparison and correction data. The other two GU-like airfoils were fitted with the translational stages. All experiments were conducted in the UC Davis Wind Tunnel Facility (UCD). The facility houses a low-turbulence wind tunnel with a 3×4 ft cross section and 12 ft in length test section built by AeroLab. Tunnel test speeds range from 5 mph to 160 mph and have a six-component force-balance for measuring lift, drag, and side forces and roll, pitch and yaw moments. A 16-bit data acquisition system is used to gather data. The tunnel is also equipped with a turntable for yaw or angle of attack control for 2D or 3D testing and has a moveable XY traverse probe for mounting pitot-static probes or hot-wire anemometers. 
   Wind tunnel airfoil models were fabricated using foam, fiberglass and epoxy resin. For translational stage installation, a recess was routed in the trailing edge. Based on computational results and volume constraints, the tabs were installed and tested at 5% chord from the trailing edge. This location allowed for sufficient room for retracting the tabs without loosing the lift enhancement benefit. Fully retracted, the tabs were nearly flush with the surface of the airfoil. Fully extended, the tabs extended approximately 3 mm (1% of chord) perpendicular to the surface. This design allowed for minimum changes to current wing design and manufacturing techniques. Over 90% of the airfoil would remained unchanged with only modifications to the trailing edge region. 
   Analysis using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) codes greatly reduced the number of experimental runs and models needed. By studying the effects with and without the translational elements and the effects of varying height, location and width using simulated data, test model sizes and configurations were finalized. 
   A typical flow field in the trailing edge region with the separated, recirculating flow behind the translational element was observed. Despite the forward location, the translational element remained effective. The reason is that the point of flow separation for the entire airfoil essentially shifts from the trailing edge to the lower edge of the translational element. 
   Translational elements were scaled in accordance with model dimensions. Previous work showed that translational elements around 1% of the chord to be a good average size. With that as a starting size, computational simulations were performed using various tab configurations. To have sufficient volume for retraction, it was necessary to test the translational elements at various locations upstream of the trailing edge. It was found that the lift enhancement benefits of the translational elements were retained despite their forward location. 
   To observe the effect of translational element position on performance, calculations were made with the translational elements positioned at the trailing edge (0%) and moved forward up to 10% of chord from the trailing edge. Note that with the translational elements simply placed at the trailing edge, C L  increased from 0.613 to 0.858.  FIG. 19  through  FIG. 21  show the effect of position for a 1% translational element on lift, drag, and lift to drag ratio for the GU25-5(11)-8 airfoil at an angle of attack α=0 and Re=1.0×10 6 . Based on the results shown in  FIG. 19 , an effective zone for placing the translational elements on the test airfoil was determined to range from 2% to 6% of the aft portion of the chord with maximum C L  benefit at around 3% chord. As expected, the coefficient of drag (C D ) steadily increases as the translational element is moved forward from the trailing edge) as shown in  FIG. 20 ; however, the performance benefit gained terms of C L /C D  remains until the translational element was moved past 6% of chord where the drag penalties become significant as shown in  FIG. 21 .  FIG. 22  shows a predicted shift in the lift curve by ΔC L =0.3 for the test airfoil with a 1% translational element placed at x/c=0.97. 
   Similar results were generated for translational elements of differing heights as shown in  FIG. 23 . Translational elements over 2% chord in height did not seem to derive any further benefit in C L , and in fact resulted in a noticeable increase in C D . Based on simulation results, microfabrication and material properties, a final tab size of 1% (e.g., approximately 3 mm fully extended), positioned at 5% of chord upstream of the trailing edge was determined to be preferable. 
   Although the description above contains many specificities, these should not be construed as limiting the scope of the invention but as merely providing illustrations of some of the presently preferred embodiments of this invention. Therefore, it will be appreciated that the scope of the present invention fully encompasses other embodiments which may become obvious to those skilled in the art, and that the scope of the present invention is accordingly to be limited by nothing other than the appended claims, in which reference to an element in the singular is not intended to mean “one and only one” unless explicitly so stated, but rather “one or more.” All structural, chemical, and functional equivalents to the elements of the above-described preferred embodiment that are known to those of ordinary skill in the art are expressly incorporated herein by reference and are intended to be encompassed by the present claims. Moreover, it is not necessary for a device or method to address each and every problem sought to be solved by the present invention, for it to be encompassed by the present claims. Furthermore, no element, component, or method step in the present disclosure is intended to be dedicated to the public regardless of whether the element, component, or method step is explicitly recited in the claims. No claim element herein is to be construed under the provisions of 35 U.S.C. 112, sixth paragraph, unless the element is expressly recited using the phrase “means for.”