Abstract:
A system for analyzing a content of a sample material is presented. The system includes a fiber sensitized to a first substance, and at least one electrode configured to expose the fiber to an electric field. The system includes an optical sensor configured to detect a displacement of the fiber when the fiber is exposed to the electric field, and a processor configured to use the displacement of the fiber to characterize a content of the sample material.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional Application No. 61/535,231 filed on Sep. 15, 2011, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     The analysis of both the molecular composition and molecular activity within a particular substance is important in many different applications, including the detection of biomarkers for disease diagnosis and DNA sequencing, drug discovery and screening, and immunosignaturing, which involves detecting the changes of human antibodies. 
     One conventional system for detecting particular molecules within a substance involves introducing a fluorescent dye molecule into a particular sample. The dye marker is configured to bind to the molecules of interest, if present, within the sample. After introduction of the dye molecule, the sample is irradiated using ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which causes dye molecules that have bonded to the target molecule to fluoresce. If the sample fluoresces, that fluorescence indicates that the molecule of interest is present within the sample. Generally, sensitive optical instruments are used to monitor the sample for fluorescence and, thereby, identify the presence of the molecule of interest. 
     These fluorescence-based detection systems suffer from a number of drawbacks. First, the systems require UV light sources and highly sensitive optical detectors to detect the weak fluorescent light emission from a sample. This equipment can be very expensive and bulky. Additionally, when attempting to detect small molecules, the fluorescent dye molecule often alters the native properties of molecules of interest, rendering test results inaccurate and of little value. Finally, fluorescence detection is only useful as an end-point test and cannot be used to study the kinetics of molecular interactions and binding processes. 
     In response to the difficulties associated with fluorescent label analysis and other label analysis methods, label-free, optical detection technologies have been developed. One such method involves the analysis of data captured from the excitation of surface plasmons in a sample material. The instrumentation required to perform such surface plasmon resonance (SPR), however, is bulky and expensive due to the need of complex optics. This system also requires the fabrication of SPR chips (gold-coated glass chips), which is expensive and difficult. 
     Another label-free detection method relies upon detecting light interference created by a structured surface (e.g., multiple layer coating of chips) over which a sample is deposited. Although this approach may be somewhat simpler than SPR, it is also less sensitive than SPR. In some cases, to improve sensitivity, deep microstructures are etched onto a silicon chip to increase the surface area of the chip. This approach, therefore, introduces additional fabrication steps into the analysis process. Additionally, these microstructures can affect the molecule binding kinetics because, prior to binding, the molecules must diffuse into the constricted spaces defined by the microstructures. 
     The non-label, optical approaches called for in both SPR and interference-based analysis are all based upon measuring the optical mass of particular molecules. Because the optical mass of a molecule is proportional to the size of the molecule, these analysis techniques are not effective for detecting small molecules. 
     Another alternative for the molecular analysis of a sample involves the use of Microfabricated Electromechanical System devices (MEMS), such as cantilevers, tuning forks and quartz-crystal resonators, which can each be used for label-free detection of mass and spring constant changes associated with molecular binding events. In many cases, though, viscous damping of these mechanical devices, resulting from their placement within a sample aqueous solution, severely limits the ability of such systems to make accurate measurements. Additionally, the fabrication of MEMS devices requires microfabrication and cleanroom facilities, which are labor-intensive and expensive. Finally, these MEMs devices also have difficultly in detecting small molecules. 
     In summary, most of the existing label-free detection technologies rely on the detection of mass of molecules, which are difficult to measure small molecules (with low masses). Examples of these mass-sensitive detection technologies include microfabricated mechanical resonators using micro-cantilevers, quartz crystal tuning fork and other mechanical structures. These technologies measure the resonance frequencies of the resonators by detecting harmonic or higher harmonic modes. Since the resonance frequency of a resonator decreases with the mass, these resonator technologies measure molecules by accurately tracking the resonance frequencies. However, the sensitivities of these technologies diminish with the mass of the molecule under detection. Instead of detecting mass, the present embodiments measure charge of molecules. A major advantage of the charge-based detection is that the output signal does not diminish with the size of the molecule, allowing for the detection of both large and small molecules. 
     The key component of CSOD is an array of optical fiber probes. Each fiber probe is dipped into a well in a standard microplate, and an electric field is applied perpendicular to the fiber. If charge is present on the fiber, the fiber will bend under the electrostatic force. By measuring the amount of bending, one could in principle detect the charge of the fiber, and change of the charge when charged molecules bind to the fiber. However, this design has a serious noise/drift issue due to temperature fluctuations, mechanical stress and noise, and surface tension. One way to overcome this issue is to increase the applied electric field, but associated with the increased field is electrochemical reactions taking place on the electrodes in the well. The reactions change the chemical composition and pH of the solution in the well, and often lead to gas bubble formation (hydrogen and oxygen gasses from water hydrolysis); both are problematic for the detection of molecules. 
     To combat these problems, embodiments described herein modulate the applied electric field at a frequency and detect the fiber movement at the frequency of the applied electric field. The alternating electric field minimizes the electrochemical reactions, and allows the use of Fourier filer and other noise reduction methods to remove the noise and drift issue. 
     Unlike the mechanical resonators that rely on the detection of resonance frequency, the present fiber is substantially damped, and the fiber movement is determined by the charge on the fiber and viscous damping of the fiber by the solution. 
     The frequency of the modulating electric field is preferably to be a few Hz to a few kilo-Hz. Lower frequencies do not provide sufficient removal of the electrochemical reactions and noise/drift. Higher frequencies require fast optical detection, which adds cost to the detection technologies. However, high frequencies may be implanted especially if one shrinks the optical fiber to micron or small dimensions. 
     Sensitive measurement of the oscillation amplitude can be achieved using a differential optical detection. A straightforward way to implement this detection strategy is to image the optical fiber tip with a CMOS imager or CCD ( FIG. 6 ). The image of the probe tip, as shown in  FIG. 2 c   , appears as a bright spot, which is divided into two regions, A and B, as shown in  FIG. 2 d   . The division is selected such that the intensities in regions A and B are similar initially, and then the differential signal, (I A −I B )/(I A +I B ) is monitored continuously with the imager, where I A  and I B  are the intensities of regions, A and  13 , respectively. We have shown that (I A −I B )/(I A −I B ) is proportional to the fiber tip displacement. This differential detection method is sensitive because it rejects common-mode noise. In addition to differential optical detection, Fourier filter is used to further remove noise. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a schematic illustrating some of the functional components of the present analysis system. 
         FIGS. 2A, 2B, and 2C  are illustrations of a fiber positioned over an imaging system for detecting movement of the fiber before and after exposure to a sample. 
         FIGS. 3A and 3B  depict fiber  102  being disposed within a well of a microplate according to an embodiment. 
         FIG. 4  shows an implementation of a system incorporating a number of fibers. 
         FIG. 5  is a graph showing experimental results for the present system illustrating a comparison of a pH level within a sample material to a corresponding displacement distance of a fiber after exposure to the sample material. 
         FIG. 6 . Differential optical detection fiber probe oscillation in CSOD. (a) Schematic illustration of the setup. (b) An optical fiber with etched tip viewed from side. (c) Image of the fiber tip viewed from the bottom of the microplate well. (d) Differential optical detection for accurate determination of the fiber oscillation amplitude. (e) Fast Fourier transform (FFT) of the fiber oscillation. Inset: Oscillation displacement signal in time domain before FFT. The amplitude and frequency of the applied voltage were 2 V and 10 Hz, respectively. The length and diameter of the fiber were 8.5 mm, and 11 μm, respectively. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The present system relates to the analysis of sample material to identify the presence of target molecules. To detect and/or identify the target molecules, the present system measures a deflection of a mechanically bendable microfiber that is sensitized to a particular target molecule. The fiber is brought into contact with the sample. As the target molecules in the sample interact with the microfiber, an electric charge is developed upon the surface of the microfiber. By subjecting the charged microfiber to an electrical field, and measuring the subsequent deflection of the charged microfiber due to the application of the electric field, the present system can identify the presence or absence of the target molecule within the sample. 
     In contrast to conventional detection methods and system, the present system allows for the detection of relatively small molecules without modifying their chemical structure by labeling, which might otherwise invalidate measurement results. Instead, the system exploits the conversion of molecular binding-induced charge changes into a mechanical deflection of a flexible fiber. That deflection can then be detected optically, or by another suitable detection mechanism. The present system can be used with existing microplate technology in combination with an optical microscope, for example. 
       FIG. 1  is a schematic illustrating some of the functional components of the present analysis system  100 . System  100  includes fiber  102  that is connected to mechanical support  104 . Fiber  102  is sensitized so that a surface of fiber  102 , or a material  103  disposed over a surface of fiber  102 , will interact with a particular type of target molecule  105 , such as particular analytes, enzymes, or other chemical species. As the target molecules interact with fiber  102  or the coating  103  formed thereover, an electrical charge (either positive or negative) is built-up along the surface of fiber  102 . 
     Fiber  102  may include a single glass fiber connected to support  104 . Alternatively, fiber  102  may include several independent filaments that are each bundled together, with the bundle being connected to support  104 . In a multiple-filament implementation, each filament of the bundle may be of the same construction and chemical make-up. Alternatively, several of the filaments contained within the bundle may comprise different materials, or be sensitized to different target molecules. 
     The fiber in the system could include one or more optical glass fibers that are mass-produced and widely used in optical communications. Such glass fibers are uniform, high quality, and low cost. The glass fibers can also be prepared by heating and pulling glass rods or tubing. Commercial apparatus for preparing such glass fibers are available. The fiber material is not limited to glass. Carbon fibers are also widely available and can be used in the present system. Furthermore, metal wires can also serve as the fiber. 
     System  100  includes electrodes  106  and  108 , which can be positioned on either side of fiber  102 . As electrodes  106  and  108  are energized by an appropriate input signal, electric field  110  is generated in a direction that is substantially perpendicular to the length of fiber  102 . Although  FIG. 1  shows two electrodes  106  and  108 , in other implementations, electrodes  106  and  108  may be replaced with other systems or devices for applying an electric field to fiber  102 . 
     In one example use of system  100 , fiber  102  is first exposed to a particular sample material, for example by dipping, or positioning fiber  102  within a solution well containing the sample material. If the sample material contains molecules to which fiber  102  has been sensitized, the molecules interact with fiber  102  (or a surface coating  103  thereof) causing an electrical charge to build-up upon the surface of fiber  102 . The charged fiber  102  is then subjected to electric field  110 . Electric field  110  applies an electric force and, consequently, a mechanical force to the charged fiber  102 , which causes fiber  102  to become displaced. That displacement can then be measured making it possible to quantify an amount of built-up charge on fiber  102 , which, in turn, can be used to identify an amount of interaction between fiber  102  and molecules contained within the sample material. 
     In system  100 , the magnitude of electric field  110  is defined as E, and the charge change of fiber  102  due to interactions with the target molecules is defined as Δq. The spring constant of fiber  102  (for lateral movement within field  110 ) is defined as k. Finally, the displacement of the tip of fiber  102  is defined as Δx, as shown in  FIG. 1 , where the dashed outline shows the position of fiber  102  after displacement. 
     Using these values, the charge build-up on fiber  102  (Δq) can be related to the change in position of fiber  102  in electric field  110  in accordance with equation (1).
 
 EΔq=kΔx   Equation (1)
 
     Thus, it is possible to determine the amount of displacement of fiber  102  Δx as shown in equation (2). 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
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     In equations (1) and (2), both k and E can be determined either experimentally or calculated theoretically, and Δq can be determined after Δx is measured. In circumstances where the amount of charge change Δq is relatively small, the resulting movement (Δx) of fiber  102  can be amplified by using a softer or more flexible fiber  102  having a lower spring constant k. The charge change Δq can then be used to characterize the chemical reaction between the sensitized fiber  102  and molecules within the sample material. 
     At a given pH and buffer concentration, the amount of charge change Δq is directly proportional to the number of target molecules interacting with fiber  102 . Accurate detection of the charge change Δq provides quantitative measurement of the molecules. For example, in the case of phosphorylation or DNA, each phosphorylation or DNA base corresponds to a fixed amount of charge charge. As such, it is also possible to detect the sign (positive vs. negative) of the charge, which leads to additional information about the nature of the target molecules. The amount of charge can be enhanced by optimizing the pH and buffer concentration to achieve the best detection limit. 
     The accuracy of system  100  can also be increased by increasing the strength of electric field  110  E while also minimizing the strength (i.e., spring constant k) of fiber  102 . By both increasing the strength of electric field E and decreasing the lateral spring constant k of fiber  102 , the amount of lateral deflection of fiber  102  Δx for a given charge build-up Δq is increased, making detection of the displacement (and, consequently, relatively small amounts of charge build-up) easier. Accordingly, for low-levels of charge build-up Δq, a relatively high electric field E in combination with a flexible fiber  102  allows for accurate detection of the presence of target molecules within a sample. The detection limits of the present system are, however, limited. Generally, a practical limit for decreasing the spring constant of fiber  102  is that of Brownian motion or thermal fluctuations in the fiber  102 &#39;s displacement. That displacement is given by equation (3).
 
(Δ x ) T =( k   B   T/k ) 1/2   Equation (3)
 
     In equation (3), k B =1.38×10−23 J/K and T is temperature. Equation (3) illustrates that when optimizing the present system by tuning the spring constant of fiber  102 , the thermal noise described by equation (3) can be accounted for. 
     In some applications, the system is optimized to detect surface charge density, or charge per unit area on fiber  102 , rather than total amount of charge accumulated on fiber  102 . This is because the surface charge density may be more closely related to the concentration of analytes. As the surface charge density is determined by the total charge divided by the surface area and the spring constant k of fiber  102  (both values that are determined by the geometry of fiber  102 ), appropriate selection of the dimensions of fiber  102  can lead to improved detection limits (e.g., sensitivity) for surface charge or charge per unit area. 
     The detection limit of the present system may also be improved by applying a modulated electric field to electrodes  106  and  108  (or other electric field-generating devices of system  100 ) with an appropriate frequency. The frequency range can be varied from a few Hz to a few MHz, depending upon the mechanical properties of the fibers and optical detection response time. After subjecting fiber  102  to that modulated field, the displacement of the tip of fiber  102  can then be monitored by an optical sensor, such as a CCD or CMOS sensor. By observing the movement of fiber  102  over time, and performing a Fourier transform of the time profile, displacement of fiber  102  at the frequency of the applied electric field can be isolated. By isolating the displacement of fiber  102  due directly to the electric field, noises at other frequencies can be removed from the observed data allowing for more accurate tracking of fiber  102 . 
     There are a number of different ways to measure the mechanical bending of fiber  102 . Mechanical sensors, such as pressure sensors, disposed within support  104  may be configured to detect a flexing or movement of fiber  102 . Alternatively, optical sensors may be used to detect a movement of fiber  102  by comparing a position of fiber  102  before and after exposure of an electrical field. 
     In one implementation, differential optical detection is used to detect movement of fiber  102 .  FIGS. 2A and 2B  are illustrations of fiber  102  positioned over imaging system  202  for detecting movement of fiber  102  before and after exposure to a sample.  FIG. 2A  shows an elevational view of fiber  102 , while  FIG. 2B  shows a view of the tip of fiber  102  as taken from the perspective of imaging system  202  shown in  FIG. 2A . 
     Imaging system  200  may include a CCD, CMOS or other imaging sensor configured to accurately record a position of fiber  102 . In the system configuration shown in  FIGS. 2A and 2B , imaging system  202  is positioned below fiber  102  and is oriented upwards. In that configuration, imaging system  202  images the tip of fiber  102  with a view oriented along the length of fiber  102 . Accordingly, imaging system  202  views fiber  102  as a circle, as shown in  FIG. 2B . Imaging system  202 , therefore, captures movement of fiber  102  as movement of the circle depicted in  FIG. 2B  through imaging system  202 &#39;s field of vision. Specifically, imaging system  202  captures a first image of fiber  102  before application of electric field  110 , but after fiber  102  is exposed to the sample material. Imaging system  202  then captures a second image of fiber  102  after fiber  102  is exposed to electric field  110 . A processor, either disposed within or external to imaging system  202 , compares the two images to determine an amount of movement or displacement of fiber  102  after exposure to electric field  110 . The processor can then use that displacement to characterize the sample material, as described above. 
     In one implementation, imaging system  202  is configured to divide each of the before and after images into two separate regions using a fixed line formed perpendicularly to the displacement direction (see, for example, regions A and B shown in  FIG. 2C ). The line defining the two separate regions is positioned to pass through the center of the image of fiber  102  when fiber  102  is in a resting position (i.e., with no application of electric field  110 ). At rest, the measured visual intensities (I) in regions A and B of fiber  102  are substantially the same. When fiber  102  is displaced, the intensities of each region changes as the area of each region has changed. As shown in  FIG. 2C , at rest, regions A and B are substantially the same size. But when fiber  102  is displaced, as shown in  FIG. 2C , the area of region A is larger than that of region B. 
     Accordingly, in this implementation, imaging system  202  is configured to constantly monitor the intensities of regions A and B as fiber  102  is exposed to electric field  110 . Then imaging system  202  compares the relative size of region A and region B, and uses the resulting comparison to determine an amount of displacement of fiber  102 . In one implementation, the comparison of the relative sizes of regions A and B is expressed as (I A −I B )/(I A +I B ), where I A  and I B  are the measured visual intensities of regions A and B, respectively. That ratio can then be translated into a displacement of fiber  102  using equation (4). 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
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     In equation (4), b is a calibration factor that may be determined experimentally. 
     This displacement-detection method is relatively simple to implement. Additionally, the method is setup to cancel common visual noise arising in both regions A and B in the image of fiber  102 . In one implementation of this displacement-detection method, the tip of fiber  102  oriented towards imaging system  202  is etched to a sharp point in order to create a diffraction-limited spot in the image to assist in imaging. 
     In other implementations, rather than rely on the changing areas of different regions of fiber  102 , imaging system  202  may instead identify a central intensity point of the images of fiber  102  in both the before and after images. The movement of that central intensity point can then be used to determine displacement of fiber  102 . In such an approach, the displacement may be calculated according to equation (5). 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
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     When implementing the central intensity point analysis (for example, using CCD or CMS imaging devices), the integrals shown in equation (5) are replaced by summations performed over the pixels depicting the tip of fiber  102  in the before and after images. 
     These optical-displacement methods can be implemented using a conventional optical microscope equipped with a CCD or CMOS imager. Alternatively, the system may utilize positive sensitive or bicell photodiodes to detect fiber  102  displacement. 
     In other implementations, imaging system  202  may simply attempt to identify a center pixel of the before and after images of fiber  102  in order to determine the fiber  102 &#39;s displacement. 
     The present system is compatible with conventional microplates (e.g., 96-well or 364-well microplates) that may be used to contain the sample material to be tested. For example,  FIGS. 3A and 3B  depict fiber  102  being disposed within well  302  of microplate  300 . Fiber  102 , or support  104  of fiber  102 , may be connected to a robotic arm that is configured to place fiber  102  into well  302  for testing a sample material disposed therein. If the sample contains molecules of interest, those molecules can then interact with fiber  102  to generate a charge along the surface of fiber  102 . After disposing fiber  102  into the sample material, the robotic arm could then position fiber  102  in front of an imaging system. The imaging system can be used to detect a movement of fiber  102  before and after the application of an appropriate electric field to fiber  102 . In this arrangement, the present system takes advantage of established robotic and microplate handling capabilities for both high throughout and accurate screening of molecules for drug discoveries and for other applications. 
     The present system can be used in both in situ and ex situ implementations. For in situ applications, fiber  102  is inserted into solution wells, as shown in  FIGS. 3A and 3B . This arrangement allows for analysis of the kinetics of molecular interactions and binding processes. This in situ application provides kinetic information, which is important for various applications. In that arrangement, though, the presence of an aqueous solution in which the sample material is suspended may screen or reduce the electric field applied to fiber  102  by the analysis system, which could decrease the fiber  102 &#39;s deflection, making detection of movement of fiber  102  more difficult. To minimize the damping effect of the aqueous solution, fiber  102  may be withdrawn from the aqueous solution (and sample material) for testing. This allows for detection of fiber  102  bending, while fiber  102  is disposed in air, rather than the aqueous solution. In that case, because there is no aqueous solution to dampen movements of fiber  102  or the application of the electric field, fiber  102  will bend further, allowing for easier detection of fiber  102  bending. This implementation, though, does not allow for the collection of kinetic information, but may be useful for applications that do not require quantitative analysis. Depending on the specific need of the each application, therefore, either in situ or ex situ measurements can be carried out using the present system. 
     To increase throughput of the present system, multiple, separate, fibers  102  may be integrated into a single testing system. Each fiber  102  can then simultaneously test different wells in a microplate.  FIG. 4 , for example, shows an implementation of system  100  incorporating a number of fibers  102 . Fibers  102  are spaced along support  104  to correspond with the positioning of wells  302  of microplate  300 . Each of fibers  102  can then be dipped into wells  302  of microplate  300  to test material  103   a - 103   d  disposed therein. Imaging system  202  is positioned below wells  302  and is configured to separately image each one of the tips of fibers  102  to detect a displacement of fibers  102  before and after application of an appropriate electrical field. In the implementation shown in  FIG. 4 , each of fibers  102  may be mounted to support  104  which is, in turn, connected to a robotic arm that is configured to maneuver fibers  102  with respect to microplate  300 . 
     As described above, the present system finds utility in any application calling for the detection of a particular substance or molecule within a sample material. The following illustrates some example, specific, uses of the system. The following listing should not be considered limiting in any way, and only serves to illustrate potential uses of the present system. 
     Phosphorylation is the addition of a phosphate (PO 4   3− ) group to a protein or other organic molecule. It activates or deactivates many protein enzymes. Protein phosphorylation plays a significant role in a wide range of cellular processes, and has been the subject of a very large body of research. Detection of phosphorylation is difficult for the current detection technologies because the phosphate is small. The present system, therefore, may be used to detect phosphorylation and dephosphorylation because the chemical reaction is accompanied by a change in charge that can be accumulated on an appropriately sensitized fiber. 
     Another example application involves DNA sequencing. DNA sequencing by synthesis is an important approach for decoding DNA. It also involves phosphorylation, so the present invention can also be used as a readout method for DNA sequencing. 
     The present system may also be used to screen drugs that target phoshporylation receptors. The system can detect any molecules that change charges or partial charges. Examples include hormones and peptides, si-RNA and DNA hybridization. 
     As described herein, the present system is sensitive, allowing for detection of even single electron charges. Compared to mass-based label-free detection, the prevent system is sensitive only to charge changes, which minimize non-specific absorption issue. Additionally, the present system is compatible with microplate technology, facilitating quick adaption of the technology, high throughput screening while removing the need of microfluidics. The system is also compatible with conventional optical microscope, making the system easier to be accepted by users. 
       FIG. 5  is a graph showing experimental results for the present system illustrating a comparison of a pH level within a sample material to a corresponding displacement distance of fiber  102  after exposure to the sample material. As shown by  FIG. 5 , as the pH of a particular sample increases, the charge change on fiber  102  increases, resulting in a greater displacement of fiber  102  and facilitating detection by a fiber  102  displacement-monitoring system, such as the optical system described above. 
     The materials and methods described above are not intended to be limited to the embodiments and examples described herein.