Abstract:
An adsorbent suitable for heavy metal adsorption is described, comprising a thiol functionalized support wherein the adsorbent has a BET surface area in the range 200-500 m 2 /g, a pore diameter in the range 70-150 Angstroms and a pore volume ≧0.25 cm 3 /g. The adsorbent may be used to remove heavy metals e.g. mercury and/or arsenic, from wastewater streams such as produced water or flue gas scrubber waters.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is the U.S. National Phase application of PCT International Application No. PCT/GB2009/051004, filed Aug. 12, 2009, and claims priority of British Patent Application No. 0816379.2, filed Sept. 8, 2008, the disclosures of both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes. 
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention relates to adsorbents suitable for removing mercury and/or arsenic and other heavy metals from aqueous streams and their use. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Mercury and arsenic and other heavy metals such as cadmium and lead are poisonous substances and are often present as soluble compounds in produced water from gas and oil recovery processes, and may be found in waste-water streams from refineries, flue gas washing and coal gasification. There is a need to find an environmentally sound and cost effective heavy metal removal technology. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 5,814,226 discloses a process for removing heavy metal ions from aqueous streams by contacting the streams with an inorganic ceramic support such as a silica gel on which has been supported a thiol or amine-functionality by means of a suitably functionalised organic silane or titanizing agent. No examples with mercury or arsenic are given. 
     Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2003, 42, 1955-1964 discloses mercury (II) ion adsorption from wastewaters using a thiol-functionalised adsorbent (“SOL-AD-IV”). The adsorbent is formed by co-hydrolysis of (3-mercaptopropyl) trimethoxy silane and tetraethoxysilane to form an adsorbent with specific physical characteristics. 
     J. Environ. Monit., 2003, 3, 366-370 discloses that mercury may also be absorbed from aqueous solutions using a thiol-functionalised silica material using a thiol-functionalised silane wherein the thiol-functionalised silane was formed on a silica gel surface by the reaction 3-mercaptopropyl silane and ethylene sulphide. 
     The physical characteristics of the known products are not ideal for industrial scale use, and large amounts of expensive silane need to be used. We have further found that different physical characteristics in the supports can lead to adsorbents with improved heavy metal capture performance. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     We have developed an adsorbent that overcomes the disadvantages of the known materials. 
     Accordingly the invention provides an adsorbent suitable for heavy metal adsorption, comprising a thiol functionalised support wherein the adsorbent has a BET surface area in the range 200-500 m 2 /g, a pore diameter in the range 70-150 Angstroms and a pore volume≧0.25 cm 3 /g. 
     The invention further provides a method for making an adsorbent, comprising the step of reacting a thiol-functionalised compound with a support to form a thiol-functionalised support, wherein the support has physical properties such that the adsorbent has a BET surface area in the range 200-500 m 2 /g, a pore diameter in the range 70-150 Angstroms and a pore volume ≧0.25 cm 3 /g. 
     The invention further provides a process, suitable for removing heavy metals, comprising contacting the adsorbent with an aqueous stream containing one or more of these metals. 
     The term “heavy metals” includes mercury, arsenic, lead, cadmium, antimony, tin, copper, nickel, zinc, chromium, platinum, palladium and gold. 
     Whereas the thiol functionality may be provided by a variety of thiol (i.e. —SH group) containing compounds, preferably the thiol functionality is provided by a thiol-functionalised silane. This silane suitably has one or more reactive halide or alkoxy groups attached to the silicon atom that react with the support and one or more non-reactive thiol-containing groups. In a preferred embodiment the silane is of formula (RO) a Si((CH 2 ) x SH) b  in which a is 2 or 3, b is 4−a, x is 1-6 and R is CH 3 , C 2 H 5  or C 3 H 7 . Especially the silane is (3-mercaptopropyl) trimethoxy silane or (3-mercaptopropyl) triethoxy silane. 
     The support may be supplied as a powder, which is processed into the final adsorbent material, or preferably, is supplied as a shaped unit, i.e. a particulate or monolithic material formed from such powders using techniques such as tabletting, extrusion and granulation. Starting with a shaped unit support is preferred because it lessens the risk of reducing the thiol functionality during subsequent processing. The support material preferably has hydroxyl functionality so that it may interact strongly with the thiol-containing compound, such as a silane. The support may be a silica, titania, alumina, zirconia, pillared or anionic clay, or zeolitic material, or a mixture thereof, which may further comprise a binder such as an aluminate cement. Hydrated oxides may also be used, for example alumina trihydrate or boehmite. The support is preferably a silica material, which may be natural or synthetic (precipitated silica) or a silica gel. We have found the properties of the support can influence the performance of the adsorbent. 
     The adsorbent desirably is in the form of a shaped unit with a minimum dimension in the range 1 to 15 mm and a maximum dimension in the range 1 to 25 mm, with an aspect ratio (longest dimension divided by shortest dimension) ≦4. In one embodiment, the shaped units are spherical or roughly spherical with a diameter in the range 1-15 mm, preferably 1-10 mm, and more preferably 1-5 mm. 
     The physical properties of the adsorbent, such as the surface area, porosity and density of the particles can have a significant effect on the absorption profile. Thus beds of adsorbent of high bulk density and limited porosity, e.g. molded tablets, may exhibit a relatively broad absorption front, whereas beds of material with lower bulk density and higher porosity have been found to have much sharper absorption front. This enables a closer approach to be made to the theoretical absorption capacity. 
     The adsorbent has a BET surface area in the range 200-500 m 2 /g, more preferably 250-450 m 2 /g. The adsorbent also has a pore diameter in the range 70 to 150 Angstroms, preferably 90 to 150 Angstroms, more preferably 100 to 150 Angstroms. The adsorbent also has a pore volume≧0.25 cm 3 /g, more preferably ≧0.50 cm 3 /g, most preferably ≧0.75 cm 3 . Adsorbents with these properties may be obtained by use of suitable support materials having physical properties that provide these characteristics in the final adsorbent. Such support materials may be made using known methods, but are also commercially available. 
     Thiol-functionalised adsorbents can be unstable. For example, the SOL-AD-IV adsorbent had to be stored under argon to prevent oxidation of the active thiols to inactive disulphides. Such storage can be difficult on an industrial scale, even if an alternative inert gas was used. Therefore the adsorbent according to the present invention may further comprise a stabilizing amount of an alkaline metal, reacted with the thiol functionality. Without wishing to be bound by theory, we believe the alkaline metal forms a metal sulphide compound that prohibits the oxidation of the thiol to form the less-active disulphide. The alkali metal is subsequently released upon exposure to heavy metal due to the favourable difference in reactivity with these metals and the stability of the resulting alkaline metal salt. 
     The alkaline metal may be one or more alkali metals or alkaline earth metals, or a mixture thereof. Preferably the alkaline metal is selected from one or more of Li, Na, K, Cs Mg, Ca or Ba, especially Na and/or Ca. 
     The level of thiol functionality is preferably in the range 0.1 to 10.0% wt (as S), more preferably 0.5 to 5.0% wt (as S), most preferably 0.5 to 3.0% wt (as S), which may be achieved, for example, by treating the supports with a suitable amount of (3-mercaptopropyl) trimethoxy silane. We have found surprisingly that highly effective adsorbents may be produced with relatively low thiol-levels compared to previous materials by selection of supports with different physical characteristics. 
     Where used, the alkaline metal content is preferably present in the adsorbent in an mount in the range 20-100% on a molar basis to the amount of thiol functionality (as S) present, depending upon the alkaline metal chosen. Desirably ≧75%, more desirably ≧90% of the thiol functionality is the adsorbent is reacted with an alkaline metal. However, alkaline metal stabilization need not be used if alternative methods for avoiding oxidation of the adsorbent, e.g. by storage under inert gas, are used. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The method of the present invention requires reacting a thiol-functionalised compound with a support to form a thiol-functionalised support. The reaction may be performed simply by combining the support and the thiol-functionalised compound in a suitable solvent under conditions where a reaction can take place and filtering or removing the solvent by evaporation. Temperatures&lt;100° C. and reaction times &lt;8 hrs have been shown to be effective. The thiol functionalised compound is preferably a silane as described above. In this case the silane can reacts with the support, releasing halide or alkoxy groups to form a stable M-O—Si link (where M =Si. Al, Ti, Zr etc) that links the thiol functionality to the surface of the support. Silica supports are preferred as detailed above. 
     Suitable solvents for industrial scale use are alcohols such as industrial methylated spirit, denatured ethanol and the like. Water is not preferred when using silanes as can lead to competing side reactions that reduce the thiol-functionalisation of the support. Toluene may be used, but is less preferred because of handling difficulties. 
     If desired, the support may be treated with a modifying material prior to reaction with the thiol-functionalised compound to increase the reactivity of the support with the thiol-functionalised compound or modify the support physical properties. In particular where the support has a low reactivity with the thiol-functionalised compound, the modifying compound may increase the thiol functionality in the resulting adsorbent. For example we have found that alumina may be treated with an alkyl silicate, such as tetramethyl orthosilicate (TMOS), and dried to increase the support&#39;s reactivity with thiol-funtionalised silanes. 
     If the adsorbent is to be stabilized by alkaline metal, the thiol-functionalised support may be treated with an alkaline metal compound to form an alkaline metal-modified thiol-functionalised support. This reaction may be performed by combining the thiol-functionalised support and alkaline metal compound in a suitable solvent and filtering or removing the solvent by evaporation to recover the product. The solvent in this case may be aqueous. Because of the high solubility of alkaline metal compounds in water and the ease of use, water is the preferred solvent. The alkaline metal compound is preferably a soluble salt or other soluble compounds such as the hydroxide. The alkaline metal compound is preferably NaOH or Ca(OH) 2 . 
     The adsorbent according to the present invention may be used widely to remove heavy metals such as mercury, arsenic, lead, cadmium, antimony, tin, copper, nickel, cobalt, zinc, chromium, platinum, palladium and gold from aqueous streams. The invention is of particular utility for mercury, and arsenic, especially mercury. 
     Herein by the term “adsorbent” we also include “absorbent”. 
     The mercury and/or arsenic and/or other metals may be removed by contacting the aqueous stream containing mercury and/or arsenic and/or other metals with the shaped adsorbent either in batch mode, for example in a stirred tank, or preferably, in continuous mode. Batch mode generally requires filtration, which can be time consuming. In continuous mode the aqueous solution is passed through one or more fixed beds of the adsorbent in a suitable vessel such as an adsorbent column. Such practices are known and may be used effectively in the present invention. 
     The aqueous streams from which the heavy metals may be removed include produced water streams produced from natural gas or oil recovery processes, waste water streams from industrial processes such as refineries, power stations, coal gasifiers, or other contaminated aqueous streams. Thus the present invention may be applied to the removal of heavy metals from contaminated aqueous streams generated by the exploration and/or production of fossil fuels, such as natural gas, crude oil or coal. Alternatively the contaminated aqueous stream may be a by-product of the processing of fossil fuels used to generate chemical products and/or energy. Examples include aqueous streams from the co-production of reservoir water in oil and gas exploration and/or production, oil refining, gas transmission, Natural Gas Liquid (NGL) production, gasification, combustion processes such as Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) processes, or scrubber liquors, e.g. those obtained from flue-gas desulphurisation units. In an alternative embodiment, the adsorbent s may be used to remove heavy metals from water destined for use in industrial processes or for domestic/municipal use, e.g. as drinking water. In a further embodiment the adsorbent may be used to remove heavy metals from aqueous streams produced by the decontamination of industrial process equipment or transportation equipment, such as tankers, floating, production storage and off-loading (FPSO) facilities, static vessels or pipelines. 
     Typically the concentration of mercury in the contaminated feed stream is from 0.1 to 20 parts per million by weight (ppm wt). 
     Preferably the absorption of the heavy metals is conducted in the liquid phase at a temperature below 100° C., as at such temperatures the overall capacity for mercury absorption is increased. Temperatures as low as 4° C. may be used to good effect in the present invention. The pH of the aqueous stream is preferably in the range 2-10, more preferably 4-10, most preferably 5-9, especially 5-7. For pH&#39;s above 10 it maybe desirable to reduce the pH to 10 or below, e.g. by addition of a suitable acid, prior to treatment with the sorbent. 
     EXAMPLES 
     The invention is further described by reference to the following Examples. 
     Example 1 
     Preparation of Adsorbent 
     Step 1 (i). (3-Mercaptopropyl) trimethoxysilane (125.0 g, 1.65 mol) in ethanol (10 was added to a silica material (500 g) in a round bottom flask and the contents stirred using an overhead mechanical stirrer. The reaction was carried out at reflux at a temperature between 70-80° C. for 1.5 hours. The beads were then filtered using Buchner filtration apparatus and washed thoroughly with acetone before being dried in an extracted oven at 40° C. overnight. 
     Step (ii). The thiol-functionalised silica material was then transferred to a beaker containing a solution of NaOH (10 and this then stirred at ambient temperature for 5 mins. The alkaline metal modified material was then filtered using Buchner filtration apparatus and washed thoroughly with water before being dried in an oven at 60° C. overnight. The resulting product was adsorbent A. 
     The experiment was repeated with two further different silica materials to generate adsorbents B and C. 
     Further adsorbent materials D, E, F, G &amp; H were prepared without alkaline-metal modification. Materials D &amp; E are according to the invention, whereas materials F, G &amp; H are comparative examples. Material D was made following the procedure in Step (i) only using the same silica support material as adsorbent A. Material E was made following the procedure in Step (i) only, using methanol in place of ethanol and a different silica support. Comparative Material F was made following the procedure of Example 1 in U.S. Pat. No. 5,814,226 on a silica gel. Comparative materials G and H were prepared using the procedure in Step (i) only using yet further different silica support materials. 
     The BET surface areas, average pore diameters and average pore volumes of the materials were determined. Measurements were made using Micromeritics Tristar 3000 and Micromeritics ASAP 2420 instruments. The BET surface areas were measured in accordance with ASTM D3663-03. The adsorption/desorption isotherms were measured in accordance with ASTM D4222-03. The adsorbate used was nitrogen at 77K. The linear portion of the BET plot was taken between relative pressures of 0.05 and 0.25. The pore volumes were determined from the adsorption branch of the isotherm at a relative pressure (P/Po) of 0.99. The average pore diameters were calculated from the pore volume at 0.99 P/Po and the BET surface area. The samples were outgased prior to measurements at 140° C. for a minimum of 1 hour with dry nitrogen purge. In addition, sulphur content of the material (wt % S) was determined by combustion of the sample at 1300° C. and subsequent IR analysis to quantify the amount of SO 2  evolved. Characterisation and post mortem analysis on the material after mercury removal testing was carried out by ICP-OES to determine the amount of mercury trapped on the material. The support characterisation data are given in Table 1. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Support Properties 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 SiO 2   
                 Particle size 
                   
                 Pore 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Content 
                 range (sieved) 
                 BET SA 
                 volume 
                 Pore diameter 
               
               
                 Sample 
                 (% wt) 
                 (mm) 
                 (m 2 g) 
                 (cm 3 /g) 
                 (Angstroms) 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 A 
                 ≧98 
                 1.7-4.0 
                 307 
                 0.94 
                 122 
               
               
                 B 
                 ≧99 
                 1.0-2.0 
                 260 
                 1.15 
                 111 
               
               
                 C 
                 ≧99 
                 1.0-2.0 
                 155 
                 0.62 
                 106 
               
               
                   
                   
                 and 
               
               
                   
                   
                 2.0-2.8 
               
               
                 D 
                 ≧98 
                 1.7-4.0 
                 307 
                 0.94 
                 122 
               
               
                 E 
                 ≧99 
                 3.0-6.0 
                 331 
                 1.06 
                 128 
               
               
                 F 
                 ≧99 
                 0.063-0.210 
                 474 
                 0.77 
                 65 
               
               
                 G 
                 97 
                 1.19-3.36 
                 610 
                 0.38 
                 25 
               
               
                 H 
                 ≧99 
                  1.4-6.75 
                 693 
                 0.37 
                 21 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The adsorbent characterisation data are given in Table 2. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Adsorbent properties 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Pore 
                 Pore 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Particle size 
                 BET 
                 volume 
                 diameter 
                 S loading 
               
               
                 Sample 
                 (mm) 
                 SA (m 2 g) 
                 (cm 3 /g) 
                 (Angstroms) 
                 (wt %) 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 A 
                 1.7-4.0 
                 279 
                 0.78 
                 112 
                 1.36 
               
               
                 B 
                 1.0-2.0 
                 Not 
                 Not 
                 Not 
                 2.10 
               
               
                   
                   
                 analysed 
                 analysed 
                 analysed 
               
               
                 C 
                 1.0-2.0 
                 116.0 
                 0.38 
                 131 
                 2.12 
               
               
                   
                 and 
               
               
                   
                 2.0-2.8 
               
               
                 D 
                 1.7-4.0 
                 277 
                 0.76 
                 110 
                 1.60 
               
               
                 E 
                 3.0-6.0 
                 283 
                 0.82 
                 115 
                 1.50 
               
               
                 F 
                 0.063-0.210 
                 327 
                 0.44 
                 53 
                 4.37 
               
               
                 G 
                 1.19-3.36 
                 610 
                 0.34 
                 25 
                 1.30 
               
               
                 H 
                  1.4-6.75 
                 656 
                 0.34 
                 21 
                 0.71 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Example 2 
     Testing 
     These tests were performed to closely replicate the fixed bed process condition. This is a continuous process and exit samples from the reactor indicate the efficiency of the material in removing mercury. In the test, an absorption vessel was charged with functionalised adsorbent material (25 ml). An aqueous solution of mercuric chloride from a feed vessel (4 L capacity) was then pumped through the reactor containing the adsorbent material by a circulation pump at a flow rate of 1 ml/min. The solution from the feed vessel was analysed by an atomic fluorescence analysis system to measure the concentration of Hg 2+ . This provided the mercury concentration at the inlet of the absorption vessel. This was maintained as closely as possible to 10 ppm by a concentrated mercuric chloride solution from a separate vessel via a dosing pump. 
     The solution exiting the adsorbent vessel was collected in a collection vessel with an overflow line that returned the overflow to the feed line of the adsorption vessel. In this way the process was run continuously 
     The solution in the collection vessel was sampled to measure the concentration of mercury exit the reactor. The concentration of mercury detected in the exit solution that was required to stop the test, also known as the breakthrough level, was set arbitrarily at 20% of the inlet concentration, so in this case when the exit concentration is greater that 2 ppm the test was stopped. The breakthrough times for the materials are given in Table 3. 
     
       
         
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Adsorbent 
                 Flowing test length (hrs) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
                 A 
                 600 
               
               
                   
                 B 
                 809 
               
               
                   
                 C 
                 787 
               
               
                   
                 D 
                 414 
               
               
                   
                 F 
                 194 
               
               
                   
                 G 
                 268 
               
               
                   
                 H 
                 125 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Adsorbents A-D according to the invention are superior to the others tested. Adsorbent D is not as effective as A-C but is still more effective than the comparative examples F, G &amp; H. Post-test analyses on the spent adsorbents from flowing tests are shown in Table 4. 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Adsorbent. 
                 Mass (g) 
                 Volume (ml) 
                 [Hg] (ppm) 
                 Mass Hg (g) 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 A 
                 12.127 
                 25 
                 119000 
                 0.183 
               
               
                 B 
                 10.692 
                 25 
                 298510 
                 0.388 
               
               
                 C 
                 15.461 
                 25 
                 189400 
                 0.372 
               
               
                 D 
                 11.963 
                 25 
                 82600 
                 0.117 
               
               
                 F 
                 18.855 
                 25 
                 26465 
                 0.054 
               
               
                 G 
                 17.615 
                 25 
                 22910 
                 0.052 
               
               
                 H 
                 19.501 
                 25 
                 8635 
                 0.020 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The results demonstrate the effectiveness of adsorbents A-D as compared to comparative materials F-H. The presence of alkaline metal therefore appears to have enhanced the performance of the materials B, C and D. 
     Example 3 
     Mercury and Arsenic Removal 
     A static test was performed on a solution containing arsenic and mercury using Adsorbent A. 0.5 g of adsorbent A was added to 100 ml demineralised water containing a known concentration of mercuric chloride and arsenic trioxide. This mixture was stirred at ambient temperature. Samples were taken at specific time intervals, i.e. 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 40, 60, 120, 240, and 360 mins. These samples were then analysed for their mercury and arsenic content using atomic fluorescence analysis. The results are given in table 5. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Static test on Adsorbent A for As and Hg 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Concentration of contacting solution (ppb) 
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Time (mins) 
                 Hg 
                 As 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 0 
                 850 
                 750 
               
               
                 5 
                 900 
                 650 
               
               
                 10 
                 550 
                 550 
               
               
                 20 
                 450 
                 500 
               
               
                 40 
                 350 
                 550 
               
               
                 60 
                 350 
                 450 
               
               
                 120 
                 300 
                 250 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The results show that both Hg and As are adsorbed from the solution in this test. 
     A static test was performed on a solution containing arsenic and mercury using Adsorbent C. In this test, a measured amount of adsorbent material (1.1 g) was added to 100 ml demineralised water containing a known concentration of mercuric chloride and arsenic trioxide. This mixture was stirred at ambient temperature for 2 weeks. The solution was analysed by ICPOES at the start and the end of the test for mercury and arsenic content. The results are given in Table 6. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Static test on Adsorbent C for As and Hg 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Concentration of contacting solution (ppm) 
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Hg 
                 As 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Start of test 
                 158 
                 175 
               
               
                   
                 End of test 
                 0 
                 62 
               
               
                   
                 % Removal 
                 100 
                 65 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The results show that Adsorbent C removed both mercury and arsenic from the mixed solution, but that it shows an increased selectivity for mercury over arsenic. 
     Example 4 
     Mercury Removal 
     A static test was performed according to the method of Example 3 on a sample of produced water containing mercury, using Adsorbent A. The mercury content was adjusted to about 11 ppm. The results are given in table 6. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 static test on produced water using absorbent A. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Hg concentration of the 
               
               
                   
                 Time (mins) 
                 contacting solution (ppm) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 0 
                 10.936 
               
               
                   
                 10 
                 8.486 
               
               
                   
                 20 
                 6.188 
               
               
                   
                 40 
                 4.928 
               
               
                   
                 60 
                 3.070 
               
               
                   
                 120 
                 1.874 
               
               
                   
                 160 
                 1.158 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The analysis of the produced water before testing was as follows; 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Table showing ICP-MS/ICP-OES compositional analysis 
               
               
                 of produced water 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Analyte 
                 Concentration (ppm) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 As 
                 0.120 
               
               
                   
                 Ca 
                 0.222 
               
               
                   
                 K 
                 &lt;0.050 
               
               
                   
                 Mg 
                 0.036 
               
               
                   
                 Na 
                 0.244 
               
               
                   
                 S 
                 10.8 
               
               
                   
                 Zn 
                 0.001 
               
               
                   
                 Fluoride 
                 &lt;0.1 
               
               
                   
                 Chloride 
                 1.65 
               
               
                   
                 Nitrate 
                 &lt;0.1 
               
               
                   
                 Sulphate 
                 0.18 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the absorbent in removing mercury despite the presence of other metal compounds. 
     The static test was repeated using Adsorbent E on two further produced water samples. The results of this and a control in demineralised water doped with mercury to about 8 ppm were as follows; 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 8 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 static test on produced water using absorbent E. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 [Hg] (ppm) of contacting test solution 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Time 
                 Lab standard 
                   
                   
               
               
                 (mins) 
                 (HgCl 2  in demin water) 
                 Produced water 1 
                 Produced water 2 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 0 
                 7.909 
                 6.9345 
                 7.107 
               
               
                 5 
                 6.424 
                 6.042 
                 6.475 
               
               
                 10 
                 6.479 
                 5.624 
                 4.945 
               
               
                 20 
                 4.851 
                 4.646 
                 4.301 
               
               
                 40 
                 3.113 
                 3.8295 
                 3.416 
               
               
                 60 
                 2.420 
                 3.496 
                 1.840 
               
               
                 120 
                 0.825 
                 1.495 
                 1.047 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The analyses of the produced waters were as follows; 
     
       
         
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                 TABLE 9 
               
             
             
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Amount (ppm) 
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Analyte 
                 Produced water 1 
                 Produced water 2 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 As 
                 0.36 
                 &lt;0.1 
               
               
                   
                 Ca 
                 550 
                 11800 
               
               
                   
                 Cd 
                 &lt;0.1 
                 &lt;0.1 
               
               
                   
                 Cu 
                 0.24 
                 &lt;0.1 
               
               
                   
                 K 
                 139 
                 3270 
               
               
                   
                 Mg 
                 101 
                 670 
               
               
                   
                 Na 
                 5300 
                 45000 
               
               
                   
                 Ni 
                 &lt;0.1 
                 &lt;0.1 
               
               
                   
                 S 
                 29.8 
                 22.5 
               
               
                   
                 Zn 
                 &lt;0.1 
                 14.8 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Adsorbent E was effective in all the tests. 
     Example 5 
     Ca-modified Adsorbent 
     Using the preparation method detailed in Example 1, a Ca-modified adsorbent (I) was prepared on the same silica-titania support using (3-mercaptopropyl) trimethoxy siliane but with Ca(OH) 2  in place of NaOH. The support and adsorbent properties are given in table 10. 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                 TABLE 10 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Particle 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 size range 
                 BET 
                 Pore 
                 Pore 
               
               
                   
                 (sieved) 
                 SA 
                 volume 
                 diameter 
                 S loading 
               
               
                   
                 (mm) 
                 (m 2 g) 
                 (cm 3 /g) 
                 (Angstroms) 
                 (wt %) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Support 
                 1.7-4.0 
                 307.0 
                 0.94 
                 122 
                 n/a 
               
               
                 material 
               
               
                 Adsorbent I 
                 1.7-4.0 
                 283.3 
                 0.76 
                 108 
                 1.45 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     This adsorbent was tested in a flowing test at 1-week, 18 weeks (126 days) and 36 weeks (252 days), with storage in between at ambient temperature under air. The results are detailed in Table 11. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 11 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Adsorbent I 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Layer no. 
                 Mass (g) 
                 Volume (ml) 
                 [Hg] (ppm) 
                 Mass Hg (g) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  1 week 
                 11.951 
                 25 
                 109000 
                 0.156 
               
               
                 18 weeks 
                 12.061 
                 25 
                 103400 
                 0.162 
               
               
                 36 weeks 
                 11.678 
                 25 
                 128700 
                 0.200 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Despite a difference of 35 weeks between tests, the Ca-stabilised adsorbent has retained its capacity for Hg under these conditions. 
     Example 6 
     Adsorbent with Support Modification 
     A shaped alumina support material was formed from Alcoa G-250 boehmite powder using an extrusion technique. The extrudates were between 1-10 mm in length and 1-2 mm in diameter. The alumina extrudate support material was calcined at 610° C. to convert the boehmite into gamma alumina. The properties are given in table 12. 
     
       
         
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                 TABLE 12 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 BET SA 
                 Pore diameter 
               
               
                   
                 (m 2 g) 
                 (Angstroms) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Gamma alumina 
                 283 
                 96 
               
               
                   
                 support 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Demineralised water was added to the shaped gamma alumina material (12.0 g) in a small glass beaker and the contents stirred at ambient temperature for 30 mins. The cloudy aqueous solution was then decanted from the beaker and tetramethyl orthosilicate (12 ml, 16.2 mmol) was added and the contents stirred at ambient temperature for 1 hour. After this time, the cloudy solution was decanted from the beaker and demineralised water (18 ml) was added and the mixture stirred for a further 30 mins at ambient temperature. The cloudy solution was then decanted and 3-mercaptopropyl trimethoxysilane (3 g) in methanol (30 ml) was added and the mixture stirred for a further 1 hour. After this time the extrudates were removed and dried in an extracted oven at 70° C. overnight to give adsorbent J. The S loading on the functionalised support was 0.67% wt. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 13 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Static test data on adsorbent J 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Time (mins) 
                 Hg concentration of the contacting solution (ppm) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 0 
                 8.050 
               
               
                   
                 10 
                 7.693 
               
               
                   
                 20 
                 7.371 
               
               
                   
                 40 
                 6.026 
               
               
                   
                 60 
                 5.232 
               
               
                   
                 120 
                 4.220 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Example 7 
     Mercury Removal 
     A static test was performed according to the method of Example 3 on a solution containing mercury nitrate [Hg(NO 3 ) 2 ], using Adsorbent B. The results are given in Table 14. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 14 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Testing of Adsorbent B with Mercury Nitrate 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Hg concentration of the 
               
               
                   
                 Time (mins) 
                 contacting solution (ppm) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 0 
                 11.4 
               
               
                   
                 10 
                 4.6 
               
               
                   
                 20 
                 3.7 
               
               
                   
                 40 
                 2.5 
               
               
                   
                 280 
                 0.9 
               
               
                   
                 360 
                 0.6 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The sodium-stabilised adsorbent (material B) has shown 95% mercury removal from a solution of mercury nitrate over 6 hours. 
     Example 8 
     Testing for Mercury Removal at Differing pH 
     A static test was performed according to the method of Example 3 using Adsorbent B, on a solution containing mercury chloride to which sodium hydroxide had been added until the pH of the mercury chloride solution was 13. The test was also performed on a mercury chloride solution to which hydrochloric acid had been added until the pH of the mercury chloride solution was 2. The results are given in Table 15. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 15 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Testing of Adsorbent B with pH 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Hg concentration of the contacting solution 
                   
               
               
                   
                 (ppm) 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Time (mins) 
                 pH 2 
                 pH 13 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 0 
                 14.1 
                 14.1 
               
               
                 10 
                 8.6 
                 not analysed 
               
               
                 20 
                 2.8 
                 10.1 
               
               
                 40 
                 2.3 
                 7.1 
               
               
                 60 
                 1.3 
                 5.2 
               
               
                 120 
                 0.3 
                 4.2 
               
               
                 280 
                 0.0 
                 3.8 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Adsorbent B showed good mercury removal at pH 2, but when the pH was increased to 13, the material started to break up thus reducing the mercury removal performance. Further tests indicated good stability up to pH 10. 
     Example 9 
     Preparation and Testing of Adsorbents with Differing Sulphur Loadings 
     Materials K, L, M and N were prepared with alkaline-metal modification as described in procedures 1(i) and 1(ii) only using varying amounts of thiol in the reaction to give materials of varying sulphur content. The sulphur loadings are given in Table 17. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 17 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Adsorbent properties 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Particle size 
                 S loading 
               
               
                 Material 
                 (mm) 
                 (wt %) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 K 
                 1-2 
                 0.75 
               
               
                 L 
                 1-2 
                 1.40 
               
               
                 M 
                 1-2 
                 3.27 
               
               
                 N 
                 1-2 
                 6.80 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The adsorbents were tested in a flowing test as described in Example 2. The results are detailed in Table 18. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 18 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Mercury removal with Adsorbents K-M 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Flowing test 
                 Mass 
                 Volume 
                   
                 Mass Hg 
               
               
                 Adsorbent. 
                 length (hrs) 
                 (g) 
                 (ml) 
                 [Hg] (ppm) 
                 (g) 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 K 
                 592 
                 9.831 
                 25 
                 110600 
                 0.138 
               
               
                 L 
                 456 
                 10.242 
                 25 
                 153600 
                 0.195 
               
               
                 M 
                 1377 
                 11.369 
                 25 
                 368400 
                 0.570 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The results show that with increasing sulphur loadings on the adsorbent material, increased levels of mercury are removed from the water feed before the test reaches breakthrough.