Abstract:
A functionalized nanoparticle is provided that comprises a nanoparticle synthesized from a mixture comprising lanthanide ions, a coating of silica or related materials and a presenting substrate. The presenting substrate can be conjugated to the nanoparticle for functionalizing the nanoparticle. The functionalized nanoparticle is less than about 350 nm in diameter.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
       [0001]    This application claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/799,965 filed May 11, 2006, and entitled “FUNCTIONALIZED LANTHANIDE RICH NANOPARTICLES AND USE THEREOF” which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. 
     
    
     FIELD 
       [0002]    The technology relates to nanoparticles that are prepared from lanthanide rich nanoparticles and a coating to provide a product nanoparticle, which in turn can be conjugated to a selected material. The technology also relates to methods of using functionalized nanoparticles. 
       BACKGROUND 
       [0003]    There is a large interest in the development of highly luminescent biomaterials for biological applications such as biolabeling, drug delivery, diagnostics of infectious and genetic diseases, etc. [1]  Materials such as traditional organic dyes [2] , quantum dots [3] , and metal nanoparticles [4]  are widely applied in biological analyses but have some limitations. Organic dyes have a number of known drawbacks such as weak photostability, broad absorption and emission band, and toxicity. [2]  Various semiconductor quantum dots display high photostability, size dependant emission, high quantum yields, and narrow emission bandwidth and have successfully been applied in biological applications. [3]  However, they are still controversial because of their inherent toxicity and chemical instability. [5]  Moreover, their inherent short-lived luminescent lifetime may overlap with the spontaneous background emission sources (natural fluorescence of biomolecules such as proteins is within 1-10 ns). Noble metal nanoparticles (e.g. gold nanoparticles) which are known to scatter and absorb visible light make them potentially suitable candidates for biosensors. [4]  Though these noble metal nanoparticles posses biocompatibility, their optical properties in the visible region may overlap with natural proteins. Halas et al. [6]  have addressed this issue in a different way by developing a gold nanoshell over a silica sphere of sub-micron size for bio-applications such as the integration of cancer imaging and therapy. Notwithstanding this progress, there is still a need for more efficient biolabels with high photostability, biocompatibility, optical properties, and ultrasensitivity to bioassays. 
         [0004]    In order to address these key issues, the development of an alternative biomaterial via lanthanide-doped nanoparticle is gaining popularity due to their unique luminescent properties such as sharp absorption and emission lines, high quantum yield, long lifetimes and superior photostability. [7]  In particular, lanthanide ions are known to exhibit both efficient energy down- and up-conversion emission properties, where the down-conversion process is the conversion of higher energy photons into lower energy photons, which is also widely exploited in quantum dots as well as in organic dyes. [8]  In contrast, the up-conversion process converts lower energy photons via multiphoton processes into higher energy photons, and is, in general, based on sequential absorption and energy transfer steps. [9]  One has to bear in mind that this event is different from multiphoton absorption processes, which typically require high excitation densities. [9]   
         [0005]    At present, there are only a select number of reports on the use of lanthanide-based nanoparticles as potential biolabels that emit in the visible region, by either up-conversion or down-conversion processes. [5]  Examples include the bioconjugation of Ln 3+ -doped LaF 3  nanoparticle to avidin by our group [10] , and work done by Caruso and co-workers [11]  with the functionalization of LaPO 4 :Ce/Tb nanoparticles with streptavidin for biotin-streptavidin binding studies. In addition, a recent contribution from Li and co-workers [12]  demonstrate that an Er 3+ /Yb 3+  up-converting nanoparticle label can be used in FRET type analysis, whereby the emission of the up-converting nanoparticle is quenched by the energy accepting gold nanoparticle that are functionalized with biotin for biotin-avidin detection and quantification. Although these articles prove the principle of bioconjugation, they have three main drawbacks. The first is long term stability where it has been reported that ionic bound stabilizing ligands can be protonated off the surface of the nanoparticles in pH-dependent solutions. [10]  The second is toxicity due to exposure of lanthanide ions to the body, and finally they emit only in the visible region. Only a few reports have dealt with these issues by developing a silica shell over the lanthanide-doped materials, such as, silica-coated YVO 4 :Eu 3+  nanoparticles functionalized with guanidinium for sodium channel targeting by Beaurepaire et al. [13] , and silica-coated Gd 2 O 3 :Tb 3+  nanoparticle functionalized with streptavidin by Louis et al. [14]  Additionally Niedbala and co-workers have done up-converting, silica-coated, lanthanide-doped submicron-sized ceramic particles for DNA assays. [15]  The use of a silica coating over lanthanide-doped nanoparticles is an attractive alternative because the surface chemistry of silica spheres is well documented and silica is known to have benign effects in biological systems. [16]  Up-converting and near-infrared (NIR) emitting biolabels with silica coating would be beneficial because up-converting materials can be excited with NIR light, which is outside the luminescent absorption range of biomolecules, thus minimizing loss of excitation energy to the surrounding material as compared to exciting with UV light. [5]  Furthermore, excitation and emission in the NIR region can minimize interferences from the autofluorescence of proteins. However, these reports only show emission in the visible region by a down-conversion process, and to the best of our knowledge, there are no reports available on silica-coated lanthanide-doped nanoparticles, which have near-infrared emission (750-2000 nm) and up-converted emission. 
         [0006]    There are other disadvantages of the existing biolabels. First they suffer from quenching. Second they have a low range of emission lines. Third they suffer losses of excitation energy to the surrounding material because they are excited with UV light. Fourth, skin and other biological materials are not very transparent to UV-Vis light, thus deep penetration of light is difficult. Fifth there is interference from auto-fluorescence of proteins, nucleic acids and others cellular components. Sixth, some biolabels are not easily removed from the body for example by secretion through the kidneys. Seventh, low luminescent lifetimes, size-dependent emission (as in quantum dots), and instable photocycle. 
         [0007]    Turning to telecommunications, in recent years, advances in Tm 3+ -doped materials for telecommunication devices have been used to expand the transmission bandwidth of optical fibers beyond the range available from Er 3+ -doped fiber amplifiers, by taking advantage of the 1.4 μm emission wavelength from Tm 3+ [i] . This need is a result of a surge of interest in increasing the traffic on wavelength-division multiplexing optical communication networks offered by installed silica-glass fibers. However, until recently the OH content in most fiber-optics prevented engineers from taking advantage of the S-band due to the sensitivity of Tm 3+  to quenching. Now, the development of low-loss fibers has allowed Tm 3+ -doped fluoride or silica fiber amplifiers to produce effective amplifications from 1450 to 1520 nm [ii]. In addition to the  1.4 μm emission band, a large amount of research is also being carried out to develop the 1.8 μm emission band of thulium, which has become of interest for light detection and ranging (LIDAR), remote sensing, and potential medical laser applications [iii] . 
         [0008]    Other important applications of Tm 3+ -doped materials have occurred in the field of nanoparticle up-conversion technology [iv,v,vi,vii,viii,ix] , where excitation with low energy (e.g. near-infrared light) results in higher energy emission (e.g. visible region), and are being developed for, among others, display technology (flat screen display) iv,x , blue laser diodes [xi]  and biolabel technology [xii,xiii,xiv,xv,xvi,xvii] . Limited work has been published on the development of Tm 3+ -doped nanoparticles for near-infrared applications such as telecommunications and laser-diode technology. Work done by Higuchi et al. [xi]  have reported the preparation of LuVO 4  nanoparticles doped with Tm 3+  by means of a floating zone method under pure oxygen, resulting in elongated crystals that exhibited emission at 1.8 μm. Other work by Lai et al. [xviii]  and Zhang et al. [x]  have developed Tm 3+ -doped (Y,Gd)P 0.5 V 0.5 O 4  and Tm 3+ -doped YVO 4  nanoparticles by co-precipitation and polymerizable complex methods, respectively, but they have only reported emission bands in the visible region. Work done by Riman et al. [xix]  have reported the development of LaCl 3  particles doped with Tm 3+  at various concentrations and observed 1.47 μm emission, but no particle-size analysis was presented. To the best of our knowledge, there are no reports in the literature describing the preparation and spectral properties of processable Tm 3+ -doped nanoparticles that exhibit photoluminescence at 1.47 μm, and allow for easy surface modification to fine-tune their properties. 
         [0009]    It is an object of the present technology to overcome the deficiencies in the prior art. 
       SUMMARY 
       [0010]    The preparation and bioconjugation of nearly monodisperse (approximately 40 nm) silica-coated LaF 3 :Ln 3+  nanoparticles is provided by this technology. Doping of the LaF 3  core with selected luminescent Ln 3+  ions allows the particles to display a range of emission lines from the visible to the near-infrared region (450-1650 nm). First, the use of Tb 3+  and Eu 3+  ions resulted in green (541 nm), and red (591 and 612 nm), respectively, by energy down-conversion processes. Second, the use of Nd 3+  gave 870, 1070 and 1350 nm emission lines, and Er 3+  ion gave 1540 nm emission lines, respectively, by energy down-conversion processes. Additionally, the Er 3+  ions gave green and red emission and Tm 3+  ion gave 800 nm emission, via up-conversion processes when co-doped with Yb 3+  (λ ex =980 nm). Bioconjugation of avidin, which is bound to fluorophore FITC as the reporter, was first done by surface modification of the silica particles with 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane, followed by the reaction of the biotin-N-hydroxysuccinimide activated ester to form an amide bond, imparting biological activity to the particles. A 25-fold increase in the FITC signal over the non-biotinylated silica particles indicates that there is minimal non-specific binding of FITC-avidin to the silica particles. 
         [0011]    Also described is a general procedure for the synthesis of dispersible silica-coated, core-shell (LaF 3 :Tm)LaF 3  nanoparticles with an average diameter of 40 nm and emission at 1.47 and 1.87 μm. Measurement of the citrate-stabilized precursor nanoparticles in D 2 O exhibited 1.47 μm emission with an effective lifetime of 9 μs and an estimated quantum yield of &lt;1%. Drastic improvements of the emission properties was done by forming a silica shell around the nanoparticles via a modified Stöber method, then curing at 900° C. for 24 hr. Excitation with a 785 nm CW diode laser resulted in the luminescence of the  3 H 4 - 3 F 4  transition at 1.47 μm with an effective lifetime of 151 μs and an increase in the estimated quantum yield to 10%. High-resolution measurements at 77 K were carried out in order to improve the resolution of the crystal field splitting observed from the  3 F 4  level. Finally, 1.87 μm emission from the  3 F 4 - 3 H 6  transition was observed upon cooling to 77 K. 
         [0012]    In one embodiment, a lanthanide rich product nanoparticle is provided. The product nanoparticle comprises: 
         [0000]    a lanthanide rich precursor nanoparticle synthesized from a mixture comprising lanthanide ions; and
 
a coating comprising one or more of silica, alumina, zirconia, titania, hafnia, tantalum pentoxide, niobium pentoxide, germanium dioxide, Ln 2 O 3  (Ln=La to Lu, Y, Sc), and MO2 (M=Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba), wherein the product nanoparticle is less than about 350 nm in diameter.
 
         [0013]    In one aspect, the lanthanide ions are selected from the group consisting of Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, La, Lu, Y and Sc. 
         [0014]    In another aspect, the mixture comprises at least two lanthanide ions. 
         [0015]    In another aspect, the precursor nanoparticles are core-shell nanoparticles. 
         [0016]    In another aspect, the precursor nanoparticles comprise a metal halide salt. 
         [0017]    In another aspect, the precursor nanoparticles comprise a metal fluoride salt. 
         [0018]    In another aspect, the shell comprises LaF 3 . 
         [0019]    In another aspect, the precursor nanoparticles comprise LaF 3 :Ln (Ln=Er, Tb, Eu, Nd, or Tm). 
         [0020]    In another aspect, the coating is silica. 
         [0021]    In another aspect, the precursor nanoparticles comprise MF 2 :Ln (M=Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba; Ln=Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb). 
         [0022]    In another aspect, the precursor nanoparticles comprise M 1 M 2 F 4 :Ln (M 1 =Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; M 2 =La, Gd, Lu, Y, Sc; Ln=Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb). 
         [0023]    In another aspect, the lanthanide rich product nanoparticles range in size from about 5 to about 150 nm in diameter. 
         [0024]    In another aspect, the lanthanide rich product nanoparticles range in size from about 5 to about 100 nm in diameter. 
         [0025]    In another embodiment, a functionalized nanoparticle is provided. The functionalized nanoparticle comprises: 
         [0026]    a product nanoparticle comprising: 
         [0027]    a precursor nanoparticle synthesized from a mixture comprising lanthanide ions; 
         [0028]    a coating comprising one or more of silica, alumina, zirconia, titania, hafnia, tantalum pentoxide, niobium pentoxide, germanium dioxide, Ln 2 O 3  (Ln=La to Lu, Y, Sc), and MO2 (M=Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba), to produce a product nanoparticle; and 
         [0029]    a presenting substrate, the presenting substrate conjugated to the product nanoparticle for functionalizing the product nanoparticle, wherein the functionalized nanoparticle is less than about 350 nm in diameter. 
         [0030]    In one aspect of the functionalized nanoparticle, the lanthanide ions are selected from the group consisting of Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, La, Lu, Y and Sc. 
         [0031]    In another aspect of functionalized nanoparticle, the mixture comprises at least two lanthanide ions. 
         [0032]    In another aspect of functionalized nanoparticle, the precursor nanoparticles are core-shell nanoparticles. 
         [0033]    In another aspect of functionalized nanoparticle, the precursor nanoparticles comprise a metal halide salt. 
         [0034]    In another aspect of functionalized nanoparticle, the precursor nanoparticles comprise a metal fluoride salt. 
         [0035]    In another aspect of functionalized nanoparticle, the shell comprises LaF 3 . 
         [0036]    In another aspect of functionalized nanoparticle, the precursor nanoparticles comprise LaF 3 :Ln (Ln=Er, Tb, Eu, Nd, or Tm). 
         [0037]    In another aspect of functionalized nanoparticle, the coating is silica. 
         [0038]    In another aspect of functionalized nanoparticle the presenting substrate is selected from the group consisting of avidin, streptavidin, biotin, antibody, polynucleotide, lectin, protein A, polypeptides and ligands selected from the group consisting of carboxylic acids and their esters, organo phosphorous compounds and their esters, phosphonates and phosphine oxides, alcohols, thiols, sulfoxides, sulfones, ketones, aldehydes, the group consisting of polymers of carboxylic acids and their esters, organo phosphorous compounds and their esters, phosphonates and phosphine oxides, alcohols, thiols, sulfoxides, sulfones, ketones, aldehydes the group consisting of and alkyl ammonium compounds (RNH 3+ , R 1 R 2 NH 2   + , R 1 R 2 R 3 NH + , R 1 R 2 R 3 R 4 N + , where R is independently selected from alkyl and aromatic groups. 
         [0039]    In another aspect of functionalized nanoparticle, the presenting substrate is avidin. 
         [0040]    In another aspect of functionalized nanoparticle the presenting substrate is surface modified. 
         [0041]    In another aspect of functionalized nanoparticle the precursor nanoparticles comprise MF 2 :Ln (M=Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba; Ln=Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb). 
         [0042]    In another aspect of functionalized nanoparticle the precursor nanoparticles comprise M 1 M 2 F 4 :Ln (M 1 =Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; M 2 =La, Gd, Lu, Y, Sc; Ln=Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb). 
         [0043]    In another aspect of functionalized nanoparticle the functionalized nanoparticle range in size from about 5 to about 150 nm in diameter. 
         [0044]    In another aspect of functionalized nanoparticle the functionalized nanoparticles range in size from about 5 to about 100 nm in diameter. 
     
    
     
       FIGURES 
         [0045]    Scheme 1. Schematic illustration of preparation and bio-conjugation of silica-coated LaF 3 :Ln 3+  nanoparticles. 
           [0046]      FIG. 1 . TEM image of as-prepared silica-coated LaF 3 :Nd nanoparticles. 
           [0047]      FIG. 2 . Emission spectra of as-prepared silica-coated a) LaF 3 :Eu nanoparticles (λ ex =464 nm), b) LaF 3 :Tb nanoparticles (λ ex =485 nm). 
           [0048]      FIG. 3 . Decay curve for silica-coated LaF 3 :Eu nanoparticles before surface modification. (λ ex =464 nm, λ em =591 nm, excitation source—OPO). 
           [0049]      FIG. 4 . Decay curve for silica-coated LaF 3 :Tb nanoparticles before surface modification (λ ex =485 nm, λ em =542 nm, excitation source—OPO). 
           [0050]      FIG. 5 . TEM image of as 800° C. heated silica-coated LaF 3 :Nd nanoparticles before surface modification. 
           [0051]      FIG. 6 . Emission spectra of 800° C. heated silica-coated a) LaF 3 :Nd nanoparticles (λ ex =514 nm), b) LaF 3 :Yb,Er nanoparticle (λ ex =980 nm). 
           [0052]      FIG. 7 . Decay curve for 800° C. heated silica-coated LaF 3 :Nd nanoparticles before surface modification. (λ ex =514 nm, λ em =1070 nm, excitation source—OPO). 
           [0053]      FIG. 8 . Decay curve for 800° C. heated silica-coated LaF 3 :Yb,Er nanoparticles before surface modification. (λ ex =488 nm, λ em =1540 nm, excitation source—OPO). 
           [0054]      FIG. 9 . Up-conversion emission spectra 800° C. heated silica-coated a) LaF 3 :Yb,Er nanoparticles (λ ex =980 nm), b) LaF 3 :Yb,Tm nanoparticles (λ ex =980 nm). 
           [0055]      FIG. 10 . Up-converted blue emission spectrum of 800° C. heated silica-coated LaF 3 :Yb,Tm nanoparticles before surface modification (λ ex =980 nm, excitation source −980 nm CW laser). 
           [0056]      FIG. 11 . Emission spectra of silica-coated LaF 3 :Tb nanoparticle after bioconjugation with FITC-avidin beads a) specific binding, b) non-specific binding (λ ex =485 nm). 
           [0057]      FIG. 12 . The emission spectra of FITC-avidin bound silica-coated LaF 3 :Tb nanoparticles in 10 mM phosphate-buffered saline solution. (λ ex =485 nm, excitation source—OPO). Inset shows the decay curve of Tb 3+  ion (λ ex =485 nm, λ em =542 nm, excitation source—OPO). The effective lifetime was calculated by neglecting the initial part of the decay curve (0-0.8 ms), which is from FITC. 
           [0058]      FIG. 13 . Emission spectra of silica-coated LaF 3 :Nd nanoparticle after bioconjugation with FITC-avidin beads in 10 mM phosphate-buffered saline solution a) specific binding, b) non-specific binding (λ ex =485 nm, excitation source—Xe lamp). 
           [0059]      FIG. 14 . The emission spectra of FITC-avidin bound silica-coated LaF 3 :Nd nanoparticles in 10 mM phosphate-buffered saline solution. (λ ex =514 nm, excitation source—OPO). Inset shows the decay curve of Nd 3+  ion (λ ex =514 nm, λ em =1070 nm, excitation source—OPO). 
           [0060]      FIG. 15 . A schematic diagram of the synthesis of the silica-coated, core-shell (LaF 3 :Tm)LaF 3  nanoparticles. Core and shell thicknesses are not to scale. 
           [0061]      FIG. 16 . A prior art schematic diagram of the relevant Tm 3+  levels and transitions. 
           [0062]      FIG. 17 . Emission spectrum of citrate-stabilized (LaF 3 :Tm(2%))LaF 3  in D 2 O. λ ex  785 nm. Inset shows the luminescent decay curve of citrate-stabilized (LaF 3 :Tm(2%))LaF 3  in D 2 O. λ ex  785 nm, λ em  1450 nm. 
           [0063]      FIG. 18 . Emission spectrum of silica-coated (LaF 3 :Tm(2%))LaF 3  as a KBr pellet. λ ex  785 nm. 
           [0064]      FIG. 19 . A. Overlaid emission spectra of silica-coated (LaF 3 :Tm(2%))LaF 3  at (a) 294 K and (b) 77 K. λ ex  785 nm. Deconvolution of the  3 H 4 - 3 F 4  transition measured at 77 K fitted with six Gaussian peaks. B. The overlaid lifetime analysis of silica-coated (LaF 3 :Tm(2%))LaF 3  at (a) 294 K and (b) 77 K. λ ex  785 nm, λ em  1450 nm. 
           [0065]      FIG. 20 . Emission spectrum of the  3 H 4 - 3 H 6  transition at 1.85 μm. λ ex  785 nm. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0066]    Herein, we report a general and easy method for the preparation and bioconjugation of silica-coated LaF 3 :Ln 3+  nanoparticles that display several non-overlapping emission lines that cover the visible to near-infrared region (450-1900 nm) through down-conversion as well as up-conversion processes, which can for instance be exploited in multiplexing applications. [xx]  LaF 3  material has second lowest phonon energy of the commonly used Ln 3+ -doping matrices (Table 1 [xix,xxi,xxii] ) thus minimizing the quenching of the excited state lanthanide ions from lattice vibrations. Also the La 3+  ions are easily substituted within the LaF 3  matrix upon doping, without the problems associated with either a significant lattice mismatch of two different ions or lanthanide ion clustering. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Table of selected lattice phonon energies of 
               
               
                 commonly used matrices for Ln 3+  doping. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Highest Phonon 
               
               
                   
                 Material 
                 energy (cm −1 ) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Phosphate glass 
                 1200 
               
               
                   
                 Silica glass 
                 1100 
               
               
                   
                 Fluoride glass 
                 550 
               
               
                   
                 Chalcogenide glass 
                 400 
               
               
                   
                 LaPO 4   
                 1050 
               
               
                   
                 YAG 
                 860 
               
               
                   
                 YVO 4   
                 600 
               
               
                   
                 LaF 3   
                 300 
               
               
                   
                 LaCl 3   
                 240 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       DEFINITIONS 
       [0067]    Nanoparticles: The term “nanoparticles” as used herein, can also refer to nanoclusters, clusters, particles, dots, quantum dots, small particles, and nanostructured materials.
 
When the term “nanoparticle” is used, one of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that this term encompasses all materials with small size and often associated with quantum size effects, generally the size is less than 100 nm. Nanoparticles can comprise a core or a core and a shell, as in core-shell nanoparticles.
 
All nanoparticles may have one or more Ln independently selected from the list below and comprise at least one of:
 
       LnX 3  (X=F, Cl, Br, I) 
     LnOX (X=F, Cl, Br, I) 
     Ln 2 X 3  (X=O, S, Se, Te) 
     Ln 2 XxYy (X=O, S, Se, Te; Y=O, S, Se, Te) 
     Ln 2 X 3  (X=CO 3 , C 2 O 4 , SO 4 , SO 3 ) 
     LnX (X=PO 4 , PO 3 , VO 4 ) 
     Borates 
     Aluminates 
     Gallates 
     Silicates 
     Germanates 
     Niobates 
     Tantalates 
     Wolframates 
     Molybdates 
     Nitrides 
     XO 2  (X=Ti, Zr, Hf, Ge, Sn, Pb) 
     XO (X=Ge, Sn, Zn, Pb, Cd, Hg) 
     X 2 O 5  (X=V, Nb, Ta) 
     X 2 O 3  (X=Al, Ga, In) 
       [0068]    Precursor nanoparticle: A nanoparticle that is used for making a product nanoparticle. The resulting product nanoparticle may or may not be comprised of the precursor nanoparticle.
 
Product nanoparticle: A nanoparticle prepared from a precursor nanoparticle and a coating comprising one or more of silica, alumina, zirconia, titania, hafnia, tantalum pentoxide, niobium pentoxide, germanium dioxide, yttrium oxide (Y 2 O 3 ), and gadolinium oxide (Gd 2 O 3 ). The product nanoparticle may or may not comprise precursor nanoparticle. The product nanoparticle can be a core-shell nanoparticle or it may only comprise the core.
 
Lanthanides: The term “lanthanide” as used herein refers to Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, La, Lu, Y, Sc combinations thereof, compounds containing Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, La, Lu, Y, Sc and combinations thereof, and ions of Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, La, Lu, Y, Sc and combinations thereof. Ionic states ranging from +2 to +4 are contemplated.
 
Presenting substrate: Any material that can interact with the silica coating by adhesion, or chemical bonding, including hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonding, ionic bonding and covalent bonding, for example, but not to be limiting. Presenting materials include, for example, but not limited to avidin, streptavidin, biotin, antibody, polynucleotide, lectin, protein A, polypeptides and any ligands. These can in turn can interact with, for example, but not limited to drugs, antigens, toxins antibodies, streptavidin, protein A, polypeptides, and polynucleotides.
 
Functionalized nanoparticle: Any combination of a product nanoparticle and a presenting material.
 
Reporters: fluoresceins, cyanines, xanthenes, rhodamines, acridines and oxazines.
 
Ligands: All ligands may have one or more functional group independently selected from the following:
 
Carboxylic acids and their esters;
 
Organo phosphorous compounds (phosphonic and phosphinic acids and their esters), phosphonates, phosphine oxides;
 
       Alcohols; 
     Thiols; 
     Sulfoxides; 
     Sulfones; 
     Ketones; 
     Aldehydes; 
       [0069]    Polymers of the above listed ligands; and
 
Alkyl ammonium compounds (RNH 3+ , R 1 R 2 NH 2   + , R 1 R 2 R 3 NH + , R 1 R 2 R 3 R 4 N + , with Rx=alkyl or aromatic substituent).
 
       EXAMPLES 
       [0070]    Chemicals of the highest purity were obtained from Aldrich and used without further purification. The FITC-avidin was obtained from Invitrogen and used as received. All water used was distilled. All nanoparticles were made with LaF 3  at were doped at the respective % atom doping on the total Ln 3+  amount. 
       Synthesis of Nanoparticles 
       [0071]    The synthesis is based on our earlier reported procedure to prepare the citrate-stabilized core-shell (LaF 3 :Tm 3+ )LaF 3  nanoparticles [ix,xxiii] . Around 2 g of citric acid was dissolved in 35 mL of water and the pH adjusted to 5 by adding NH 4 OH, then followed by the addition of NaF (0.1 g, 1.33 mmol). The solution was heated to 75° C. followed by the addition of La(NO 3 ) 3 .6H 2 O (0.54 g, 1.26 mmol) and Tm(NO 3 ) 3 .5H 2 O (0.02 g, 0.05 mmol) dissolved in 2 ml of methanol. After 10 min, the shell was formed by the addition of 10 drops at a time of La(NO 3 ) 3 .6H 2 O (0.6 g, 1.33 mmol) in 2 mL of methanol, and NaF (0.1 g, 1.33 mmol) in 2 ml of water, in sequential order. The reaction was allowed to continue for 2 h and finally the nanoparticles were precipitated by the addition of excess of ethanol to the reaction mixture. They were collected by centrifuge and dried for 24 h. 
       Synthesis of Silica-Coated LaF 3 :Ln 3+  Nanoparticle 
       [0072]    50 mg of citrate stabilized LaF 3 :Ln 3+  nanoparticles dissolved in 1.44 mL of distilled water was added to ethanol (20 mL) and 30% NH 4 OH (0.4 mL) mixture. 1.2 mL of tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) was added to the above mixture. The mixture was stirred for 60 min. White coloured silica beads were centrifuged and washed with ethanol for several times. Silica beads were dried under vacuum. Silica-coated LaF 3 :Nd, LaF 3 :Yb,Er, and LaF 3 :Yb,Tm nanoparticles were heated at 800° C. for 12 hr in air. 
         [0000]    Surface Modification of the Silica-Coated LaF 3 :Ln 3+  Nanoparticles with 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilanes (APTMS) 
         [0073]    10 mg of silica-coated LaF 3 :Ln 3+  nanoparticles were suspended in 10 ml of ethanol, followed by the addition of 0.5 ml (2 mmol) of APTMS and stirred for 24 hr at room temperature. The particles were isolated and purified by centrifugation, washed 3 times with ethanol and dried under reduced pressure. 
       Biotinylation of Silica-coated LaF 3 :Ln 3+  Nanoparticles 
       [0074]    10 mg of APTMS modified silica-coated LaF 3 :Ln 3+  nanoparticles were suspended in 2 ml of DMSO, followed by the addition of 10 mg (0.03 mmol) of (+)-biotin N-hydroxysuccinimide ester and stirred for 1.5 hr at room temperature. The particles were isolated and washed by centrifugation, washed once with water and three times with ethanol, and dried under reduced pressure. 
         [0000]    Biotin-FITC-avidin binding: 10 mg of amine-modified silica-coated LaF 3 :Ln 3+  nanoparticles were suspended in 10 ml of 10 mM phosphate-buffered saline, pH 7.4, followed by the addition of 0.4 ml of FITC-avidin (final avidin concentration of 0.1 mg/ml) and stirred for 2.5 hr at room temperature. The particles were isolated and purified by centrifugation, washed 5 times with 10 mM phosphate-buffered saline solution and resuspended in 10 ml of 10 mM phosphate-buffered saline solution. 
       Characterization of Silica-Coated LaF 3 :Ln 3+  Nanoparticle 
     Luminescence Studies 
       [0075]    Down-conversion luminescence analyses were done using an Edinburgh Instruments FLS 920 fluorescence system, which was equipped a CW 450W xenon arc lamp via an M300 single grating monochromator and a 10 Hz Q-Switched Quantel Brilliant, pumped by a Nd:YAG laser, attached with an optical parametric oscillator (OPO) with an optical range from 410 to 2400 nm. The excitation source used for up-conversion was a Coherent 2-pin 980 nm CW semiconductor diode laser with P max =800 mW at 1000 mA. The fiber is coupled to 100 μm (core) fiber. A red-sensitive Peltier-cooled Hamamatsu R955 photomultiplier tube (PMT), with a photon-counting interface, was used for analyses between 200 and 850 nm, and a N 2 -cooled (−80° C.) Hamamatsu R5509PMT was used for analyses between 800 and 1700 nm. All emission analyses in the visible region were measured with a 1 nm resolution. All emission analyses in the near-infrared region were measured with a 10 nm resolution. All spectra were corrected for detector sensitivity. Lifetime analyses for all nanoparticles were done by exciting the solution with a 10 Hz Q-Switched Quantel Brilliant, pumped by a Nd:YAG laser, with an optical range from 410 to 2400 nm, and collecting the emission using the respective detector mentioned above. Decay curves were measured with a 0.01 ms lamp trigger delay for the R955PMT. Effective lifetimes were calculated using origin 7 software. The effective lifetimes were calculated using origin 7 software based on the equation [1], 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               τ 
               eff 
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   ∫ 
                   0 
                   ∞ 
                 
                  
                 
                   
                     t 
                     / 
                     
                       ( 
                       t 
                       ) 
                     
                   
                    
                   
                      
                     t 
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ∫ 
                   0 
                   ∞ 
                 
                  
                 
                   
                     / 
                     
                       ( 
                       t 
                       ) 
                     
                   
                    
                   
                      
                     t 
                   
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0076]    All luminescence studies were carried out as dry powders for unmodified 800° C. heated silica-coated LaF 3 :Nd, LaF 3 :Er, LaF 3 :Yb, Er and LaF 3 :Yb, Tm nanoparticles. Other samples were carried as buffer solutions. 
       Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) 
       [0077]    TEM of the silica-coated LaF 3 :Ln 3+  nanoparticles was carried out using a Hitachi H-7000 microscope, operated at 100 kV. Around 1-2 mg of sample was dispersed in 5 mL of ethanol and a drop of this mixture was evaporated on a carbon-coated 300 mesh copper grids. Around 45 images were recorded from different region of the same sample and an average particle size was obtained based on a minimum of 100 particles. 
       Results 
       [0078]    The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image shown in  FIG. 1  is of the as-prepared silica-coated LaF 3 :Nd nanoparticles, which clearly shows that almost all the silica beads have a single core LaF 3 :Nd nanoparticle (˜5 nm) in the center with an average shell thickness of ˜17 nm. The LaF 3 :Nd core has a slightly higher contrast than the SiO 2  shell.  FIG. 2   a  shows the emission spectrum of the as-prepared silica-coated LaF 3 :Eu nanoparticles, in which the major emission bands of the Eu 3+  ions at 590 nm and 612 nm are assigned to the  5 D 0  to  7 F 1  and  5 D 0  to  7 F 2  transitions, and an effective lifetime of 5.9 ms is assigned to the  5 D 0  level ( FIG. 3 ). Additionally, the emission spectrum of the as-prepared silica-coated LaF 3 :Tb 3+  nanoparticles is shown in  FIG. 2   b , in which the most intense peak at 545 nm corresponds to  5 D 4  to  7 F 5  transition, and the peaks at 586 and 623 nm correspond to the  5 D 4  to  7 F 4  and  7 F 3  transitions, respectively. An effective lifetime of 3.7 ms is attributed to the  5 D 4  level ( FIG. 4 ). 
         [0079]      FIG. 5  shows the TEM image of silica-coated LaF 3 :Nd nanoparticle heated at 800° C. for 12 hr, resulting the beads to contract to an average shell thickness of ˜15 nm.  FIG. 6   a  shows the emission spectrum of the silica-coated LaF 3 :Nd nanoparticles, where the emission peaks at 870 nm, 1070 nm, and 1330 nm are from  4 F 3/2  transitions to  4 I 13/2 ,  4 I 11/2 , and  4 I 9/2 , respectively, with a effective luminescent lifetime of 170 μs ( FIG. 7 ). Due to the ability of lanthanide ions to be excited indirectly through the sensitized emission of another lanthanide ion,  FIG. 6   b  shows the emission spectrum of silica-coated LaF 3 :Yb,Er nanoparticles, via sensitized emission from Yb 3+  to the Er 3+  ions, by direct excitation of the Yb 3+  ions at 940 nm. The importance of this spectrum demonstrates that though Er 3+  has no absorption lines at this wavelength, this process results in the simultaneous very weak emission of Yb 3+  at 980 nm (attributed to the  2 F 5/2  to  2 F 7/2  transition), and the shown sensitized emission of the Er 3+  ions at 1540 nm ( 4 I 13/2  to  4 I 15/2  transition), with an effective lifetime of 1.8 ms from the  4 I 13/2  level ( FIG. 8 ). 
         [0080]    The up-conversion emission spectrum of the 800° C. heated silica-coated LaF 3 :Yb,Er nanoparticles,  FIG. 9   a  shows the emission spectrum of the Er 3+  ions by up-conversion, with the peaks at 515, 540 nm, and 660 nm being assigned to the  2 H 11/2  to  4 I 15/2 ,  4 S 3/2  to  4 I 15/2 , and  4 F 9/2  to  4 I 15/2  transitions, respectively. Furthermore,  FIG. 9   b  demonstrates the up-conversion emission spectrum of heated silica-coated LaF 3 :Yb,Tm nanoparticles, in which the emission band around 800 nm is a result of the  3 H 4  to  3 H 6  transition of Tm 3+  ions. Moreover, a weak Tm 3+  emission band at 475 nm was observed and assigned to the  1 G 4  to  3 H 6  transition ( FIG. 10 ), and is also a result of the up-conversion process. Preliminary results into the mechanism of the up-conversion process involving Tm 3+  suggest that it is occurring via energy transfer (ET) rather than an excited state absorption (ESA) or photoavalanche (PA) process. [ix]  Some evidence has been gathered that the up-conversion involving Er 3+  likely proceeds via a photo-avalanche mechanism, if certain conditions are met. 
         [0081]    To test the ability for the core-shell silica nanoparticles to be bound to a biological system, surface modification of the silica shell with biotin was used as a model for nanoparticle binding with FITC-avidin, and the extent of binding monitored by the FITC emission intensity. Due to the biologically inert nature of silica, the shell had to be modified first in a two-step process in order to impart biotin activity, as shown in Scheme 1. 
         [0082]    The emission spectra of bioconjugation of silica-coated LaF 3 :Tb nanoparticles to FITC-avidin, which is overlaid along with non-biotinylated particles as control particles, is shown in the  FIG. 11 . The emission spectra show an approximate 25-fold increase in FITC signal over the control particles, clearly proving that specific binding of avidin to the silica particles has been achieved, and that the signal from the control particles is likely a result of some physical adsorption of avidin onto the particles in a negligible amount. Our previous work has shown that coating the surface of LaF 3 :Ln 3+  nanoparticles with poly(ethylene glycol)-based ligands minimized the effects of non-specific binding, and we expect the same result with our current silica-coated particles. [10]    FIG. 12  shows the Tb 3+  emission spectrum of the particles excited with high excitation power, in which the dominant 544 nm peak of Tb 3+  is visible on top of the FITC signal with an effective luminescent lifetime of 3.2 ms (inset in  FIG. 12 ), which is in agreement with that of the unmodified and APTMS modified particles. The reason for the low Tb 3+  signal is due to the fact that lanthanide ions have a very low absorption coefficient when compared to FITC and with an excitation wavelength of 485 nm that excites both the FITC and the Tb 3+  ions, the emission spectrum of the FITC will dominate. 
         [0083]    The same binding experiments were carried on silica-coated LaF 3 :Nd nanoparticles resulting in a similar increase in FITC emission over the control particles ( FIG. 13 ).  FIG. 14  shows the emission spectrum of the silica-coated LaF 3 :Nd nanoparticles, showing the characteristic peaks at 870 nm, 1064 nm and 1330 nm, with an effective luminescent lifetimes of 178 μs (inset in  FIG. 14 ), which is in agreement with that of the unmodified particles. The formation of the silica coating over the LaF 3 :Nd and LaF 3 :Yb,Er nanoparticles improved the NIR luminescence significantly by minimizing the solvent quenching effect as compared to our previously reported citrate and 2-aminoethylphosphate stabilized LaF 3 :Nd nanoparticles. [10]   
         [0084]    The preparation of the (LaF 3 :Tm)LaF 3  citrate-stabilized nanoparticles followed established procedures resulting in an average particle diameter of 7-10 nm. [ix,xxiii,xxiv]   
         [0085]    Synthesis of the nanoparticles is outlined in  FIG. 15 , which starts from citrate-stabilized LaF 3 :Ln 3+  precursor nanoparticles as the core matrix, followed by the formation of a LaF 3  shell, which is then coated with a silica shell via a modified Stöber process. [xxv]  The resulting particles are fairly monodisperse with an average diameter of 40±5 nm (TEM). Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis of the core-shell particles confirmed the presence of the Tm 3+  at 1% relative to La 3+ , meaning the core itself is doped at 2%, and gave a F to Ln ratio of ca. 2.8:1 confirming that the surface is stabilized with citrate ions. 
         [0086]      FIG. 16  shows a schematic diagram of the excitation and emission levels of interest from Tm 3+ , where excitation of the nanoparticles into the  3 H 4  level at 785 nm result in two emission bands at 1470 nm ( 3 H 4 - 3 F 4  transition) and 1870 nm ( 3 F 4 - 3 H 6  transition). The emission and luminescent lifetime spectra of the particles, in D 2 O, are shown in  FIG. 17 . The peak intensity of the emission band in  FIG. 17  is centered at ca. 1470 nm and is assigned to the  3 H 4 - 3 F 4  transition. The inset in  FIG. 17  shows the decay curve of the particles with an effective lifetime of 9 μs. In comparison to a radiative lifetime of 1513 μs for Tm 3+ -doped LiYF 4  nanoparticles by Walsh et al. [xxvi] , the short luminescent lifetime of our particles is a result of high level of quenching, and is primarily attributed to the coordination of OD groups from the citrate molecules and D 2 O to the nanoparticle surface. Additionally, the short lifetime suggests that the LaF 3  shell does not completely shield the Tm 3+  ions from quenching effects. An estimation of the quantum yield (Φ) using the formula below 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             Φ 
             = 
             
               
                 τ 
                 obs 
               
               
                 τ 
                 rad 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0000]    results in a value less than 1%. Other reports of Tm 3+ -doped systems [xxvii,xxviii]  such as glasses, silica fibers and ceramics have radiative lifetimes that are within ±0.2 ms of that referenced above, showing that the radiative lifetime (τ rad ) is not very sensitive to the crystal field. 
         [0087]    In order to improve the luminescent properties of the nanoparticles, reduction of the non-radiative decay processes was done by the formation of a silica-coating over the particles followed by curing at 900° C. for 24 hours. The curing process was found to improve the luminescent properties for two reasons: first, the high temperature removes most surface bound OH groups, such as water and Si—OH groups, which are known to quench luminescence. [ix,xxiii,xxiv]  Moreover, the elevated temperatures convert a large portion of the Si—OH into SiO x  groups, further minimizing the number of OH groups in contract with the LaF 3  shell. Secondly, the heating process also causes the silica shell to contract in diameter, densifying the shell and making it less porous to solvent, which also reduces quenching effects as reported elsewhere. [xxiv]   
         [0088]      FIG. 18  shows the emission spectrum of the particles at 294 K upon excitation at 785 nm, and exhibits a broad set of overlapping peaks centered around 1450 nm, and is attributed to the  3 H 4 - 3 F 4  transition. The broadness of the transition, which has some barely resolved fine structure, is in agreement with other reports [xxvi]  and is a result of crystal field splitting of the  3 H 4  and  3 F 4  levels. To study further the crystal field splitting, the sample was cooled to 77 K and the emission spectrum was measured at a high resolution (2 nm). Shown in  FIG. 19A  are the overlaid emission spectra of the  3 H 4 - 3 F 4  transition at (a) 294 K and (b) 77 K, in which a reduction in the width of the emission band is seen indicating that the  3 H 4  levels are thermally populated at room temperature. An estimation of six crystal field levels by Gaussian deconvolution of the overlapped peaks of the 77 K emission was observed, which is similar to studies done by Ryba-Romanowski et al. [xxix]  on Tm 3+ -doped SrGdGa 3 O 7  single crystals grown by the Czochralski method [xxx] , who also observed six of the nine theoretical crystal field levels for the  3 F 4  level. The nine crystal field levels of the  3 F 4  level are derived from the formula 2J+1, which is based on the Russell-Saunders assignment of  2S+1 L j , where J is the total angular momentum. The decay curves of the samples at 294 K and at 77 K are shown overlaid in  FIG. 19B , with an effective lifetime of 151±10 μs and 188±10 μs, respectively. The difference in the two values suggests that there is a reduction in non-radiative processes for the cooled sample, as its lifetime is slightly longer. 
         [0089]    Finally, the low temperature analysis of the nanoparticles in  FIG. 20  shows the emission spectrum of the  3 F 4 - 3 H 6  transition around 1.85 μm. Luminescent lifetime analysis could not be done due to the low luminescent output at that emission wavelength. 
         [0090]    In conclusion, a general and facile method for the production of bioconjugated silica-coated LaF 3 :Ln 3+  nanoparticles with a uniform size distribution has successfully been demonstrated. A wide range of emission lines (450-1650 nm) by up- and down-conversion processes have been achieved by doping with different lanthanide ions. In particular, the excitation with 980 nm light on co-doped silica-coated LaF 3 :Yb,Tm nanoparticles resulted in 800 nm emission by up-conversion processes, which is of potential to biological applications. The surface modification of silica-coated nanoparticles with APTMS, followed by biotin for biotin-avidin binding, resulted in a 25-fold increase in the FITC signal over non-biotin functionalized silica-coated nanoparticles. We have also successfully prepared silica-coated, core-shell (LaF 3 :Tm)LaF 3  nanoparticles that exhibited 1.47 μm and 1.87 μm emission. Use of the silica shell drastically improved the luminescence of the particles with an estimated quantum yield of 10% for the  3 H 4 - 3 F 4  transition, and is the highest reported value for any lanthanum trihalide nanoparticle. Finally, the  3 F 4 - 3 H 6  transition at 1.85 μm was measured at 77 K. 
         [0091]    The foregoing is a description of embodiments of the technology. As would be known to one skilled in the art, variations would be contemplated that would not alter the scope of the technology. For example, (LaF 3 :Tm 3+ )LaF 3  could be synthesized. Also, the technology can be applied, but not limited to lights sources for displays, lasers, photonic crystals and light-emitting diodes.
   [1] a) M. J. Bruchez, M. Moronne, P. Gin, S. Weiss, A. P. Alivisatos,  Science  1998, 281, 2013; b) W. C. W. Chan, S. Nie,  Science  1998, 281, 2016.   [2] a) K. L. Holmes, L. M. Lantz,  Methods Cell Biol.  2001, 63, 185; b) P. R. Banks, D. M. Paquette,  Bioconjug. Chem.  1995, 6, 447.   [3] a) J. R. Taylor, M. M. Fang, S. Nie,  Anal. Chem.  2000, 72, 1979; b) R. C. Bailey, J. M. Nam, C. A. Mirkin, J. T. Hupp,  J. Am. Chem. Soc.  2003, 125, 13541; c) E. R. Goldman, E. D. Balighian, H. Mattoussi, M. K. Kuno, J. M. Mauro, P. T. Tran, G. P. Anderson,  J. Am. Chem. Soc.  2002, 124, 6378; d) J. K. Jaiswal, H. Mattoussi, J. M. Mauro, S. M. Simon,  Nature Biotechnol.  2003, 21, 4751; e) S. J. Rosenthal, I. Tomlinson, E. M. Adkins, S. Schroeter, S. Adams, L. Swafford, J. McBride, Y. Wang, L. J. DeFelice, R. D. Blakely,  J. Am. Chem. Soc.  2002, 124, 4586.   [4] a) W. J. Parak, D. Gerion, T. Pellegrino, D. Znachet, C. Micheel, S. C. Williams, R. Boudreau, M. A. LeGros, C. A. Larabell, A. P. Alivisatos,  Nanotechnol.  2003, 14, 15; b) J.-M. Nam, S. I. Stoeva, C. A. Mirkin,  J. Am. Chem. Soc.  2004, 126, 5932.   [5] F. Wang, W. B. Tan, Y. Zhang, X. Fan, M. Wang,  Nanotechnol.  2006, 17, R1.   [6] a) C. L. Nehl, N. K. Grady, G. P. Goodrich, F. Tam, N. J. Halas, J. H. Hafner,  Nano Lett.  2004, 4, 2355; b) C. Loo, A. Lowers, N. Halas, J. West, R. Drezek,  Nano Lett.  2005, 8, 709.   [7] a) J. W. Stouwdam, F. C. J. M. van Veggel,  Nano Lett.  2002, 2, 733; b) Stouwdam, J. W.; van Veggel, F. C. J. M.  Langmuir  2004, 20, 11763; c) Sudarsan, V.; van Veggel, F. C. J. M.; Herring, R. A.; Raudsepp, M.  J. Mater. Chem.  2005, 15, 1332; c) F. Vetrone, J. C. Boyer, J. A. Capobianco, A. Speghini, A. M. Bettinelli,  J. Phys. Chem.  2003, 107, 1107; d) A. Patra, C. S. Friend, R. Kapoor, P. N. Prasad,  Appl. Phys. Lett.  2003, 83, 284; e) S. Heer, K. Kompe, H-U. Gudel, M. Haase,  Adv. Mater.  2004, 16, 2102.   [8] C. Feldmann, T. Justel, C. R. Ronda, P. J. Schmidt,  Adv. Funct. Mater.  2003, 13, 511.   [9] J. C. Wright,  Topics in Appl. Phys.  1976, 15, 239.   [10] a) P. R. Diamente, F. C. J. M. van Veggel,  J. Fluor.  2005, 4, 543; b) P. R. Diamente, R. D. Burke, F. C. J. M. van Veggel,  Langmuir  2006, 22, 1782.   [11] F. Meiser, C. Cortez, F. Caruso,  Angew Chem. Int. Ed.  2004, 43, 5954.   [12] L. Wang, R. Yan, Z. Huo, L. Wang, J. Zeng, J. Bao, X. Wang, Q. Peng, Y. Li,  Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.  2005, 44, 6054.   [13] E. Beaurepaire, V. Buisette, M.-P. Sauviat, D. Giaume, K. Lahill, A. Mercuri, D. Casanova, A. Huignard, J.-L. Martin, T. Gacoin, J.-P. Boilot, A. Alexandrou,  Nano Lett.  2004, 11, 2079.   [14] C. Louis, R. Bazzi, C. A. Marquette, J-L. Bridot, S. Roux, G. Ledoux, B. Mercier, L. Blum, P. Perriat, O. Tillement,  Chem. Mater.  2005, 17, 1673.   [15] P. Corstjens, M. Zuiderwijk, A. Brink, S. Li, H. Feindt, R. S. Neidbala, H. Tanke,  Clin. Chem.  2001, 47, 1885.   [16] a) H. Ow, D. R. Larson, M. Srivastava B. A. Baird, W. W. Webb, U. Wiesner,  Nano Lett.  2005, 5, 113-117; b) L. M. Rossi, L. Shi, F. H. Quina, Z. Rosenzweig,  Langmuir,  2005, 21, 4277.   [i] F. X. Zang, Z. R. Hong, W. L. Li, M. T. Li, X. Y. Sun,  Appl. Phys. Lett.  2004, 84, 2679.   [ii] H. Chen, F. Babin, M. Leblanc, G. He, G. W. Schinn,  J. Lightwave Technol.  2003, 21, 1629.   [iii] Y. H. Tsang, D. J. Coleman, T. A. King,  Opt. Commun.  2004, 231, 357.   [iv] R. P. Rao,  J. Lumin.  2005, 113, 271.   [v] V. Sudarsan, F. C. J. M. van Veggel, R. A. Herring, M. Raudsepp,  J. Mater. Chem.  2005, 15, 1332.   [vi] J. W. Stouwdam, M. Raudsepp, F. C. J. M. van Veggel,  Langmuir  2005, 21, 7003.   [vii] J. W. Stouwdam, F. C. J. M. van Veggel,  Langmuir  2004, 20, 11763.   [viii] J. W. Stouwdam, G. A. Hebbink, J. Huskens, F. C. J. M. van Veggel,  Chem. Mater.  2003, 15, 4604.   [ix] S. Sivakumar, F. C. J. M. van Veggel, M. Raudsepp,  J. Am. Chem. Soc.  2005, 127, 12464.   [x] H. Zhang, X. Fu, S. Niu, G. Sun, Q. Xin,  Solid State Commun.  2004, 132, 527.   [xi] M. Higuchi, T. Shimizu, J. Takahashi, T. Ogawa, Y. Urata, T. Miura, S. Wada, H. Machida,  J. Cryst. Growth  2005, 283, 100.   [xii] K. Kuningas, T. Rantanen, U. Karhunen, T. Lovgren, T. Soukka,  Anal. Chem.  2005, 77, 2826.   [xiii] K. Kuningas, T. Rantanen, T. Ukonaho, T. Lovgren, T. Soukka,  Anal. Chem.  2005, 77, 7348.   [xiv] K. Kuningas, T. Rantanen, T. Lovgren, T. Soukka,  Clin. Chime Acta  2005, 355, S237.   [xv] K. Kuningas, T. Rantanen, T. Lovgren, T. Soukka,  Anal. Chime Acta  2005, 543, 130.   [xvi] T. Rantanen, K. Kuningas, T. Lovgren, T. Soukka,  Clin. Chime Acta  2005, 355, S230.   [xvii] T. Soukka, K. Kuningas, T. Rantanen, V. Haaslahti, T. Lovgren,  J. Fluorescence  2005, 15, 513.   [xviii] H. Lai, B. Chen, W. Xu, X. Wang, Y. Yang, Q. Meng,  J. Alloys Compd.  2005, 395, 181.   [xix] K. Soga, W. Wang, R. E. Riman, J. B. Brown, K. R. Mikeska,  J. Appl. Phys.  2003, 93, 2946.   [xx] D. Gerion, W. J. Parak, S. C. Williams, D. Zanchet, C. M. Micheel, A. P. Alivisatos,  J. Am. Chem. Soc.  2002, 124, 7070.   [xxi] D. W. Hewak, R. S. Deol, J. Wang, G. Wylangowski, J. A. Mederios Neto, B. N. Samson, R. I. Laming, W. S. Brocklesby, D. N. Payne, A. Jha, M. Poulain, S. Otero, S. Surinach, M. D. Baro,  Electronics Letters  1993, 29, 237.   [xxii] E. R. Taylor, L. N. Ng, N. P. Sessions, H. Buerger,  J. Appl. Phys.  2002, 92, 112.   [xxiii] V. Sudarsan, S. Sivakumar, F. C. J. M. van Veggel, M. Raudsepp,  Chem. Mater.  2005, 17, 4736.   [xxiv] S. Sivakumar, P. R. Diamente, F. C. J. M. van Veggel,  Chem. Eur. J.  2006, in press.   [xxv] W. Stöber, A. Fink, E. J. Bohn,  J. Colloid Interface Sci.  1968, 26, 62.   [xxvi] B. M. Walsh, N. P. Barnes, B. Di Bartolo,  J. Appl. Phys.  1998, 83, 2772.   [xxvii] M. M. Kozak, D. Goebel, R. Caspary, W. Kowalsky,  J. Non - Cryst. Solids  2005, 351, 2009.   [xxviii] R. Balda, L. M. Lacha, J. Fernandez, J. M. Fernandez-Navarro,  Opt. Mater.  2005, 27, 1771.   [xxix] W. Ryba-Romanowski, S. GoLvab, I. Sokólska, G. Dominiak-Dzik, J. Zawadzka, M. Berkowski, J. Fink-Finowicki, M. Baba,  Appl. Phys. B  1999, 68, 199.   [xxx] W. Piekarczyk, M. Berkowski, G. Jasiolek,  J. Cryst. Growth  1985, 71, 395.