Abstract:
An orthosilicate whose structure is based on SiO 4   4  tetranions which contains at least one transition element with at least two valence states. Lithium ingresses or egresses into or from the structure in order to compensate for a change in valency of the redox couple during electrode operation and thereby maintain overall electroneutrality.

Description:
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     a) Field of the Invention 
     The invention relates to new lithium insertion electrode materials based on orthosilicate derivatives, electrochemical generators and variable optical transmission devices having an electrode containing these materials. 
     b) Description of the Prior Art 
     Electrode materials are mainly derivatives of transition metals chalcogenides, especially oxides having a lamellar structure like Li x  CoO 2  or spinels like Li 2x  Mn 2  O 4 . These materials usually operate via a lithium insertion mechanism with less than one lithium and electron exchanged per transition metal in the unit formula (0≦x≦0.6). Besides, these materials suffer from facile loss of the transition metal which is leached into the electrolyte. Cobalt is prohibitively expensive for large scale application. 
     Materials with the olivine structure LiFePO 4  (triphylite) and the quasi-isomorphous delithiated material noted as &#34;□FePO 4  &#34; where &#34;□&#34; represents the lithium site vacancies, have the advantage of an operating voltage of 3.5 V vs. Li +  /Li o , i.e. in the stability window of both liquid and polymer electrolytes with a flat discharge (lithium intercalation) plateau. The materials are however limited by relatively both slow Li +  diffusion kinetics and low electronic conductivity due to the high electronegativity of the phosphate anion. The absence of non-stoichiometry or mutual miscibility for both phases (LiFePO 4  and □FePO 4 ) is an advantage in terms of the shape of the discharge curve but limits the kinetics of phase transformation which may lead ultimately at high current densities to fragmentation of the material and loss of contact with the carbon grains acting as current collector. The phosphate of this type offer the possibility of exchanging only one lithium per unit formula. 
     Conversely, it is known that the compounds with either the Li 2  SO 4 , Li 3  PO 4 , Li 4  SiO 4  and their solid solutions possess relatively high diffusion coefficients for lithium ions, but have no redox activity. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In the present invention, orthosilicates containing the SiO 4   4-  tetranion as the building block are used as redox materials by incorporation of at least one transition elements with at least two valency levels. Lithium ingress or egress from the structure to compensate for the valency change of the redox couples during electrode operation and keep overall electroneutrality. 
     DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     The general formula of the materials of the invention is: 
     
         Li.sub.x M.sub.m-(d+t+q+r) D.sub.d T.sub.t Q.sub.q R.sub.r [SiO.sub.4 ].sub.l-(p+s+g+v+a+b) [SO.sub.4 ].sub.s [PO.sub.4 ].sub.p [GeO.sub.4 ].sub.g [VO.sub.4 ].sub.4 [AlO.sub.4 ].sub.a [BO.sub.4 ].sub.b 
    
     where: 
     M represents Mn 2+  or Fe 2+  and mixtures thereof; 
     D represents a metal in the +2 oxidation state, chosen among: 
     Mg 2+ , Ni 2+ , Co 2+ , Zn 2+ , Cu 2+ , Ti 2+ , V 2+ , Ca 2+  ; 
     T represents a metal in the +3 oxidation state chosen among: 
     Al 3+ , Ti 3+ , Cr 3+ , Fe 3+ , Mn 3+  ; Ga 3+ , Zn 2+ , V 3+   
     Q represents a metal in the +4 oxidation state, chosen among: 
     Ti 4+ , Ge 4+ , Sn 4+ , V 4+   
     R represents a metal in the +5 oxidation state, chosen among: 
     V 5+ , Nb 5+ , Ta 5+ . 
     All M, D, T, Q, R, are element residing in octahedral or tetrahedral sites; s, p, g, v, a, and b are the stoichiometric coefficient for S 6+  (sulfate), P 5+  (phosphate), Ge 4+  (germanate), V 5+  (vanadate), Al 3+  (aluminate) and B 3+  (borate) respectively residing in the silicon tetrahedral sites. 
     The stoichiometric coefficients d, t, q, r, p, s v, a, b are all positive comprised between zero (inclusive) and 1 (inclusive). Other conditions are: 
     
         0≦x≦2 
    
     
         1≦m≦2 
    
     
         p+s+g+v+a+b&lt;1 (exclusive) 
    
     
         x+2m+t+2q+3r=4-p-2s-v+a+b 
    
     Silicon is the second most abundant element in the earth crust, and silicates structures are chemically very robust, and thus electrochemically stable. The preferred transition metals besides iron and manganese are chosen among: titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, niobium, and tantalum. The compounds containing a large fraction of iron and/or manganese are preferred due to the abundance and lack of toxicity of these elements. In addition, metals with valency or redox states whose potential lies outside the domain of operation of the electrode can be substituted partially for the transition elements to improve the diffusion characteristics of the lithium ions and/or increase the number of available sites, help control grain size and allow the existence of continuous solid solution between the oxidized and reduced form of the electrode material. These elements are preferably chosen among lithium, magnesium, calcium, zinc aluminum, gallium and tin. For instance, these substitutions allows for the coexistence of iron and/or manganese in two different oxidation states in the same phase, or introduce specific interactions with other elements having redox levels close to those of Fe and Mn (e.g.: Fe 2+  /Ti 4+  □Fe 3+  /Ti 3+ , Mn 2+  /V 5+  □Mn 3+  /V 4+  etc. . . . ) both of which are favorable to electronic conductivity, while disorder on the anionic site provides preferential diffusion sites for Li + . 
     Another aspect of the invention relates to the possibility to substitute the silicon sites by various elements. The orthosilicate anion being isosteric with the sulfate, phosphate, germanate and vanadate anions, the corresponding elements can easily replace silicon in this types of structure, as does boron and aluminum, offering a wide choice of materials with complete control of the charge density on the anionic sites. Similarly, the propensity of orthosilicates structures to accommodate large fractions of either vacancies or interstitial ions is very favorable to lithium ion diffusion while maintaining the integrity of the structure during lithium intercalation-desintercalation processes. 
     The materials according to the invention have preferably the orthorombic structures determined by X-ray and electron diffraction for lithium phosphate (a and g forms, both the low and high temperature form, where the metal ions occupy partially either the seven unoccupied tetrahedral sites left or the &#34;stuffed olivine&#34; structure with a partial occupancy of the four octahedral sites (ASTM N o  25-1020 and 15-760) or that of lithium orthosilicate Li 4  SiO 4 . Capacities well in excess of 160 mAh/g can be obtained, which are superior than for the conventional electrode materials. Another advantage of the materials of the present invention is to prevent the leaching of transition metals into the electrolyte due to the high charge of the orthosilicate anion SiO 4   4-  which bind selectively the multiply charged cations, including the transition elements. 
     The compounds of the invention are especially useful, when used alone or in admixture with other redox-active compounds, as a component of stable electrode materials in electrochemical cells, and primary or secondary batteries in which the negative electrode is a source of lithium ions. Typical examples include, in a non limiting way, metallic lithium, lithium alloys, nanodispersions of such alloys in a lithium oxide matrix, such as those obtained by reduction lithium intercalation compound in carbon, especially graphite or carbonaceous matters resulting from the pyrolysis of organic derivatives, like petroleum coke or polyparaphenylene, lithium-titanium spinels of general formula Li 1+y  Ti 2x31  x/4 O 4  (0≦x≦1, 0≦y≦1, independently) and its solid solutions with other spinels, or a lithium-transition metal mixed nitride like, Li 3-x  Co x  N (0≦x≦1,). These materials can be used alone or in admixtures. 
     Other applications are in supercapacitors or as counter-electrode for controlled reflection-transmission windows (&#34;smart windows&#34;) due to the low optical absorption of the compounds in different oxidation states. 
     The compounds of the present invention are easily prepared by the techniques of inorganic chemistry and ceramics known to the man skilled in the art. In general, oxides, salts or derivatives of the elements to be incorporated in the final composition of the material are mixed in a predetermined ratio and heated at a preset temperature to ensure reaction. Preferably, the metallic salts are those derived from anions that easily decompose at moderate temperatures to leave the oxides. These include the organic salts like acetates, oxalates and in general carboxylic acid derivatives, betadiketonates, alkoxides or mixtures thereof. Preferred inorganic salts similarly are chosen among hydroxides, nitrates, carbonates, sulfates. The so-called sol-gel techniques are especially appreciated as they allow to incorporate the elements in a highly dispersed form which results in homogeneous powders of controllable grain size at relatively low temperature. The silicon alkoxides are especially useful for this purpose as they hydrolyze into silica precursors at room temperature and the silica gel thus formed have a high surface area and adsorbs large quantities of metal salt leading to homogeneous materials upon heat treatment. A wide choice of silicon, titanium, germanium, aluminum derivatives alkoxides are commercially available. Variations of this technique are the coprecipitation of elements form aqueous or non-aqueous media and the Pechini process where polyester-polyacid is formed in solution and chelates the ion from solution this step being followed by, drying and pyrolysis. The control of the oxidation level of the elements, especially transition elements can be achieved by working in a controlled environment. Low partial pressures of oxygen can be maintained with vacuum, an inert gas or reducing mixtures like hydrogen or carbon monoxide/carbon dioxide mixture. Well defined oxygen activities can thus be obtained from known thermodynamical data. Conversely, air or oxygen bring the transition element to high valence states. 
     The redox state of the material can also be controlled by chemical extraction or insertion of lithium from the structure, thus mimicking the electrode operation. In a non limiting way, known oxidants able to extract lithium can be chosen among bromine, chlorine, iodine, the nitrosonium or nitronium salts of stable anions like NO +  BF 4  - or NO 2+   +  PF 6  -. Reducing agents, in a non limiting way can be similarly chosen among: the iodide ion, LiBH 4 , the radical-anion derivatives of lithium with condensed aromatic molecules (naphtalene, anthracene, benzophenone), organometallic reagents like butyl lithium, lithium thiolates. The desired degree of lithium content of the compounds of the invention can also be obtained electrochemically. 
    
    
     EXAMPLES 
     Example 1 
     To 90 ml of water and 10 ml of methanol are added 20.4 g of lithium acetate dihydrate Li(C 2  H 3  O 2 ),2(H 2  O), 24,5 g of manganese acetate tetrahydrate Mn(C 2  H 3  O 2 ) 2 ,4(H 2  O) and 14.8 ml of tetramethoxysilane. The mixture is milled with zirconia pellets in a heavy walled plastic container on a roller mill for 60 hours. The thick slurry is poured onto a PTFE evaporating dish and dried at 90° C. in an oven with air circulation. The resulting mass powdered in a mortar and the organic residues are removed by heat treatment at 350° C. in air. The resulting brownish-green powder is transferred to an alumina boat and the compound is treated at 800° C. in a electrically heated furnace under a reducing gas stream containing 8% hydrogen diluted in argon. 13 g of Li 2  MnSiO 4  are obtained (81% yield). 
     Example 2 
     71.8 g of ferrous oxide FeO and 89.9 of lithium metasilicate Li 2  SiO 3  are ball-milled with high carbon steel ball for 4 hours. The resulting mixture is transferred into a quartz ampoule in which some iron turnings are added. The ampoule is evacuated under secondary vacuum while kept at 200° C. and sealed. The reaction FeO+Li 2  SiO 3  &gt;Li 2  FeSiO 4  is complete at 800° C. in 4 hours. After cooling, the ampoule is opened under argon and the iron turnings are removed magnetically. 
     Example 3 
     Iron protoxide FeO (71.8 g) and lithium metasilicate Li 2  SiO 3  (90 g) are ball milled with high carbon steel ball for 4 hours. The resulting mixture is transferred into a quartz ampoule in which some iron turnings are added. The ampoule is evacuated under secondary vacuum while kept at 200° C. and sealed. The reaction: FeO+Li 2  SiO 3  &gt;Li 2  FeSiO 4  is complete at 800° C. in 4 hours. 
     Example 4 
     21.6 g of iron oxalate dihydrate, 1.79 g manganese oxalate dihydrate and 5.17 g of lithium carbonate are milled similarly as in example 1 with 13,4 g of polydiethoxysiloxane (Gelest Inc, Tullytouwn Pa., U.S.A. catalog N o  PSI-023) in 100 ml of 96 % ethyl alcohol. The resulting slurry is evaporated and calcined at 500° C. under air. The cake is pulverized in a ball mill for 20 minutes and the resulting powder is treated at 1050° C. for 10 hours in an tubular furnace under an equivolumic mixture of CO 2  and CO. The resulting compound has the formula Li 1 .4 Fe 1 .2 Mn 0 .1 O 4 . 
     Example 5 
     To 50 ml of methanol are added 19.4 g of lithium acetate dihydrate Li(C 2  H 3  O 2 ), 2(H 2  O), 19.6 g of manganese acetate tetrahydrate Mn(C 2  H 3  O 2 ) 2 , 4(H 2  O), 14.8 ml of tetramethoxysilane and 2.75 ml of titanium tetraisopropoxide diluted in 20 ml of isopropanol. The mixture is milled with zirconia pellets in a heavy walled plastic container on a roller mill for 60 hours. The slurry is poured onto a PTFE evaporating dish and dried at 80° C. in a air circulation oven. The resulting mass is powdered in a mortar and the organic residues are removed by heat treatment at 350° C. in air. The resulting powder is transferred to an alumina boat and the compound is treated as in example 1 at 800° C. under a reducing gas stream containing 8% hydrogen diluted in argon. The compound obtained corresponds to the formula Li 1 .9 Mn 0 .8 Ti 0 .1 SiO 4  where Ti is in the +3 state and manganese is divalent. 
     Example 6 
     3 g of the compound of example 2, Li 2  FeSiO 4  are suspended in 20 ml of acetonitrile and treated with 1.7 g of bromine under stirring at room temperature. After two hours, the suspension is filtered and washed with acetonitrile leaving a solid having the composition Li 1  FeSiO 4 . This corresponds to an electrode capacity of 172 mAh/g. Similarly, 7 g of the material of example 4 g are treated with 3 g of bromine in 50 ml of acetonitrile. After filtration, the material Li 0 .1 Fe 1 .2 Mn 0 .1 O 4  is obtained. It corresponds to an electrode capacity of 260 mAh/g. 
     Example 7 
     5 g of the compound of example 1Li 2  MnSiO 4  are suspended in 40 ml of nitromethane and treated with 12 g nitronium hexafluorophosphate NO 2  PF 6  under stirring at room. After two hours, the suspension is filtered and washed with nitromethane leaving a brownish-purple solid having the composition MnSiO 4 . This corresponds to an electrode capacity of 345 mAh/g 
     Example 8 
     8 g of the compound of example 1, Li 2  MnSiO 4  and 3.36 g of lithium iron phosphate LiFePO 4  are ball milled with steel balls under an inert atmosphere until the grain size does not exceed 4 microns. The mixture is introduced in a closed-end nickel tube which is evacuated and welded. The tube is treated at 750° for 10 hours and allowed to cool to room temperature. The solid solution obtained has the formula Li 1 .7 Mn 0 .7 Fe 0 .3 Si 0 .7 P 0 .3 O 4   
     Example 9 
     A solid-state battery using a 10 mm lithium anode laminated on a 10 mm nickel foil, a 25 mm polymer electrolyte and a 45 mm positive electrode is constructed with a total active surface of 4 cm 2 . The electrolyte is a crosslinked condensation polymer prepared according to J. Electrochem Soc. 141-7, 1915 (1994) and Journal of Power Sources, 54-1, 40 (1995) with lithium trifluoromethane sulfonimide Li(CF 3  SO 2 ) 2  N as a solute corresponding to a 16:1 ratio of oxygens from polymer ether groups to Li + . The positive electrode is obtained from a slurry of 53% by volume of PEO, molecular weight 200 000, 40% by volume of the material of example 4 and delithiated according to example 6, and 7% by volume of Ketjen black® in acetonitrile, by coating technique on a 12 mm aluminium foil. 1.2 lithium per formula unit can be cycled between 3.5 and 2.4 volts. 
     Example 10 
     A gel type rocking-chair (&#34;lithium ion&#34;) battery is constructed using a 40 mm anode made from graphite flakes (4 mm) with an ethylene-propylene-diene binder (5%) by volume, and laminated on a 10 mm copper foil, a 45 mm electrolyte containing an vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene copolymer (Solvay, Belgium), 30 ww %, fumed silica (5% ww %) with gelled with a liquid elecrolytes consisting of 1.2 molar lithium hexafluorophate in equivolumic ethylene carbonate-ethylmethyl carbonate (65 ww %) mixed solvent. The positive electrode consists in a blend of the electrode material of example 5 (80 ww %), Ketjen black (8 ww %) and the vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene copolymer used in the electrolyte (12 ww %). The battery is housed in a flat metal-plastic laminate container allowing for the passage of current leads. At 25° C., the battery operation allows the exchange of 1.3 lithium per manganese in the positive electrode in the voltage range 2-4.3 volts.