Abstract:
Methods comprising detecting whether the p53 gene is present in native form on DNA molecules in tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA in a sample of body fluid or a tissue sample of the tumor patient or whether the p53 gene on said DNA molecules in said tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA has one or more mutations. In some specific cases, these methods involve determining the p53 status of the tumor patient. Kits and compositions for the practice of such methods are also disclosed.

Description:
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0001]    1. Field of the Invention 
         [0002]    The invention relates to the field of tumor diagnosis, especially with respect to use such diagnosis for appropriate therapy decisions. 
         [0003]    2. Description of Related Art 
         [0004]    Tumor diseases (or cancers (cancer diseases), i.e. malignant neoplasms) is a class of diseases in which a group of cells displays uncontrolled growth (division beyond the normal limits), invasion (intrusion on and destruction of adjacent tissues), and sometimes metastasis (spread to other locations in the body via lymph or blood). These three malignant properties of cancers differentiate them from benign tumors, which are self-limited, and do not invade or metastasise. Most cancers form a (solid) tumor mass but some, like leukemia, do not. 
         [0005]    Tumor diseases affect people at all ages with the risk for most types increasing with age. Such diseases cause a rising number of deaths; in most countries between 10 and 30% of all human deaths. 
         [0006]    Tumor diseases are caused by abnormalities in the genetic material of the transformed cells. These abnormalities may be due to the effects of carcinogens, such as tobacco smoke, radiation, chemicals, or infectious agents. Other tumor disease-promoting genetic abnormalities may randomly occur through errors in DNA replication, or are inherited, and thus present in all cells from birth. The heritability of tumor diseases is usually affected by complex interactions between carcinogens and the host&#39;s genome. 
         [0007]    Therapy of a tumor disease (also referred to as: cancer management options) is currently performed in many ways, the most important being chemotherapy, radiation therapy, surgery, immunotherapy and monoclonal antibody therapy. The choice of therapy depends upon the location and stage of the tumor and the grade of the disease, as well as the general state of a person&#39;s health. Experimental cancer treatments are also under development. It is also common to combine more than one therapy for the treatment of a tumor patient. 
         [0008]    Complete removal of the tumor without damage to the rest of the body is the goal of treatment. Sometimes this can be accomplished by surgery, but the propensity of the tumor disease to invade adjacent tissue or to spread to distant sites by microscopic metastasis often limits its effectiveness. Surgery often required the removal of a wide surgical margin or a free margin. The width of the free margin depends on the type of the cancer, the organ affected, and the method of removal. The effectiveness of chemotherapy is often limited by toxicity to other tissues in the body. Radiation can also cause damage to normal tissue. 
         [0009]    When describing effects of treatment regimens it is important to determine the direction of between-treatment difference among patient&#39;s subsets. Effects from qualitative and quantitative interaction have to be distinguished (Gail et al., Biometrics 41 (1985), 361-372). 
         [0010]    A quantitative interaction occurs if the treatment effect varies in magnitude but not in direction across all patient subgroups. It is frequently referred to as non-crossover interaction and leads to a therapy effect in responders and no effect in non-responders. So in some patients the therapy may not help, but does not do harm either. 
         [0011]    In case of a qualitative interaction (crossover interaction) the between-treatment difference changes direction among patient subsets. This means that the application of a certain therapy improves outcome of some patients (responder) and has an inverse effect on other patients. A qualitative interaction is the strongest interaction known between treatment and patient outcome and creates great differences between groups (Gail et al., 1985). 
         [0012]    A qualitative interaction profoundly influences patient outcome and trial outcome if not realised. 
         [0013]    The concept of qualitative interaction is statistically known (Gail et al., 1985). A qualitative interaction between a marker and treatment outcome has not yet been described in cancer therapy. 
         [0014]    The proof of a qualitative interaction generates demand for marker testing due to ethical and safety considerations. 
         [0015]    It is part of the present invention to improve effectiveness of treatment of tumor diseases. A specific aspect is the prevention of worsening the status of a cancer patient by choosing the wrong treatment strategy, i.e. to prevent a negative effect of a tumor therapy which is (although being effective in some patients) harming the patient being treated with a treatment not being appropriate for the tumor. 
         [0016]    Therefore, the present invention includes a method for diagnosing a tumor patient:
       (i) whether the tumor patient should be treated with a therapy inducing p53 dependent apoptosis or should be treated with a therapy interfering with the cell cycle and/or   (ii) whether the tumor patient must not be treated with a therapy inducing p53 dependent apoptosis or must not be treated with a therapy interfering with the cell cycle characterized by the following steps:   determining the genetic status of the patient&#39;s tumor with respect to p53 by determining in a sample of body fluid or a tissue sample of the patient containing tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA whether the whole p53 gene is present in native form or whether the p53 gene has one or more mutations;   diagnosing the tumor patient as:
           (i) a patient who should be treated with a therapy inducing p53 dependent apoptosis if the whole p53 gene is present in native form or as a patient who should be treated with a therapy interfering with the cell cycle if the p53 gene has one or more mutations; and/or   (ii) a patient who must not be treated with a therapy inducing p53 dependent apoptosis if the p53 gene has one or more mutations or as a patient who must not be treated with a therapy interfering with the cell cycle if the whole p53 gene is present in native form.   
               
 
         [0023]    The present invention is based on the identification of a qualitative interaction between the marker p53 and response to the treatment of the tumor disease. 
         [0024]    The p53 tumor suppressor is a 393-aa transcription factor. In response to various types of genotoxic stresses, p53 transactivates a number of genes by binding to specific DNA sequences, thereby arresting cell cycle, repairing damaged DNA, or inducing apoptosis as the cell fates. The structure of the p53 core DNA-binding domain (residues 94-312) that binds directly to the DNA sequence has been resolved by x-ray crystallography, and both x-ray crystallography and NMR analysis have been used to deduce the structure of the tetramerisation domain (residues 323-356), which is needed for optimum function. The structure of the p53 Protein is composed of 6 functional domains. The amino-terminal residues one to 42 and 43 to 63 contain two transactivation domains. The first one can be bound by MDM2, a negative regulator of p53 and the second one can bind to p53-responsive elements in promoters of different p53-regulated genes to activate their transcription. The proline-rich domain spanning residues 61-94 is involved in apoptosis and protein-protein interactions. The largest domain including residues 102-292 functions in binding p53-responsive sequences associated with genes regulated by p53. The p53 protein functions as tetramer. Tetramerization is accomplished by residues 324-355. The carboxy-terminal domain from residue 363 to 393 regulates the stability and DNA binding activity of the p53 protein (reviewed by Belyi et al., Cold Soring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 2010; 2:a001198). The p53 activity is regulated by posttranslational mechanisms such as phosphorylation, methylation, acetylation, and prolyl-isomerisation, or by protein-protein interaction, thereby it becomes stabilised and can conduct its respective physiological function (reviewed by Olsson et al., Cell death and Differentiation 14 (2007), 1561-1575). 
         [0025]    Somatic TP53 mutations are the most common (about 50%) genetic alteration in human cancer, and a large number of TP53 mutations have been assembled in TP53 mutation databases. The latest International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC R14 from 2009) TP53 mutation database contains 26597 somatic mutations and 535 germ-line mutations. Among these, 89.8% of p53 mutations are clustered in the core DNA-binding domain and over 70% of the mutations are missense mutations. So far, 4235 distinct mutations including 1586 amino acid substitutions caused by missense mutations have been documented. Compared to all mutations published, there is little increase in the number of newly described mutations since the year 2002 (10% per year) and even less increase in the number of newly described amino acid substitutions (2.85% per year) (IARC p53 mutation database release R14 from November 2009; Petitjean et al. Hum Mutat. 28 (2007), 622-629). Therefore it seems that most tumor associated missense mutations have been already identified and unreported missense mutations might be non-pathogenic for tumor development. Furthermore 2314 p53 mutants representing all possible amino acid substitutions caused by a point mutation throughout the coding sequence have been evaluated using a functional assay (Kato et al., PNAS 100 (2003), 8424-8429). 
         [0026]    Due to its important role in tumor biology, p53 has been in the focus of tumor diagnosis, and especially as a potential predictive marker for therapy response. 
         [0027]    The initial observation that p53 accumulation might serve as a surrogate biomarker for TP53 mutation has been the cornerstone for vast translational efforts aimed at validating its clinical use for the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of cancer. Early on, it was realised that accurate evaluation of p53 status and function could not be achieved through protein-expression analysis only. As the understanding of the p53 pathway has evolved and more sophisticated methods for assessment of p53 functional integrity have become available, the clinical and molecular epidemiological implications of p53 abnormalities in cancers are being revealed. They include diagnostic testing for germline and somatic p53 mutations, and the assessment of selected p53 mutations as biomarkers of carcinogen exposure and cancer risk and prognosis. The strengths and limitations of the most frequently used techniques for determination of p53 status in tumors, as well as the most remarkable latest findings relating to its clinical and epidemiological value are described most recently by Robles et al. (CSH Perspect. Biol. 2 (2010), a001016). The most important methodologies for assessment of p53 status in clinical and epidemiological studies are DNA sequencing, immunohistochemistry (IHC), TP53 mutational load assay, mass spectrometry, microarray analysis and functional analysis (reviewed by Robles et al., 2010). 
         [0028]    DNA sequencing is an established method for identification of TP53 mutations and often the method of choice for such purpose. Gel-based mutation screening assays, such SSCP or PCR-RFLP, are routinely used before sequencing. In this technique, TP53 is amplified and resulting PCR fragments are subjected to enzymatic restriction using an enzyme for which a site is predicted to be created or destroyed by the presence of mutation. The resulting gel profile after enzymatic restriction or due to denaturising conditions is used as an indicator for the presence of mutation, and sequencing of that area is undertaken using direct sequencing methods. Most TP53 mutations identified in tumors are circumscribed to the area encompassing exons 5-8 and therefore many translational studies have limited their mutational analysis to this portion of the gene. This has caused bias in the TP53 mutation literature because mutations outside exons 5-8 may have been missed. Additionally mutations may have been missed due to the limited sensitivity of the screening techniques. The problem is likely to be solved with more sophisticated targeted high-throughput DNA sequencing strategies that may in the future be used to gather nucleotide-level information about TP53 and other critical genes in clinical samples. Still, the presence of mutation does not unequivocally indicate that p53 is fully inactive, nor does the absence of it indicate that p53 is functionally proficient. Thus, assessing functional activity of p53 mutants was regarded as essential for an accurate indication of clinical relevance (Robles et al., 2010). 
         [0029]    In the present case, however, the assessment of p53 status of a given tumor is of central importance for the decision concerning the appropriate treatment strategy for the patient. Defining a p53 status of a patient&#39;s tumor, i.e. assessing whether the tumor has a mutation in the p53 gene or not is the most critical issue for the present invention in order to deliver the appropriate anticancer drugs to a specific patient. 
         [0030]    Most of the currently applied anticancer therapies use one of two different pathways to attack cancer cells: They either act via apoptosis or interfere with the cell cycle. p53 is crucially involved in both pathways:
       Pathway 1: cancer therapy induces DNA damage and subsequent apoptosis: DNA damage is a strong trigger for p53 activation. Activated p53 transactivates apoptosis genes which lead to cell death. This mechanism has been suggested e.g. for drugs acting as antimetabolites, antibiotics or alkylating agents (not for drugs acting in the M phase).   Pathway 2: cancer therapy interferes with (different phases of) the cell cycle: In case of p53 mutation, cells cannot be controlled (arrested) in G1 phase of the cell cycle. Cells are cycling unbreakable. Therefore more cells are in S or M phase which makes them sensitive for cell cycle interfering drugs (synchronization effect).       
 
         [0033]    In case of p53 the marker identifies a patient subset (s a) which will not be treated successfully but will be harmed by a certain type of therapy. At the same time the p53 status of the tumor determines potentially effective therapies (other pathway) for this subset of patients. It follows that normal p53 enhances the activity of apoptosis inducing cancer therapy but impairs activity of cell cycle interfering agents; it also follows that mutant p53 enhances activity of cell cycle interfering cancer therapy but impairs activity of apoptosis inducing agents. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Association between p53 status  
               
               
                 and response to cancer therapy 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Pathway 1 
                 Pathway 2 
               
               
                   
                 Apoptosis 
                 Cell cycle 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 p53 normal 
                 enhance 
                 impair 
               
               
                 p53 mutant 
                 impair 
                 Enhance 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0034]    The p53 status of a tumor determines which type of therapy will be successful but also which therapy will harm the patient. The qualitative interaction describes the variation in direction of the therapy effect (one therapy is superior for some subsets and the alternative treatment is superior for the other subsets). Additionally there is an inverse magnitude of effect (=wrong treatment harms patients which can be seen in survival curves showing worse outcome for patients receiving a “non p53 adapted therapy” when compared to those receiving no treatment (i.e. in case of non p53 adapted therapy the treatment does not help but harms). 
         [0035]    With the present invention it should be safeguarded that the tumor patient receives the appropriate treatment and—even more important—is protected from suffering the negative impact of the wrong treatment. 
         [0036]    The prevention of the negative impact of the wrong tumor treatment with respect to the action of p53 or p53 mutants has never been considered at all, because the qualitative interaction has not been recognised; quite in contrast, it is a central dogma of current treatment practice for tumor diseases that combinations of treatments are applied, even though added effectiveness was not affirmed for such combination. However, current practice turned out to be wrong according to the present invention: The present invention aims at preventing the negative consequences of a non p53 adapted treatment. With the present invention the new teaching is used that combining substances of both pathways mentioned above does not only mean that one substance is not effective but that this substance causes side effects and harms the patients or even prevents the positive effects of the other drug or treatment. Due to the lack of application of the concept of qualitative interaction, results of clinical trials in cancer treatment have often been contradictory with respect to the same substances in the prior art. Tokalov et al. (BMC CANCER 10 (2010), 57) report protection of p53 wild type cells from taxol by nutlin-3 in the combined lung cancer treatment; Kappel et al. (SUR. 40 (2008), 277-283) investigate how p53 genotype affects chemotherapy treatment in esophageal cancer; Kandioler et al. (J.THOR.CARDIO.VASC.SURG. 135 (2008), 1036-1041) disclose clinical evidence for the interaction of the p53 genotype and response to induction of chemotherapy in advanced non-small cell lung cancer; Kandioler et al. (J.CLIN.ONCOL. 27 (2009), Abstract Nr. e15003) disclose results of a prospective study of the interaction between p53 genotype and overall survival in patients with colorectal liver metastases (CRCLM) with and without neoadjuvant therapy; Kandioler et al. (J.CLIN.ONCOL. 25 (2007), Abstract Nr. 4535) report about a p53 adapted neoadjuvant therapy for esophageal cancer; Kandioler-Eckersberger et al. (CLIN.CAN.RES. 6 (2000), 50-56) disclose Tp53 mutation and p53 overexpression for prediction of response to neoadjuvant treatment in breast cancer patients; Kandioler (MEMO 1 (2008), 137-142) describes p53 gene analysis for prediction of response to neoadjuvant therapy in esophageal cancer; WO 2005/065723 A1 discloses screening methods for functional p53. 
         [0037]    The present invention should therefore not only allow the selection of patients who will not respond to a certain therapy (a small number of such markers is currently used, such as Her-2/neu, oestrogen-receptor, kras), but should also determine active therapies for those patients (suggesting the use of drugs belonging to the other pathway). Drugs which will harm the patient can be identified as well as drugs which will not be helpful (or even be harmful either) in a combination therapy. 
         [0038]    According to the present invention, a drug is defined as being active or inactive and harmful based on their mode of action and on the genotype of the marker p53. 
         [0039]    As p53 is the most commonly mutated gene in human cancer, the concept on which the present invention is based is applicable to almost all tumor-types and is valid for all anticancer drugs which interfere in some way with apoptosis or cell cycle, at least for those tumor types where p53 connected apoptosis has relevance for chemotherapy or where p53 mutations impair normal apoptosis function of p53. 
         [0040]    A critical review of the data from literature in view of the present invention with respect to the qualitative p53-therapy-interaction reveals surprising results: In contrast to the present believe that a combination of more than one type of tumor disease treatment (i.e. a drug acting via the apoptosis route in combination with a drug which acts on the cell cycle) is acceptable, even if there is no proven benefit for such combination, it becomes clear with the present invention that combining substances of both pathways means that one substance is not only not effective but causes side effects and harms the patient. 
         [0041]    The literature is full of clinical trials using combinations of drugs “with non-synergistic pathways,” as far as it concerns p53. The moderate response improvement resulting from the introduction of combination treatments in cancer therapy can be explained as follows: those patients who did not respond to the drug of the first pathway (due to p53 mutation) could have benefited from the substance of the second pathway. However, the benefit of the second drug is moderate, because due to the added side effects both drugs have to be delivered in a reduced dose. Therefore the effective drug cannot show its full potential in such combinations. 
         [0042]    The teachings of the present invention can therefore be used for explaining numerous studies wherein antitumor drugs or antitumor treatments have been applied with contradicting results. For example, De Laurentiis et al. (J. Clin. Oncol. 26 (2008), 44-53) have reported a taxane based combination as adjuvant chemotherapy of early breast cancer as a meta analysis of randomised trials. It was disclosed that combination therapies require dose-reduction for both compounds, but may, in theory, exploit drug synergism. With the teachings of the present invention it is clear that this essentially depends on whether drugs for the same pathway have been applied or not. On the other hand, De Laurentiis also concluded that in sequential regimens, both compounds can be administered at optimal doses. The crucial issue (whether taxanes should be combined with anthracyclines (or whether they should be administered after an anthracycline-based regimen)) could not be answered; in this meta analysis, “only sequential regimens yielded a statistically significant improvement of both DFS and OS”. This observation can be explained by the teaching of the present invention: as in these trials always drugs addressing different pathways have been applied (taxanes/anthracyclines) a positive effect was only possible if substances were applied sequentially (because then the potentially positive effect of one substance is not affected by the negative effect of the other)). 
         [0043]    Francis et al. (J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 100 (2008), 121-133) report on adjuvant chemotherapy with sequential or concurrent anthracycline and docetaxel (breast International Group 02-98 Randomised trial). It was concluded that important differences may be related to doxorubicin and docetaxel scheduling, with sequential but not concurrent administration, appearing to produce better DFS than anthracycline based chemotherapy. Both papers (De Laurentiis et al. and Francis et al.) came to the same conclusion—that sequential but not concurrent administration produces better results—but they had no idea why. The present invention does explain this effect and turns these scientific discoveries into a new breakthrough regime for the treatment of tumor diseases, showing that a sequential administration is not necessary at all (because only one drug is actually effective). 
         [0044]    The present invention also explains why the numerous retrospective studies, evaluating p53 as a predictive marker, produced inconsistent results so far: trials which used (without recognizing) drug combinations from both pathways in their treatment regimen may have acted differentially with p53 than trials which used drug combinations from only one pathway or monotreatment. Therefore the trial results are inconsistent and the power of p53 predicting response could not be demonstrated so far. 
         [0045]    From the statistical point of view, this phenomenon has been described by Gail et al. (1985): “It is possible to have highly significant qualitative interactions without a significant overall effect.” 
         [0046]    However, in contrast to being a mere explanation of mechanism, the present invention provides the teaching that there are “wrong” treatments of tumor diseases which significantly harm the patient. From this teaching it is clear that defining the p53 status of a patient&#39;s tumor before deciding about the nature of tumor treatment(s) is essential. Therefore, the present invention provides a tumor treatment which essentially requires the definition of the p53 status of a patient&#39;s tumor and then the administration of a “p53 status suitable” antitumor drug and—and this is a significant part of the present invention—the prevention of administration of an antitumor drug which is not “p53 status suitable”. An antitumor drug which is “p53 status suitable” is an apoptosis inducing drug for patients with p53 normal tumors and a cell cycle interfering drug for patients with a p53 mutant tumor status; an antitumor drug which is not “p53 status suitable” is an apoptosis inducing drug for patients with a p53 mutant tumor status and a cell cycle interfering drug for patients with a p53 normal tumor. 
         [0047]    Despite the considerable knowledge about assessment of p53 status of a given tumor patient, there is still the need for a reliable p53 diagnosis in the field. 
         [0048]    In WO 98/59072 A1a kit for multiplex PCR of i.a. p53 is disclosed that—in principle and theoretically—allows amplification of exons 2-11 of p53 in a single vessel. However, this kit is not qualified to reliably detect mutations in the whole coding sequence by forward and reverse strand sequencing. For example, twelve of the twenty primers disclosed in WO 98/59072 A1 have less than 10 bp distance to the respective exon. This close proximity of primer and exon completely prevents sequence analysis of splice sites; parts of the coding exonic sequence can be analysed by forward or reverse strand sequencing only. The latter situation is contradictory to the quality control system according to the present invention as outlined e.g. in Example I, sections 2 and 8.2 in the example section of the present application. According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, a distance of at least 30 bp between primers and exon sequence is used. The processes described in WO 98/59072 A1 in general are therefore not usable for a reliable p53 status testing, both with respect to practical and clinical concerns for the detection of mutations. 
         [0049]    Bäckvall et al. (Exp. Dermatol. 13 (2004), 643-650) use multiplex PCR amplification as pre-amplification step to enrich respective p53 DNA fragments, followed by PCR amplification of each exon in individual reactions prior to sequencing. The step of pre-amplification was necessary because microdissected tumor tissue was used as source. Furthermore, confirmation of alterations detected is done by re-sequencing after a repeated inner PCR only. Outer PCR is not repeated, so it cannot be excluded that an alteration has been caused by the polymerase in this first amplification step (artefact from the first PCR). This test is therefore only aiming at sequencing of microdissection samples and not at reliable detection of mutations. Accordingly, this system is highly exposed to artefacts due to the two consecutive PCR amplifications. Moreover, false negative results are not detected, since only the mutated samples have been re-tested and pre-amplification was not repeated at all! Similarly, also in Kandioler-Eckersberger et al. (Clin. Can. Res. 6 (2000), 50-56) only the tests wherein mutations were detected were repeated (false-negative results were therefore also not excluded). Lehmann et al. (Cancer Res. 51 (1991), 4090-4096) disclose PCR tests involving of some p53 intron regions. Agell et al. (Mod. Pathol. 21 (2008), 1470-1478) disclose a p53 PCR test only involving exons 4 to 9. Song et al. (J. Gastroent. Hepatol. 21 (2006), 1286-1289) describe a PCR test involving exon 2 of KLF6 gene. Also Kandioler et al. (J. Thor. Cardiovasc. Surg. 135 (2008), 1036-1041) disclose a routine p53 PCR test not designed to fulfil the quality standards necessitated by the qualitative interaction treatment decision (further routine p53 tests are disclosed e.g. in U.S. Pat. No. 6,071,726 A and WO 00/70085 A2). 
         [0050]    One of the objects of the present invention is the provision of a reliable method for assessment of the p53 status of a given tumor patient. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0051]    Therefore, the invention provides a method for determining the p53 status of a tumor patient which is characterized by the following steps:
       providing a sample of body fluid or a tissue sample of the tumor patient containing tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA; said tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA containing DNA molecules;   detecting whether the p53 gene is present in native form on said DNA molecules in said tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA or whether the p53 gene on said DNA molecules in said tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA has one or more mutations; said detecting being carried out by:
           performing on the nucleic acid molecules from said tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA a quality-controlled, triplicate multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) covering at least exon 2 to exon 11 of the p53 gene of the EMBL sequence U94788 (Seq.ID No. 1), preferably the region from bp 11619 to bp 18741, especially the region from bp 11689 to bp 18680, thereby generating multiplex PCR amplification products;   determining the sequence of said triplicate multiplex PCR amplification products by using forward and reverse primers for sequencing (i.e. sequencing each of the three PCR products with forward and reverse primer) thereby generating the sequence of the p53 gene in this region of said tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA; and   comparing the generated sequence with a native p53 gene sequence to detect whether there is at least one mutation present in said tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA; and   
           determining the p53 status of said tumor patient as mutated or native, depending on whether at least one mutation was detected in the nucleic acids of said tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA.       
 
         [0058]    The invention may also be defined as a method for determining the p53 status of a tumor patient which is characterized in by the following steps:
       detecting whether the p53 gene is present in native form on DNA molecules in tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA in a sample of body fluid or a tissue sample of the tumor patient, said sample containing said tumor cells or said cell-free tumor DNA, or whether the p53 gene on said DNA molecules in said tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA has one or more mutations; said detecting being carried out by:   performing on the nucleic acid molecules from said tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA a quality-controlled, triplicate multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) covering at least exon 2 to exon 11 of the p53 gene of the EMBL sequence U94788 (Seq.ID No. 1), preferably the region from bp 11619 to bp 18741, especially the region from bp 11689 to bp 18680, thereby generating multiplex PCR amplification products;   determining the sequence of said triplicate multiplex PCR amplification products by using forward and reverse primers for sequencing (i.e. sequencing each of the three PCR products with forward and reverse primer) thereby generating the sequence of the p53 gene in this region of said tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA; and   comparing the generated sequence with a native p53 gene sequence to detect whether there is at least one mutation present in said tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA; and   determining the p53 status of said tumor patient as mutated or native, depending on whether at least one mutation was detected in the nucleic acids of said tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA.       
 
         [0064]    The method according to the present invention allows a reliable answer to the question whether the tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA tested carry a mutation in their p53 gene or not. This is specifically advantageous on the decision for the optimal tumor treatment, especially in view of the qualitative interaction with respect to p53 (see below). With the method according to the present invention, the p53 gene is sufficiently covered so that no false negative or false positive result (which would cause wrong decisions for treatment of the tumor patient) is practically possible. The method is adapted to the needs of practical diagnosis and is suitable for large number testing performed in clinical trials and also in everyday clinical practice. The present method is also the first method wherein an active and reliable search for p53 mutations is performed and wherein specifically false negative results are excluded i.a. by extensive background checks (in the mutation detection). The present method provides a maximum of sensitivity in as few working steps as possible. This saves time and efforts but—nevertheless—provides the certainty needed for a reliable tumor therapy decision based on qualitative interaction. It was also learned throughout the generation of the present invention that primers have their specific background but that also some mutations in p53 often may look like a background signal. Therefore, primer background and mutation background can be clearly distinguished by the method according to the present invention. 
         [0065]    Further advantages of the present invention (also with respect to prior art PCR tests for p53) are disclosed in examples III and IV of the example section. These examples have generalised teachings and therefore constitute part of the general description of the present invention. 
         [0066]    The present method is based on the reliable determination of the genetic p53 status of a given tumor cell of a tumor patient. This requires the provision of a sample of tumor cells of this patient. Preferably, for defining the p53 status of a patient&#39;s tumor a sample of body fluid or a tissue sample of the patient is used which is a blood sample or a tumor biopsy sample (containing histologically verified tumor cells). The present invention provides a reliable determination of the genetic p53 status of a given tumor cell of a tumor patient which requires the provision of a sample of tumor cells of this patient and subjecting this tumor sample to the method according to the present invention, i.e. finding whether a p53 mutation is present in the tumor cell DNA or not. Such a sample can be a tissue specimen, e.g. a tumor biopsy or a suspension of tumor cells harvested by any method, or a sample of a body fluid from such a patient, such as blood (or a blood derived sample, such as serum or plasma), cerebrospinal fluid, lymph, ascitic fluid, or any other body-derived liquid containing tumor cells. The “tumor status” of such cells has to be verified first either by histological or biochemical (immunological) or genetic verification or other means of verification. 
         [0067]    The term “quality controlled” has to be understood in that the performance of the PCR is controlled during the reaction. This means that at least one negative control is provided and that the PCR products are analysed (preferably by electrophoretic methods, especially gel electrophoresis). The negative control is preferably a PCR set up with water instead of the DNA (of the sample); of course, also other negative controls can be foreseen, e.g. DNA which should not be polymerised in the PCR can be used as negative control. The negative control serves as a quality control for the exactness of the PCR as well as whether contaminations are present in the stock solutions for the chemicals or in the instruments used; the analysis of the PCR products (especially with respect to their size e.g. by gel electrophoresis) also serves for identifying contaminations or artefacts in the PCR which can interfere with the sequencing step. 
         [0068]    The term “quality control” according to the present invention (preferably) also includes that the content of tumor cells histologically verified, the coverage of the p53 gene (amplification of exon 2-11+intron regions), the triplicate PCR and sequencing; the forward and reverse sequencing, the additional visual inspection, especially by experienced personnel, etc. 
         [0069]    The present invention is applicable for all types of tumor diseases, i.e. for all cancer patients. 
         [0070]    Accordingly, preferred tumor diseases for which the p53 status is determined according to the present invention are solid tumors, especially colorectal cancer, esophagus cancer, gallbladder cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, oral cancer, ovarian cancer, pancreas cancer, rectal cancer, gastrointestinal cancer, stomach cancer, liver cancer, kidney cancer, head and neck cancer, cancer of the nervous system, retinal cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, brain cancer, soft tissue cancer, lymph node cancer, cancer of the endocrine glands, bone cancer, cervix cancer, prostate cancer or skin cancer; or a hematological tumor, preferably acquired aplastic anemia, myelodysplastic syndrome, acute myeloid leukemia, acute lymphatic leukemia, Hodgkin lymphoma, non-Hodgkin lymphoma or multiple myeloma. 
         [0071]    The multiplex format allows a cost-effective performance of the method without being too time or workload consuming. Generally, a multiplex-PCR consists of multiple primer sets within a single PCR mixture to produce amplicons of varying sizes that are specific to different DNA sequences within the p53 gene. By targeting multiple genes at once, additional information can be gained from a single test run that otherwise would require several times the reagents and more time to perform. 
         [0072]    However, the problem of applying multiplex PCR set-ups in clinical practice is often a lack of reliability and a lack of standardisation ability. Therefore, the method according to the present invention uses a quality-controlled multiplex PCR format which includes a triplicate performance of each PCR test. “Triplicate” according to the present invention means that routinely at least three PCR tests are performed for each set-up, i.e. “triplicate” includes not only “three times” but also “four times”, “five times”, “ten times” or even more. A person skilled in the art understands that the triplicate multiplex set up according to the present invention sets a new quality standard for p53 testing and that performance and reliability can still be further enhanced by even more parallel set ups; however, the number of set ups has to be weighed with cost and performance considerations. For the method according to the present invention, triplicate performance has proven to be necessary and sufficient for the reliability needed; triplicate testing has to deliver three identical results. If this is not the case, a 10 time testing will allow either a decision or uncover the reason why the test is inconsistent in this certain probe. 
         [0073]    Duplicate testing has turned out to be not reliable enough for a standard medical testing method used in clinical practise. On the other hand, e.g. quadruplicate or quintuplicate testing can be even more reliable but such strategy adds costs and effort. 
         [0074]    For prevention of false negative results DNA has to be taken separately for each of the triplicate PCR. 
         [0075]    For identification of false positive results, negative controls can be foreseen, e.g. by a PCR set up with the same reagents as the samples, but without DNA. If a negative control shows a PCR product, the whole set up must be repeated with new aliquots of reagents and after a (UV-) sterilisation of the work bench. 
         [0076]    Annealing temperatures for each of the primer sets must be optimised to work correctly within a single reaction, and amplicon sizes, i.e., their base pair length, should be different enough to form distinct bands when visualised by gel electrophoresis. The amplified nucleic acid must also be suitable for sequencing, e.g. by automated DNA sequencing machines and also other sequencing methods. 
         [0077]    The coverage of the p53 gene according to the present invention was carefully chosen to prevent the miss of relevant mutations. Therefore, the method according to the present invention covers at least exon 2 to exon 11 of the p53 gene of the EMBL sequence U94788 (SEQ ID NO. 1) thereby also including introns 2 to 10, preferably at least 30 bp adjacent to the respective exon, in order to check all portions of the gene where mutations can eventually be present and relevant for p53 function. Prior art methods have often only observed more specific parts of the p53 gene. Unknown or infrequent mutations in other regions have been missed by such practice. This is excluded by the method according to the present invention. The region including exon 2 to exon 11 (preferably the region from bp 11619 to bp 18741 (covering all amplicons used in the most preferred embodiment), especially from bp 11689 to bp 18680) of the p53 gene is specifically suitable for the method according to the present invention allowing a robust and comprehensive testing of all relevant portions of the p53 gene. A preferred embodiment of the present invention is characterized in that primers are used for amplification of the p53 gene which also include regions (in the resulting amplified molecule) which are at least 10, preferably at least 20, especially at least 30 bp, adjacent to the respective exon. It is, of course also possible to include regions which are at least 50, at least 80, or at least 100 bp (or even more), adjacent to the respective exon. Such primers have significant advantages to primers (such as the IARC primers) which do not allow characterization of all parts of the exon after forward and reverse sequencing. Moreover, with the preferred primers according to the present invention, intron regions are included in which splice site mutations can occur. These primers according to the present invention were selected to allow the most reliable TP53 mutation detection providing following features that were identified as essential in the course of the present invention:
       the distance between primer position and exon (essential to guarantee analysis of the total coding sequence including splice sites at the intron-exon-borders);   primer-binding sites must not lead to overlapping amplicons (to allow sequence analysis of DNA fragments amplified simultaneously in one reaction);   Amplicons of a multiplex reaction must differ in size to allow quality check by gel electrophoresis;   Multiplex amplification was used to simplify amplification of all relevant regions of TP53.       
 
         [0082]    In summary, the combination of the primer molecules selected as described, provides the features necessary for reliable p53 mutation detection. 
         [0083]    A preferred set of primers includes the primers according to SEQ ID NOs. 2 to 24. 
         [0084]    With the multiplex PCR according to the present invention multiplex PCR amplification products are generated. The sequence of these amplification products (“amplicons”) is determined by DNA sequencing. The most convenient and appropriate method for sequencing is automated DNA sequencing. Sequencing according to the present invention is performed by using forward and reverse primers for sequencing for each of the three (or more) multiplex-PCR products. This is also a quality feature and prevents false results, because some mutations can be overlooked if sequencing was performed in the forward or in the reverse only. The result of the sequencing step is the determination of the exact sequence of the p53 gene in the region of said tumor cells which has been amplified by the multiplex PCR. 
         [0085]    The comparison of the generated sequence with a native p53 gene sequence (which definitely does not have mutations in the p53 gene) finally allows to come to the result of the present test, namely the identification of one or more specific mutations in the p53 gene or the verification that the cancer cell tested does not have a mutation in the p53 gene. This comparison can be done automatically by various computer programs; however it is an additional and preferred quality control step to inspect the sequences visually, e.g. by experienced sequencing experts, in order to interpret suboptimal or inconclusive data and/or to make the decision for resequencing. Usually, after finishing the sequence run the raw data (e.g. the fluorescence signals) can be stored, analysed and transferred in a sequence format. Depending on the program used, the raw data (e.g. SeqScape) or the analysed sequence (e.g. Autoassembler, SeqScape) are used for the comparison. However, the method according to the present invention is not dependent on a specific sequencing platform and can be applied in any sequencing method (ABI, Beckmann, etc.), as long as a comparison of a multitude of (at least more than one) sequence runs can be performed on different samples and compared with each other. 
         [0086]    The p53 status of a tumor patient will be determined as mutated if at least one mutation was detected in the nucleic acids of said tumor cells by the method according to the present invention. If no mutation was detected, the p53 status of this patient will be determined to be native. Overall therapy depends on the primary tumor, the primary tumor is therefore the basis for the assay according to the present invention. If a tumor shows synchronic metastasis, p53 status of the metastases is unchanged. If, nevertheless, different mutation status should occur in a patient this could be due to two different primary tumors. In such exceptional cases, the two possible optimal therapy regimes have to be fine-tuned to each other (e.g. local irradiation for the non-mutated tumor and pathway 2 therapy for mutated tumors; or sequential administration of chemotherapies). 
         [0087]    According to a preferred embodiment, the multiplex PCR in the method according to the present invention is performed with primers having a melting temperature of 58° C. to 72° C., preferably of 60° C. to 70° C., especially of 65° C. to 68° C. This temperature/primer combination is especially suitable for standard testing in clinical practice. Optimum melting temperatures can be determined for a given primer set by a person skilled in the art, mainly based on the primary sequence to be analysed and on the salt concentration of the buffers. 
         [0088]    Multiplexing the PCR allows a time and effort saving performance of the method according to the present invention. However, care must be taken that the PCR is not “overloaded” with primers and sample DNA, because this could lead to false negative results (if a given sub-reaction did not properly work) or amplification artefacts (which could produce a high background signal and interference with sequence analysis). Care must be taken to adjust appropriate number of different amplifications in one reaction, the lengths of the amplicons, the number of PCR cycles, etc. Multiplex PCR is performed with at least two different primer pairs (=four primers); such multiplex PCR resulting in at least two independent PCR products. The multiplex PCR according to the present invention is preferably performed with a total (for a given test of a patient&#39;s cells) of at least 8 or of at least 10, preferably at least 15, especially at least 20, primer pairs covering different regions of the p53 gene. These primer pairs are then provided in combinations of two primer pairs or more in suitable multiplex set-ups. In order to make the multiplex PCR according to the present invention efficient with respect to time and effort, the totality of the primers in the multiplex PCR is performed with 5 or less independent PCRs, more preferred with 4 or less independent PCRs, especially with 3 or less independent PCRs. Having a number of at least 10, especially at least 20 primer pairs, provision of three independent PCRs has shown to be the most preferred embodiment; only two or even only one PCR reaction for all the primer pairs has drawback with respect to complexity, especially in obtaining the results and compatibility with the sequencing step thereafter. 
         [0089]    A primer set has been developed for the present method which provides specifically suitable reliability and performance for determination of the p53 status of a tumor patient. This primer set has been designed for the clinical testing of the present invention and therefore fully serves the needs of the present invention. Therefore, according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, these primers are used for carrying out the present invention. A preferred embodiment of the method according to the present invention is therefore characterized in that at least one, preferably at least three, especially at least five, primer pair(s) of the primer pairs according to SEQ ID NOs. 2 (use of primer 3 could result in a reduced distinguishability of the amplicon) and 4 to 22 is/are used in said triplicate multiplex PCR and/or said sequence determination. With the exception of the primers for exon 4 (SEQ.ID.Nos. 7 and 8), these PCR primers are also used in the most preferred embodiment for sequencing (for exon 4, the sequencing primers SEQ.ID.Nos. 23 and 24 are used); for exon 11 the reverse sequencing primer SEQ ID NO. 25 is used. 
         [0090]    A specifically preferred embodiment of the invention is characterized in that the primer pairs according to SEQ.ID.Nos. 2 to 24 are used in said triplicate multiplex PCR and/or said sequence determination (again, with the peculiarities concerning exon 4). It is also clear to a person skilled in the art that the primers herein can be slightly amended (e.g. shifting some (e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5) base pairs 5′ or 3′ along the p53 sequence) usually without much difference, nevertheless, the primers disclosed herein represent a specifically preferred embodiment. 
         [0091]    Preferably, the p53 status determination according to the present invention is performed by running in parallel at least a positive and/or a negative control. Preferred positive controls are a tumor cell or a cell-free DNA with a p53 gene in native form and/or a tumor cell or a cell-free DNA with a mutated p53 gene. Preferably, the nature and details of the p53 mutation is known; also DNA with a p53 gene with more than one mutation can be applied as a positive control. Such positive controls are useful as markers for the appropriate working of the amplifications and/or the detectability of wild type or mutant p53 gene. Preferred negative controls run in parallel to the determination of the p53 status of the tumor patient are DNA free of sequences that are amplified during the triplicate multiplex PCR and/or a DNA free solution. The “DNA free of sequences that are amplified during the triplicate multiplex PCR” is a DNA which, under appropriate working of the PCR reaction does not result in any amplification product with the specific primers applied. Creation of an amplification signal in such negative control implies then either contamination by another DNA or unsuitable PCR conditions (too low stringency; too low polymerase specificity, etc.). It is clear that positive and negative control PCRs have to be carried out identically (stringency, polymerase specificity, etc.) to the sample PCRs. As already stated above, it is preferred to use the same primers for a given triplicate multiplex PCR and for the determination of the sequence of said triplicate multiplex PCR amplification products, i.e. the sequencing primers for a given amplicon are the same as for the PCR. This applies for most of the primers/amplicons (except for exon 4, where the amplicon spans a repetitive sequence which has to be excluded in sequence analysis). Accordingly, at least one, preferably at least three, especially at least five primer pairs for the PCR are also used for the sequencing. 
         [0092]    Another aspect of the present invention relates to a kit for performing the method according to the present invention. The kit according to the present invention comprises:
       a PCR primer set, preferably with at least one, more preferred at least three, especially with at least five primer pairs (forward/reverse) of SEQ.ID.Nos. 2 to 24;   optionally, PCR reagents, including a DNA polymerase, buffer(s), and dNTPs; and   a sequencing primer set.       
 
         [0096]    This kit can be packaged and provided in a “ready to use” format so that it is applicable in any diagnosis laboratory to determine the p53 status of a tumor patient. PCR reagents, including a DNA polymerase, buffer(s), and dNTPs, can be provided in the kit; however, it is also established practice that such reagents are supplied separately (e.g. ingenetix MSI Panel PCR Kit), so that the PCR kits are commercialised with the primers only. Of course, for performing the method according to the present invention, these reagents have to be present. 
         [0097]    In a preferred embodiment, the kit according to the present invention further comprises control reagents, preferably positive control reagents, especially a tumor cell or a cell-free DNA with a p53 gene in native form and/or a tumor cell or a cell-free DNA with a mutated p53 gene, or negative control reagents, DNA free of sequences that are amplified during the triplicate multiplex PCR and/or a DNA free solution. 
         [0098]    Preferably, the kit according to the present invention contains the primers with SEQ.ID.Nos. 2 to 24. 
         [0099]    Often, the PCR reagents and primers as well as the polymerase are optimised with respect to a given thermocycler. It is therefore practical, if the kit of the present invention also comprises a thermocycler ready to be used with the other components of the kit. Preferably, the other components of the kit, especially the buffers, PCR primers and the polymerase have been optimised for the given thermocycler. 
         [0100]    Preferred kits of the present invention already contain the primers in prepared multiplex mixtures so that the primers do not have to be added separately to the PCR mix but are already provided in the appropriate multiplex mixture (i.e. in the optimised concentrations). 
         [0101]    As stated above, no marker for a qualitative interaction has yet been described in the prior art in cancer treatment. In the course of the present invention, however, p53 was identified as such marker for qualitative interaction. Accordingly, a new method for diagnosing a tumor patient was established which is essentially based on the p53 status of a given cancer patient (see above). 
         [0102]    This method, of course, heavily depends on a reliable method for determining the p53 status of a given patient to positively use the qualitative interaction between the marker p53 and response to the treatment of the tumor disease. 
         [0103]    In the prior art, a number of p53 testing techniques have been disclosed. However, the present invention relies on the multiplex PCR format and gene sequencing which surprisingly turned out to provide the proper basis for the highest reliability necessary for applying the teaching of qualitative interaction with respect to p53 in clinical practice. 
         [0104]    In order to bring a biological marker to clinical use it is obligatory that the marker test provides highest sensitivity. Demonstration of highest sensitivity is an important issue for ethical approval as clinical decision making depends directly on the test result. 
         [0105]    The p53 status determination according to the present invention requires highest sensitivity. This can only be achieved by the use of a sensitive sequencing technique with adequate primer positioning and with coverage of the essential regions of the p53 gene. Therefore, it is essential for the present invention that the PCR covers at least exon 2 to exon 11 of the p53 gene of the EMBL sequence U94788 (SEQ ID NO. 1). Based on this information, suitable primers are disclosed in the prior art or providable by appropriate methods known to the person skilled in the art. In the example section, a specific primer set is disclosed which allows a superior testing in multiplex format. Accordingly, the region from bp 11619 to bp 18741, preferably the region from bp 11689 to bp 18680 is specifically preferred for PCR testing according to the present invention. 
         [0106]    The feasibility of the test according to the present invention is also determined by the laboratory effort and the availability of the source material. The laboratory effort of sensitive sequencing can be markedly reduced by using the multiplex PCR approach according to the present invention. Surprisingly, this multiplex approach is possible in practice without risking significantly reduced reliability of the overall results of the testing. As a source material for the test, paraffin embedded tumor biopsies or specimen prepared during standard pathological work up can be used (besides samples directly taken from the patient). This is a major advantage compared to most chip based technologies testing gene expressions; the latter use RNA which requires deep frozen material. RNA harvesting from paraffin is questionable due to denaturation. Paraffin embedded tumor biopsies or specimen are routinely available as they are obligatory for tumor diagnosis. 
         [0107]    With the method according to the present invention, reporting of the test result can be standardised. The test clearly indicates the result and avoids by its nature interobserver variability. Since the present test delivers a yes/no decision, this format is advantageous over those tests which need “manual” (microscopically) scoring (e.g. immunohistochemistry). The present sequencing test according to the present invention delivers a yes/no result (mutated or not) which avoids interobserver variability and discussion about the correct cut off level. 
         [0108]    The application of different and mainly insensitive p53 analysis methods, aggravated by the lack of standards and reproducibility have been the major sources for the inconsistency of p53 research literature. This makes the selection of the quality controlled multiplex PCR plus sequencing approach according to the present invention superior against the other standard methods for determining p53 status of tumor patients: 
         [0109]    Immunohistochemistry (IHC): In many studies p53 IHC has been used to screen for p53 alterations, because it is a very fast and easy method. However, the use of different tumor materials, technical conditions, different antibodies and scoring systems led to inconsistent results. Additionally there are many reasons for false positive and negative results which have been described (Wynford-Thomas, J. Pathol. 166 (1992), 329-330). 
         [0110]    Activation results in stabilization of the p53 protein and allows its detection by IHC, but without further specification IHC is unable to differentiate between pathological accumulation due to gene mutation and physiological accumulation due to cellular stress. Physiological stabilization produces false positive IHC results. On the other hand, mutations at antibody binding sites targeted by IHC or the formation of a premature STOP codon by a gene mutation can prevent p53 detection by IHC completely and produce false negative results. Several studies confirmed this discrepancy between protein accumulation detected with IHC and the presence of a mutation in DNA sequencing (Kandioler et al., Ann. Surg. 235 (2002), 493-498; Karim et al., World J. Gastroenterol., 15 (2009), 1381-1387). Therefore most studies based on p53 IHC may not reflect the correct p53 status and conclusions drawn are questionable. 
         [0111]    When data from the IARC TP53 somatic mutation database (Petitjean et al., Hum. Mutat. 28 (2007), 622-629)) concerning the type of mutation and the result of immunohistochemistry are evaluated, the results of this calculation can be summarised as follows (see also: Table 2). As it is very likely that frameshift mutations, large deletions, nonsense and splice site mutations lead to an impaired protein function, immunohistochemistry does not detect at least 12% (919/7577) of non-functional types of mutations in the database. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Correlation between mutation type and IHC staining. 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Gene mutation type 
                 IHC negative (%) 
                 IHC positive (%) 
                 Total 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 frameshift 
                 447 (66.6) 
                  224 (33.4) 
                  671 (8.8) 
               
               
                 intronic 
                  24 (46.2) 
                  28 (53.8) 
                  52 (0.7) 
               
               
                 large deletion 
                  2 (100) 
                   0 
                   2 (0.03) 
               
               
                 missense 
                 694 (11.9) 
                 5127 (88.1) 
                 5821 (76.8) 
               
               
                 nonsense 
                 385 (71.0) 
                  157 (29.0) 
                  542 (7.2) 
               
               
                 silent 
                 132 (36.7) 
                  228 (63.3) 
                  360 (4.8) 
               
               
                 splice 
                  85 (65.9) 
                  44 (34.1) 
                  129 (1.7) 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0112]    It follows that IHC may produce false positive as well as false negative results. Additionally scoring systems for reporting IHC results are arbitrary and influenced by the observer and therefore not recommended for treatment decision making. 
         [0113]    In contrast to IHC, any sequencing test delivers a yes/no result (mutated or not) which avoids interobserver variability and discussion about scoring systems. 
         [0114]    Single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP): The analysis of SSCP to detect genetic variants is based on a sequence dependent migration of single-stranded DNA in polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. A mutation in a known fragment is likely to lead to a conformational change of the DNA single-strand resulting in an aberration of migration characteristics. This method is fast and easy, but requires constant analysis conditions to deliver reproducible results. Furthermore fragments have to be rather small (max. 200 bp) to be sure that small changes (base exchanges, deletions or insertions of single bases) exert influence on the secondary structure. 
         [0115]    Results from SSCP analysis may indicate the presence of a genetic variant, but they do not elucidate its nature. Therefore this method is frequently used as prescreening followed by sequencing of a fragment with an aberrant migration in gel electrophoresis. However, not all genetic variants lead to conformational changes so the absence of a positive SSCP result is not the proof for an intact gene. 
         [0116]    Therefore, SSCP can be applied as a pre-screening method for mutation detection, but cannot replace DNA sequencing to identify the underlying mutation. In case of a negative SSCP result samples have to be sequenced anyway. On contrast to SSCP, the p53 test based on DNA sequencing according to the present invention not just indicates the presence of a mutation, but identifies its nature and allows a prediction of its impact on protein function. 
         [0117]    Denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (D-HPLC): PCR fragments are separated on a reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography column under partially denaturising conditions and visualised in an UV-detector. DHPLC is based on DNA heteroduplex formation between wild-type and variant fragments, which can be separated from homoduplex molecules. It is described to be a very sensitive method and allows detection of low abundance variant alleles, but as SSCP it does not identify the nature of the variant. 
         [0118]    SSCP, D-HPLC can be applied as a pre-screening method for mutation detection, but cannot replace DNA sequencing to identify the underlying mutation. In case of a negative D-HPLC result samples have to be sequenced anyway. From that point of view, SSCP and D-HPLC means additional laboratory effort and harbours a certain risk to miss mutations. Indeed, the p53 test according to the present invention does not just indicate the presence of a mutation, but identifies its nature and allows a prediction of its impact on protein function. 
         [0119]    Mutation chip: The Amplichip p53 has been designed to detect single base-pair substitutions and single base-pair deletions in the coding sequence of the p53 gene. Currently the impossibility to identify insertions or deletions of more than one base-pair as well as intronic variants that impair splice-sites makes this method useless for clinical application to reliably detect p53 mutations. 
         [0120]    Table 3 gives an overview of the number of mutations which can or cannot be detected with the chip. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Frequency of mutation types in the IARC-database;  
               
               
                 the mutations in the right column cannot be detected  
               
               
                 by the mutation chip. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Gene mutation 
                 Detected by  
                 Not detected  
               
               
                   
                 type 
                 chip (%) 
                 by chip (%) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 deletion 
                 111 (9.8) 
                 167 (14.7) 
               
               
                   
                 insertion 
                  0 (0) 
                 102 (9.0) 
               
               
                   
                 base exchange 
                 726 (64.0) 
                  0 (0) 
               
               
                   
                 intronic variants 
                  0 (0) 
                  27 (2.4) 
               
               
                   
                 complex frameshift 
                  0 (0) 
                  1 (0.1)  
               
               
                   
                 Total 
                 838 (73.8) 
                 297 (26.2) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0121]    The Amplichip p53 has been designed to detect a large proportion of p53 mutations. As calculated from the IARC Database and outlined in Table 3 about a quarter of mutations currently described cannot be detected with the chip. Compared to all other methods, especially also the chip based detection, the p53 test based on DNA sequencing according to the present invention provides highest sensitivity and specificity and is not limited in detecting any type of mutation. 
         [0122]    Hot-spot sequencing (restriction to exons 5-8): The IARC p53 Mutation prevalence database (Petitjean et al., 2007) includes data from 91112 tumors published in 1485 references. As outlined in Table 4 most tumor mutation data are based on the analysis of exons 5 to 8. Exons 4 and 9 were analysed in only 50% of the tumors published and exons 2, 3 and 11 in less than 20%. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Exons of the p53 gene which were analysed in published studies 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Analyzed 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 2 
                 3 
                 4 
                 5 
                 6 
                 7 
                 8 
                 9 
                 10 
                 11 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 % 
                 18.5 
                 18.6 
                 41.6 
                 99.6 
                 99.4 
                 99.95 
                 99.7 
                 49.9 
                 24.8 
                 17.1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Mutation prevalence data 
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0123]    In summary, 47% of 2132 tumor collectives were analysed for exons 5 to 8 and showed an overall mean mutation rate of 32.1%. 
         [0124]    In 326 (15.3%) collectives that were analysed for mutations in the whole gene (exons 2-11) the mean mutation rate was 37.2%. 
         [0125]    Since the p53 test according to the present invention analyses all exons of the gene including adjacent intronic regions to detect splice site mutations, the risk of not observing relevant mutations is excluded. 
         [0126]    Sequencing of the whole p53 gene: Comparing mutation rates reported from studies which used a whole gene sequencing method to the data collected with the present invention, the reported rates are found to be lower. The reasons for that could be:
       inadequate primer positioning (introns, splice sites)   bad sequencing conditions (high background masking mutations)   lacking evaluation experience (missing of low abundance variant alleles)   using of computer programs for sequencing-data-evaluation (programs are currently not ready for the detection of low abundance variant alleles)       
 
         [0131]    An interim evaluation of mutation rates of the trials conducted with the present invention (see also: example section) compared to the mutation rates of the IARC and the UMD database shows that the mean mutation rate is too low (even when only whole gene sequencing data are considered). As outlined in  FIG. 1  the mutation rate in the collective made with the present invention is markedly higher compared to published data compiled in databases. 
         [0132]    The p53 test according to the present invention has been evaluated in a number of trials (see example section) and it could be consistently shown that the results obtained with the present method are of relevance for predicting cancer therapy response. Furthermore the test according to the present invention includes a number of quality control steps: PCR amplification products are visualised after polyacrylamide-gel electrophoresis to inspect amount, size and purity of the respective fragments and possible contaminations. All analyses are done in triplicates using forward and reverse primers for sequencing. Detection of sequence variants is always done by comparison of sequence curves from different samples to the reference sequence (Accession no.: U94788), e.g. by visual control. 
         [0133]    For quality and quantity assessment PCR products are analysed on precast 5% acrylamide/bisacrylamide gels (Criterion Gels, Bio-Rad Laboratories GmbH, Vienna, Austria). These gels have to be used with electrophoresis cells from the Criterion Precast Gel system and prepared according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Before loading samples, each well of the gel has to be rinsed with 1×TBE (Tris/borate/EDTA: 0.1 M Tris, 0.09 M Boric Acid, and 0.001 M EDTA (Invitrogen, Paisley, UK)) running buffer. An aliquot (10 μl) of the reaction is mixed with 1 μA loading dye (Elchrom Scientific, Cham, Switzerland) and transferred into one well of the gel each. Similarly at least one well of each gel is used for a molecular weight marker (100 bp Molecular Ruler, Bio-Rad Laboratories GmbH, Vienna, Austria). Electrophoresis is performed at 130 V for 45 min followed by an ethidiumbromide staining (1 μg/ml; Bio-Rad Laboratories GmbH, Vienna, Austria) for 10 min. Bands of PCR products can be visualised on a transilluminator under UV-Light (Gel documentation system, Genxpress, Wiener Neudorf, Austria). Depending on the intensity of the respective bands 10-20 μl of PCR product is used for further analysis. 
         [0134]    Upon visualization of the PCR products, one band for each amplified fragment of the respective size has to be visible. No additional smaller fragments in the range from 25 bp up to the smallest expected product are acceptable. Larger fragments in certain samples may arise due to certain mutations (insertions or deletions of a few bp). These fragments will not interfere with further analysis. In the negative control no band should be detected. 
         [0135]    In case of lack of one or more expected products, smaller products as expected or any band in the negative control the whole PCR amplification (all samples amplified in parallel with the respective primer-mix) has to be withdrawn. 
         [0136]    Although some of these steps might have been used by others in the prior art in an isolated manner, the provision of the quality assurance according to the present invention by applying these steps, preferably as a whole, is enabling the superior results of the present invention compared to other PCR/sequencing approaches for p53 in the prior art. 
         [0137]    In summary, although p53 sequencing was a method which has been frequently applied in the prior art for detecting p53 mutations, it was only clear after performing or diligently considering each of the established methods that this is the most appropriate, most reliable and most practical method for performing the p53 status determination according to the present invention, provided that the quality-assuring steps of the present invention are carefully applied. 
         [0138]    Other methods to investigate the p53 gene: Recently a clinical trial has been published using a yeast assay for the detection of p53 mutations with functional impact (Bonnefoi et al., J. Clin. Oncol. 28 (2010), LBA503). Dysfunctional mutations were reported to be present in 43.8% of breast cancer patients. Besides a problematical test reporting based on scoring system they failed to show an advantage for patients with dysfunctional p53 when treated with a combination therapy including a taxane. However, even if the method of the yeast assay was sensitive (which is unproven), they failed to consider the two pathway model in their trial design. The trial mentioned above combined drugs acting via different pathways which is—due to the qualitative interaction—not beneficial. The unawareness of the two pathway model and the qualitative interaction in clinical trials is a major source for confusing data (besides the lacking sensitivity of p53 tests). 
         [0139]    An important aspect of the present invention is to demonstrate and preserve the power of the marker p53 by providing and claiming a highly sensitive testing method and therewith preserving the marker for clinical use and application in tumor patients. 
         [0140]    The concept for p53 adapted cancer therapy based on the unique qualitative interaction between p53 and treatment response defines drugs as active or inactive and harmful based on their mode of action and on the p53 genotype of the tumor. To deliver highest level of evidence for this interaction, currently clinical trials using statistically recommended designs are conducted (according to Sargent et al., J. Clin. Oncol. 23 (2005), 2020-2027). 
         [0141]    As already stated above, an important aspect of the present invention is to prevent the “wrong” treatment for a tumor patient. Accordingly, the present invention is an important element in the method for predicting negative consequences of a treatment of a tumor patient with a therapy inducing p53 dependent apoptosis or a therapy interfering with the cell cycle which is characterized by the following steps:
       determining the genetic status of the patient&#39;s tumor with respect to p53 by determining in a sample of body fluid or a tissue sample of the patient containing tumor cells or cell free tumor DNA whether the whole p53 gene is present in native form or whether the p53 gene has one or more mutations;   predicting the tumor patient as
           (i) a patient who will suffer negative consequences of a therapy interfering with the cell cycle if the whole p53 gene is present in native form; or   (ii) a patient who will suffer negative consequences of a therapy inducing p53 dependent apoptosis if the p53 gene has one or more mutations.   
               
 
         [0146]    In a similar manner, the present invention is used for defining the p53 status of a patient&#39;s tumor in a method for predicting an enhanced treatment effect of a treatment of a tumor patient with a therapy inducing p53 dependent apoptosis or a therapy interfering with the cell cycle which is characterized by the following steps:
       determining the genetic status of the patient&#39;s tumor with respect to p53 by determining in a sample of body fluid or a tissue sample of the patient containing tumor cells or cell-free tumor DNA whether the whole p53 gene is present in native form or whether the p53 gene has one or more mutations;   predicting the tumor patient as
           (i) a patient who will expect an enhanced treatment effect of a therapy inducing p53 dependent apoptosis if the whole p53 gene is present in native form; or   (ii) a patient who will expect an enhanced treatment effect of a therapy interfering with the cell cycle if the p53 gene has one or more mutations.   
               
 
         [0151]    The teachings of the present invention enable a significantly improved treatment of tumor patients. Whereas up to now only a small number of markers for a specific treatment was used in very isolated manner: Her2neu, for example is overexpressed in only 20 to 25% of breast cancer patients; treatment with trastuzumab, a humanised monoclonal antibody against HER-2/neu, increased survival (6% vs. 8.5%), less recurrence and less metastases (Viani et al., BMC Cancer 7 (153) (2007)). These improvements are, however, significantly less than the improvements according to the present invention. This allows an improved method for treatment of a tumor patient which is characterized according to the present invention by the following steps:
       determining the genetic status of the patient&#39;s tumor with respect to p53 by determining in a sample of body fluid or a tissue sample of the patient containing tumor cells or cell free tumor DNA whether the whole p53 gene is present in native form or whether the p53 gene has one or more mutations with the method according to the present invention;   treating the tumor patient
           (i) with a therapy inducing p53 dependent apoptosis if the whole p53 gene is present in native form and avoiding any therapy interfering with the cell cycle; or   (ii) with a therapy interfering with the cell cycle if the p53 gene has one or more mutations and avoiding any therapy inducing p53 dependent apoptosis.   
               
 
         [0156]    Almost all antitumor drugs nowadays applied can be grouped in one of the groups according to the present invention (apoptosis/cell cycle). At least for those drugs, the present invention fully applies. 
         [0157]    Therefore, the present invention can preferably be applied for determination of the p53 status in a patient&#39;s tumor in the following apoptosis inducing therapies:
       a treatment with antimetabolites, preferably a treatment with methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil, capecitabine, gemcitabine or hydroxyurea;   a treatment with antibiotics antitumor drugs inducing p53 dependent apoptosis, preferably a treatment with actinomycin D or anthracycline, especially doxorubicin, daunorubicin, idarubicin, valrubicin, mitoxantrone or epirubicin;   a treatment with alkylating agents, preferably a treatment with melphalan, oxazaphosphorins, especially cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide or busulfan; nitrosourea, especially carmustine, lomustine, semustine or procarbazine; or a treatment with platinum-based antitumor drugs, especially cisplatin, carboplatin or oxaliplatin;   a treatment with thymidylate synthase inhibitors, especially raltitrexed or pemetrexed;   radiotherapy;   a treatment with antitumoral hormones, preferably a treatment with estrogens, gestagens, anti-estrogens, especially tamoxifen, 3-hydroxy-tamoxifen, or chlortamoxifen; aromatase inhibitors, especially aminoglutethimide, formestan, anastrozol or letrozol; antiandrogens, especially cyproterone acetate or flutamide; gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonists (buserelin, goserelin, leuprolerin, triptorelin); or   a treatment with antitumor antibodies, preferably a treatment with a HER-2 inhibitor antibody, especially trastuzumab; with a EGFR inhibitor antibody, especially cetuximab, panitumumab or nimotuzumab; with a thymidine kinase inhibitor antibody, especially gefitinib or erlotinib; with a VEGF inhibitor antibody, especially bevacizumab.       
 
         [0165]    As well the present invention is preferably applied for determination of the p53 status in a patient&#39;s tumor in the following therapies which interfere with the cell cycle:
       a treatment with antitumor drugs interfering with the cell cycle, preferably a treatment in S phase, more preferably with camptothecins, especially irinotecan or topotecan;   a treatment with antitumor drugs interfering with the M phase (antimitotic drugs), preferably a treatment with vinca alcaloids, especially vincristine, vinblastine, vindesine or vinorelbine; a treatment with epipodophyllotoxins, especially etoposide or teniposide; or a treatment with taxanes, especially paclitaxel or docetaxel.       
 
         [0168]    Also combinations with two or more treatments is possible, provided that the treatments belong to the same group, i.e. either from the apoptosis inducing group or from the cell cycle interfering group. 
         [0169]    There are several important conclusions which can be drawn from the concept according to the present invention for cancer therapy:
       It does not make sense to combine substances of the two different pathways (which is, however, very common today; accordingly, here the present invention is a significant change in paradigm).   It is useful to go for maximal synergy regarding the p53 pathway between chemotherapeutic agents.   In case of a mutant p53 status patients should be spared from apoptosis inducing therapies and radiation therapy.   In case of a normal p53 status patients should not receive cell cycle interfering drugs.   Any new substance should be tested for its place in the p53 interaction model to avoid combination of drugs using different pathways.   Based on the strong interaction and the frequency of mutations in almost all tumor types, the p53 status of a tumor has to be addressed in clinical trials as a stratification criterion. Otherwise the true potential of a drug cannot be assessed.       
 
         [0176]    As used herein, the terms “cancer” and “tumor disease” are drawn to identical subject matter for the present application; the tumor diseases and the patients with tumor diseases according to the present invention are cancers and cancer patients which are or have malignant tumors, respectively. Accordingly, the tumor patients according to the present invention are not patients having benign tumors. 
         [0177]    According to another aspect, the present invention is also applied in a method for treatment of a tumor patient which is characterized by the following steps:
       determining the genetic status of the patient&#39;s tumor with respect to p53 by determining in a sample of body fluid or a tissue sample of the patient containing tumor cells whether the whole p53 gene is present in native form or whether the p53 gene has one or more mutations with the method according to the present invention;   treating the tumor patient
           (i) with a therapy inducing p53 dependent apoptosis if the whole p53 gene is present in native form and avoiding any therapy interfering with the cell cycle; or   (ii) with a therapy interfering with the cell cycle if the p53 gene has one or more mutations and avoiding any therapy inducing p53 dependent apoptosis, especially avoiding chemotherapy and radiation.   
               
 
         [0182]    As a preferred embodiment of this method wherein a patient is treated with a therapy interfering with the cell cycle (ii), the method further comprises a treatment of said patient with a drug inducing a cell cycle arrest in normal cells in said patient before said therapy interfering with the cell cycle. This can be any drug applied with the intention to induce a p53 dependent reversible, cytoprotective cell cycle arrest in p53 normal cells while p53 mutant tumor cells are treated with a cell cycle interfering drug. Preferred examples of such drugs are nutlin or actinomycin D (Dactinomycin, Cosmegen oder Lyovac-Cosmegen). In case of mutant p53 genotype of a tumor advantage of the normal p53 status of the normal cells can be taken: In normal cells a reversible cell cycle arrest can be induced using a systemic drug (preferably nutlin or actinomycin D). These drugs activate normal p53 and subsequently induce reversible cell cycle arrest. Cell cycle arrest is therefore restricted to p53 normal cells and has a cytoprotective effect on them while mutant cells can be effectively treated with a cell cycle interfering drug. Normal cells resting in a reversible cell cycle arrest will not be affected by the cell cycle interfering drug and side effects will be prevented. 
         [0183]    A p53 mutation according to the present invention is defined as any mutation in the genetic set-up of the tumor cell which affects the primary amino acid sequence of p53 protein and decreases apoptosis induction activity of the p53. It follows that the p53 mutations according to the present invention are all mutations resulting in frameshifts and all deletions and insertions in the coding region. Moreover, all single base substitutions in the coding area which result in a change in primary amino acid sequence are p53 mutations according to the present invention as well as mutations in the regulating regions which cause loss or decreased expression of p53 in comparison to healthy tissue. Finally, all mutations affecting splice sites, thereby resulting in a p53 protein with different amino acid sequence, are also included. 
         [0184]    Genetic polymorphisms, i.e. variants which are present in normal tissue too, and silent mutations, i.e. mutations which cause no change in the encoded amino acid sequence, are, of course, not defined as p53 mutations according to the present invention. 
         [0185]    Examples for p53 mutations according to the present invention are disclosed e.g. in Kato et al., PNAS 100 (2003), 8424-8429. Other examples can be found in various databases for p53, such as the IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer; somatic p53 mutations in neoplastic cells or tissues, including metastases or cells derived from such cells or tissue). 
         [0186]    The results of DNA sequencing in the course of the present invention, which is currently the most reliable method for p53 mutation analysis, comprise changes of nucleotides. For evaluation of the functional consequences caused by mutations several approaches have been proposed in the scientific literature as outlined below. 
         [0187]    Based on the location of the mutation and the predicted amino acid alterations two categories of p53 mutations have been defined by Poeta et al. (N. Engl. J. Med. 357 (2007), 2552-2561): Disruptive mutations are non-conservative changes of amino acids located inside the key DNA-binding domain (L2-L3 region), or all DNA sequence alterations that introduce a STOP codon resulting in disruption of p53 protein production; non-disruptive mutations are conservative changes of amino acids (replacement of an amino acid with another from the same polarity/charge category) or non-conservative mutations outside the L2-L3 region (excluding stop codons). 
         [0188]    As reviewed by Joerger et al. (Oncogene 26 (2007), 2226-2242) p53 mutations lead to a variety of structural and energetic changes in the protein. Recently, using molecular modelling Carlsson et al. (FEBS J. 276 (2009), 4142-4155) proposed a stability measure of the mutated p53 structure to predict the severity of mutations. Taking structural features and sequence properties into account a classification into deleterious and non-deleterious mutations was performed. 
         [0189]    The functional property of mutant p53 proteins may also be represented by their transactivation activities (TAs), as measured in eight p53 response elements in yeast assays by Kato et al. (2003) and expressed as a percentage of wildtype protein. 
         [0190]    The TAs for all possible missense mutations obtained by single-nucleotide substitution along the full coding sequence of p53 are listed in the database of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (Petitjean et al., Hum. Mutat. 28 (2007), 622-628). Perrone et al proposed the median TAs to be calculated and mutations to be classified as fully functional (median TA&gt;75% and ≦140%), partially functional (median TA&gt;20% and ≦75%), or non-functional (median TA≦20%) (Perrone et al., J. Clin. Oncol. 28 (2010), 761-766). 
         [0191]    All these approaches are based on the detection of nucleotide changes (mutations) brought together with general knowledge of protein expression (mechanisms of translation) as well as the functional domains of the protein. Thereby the impact on the function of the protein can be deduced. A base exchange at a certain position may create a stop codon, lead to the usage of another amino acid at this position or produce no apparent alteration. These changes happen at the level of translation, but a base exchange may be already effective in mRNA processing. A translationally silent mutation may produce or disrupt a splice site as well as a binding site for regulatory factors (proteins, microRNAs). On the other hand, even in case of an amino-acid exchange a protein may retain some of its normal functions. 
         [0192]    Based on these arguments all mutations qualify as functionally relevant in some way unless there is a comprehensive scientific proof of normal function in-vivo. 
         [0193]    Preferred p53 mutations to be detected according to the present invention are all mutations in the p53 gene, especially
       all mutations resulting in frameshifts   all deletions and insertions in the coding region   all single base substitutions in the coding area which result in a stop codon (nonsense mutations)   all single base substitutions proven to affect splice sites in vivo or in vitro       
 
         [0198]    Of the single base substitutions resulting in a change of the primary amino acid sequence or potentially affecting splice sites the following have been directly tested for interaction with chemotherapy in clinical studies: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE A 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Single base substitutions detected in tumors 
               
               
                 and evaluated for interaction with cancer therapy  
               
               
                 according to pathway 1 (apoptosis induction) or 
               
               
                 pathway 2 (cell-cycle interference). For patients  
               
               
                 with tumors bearing one of the mutations listed, 
               
               
                 the therapy regimen acting in pathway 1 were  
               
               
                 not effective, those in pathway 2 led to  
               
               
                 improved outcome. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 p53 Mutation 
                 Pathway 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 c.313G &gt; T (p.Gly105Cys) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.332T &gt; A (p.Leu111Gln) 
                 2 
               
               
                   
                 c.380C &gt; T (p.Ser127Phe) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.422G &gt; A (p.Cys141Tyr) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.452C &gt; G (p.Pro151Arg) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.461G &gt; T (p.Gly154Val) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.467G &gt; C (p.Arg156Pro) 
                 2 
               
               
                   
                 c.473G &gt; A (p.Arg158His) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.488A &gt; G (p.Tyr163Cys) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.524G &gt; A (p.Arg175His) 
                 ½ 
               
               
                   
                 c.578A &gt; T (p.His193Leu) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.584T &gt; C (p.Ile195Thr) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.641A &gt; G (p.His214Arg) 
                 2 
               
               
                   
                 c.653T &gt; A (p.Val218Glu) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.659A &gt; G (p.Tyr220Cys) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.707A &gt; G (p.Tyr236Cys) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.711G &gt; C (p.Met237Ile) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.733G &gt; A (p.Gly245Ser) 
                 ½ 
               
               
                   
                 c.742C &gt; T (p.Arg248Trp) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.743G &gt; A (p.Arg248Gln) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.743G &gt; T (p.Arg248Leu) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.746G &gt; T (p.Arg249Met) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.747G &gt; T (p.Arg249Ser) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.749C &gt; T (p.Pro250Leu) 
                 2 
               
               
                   
                 c.785G &gt; T (p.Gly262Val) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.794T &gt; C (p.Leu265Pro) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.811G &gt; A (p.Glu271Lys) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.817C &gt; T (p.Arg273Cys) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.818G &gt; A (p.Arg273His) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.818G &gt; T (p.Arg273Leu) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.821T &gt; C (p.Val274Ala) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.824G &gt; A (p.Cys275Tyr) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.827C &gt; A (p.Ala276Asp) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.833C &gt; G (p.Pro278Arg) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.833C &gt; T (p.Pro278Leu) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.844C &gt; T (p.Arg282Trp) 
                 ½ 
               
               
                   
                 c.1025G &gt; C (p.Arg342Pro) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 c.919 + 1G &gt; T 
                 2 
               
               
                   
                 c.994 − 1G &gt; A 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0199]    If any of these mutations occur in the analysis of the tumor cells according to the present invention, the p53 status is “mutated”. Preferably, the presence/absence of the mutations according to Table A is investigated by the method according to the present invention (these can also be tested for a tumor already diagnosed in principle). 
         [0200]    In summary, currently the issue of functional evaluation of p53 mutations has not been finally addressed, the proposed classifications arose from basic research approaches (partly in vitro) and are not proven in appropriately designed clinical trials. 
         [0201]    Appropriately designed clinical trials currently do not exist because the clinical evaluation of the utility of p53 mutations deserves a number of considerations listed as follows:
       1. The treatments used in such trials have to be synergistic considering their pathway of action or have to be single drugs (monotherapy). The qualitative interaction and the two pathway model has not yet been realised. A combination of treatments from different pathways—which is very common today—will bias the trial results. Consequently appropriate clinical trials currently do not exist.   2. The selection of the appropriate patient population and the choice of an adequately measurable end point. Ideally, the population studied should be one in which the knowledge of the marker would have substantial clinical relevance (e.g. tumor type with a high frequency of p53 mutations) and where the feasibility of obtaining appropriate specimens is established.   3. The adequate endpoint in a trial testing for therapeutic interaction is response to treatment. Measurement of response to treatment requires a clinical setting which allows a correct (pathological) response assessment. Pathological response assessment is available only for patients who are treated having their tumors in place (i.e. preoperatively (neoadjuvantly) treated patients or patients treated for metastases).   4. The use of qualified statistical designs to allow statistical test for interaction. The latter requires specification of subsets (p53 normal, p53 mutant) in advance. For identification of the subsets (p53 normal, p53 mutants) a reliable method has to be used.   5. The issues listed above cannot be fulfilled retrospectively and therefore an evaluation of the clinical utility of p53 as a predictive marker cannot be done retrospectively. Retrospective evaluation can reach the evidence of hypothesis finding studies and/or classify a marker as promising.       
 
         [0207]    Based on the above listed considerations the first prospective randomised clinical trial qualified to evaluate the importance of the functionality of p53 mutations was initiated (see “PANCHO trial” in the example section). This clinical trial was conducted by using the method according to the present invention and has consistently supported the reliability of the present method. 
         [0208]    The data according to the present invention consistently showed that p53 sequencing completely demarcated the group of non-responders supporting that “all mutations have functional impact” teaching. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0209]    The invention is further described in the following examples and the drawing figures, yet without being restricted thereto. 
           [0210]      FIG. 1  shows p53 mutation rate in oesophageal cancer: Percentage of mutated tumors reported by (A) p53 Research, (B) IARC p53 Database, (C) UMD p53 Database; 
           [0211]      FIG. 2  shows gel electrophoresis of multiplex PCR products: (A) Exons 5, 2, 8 and 7 are amplified with primermix M1, (B) Exons 6, 3 and 11 with primermix M2, (C) Exons 4, 10 and 9 with primermix M3. Fragment sizes are specified in basepairs (bp); 
           [0212]      FIG. 3  shows the sequencing data of samples 2234 and 2235; (A) Forward sequencing: Both mutations are visible (hatched and dotted arrow); (B) Reverse sequencing; mutation sample 2234 barely visible, but the peak height is lower than normal as shown in sample 2235 (hatched arrow), mutation sample 2235 visible (dotted arrow); all mutated positions show a lower height of the normal peak compared to the neighbouring peaks and the sequence without a mutation; 
           [0213]      FIG. 4  shows the primers used in the examples section of the present invention in comparison with the IARC primers; 
           [0214]      FIG. 5 : Data from Key Study: Oesophageal cancer pilot study: (A) Overall survival of neoadjuvantly treated oesophageal cancer patients (n=47); treatment was either Cisplatin/5-FU (n=36) or Docetaxel (n=11); mean survival rate was 24.2 months; (B) survival of patients with p53 normal tumors and Cis/5-FU treatment (dotted line; mean survival 34 months); p53 mutated tumors and Cis/5-FU treatment (full line; mean survival 14 months); p53 mutated tumors and Docetaxel treatment (dashed line; mean survival 26 months); p&lt;0.001; (C) line shapes are analogous to (B); mean survival of patients with adenocarcinoma (n=24) was 35 (dotted line) vs. 17 (full line) vs. 22 months (dashed line); p=0.024; (D) line shapes are analogous to (B); mean survival of patients with squamous cell carcinoma (n=23) was 26 (dotted line) vs. 8 (full line) vs. 29 months (dashed line); p=0.01; (E) overall survival of patients treated with p53 adjusted therapy (dotted line; mean survival 30 months) and p53 non adjusted therapy (full line; mean survival 15 months); p=0.042; 
           [0215]      FIG. 6  shows data from Key Study: CRCLM (colorectal cancer liver metastases): full line: p53 normal; dotted line: p53 mutant; (A) survival of patients with CRCLM (n=76) with normal p53 (full line) and mutant p53 (dotted line); (B) subset of patients treated with preoperative chemotherapy 5-FU/Oxaliplatin (n=51) with normal p53 (full line) and mutant p53 (dotted line); p=0.025; Cox-model was used to calculate Hazard ratio 3.24 (95% CI 1.5-7.0); p=0.045; adjustment to known prognostic parameters (age, sex, T-stage, N-stage, grading, synchronous/metachronous tumors), results in a hazard ratio of 5.491 (95% CI 2.28-13.24); p=0.0042; (C) subset of patients without preoperative Chemotherapy (no chemotherapy); normal p53 (full line) is not related to improved survival; p=0.543; patients receiving preoperative chemotherapy show better survival than those receiving no chemotherapy in case they have a normal p53 gene (full lines (B) and (C)); patients receiving preoperative chemotherapy do worse than patients receiving no chemotherapy in case they have a p53 mutation (dotted lines (B) and (C)); patients with p53 mutated tumors receiving 5-FU/oxaliplatin chemotherapy have a 5.49 fold risk to die (p=0.042); 
           [0216]      FIG. 7  shows marker by treatment interaction design to test a predictive factor question: Sargent et al., J. Clin. Oncol. 23 (2005), 2020-2027; 
           [0217]      FIG. 8  shows cumulatively reported number of mutations in the years 1985 to 2008: Full line—all mutations, line with squares—all new mutations, line with triangles—new missense mutations; 
           [0218]      FIG. 9  shows PANCHO: the trial design: Eligible for the PANCHO trial are operable oesophageal cancer patients&gt;T1 stage. P53 gene analysis is performed as marker test. Patients are stratified for their histological type (adeno-, squamous cell carcinoma); marker negative patients (p53 normal) are randomised to receive either Cispaltin/5-FU or Docetaxel preoperatively; marker positive patients are also randomized to receive either Cisplatin/5-FU or Docetaxel; after three cycles of preoperative chemotherapy all patients are referred to surgery; response to neoadjuvant therapy is defined as primary endpoint and is assessed comparing the diagnostic tumor stage with the pathological tumor stage. 
           [0219]      FIG. 10  depicts a schematic representation of a preferred embodiment of the present invention: 1: A, B, C separate amplifications corresponding to triplicate amplification; 2: f: forward, r: reverse; s: sense; a: antisense. 
           [0220]      FIG. 11  shows left: gel control (Mix 3 with heteroduplex band (arrow) as an indication for a mutation); right: sequence curve of mutated sample). 
           [0221]      FIG. 12  shows gain in quality of the p53 test according to the present invention (“p53 Research® p53 Test”; blue arrow indicates “reduction” of false positives and negatives, respectively). 
           [0222]      FIG. 13  shows estimations for some of the quality steps according to the present invention (i.e. percentage of false results which occurred using standard methods). 
           [0223]      FIGS. 14 to 24  show examples for the quality control steps according to the present invention. 
           [0224]      FIGS. 25 to 34  show the comparison of the p53 status test according to the present invention with the p53 test according to WO 98/59072 A1 (Affymetrix). 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS 
     Examples 
     I. p53 Test According to the Present Invention 
     1. Background 
       [0225]    The p53 gene is located on the short arm of chromosome 17 in the region 17p13.1. The genomic region spans approximately 22 kb where the coding sequence is arranged in 11 exons. Start of the translation for the 2.2 kb mRNA is in exon 2 with the first nucleotide at position 11717 and the last nucleotide at position 18680 (exon 11) of the sequence with the accession number U94788 (SEQ ID NO. 1). Detailed information on the size and location of exonic and intronic regions according to the published sequence is given in Table 5. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 p53-exons and introns 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 number 
                 size (bp) 
                 nt start 1   
                 nt end 1   
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 exon 
                 2 
                 102 
                 11689 
                 11790 
               
               
                 exon 
                 3 
                 22 
                 11906 
                 11927 
               
               
                 exon 
                 4 
                 279 
                 12021 
                 12299 
               
               
                 exon 
                 5 
                 184 
                 13055 
                 13238 
               
               
                 exon 
                 6 
                 113 
                 13020 
                 13432 
               
               
                 exon 
                 7 
                 110 
                 14000 
                 14109 
               
               
                 exon 
                 8 
                 137 
                 14452 
                 14588 
               
               
                 exon 
                 9 
                 74 
                 14684 
                 14754 
               
               
                 exon 
                 10 
                 107 
                 17572 
                 17678 
               
               
                 exon 
                 11 
                 82 
                 18599 
                 18680 
               
               
                 intron  
                 2 
                 115 
                 11791 
                 11905 
               
               
                 intron  
                 3 
                 93 
                 11928 
                 12020 
               
               
                 intron  
                 4 
                 755 
                 12300 
                 13054 
               
               
                 intron  
                 5 
                 81 
                 13239 
                 13319 
               
               
                 intron  
                 6 
                 567 
                 13433 
                 13999 
               
               
                 intron  
                 7 
                 342 
                 14110 
                 14451 
               
               
                 intron  
                 8 
                 92 
                 14589 
                 14680 
               
               
                 intron 
                 9 
                 2817 
                 14755 
                 17571 
               
               
                 intron  
                 10 
                 920 
                 17679 
                 18598 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   1 Nucleotide position according to sequence U94788 
               
             
          
         
       
     
       2. Primer Design for Multiplex PCR 
       [0226]    Primers were designed with the Primer3 software package (Steve Rozen and Helen J. Skaletsky (2000) Primer3 on the WWW for general users and for biologist programmers. In: Krawetz S, Misener S (eds) Bioinformatics Methods and Protocols: Methods in Molecular Biology. Humana Press, Totowa, N.J., pp 365-386). Melting temperature of primers was set to range from 65 to 68° C. and there should preferably be a distance of at least 30 bp between primers and exon sequence. The melting temperature depends on the DNA sequence of the primer region and has to be lower than 72° C., which is the optimal temperature for most polymerases used for PCR amplification. At the same time melting temperature has to be as high as possible to prevent amplification of products outside of the region of interest where a primer has bound only partially. A uniform annealing temperature of all primer-pairs used for p53 amplification allows simultaneous amplification of several fragments in a single reaction. The distance between primer position and exon sequence is essential to guarantee analysis of the whole coding sequence including splice sites at the intron-exon-borders. 
         [0227]    Furthermore to allow sequence analysis of DNA fragments amplified simultaneously in one reaction primer-binding sites must not lead to overlapping amplicons. 
         [0228]    Detailed information on the amplicons and primer sequences is given in Table 6. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 Table 6 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 p53 - amplicons and primers for PCR 
               
             
          
           
               
                 number size (bp) 
                 nt start1 
                 nt end1 
                 sequence 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 amplicon 
                  2 
                 250 (266) 
                 11619 
                 11868 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 amplicon 
                  3 
                 234 
                 11833 
                 12066 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 amplicon 
                  4 
                 418 
                 11937 
                 12354 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 amplicon 
                  5 
                 300 
                 12991 
                 13290 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 amplicon 
                  6 
                 251 
                 13245 
                 13495 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 amplicon 
                  7 
                 239 
                 13926 
                 14164 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 amplicon 
                  8 
                 250 
                 14391 
                 14640 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 amplicon 
                  9 
                 243 
                 14608 
                 14850 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 amplicon 
                 10 
                 286 
                 17464 
                 17749 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 amplicon 
                 11 
                 216 
                 18526 
                 18741 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer f 
                  2 
                  21 
                 11619 
                 11638 
                 (gatcgatcgatcgatc) 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ttctctgcaggcccaggtga 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 2/3) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer r 
                  2 
                  21 
                 11848 
                 11868 
                 tcgcttcccacaggtctctgc 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO .4) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer f 
                  3 
                  20 
                 11833 
                 11852 
                 aaccccagccccctagcaga 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 5) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer r 
                  3 
                  20 
                 12047 
                 12066 
                 ccggggacagcatcaaatca 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 6) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer f 
                  4 
                  19 
                 11937 
                 11955 
                 agggttgggctggggacct 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 7) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer r 
                  4 
                  21 
                 12334 
                 12354 
                 gggatacggccaggcattga 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 8) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer f 
                  5 
                  29 
                 12991 
                 13017 
                 ccagttgctttatctgttcacttgtgc 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 9) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer r 
                  5 
                  18 
                 13273 
                 13290 
                 ctggggaccctgggcaac 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 10) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer f 
                  6 
                  20 
                 13245 
                 13264 
                 agctggggctggagagacga 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 11) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer r 
                  6 
                  19 
                 13477 
                 13495 
                 ccggagggccactgacaac 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 12) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer f 
                  7 
                  20 
                 13926 
                 13945 
                 aaaaggcctcccctgcttgc 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 13) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer r 
                  7 
                  19 
                 14146 
                 14164 
                 aagcagaggctggggcaca 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 14) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer f 
                  8 
                  24 
                 14391 
                 14414 
                 tgggacaggtaggacctgatttcc 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 15) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer r 
                  8 
                  23 
                 14618 
                 14640 
                 ggcataactgcacccttggtctc 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 16) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer f 
                  9 
                  20 
                 14608 
                 14627 
                 agcggtggaggagaccaagg 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 17) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer r 
                  9 
                  22 
                 14829 
                 14850 
                 tgccccaattgcaggtaaaaca 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 18) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer f 
                 10 
                  23 
                 17464 
                 17486 
                 tcgatgttgcttttgatccgtca 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 19) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer r 
                 10 
                  25 
                 17725 
                 17749 
                 aatggaatcctatggctttccaacc 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 20) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer f 
                 11 
                  20 
                 18526 
                 18545 
                 ggtcagggaaaaggggcaca 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 21) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer r 
                 11 
                  20 
                 18722 
                 18741 
                 tggcaggggagggagagatg 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 22) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer seq f 
                  4 
                  19 
                 11992 
                 12010 
                 ctctgactgctcttttcac 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 23; (4s)) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer seq r 
                  4 
                  20 
                 12321 
                 12340 
                 cattgaagtctcatggaagc 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 24; (4a)) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 primer seq r 
                 11 
                  20 
                 18694 
                 18713 
                 aggctgtcagtggggaacaa 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO. 25) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Nucleotide position according to sequence U94788; f forward, r reverse; primer f 2 contains a 4 x gatc elongation; this is a preferred embodiment to provide a better distinguishability between exons 2 and 8 in mix 1 without influence on primer binding an reaction conditions. 
               
             
          
         
       
     
       3. Multiplex PCR Amplification 
       [0229]    With the primers listed in Table 6 all coding exons of the p53 gene can be amplified in 3 PCR reactions followed by individual sequence analyses. Because of a repetitive sequence in intron 3 which had to be included in the amplicon due to proximity to the start of the exon, another forward primer had to be chosen for sequence analysis of exon 4. The reverse primer for exon 4 sequencing also differs from that used for PCR amplification, as it gave improved results—which were shown in stronger signals and less background. All other exons can be sequenced with the same primers used for PCR amplification. 
         [0230]    The forward primer of exon 2 was elongated at the 5-prime end by a non-complementary fragment of 4 GATC-series to give a distinguishable band in polymerase gel electrophoresis. This allows a quality test for each amplification reaction. 
         [0231]    All PCR-amplifications are optimised to be performed in a Biometra Thermocycler T1 or T-gradient (Biometra, Gottingen, Germany). 
       3.1 p53 Amplification Mix M1 
       [0232]    In the mix M1 exons 2, 5, 7 and 8 are amplified simultaneously in one reaction. Primers are stored in stock solutions of 100 μM. A working solution containing the respective concentration ratio is prepared from 10 μM solutions; 2.6 μl of the working solution are added to each amplification reaction. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Composition of the PCR-reaction for mix M1 
               
             
          
           
               
                 amount 1   
                 substance 
                 supplier 2 /cat-number 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 to a total volume 
                 pure water 
                 Merck/116434 
               
               
                 of 50 μl 
                   
                   
               
               
                  6 μl 
                 Buffer I 
                 Applied Biosystems/N8080244 
               
               
                 250 μM 
                 dNTP 
                 Applied Biosystems 
               
               
                 2,5 U 
                 Ampli Taq 
                 Applied Biosystems/N8080244 
               
               
                   
                 Gold Polymerase 
                   
               
               
                  80 μM 
                 primer 2f 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                  80 μM 
                 primer 2r 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                  60 μM 
                 primer 5f 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                  60 μM 
                 primer 5r 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                  60 μM 
                 primer 7f 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                  60 μM 
                 primer 7r 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                  60 μM 
                 primer 8f 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                  60 μM 
                 primer 8r 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                  4 μl 
                 sample DNA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   1 Reaction volume is 50 μl 
               
               
                   2 Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA; Merck, Darmstadt, Germany; Sigma-Aldrich, Vienna, Austria. 
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 8 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Cycling protocol for mix 1 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 temperature  
                 time  
                 ramp  
                 no of  
               
               
                 step 
                 (° C.) 
                 (s) 
                 (° C./s) 
                 cycles 1   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 1 
                 95 
                 600 
                 5 
                   
               
               
                 2 
                 95 
                  40 
                 5 
                   
               
               
                 3 
                 64 
                  40 
                 5 
                 47 
               
               
                 4 
                 75 
                  60 
                 3 
                   
               
               
                 5 
                 72 
                 600 
                 5 
                   
               
               
                 6 
                 15 
                 hold 
                 5 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   1 One cycle include steps 2 to 4 which are repeated the respective times 
               
             
          
         
       
     
       3.2 p53 Amplification Mix M2 
       [0233]    In the mix M2 exons 3, 6 and 11 are amplified simultaneously in one reaction. Primers are stored in stock solutions of 100 μM. A working solution containing the respective concentration ratio is prepared from 10 μM solutions; 2.4 μl of the working solution are added to each amplification reaction. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 9 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Composition of the PCR-reaction for mix M2 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 amount 1   
                 substance 
                 supplier 2 /cat-number 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 to a total 
                 pure water 
                 Merck/116434 
               
               
                   
                 volume of 30 μl 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                  15 μl 
                 QIAGEN ® Multiplex 
                 Qiagen/206145 
               
               
                   
                   
                 PCR Kit 
                   
               
               
                   
                  40 μM 
                 primer 3f 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                   
                  40 μM 
                 primer 3r 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                   
                  80 μM 
                 primer 6f 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                   
                  80 μM 
                 primer 6r 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                   
                 120 μM 
                 primer 11f 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                   
                 120 μM 
                 primer 11r 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                   
                  4 μl 
                 sample DNA 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   1 Reaction volume is 30 μl 
               
               
                   
                   2 Merck, Darmstadt, Germany; Qiagen, Hilden, Germany; Sigma-Aldrich, Vienna, Austria. 
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 10 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Cycling protocol for mix 2. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 temperature  
                 time  
                 ramp  
                 no. of 
               
               
                   
                 (° C.) 
                 (s) 
                 (° C./s) 
                 cycles 1   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 1 
                 95 
                 600 
                 5 
                   
               
               
                 2 
                 95 
                  40 
                 5 
                   
               
               
                 3 
                 64 
                  90 
                 5 
                 47 
               
               
                 4 
                 76 
                  40 
                 3 
                   
               
               
                 5 
                 72 
                 600 
                 5 
                   
               
               
                 6 
                 15 
                 hold 
                 5 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   1 One cycle include steps 2 to 4 which are repeated the respective times 
               
             
          
         
       
     
       3.3 p53 Amplification Mix M3 
       [0234]    In the mix M3 exons 4, 9 and 10 are amplified simultaneously in one reaction. Primers are stored in stock solutions of 100 μM. A working solution containing the respective concentration ratio is prepared from 10 μM solutions; 2.3 μl of the working solution are added to each amplification reaction. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 11 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Composition of the PCR-reaction for mix M3. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 amount 1   
                 substance 
                 supplier 2 /cat-number 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 to a total 
                 pure water 
                 Merck 116434 
               
               
                   
                 volume of 50 μl 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                  25 μl 
                 QIAGEN ® Multiplex 
                 Qiagen/206145 
               
               
                   
                   
                 PCR Kit 
                   
               
               
                   
                 100 μM 
                 primer 4f 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                   
                 100 μM 
                 primer 4r 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                   
                  30 μM 
                 primer 9f 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                   
                  30 μM 
                 primer 9r 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                   
                 100 μM 
                 primer 10f 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                   
                 100 μM 
                 primer 10r 
                 Sigma-Genosys 
               
               
                   
                  4 μl 
                 sample DNA 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   1 Reaction volume is 50 μl 
               
               
                   
                   2 Merck, Darmstadt, Germany; Qiagen, Hilden, Germany; Sigma-Aldrich, Vienna, Austria. 
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 12 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Cycling protocol for mix 3. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 temperature  
                 time  
                 ramp  
                 no of  
               
               
                   
                 (° C.) 
                 (s) 
                 (° C./s) 
                 cycles 1   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 1 
                 95 
                 600 
                 5 
                   
               
               
                 2 
                 95 
                  40 
                 5 
                   
               
               
                 3 
                 65-1/cycle 2   
                  90 
                 5 
                  5 
               
               
                 4 
                 75 
                  60 
                 3 
                   
               
               
                 5 
                 95 
                  40 
                 5 
                   
               
               
                 6 
                 60 
                  90 
                 5 
                 42 
               
               
                 7 
                 75 
                  60 
                 3 
                   
               
               
                 8 
                 72 
                 600 
                 5 
                   
               
               
                 9 
                 15 
                 hold 
                 5 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   1 One cycle include steps 2 to 4 and afterwards steps 5 to 7 which are repeated the respective times 
               
               
                   2 Annealing temperature of the first cycle is 65° C., in each of the following cycles the temperature is lowered for 1°  
               
             
          
         
       
     
       4. PCR Amplification Quality Control 
       [0235]    For quality and quantity assessment PCR products are analyzed on precast 5% acrylamide/bisacrylamide gels (Criterion Gels, Bio-Rad Laboratories GmbH, Vienna, Austria). An aliquot (10 μl) of the reaction is mixed with 1 μl loading dye (Elchrom Scientific, Cham, Switzerland) and transferred into one well of the gel each. Similarly at least one well of each gel is used for a molecular weight marker (100 bp Molecular Ruler, Bio-Rad Laboratories GmbH, Vienna, Austria). Electrophoresis is performed at 130 V for 45 min followed by an ethidiumbromide staining (1 μg/ml; Bio-Rad Laboratories GmbH, Vienna, Austria) for 10 min. Bands of PCR products can be visualised on a transilluminator under UV-Light (Gel documentation system, Genxpress, Wiener Neudorf, Austria; see  FIG. 2 ). Depending on the intensity of the respective bands 10-20 μl of PCR product is used for further analysis. 
       5. Purification of PCR Products 
       [0236]    To remove excess primers and dNTPs, 10-20 μl of each PCR product are purified with the illustra GFX™ PCR DNA and Gel Band Purification Kit (GE Healthcare, Munich, Germany). 
       6. Sequence Analysis 
       [0237]    For sequence analysis the BigDye Terminator Cycle Sequencing Kit (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.) is used according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The reaction volume is 5 μl containing 1 μl Reaction Mix, 0.5 to 1 μl sample and 2 pmol primer. The standard cycling profile is applied—25× (96° C. 10 s, 50° C. 5 s, 60° C. 180 s). Separate reactions have to be set up for each primer used. Excess dye-labelled terminators are removed using Centri-Sep spin columns (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.). Briefly, the column gel is hydrated with pure water (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) at room temperature for 2 hours and spun in a microcentifuge at 750 g for 2 min to remove the interstitial fluid. The sample is mixed with 15 μl pure water (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany), applied to the column and spun again. The filtrate is added to 20 μl Hi-Di™ formamide (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.) for loading to the instrument. Separation and analysis of the sequencing reaction products are performed on an ABI Prism® 310 Genetic Analyzer or an Applied Biosystems 3130 Genetic Analyzer using standard protocols (see Table 13). 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 13 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Capillary electrophoresis 
               
               
                 Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 capillary 
                 polymer 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Instrument 
                 length 
                 type 
                 program 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                  310 
                 47 cm 
                 POP6 
                 ABI Prism ™ 310 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Collection v1.2.2 
               
               
                   
                 3130 
                 50 cm 
                 POP6 
                 3130 Data  
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Collection v3.0 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       7. Detection of Sequence Variants (Mutations) 
       [0238]    Sequence curves obtained from the analysis of different samples are aligned with the Autoassembler v2.1 or SeqScape v2.6 program (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.) and visually compared by a trained person. Sequence variants are detected by the appearance of more than one peak at one position in one sample compared to others as well as to the reference sequence (Accession no.: U94788). 
       8. Quality Control Issues 
     8.1 Quality and Purity of PCR Amplification Products 
       [0239]    Each PCR reaction setup is used without DNA to detect possible contaminations in any reagent used. To detect contaminations and to inspect amount and size of the respective fragments PCR amplification products are visualised after polyacrlyamid-gel electrophoresis. 
       8.2 Method for Detection of Mutations 
       [0240]    Visual inspection of sequence curves by an experienced person is currently the most reliable method to detect DNA variants. Visual detection of sequence variants is always done by comparison of sequence curves from different samples to the reference sequence (Accession no.: U94788). Results are confirmed by sequencing using forward and reverse primers after PCR amplification in triplicates. The impact of evaluating sequencing curves of both strands has recently been shown by Li et al. (Hum. Mutat. 30 (2009), 1583-1590). The mutation displayed in the supplemental figure S10 of this article (corresponds to  FIG. 3  herein) is only visible in the forward, but not in the reverse strand. However, as no sequence curves of other samples were given in this publication, it could not be ruled out that a reduced height of the respective normal peak would have indicated the mutation, as shown in  FIG. 3  (B) herein where the mutation in sample 2234 is barely visible, but the peak height is lower than normal as shown in sample 2235 (hatched arrow). 
       9. Performance of the Method According to the Present Invention: 
       [0241]    To evaluate several samples of a study sequencing traces from forward and reverse strand sequencing of two or more samples and the respective parts of the published reference sequence with the accession number U94788 are aligned as outlined in  FIG. 3  (the maximum number of samples that can be evaluated simultaneously depends on the programme used and on the performance of the computer). Sequence curves are visually inspected to detect differences in the peak pattern. Samples can mutually serve as normal controls as long as they have mutations at different sites. Differences in the peak pattern are described according to the nomenclature for the description of sequence variants (http://www.hgvs.org/mutnomen/; den Dunnen &amp; Antonarakis, Human Mutation 15 (2000) 7-12). In the manner specified all sequences from the triplicate PCR amplifications generated by forward and reverse strand sequencing of each exon are evaluated. This evaluation results in the classification of each sample as normal, if no difference to the reference sequence is detected, or mutated in case of a difference which is not listed as polymorphism e.g. in the IARC p53 database (http://www-p53.iarc.fr). 
       10. General Remarks 
       [0242]    The advantages of the method according to the present invention are specifically pronounced when the test is applied in connection with the p53 qualitative interaction. These advantages are due to the combination of a quality-controlled, triplicate multiplex PCR as disclosed herein and the automated sequencing using forward and reverse primers for sequencing for all amplicons of the triplicate set-up and, preferably, the visual inspection of the sequence. 
         [0243]    Already the primer design in the PCR according to the present invention is diligently performed. The primer set as disclosed in the example section of the present application have provided strikingly good and reliable results. However, when respecting general rules of primer design, primers can be also positioned differently from the position selected in the present examples, but the following issues have to be considered:
       the amplicon must include the whole exon including splice sites   annealing temperature has to be similar for primers intended to be multiplexed   a multiplex reaction must not include overlapping amplicons   amplicons of a multiplex reaction must differ in size to allow quality check by gel electrophoresis   amplicons should be as short as possible to allow amplification from difficult samples with a high degree of DNA degradation (e.g. formalin-fixed, paraffinised tissues)       
 
         [0249]    A comparison of primers used in the present example section to those used by the IARC sequencing service is given in  FIG. 4 . Generally most primers from the IARC are located closer to the exon sequence than those of the present examples. Exons three and nine are analysed together with the respective preceding exon which results in large amplicons and may lead to insufficient amplification from difficult DNA samples. 
         [0250]    As an example, primer design of exon 4 is shortly described: 
         [0251]    Intron 3 is quite short (115 bp) and contains a repetitive sequence stretch which impairs selection of a position for the forward primer. Most groups as well as the IARC selected a primer position close to the exon sequence (IARC uses 2 bp distance). 
         [0252]    Due to technical reasons of DNA sequencing using the Sanger method, the first 5-20 bp after the primer cannot be evaluated with sufficient reliability for mutation detection. Especially when using the same primer for PCR amplification and sequencing this limitation is eminent. To circumvent this problem a PCR primer located adjacent to the repetitive sequence and a sequencing primer with 10 bp distance to the exon start is used according to the present invention. With this combination it is possible to reliably analyse at least two by before the exon start using the forward primer and the whole intronic sequence up to the repeat with the reverse primer. 
         [0253]    Mutation classification: The results of DNA sequencing may comprise changes of nucleotides. From these changes together with general knowledge of protein expression (mechanisms of translation), the impact on the function of the protein can be deduced. A base exchange at a certain position may create a stop codon, lead to the usage of another amino acid at this position or produce no apparent alteration. All these changes happen at the level of translation, but this base exchange may be already effective in mRNA processing. A translationally silent mutation may produce or disrupt a splice site as well as a binding site for regulatory factors (proteins, microRNAs). Furthermore very little is known about the relevance of intronic variants. Concerning splice site alterations a number of calculation programs are available to support the detection of a newly created or disrupted site (e.g.: Reese et al., J. Comp. Biol. 4 (1997), 311-323; Heebsgard et al., NAR 24 (1996), 3439-3452)). However, as the mechanism of splicing has not been resolved completely, none of these programs reflect the complete range of possible effects in vivo. It is widely accepted that a change within two base-pairs from the intron-exon-border impairs splicing and it is presumed to be also valid for the region of five base-pairs in each direction. 
         [0254]    Based on these arguments all mutations qualify as functionally relevant in some way, unless they are known polymorphisms. Polymorphisms are present at a certain frequency in a population and have no (within an average lifespan of man not obvious) functional impact. Currently 85 polymorphisms in the p53 gene are listed in the IARC p53 database (http://www-p53.iarc.fr/PolymorphismView.asp). 
         [0255]    Chemicals and kits used: PCR chemicals and enzymes are not restricted to those used in the present examples, but reaction conditions have to be optimised to obtain pure amplification products free of side products. 
         [0256]    Quality control of PCR amplification can be done with any manual or automatic electrophoresis system available. Clean-up of PCR and sequencing products can be done using other methods and kits if quality of the result is provided. Sequence reaction and analysis can be transferred to systems from other supplier (e.g. Beckmann-Coulter CEQ) if the signal to noise ratio is adequate to detect variants in samples with a relatively high amount of normal DNA. 
       II. Clinical Evaluation Using the Method According to the Present Invention 
       [0257]    Reports from exploratory studies regularly suggest potentially useful candidate markers to optimise and individualise cancer therapy. However, few markers are currently developed to the point of allowing reliable use in clinical practice. The lack of a disciplined approach will slow the introduction of markers into clinical use, or alternatively, markers may be introduced without sufficient scientific evidence of benefit. Once the marker meets the criterion of “promising”, additional data must be gathered before initiating confirmatory studies to test its clinical utility. These data include the specificity of the marker to the cancer of interest (as opposed to normal tissues, other disease states, or other cancers), an estimate of the marker prevalence in the target population, confidence in the method of measurement, including definition of any cut points, and demonstration that the measurement can be reliably performed on the specimens that are available (Sargent et al., J. Clin. Onco1.23 (2005), 2020-2027). 
         [0258]    Considering these development milestones a number of studies were performed to evaluate the clinical utility of p53 stepwise. 
         [0259]    While performing these studies (Examples II. 1-3) the qualitative interaction was detected and the two pathway model was developed. Both hypotheses are now finally tested in the first prospective randomised clinical phase III trial (pancho trial) appropriately designed to test for qualitative interaction. 
         [0260]    1. The CRCLM (Colorectal cancer liver metastases) Study 
         [0261]    Goal:
       Test for an independent association of the marker p53 and chemotherapy response   get information about the prognostic properties of the marker by including an untreated control group   get evidence for the qualitative interaction       
 
         [0265]    Data on 76 patients with colorectal cancer liver metastases (CRCLM) were prospectively collected at a single institution between 2001 and 2003. Patients considered to be technically operable were included. Fifty-one patients received preoperative therapy with Oxaliplatin plus 5-FU and twenty-five were treated with surgery only. The groups did not differ in age, chronicity of CRCLM, staging and grading of the primary colorectal cancer. Treatment decision was based on the preference of the surgeon or the patient. 
         [0266]    The p53 gene was assessed in all tumors through complete direct gene sequencing (exons 2-11 including splice sites) with the method according to the present invention. 
         [0267]    In  FIG. 6A  survival rates for the whole patient cohort are shown (the graph includes all patients with and without preoperative chemotherapy and separates them for harbouring p53 mutant and p53 normal tumors). In this graph a normal p53 seems to be beneficial. However, subgroup evaluation shows: Improved survival did occur in patients with p53 normal tumors but exclusively in the group receiving preoperative chemotherapy (p=0.025) ( FIG. 6B ). The chemotherapy used was 5FU/Oxaliplatin. Both drugs belong to pathway 1 and need a normal p53 for induction of apoptosis. 
         [0268]    In contrast, in the preoperatively untreated control group ( FIG. 6C ), a normal p53 status in the tumor was not related to improved survival (p=0.543). Quite contrary, the effect seems to be inverse. 
         [0269]    Comparing only the dotted lines of both subsets ( FIGS. 6B and 6C ), representing the patients with a p53 mutant tumor, patients with preoperative chemotherapy ( FIG. 6B ) did much worse. These patients received drugs (5FU/Oxaliplatin) which belong to pathway 1. The graph shows that the pathway 1 chemotherapy was ineffective in patients with p53 mutated tumors. The graph additionally shows that pathway 1 chemotherapy harmed patients with p53 mutated tumors because patients with p53 mutated tumors and without preoperative chemotherapy did better. 
         [0270]    Comparing the full lines of the two subsets with and without preoperative chemotherapy (representing the patients with p53 normal tumors), survival benefit was related to preoperative chemotherapy. 
         [0271]    In summary, the used chemotherapeutic drugs belonging to pathway 1 interact positively with a normal p53 gene and negatively with a mutant p53 gene. 
         [0272]    In other words, depending on the genotype of the marker (mutant or normal) the effect of therapy changes direction, which demonstrates the presence of a qualitative interaction. The degree of interaction is even stronger (p=0.0042) when the known prognostic parameters are considered in the statistical calculation (multivariate analysis). The p53 genotype shows a significant (qualitative) interaction with survival (response to therapy) in the chemotherapy treated subset only. 
         [0273]    The p53 genotype of the tumor was only related to survival in patients receiving chemotherapy demonstrating that the marker p53 interacts with chemotherapy. This qualifies p53 as a predictive marker. P53 did not influence survival in the preoperatively untreated patients and therefore p53 does not qualify as a prognostic marker. 
         [0274]    In summary, these results show that:
       The method according to the present invention is a reliable method for determination of the p53 status of a patient&#39;s tumor.   p53 exclusively interacts with chemotherapy.   p53 is not a prognostic marker but a marker predicting response to chemotherapy.   p53 can easily be misinterpreted as a prognostic marker when the strong interaction with chemotherapy is not considered (see  FIG. 6A ). Today almost all cancer patients are treated (pre or postoperatively) and most of the frequently used chemotherapies interact negatively with a mutant p53. Therefore in meta-analyses a mutant p53 status may appear as a bad prognostic marker.   Any survival benefit attributed to p53 is based on its interaction with therapy.       
 
         [0280]    2. The Oesophageal cancer PILOT STUDY 
         [0281]    Goal:
       Validation trial for the relationship between marker genotype and outcome (finished 2007)   test p53 adapted preoperative therapy (treatment considering the two pathway model) for the first time prospectively   assess the true incidence of p53 mutations in oesophageal cancer with the method according to the present invention.       
 
         [0285]    Background: Treatment of oesophageal cancer remains unsatisfactory. Cure rates are disappointingly low. The median survival time ranges around 17 months with a 3 ys survival rate of only 16%. Neither pre nor postoperative radio/chemotherapy in any combination proved to substantially improve this situation. 
         [0286]    Only a small subgroup of patients who experience major response to preoperative therapy consistently shows a significantly increased survival. Using standard platinum-based regimen, yet about 15% of patients can achieve pathological complete remission which translates in reported 3-year survival rates of 64% in this group. Factors identifying this subgroup of responders and selecting optimal drugs for non-responders could therefore dramatically enhance treatment efficacy. 
         [0287]    Methods: In order to test the hypothesis that the p53 genotype is predictive for chemotherapy response, a prospective study was conducted. Thirty-eight patients with potentially resectable esophageal cancer were evaluated for the relation between p53 genotype and response to two different neoadjuvant treatments. P53 gene mutations were assessed by complete direct sequencing of DNA extracted from diagnostic biopsies with the method according to the present invention. Response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy was assessed pathohistologically in the surgical specimen. 
         [0288]    Results: 23 squamous cell carcinoma and 24 adenocarcinoma were included. 39 patients received standard therapy with CIS/5FU (Cisplatin 80 mg/m2 dl 5-FU 1000 mg/m2 d 1-5, q21.2 cycles). Eight patients received Docetaxel (75 mg/m2, q21.2 cycles). 
         [0289]    Presence of a p53 mutation was significantly associated with decreased survival in the group receiving 5FU/CIS and an increased survival in the group receiving Docetaxel ( FIG. 5B ). Patients with a normal p53 gene experience a significant survival benefit after 5FU/CIS therapy. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                 TABLE 14 
               
             
             
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 CISPLATIN/ 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 5-FU 
                   
                 DOCETAXEL 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 P53 
                 P53 
                   
                 P53 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 NOR- 
                 MU- 
                 P 
                 NOR- 
                 P53 
                 P 
               
               
                   
                 MAL 
                 TANT 
                 VALUE 
                 MAL 
                 MUTANT 
                 VALUE 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 RESPONSE: 
                 12 
                 0 
                   
                 0 
                 6 
                   
               
               
                 CR, PR 
               
               
                 FAILURE: 
                 2 
                 16 
                 &lt;0.001 
                 2 
                 0 
                 0.002 
               
               
                 SD, PD 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0290]    The overall response to p53 adapted neoadjuvant therapy was 94%. p53 adapted treatment was associated with a significant survival advantage (p=0.042) after a median follow up of 15.4 months ( FIG. 5E ). There was no difference according to the different histological subtypes concerning the p53 interaction ( FIGS. 5C ,  5 D). 
         [0291]    Conclusion: These results are in concordance with our interaction and pathway model: As CIS/5FU belongs to pathway 1 and worked well in patients with a normal p53 gene in the tumor. Docetaxel belongs to pathway 2 and worked well in patients with p53 mutant tumors. 
         [0292]    As a consequence, a prospective randomised trial—the PANCHO trial—was initiated to finally prove the interaction between the predictive marker p53 and response to CIS/5-FU and Docetaxel, respectively. 
         [0293]    3. The PANCHO Trial 
         [0294]    Goal:
       Provide clinical evidence for the qualitative interaction and the two pathway model.   prove the clinical utility of p53 for the first time in a prospective randomised, clinical phase III trial.   use the Marker by treatment interaction design proposed by Sargent and test for interaction between p53 and response to therapy for the first time in the context of a phase III trial       
 
         [0298]    PANCHO=“p53 adapted neoadjuvant chemotherapy for operable oesophageal cancer” EudraCT 2006 006647-31, NCT00525200) is an ongoing clinical, predictive marker trial conducted by the p53 research group (started 2007, scheduled to be finished 2011). 
         [0299]    The trial was designed to provide clinical evidence for the two pathway model and the qualitative interaction of p53 and anticancer therapy. 
         [0300]    There is no single marker known for which a direct qualitative interaction with cancer therapy has ever been shown in a clinical trial. Additionally, based on the two pathway model of p53 interacting with cancer therapy, this interaction is two sided. 
         [0301]    The design of the pancho trial—marker by treatment interaction design (Sargent et al., J. Clin. Oncol. 23 (2005), 2020-2027)—was proposed as the statistically adequate design to test a possible interaction between a marker and response ( FIGS. 7 and 9 ). 
         [0302]    Until the present invention this design has never been used in a clinical trial because still no marker has been identified to meet the prerequisites: availability of a potential effective therapy for each of the two marker expressions (mutant or wild type) which generates a huge difference in response. The qualitative two sided interaction model according to the present invention will change the standards of cancer therapy, reducing toxicity while improving efficacy. 
       III. General Characteristics of the p53 Predictive Marker Test According to the Present Invention 
       [0303]    In this example, the characteristics of the present method are further highlighted, partially based on experimental results. Accordingly, the present example is not to be viewed as an individual example, but as part of the generalised teaching of the present application. The teachings presented herein therefore are—for each of the steps of the present method analysed—individual and independent teachings for each of these steps or preferred embodiments thereof which consist individual technical teaching and can be combined in any way with each other which is technically meaningful for a person of skill in the art. 
         [0304]    In this example, the p53 analysis system according to the present invention is described, which provides the methodical prerequisite for the use of TP53 mutations as predictive marker in cancer therapy. In this connection, it has to be emphasised that the requirements for a gene test which is used as a predictive marker test differs substantially from standard gene analysis or tests for prognostic markers: the result of a predictive marker test guides the choice of treatment. 
         [0305]    Thus, the central focus of a genetic test for a predictive marker is sensitivity and specificity. In order to use p53 gene mutations as predictive marker for the first time, a specific gene analysis system was developed for the p53 gene with the present invention, named p53 predictive marker test. 
         [0306]    In this example, i.a. the following characteristics of the present method are highlighted:
       (1) No pre-screening, no pre-amplification: pre-screening increases the false negative rate (a negative pre-screening does not exclude the presence of a mutation); pre-amplification increases the false positive rate. The present invention allows circumventing this problem by omitting such a step completely.   (2) Short fragment amplification: allows high quality PCR amplification without restrictions regarding the source material.   (3) Primer Positioning: allows perfect analysis (visibility) of the who target sequence (defined as the whole coding region of the p53 gene including the first five bases of the adjacent introns), and avoids overlapping.   (4) Triplicate PCR Check: allows the distinction between PCR generated artefacts and mutations.   (5) Multiplex PCR Check: allows concurrent amplification of multiple, non-overlapping fragments qualified for control of amplification due to their different lengths (=electrophoresis check) in a minimal number of reactions. The latter reduces potential sources of errors.   (6) Electrophoresis Check: proves that anticipated fragments have been correctly amplified, allows an estimation of the amount of the amplified fragment and proves the absence of PCR contamination.   (7) Forward/Reverse Sequencing Cross-Check (second round sequencing see page 9-10) allows distinction between mutation and artefacts which can be generated during PCR or sequencing. Together with triplicate amplification forward and reverse primer sequencing provides maximum sensitivity and specificity in the detection of p53 mutations.   (8) Background Check: for detection of mutations sequencing curves from different samples are compared (including those from reference sequences, triplicate, forward reverse sequencing). This allows the correct mapping of background and sequence specific alterations which is a prerequisite for correct identification of mutations.       
 
         [0315]    A schematic representation of the preferred embodiment of the present invention is depicted in  FIG. 10 . 
       Short Fragment Amplification: 
       [0316]    This step allows high quality PCR amplification without restrictions regarding the source material. Paraffin embedded fine needle biopsies, which are routinely performed for cancer diagnosis, can be used for successful DNA extraction and PCR amplification. Short fragment amplification minimizes problems of DNA degradation. Thus there is no restriction to fresh frozen material or a certain amount of tissue. 
         [0317]    Amplification of short fragments deserves consideration of gene (p53) specific characteristics:
       As target region for p53 analysis the 10 coding exons (2-11) were included encompassing 1179 bases and 5 bases from the adjacent introns respectively (target sequence is described in Examples I, above (especially table 5)).   The amplified PCR fragments range from 216-418 bp in size.   Specific lengths of coding exons and the lengths of introns (e.g. the short Introns 2, 3, 5 and 8 have specific consequences for the combination of fragments in the multiplex PCR).       
 
       Primer Positioning: 
       [0321]    This feature allows the perfect analysis (visibility) of the who target sequence (as defined before) and avoids overlapping fragments as basis for simultaneous (multiplex) amplification of several fragments in one reaction. The present invention foresees that a general placement of primers 30 bp ahead from the target sequence is recommendable. 
         [0322]    It turned out that a primer positioning which is too close to the exon results in that the first bases of a sequence run do not have sufficient quality (especially with respect to peak distance and background) for allowing detection of mutations. If a primer is positioned too close to the exon, parts of the target sequence fall in this region and are therefore not analysable neither with forward nor with reverse sequencing. This is in detail also shown below in Example IV when the test according to the present invention is compared with the prior art method according to WO 98/59072 A1. If the primers are too far away from the exon, fragments may be generated (especially for large exons, e.g. exon 4) which cannot be amplified out of paraffin samples. Due to the short introns in the p53 gene (2, 3, 5 and 8; &lt;150 bp), more introns may be amplified in one fragment (see e.g. Kandioler et al., Clin. Can. Res. 6 (2000), 50-56). The fragments thereby generated have sizes which are problematic to amplify out of paraffin samples. 
         [0323]    If neighbouring exons with corresponding distance to the target sequence are amplified in separate fragments but in one reaction, the problem of overlapping can occur specifically in cases where introns are rather short (see previous paragraph). Sequencing such overlapping fragments out of a multiplex amplification results in the presence of a relatively increased amount of PCR fragments from the overlapping region which leads to the generation of additional shorter fragments (resulting in different peak height). This may lead to a significant bias in the interpretation of such results. In order to overcome such problems, the multiplex set-up according to the present invention prevents the presence of neighbouring fragments that may cause such problems. The three set-ups for multiplexing according to the present invention are therefore designed to not contain problematic neighbouring fragments (specifically concerning introns 2, 3, 5 and 8 (i.e. exons 2+3, 3+4, 5+6 and 8+9 are not contained in the same multiplex set-up)). 
       Triplicate PCR Check: 
       [0324]    Triplicate PCR allows the distinction between PCR generated artefacts and mutations. Each short fragment is independently amplified three times (in triplicate) using a separate aliquot of the original DNA (independent amplification). 
       Multiplex PCR Check: 
       [0325]    Multiplex PCR check allows concurrent amplification of multiple, non-overlapping fragments qualified for control of amplification due to their different lengths (=electrophoresis check) in a minimal number of reactions. The latter reduces potential sources of errors.
       Only fragments of different sizes are combined for multiplex PCR amplification, to allow quality control.   Fragments are amplified in a minimum number of multiplex PCRs, in order to reduce working steps.   Prepared mixes of primers can be used for multiplex PCRs, reducing working steps and potential mistakes.   PCR conditions were optimized to reduce amplification of side products which could mask potential mutations.       
 
         [0330]    The multiplex PCR protocol according to the present invention, especially the preferred embodiment according to  FIG. 10  allows meeting these prerequisites. For example, considering the above mentioned criteria, amplification of all short fragments (n=10) of the p53 gene can be done in three multiplex PCRs. 
         [0331]    According to the preferred embodiment of  FIG. 10 , the three multiplex PCR mix for the p53 gene include forward and reverse primers of each fragment: Mix 1: amplification of fragments encompassing exons 2, 5, 7, 8; Mix: 2 amplification of fragments encompassing exons 3, 6, 11; Mix 3: amplification of fragments encompassing exons 4, 9, 10. 
         [0332]    This multiplex system emphasises the maximum sensitivity and specificity in the detection of TP53 mutations. Other systems according to the prior art (e.g. the multiplex system compared in example IV hereinafter) focus only on reducing labour intensity of PCR amplification by amplifying p53 in one multiplex PCR. As a result a number of checks cannot be met; primers have to be positioned close to the target sequence which makes visualisation of forward and reverse strand sequencing curves of the whole target sequence virtually impossible. 
       Electrophoresis Check: 
       [0333]    Electrophoresis control of the multiplex PCR products carried out in the course of the present invention serves as a quality control for the PCR step. The electrophoresis check
       shows that anticipated fragments of anticipated length have been amplified,   allows an estimation of the amount of the amplified fragment, and   proves the absence of contamination using a negative control (PCR without DNA addition).       
 
         [0337]    Examples of electrophoresis checks are provided in  FIGS. 2  (for normal p53 samples) and 11 (left: gel control (Mix 3 with heteroduplex band (arrow) as an indication for a mutation); right: sequence curve of mutated sample). Quality of PCR has an influence on sequencing result:
       Background can be caused by differences in relative amounts of PCR products or by irregular by-products.   Contamination with mutated or normal DNA can result in false positive or negative sequencing results.   Mutations caused by insertions or deletions can often be anticipated as they produce heteroduplex in electrophoresis. These mutations cause a peak shift in the sequencing curve. The peaks are often small and can be mistaken as background.       
 
       Forward/Reverse Sequencing Cross-Check: 
       [0341]    This check as mandatory feature of the method according to the present invention allows distinction between mutation and artefacts which can be generated during PCR or sequencing. In combination with triplicate amplification, forward and reverse primer sequencing provides maximum sensitivity and specificity in the detection of p53 mutations. It is generally known that artefacts can be generated during PCR or sequencing. This constitutes a significant disadvantage of PCR for use in clinical diagnostics. This is why establishment of PCR as a routine medical diagnostic technique is cumbersome and has not yet resulted in frequent applications. Moreover, it also turned out that some mutations are not equally detectable in forward and reverse sequencing (this is why additional cross check in triplicates is an important, yet far away from obvious measure which allows the present invention to be worked in a clinical environment). 
         [0342]    According to this preferred embodiment, the sequencing protocol is performed according to  FIG. 10 : Each fragment, which has been independently amplified three times (triplicate), is processed for sequencing with forward and reverse primer respectively. Thus the target sequence, split into 10 fragments, is sequenced three times (30 sequencing reactions). (2× with the forward primer, 1× with the reverse primer or vice versa). 
         [0343]    According to this preferred embodiment, PCR MIX 1 (fragments/exons 2, 5, 7, 8): of each PCR set-up (A, B, C=triplicate) corresponding to Mix 1, independent aliquots are taken for 4 sequence set-ups. Each of the sequence set-ups contains one primer. For Mix 1A and 1B this are primers 2f, 5f, 7f or 8r, respectively; for Mix 1C primers 2r, 5r, 7r or 8f, respectively. PCR MIX 2 (fragments/exons 3, 6, 1): of each PCR set-up (A, B, C=triplicate) corresponding to Mix 2, independent aliquots are taken for 3 sequence set-ups. Each of the sequence set-ups contains one primer. For Mix 2A and 2B this are primers 3f, 6f or seq r 11, respectively; for Mix 2C primers 3r, 6r, or 11f, respectively (primer “seq r 11” differs from primer 11r; see Example I above). PCR MIX 3 (fragments/exons 4, 9, 10): of each PCR set-up (A, B, C=triplicate) corresponding to Mix 3, independent aliquots are taken for 3 sequence set-ups. Each of the sequence set-ups contains one primer. For Mix 3A and 3B this are primers 4a, 9f or 10f, respectively; for Mix 1C primers 4s, 9r or 10r, respectively (4a and 4s differ from primers 4r and 4f; see Example I above). 
       Second Round Sequencing: 
       [0344]    A second round sequencing becomes necessary in case a mutation can be detected only in the very sequence which is generated with the primer which is used only one time in the sequencing protocol (either the forward or reverse primer, depending on the fragment; see  FIG. 10 ). This “second round sequencing” can be done obligatory or only on demand to reduce working load. For example, a mutation may not be visible in the sequencing curve of the 2 f (forward) primer, which is by default sequenced twice using PCR A and B as source material. The 2r (reverse) primer is used only once starting from PCR C as source material. If only this sequencing curve is suspicious for presence of a mutation, it becomes necessary to do a second round sequencing, using the 2r primer with PCR A or/and B as source material to get a decision. 
         [0345]    A universal second round sequencing protocol can also be adapted to the respective situation, for example: PCR MIX 1 (fragments/exons 2, 5, 7, 8): An aliquot of set-up B (alternatively, also A is possible) is taken. This set-up contains the other primer (sense or antisense) than in the first sequencing round, e.g. primer 2r, 5r, 7r or 8f PCR MIX 2 (fragments/exons 3, 6, 1): An aliquot of set-up B (alternatively, also A is possible) is taken. This set-up contains the other primer (sense or antisense) than in the first sequencing round, e.g. primer 3r, 6r or 11f. PCR MIX 3 (fragments/exons 4, 9, 10): An aliquot of set-up B (alternatively, also A is possible) is taken. This set-up contains the other primer (sense or antisense) than in the first sequencing round, e.g. primer 4s, 9r or 10r. Of each sample therefore, an additional, independent sequencing set-up can be made. 
       Background Check: 
       [0346]    For detection of mutations sequencing curves from different samples may be compared (including those from forward &amp; reverse sequencing and triplicate sequencing as well as the reference sequence) to safeguard highest analytical quality. This allows the correct mapping of background and sequence specific alterations which is a prerequisite for a correct identification of mutations. Background checks may preferably include the following levels:
       1. Comparison to actual reference sequences: Comparison with the published reference sequence is important to distinguish between polymorphism (known variant in a population) and mutation (variant in the tumor).   2. Comparison of forward and reverse strand sequencing curves: Mutations can appear more clearly in forward or reverse sequencing curves respectively. A mutation can be visible in the forward strand curve. However in the reverse strand, the same mutation might not be visible as additional peak but only as a decrease in height of the normal peak (see e.g.  FIG. 3  Sample 2234).   3. Comparison of sequencing curves from the triplicates (three independent PCR amplifications): Artefacts can be generated during PCR or sequencing. A PCR artefact will be present in forward and reverse sequencing of product from the same PCR but will not be reproducible in an independent second and third PCR. The third PCR is necessary to make the decision.   4. Comparison of curves from different samples: Differences in relative peak heights or patterns point to mutations. Heights of sequencing peaks as well as background patterns are sequence specific. Sequence specific background needs to be distinguished from mutations (e.g. frameshift resulting from insertion/deletion shift). These differences can be detected best by comparing curves from different samples.       
 
         [0351]    This procedure for background check is completely different from the standards for mutation detection provided by standard sequencing software according to prior art methods for determining p53 status. Current mutations analysis software defines background as a certain peak height (percentage of the normal peak). As outlined above, this cannot be regarded as the decisive parameter in reliable testing with respect to qualitative interaction analysis for tumor treatment! 
       Sensitivity and Specificity: 
       [0352]    Currently there is no defined approach published how to deliver sensitivity and specificity in p53 sequencing analysis (i.e. how to avoid false negative results and false positive sequencing results). The system according to the present invention focuses on maximum sensitivity and specificity in the detection of TP53 mutations for the first time. This question has not been addressed in the prior art since p53 has not yet been recognized as a marker predicting chemotherapy outcome (see example II, above). However, a sensitive and specific marker test is a prerequisite for making use of p53 as a predictive marker. The gain of quality compared to prior art systems for determining p53 status is also depicted in  FIG. 12  (arrow indicates “reduction” of false positives and negatives, respectively). 
         [0353]    This is also due to the fact that prior art p53 analysis systems have different goals: Most of them focus on reduction of working steps and labour intensity using mutation screening. Repeated analyses are used only to approve the presence of mutations (see e.g. Bäckvall et al., 2004; Kandioler-Eckersberger et al., 2000). These procedures increase the rate of false negatives. This may also be the reason why the cancer specific mutation rates delivered with the p53 test according to the present invention are consistently higher than published rates: 
         [0354]    An estimation of the TP53 mutation rate bias caused by state of the art sequencing gives the following picture: In a prospectively recruited cohort of operable oesophageal cancer patients (pancho trial), which was stratified for histological subtype, TP53 mutations in 98/125 patients were detected, using the present p53 predictive marker test for p53 analysis. This corresponds to a TP53 mutation rate of 78%. In comparison, international databases collecting published TP53 mutations, report consolidated mutation rates for oesophageal cancer of about 40% (IARC TP53 Mutation Database, R15 release, November 10: 41.1% (Magali Olivier/Pierre Hainaut), http://www-p53.iarc.fr; UMD TP53 Mutation Database, 2010_R1 release, July 10: 40% (Thierry Soussi) http://p53.free.fr). 
         [0355]    Examples for improvement of sensitivity and specificity using the test according to the present invention for practical mutation examples can be drawn from the following table 15: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 15 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Mutation 
                 Mutation not 
                 Mutation detection 
               
               
                 Exon  
                 Sample 
                 detected well 
                 detected well 
                 enabled by 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 6 
                 2130 
                 1 × forward 
                 2 × reverse 
                 sn/as + trip 
               
               
                 8 
                 2044 
                 1 × forward 
                 1 × forw + 1 × rev 
                 sn/as + trip 
               
               
                 7 
                 2154 
                 2 × forward 
                 1 × reverse 
                 sn/as + trip 
               
               
                   
                 2125 
                 2 × forward 
                 1 × reverse 
                 sn/as + trip 
               
               
                 8 
                 2180 
                 2 × forward 
                 1 × reverse 
                 sn/as + trip 
               
               
                 5 
                 2030 
                 2 × forward 
                 1 × reverse 
                 sn/as + trip 
               
               
                 9 
                 2141 
                 1 × forw + 1 × rev 
                 1 × reverse 
                 triplicates 
               
               
                 8 
                 2067 
                 1 × forw + 1 × rev 
                 1 × forward 
                 triplicates 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 1 × forw + 1 × rev: 1 × forward + 1 × reverse; 
               
               
                 sn: sense; 
               
               
                 as: antisense; 
               
               
                 trip: triplicates 
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Comparison to Prior Art Methods: 
       [0356]    Based on the characterization of mutations of the pancho cohort (see e.g. table 15), the rate of false positives and false negative results were estimated for some of the quality steps (i.e. percentage of false results, which occurred using standard methods). The summary is contained in  FIG. 13 .  FIGS. 14 to 24  show examples for the quality control steps according to the present invention.  FIG. 14  shows how triplicates work for discrimination of mutations from artefacts: examples for “mutations” (as artefacts) are shown which can only be identified in the PCR (red arrows);  FIG. 15  shows comparison of sequence curves of different samples for discrimination between background/mutation/artefact (the arrow bottom-left identifies background; the arrow bottom-right identifies a mutation).  FIGS. 16 to 19  show sequence/primer-specific background in control collective.  FIG. 20  shows a by-product of PCR in the control collective as background in the sequence curve.  FIG. 21  shows a mutation differing in sense/antisense sequencing from primer specific background. (sample 2130: mutation (arrow bottom; C to T) is visible in both strands in spite of primer specific background (also present in controls)).  FIGS. 3 and 22  show a mutation in sense/antisense sequencing being differently visible ( FIG. 22 : sample 2154 (left): mutation (arrow; G to T) is better visible in forward than in reverse; sample 2180 (right): mutation (arrow; C to T) is better visible in forward than in reverse; sample 2179 (right): mutation (arrow; A to T) is visible in forward and in reverse).  FIGS. 23 and 24  show examples where mutations are visible in sense and antisense sequencing, however, only in 2 of 3 PCR set-ups. 
         [0000]    IV. Comparison of the p53 Status Test According to the Present Invention with the p53 Test According to WO 98/59072 A1 (Affymetrix) 
         [0357]    A comparison of the prior art p53 test system according to WO 98/59072 A1 (“Affymetrix system”) with the p53 status test according to the present invention was performed by using the experimental set-up disclosed in WO 98/59072 A1. The results of the comparison are depicted in  FIGS. 25 to 34 . These results show that the method according to present invention is not just an alternative p53 status test but significantly differs in quality, safety and reliability from prior art tests. It further shows that also the selection of the primers according to the present invention has significant advantages compared to prior art primer sets. 
         [0358]    In the Figures, sequence curves of both systems (the system according to the present invention and the system disclosed in WO 98/59072 A1) are depicted. Shaded sequence regions are regions which are identifiable with the system according to the present invention but are already primer sequence in the Affymetrix system (and which are not sample-specific sequences in the Affymetrix system). Affymetrix-primers which are positioned too close to the exon regions are framed in red. Positioning of the primers according to the present invention is, however, fine-tuned so that resulting fragments differ in size to be distinguished by gel electrophoresis. This is not possible for two of the Affymetrix fragments, since they differ only by 6 bp in length. 
         [0359]    Due to such “too close” positioning of primers to exons, parts of the target sequence in that region (splice sites, end of exons) cannot be analysed with the necessary quality, because bases at these ends are not readable (for technical reasons) and because (afterwards) the primer sequence (instead of the sample intron sequence) is read. This means that these regions may only be read in the sequence curve of one strand whereas in the system of the present invention both strands are always readable. For exons 2, 4, 10 and 11, primers are only 1 to 2 bp apart from the exon in the Affymetrix system. It follows that at least 3 bp of the splice site cannot be analysed with this system. This shows that alone the primers used for exons 2, 4, 10 and 11 according to the present invention provide a significant advantage for the present system in comparison to the Affymetrix system. 
         [0360]    It also follows that—although the Affymetrix system covers the whole coding region of p53 —this system is not designed for analysing mutations with a sensitivity required for a predictive marker test (which should serve as a therapy decision for tumor treatment based on qualitative interaction). 
         [0361]      FIG. 25  shows exon 2 (curly bracket) between intron 1 and 2. Affymetrix sequence curve (reverse=second curve) begins in the exon and is only readable after approx. 10 bases. With the forward primer, the sequence is readable, however, origins from the primer, but not from the sample (shaded, right bottom). 
         [0362]      FIG. 26  shows exon 4 (curly bracket) between intron 3 and 4. Due to the p53-specific sequence in intron 3, also the primer according to the present invention (exon4 forward; 4s or “seq f 4”) is positioned rather close; however, this is compensated by positioning the PCR primer more internally in the intron. This allows sequencing into significant portions of the intron, whereas in the Affymetrix system, sequence is, again, derived from the primer, but not from the sample (shaded, right bottom). 
         [0363]      FIG. 27  shows exon 5 (curly bracket) between intron 4 and 5. Here, also the Affymetrix primers are at appropriate distance to the exon. 
         [0364]      FIG. 28  shows exon 6 (curly bracket) between intron 5 and 6. The similar problem as for exon 2 is present here (see  FIG. 25 ). 
         [0365]      FIG. 29  shows exon 7 (curly bracket) between intron 6 and 7. The similar problem as for exon 2 and 4 is present here (see  FIGS. 25 and 28 ). 
         [0366]      FIG. 30  shows exon 8 (curly bracket) between intron 7 and 8. The similar problem as for exon 5 is present here (see  FIG. 27 ). 
         [0367]      FIG. 31  shows exon 9 (curly bracket) between intron 8 and 9. Both Affymetrix primers are too close to the exon. Moreover, the Affymetrix sequences have high background signals. 
         [0368]      FIG. 32  shows exon 10 (curly bracket) between intron 9 and 10. Due to the close positioning, about 20 bp in the forward sequence are not readable in the Affymetrix system. This problem is not even solvable by a well-positioned reverse primer since it reads in the primer used for PCR and not in the sample sequence! 
         [0369]      FIG. 33  shows exon 11 (curly bracket) between intron 10 and 11. The similar problem as for exon 10 is present here (see  FIG. 32 ). 
         [0370]      FIG. 34  shows gel control for the Affymetrix multiplex PCR (gel: left (exon 3 apparently not amplified); primer concentrations: right). The close sizes evidence that this set-up is not suitable for reliable quality control system for p53 testing.