Abstract:
This disclosure relates to the engineering of phototrophic microorganisms for conversion of alkanes into higher-value products. Recombinant phototrophic organisms such as cyanobacteria can be engineered, optionally in a modular format, to express enzymes involved in converting methane to methanol, methanol to formaldehyde, formaldehyde to central metabolic pathway intermediates, and such intermediates to n-butanol.

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD 
       [0001]    This disclosure relates to the engineering of phototrophic microorganisms for conversion of alkanes into high-value products. In particular, this disclosure relates to the production of alcohols such as butanols from methane using recombinant phototrophic organisms such as cyanobacteria. 
       BACKGROUND 
       [0002]    The increasing reserves of natural gas combined with its availability in different geographical locations have generated a great interest in development of processes for its economical transformation into energy-dense liquid transportation fuel and products. Methane is the principal component of natural gas and thus development of economical and sustainable strategies for utilization of methane is of significance. A well-recognized process is oxidative transformation of methane into methanol. Partial oxidation of methane to synthesis gas followed by the Fischer-Tropsch chemistry is a well established chemical transformation process. However, it involves multiple components which results in high capital costs and the conversion efficiency is generally poor. This limits its utility only in geographical locations with large natural gas reserves. 
         [0003]    Although methanotrophs belonging to alpha- and gamma-proteobacteria are known to utilize methane as a sole source of carbon and energy, there are many challenges in the use of methanotrophs based bioprocess technology for production of high-value products from methane. These organisms obtain the necessary energy for metabolic activities including the initial oxidation of methane by converting a large amount of methane into CO 2  which results in loss of methane and generation of greenhouse gas. Therefore, there are great challenges in leveraging these organisms for commercial applications to convert natural gas into products useful in petrochemical, material and energy industries. 
       SUMMARY 
       [0004]    Provided herein are recombinant phototrophic microorganisms, comprising one or more alkane oxidation genes whose expression results in oxidation of alkanes and assimilation of the resulting products into the central metabolic pathways in phototrophic organisms such as cyanobacteria. The one or more alkane oxidation genes can be an alkane monooxygenase, an alcohol dehydrogenase or an aldehyde assimilatory gene. The recombinant photosynthetic organism converts the entire feed of alkane into the targeted product because it uses sunlight to provide energy and oxygen needed for oxidation of alkanes. Having the ability to couple oxidation of alkanes such as methane with sunlight in the recombinant phototrophic organism and energy can allow molecules of interest (e.g., butanol) to be produced biologically from natural gas in an efficient and cost effective manner. Because the recombinant phototrophic organism converts alkanes into metabolic products that are natively part of central metabolic pathway of all living organisms, the recombinant photosynthetic microorganisms or organisms provided herein can be further genetically modified with previously known polypeptides in the art whose expression converts metabolites from central metabolic pathways into several molecules including, but not limited to, amino acids, alcohols, dicarboxylic acids, fatty acids, energy-dense molecules and other molecules useful in petrochemical, material and energy industries efficiently and at high levels. Production processes involving phototrophic microorganisms are carried out under moderate conditions, use simpler and potentially more selective reactions, and have the potential to be operationally implemented at different scales for economical production of energy-dense transportation fuels at different geographical locations. 
         [0005]    In one aspect, provided herein is a recombinant phototrophic microorganism, comprising one or more genes encoding a methane monooxygenase (MMO). The MMO can be a particulate MMO, and the one or more genes can comprise coding sequences for polypeptides having the amino acid sequences of  Methylococcus capsulatus  Bath PmoA, PmoB, and PmoC. The MMO can be a soluble MMO and the one or more genes can comprise coding sequences for an MmoX polypeptide; an MmoY polypeptide, an MmoB polypeptide, an MmoZ polypeptide, an MmoD, and an MmoC polypeptide. The expression of said one or more genes in the recombinant microorganism can result in the production of methanol; ethanol; propanol, or n-butanol, when the microorganism is grown in the presence of light and O 2  in a medium comprising methane, ethane, propane or butane, respectively. 
         [0006]    The recombinant microorganism can further include a methanol dehydrogenase or a human class I alcohol dehydrogenase; a hexulose-6-phosphate synthase and a 6-phosphate-3-hexuloisomerase; and recombinant genes encoding an acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase polypeptide; a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase polypeptide; a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase (crotonase) polypeptide; an aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase polypeptide; and a trans-enoyl-CoA reductase polypeptide. Expression of these genes in the microorganism can result in the production of n-butanol when the microorganism is grown in the presence of light and 02 in a medium comprising methane. 
         [0007]    In another aspect, also provided herein is a recombinant phototrophic microorganism, comprising one or more genes encoding a methanol dehydrogenase (MDH) or a human class I alcohol dehydrogenase. The one or more genes can be a gene encoding a human class I ADH1A, ADH1B, and ADH1C alcohol dehydrogenase. The recombinant microorganism can be a strain of cyanobacterium or algae, e.g., a  Synechocystis  species. The one or more genes can comprise a gene encoding a polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of an NAD-dependent MDH from methylotrophic  Bacillus methanolicus . The recombinant microorganism can further include a gene encoding a hexulose-6-phosphate synthase (HPS) and a gene encoding a 6-phosphate-3-hexuloisomerase (PHI), and be capable of growth in media containing 2% (v/v) methanol. In addition to a gene encoding a hexulose-6-phosphate synthase and a gene encoding a 6-phosphate-3-hexuloisomerase, such a recombinant microorganism can further include recombinant genes encoding an acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase polypeptide; a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase polypeptide; a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase (crotonase) polypeptide; an aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase polypeptide; and a trans-enoyl-CoA reductase polypeptide. Expression of such genes in the microorganism can result in the production of n-butanol when the microorganism is grown in the presence of light and O 2  in a medium comprising methanol. 
         [0008]    In another aspect, also provided herein is a recombinant phototrophic microorganism, comprising one or more genes encoding a hexulose-6-phosphate synthase (HPS) or a 6-phosphate-3-hexuloisomerase (PHI). At least one of the HPS and PHI genes can encode a polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of an HPS or PHI from  Methylococcus capsulatus, Bacillus methanolicus , or  Pyrococcus horikoshii . The recombinant phototrophic microorganism can be capable of growth in media containing 15 mM formaldehyde. The rate of growth of the microorganism in media containing 15 mM formaldehyde can be about 88% or more, relative to the rate of growth of the microorganism in corresponding media containing no added formaldehyde. The amount of formaldehyde in supernatant from media in which the microorganism has been cultured can be about 4-fold less than the amount of formaldehyde in supernatant from media in which isogenic control cells have been cultured. The recombinant microorganism can further comprise a gene encoding a phosphoribulokinase, and/or can further comprise one or more genes encoding a phosphoribulokinase; a transketolase, a transaldolase, and/or a sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase. The microorganism can be a strain of cyanobacterium or alga, such as a  Synechocystis  species. 
         [0009]    Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention pertains. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description, and from the claims. 
     
    
     
       DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         [0010]      FIG. 1  is a bar graph showing the optical density of  Synechocystis  cultures at 0 days and at 7 days of growth after 7 days of growth at 30° C. in media containing different concentrations of methanol. Optical density was monitored by measuring absorbance at 730 nm. WT=wild type  Synechocystis  strain lacking MDH and ACT genes; BM-mdh= Synechocystis  strain expressing MDH gene; BM-mdh-act  Synechocystis  strain expressing MDH and ACT genes. 
           [0011]      FIG. 2  is a bar graph showing the formaldehyde concentration (as measured by absorbance at 412 nm) in supernatants of  Synechocystis  cultures after 1 day of growth at 30° C. in media containing formaldehyde. C=no cells; WT=wild type  Synechocystis  cells; MSI=cells of a recombinant  Synechocystis  strain expressing  Methylococcus capsulatus  HPS and PHI genes. 
       
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF THE SEQUENCE LISTING 
       [0012]      
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                 Genbank No. 
                 Species 
                 SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 GI: 53804130 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 1 
               
               
                 GI: 7188931 
                 
                   Methylosinus trichosporium 
                 
                 2 
               
               
                 GI: 427190913 
                 
                   Methylohalobius crimeensis 
                 
                 3 
               
               
                 GI 357403888 
                 
                   Methylomicrobium alcaliphilum 
                 
                 4 
               
               
                 GI: 402774099 
                 
                   Methylocystis sp. 
                 
                 5 
               
               
                 GI: 223717937 
                 
                   Methylococcaceae bacterium 
                 
                 6 
               
               
                 GI: 224967033 
                 
                   Methylomarinum vadi 
                 
                 7 
               
               
                 GI: 7188938 
                 
                   Methylocystis sp. 
                 
                 8 
               
               
                 GI: 7188933 
                 
                   Methylosinus trichosporium 
                 
                 9 
               
               
                 GI: 83308654 
                 uncultured bacterium 
                 10 
               
               
                 GI: 189219600 
                 
                   Methylacidiphilum infernorum 
                 
                 11 
               
               
                 GI: 83308708 
                 
                   Methylocapsa acidiphila 
                 
                 12 
               
               
                 GI:53804139 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 13 
               
               
                 GI 7188932 
                 
                   Methylosinus trichosporium 
                 
                 14 
               
               
                 GI 189219602 
                 
                   Methylacidiphilum infernorum 
                 
                 15 
               
               
                 GI 83308706 
                 
                   Methylocapsa acidiphila 
                 
                 16 
               
               
                 GI 357403887 
                 
                   Methylomicrobium alcaliphilum 
                 
                 17 
               
               
                 GI 402774098 
                 
                   Methylocystis sp. 
                 
                 18 
               
               
                 GI 6013166 
                 
                   Methylocystis sp. 
                 
                 19 
               
               
                 GI 53758445 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 20 
               
               
                 GI 73745618 
                 
                   Methylosinus trichosporium 
                 
                 21 
               
               
                 GI 89572582 
                 
                   Methylomicrobium japanense 
                 
                 22 
               
               
                 GI 74381909 
                 
                   Methylocella silvestris 
                 
                 23 
               
               
                 GI 5102756 
                 
                   Methylosinus trichosporium 
                 
                 24 
               
               
                 GI 88656492 
                 
                   Methylosinus sporium 
                 
                 25 
               
               
                 GI 6013167 
                 
                   Methylocystis sp. 
                 
                 26 
               
               
                 GI 53804675 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 27 
               
               
                 GI 306921972 
                 
                   Methylovulum miyakonense 
                 
                 28 
               
               
                 GI 73745619 
                 
                   Methylosinus trichosporium 
                 
                 29 
               
               
                 GI 2098696 
                 
                   Methylocystis sp. 
                 
                 30 
               
               
                 GI 88656493 
                 
                   Methylosinus sporium 
                 
                 31 
               
               
                 GI 6013168 
                 
                   Methylocystis sp. 
                 
                 32 
               
               
                 GI 6002406 
                 
                   Methylomonas sp. 
                 
                 33 
               
               
                 GI 7770068 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 34 
               
               
                 GI 89572584 
                 
                   Methylomicrobium japanense 
                 
                 35 
               
               
                 GI 53804674 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 36 
               
               
                 GI 306921973 
                 
                   Methylovulum miyakonense 
                 
                 37 
               
               
                 GI 73745620 
                 
                   Methylosinus trichosporium 
                 
                 38 
               
               
                 GI 88656494 
                 
                   Methylosinus sporium 
                 
                 39 
               
               
                 GI 6013169 
                 
                   Methylocystis sp. 
                 
                 40 
               
               
                 GI 7770067 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 41 
               
               
                 GI 53804672 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 42 
               
               
                 GI 19855848 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 43 
               
               
                 GI 306921974 
                 
                   Methylovulum miyakonense 
                 
                 44 
               
               
                 GI 73745621 
                 
                   Methylosinus trichosporium 
                 
                 45 
               
               
                 GI 88656496 
                 
                   Methylosinus sporium 
                 
                 46 
               
               
                 GI 6013171 
                 
                   Methylocystis sp. 
                 
                 47 
               
               
                 GI 21362649 
                 
                   Methylosinus trichosporium 
                 
                 48 
               
               
                 GI 18266834 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 49 
               
               
                 GI 245216 
                 
                   Methylosinus trichosporium 
                 
                 50 
               
               
                 GI 7770065 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 51 
               
               
                 GI 53804670 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 52 
               
               
                 GI 73745623 
                 
                   Methylosinus trichosporium 
                 
                 53 
               
               
                 GI 88656495 
                 
                   Methylosinus sporium 
                 
                 54 
               
               
                 GI 141050 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 55 
               
               
                 GI 21362648 
                 
                   Methylosinus trichosporium 
                 
                 56 
               
               
                 GI 53804671 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 57 
               
               
                 GI 53758432 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 58 
               
               
                 GI 74381913 
                 
                   Methylocella silvestris 
                 
                 59 
               
               
                 GI 462590 
                 
                   Bacillus methanolicus 
                 
                 60 
               
               
                 GI 41057056 
                 
                   Bacillus methanolicus 
                 
                 61 
               
               
                 GI 387585284 
                 
                   Bacillus methanolicus 
                 
                 62 
               
               
                 GI 143175 
                 
                   Bacillus sp. 
                 
                 63 
               
               
                 GI 22654852 
                 
                   Bacillus methanolicus 
                 
                 64 
               
               
                 GI 4501929 
                 
                   Homo sapiens 
                 
                 65 
               
               
                 GI 50960621 
                 
                   Homo sapiens 
                 
                 66 
               
               
                 GI 34577061 
                 
                   Homo sapiens 
                 
                 67 
               
               
                 GI 4501933 
                 
                   Homo sapiens 
                 
                 68 
               
               
                 GI 53802837 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus 
                 
                 69 
               
               
                 GI 170781838 
                 
                   Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. 
                 
                 70 
               
               
                 GI 53756598 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus str. 
                 
                 71 
               
               
                 GI 169156406 
                 
                   Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. 
                 
                 72 
               
               
                 GI 49482799 
                 
                   Staphylococcus aureus subsp. 
                 
                 73 
               
               
                 GI 15923560 
                 
                   Staphylococcus aureus subsp. 
                 
                 74 
               
               
                 GI 56416177 
                 
                   Salmonella enterica subsp. 
                 
                 75 
               
               
                 GI 56415567 
                 
                   Salmonella enterica subsp. 
                 
                 76 
               
               
                 GI 89089643 
                 
                   Bacillus sp. 
                 
                 77 
               
               
                 GI 40074227 
                 
                   Bacillus methanolicus 
                 
                 78 
               
               
                 GI 333985721 
                 
                   Methylomonas methanica 
                 
                 79 
               
               
                 GI 53756597 
                 
                   Methylococcus capsulatus str.  
                 
                 80 
               
               
                 GI 390191152 
                 
                   Desulfurococcus fermentans 
                 
                 81 
               
               
                 GI 327400808 
                 
                   Archaeoglobus veneficus 
                 
                 82 
               
               
                 GI 373906366 
                 
                   Methanoplanus limicola 
                 
                 83 
               
               
                 GI 544229974 
                 
                   Lactobacillus brevis 
                 
                 84 
               
               
                 GI 410600419 
                 
                   Methanobacterium sp. 
                 
                 85 
               
               
                 GI 18976592 
                 
                   Pyrococcus furiosus 
                 
                 86 
               
               
                 GI 20905670 
                 
                   Methanosarcina mazei 
                 
                 87 
               
               
                 GI 124363810 
                 
                   Methanocorpusculum labreanum 
                 
                 88 
               
               
                 GI 124363357 
                 
                   Methanocorpusculum labreanum 
                 
                 89 
               
               
                 GI 351717933 
                 
                   Methylomicrobium alcaliphilum  
                 
                 90 
               
               
                 GI 18892157 
                 
                   Methylomicrobium alcaliphilum  
                 
                 91 
               
               
                 GI 387585261 
                 
                   Bacillus methanolicus 
                 
                 92 
               
               
                 GI 387587408 
                 
                   Bacillus methanolicus 
                 
                 93 
               
               
                 GI 14591680 
                 
                   Pyrococcus horikoshii 
                 
                 94 
               
               
                 GI 387587407 
                 
                   Bacillus methanolicus 
                 
                 95 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0013]    This document provides methods and materials to metabolically engineer photosynthetic organisms such as cyanobacteria, such that oxidation of alkanes is coupled with energy derived from sunlight for cost-effective biological conversion of such alkanes into high-value products (e.g., butanol). The ability of the engineered microorganism to utilize sunlight as the source of energy for metabolic activities provides a method to convert the entire feed of alkane into targeted product while ability of the recombinant phototrophic organism to provide photosynthetically produced oxygen from water as an in situ generated substrate for the activation of alkane reduces the equipment cost. 
         [0014]    This document provides methods and materials for using recombinant phototrophic organisms (e.g., cyanobacteria such as a  Synechocystis  species) designed to express a polypeptide having alkane monooxygenase activity that is localized to either the cytoplasmic membrane or in soluble form that converts alkanes into their respective alcohols (e.g., methane into methanol) or both i.e., a recombinant organism can carry both forms of alkane monooxygenase activity. As described herein, polypeptides (e.g., polypeptides having enzymatic activity) can be designed to include a membrane-targeting sequence that allows the polypeptide to be localized to a membrane. Similarly, a polypeptide having alcohol dehydrogenase activity can be expressed that converts alcohols into their respective aldehydes (e.g., methanol to formaldehyde), and a polypeptide having aldehyde assimilation activity that converts an aldehyde into a metabolite of central metabolic pathways (e.g., formaldehyde into 3-phosphoglycerate). The ability of the engineered phototrophic organisms to convert alkanes such as methane into intermediates of a central metabolic pathway allows one to produce any products including, but not limited to, amino acids, alcohols, dicarboxylic acids, fatty acids, and energy-dense molecules from the alkanes efficiently and at high levels. 
         [0015]    As used herein, the term recombinant microorganism refers to a microorganism, the genome of which has been augmented by at least one incorporated DNA sequence. Such DNA sequences include but are not limited to genes that are not naturally present, DNA sequences that are not normally transcribed into RNA or translated into a protein (“expressed”), and other genes or DNA sequences which one desires to introduce into the non-recombinant microorganism. It will be appreciated that typically the genome of a recombinant microorganism described herein is augmented through the stable introduction of one or more recombinant genes that are not originally resident in the microorganism that is the recipient of the DNA. However, it is within the scope of the invention to isolate a DNA segment from a given microorganism, and to subsequently introduce one or more additional copies of that DNA back into the same microorganism, e.g., to enhance production of the product of a gene or alter the expression pattern of a gene. In some instances, the introduced DNA will modify or even replace an endogenous gene or DNA sequence by, e.g., homologous recombination or site-directed mutagenesis. 
         [0016]    The term “recombinant gene” refers to a gene or DNA sequence that is introduced into a recipient microorganism, regardless of whether the same or a similar gene may already be present in such a microorganism. “Introduced,” or “augmented” in this context, is known in the art to mean introduced or augmented by the hand of man. Thus, a recombinant gene may be a DNA sequence from another species, or may be a DNA sequence that originated from or is present in the same species, but has been incorporated into a microorganism by genetic engineering methods to form a recombinant microorganism. It will be appreciated that a recombinant gene that is introduced into a microorganism can be identical to a DNA sequence that is normally present in the microorganism being transformed, and is introduced to provide one or more additional copies of the DNA to thereby permit overexpression or modified expression of the gene product of that DNA. Recombinant genes typically encode one or more polypeptides. 
         [0017]    It will be appreciated that functional homologs of the said polypeptides are also suitable for use in generation of the said recombinant microorganism. A functional homolog is a polypeptide that has sequence similarity to a reference polypeptide, and that carries out one or more of the biochemical or physiological function(s) of the reference polypeptide. A functional homolog and the reference polypeptide may be natural occurring polypeptides, and the sequence similarity may be due to convergent or divergent evolutionary events. As such, functional homologs are sometimes designated in the literature as homologs, or orthologs, or paralogs. Variants of a naturally occurring functional homolog, such as polypeptides encoded by mutants of a wild type coding sequence, may themselves be functional homologs. Functional homologs can also be created via site-directed mutagenesis of the coding sequence for a polypeptide, or by combining domains from the coding sequences for different naturally-occurring polypeptides (“domain swapping”). Functional homologs can also be created via site-directed mutagenesis of the coding sequence for a naturally occurring polypeptide, or by combining domains from the coding sequences for different naturally-occurring polypeptides (“domain swapping”). Techniques for modifying genes encoding functional polypeptides described herein are known and include, inter alia, directed evolution techniques, site-directed mutagenesis techniques and random mutagenesis techniques, and can be useful to increase specific activity of a polypeptide, alter substrate specificity, alter expression levels, alter subcellular location, or modify polypeptide:polypeptide interactions in a desired manner. Such modified polypeptides are considered functional homologs. The term “functional homolog” is sometimes applied to the nucleic acid that encodes a functionally homologous polypeptide. 
         [0018]    Functional homologs can be identified by analysis of nucleotide and polypeptide sequence alignments. For example, performing a query on a database of nucleotide or polypeptide sequences can identify homologs of the said polypeptides such as alkane monooxygenase. Sequence analysis can involve BLAST, Reciprocal BLAST, or PSI-BLAST analysis of nonredundant databases using an alkane monooxygenase polypeptide amino acid sequence as the reference sequence. Amino acid sequence is, in some instances, deduced from the nucleotide sequence. Those polypeptides in the database that have greater than 40% sequence identity are candidates for further evaluation for suitability as a polypeptide representing specific function described in this invention. Amino acid sequence similarity allows for conservative amino acid substitutions, such as substitution of one hydrophobic residue for another or substitution of one polar residue for another. If desired, manual inspection of such candidates can be carried out in order to narrow the number of candidates to be further evaluated. Manual inspection can be performed by selecting those candidates that appear to have domains present in the said polypeptides, e.g., conserved functional domains. 
         [0019]    Conserved regions can be identified by locating a region within the primary amino acid sequence of the said polypeptide that is a repeated sequence, forms some secondary structure (e.g., helices and beta sheets), establishes positively or negatively charged domains, or represents a protein motif or domain. See, e.g., the Pfam web site describing consensus sequences for a variety of protein motifs and domains on the World Wide Web at sanger.ac.uk/Software/Pfam/ and pfam.janelia.org/. A description of the information included at the Pfam database is described in Sonnhammer et al.,  Nucl. Acids Res.,  26:320-322 (1998); Sonnhammer et al.,  Proteins,  28:405-420 (1997); and Bateman et al.,  Nucl. Acids Res.,  27:260-262 (1999). Conserved regions also can be determined by aligning sequences of the same or related polypeptides from closely related species. Closely related species preferably are from the same family. In some embodiments, alignment of sequences from two different species is adequate. 
         [0020]    Typically, polypeptides that exhibit at least about 40% amino acid sequence identity are useful to identify conserved regions. Conserved regions of related polypeptides exhibit at least 45% amino acid sequence identity (e.g., at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, or at least 90% amino acid sequence identity). In some embodiments, a conserved region exhibits at least 92%, 94%, 96%, 98%, or 99% amino acid sequence identity. 
         [0021]    It will be appreciated that functional homologs of the polypeptides described below are also suitable for use in generation of a recombinant microorganism in which functional expression of the said polypeptides enables the recombinant microorganism to utilize alkane as a sole source of carbon and energy. 
       Alkane Oxidation Polypeptides 
       [0022]    Alkanes can be oxidized by a number of enzymes including methane monooxygenase (MMO), alkene monooxygenase and cytochrome P450s. There are two known forms of MMO: a cytoplasmic membrane localized form known as particulate MMO (pMMO) (EC 1.14.18.3) and a cytoplasmic soluble form known as soluble MMO (sMMO) (EC 1.14.13.25). Both MMOs are able to break the C—H bonds present in alkanes, although their structure, subunit composition and catalytic mechanism are different. Most methanotrophs contain only pMMO but some also have both pMMO and sMMO. 
         [0023]    pMMOs are generally more selective in their ability to react with various substrates whereas sMMOs generally are able to react with a broader range of substrates. sMMOs typically can utilize hydrocarbons up to C8 as substrates, including aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons. pMMO is composed of three polypeptides (PmoA, PmoB and PmoC) and the active form of the enzyme is in a (αβγ) 3  configuration. The nucleic acids encoding pMMO subunits typically are part of a conserved operon among methanotrophs. Some methanotrophs contain a single copy of the operon whereas others contain multiple copies. Multiple pmo operon clusters in a single methanotroph often encode divergent pMMO enzymes that have varying reaction rates for oxidation of methane into methanol. 
         [0024]    It have been suggested that the active site of pMMO may contain either diiron, tricopper or dicopper centers depending on the methanotrophic organism. Recent crystal structures of certain pMMOs indicate that a dicopper center in the soluble cupridoxin domains in PmoB is involved in methane hydroxylation. The soluble domain of PmoB expressed in  E. coli  can catalyze propylene epoxidation and methane oxidation. PmoA and PmoC also contain metals (zinc in PmoA and PmoC subunits from  Methylococcus capsulatus  Bath and iron in PmoA and PmoC subunits from  Methylosinus trichosporium  OB3b). 
         [0025]    Methanotrophs have developed specialized mechanisms to mobilize and acquire copper from their environment for pMMO function. A small chromopeptide known as methanobactin is involved in copper delivery to pMMO. Thus, in some embodiments, the open reading frames in the methanobactin biosynthetic gene cluster can be codon optimized for a desired phototrophic microorganism, and the optimized sequences introduced into and expressed in that microorganism, thereby facilitating copper acquisition for pMMO activity. Although the involvement of copper in function of pMMO has been universally recognized, not all methanotrophs appear to have methanobactin. This suggests that alternate systems can be utilized to acquire and deliver copper to pMMO. 
         [0026]    PmoA is one of the three polypeptides of pMMO and has been suggested to be involved in stabilization of pMMO as well as a role in electron transfer from electron carrier to the active site. Examples of the pmoA sequences can be found under the following GenBank accession numbers: YP — 114235.1 (GI: 53804130), AAA87220.2 (GI: 7188931), BAM71040.1 (GI: 427190913), YP — 004915812.1 (GI: 357403888), YP — 006593636.1 (GI: 402774099), BAH22845.1 (GI: 223717937), BAF62077.2 (GI: 224967033). 
         [0027]    PmoB is another of the three polypeptides of pMMO. This polypeptide contains the active center where actual methane hydroxylation takes place. Various pmoB sequences can be found under the following GenBank accession numbers: AAF37897.1 (GI: 7188938), AAF37894.1 (GI: 7188933), CAJ01562.1 (GI: 83308654), YP — 001940241.1 (GI: 189219600), CAJ01618.1 (GI: 83308708), YP — 114234.1 (GI: 53804139). 
         [0028]    PmoC is the third of the three polypeptides of pMMO. It has been suggested that PmoC is involved in stabilization of pMMO as well as having a role with electron transfer. Various pmoC sequences can be found under the following GenBank accession numbers: AAF37893.1 (GI: 7188932), YP — 001940243.1 (GI: 189219602), CAJ01616.1 (GI: 83308706), YP — 004915811.1 (GI: 357403887), YP — 006593635.1 (GI: 402774098). 
         [0029]    sMMO (EC 1.14.13.25) is a multi-component enzyme containing a hydroxylase component, a reductase component and a regulatory component. The hydroxylase component is composed of three subunits in a (αβγ) 2  configuration. The catalytic site of sMMO resides on a subunit of the hydroxylase component and contains a carboxylate-bridged diiron center. The reductase component contains an FAD and [2Fe-2S] ferredoxin domains and provides electrons to hydroxylase by oxidizing NADH to NAD + . The regulatory component has been suggested to be involved in regulation of electron flow from the reductase component to the hydroxylase component. 
         [0030]    Coding sequences for sMMO are organized in a conserved cluster and contain the following genetic loci: mmoX (encodes a subunit of hydroxylase component), mmoY (encodes β subunit of hydroxylase component), mmoB (encodes regulatory component), mmoZ (encodes γ subunit of hydroxylase component), mmoD (encodes a polypeptide of unknown function), and mmoC (encodes the reductase component). 
         [0031]    The MmoX polypeptide is one of the subunits of the hydroxylase component of sMMO. It contains the active center which lies in a four-helix bundle. Examples of the mmoX sequences can be found under the following GenBank accession numbers: AAF01268.1 (GI: 6013166), AAU92736.1 (GI: 53758445), AAZ81968.1 (GI: 73745618), BAE86875.1 (GI: 89572582), CAJ26291.1 (GI: 74381909), CAA39068.2 (GI: 5102756). 
         [0032]    The MmoY polypeptide is another of the subunits of the hydroxylase component of sMMO. Various mmoY sequences can be found under the following GenBank accession numbers: ABD46893.1 (GI: 88656492), AAF01269.1 (GI: 6013167), YP — 113660.1 (GI: 53804675), BAJ17646.1 (GI: 306921972), AAZ81969.1 (GI: 73745619), AAC45290.1(GI: 2098696). 
         [0033]    The MmoB polypeptide is the regulatory component. It regulates transfer of electrons from component C to the hydroxylase component. Various mmoB sequences can be found under the following GenBank accession numbers: ABD46894.1 (GI: 88656493), AAF01270.1 (GI: 6013168), BAA84759.1 (GI: 6002406), AAF04158.2 (GI: 7770068), BAE86877.1 (GI: 89572584), YP — 113661.1 (GI: 53804674), BAJ17647.1 (GI: 306921973), AAZ81970.1 (GI: 73745620). 
         [0034]    The MmoZ polypeptide is the third of the subunits of the hydroxylase component of sMMO. Various mmoZ sequences can be found under the following GenBank accession numbers: ABD46895.1 (GI: 88656494), AAF01271.1 (GI: 6013169), AAF04157.2 (GI: 7770067), YP — 113663.1 (GI: 53804672), P11987.4 (GI: 19855848), BAJ17648.1 (GI: 306921974), AAZ81971.1 (GI: 73745621). 
         [0035]    The MmoC polypeptide is the reductase component. It contains FAD and a [2Fe-2S] cluster and is involved in transfer of electrons from NADH to the hydroxylase component. Various mmoC sequences can be found under the following GenBank accession numbers: ABD46897.1 (GI: 88656496), AAF01273.1 (GI: 6013171), Q53563.1 (GI: 21362649), P22868.2 (GI: 18266834), AAB21393.1 (GI: 245216), AAB62391.2 (GI: 7770065), YP — 113665.1 (GI: 53804670), AAZ81973.1 (GI: 73745623). 
         [0036]    The MmoD polypeptide is suggested to be involved in regulation of sMMO by sensing the availability of copper. Various mmoD sequences can be found under the following GenBank accession numbers: ABD46896.1 (GI: 88656495), P22867.1 (GI: 141050), Q53562.1 (GI: 21362648), YP — 113664.1 (GI: 53804671), AAU92723.1 (GI: 53758432), CAJ26295.1 (GI: 74381913). 
       Methanol Dehydrogenase 
       [0037]    Conversion of methanol into formaldehyde can be accomplished by methanol dehydrogenase (MDH). Multiple classes of methanol dehydrogenases are known including pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) dependent MDH found in the Gram negative methanotrophs and methylotrophs, NAD-dependent MDH in methylotrophic  Bacillus  strains, and class I alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) in human and other animals. In methylotrophic yeast, oxidation of methanol is carried out by alcohol oxidase along with catalase in peroxisomes. Alcohol oxidase consists of eight identical subunits with each subunit containing one FAD as prosthetic group. PQQ-MDH is localized in periplasm and contains two subunits forming α 2 β 2  structure. The entire biosynthetic pathway for synthesis of PQQ and MDH subunits is part of a large cluster containing at least 10 genes. 
         [0038]    Methylotrophic  Bacillus  strains contain an NAD-dependent MDH enzyme which consists of 10 subunits of an identical polypeptide. Class I ADH is another diverse group of enzymes that can catalyze conversion of methanol into formaldehyde using NAD as cofactor. Human class I ADH enzymes can exist in either the homodimer or the heterodimer form of α, β, and γ subunits encoded by ADH1A, ADH1B and ADH1C genes. 
         [0039]    Methanol dehydrogenase or alcohol dehydrogenase genes encode polypeptides that convert methanol into formaldehyde. Various mdh or adh sequences can be found under the following GenBank accession numbers: P31005.3 (GI: 462590), NP — 957659.1 (GI: 41057056), EIJ77618.1 (GI: 387585284), AAA22593.1 (GI: 143175). Additional polypeptides that provide a regulatory function can also be included if desired. Sequences for such polypeptides can be found under the following GenBank accession numbers: AAM98772.1 (GI: 22654852) Various class I adh sequences can be found under the following GenBank accession numbers: NP — 000658.1 (GI: 4501929), AAH74738.1 (GI: 50960621), NP — 000659.2 (GI: 34577061), NP — 000660.1 (GI: 4501933). 
       Assimilation of Formaldehyde 
       [0040]    Assimilation of formaldehyde in methanotrophic and methylotrophic organisms is accomplished primarily by two pathways: the serine pathway and the RuMP pathway. In the serine pathway, formaldehyde reacts with glycine to form serine. It goes through a series of cyclic reactions leading to the production of 3-phosphoglycerate. The net balance of serine cycle is the fixation of two molecules of formaldehyde and 1 molecule of CO 2  into 1 molecule of 3-phosphoglycerate using 2 molecules each of ATP and NAD(P)H. 
         [0041]    In the RuMP pathway, formaldehyde is condensed with D-ribulose 5-phosphate by hexulose-6-phosphate synthase (HPS) to form hexulose 6-phosphate which is then isomerized by 6-phosphate-3-hexuloisomerase (PHI) to form D-fructose 6-phosphate. The product of PHI is fed into the central metabolic pathway via the reductive pentose phosphate pathway. HPS and PHI are mostly unique to methanotrophs. The overall reaction is the fixation of three molecules of formaldehyde into 1 molecule of 3-phosphoglycerate using 1 molecule of ATP. 
         [0042]    Various hps sequences can be found under the following GenBank accession numbers: YP — 115430.1 (GI: 53802837), YP — 001710170.1 (GI: 170781838), AAU90889.1 (GI: 53756598), CAQ01554.1 (GI: 169156406), YP — 040023.1 (GI: 49482799), NP — 371094.1 (GI: 15923560), YP — 153252.1 (GI: 56416177), YP — 152642.1 (GI: 56415567), EAR68750.1 (GI: 89089643), AAR39392.1 (GI: 40074227). 
         [0043]    Various phi sequences can be found under the following GenBank accession numbers: YP — 004514931.1 (GI: 333985721), AAU90888.1 (GI: 53756597), AFL66208.1 (GI: 390191152), YP — 004341647.1 (GI: 327400808), EHQ34470.1 (GI: 373906366), ERK43186.1 (GI: 544229974), EKQ54947.1 (GI: 410600419). 
         [0044]    In some cases, HPS and PHI enzymatic activities are present in a single polypeptide. Various hps-phi sequences can be found under the following GenBank accession numbers: NP — 577949.1 (GI: 18976592), AAM30911.1 (GI: 20905670), ABN07618.1 (GI: 124363810), ABN07165.1 (GI: 124363357), CCE23598.1 (GI: 351717933), AAL80344.1 (GI: 18892157). 
         [0045]    The RuMP pathway is energetically more efficient compared to the serine pathway. This is also reflected in the growth yield experimentally established for organisms utilizing either RuMP pathway (˜0.55 CDW/g methanol) or serine pathway (˜0.4 g CDW/g methanol). Most methanotrophs contain separate genes for HPS and PHI, however, Archaeon  Pyrococcus horikoshii  contains a single gene encoding both functions. 
       Genes 
       [0046]    A gene encoding a polypeptide described herein comprises the coding sequence for that polypeptide, operably linked in sense orientation to one or more regulatory regions suitable for expressing the polypeptide. Because many microorganisms are known to encode multiple proteins of a pathway in a polycistronic unit, multiple polypeptides can be expressed under the control of a single regulatory region for those microorganisms, if desired. A coding sequence and a regulatory region are considered to be operably linked when the regulatory region and coding sequence are positioned so that the regulatory region is effective for regulating transcription or translation of the sequence. Typically, the translation initiation site of the translational reading frame of the coding sequence is positioned between one and about fifty nucleotides downstream of the regulatory region for a monocistronic gene. 
         [0047]    “Regulatory region” refers to a nucleic acid having nucleotide sequences that influence transcription or translation initiation and rate, and stability and/or mobility of a transcription or translation product. Regulatory regions include, without limitation, promoter sequences, enhancer sequences, response elements, protein recognition sites, inducible elements, protein binding sequences, 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions (UTRs), transcriptional start sites, termination sequences, polyadenylation sequences, introns, and combinations thereof. A regulatory region typically comprises at least a core (basal) promoter. A regulatory region also may include at least one control element, such as an enhancer sequence, an upstream element or an upstream activation region (UAR). 
         [0048]    The choice of regulatory regions to be included depends upon several factors, including, but not limited to, efficiency, selectability, inducibility, desired expression level, and preferential expression during certain culture stages. It is a routine matter for one of skill in the art to modulate the expression of a coding sequence by appropriately selecting and positioning regulatory regions relative to the coding sequence. It will be understood that more than one regulatory region may be present, e.g., introns, enhancers, upstream activation regions, transcription terminators, and inducible elements. 
         [0049]    It will be appreciated that it may be desirable to remove or replace certain regulatory regions in order to increase expression levels. For example, it may be desirable to remove regions of genes encoding sMMO polypeptides so that expression of these polypeptides is not under the control of the presence of copper and that it can be expressed simultaneously with membrane localized pMMO polypeptides. 
         [0050]    One or more genes can be combined in a recombinant nucleic acid construct in “modules” useful for a discrete aspect of generation of recombinant phototrophic organism. Combining a plurality of genes in a module, particularly a polycistronic module, facilitates the use of the module in a variety of species. For example, an alkane oxidation gene cluster, an alcohol dehydrogenase gene and an aldehyde assimilatory gene can be combined in a polycistronic module such that, after insertion of a suitable regulatory region, the module can be introduced into a wide variety of industrial microorganisms. In addition to genes useful for oxidation of alkanes and its assimilation into the central metabolic pathways, a recombinant construct typically also contains an origin of replication, and one or more selectable markers for maintenance of the construct in appropriate species. 
         [0051]    It will be appreciated that because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, a number of nucleic acids can encode a particular polypeptide; i.e., for many amino acids, there is more than one nucleotide triplet that serves as the codon for the amino acid. Thus, codons in the coding sequence for a given polypeptide can be modified such that optimal expression in a particular microorganism is obtained, using appropriate codon bias tables for that microorganism, and codon-optimized nucleic acids are typically used when the polypeptide to be expressed is heterologous for that microorganism. In some cases, it is desirable to inhibit one or more functions of an endogenous polypeptide. For example, it may be desirable to inhibit or reduce conversion of ribulose 5-monophosphate to ribulose 1-5-bisphosphate using recombinant techniques. In such cases, a nucleic acid that inhibits or suppresses expression of a protein involved in conversion may be included in a recombinant construct that is then transformed into the strain. 
         [0052]    Microorganisms 
         [0053]    A number of prokaryotes and eukaryotes are suitable for use in constructing the recombinant microorganisms described herein, e.g., cyanobacteria and algae, such as oxygenic phototrophic cyanobacteria and algae. In some embodiments, non-phototrophic organisms such as yeast and fungi can also be used to express the polypeptide to achieve the oxidation of alkanes. Typically, a species and strain selected for oxidation of alkanes is first analysed to determine which needed genes are endogenous to the strain and which needed genes are not present. Genes for which an endogenous counterpart is not present in the strain are assembled in one or more recombinant constructs, which are then transformed into the strain in order to supply the missing function(s). Genes for which an endogenous counterpart is present in the strain can, if desired, be modified as described above or supplemented with one or more recombinant genes in order to enhance flux in the strain through particular pathways or particular steps. 
         [0054]    Examples of algae that can be engineered to include one or more polypeptides designed to oxidize alkanes into central metabolic pathway intermediates include, without limitation, green algae (Chlorophyceae), red algae (Rhodophyceae), and dinoflagellates (Dinophyta). In some embodiments, a suitable alga is from a genus of Chlorophyta such as  Chlamydomonas, Dunaliella, Scenedesmus, Chlorella, Prototheca, Botryococcus, Haematococcus, Isochrysis, Tetraselmis, Skeletonema, Thalassiosira, Phaeodactylum, Chaetoceros, Cylindrotheca, Bellerochea, Actinocyclus, Nitzchia, Cyclotella, Isochrysis, Pseudoisochrysis, Dicrateria, Monochrysis, Tetraselmis, Pyramimonas, Micromonas, Chroomonas, Cryptomonas, Rhodomonas, Olisthodiscus , and  Carteria.    
         [0055]    Examples of photosynthetic organisms such as cyanobacteria that can be engineered to include one or more polypeptides designed to oxidize alkanes into central metabolic pathway intermediates include, without limitation, cyanobacteria from a genus such as  Chamaesiphon, Chroococcus, Cyanobacterium, Cyanobium, Dactylococcopsis, Gloeobacter, Gloeocapsa, Gloeothece, Microcystis, Prochlorococcus, Prochloron, Synechococcus, Synechocystis, Chroococcidiopsis, Cyanocystis, Dermocarpella, Myxosarcina, Pleurocapsis, Stanieria, Xenococcus, Arthrospira, Borzia, Crinalium, Geitlerinema, Halospirulina, Leptolyngbya, Limnothrix, Lyngbya, Microcoleus, Oscillatoria, Planktothrix, Prochlorothrix, Pseudanabaena, Spirulina, Starria, Symploca, Trichodesmium, Tychonema, Anabaena, Anabaenopsis, Aphanizomenon, Calothrix, Cyanospira, Cylindrospermopsis, Cylindrospermum, Nodularia, Nostoc, Chlorogloeopsis, Fischerella, Geitleria, Nostochopsis, Iyengariella, Stigonema, Rivularia, Scytonema , and  Tolypothri.    
         [0056]    For example, cyanobacteria such as members of a  Synechocystis  species can be engineered to include one or more polypeptides designed to convert alkanes such as methane into methanol by functional expression of methane monooxygenase. The resulting methanol is converted into formaldehyde by the functional expression of methanol dehydrogenase. The resulting formaldehyde is then assimilated into 3-phosphoglycerate by the functional expression of formaldehyde assimilating polypeptides. It will be appreciated that 3-phosphoglycerate is a naturally occurring metabolite of central metabolic pathways found in all living organisms. Thus, the ability of the recombinant phototrophic organism to convert methane into a common metabolite of central metabolic pathways allows one to generate molecules of interest using the known arts of recombinant DNA technology. Such molecules, without limitation, may include amino acids, alcohols, dicarboxylic acids and any molecules currently useful in the chemical, material and energy industries. 
         [0057]    Phototrophic microorganisms expressing recombinant genes described herein can be engineered such that methanol rather than methane can be the substrate for conversion into end products. For example, a recombinant phototrophic microorganism can be made that expresses MDH, HPS and PHI polypeptides and produces metabolic pathway intermediates such as acetyl CoA and 3-phosphoglycerate. When such a microorganism also expresses genes encoding enzymes that convert these intermediates into n-butanol, growing the microorganism on media containing methanol results in the production of n-butanol. Such a microorganism can be an oxygenic phototroph or an anoxygenic phototroph. 
       Methods of Producing N-Butanol 
       [0058]    Recombinant hosts described herein can be used in methods to produce n-butanol, methanol or other desired products. For example, the method can include growing the recombinant microorganism in a culture medium under conditions in which MMO, MDH and/or formaldehyde assimilation genes are expressed. Typically, the recombinant microorganism is grown in a fermentor at a defined temperature(s) for a desired period of time. Depending on the particular microorganism used in the method, other recombinant genes such as genes for conversion of acetyl CoA to n-butanol may also be present and expressed. Levels of substrates, intermediates and/or final products can be determined by extracting samples from the culture media for analysis. 
         [0059]    A number of different liquid media are suitable for growing recombinant phototrophic organisms in order to produce products such as n-butanol. For example, recombinant  Synechocystis  cells can be grown in shake flasks with constant shaking (120 rpm) in a minimal medium containing 1.5 g/L NaNO 3 , 0.04 g/L K 2 HPO 4 , 0.075 g/L MgSO 4 .7H 2 O, 0.036 g/L CaCl 2 .2H 2 O, 0.006 g/L Citric acid, 0.006 g/L Ferric ammonium citrate, 0.001 g/L EDTA (disodium salt), 0.02 g/L Na 2 CO 3  and 1 ml/L trace metal mix. Trace metal mix contains 2.86 g/L H 3 BO 3 , 1.81 g/L, MnCl 2 .4H 2 O, 0.222 g/L ZnSO 4 .7H 2 O, 0.39 g/L NaMoO 4 .2H 2 O, 0.079 g/L CuSO 4 .5H 2 O and 0.0494 g/L Co(NO 3 ) 2 .6H 2 O. 
         [0060]    Cells typically are grown in fermentation vessels under illumination, e.g., illuminated with cool white fluorescent light at a light intensity of about 20 μmol of photons m −2  s −1  at a temperature of about 32° C. The light intensity can be from about 1 to about 200 μmol of photons m −2  s −1 , e.g., from about 20 to about 30 μmol of photons m −2  s −1 . Once cells are in the logarithmic phase, methane is fed into the vessel, the vessel is sealed air-tight, and cell growth is continued under the same culture conditions. The amount of methane converted into butanol is determined by measuring the cell density and the butanol concentration in the vessel at various times during culture. Similarly, when methanol is the substrate, the amount of methanol converted into butanol is determined by measuring the cell density and the butanol concentration in the vessel at various times during culture. In those embodiments in which methanol is the desired end product, the amount of methane converted into methanol is determined by measuring the cell density and the methanol concentration in the vessel at various times during culture. 
         [0061]    The recombinant microorganism may be grown in a fed batch or continuous process. In the continuous mode, methane or methanol is fed into the vessel after cells have reached logarithmic phase, at a rate constant at which the cells are able to convert the substrate into intermediates and to produce the final n-butanol product. 
       Separation of Final Product 
       [0062]    After the recombinant microorganism has been grown in culture for the desired period of time, the product of interest can then be recovered from the culture using various techniques. For example, n-butanol can be separated from the headspace of a fermentation vessel using distillation or pervaporation using various membranes, gas stripping, or a combination of these techniques. If n-butanol production is carried out in continuous mode, the butanol product is continuously removed by the use of extraction methods. 
         [0063]    Purified n-butanol can then be provided to the transportation fuel industry for drop-in use in a gasoline blend. N-butanol is compatible with existing storage and distribution infrastructure, can be blended at high capacity with gasoline, and possesses fuel characteristics that are often superior to other types of biofuel. Because of these features, n-butanol can be used with minimal modifications and cost to the existing infrastructure of storage and distribution. The purified product can also be used in chemical conversion processes to make butylene, which can be used to produce specialty and commodity products as well as C12/C16 hydrocarbons for use in jet fuel. 
         [0064]    Purified methanol can also be provided to the transportation fuel industry for drop-in use in a gasoline blend, or can be used in chemical conversion processes to make various industrial chemicals. 
       EXAMPLES 
       [0065]    The invention will be further described in the following examples, which do not limit the scope of the invention described in the claims. 
       Example 1 
     Expression of Methane Monooxygenase in a Phototrophic Microorganism 
       [0066]    Expression of methane monooxygenase in a phototrophic microorganism is accomplished via introduction of coding sequences for polypeptide subunits for either pMMO or sMMO. A number of pMMO and sMMO sequences are available from different methanotrophic organisms. For example, nucleic acids encoding the pmoCAB gene cluster (MCA1796, MCA1797 and MCA1798) or the sMMO gene cluster (MCA1194, MCA1195, MCA1196, MCA1198, MCA1199 and MCA1200) from  Methylococcus capsulatus  Bath can be operably linked to suitable promoters and introduced into  Synechocystis  sp. PCC 6803 (hereafter  Synechocystis ) to create a recombinant phototropic microorganism expressing a functional MMO. Given the different GC percent, codon utilization and differences in the regulatory sequences involved in expression and stability of messenger RNA, codon optimized genes are used for expression in  Synechocystis  and other phototropic microorganisms. Typically, such codon optimized genes are operably linked to a strong constitutive promoter. 
         [0067]    MMO genes are transcribed polycistronically in  Methylococcus capsulatus  Bath. Therefore, these gene clusters can be assembled as polycistronic units and stably integrated in the genome of the phototrophic microorganism or can be maintained on a stably replicated plasmid. In other cases, the coding sequence for each MMO polypeptide subunit is expressed monocistronically. The use of monocistronic nucleic acids allows one to drive expression of each gene by a suitable promoter and ribosome binding site, and thus to manipulate expression of each gene individually. 
         [0068]    The amino-terminal 32 residues of the PmoB polypeptide contain a signal peptide and in some cases it may be desirable to replace the  Methylococcus  signal peptide with, for example, a  Synechocystis  signal peptide for more efficient targeting to membranes. The initial assembly of MMO polypeptide coding sequences usually is carried out in  E. coli  such that the sequences can be targeted into the phototrophic microorganism at a single locus as previously described. 
         [0069]    Typically, a nucleic acid construct carrying MMO coding sequences also includes an antibiotic cassette for selection of transformants carrying the MMO coding sequences. Additional coding sequences, such as coding sequences for methanobactin biosynthesis, may also be included in the recombinant construct. The recombinant construct typically is introduced into the phototrophic microorganism by transformation and targeted to a neutral site via double homologous recombination. 
         [0070]    For  Synechocystis , after colonies of transformants expressing mmo genes are obtained, the presence of these genes is confirmed by isolating genomic DNA and performing polymerase chain reaction using gene specific primers.  Synechocystis  can be restreaked as necessary in order to obtain isogenic lines with respect to introduced mmo genes. The steady state transcript level of each mmo gene can be determined by isolating total RNA and measuring expression of each mmo gene by real time polymerase chain reaction. Functional expression of MMO polypeptides can be determined using polyclonal antibodies against each subunit of MMOs to quantitatively measure the amount of MMO subunits in  Synechocystis.    
         [0071]    The enzymatic activity of MMO in the recombinant organism is measured using either methane or propylene as substrate and using gas chromatography as previously described. Because it is known that the enzymatic activity of pMMO and sMMO can be dependent on the presence of copper, the recombinant strains are grown in the presence of different concentrations of copper, and MMO activity is measured as described above. In some embodiments, coding sequences for MMO polypeptides are operably linked to copper regulated promoters so that MMO expression is coordinated with copper availability. Copper regulated promoters include those driving expression of plastocyanin and Cyt c553, two electron carriers that can carry electrons from the cytochrome bf complex to photosystem I. 
       Example 2 
     Identification of MMO Accessory Genes by Complementation of Recombinant  Synechocystis    
       [0072]    It may be useful to express additional polypeptides in a recombinant phototroph. To identify such proteins, a reverse approach involving complementation studies can be used to establish functional expression of MMOs in  Synechocystis . For this, a recombinant  Synechocystis  strain is generated that expresses pMMO or sMMO polypeptides, methanol dehydrogenase polypeptides and two polypeptides that assimilate formaldehyde into 3-phosphoglycerate. The recombinant microorganism can utilize methanol as a sole source of carbon and energy. The microorganism can then be used to carry out complementation studies to identify methanotroph genes that facilitate assembly and function of MMOs in  Synechocystis.    
         [0073]    The complementation assay utilizes genomic DNA isolated from  Methylococcus capsulatus  Bath. Genomic DNA is partially digested with Sau3A1 to generate fragments of ˜5 kb which are then cloned in a BamH1-digested plasmid that stably replicates in  Synechocystis . The resulting library is transformed into the  Synechocystis  strain described above. Transformed cells are then selected on solid media plates for their ability to utilize methane as a sole source of carbon and energy. The Sau3A1 insert that is present in those colonies having increased methane utilization relative to a control organism is sequenced. The coding sequence(s) found in the insert can be codon optimized for  Synechocystis  and their effect on methane utilization determined. Any such coding sequences that confer increased methane utilization can then be introduced and expressed in a  Synechocystis  strain containing coding sequences for MMO polypeptides. MMO activity in the resulting strain is measured by functional assays as described previously, as well as by ability of the engineered strain to grow on methane as a sole source of energy and carbon. 
       Example 3 
     Expression of Methanol Dehydrogenase 
       [0074]    Conversion of methanol into formaldehyde in a phototrophic microorganism can be accomplished by the expression of NAD-dependent MDH or class I ADH from humans. NAD-dependent MDHs do not require a specialized cofactor. Alternatively, MDHs from methanotrophs can be used. However, methanotroph MDHs utilize a specialized cofactor PQQ, and the expression of PQQ-MDH polypeptides and regulation of PQQ-MDH activity involves about 10 genes. Suitable NAD-dependent MDHs include those from methylotrophic  Bacillus methanolicus.    
         [0075]    Coding sequences are codon-optimized, synthesized, and expressed in  Synechocystis  behind a strong constitutive promoter and enzymatic function of MDH in the recombinant  Synechocystis  is measured using crude extracts and/or intact cells as previously described. It may be useful to express additional polypeptides. For example, regulation of  Bacillus methanolicus  MDH activity involves an activator protein, and it may be desirable to introduce and express coding sequences for the activator protein from  Bacillus methanolicus  in  Synechocystis . Similarly, class I ADH enzymes from human exist in homodimeric or heterodimeric form and each form has different kinetic properties for different alcohols. Coding sequences (ADH1A, ADH1B and ADH1C) encoding class I ADH polypeptides, either as homodimeric or heterodimeric forms, can be expressed in various combinations and thereby identify suitable enzyme systems for specific oxidation of methanol in  Synechocystis.    
       Example 4 
     Formaldehyde Assimilation by Recombinant  Synechocystis    
       [0076]    Formaldehyde in an engineered  Synechocystis  strain can be assimilated into central metabolic pathways via enzymes of the ribulose monophosphate pathway. Sequences encoding suitable RuMP pathway polypeptides include: i) hps and phi genes from  Methylococcus capsulatus  Bath; ii) hps and phi genes from  Bacillus methanolicus ; and iii) hps and phi genes from  Pyrococcus horikoshii . In the first two cases, each polypeptide is encoded by a separate sequence, whereas a single coding sequence encodes both polypeptides in the third case. These sequences can be codon-optimized, synthesized and expressed in  Synechocystis  behind a strong constitutive promoter. After suitable expression is established by real time polymerase chain reaction and LC-MS, enzymatic activity in the engineered  Synechocystis  strain is measured as previously described. 
       Example 5 
     Ribulose Bisphosphate and Ribulose Monophosphate Regeneration 
       [0077]      Synechocystis  contains a highly active reductive pentose phosphate pathway. It plays a central role in coupling light energy to CO 2  fixation by regenerating ribulose bisphosphate for carboxylation reaction and channeling the fixed carbon to central metabolic pathways. In order to establish efficient assimilation of formaldehyde and capture of CO 2  in the recombinant  Synechocystis , regeneration of both ribulose monophosphate and ribulose bisphosphate is balanced by the reductive pentose phosphate pathway. This is achieved first by biochemical studies using a  Synechocystis  strain expressing hps and phi genes to determine if the assimilation of formaldehyde is limited by the availability of ribulose monophosphate. This is carried out by incubation of intact cells with different concentrations of ribulose monophosphate. If it is determined that the rate of formaldehyde assimilation is limited by the availability of ribulose monophosphate then a coding sequence for phosphoribulokinase, an enzyme that converts ribulose monophosphate into ribulose bisphosphate, can be introduced and expressed in  Synechocystis  to achieve balanced regeneration of ribulose monophosphate and ribulose bisphosphate. The level of expression from the phosphoribulokinase coding sequence can be controlled by the type of promoter used to drive transcription, e.g., using a weak promoter, or using a copper regulated promoter. In  Synechocystis , suitable copper regulated promoters include those driving expression of plastocyanin and Cyt c553, two electron carriers that can carry electrons from the cytochrome bf complex to photosystem I. 
         [0078]    Similarly, a suitable level of expression can be determined for other enzymes involved in the reductive pentose phosphate pathway, including transketolase, transaldolase, and sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase, in order to achieve balanced regeneration of ribulose monophosphate and ribulose bisphosphate. If it is determined that certain enzymes involved in regeneration of ribulose monophosphate are limiting in recombinant organism, then a functionally homologous polypeptide from another cyanobacterial strain can be introduced into and expressed to overcome that limitation. 
       Example 6 
     Production of n-Butanol from Metabolic Pathway Intermediates 
       [0079]    Recombinant phototrophic microorganisms can be generated that convert intermediates of the central metabolic pathways into a useful product (e.g. butanol). For example, nucleic acids encoding enzymes involved in the conversion of acetyl-CoA into n-butanol can expressed in a recombinant  Synechocystis  microorganism. Sequences suitable for introduction and expression in  Synechocystis  include the atoB gene from  E. coli ; hbd, crt and adhE2 genes from  Clostridium acetobutylicum ; and the ter gene from  Treponema denticola . These sequences are codon optimized, introduced into and overexpressed in  Synechocystis  in order to confer the capability of producing n-butanol from acetyl-CoA. 
       Example 7 
     Biosynthesis of n-Butanol from Methane 
       [0080]    A phototrophic microorganism can be produced that includes recombinant genes encoding and expressing: pMMO and/or sMMO polypeptides; an NAD-dependent MDH polypeptide and/or a human class I ADH polypeptide; an HPS polypeptide; an PHI polypeptide; an acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase polypeptide; a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase polypeptide; a crotonase polypeptide; an aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase polypeptide; and a trans-enoyl-CoA reductase polypeptide. For example, a  Synechocystis  microorganism can contain codon optimized sequences encoding: pMMO and/or sMMO polypeptides described above, an NAD-dependent MDH polypeptide or a human class I ADH1A, ADH1B and/or ADH1C polypeptide described above; an HPS polypeptide described above; an PHI polypeptide described above; an acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase polypeptide described above; a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase polypeptide described above; a crotonase polypeptide described above; an aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase polypeptide described above; and a trans-enoyl-CoA reductase polypeptide described above. 
         [0081]    In some embodiments, such a microorganism further includes genes encoding peptides of the methanobactin gene cluster and/or one or more of the following polypeptides: phosphoribulokinase; transketolase, transaldolase, and sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase. A  Synechocystis  strain containing such recombinant genes can convert methane into a useful product (e.g. n-butanol). 
       Example 8 
     Recombinant  Synechocystis  Strains Capable of Oxidizing Methanol 
       [0082]    Genes coding for alcohol dehydrogenase were obtained from  Bacillus methanolicus  MGA3 (locus: MGA3 — 17392; GI:387585261) and  Homo sapiens  [ADH1A (P07327.2); ADH1B (P00325.2), and ADH1C (NP — 000660.1)]. An additional gene that acts as activator to methanol dehydrogenase in  Bacillus methanolicus  MGA3 (EIJ83380.1) was also obtained. They were codon-optimized for  Synechocystis  and synthesized. Two restriction sites (NdeI and HpaI) were introduced in each gene to facilitate cloning and subsequent recombination in  Synechocystis . These genes were cloned behind the psbA2 promoter using the NdeI and HpaI sites and then introduced into a neutral locus in  Synechocystis . Such neutral loci in  Synechocystis  are known in art and combinations of these loci can be used for this purpose if desired. A chloramphenicol acetyltransferase gene was also introduced into  Synechocystis  for selection of the recombinant strain using chloramphenicol as the selection agent. Genes that confer resistance to kanamycin, gentamicin, spectinomycin, or other similar antibiotics to which  Synechocystis  is sensitive can also be used for selection of recombinant strains. 
         [0083]    A total of eight different isogenic recombinant  Synechocystis  strains were generated (see Table 1). Since the functional form of alcohol dehydrogenase in  Homo sapiens  can be either a homodimer or a heterodimer, some of the recombinant  Synechocystis  strains have two adh genes. The presence of the desired alcohol dehydrogenase gene(s) was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction assay, and expression was confirmed by RT-PCR. 
         [0084]    Alcohol dehydrogenase enzymatic activity in the recombinant  Synechocystis  was measured using crude extracts and/or intact cells. Crude extract was isolated by first treating the  Synechocystis  cells with lysozyme in a buffer containing 50 mM Tris, PH 8.0, 10% glycerol, 0.1% Triton X-100 and incubating at 37° C. for 30 min. The treated cells were harvested by centrifugation at 4000×g for 5 min at 4° C. and resuspended in a buffer containing 50 mM Tris, PH 8.0, 10% glycerol, 0.1% Triton X-100 and protease inhibitor cocktail (Sigma). Cells were lysed by sonication using a Misonix S3000 Sonicator (power setting: 3 for a 4-5 cycles with each cycle lasting for 20 seconds). The crude extracts was clarified by centrifugation at 12,000×g for 5 min at 4° C. and the clarified supernatant containing was used to measure methanol dehydrogenase activity at 340 nm following NAD +  reduction in a reaction mixture containing 500 mM (˜2%) methanol, 100 mM glycine-KOH buffer (pH 9.5), 5 mM MgSO 4 , 5 mM 2-mercaptoethanol, 1 mM NAD +  and 10 μl of extract. The methanol dehydrogenase activity observed in the recombinant  Synechocystis  extracts is shown in Table 1. The results indicate that methanol dehydrogenase activity was observed in all strains except for MGC0460. Extracts of many of the strains also exhibited activity with ethanol, propanol or butanol as the substrate. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Recombinant  Synechocystis  containing alcohol dehydrogenase genes 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Specific Activity (nmol  
               
               
                 Strain Name 
                 Gene 
                 NADPH/min/mg protein) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 MGC0416 
                 MDH 
                 0.0042 
               
               
                 MGC0440 
                 MDH and ACT 
                 0.0021 
               
               
                 MGC0428 
                 ADH1A 
                 0.0075 
               
               
                 MGC0443 
                 ADH1B 
                 0.0034 
               
               
                 MGC0452 
                 ADH1C 
                 0.0047 
               
               
                 MGC0448 
                 ADH1A and ADH1B 
                 0.0028 
               
               
                 MGC0460 
                 ADH1A and ADH1C 
                 0.0000 
               
               
                 MGC0461 
                 ADH1B and ADH1C 
                 0.0039 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0085]    The effect of dehydrogenase expression on growth of recombinant  Synechocystis  strains was determined by measuring the optical density at 730 nm of strains cultured at 30° C. under a 30 μE m −2  s −1  light regimen and ambient air on media containing din the presence of light and ambient air in media containing different concentrations of methanol. The medium contained 1.5 g/L NaNO 3 , 0.04 g/L K 2 HPO 4 , 0.075 g/L MgSO 4 .7H 2 O, 0.036 g/L CaCl 2 .2H 2 O, 0.006 g/L Citric acid, 0.006 g/L Ferric ammonium citrate, 0.001 g/L EDTA (disodium salt), 0.02 g/L Na 2 CO 3  and 1 ml/L trace metal mix. Trace metal mix contained 2.86 g/L H 3 BO 3 , 1.81 g/L, MnCl 2 .4H 2 O, 0.222 g/L ZnSO 4 .7H 2 O, 0.39 g/L NaMoO 4 .2H 2 O, 0.079 g/L CuSO 4 .5H 2 O and 0.0494 g/L Co(NO 3 ) 2 .6H 2 O. 
         [0086]    Results are shown in  FIG. 1 , and indicate that recombinant  Synechocystis  strains containing and expressing an MDH, or MDH and ACT, can grow on media containing up to 2% methanol, despite the likely accumulation in the media of formaldehyde, the product of the dehydrogenase activity. 
       Example 9 
     A Recombinant  Synechocystis  Strain Capable of Assimilating Formaldehyde 
       [0087]    Genes coding for 3-Hexulose-6-phosphate synthase (HPS) were obtained from  Methylococcus capsulatus  Bath (locus: MCA3043; GI:53756598),  Bacillus methanolicus  MGA3 (locus: MGA3 — 15306; GI:387587408) and  Pyrococcus horikoshii  OT3 (locus: PH1938; GI:14591680); and phospho-3-hexuloisomerase (PHI) from  Methylococcus capsulatus  Bath (locus: MCA3044; GI:53756597),  Bacillus methanolicus  MGA3 (locus: MGA3 — 15301; GI:387587407) and  Pyrococcus horikoshii  (locus: PH1938; GI:14591680). They were codon-optimized for expression in  Synechocystis  and synthesized. Two restriction sites (NdeI and HpaI) were introduced in each gene to facilitate cloning and subsequent recombination in  Synechocystis . These genes were cloned behind the psbA2 promoter using the NdeI and HpaI sites and then introduced into a neutral locus in  Synechocystis . A chloramphenicol acetyltransferase gene was also introduced into  Synechocystis  for selection of the recombinant strain using chloramphenicol as the selection agent. 
         [0088]    Three different isogenic recombinant  Synechocystis  strains are generated, one containing HPS and PHI sequences from  Methylococcus capsulatus  Bath, one containing HPS and PHI sequences from  Bacillus methanolicus , and one containing HPS and PHI sequences from  Pyrococcus horikoshii  OT3. The presence of the desired HPS and PHI genes is confirmed by polymerase chain reaction assay, and expression is confirmed by RT-PCR. 
         [0089]    Enzymatic activity in the recombinant  Synechocystis  strains was measured using crude extracts and/or intact cells. Crude extracts were prepared as described in Example 8. HPS and PHI activities were measured by following NADP reduction at 340 nm in a 1 ml reaction mixture containing 50 mM potassium phosphate buffer pH 7.0, 5 mM magnesium chloride, 1 unit each of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (Sigma) and glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (Sigma), 0.4 mM NADP, 2.5 units of phosphoriboisomerase (Sigma), and 100 μl extract. After temperature equilibration to 30° C., 5 mM ribose-5-phosphate was added. After 1 min of further preincubation, the reaction was started by the addition of 5 mM formaldehyde. The specific activity of the  Methylococcus  HPS and PHI enzymes in  Synechocystis  crude extracts was 1086 nmol NADPH/min/mg protein. The results also indicated that expression of the HPS and PHI genes from  Methylococcus capsulatus  Bath conferred more formaldehyde assimilation activity on  Synechocystis  crude extracts than did the genes from  Pyrococcus  or  Bacillus.    
         [0090]    The effect of HPS and PHI expression on growth of wild type and recombinant  Synechocystis  strains was determined by measuring the growth of the MSI strain under a a 30 μE m −2  s −1  light regimen and in the presence of ambient air on media containing different concentrations of formaldehyde. The results are shown in Table 2, and indicate that wild type growth is inhibited at 5 mM formaldehyde whereas a  Synechocystis  strain expressing  Methylococcus  HPS and PHI can grow at concentrations up to 15 mM formaldehyde. The results in Table 2 also indicate that the rate of growth of recombinant  Synechocystis  cells in media containing 5 to 15 mM formaldehyde is about 88% to about 100% of the rate observed for recombinant  Synechocystis  cells grown in media having no added formaldehyde. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Growth of wild type and recombinant  Synechocystis  strains in the presence 
               
               
                 of different concentrations of formaldehyde. 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Formaldehyde 
                 OD730  
                 OD730 after 6 days 
               
               
                 concentration  
                 after 6 days 
                 Recombinant  
               
               
                 (mM) 
                 Wild Type cells 
                   Synechocystis  cells 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 0 
                 1.316 
                 1.292 
               
               
                 5 
                 0.728 
                 1.244 
               
               
                 10 
                 0.064 
                 1.136 
               
               
                 15 
                 0.06 
                 1.288 
               
               
                 20 
                 0.096 
                 0.032 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0091]    The amount of formaldehyde present in the culture supernatant of a  Synechocystis  strain expressing HPS and PHI was determined after growth for 1 day at 30° C. in media containing from various concentrations of formaldehyde, from 20 μM to 200 μM. The amount of formaldehyde in the supernatant was measured using a colorimetric assay based on the Hantzsch reaction. Nash,  Biochem. J.  55: 416-421 (1953). The results are shown in  FIG. 2 , and indicate that formaldehyde in culture supernatants from  Synechocystis  cells expressing HPS and PHI is depleted to a much greater extent than in the supernatant from wild type control  Synechocystis  cells that lack these two genes. The amount of formaldehyde in supernatant from  Synechocystis  cells expressing HPS and PHI is about 4-fold less than the amount in supernatant from the isogenic wild type  Synechocystis  cells.