Abstract:
The present invetion relates to the use of type I IFN for the preparatoin of a non toxic adjuvant compostion for enhancing TH-1 type humoral immune response to a vaccine in a in vivo protective immunization treatment weherein IFN is used in a dosage greater or equal to 100.000 U/ml, per dose of vaccine. The present invetion further relates to a kit of parts including a non-toxic adjuvant composition comprising tpye I IFN and a vaccine including at least an antigen for separate, simultaneous or sequential use in the prevention or treatment of a disease associated with the presence of said antigen.

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION  
         [0001]    The present invention relates to vaccines and in particular to sub-unit vaccines.  
         BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
         [0002]    Vaccines are known in the art. In general, they include killed or attenuated pathogens and sub-unit vaccines, which are administered with the aim of preventing, ameliorating or treating infectious diseases.  
           [0003]    In particular, sub-unit vaccines are vaccines based on antigens derived from components of the pathogen that are considered to be important targets for protection mediated by the host&#39;s immune system. Although proved to be highly safe, sub-unit vaccines often induce inadequate immune responses due to the fact that the antigen upon which they are based is either poorly immunogenic or non-immunogenic.  
           [0004]    Hence, in order to raise immunogenicity, sub-unit vaccines often need to include or be administered together with an adjuvant, i.e. by definition a substance that when administered together with the antigen generates a more effective immune response as compared with the antigen alone.  
           [0005]    Although many types of adjuvants have been used in animal models and classical examples include oil emulsions, aluminum or calcium salts, saponins and LPS-derived products, currently, aluminum-based mineral salts are the only adjuvants routinely included in the vaccine formulations in humans. Although safe, such salts are weak adjuvants for antibody induction and are not capable of stimulating classical cell-mediated immune responses.  
           [0006]    Induction of both antibodies and a cell-mediated response are required to provide highly effective defense against invading pathogens with the aim of limiting their spread or eliminating them. Vaccines need to provide or induce 2 types of signals in order to elicit a strong, protective immune response. Firstly, vaccines need to deliver the antigen, which triggers antigen-specific receptors on T and B lymphocytes. Secondly, effective vaccines need to induce the expression of co-stimulatory molecules by antigen presenting cells, which then promote a strong response by the antigen-triggered lymphocytes. This second signal is often provided by factors associated with infection, when using vaccines containing live pathogens, but is generally lacking in sub-unit vaccines, resulting in their poor immunogenicity. The addition of an adjuvant that can contribute this second signal will enhance the effectiveness of the vaccine and, further, may dictate the type of immune response elicited.  
           [0007]    The instructive role of these signals to the host&#39;s immune system allows the subsequent development of effector mechanisms that characterize the type and potency of the overall immune response to a given infectious agent.  
           [0008]    Cytokines represent the major factors involved in the communication between T cells, B cells, macrophages, dendritic cells and other immune cells in the course of an immune response to antigens and infectious agents. A number of studies on mouse and human T helper (Th) clones has provided extensive evidence for the existence of different activities exhibited by Th cells (called Th1 and Th2), which was inferred from the profile of cytokine secretion. Thus, production of IFN-γ or IL-4 are considered as the typical hallmarks of a Th1 or Th2 response, respectively. The Th1 type of immune response is generally associated with IgG2a production in mice and the development of cellular immunity, whereas the Th2 type of response with IgE production, eosinophils and mast cell production. It is generally thought that induction of a Th1 type of immune response is instrumental for the generation of a protective immune response to viruses and certain bacterial infections. In this regard, it is worth mentioning that clinically available adjuvants such as aluminum-based mineral salts tend to induce a Th2 type of immune response, while the use of some Th1 promoting adjuvants is generally restricted by toxicity or safety issues.  
           [0009]    The absence of a highly effective adjuvant in the above sense constitutes a significant obstacle to the successful development of vaccines, particularly those directed against intracellular pathogens, requiring cellular immunity.  
           [0010]    Accordingly, despite the availability of potentially efficacious recombinant antigens, weakness or absence of responsiveness to vaccination and patient compliance still remains the major concerns for prophylactic or therapeutic sub-unit vaccines. The weak immunogenicity of sub-unit vaccines makes it necessary for these vaccines to be given multiple times in order to elicit a satisfactory response, making lack of patient compliance a significant problem.  
           [0011]    Therefore, an adjuvant that improves antigen immunogenicity and promotes consistently strong immune responses, lowering the number of vaccine doses required to induce seroconversion/seroprotection rate even following a single dose, is in fact a long felt need.  
           [0012]    In this connection, due to the properties evidenced above, cytokines have been considered in the art as possible adjuvants. In particular, among the others, interferon (IFN) has received some attention.  
           [0013]    Today, the current view refers to IFNs as a complex family of antiviral proteins secreted by various cells in response to virus infection or other stimuli, which exhibit multiple biologic activities. They are classified in 2 major types, depending on the receptor system by which they induce their biological activities:  
           [0014]    i) Type I IFNs, which include the IFN-α family of at least 13 functional subtypes of IFN-α, IFN-β and IFN-ω;  
           [0015]    ii) Type II IFN, also named IFN-γ.  
           [0016]    Originally taken to be simple antiviral substances, type I IFNs have subsequently been shown to exhibit a variety of biological effects, including antitumor activities in experimental models as well as in patients. Early studies had reported several effects of type I IFN on the immune response in vitro as well as in vivo. However, some of these studies were viewed with some skepticism since the IFN preparations were in many cases still impure. For a long time, it has generally been assumed that the effects of type I IFN on the immune system could not be comparable, in terms of importance, to those exhibited by type II IFN, considered as the primary mediator of a protective cell mediated immune response, consistent with its original definition of “immune IFN”.  
           [0017]    Type I IFNs have also been shown to exert potent inhibitory effects on antibody production and T cell proliferation in vitro, raising the question of whether these cytokines would act in a stimulatory or inhibitory manner in vivo. It is worth mentioning that several authors have recently emphasized the possible immunosuppressive effects of type I IFN. This concept has even led to clinical applications in HIV-1 infected patients based on the rationale of neutralizing endogenous IFN considered as the putative immunosuppressive factor involved in disease progression. On the other hand, an ensemble of data obtained in different model systems have recently pointed out the importance of type I IFN in the induction of a Th1 type of immune response and in supporting the proliferation, functional activity and survival of certain T cell subsets (Belardelli F. and Gresser I. The neglected role of type I interferon in the T-cell response: implication for its clinical use. Immunol Today 17:369-372, 1996, and Tough D F, Borrow P, and Sprent J. Induction of bystander T cell proliferation by viruses and type I interferon in vivo. Science 272:1947-1950, 1996).  
           [0018]    Type I interferons are currently the most used cytokines in the clinical practice. In particular, IFN-α is used worldwide in over 40 countries for the treatment of some viral diseases (especially Hepatitis C) and various types of human cancer, including some hematological malignancies (hairy cell leukemia, chronic myeloid leukemia, some B and T cell lymphomas) and certain solid tumors, such as melanoma, renal carcinoma and Kaposi&#39;s sarcoma. In contrast, IFN-γ has met poor cases of clinical applications, mostly due to toxicity. Over the last few years, several studies have provided evidence that the biologic effects exerted by type I and type II IFNs can substantially differ in terms of type of activity in different experimental models. In some cases, such as melanoma and multiple sclerosis, the clinical use of IFN-γ has led to opposite effects with respect to those achieved with type I IFN.  
           [0019]    In spite of its wide clinical use, type I IFN is not yet used as a vaccine adjuvant. This is due to the fact that the state of the art on the role and importance of type I IFN in the regulation of the immune response had remained somehow confusing and controversial.  
           [0020]    A relevant use of IFNs in vivo as adjuvants in vaccines has been shown only for type II IFN (i.e., IFN-γ). In particular in EP 0241725 a vaccine is described containing a crude protein extract, derived from blood cells of mice infected with the virulent YM line of Plasmodium yoelii, which includes IFN-γ as an adjuvant. The amount of IFN-γ included in the vaccine is indicated in the range of 1.000 to 10.000 U per dose, wherein the amount of IFN-γ producing the adjuvant effect is indicated in 100 to 50.000 U. The dosage used is 5.000 U, even if doses lower than 200 units have been indicated also as effective.  
           [0021]    Although the use of type I IFN as an adjuvant has been envisaged by some prior art documents, no proof of any efficacy of type I IFN in enhancing an in vivo protective Th-1 type response when used as vaccine adjuvant has either been proved or suggested.  
           [0022]    In fact, in WO/8704076 it is disclosed that the possibility of using IFN-α for indirectly enhancing immune response was raised by studies of infection of calves with infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) virus.  
           [0023]    In particular, according to WO/8704076, IFN α is administered, preferably by oral route, in a very low dosage, not greater than about 5 IU/lb of body weight per day, with a preferred dosage of 1 IU/lb of body weight. Not only these amounts are too low to achieve the effect obtained according to the present invention, but the results reported in the example of this application show that an increase in quantity of IFN over the preferred concentration of 5 IU/lb leads to the opposite effect of decreasing the immmune response.  
           [0024]    Stürchler et Al. (Vaccine, Vol 7, 1989, PP 457-461) describes a generic adjuvant effect exerted by IFN-α on the production of IgG and IgM antibodies following the immunization of volunteers with an anti-Plasmodium falciparum vaccine. However, the moderate increase in IgG and IgM titer observed in vitro was no proof of an in vivo protective effect. Hence, no protective effect in vivo can be inferred from this document.  
           [0025]    Furthermore, Stürchler et Al. does not disclose, or even suggest, the capability of IFN-α of inducing, in a selective and non toxic manner, an in vivo protective Th-1 type immune response.  
           [0026]    Anton P. et Al (Cancer biotherapy and radiopharmaceuticals, Liebert, US, Vol. 11, no. 5, 1996, pp 315-318) describes the experimentation of an anti-tumour vaccine containing deactivated autologous tumoral cells and recombinant IFN-α2a. Although the document describes a certain effectiveness in the immunizing treatment, the document makes no discrimination between the contribution due to the autologous cells and that due to IFN. The adjuvant effect of IFN is therefore merely alleged, let alone the kind of immune response obtained. No adjuvant effect of type I IFN in the meaning of the present invention can therefore be inferred from this document either.  
           [0027]    Grob P. J. et al. (Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol., 1994, Vol. 3, no. 3, pp 195-198), describes the administration of recombinant IFN-α and a commercial anti-hepatitis-B vaccine to patients that did not respond to precedent immunizations. The results witness a low incidence of seroconversion and such a low increase in the antibodies titer in patients treated with IFN that an in vivo protecting effect cannot be expected. It should be emphasized that in this case IFN α has been administered distantly from vaccine. Conceptually this approach differs from the method of using any substance as an adjuvant that typically includes the association of that adjuvant with an antigen.  
           [0028]    The scope of the present invention as against the aforementioned prior art is to provide safe and highly effective means for enhancing Th-1 type humoral immuno-response to a vaccine in an in vivo protective immunization treatment, specifically with vaccine comprising killed pathogens or, more specifically, sub-unit vaccines.  
         SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
         [0029]    The object of the present invention is the use of type I IFN for the preparation of a non-toxic adjuvant composition for enhancing Th-1 type humoral immuno-response to a vaccine in a in vivo protective immunization treatment wherein IFN is used in dosage greater than or equal to 100.000 IU per dose of vaccine.  
           [0030]    Such an enhanced humoral immuno-response entails selective induction of IgG1 and/or IgG2a and/or IgG2b and/or IgG3 and/or IgA and/or IgM production.  
           [0031]    The non-toxic adjuvant composition is specifically useful for in vivo protective immunization carried out through subcutaneous, intramuscolar or intradermal injection or oral or mucosal or intranasal administration.  
           [0032]    In particular an object of the present invention is the use of type I IFN for the preparation of a non-toxic adjuvant composition for the above mentioned purpose, wherein said composition is formulated for the simultaneous delivering with the vaccine to the site of administration. Preferable adjuvant composition and vaccine are formulated together.  
           [0033]    A further object of the invention is a vaccine comprising type I IFN as an adjuvant in a dosage greater than or equal to 100 000 IU per dose of vaccine for controlled and prolonged release of both antigen and adjuvant together with any necessary pharmaceutically acceptable carrier vehicle or auxiliary agent.  
           [0034]    A still further object is a kit of parts comprising the above described IFN containing adjuvant composition and a vaccine composition for separated administration.  
           [0035]    A first advantage of the invention is that an adjuvanted vaccine prepared thereby is able to improve the induction of a Th-1 type of immune response, characterized by long-term antibody production and immunological memory, as determined by the extent of total antibody production.  
           [0036]    A second advantage of the invention is that a vaccine adjuvanted with the type I IFN composition in the stated dosage allows induction of a specific Th-1 type in vivo protective humoral and cell-mediated immune responses even after a single vaccine administration.  
           [0037]    A third advantage is also the high efficacy in rapidly inducing Th-1 type of immune protection, in the absence of any toxicity, in particular in the absence of toxicity/safety concerns typical of the currently available adjuvants known to promote a Th-1 type of response in animals such as CFA or IFA.  
           [0038]    The immune response induced by Type I IFN is a Th-1 type response characterized by a specific Igs profile, namely, in mice, by the specific induction of IgG2a and/or IgA, which confers protection from pathogen challenge such as bacteria or viruses.  
           [0039]    In the non-toxic adjuvant composition of the invention, type I IFN can be any interferon that belongs to this family provided that it is included in the above dosage. In this connection, the most effective dosage in humans is in the range of 1×10 6 -6×10 6  IU.  
           [0040]    In a preferred embodiment are used: natural IFN-α(a mixture of different IFN-α subtypes or individual IFN-α subtypes) from stimulated leukocytes of healthy donors or lymphoblastoid IFN-α from Namalwa cells, a synthetic type I IFN, such as consensus IFN (CIFN) and IFN-β or recombinant IFN-α subtypes, such as IFN-αa and IFN-αb, or IFN-ω, or new IFN molecules generated by the DNA shuffling method, provided that they are used in the above mentioned dosages indicated per vaccine dose.  
           [0041]    Pegylated type I IFN subtypes may be used, with the advantage of a higher in vivo half life of IFN after injection, in principle beneficial for achieving a more pronounced and rapid immune response.  
           [0042]    Fusion hybrid proteins represented by recombinant type I IFNs fused with monoclonal antibodies capable of targeting dendritic cells might be especially effective as adjuvant to be included in the vaccine formulation.  
           [0043]    The adjuvant composition of the invention may be combined with one or even more antigens from an infectious agent or other sources in an adjuvanted-vaccine form.  
           [0044]    Antigens include purified or partially-purified preparations of protein, peptide, carbohydrate or lipid antigens, and/or antigens associated with whole cells, particularly dendritic cells that have been mixed with the antigen. On the whole, any pathogen can be considered as a possible immunogen to be associated with type I IFN as adjuvant, and can be easily identified by a person skilled in the art.  
           [0045]    The amount of antigen(s) present in each adjuvanted-vaccine dose is selected as an amount capable of inducing a protective immune response in vaccinated subjects. This amount will depend on the specific antigen and the possible presence of other typical adjuvants, and can be identified by a person skilled in the art. In general, each dose will contain 1-1000 μg of antigen, preferentially 10-200 μg.  
           [0046]    Further components can be also present advantageously in the adjuvant composition or in the adjuvanted-vaccine of the invention. In particular, in a preferred embodiment further adjuvants, and in particular aluminum salts, are included in the composition.  
           [0047]    With regard to form, the adjuvant composition of the invention may be formulated for simultaneous delivery of said adjuvant and vaccine to the site of administration. Preferably, the adjuvant composition and the vaccine are formulated together in one composition in an adjuvanted-vaccine form. The formulation of the adjuvant composition or of the adjuvanted-vaccine can be in any form known in the art to be suitable for administering the adjuvant in association with an antigen.  
           [0048]    In some cases, the adjuvant composition and the vaccine or the adjuvanted-vaccine can be injected subcutaneously or intramuscularly on the account of the expected effect and ease of use. Intradermal injection can effectively be performed for some vaccines and other delivery systems suitable for recruiting a relevant number of dendritic cells to the injection site could be considered.  
           [0049]    Intranasal and oral administration should also be included especially for those infectious agents transmitted through these routes of infection such as viral respiratory infections, for example, influenza virus infection.  
           [0050]    Moreover, intranasal, oral or any other mucosal administration of the adjuvant composition and vaccine or directly adjuvanted-vaccine represents a valuable choice, which unexpectedly and advantageously results in the induction of a potent protective local and/or systemic immunity by using a very practical modality of vaccine delivery.  
           [0051]    A person skilled in the art can determine in this connection the most adapt formulation in function of the antigen the vaccination is directed to counteract.  
           [0052]    The adjuvant composition or the adjuvanted-vaccine of the invention can be formulated in conventional manner, as a pharmaceutical composition comprising sterile physiologically compatible carriers such as saline solution, excipients, other adjuvants (if any), preservatives, stabilizers.  
           [0053]    The adjuvant composition or the adjuvanted vaccine can be in a liquid or in lyophilized form, for dissolution in a sterile carrier prior to use. The presence of alum or liposome-like particles in the formulation are also possible, since they are useful for obtaining a slow release of both IFN and antigens(s). Other strategies for allowing a low release of the IFN-adjuvanted vaccines can be easily identified by those skilled in the art and are included in the scope of this invention.  
           [0054]    The pharmaceutically acceptable carrier vehicle or auxiliary agent can be easily identified accordingly for each formulation by a person skilled in the art.  
           [0055]    In this connection it is included as an object of the invention also a process for the preparation of the adjuvanted-vaccine of the invention comprising the step of:  
           [0056]    formulating together an antigen and type I IFN, said type IFN being in a dosage greater than or equal to 100.000 IU per dose of vaccine.  
           [0057]    The above adjuvanted-vaccine can be used in both prophylactic and therapeutic treatment of infectious diseases and cancer. In particular, the adjuvant composition or the adjuvanted-vaccine of the present invention can be used in a treatment for preventing viral and bacterial diseases (i.e., prophylactic vaccines) as well as for the treatment of severe chronic infection diseases (i.e., therapeutic vaccines). Moreover, the adjuvant composition or the adjuvanted-vaccine can also be used in the prevention and treatment of cancer when suitable antigens are used.  
           [0058]    This can be achieved by using antigens against infectious agents associated with human malignancies (EBV, HPV and  H. pilori ), or well defined tumor associated antigens such as those characterized in human melanoma (MAGE antigens, thyrosinase gp100, MART) as well as in other human tumors.  
           [0059]    In particular, the adjuvant composition or the adjuvanted-vaccine of the invention is particularly suitable for vaccination of the so-called low- or non-responder subjects, such as immuno-compromised subjects like maintenance hemodialysis and transplanted patients. In general, the adjuvant composition or the adjuvanted vaccine of the present invention is advantageously suitable in vaccination of individuals at high risk of infection in any situation for which an earlier seroconversion/seroprotection is desirable.  
           [0060]    These characteristics are in particular referred to vaccination against HBV.  
           [0061]    As an additional example, the described adjuvant composition or the adjuvanted-vaccine can be particularly valuable for inducing protection against influenza virus in elderly individuals poorly responsive to standard vaccination.  
           [0062]    For the HBV vaccine as well as for other viral vaccines, the s.c. or intramuscolar route of injection can be preferable, while in other cases the intranasal administration can exhibit advantages in terms or efficacy and/or patient compliance, especially for agents capable of infecting the host through the respiratory system.  
           [0063]    According to a second aspect, the adjuvant effect of type I IFN, according to the invention, is also obtainable by administering type I IFN and the sub-unit vaccine separately.  
           [0064]    In order to be effective, administration should be carried out by modalities allowing the simultaneous presence of the active agents in the same site. In fact, optimal effects are achieved in animals when type I IFN is co-injected together with the vaccine at doses in the range between 100.000 and 200.000 IU or even at higher doses (1×10 6 -2×10 6  IU). A still stronger enhancement of the immune response is obtained when vaccine and adjuvant are firstly simultaneously administered, then an additional dose of adjuvant composition alone is administered daily at day 1 or day 1 and 2 after first vaccine administration. Much lower effects are observed when IFN is given alone on day −1 or +1 with respect to vaccine administration (FIG. 11C).  
           [0065]    Accordingly, the present invention includes also a kit of parts comprising  
           [0066]    a composition including type I IFN and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier;  
           [0067]    a vaccine composition including an antigen or a combination of two or more antigens (defined proteins or peptides) or killed or inactivated pathogens,  
           [0068]    for separate, simultaneous or sequential use in the treatment of a disease associated with the presence of said antigen(s).  
           [0069]    Formulation, form and route of administration of the composition of the kit of the invention are the same described above.  
           [0070]    The invention will be better described with the help of the annexed figures. 
       
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES  
       [0071]    [0071]FIG. 1 shows the effect of poly(IC) on the primary antibody response to chicken gamma globulin (CGG) in vivo.  
         [0072]    Panel A shows endpoint titers of CGG-specific antibodies detected in the sera of B6 mice injected with CGG alone or CGG+poly IC, as indicated on the x-axis of the diagram. Each single diagram is labeled with the subclass of the antibody to which the measured endpoint titer refers (IgM, IgG1, IgG2b, IgG2a and IgG3).  
         [0073]    Antibody responses are expressed as the mean±SD of endpoint titers.  
         [0074]    Panel B shows the antibody response obtained in wild type mice of the 129sv strain (white bars) or type I IFN receptor KO (type I IFNR KO) 129sv mice (black bars) injected with CGG alone or CGG+poly IC, as indicated on the x axis of the diagram. Each single diagram is labeled with the subclass of the antibody to which the measured endpoint titer refers (IgM, IgG1, IgG2b, IgG2a and IgG3).  
         [0075]    Antibody responses are expressed as the mean±SD of endpoint titers.  
         [0076]    [0076]FIGS. 2A and B shows antibody response in mice immunized with ovalbumin (OVA)+adjuvants.  
         [0077]    Panel A shows specific antibody levels detected in wild type (white bars) or type I IFNR KO C3H/HeJ (gray bars) mice, treated with saline, OVA, OVA+IFA and OVA+CFA as indicated along the x axis of the diagram.  
         [0078]    Endpoint antibody titers present in the sera of mice 24 days after immunization, measured by a standard ELISA assay for OVA-specific total Igs, or Ig subclasses IgG2a, and IgG1, are reported on diagram I, diagram II and diagram III respectively. Values are expressed as mean of endpoint dilution titers of three individual sera tested in duplicate.  
         [0079]    Panel B shows specific antibody levels in wild type (white bars) or type I IFNR KO C3H/HeJ (gray bars) mice treated with saline, ovalbumin (OVA), OVA+CpG and OVA+Alum as indicated along the x axis of the diagram.  
         [0080]    Endpoint antibody titers present in the sera of mice 25 days after immunization, measured by a standard ELISA assay for OVA-specific total Igs or Ig subclasses IgG2a and IgG1, are reported on diagram I, diagram II and diagram III respectively. Values are expressed as mean of endpoint dilution titers of three individual sera tested in duplicate.  
         [0081]    [0081]FIG. 3 shows the role of type I IFN in Poly IC enhancement of the T cell response to CGG in vivo.  
         [0082]    Panel A shows the in vitro proliferative response to CGG of T cells from 129 or type I IFNR KO mice primed by injection of poly IC, CGG or CGG+poly IC as indicated along the x axis of the diagram.  
         [0083]    White and narrow striped bars indicate proliferation by cell suspensions from the draining lymph nodes (DrLNs) of 129 mice cultured in the presence (white) or absence (narrow striped) of CGG.  
         [0084]    Black and large striped bars indicate proliferation by cell suspensions from the DrLNs of type I IFNR KO mice cultured in the presence (black) or absence (large striped) of CGG.  
         [0085]    Panel B shows IFN-γ secretion by CD4 +  T cells from 129 or type I IFNR KO mice primed by injection of poly IC, CGG or CGG+poly IC as indicated along the x axis of the diagram.  
         [0086]    White and narrow striped bars indicate IFN-γ secretion by CD4 +  T cells purified from the DrLNs of immunized 129 mice cultured together with T depleted spleen cells from non-immunized syngenic mice cultured in the presence (white) or absence (narrow striped) of CGG.  
         [0087]    Black and large striped bars indicate IFN-γ secretion by CD4 +  T cells purified from the DrLNs of immunized type I IFNR KO mice cultured together with T depleted spleen cells from non-immunized syngenic mice cultured in the presence (black) or absence (large striped) of CGG.  
         [0088]    [0088]FIG. 4 shows the role of endogenous type I IFN in priming T cells for in vitro proliferation and in the DTH response in mice immunized with OVA+adjuvants.  
         [0089]    Panel A shows specific  3 H Thymidine uptake by T cells from normal (white bars) or type I IFNR KO C3H/HeJ (gray bars) mice treated with saline, ovalbumin and CFA as indicated along the x axis of the diagram.  
         [0090]    Panel B shows specific  3 H Thymidine uptake by T cells from normal (white bars) or type I IFNR KO C3H/HeJ (gray bars) mice treated with saline, ovalbumin and ovalbumin plus CpG or Alum, as indicated along the x axis of the diagram.  
         [0091]    Panel C shows the specific DTH response in wild type (white bars) or type I IFN receptor KO C3H/HeJ (gray bars) mice treated with saline, ovalbumin and ovalbumin plus IFA or CFA, as indicated along the x axis of the diagram.  
         [0092]    Panel D shows the specific DTH response in wild type (white bars) or type I IFN receptor KO C3H/HeJ (gray bars) mice treated with saline, ovalbumin and ovalbumin plus CpG or Alum, as indicated along the x axis.  
         [0093]    [0093]FIG. 5 Enhancement of the primary antibody response to CGG by injection of IFN-I.  
         [0094]    All mice received a single injection of CGG. Those also receiving soluble IFN-α/β or IFN-β were injected with the respective IFN either only at the time of immunization (1×), or given additional injections of IFN 1 day later (2×) or 1 and 2 days later (3×).  
         [0095]    Panel A shows the antibody response in B6 mice immunized with CGG alone or immunized with CGG and treated with IFN-α/β, as indicated along the x-axis of the diagram.  
         [0096]    Each single diagram is labeled with the subclass of the antibody to which the measured endpoint titer refers (IgM, IgG1, IgG2b, IgG2a and IgG3). Antibody responses are expressed as the mean±SD of endpoint titers.  
         [0097]    Panel B shows the antibody response in B6 mice immunized with CGG alone or immunized with CGG and treated with IFN-β. Each single diagram is labeled with the subclass of the antibody to which the measured endpoint titer refers (IgM, IgG1, IgG2b, IgG2a and IgG3). Antibody responses are expressed as the mean±SD of endpoint titers.  
         [0098]    [0098]FIG. 6 shows enhancement of primary antibody response to CGG by IFN-α/β+alum.  
         [0099]    Data (black bars) show CGG-specific antibodies detected by ELISA 10 days after immunization of B6 mice by giving a single subcutaneous injection of CGG alone or in combination with soluble IFN-α/β, alum, or IFN-α/β+alum, as indicated along the x axis of the diagrams. Symbol 3× indicates additional injections of soluble IFN-α/β 1 day and 2 days after the immunization.  
         [0100]    Each single diagram is labeled with the subclass of the antibody to which the measured endpoint titer refers (IgM, IgG1, IgG2b, IgG2a and IgG3).  
         [0101]    Data represent the endpoint titers±SD (3 mice per group).  
         [0102]    [0102]FIG. 7 shows a comparison of antibody responses enhanced by type I IFN and oil-based adjuvants.  
         [0103]    Data (black bars) show CGG-specific antibodies detected by ELISA 10 days after immunization of B6 mice by subcutaneous injection of CGG, CGG+IFN-α/β (IFN-α/β given together with CGG on day 0 and then alone on day 1 and 2), CGG emulsified in IFA (IFA given together with CGG on day 0 and then alone on day 1 and 2) or CGG emulsified in TiterMax (TiterMax given together with CGG on day 0 and then alone on day 1 and 2) as indicated along the x axis of the diagrams.  
         [0104]    Results are expressed as the mean±SD of endpoint titers (3 mice per group). Each single diagram is labeled with the subclass of the antibody to which the measured endpoint titer refers (IgM, IgG1, IgG2b, IgG2a and IgG3).  
         [0105]    [0105]FIG. 8 shows that soluble IFN-α/β enhances antibody responses to a similar extent as CFA, the adjuvanticity of which is dependent on endogenous type I IFN.  
         [0106]    Antibody responses were compared in WT 129 (white bars) or IFN-IR KO (black bars) mice after immunization by subcutaneous injection of CGG alone, CGG+IFN-α/β (two more IFN-α/β injections given on day 1 and 2 post immunization) or CGG+CFA, as indicated along the x-axis of the diagrams. CGG-specific antibodies were detected by ELISA 10 days after immunization. Results are expressed as the mean±SD of endpoint titers (3 mice per group). Each single diagram is labeled with the subclass of the antibody to which the measured endpoint titer refers (IgM, IgG1, IgG2b, IgG2a and IgG3).  
         [0107]    [0107]FIG. 9 shows type I IFN stimulation of long-term antibody production and immunological memory.  
         [0108]    Panel A shows endpoint antibody titers in B6 mice immunized 6 months earlier by injection of CGG alone or CGG+IFN-α/β.  
         [0109]    Data (black bars) show CGG-specific antibodies detected by ELISA 6 months after immunization of B6 mice by subcutaneous injection of CGG alone or CGG+IFN-α/β (two more IFN-α/β injections given on day 1 and 2 post immunization).  
         [0110]    Results are expressed as the mean±SD of endpoint titers (3 mice per group). Each single diagram is labeled with the subclass of the antibody to which the measured endpoint titer refers (IgM, IgG1, IgG2b, IgG2a and IgG3).  
         [0111]    Panel B shows specific antibody response 6 days after challenge with CGG alone in naive mice (No) and in mice immunized 6 months before with CGG alone or CGG+IFN-α/β as in panel A.  
         [0112]    Results represent antibody endpoint titers before (white bars) and 6 days after challenge (black bars) expressed as the mean±SD of endpoint titers (3 mice per group). Each single diagram is labeled with the subclass of the antibody to which the measured endpoint titer refers (IgM, IgG1, IgG2b, IgG2a and IgG3).  
         [0113]    [0113]FIG. 10 shows that DC responsiveness to type I IFN is sufficient for enhancement of antibody production and isotype switching by type I IFN.  
         [0114]    Data show CGG-specific antibodies detected by a standard ELISA 10 days after immunization. Splenic DC were purified from 129 mice (wt) or from type I IFNR KO mice (as indicated along the x axis of the diagrams), incubated briefly with CGG and injected with (black bars) or without (white bars) IFN-α/β sc into type I IFNR KO mice (in the latter case two more IFN-α/β injections given on day 1 and 2 post immunization).  
         [0115]    Results are expressed as the mean±SD of endpoint titers (3 mice per group). Each single diagram is labeled with the subclass of the antibody to which the measured endpoint titer refers (IgM, IgG1, IgG2b, IgG2a and IgG3).  
         [0116]    [0116]FIG. 11 Adjuvant activity of type I IFN on antibody response of mice immunized with influenza vaccine.  
         [0117]    The standard immunization schedule was as follows: 7-8 week-old C57BL/6 mice were injected i.m. with 0.2 ml of a preparation containing 15 μg of purified flu vaccine and 2×10 5  U of murine type I IFN, vaccine alone or saline as controls. 14 day later, mice were bled and sera tested by a standard ELISA to measure flu-specific antibody level. Values represent the mean of 5 individual sera±SD.  
         [0118]    Panel A shows a dose/response experiment in which mice were treated i.m. with different preparations containing vaccine mixed with log 10  dilutions of type I IFN (2×10 5 , 2×10 4  or 2×10 3  Units) or vaccine alone or saline, as a negative control. Antibody titer was measured 7 days after immunization.  
         [0119]    Panel B shows the adjuvant effect on antibody response in mice treated with vaccine and a single or a repeated dose of type I IFN. Mice were treated i.m. with flu vaccine mixed with IFN or flu vaccine mixed with IFN, followed by a further IFN injection in the same site for two days after the first inoculum. Flu vaccine alone or saline were used as controls.  
         [0120]    Panel C shows the adjuvant effect type I IFN given simultaneously or at different times before or after flu vaccine administration. Mice were injected i.m. with IFN 2 days or 1 day before or after vaccine administration or at the same time of vaccine, at the same site. Flu vaccine alone or saline were used as controls.  
         [0121]    [0121]FIG. 12: Panel A shows antibody response of mice given an intranasal administration of type I IFN and influenza vaccine.  
         [0122]    7-8 week-old C57BL/6 mice were anaesthetized and instilled intranasally (i.n.) with a drop (50 μl) of flu vaccine (15 μg) preparation containing 5×10 4  Units type I IFN. 14 days later, treatments were repeated and after 7 additional days blood samples were taken and assessed in a standard ELISA for the presence of different flu-specific antibody subclasses. Flu vaccine alone or saline were used as controls. Results are expressed as the mean±SD. of endpoint titers of 5 mice per group.  
         [0123]    Panel B shows the protective effect of IFN adjuvanted vaccine in mice inoculated with live influenza virus.  
         [0124]    7-8 week-old C57BL/6 mice were vaccinated i.m. with 0.2 ml of a solution containing flu vaccine (15 μg) alone or in association with type I IFN (2×10 5  U) or with saline as control. Vaccines were administered on days 0 and 14. Fifty days after the vaccination onset, mice were instilled intranasally with a drop (50 μl) of 10 LD50 of live flu virus (A/Beijing/262/95(A/H1N1). All mice were weighted daily thereafter. Results are expressed as the mean weight of 5 mice per group. The number of surviving mice out of total mice in each group is indicated.  
         [0125]    [0125]FIG. 13: FLU specific antibody isotype analysis in control and IFN-IR KO mice immunized i.m. with FLU (influenza) vaccine alone or mixed with type I IFN as adjuvant.  
         [0126]    Control (wild type) and IFN-IR KO C3H/HeN mice were injected i.m. on days 0 and 14 with FLU vaccine alone, FLU vaccine+type I IFN or FLU vaccine+MF59 adjuvant. Thirteen days after the first and 19 days after the second immunization (respectively, day 13 and day 33) sera were collected and analyzed for FLU-specific antibody response. Data represent the mean±s.e. of specific antibody titers of five sera for each experimental group, tested in duplicate.  
         [0127]    *p&lt;0.002; **p&lt;0.05 vs IFN-IR KO mice; NS, not significant.  
                                                       White bars:   Control wild type mice           Dark bars:   IFN-IR KO mice                      
 
         [0128]    [0128]FIG. 14 Powerful adjuvant effect of type I IFN when administered intranasally (i.n.) with FLU vaccine Panel a: Analysis of FLU-specific HAI titers, serum antibody isotype and broncho-alveolar lavage (BAL) IgA of C57/BL6 mice immunized i.n. with FLU vaccine alone or mixed with type I IFN. Mice were instilled i.n. at day 0 and 14 with 50 μl of FLU vaccine, alone or mixed with type I IFN (10 5  U). Sera were collected 14 days after the first immunization (left graph). Fourteen days after the second immunization (right graph), mice were sacrificed and blood samples and broncho-alveolar lavage (BAL) taken for Ig analysis. Data represent the mean±s.e. of specific antibody titers of five samples for each experimental group, tested in duplicate. **p&lt;0.002 vs FLU vaccine alone; NS, not significant.  
                                                       White bars:   vaccine alone           Dark bars:   vaccine + IFN                      
 
         [0129]    Panel b: Survival time of C57/BL6 mice immunized with two i.n. administrations of FLU vaccine alone or mixed with type I IFN (10 5  U) or saline as control and challenged with 10 LD 50  of FLU virus 38 days thereafter. Data represent the mean weight course (±s.e.) of infected mice and the percentage of surviving mice with respect to the total number of animals. There were five mice per group.  
                                                       Closed circles:   Saline-treated mice           Open circles:   Mice instilled i.n. with FLU vaccine           Open squares:   Mice instilled i.n. with FLU vaccine + IFN                      
 
         [0130]    Panel c: Control and IFN-IR KO C3H/HeN mice were instilled i.n. at day 0 and 14 with FLU vaccine alone, FLU vaccine+type I IFN or FLU vaccine +MF59 adjuvant. Thirteen days after the first (upper panels) and 19 days after the second (lower panels) immunization, sera were collected and analyzed for FLU-specific antibody response. Data represent the mean±s.e. of specific antibody titers of five samples for each experimental group, tested in duplicate. *p&lt;0.004 vs IFN-IR KO mice; NS, not significant.  
                                                       White bars:   control wild type mice           Dark bars:   IFN-IR KO mice                      
 
         [0131]    [0131]FIG. 15: Adjuvant effect of type I IFN in C57BL/6 mice vaccinated i.m. (systemic) or i.n. (mucosal) with FLU vaccine after a single immunization.  
         [0132]    Panel a shows antibody titers 14 days after immunization and mice survival after 1 i.m. immunization. Intramuscular immunization was performed as previously described. Virus challenge was performed 38 days after immunization.  
         [0133]    Panel B shows antibody titers 14 days after immunization and mice survival after 1 i.n. immunization. Mucosal immunization was performed as previously described. Virus challenge was performed 38 days after immunization.  
                                                       Closed circles:   Saline-treated mice           Open triangles:   Mice injected i.m. or instilled i.n.               with FLU vaccine           Open circles:   Mice injected i.m. with FLU vaccine + IFN               or instilled i.n. with FLU               vaccine + IFN                      
 
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION  
       [0134]    Type I IFN suitable in the invention is any IFN that belongs to this family, both as single recombinant molecule or as a pool of natural or recombinant molecules, or the consensus IFN (CIFN).  
         [0135]    For human use, human type I IFN are the preferred adjuvants. The adjuvant can be a recombinant IFN-α or IFN-β or IFN-ω, the natural IFN-α (a mixture of different IFN-α subtypes or individual IFN-α subtypes) from stimulated leukocytes of healthy donors or lymphoblastoid IFN-α from Namalwa cells, or the CIFN, or new IFN molecules produced in vitro by DNA shuffling method and endowed with biological activity.  
         [0136]    For veterinary use, type I IFN consist of those naturally found in or closely related to the species for which vaccines are prepared; again, these type I IFN may be recombinant or naturally produced from appropriate animal cells. These types of interferon have approximately the same adjuvant activity.  
         [0137]    The amount of interferon required to achieve an optimal adjuvant activity depends on the type of the antigen (i.e. its immunogenicity), but typically should be more than 100.000 IU per dose of vaccine. In mice, optimal effects are obtained by injecting high doses of type I IFN (2×10 5 -10 6  IU). Optimal dosage in humans is expected to be in the range of 10 6 -6×10 6  IU per vaccine dose. Pegylated type I IFN subtypes have the advantage of allowing a higher in vivo half life of IFN after injection, which could be beneficial for achieving a more pronounced and rapid immune response.  
         [0138]    Fusion hybrid proteins represented by recombinant type I IFNs fused with monoclonal antibodies capable of targeting dendritic cells (for instance anti-DEC-205 or anti-CD11c antibodies) might be especially effective as adjuvant to be included in the adjuvant composition or in the adjuvanted-vaccine.  
         [0139]    In addition or in alternative to the administration of IFN protein, the adjuvant can also be given as nucleic acid sequence, provided with appropriate regulatory regions for its correct expression, encoding one or more members of type I IFN (i.e. a plasmid containing a type I IFN encoding gene, under the control of appropriate promoter and transcription termination signal sequence, for expression in eukaryotic cell system).  
         [0140]    The adjuvant activity refers to any portion of interferon capable of enhancing the antigen specific immune response.  
         [0141]    The composition of the invention should preferably contain both antigen and adjuvant, blended in the same vial in physiologically compatible carriers (e.g. sterile saline solution, buffered at physiological pH).  
         [0142]    In this connection, the adjuvanted-vaccine of the invention can include one or even more antigens from an infectious agent or other sources as well as killed or attenuated pathogens associated with an effective amount of biologically active type I IFN. The adjuvanted-vaccine can also include whole cells, and, in particular, autologous dendritic cells.  
         [0143]    Antigens for such a formulation can be any type of natural or recombinant purified antigen, which may include protein, peptide, lipid or carbohydrate antigens, derived from intracellular or extracellular pathogen, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and fungi, as well as cellular antigens associated with tumors.  
         [0144]    The amount of antigen(s) present in each adjuvanted-vaccine dose is selected as an amount capable of inducing an immunoprotective response in vaccinated subjects. This amount will depend on the specific antigen and the possible presence of other typical adjuvants. In general, each dose will contain 1-1000 μg of antigen, preferentially 10-200 μg.  
         [0145]    Antigens can be any type of natural or recombinant antigen, or its portion, derived from intracellular or extracellular pathogens, as well as the pathogen itself, including viruses (picornaviruses, caliciviruses, coronaviruses, arenaviruses, parvoviruses, togaviruses, flavivirus, coronavirus, rhabdoviruses, filoviruses, ortomixoviruses, paramixoviruses, buniaviruses, retroviruses, papovaviruses, adenoviruses, herpesviruses, poxviruses, hepadnaviruses), bacteria (Streptococci, Staphylococci, Neisseria, Spirochetes, Clostridia, Corynebacteria, Listeria, Erysipelothrix, Anthrax, Mycobacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, Vibrio, Campylobacter, Helicobacter, Haemophilus, Bordetella, Brucella, Francisella, Pasteurella, Yersinia, Chlamydia, Rickettsiae and other non fermentative Gram-negative Bacilli), Mycoplasma and Legionella, protozoa (Sarcodina, Ciliophora, Mastigophora, Sporozoa, Cryptosporodium, Pneumocystis), fungi (Coccidioides, Histoplasma, Blastomycoses, Cryptoccus, Candida, Aspergillus, Mucorales, Zygomyces).  
         [0146]    Tumor-associated antigens include melanoma antigens (MART-1, gp100, MAGE antigens) as well as other tumor antigens known in the art.  
         [0147]    The adjuvant composition or the adjuvanted-vaccine of the invention can be formulated in conventional manner, using sterile physiologically compatible carriers such as saline solution, excipients, other adjuvants (if applicable), preservatives, stabilizers. They can be in a liquid or in lyophilized form, for dissolution in a sterile carrier prior to use.  
         [0148]    In another aspect, this invention provides a method of formulating an adjuvanted-vaccine, which includes antigens or their portion from a pathogen, in association with an effective amount of biologically active type I IFN acting as an adjuvant, for delivery of both antigen and adjuvant simultaneously to the site of administration. The amount of IFN must be high enough to act locally and for a sufficient time in order to exert its adjuvant effect.  
         [0149]    This is an important aspect of the adjuvanted-vaccine, both to keep antigen and adjuvant mixed together at the same relative concentration following injection, and to expose them contemporaneously to antigen presenting cells4, localised at the site of injection, on which antigen and adjuvant exert their functional activity.  
         [0150]    In addition to the applications related to the field of prophylactic vaccines, due to the capability of type I IFN of acting as a powerful adjuvant not only with regard to humoral immunity but also to cell-mediated immune responses, this invention is also transferred to the development of therapeutic vaccines for treatment of chronic diseases, such as viral chronic infection and cancer.  
         [0151]    In this case, such a new adjuvanted-vaccine formulation should contain a tumor-associated antigen or the relevant viral antigen (or the DNA sequence encoding for that antigen), combined with an effective amount of type I IFN to be administered to patients for the treatment of cancer or chronic viral diseases.  
         [0152]    Subcutaneous injection of the adjuvant composition and the vaccine or of the adjuvanted-vaccine is preferable because of its simplicity of use. However, any other route of administration may be employed, including intramuscular, intradermal, and mucosal (such as intranasal and oral) routes. For some viral infections, intranasal administration can represent a valuable choice, which results in the induction of a potent protective local and/or systemic immunity by using a very practical modality of vaccine delivery.  
         [0153]    The present invention also refers to type I IFN as a powerful mucosal adjuvant.  
         [0154]    Identification of mucosal adjuvants is an important task of vaccine research, since induction of protective mucosal immunity is crucial for achieving local immune protection at the pathogen entry site.  
         [0155]    When type I IFN is used as an adjuvant for mucosal vaccination, the composition can be mixed with suitable antigens and can be administered, for example, through instillation on oral or nasal mucosa. The mucosal administration generally increases the antibody production, specifically IgG2a or/and IgA, already following a first immunization (FIGS. 14 a  and  b ). The mucosal administration of the adjuvant composition of the invention together with the vaccine induces in vivo full local (mucosal immunity) and/or systemic protection from pathogens challenge. Notably, a commercially available vaccine, obtained by purification of H1N1 influenza virus circulating in 1995 (A/Beijing/262/95(A/H1N1)), proved to be poorly immunogenic when injected in mice. In fact, a consistent number of mice did not develop any significant antibody response even after three vaccine injections. When vaccine was administered i.m. together with type I IFN, 100% of mice seroconverted after a single immunization, and antibody titers increased significantly after a second injection.  
         [0156]    The dose response curve indicated that there was a linear correlation between the IFN dose and antibody titer (FIG. 11). The analysis of influenza specific antibody isotype showed an increase in the IgG2a antibody subclass, a typical marker of the protective Th-1 immune response in mice (not shown). Of interest, mice given intranasally 50 μl of a preparation containing the vaccine and type I IFN developed a systemic and mucosal antibody response, while vaccine alone was totally ineffective (FIG. 12 a ). Notably, antibody response of mice immunized with adjuvanted vaccine was shown to be in vivo protective against a lethal virus challenge (FIG. 12 b ). Still more importantly, the in vivo protection against a lethal dose of virus was observed, regardless of the way of immunization, already after one single immunization. Moreover, the survival rate of challenged animals proves quite unrelated to the increase of IgG titer. In fact, as illustrated in FIG. 15, the immunization with vaccine alone, although resulting in a significant increase of IgG titer, did bring about any significant increase in survival rate.  
         [0157]    The amount of interferon required for these intranasal administrations is similar to that required for subcutaneous route. As inferred, for instance, from the results with the influenza vaccine in mice, one suitable dose of type I IFN can be sufficient to elicit considerable levels of specific immune response. However, the administration of a further dose of adjuvant one or two days following the first IFN-adjuvanted vaccine dose improves the overall magnitude of immune response.  
         [0158]    In particular, mixing type I IFN with the relevant antigen and alum prior to injection may be advantageous (FIG. 6).  
         [0159]    In fact, when pre-adsorbed to alum, a single injection of IFN in mice enhanced the antigen specific. antibody response to a similar or greater extent than 3 injections of soluble IFN (FIG. 6). The augmenting effect of alum pre-absorption was most marked with regard to IgG2a production, indicating a Th-1 type preferential response.  
         [0160]    Accordingly, a prolonged presence of type I IFN does indeed increase its adjuvant activity. In this regard, pegylated type I IFN may have some advantage because of their high half life after injection. Moreover, a vaccine composition suitable for human application, characterized by controlled and prolonged released of both antigen and adjuvant is also contemplated. Such a composition refers to routinely used methods employed to improve functional activity of therapeutic proteins through sustained release formulation. These methods make use of formulations in which proteins are encapsulated in microspheres made of biodegradable polymers or liposomes, from which they are slowly released.  
         [0161]    If necessary, following the administration of the first vaccine dose, boost doses may be administered to subjects, depending on the immunogenicity of antigen used and the parameter immunization coverage established by specific vaccination programmes.  
         [0162]    Alternatively, the adjuvant effect of IFN, even if less pronounced, can be obtained by administrating type I IFN separately from the antigen as a kit of part, but very close to the antigen injection site and at the same time. Subcutaneous injection of vaccine is preferable, also in the kit of part composition, because of their simplicity of use. However, any other route of administration may be employed, including intramuscular, intradermal, intranasal and oral routes. The amount of interferon required for these methods of administration is similar to that required for subcutaneous route.  
         [0163]    The present invention is based on the following unexpected major findings:  
         [0164]    i) the simultaneous injection of well defined antigens mixed together with a suitable amount of type I IFN in mice results in a powerful induction of a primary antibody response, associated with a typical Th-1 type of immune response (FIGS. 5, 6,  9 ), which is superior to that observed with the use of typically available adjuvants (FIG. 7), without inducing any toxicity;  
         [0165]    ii) endogenous type I IFN is the major mediator of the Th-1 promoting immune response induced by adjuvants such as IFA, CFA, CpG, when coinjected with reference antigens (FIGS.  1 - 4 ,  8 ) (all these adjuvants pose relevant safety issues to be used in humans);  
         [0166]    iii) a commercially available influenza vaccine, when administered intramuscularly or intranasally in mice together with suitable amounts of type I IFN, becomes highly immunogenic and protective against virus challenge (FIGS. 11, 12).  
         [0167]    The importance and the details of these findings are clarified in the examples reported below.  
       EXAMPLES  
     Materials and Methods  
       [0168]    Mice  
         [0169]    Mice were purchased from Charles River-UK (Margate, Kent, UK), Charles River-Italy (Calco, Italy) or from the SPF unit at the Institute for Animal Health (Compton, UK). C3H/HeJ mice were purchased from Harlan UK Ltd (Blackthorn, UK). 129 SvEv (129) mice were purchased from the SPF unit at the Institute for Animal Health. 129 background mice deficient for type I IFN receptor function (type I IFNR KO) were originally purchased from B&amp;K Universal (North Humberside, UK) and were maintained and bred in the SPF unit at the Institute for Animal Health.  
         [0170]    Interferons  
         [0171]    High titer IFN-α/β×10 7  U/mg of protein was prepared in the C243-3 cell line following a method adapted from Tovey et al (Tovey MG, Begon-Lours J and Gresser I. A method for the large scale production of potent interferon preparations. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 146:809-815, 1974). Briefly, confluent cells were primed by the addition of 10 U/ml of IFN in MEM enriched with 10% FCS and 1 mM Sodium Butyrate. After 16 hours of culture at 37° C., C243-3 cells were infected by Newcastle Disease Virus (multiplicity of infection of 1) in MEM+0.5% FCS+5 mM theofylline. 18 hours post-infection, culture supernatant was collected and centrifuged at 1500 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant was adjusted to pH 2.0 and kept at 0° C. for 6 days, before IFN titration. IFN was assayed by inhibition of the cytopathic effect of vesicular stomatitis virus on L cells in monolayer culture in Falcon microplates. These IFN preparations had the specific activity of 2×10 6  U/mg of protein after removal by centrifugation of contaminating protein precipitated during the treatment at pH 2.0 and dialysis against PBS. Units in the text are expressed as international mouse reference units. IFN was concentrated and partially purified by ammonium sulfate precipitations and dialysis against PBS. All IFN preparations were further subjected to dialysis for 24 hr at 4° C. against 0.01 M percloric acid and then against PBS, before testing them for any possible residual toxicity on a line of L1210 cells resistant to IFN. These partially purified IFN preparations had a titer of at least 2×10 7  U/mg of protein and were endotoxin-free, as assessed by the Limulus amebocyte assay. They proved to be constituted of approximately 75% IFN-β and 25% IFN-α, as evaluated by neutralization assays using mAbs to IFNs, as described in detail in Belardelli F et al. “Studies on the expression of spontaneous and induced interferons in mouse peritoneal macrophages by means of monoclonal antibodies to mouse interferons”, J Gen Virol 68:2203-2212, 1987. High titer purified IFN-β (2×10 9  U/mg of protein) was prepared by affinity chromatography on a Sepharose column coupled with rat monoclonal antibodies to IFN-β (Kawade Y and Watanabe Y. Characterization of rat monoclonal. antibodies to mouse interferon α and β. Proceedings of the third international TNO meeting on the biology of the Interferon system. In the Biology of the Interferon System, Dordrecht, 197-202, 1987.).  
         [0172]    Antigens and Adjuvants.  
         [0173]    Chicken Gamma Globulin (CGG) and Ovalbumin (OVA) were obtained, respectively, from Stratech Scientific Ltd, Luton, UK and Sigma Chemical Co. Influenza vaccine was a sub-unit X-127 monovalent vaccine, prepared from A/Beijing/262/95 (H1/N1) influenza virus strain and was kindly provided by Chiron Corporation (Emeryville, Calif.).  
         [0174]    Antigens were dissolved in PBS and filter-sterilised. Incomplete (IFA) and Complete Freund Adjuvant (CFA) (Sigma Chemical Co), were each mixed with antigen solution at a 1:1 v/v ratio and emulsified, by using two glass syringes and luer lock connectors, until a stable emulsion was formed. Alum (aluminum hydroxide gel, Sigma Chemical Co) was dissolved in the antigen solution at a ratio 1:20 w/v and the pH was adjusted to 6.5. After 1 h incubation at room temperature, the solution was centrifuged and the pellet resuspended in the previous volume of saline. CpG ODN (CpG) was synthesized by Roche Diagnostic, Milan, Italy. 200 μg of CpG were dissolved in 1 ml, final volume, of a solution containing 200 μg of OVA. The CpG used in this study was made with a phosphorothioate backbone and had the sequence TsGsAsCsTsGsTsGsAsAsCsGsTsTsCsGsAsGsAsTsGsA. Polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (Poly (I:C) (Sigma Chemical Co) was dissolved in saline at a concentration of 10 mg/ml. Frozen aliquots were thawed just before each experiment and 0.15 mg of poly (I:C) were injected i.p. in a volume of 0.15 ml of saline.  
         [0175]    MF59 was mixed with antigen solution at a 1:1 (v/v) ratio and emulsified by pipetting.  
         [0176]    Protocols of Immunizations with CGG  
         [0177]    All immunizations were done by sc injection of 100 μg of CGG. CGG was administrated in soluble form (in PBS) either when given alone or when mixed with 100 μg of poly IC (Sigma Chemical Co. Ltd, Dorset, UK), 10 5  U of IFN-αβ or 10 5  U of purified IFN-β as indicated. When injected with Titermax (CytRx Corporation, Norcross, Ga.), IFA (Sigma) or CFA (Sigma), an equal volume of CGG in PBS was emulsified with the adjuvant before injection. In some experiments, type I IFN, Titermax or IFA were administered several times. In all cases, mice were injected sc at the site of the primary injection. When testing for a memory response, mice were bled immediately prior to challenge with CGG to establish pre-challenge antibody levels. The same mice were bled 6 days after CGG challenge.  
         [0178]    Protocols of Immunizations with OVA  
         [0179]    Except for Poly (I:C), all adjuvants were always injected i.d. in a volume of 50 μl/mouse with or without OVA. OVA concentration was always 10 μg/mouse. Two different immunization protocols were used. To achieve a good antibody and proliferative response, mice were injected at day 0 with OVA+adjuvant and 10 and 17 days later boosted with OVA alone. On the contrary, mice selected for delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) assay were injected with OVA+adjuvant both at time 0 and at times 10 and 17. All immunization experiments included arms treated with OVA alone and saline as controls. Blood samples were taken from the retro-orbital venous plexus just before the subsequent antigen injection. Sera were collected and stored at −20° C. before further assay.  
         [0180]    Protocols of Immunizations with Influenza (FLU) Vaccine  
         [0181]    For intramuscular (i.m.) immunization, mice were injected with a final volume of 200 μl of a solution containing vaccine (15 μg) and saline, or vaccine (15 μg) and IFN (2×10 5  U), or saline alone. For intranasal (i.n.) immunization, lightly anaesthetized mice were instilled with a drop (50 μl) of a solution containing the same amounts of vaccine and saline, or vaccine and IFN, or saline alone. Booster dose containing identical amounts of vaccine and IFN was applied 14 days after primary immunization.  
         [0182]    Assay of Serum Antibody by ELISA  
         [0183]    CGG (5 μg/ml in Carbonate Buffer-pH 9.6) was coated overnight at RT in 96-well Flexible Plates (Falcon, Becton Dickinson, Oxford, UK). The plates were blocked with PBS containing 4% powdered milk for 1 hour at 37° C. and then washed 3× in PBS-Tween (0.05%). 12-fold serial dilutions of sera in PBS-1% milk were added to the wells for 1 hour at RT. After 3 washes, biotinylated rat anti-mouse antibodies [anti-mouse IgM (R6-60.2), IgG1 (A85-1), IgG2a (R19-15), IgG2b (12-3), IgG3 (R40-82) or IgE (R35-72) (Becton Dickinson)] were added to the wells for 1 hour at RT. After 3 washes, streptavidin-HRP (Becton Dickinson) was added for 1 h at RT. OPD tablets (Sigma) were used as peroxidase substrate. The reaction was stopped by addition of 50 μl 3M HCl before the highest dilution of the highest titer serum rose above background. Optical densities were read at 492 nm on a SPECTRAmax (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, Calif.). Results are expressed as reciprocal endpoint titers, which were determined using an automated routine designed on Excel. Briefly, a threshold of positivity for OD values was calculated for each antibody isotype as the average+3 SD of all dilutions from 3 control mouse sera (sera from either unmanipulated mice or mice treated with IFN-α/β or poly IC alone). The background level was very low at all dilutions (typically about 0.08) and did not vary significantly between experiments. For a given serum sample, the endpoint titer was determined as the first dilution below the threshold of positivity. Since endpoint titers are arbitrary units, the results must be considered inside the same assays and cannot be directly compared between experiments. For this reason, all samples within each experiment were assayed at the same time.  
         [0184]    To determine the approximate concentrations of CGG-specific antibodies present in mouse sera, the ELISA was performed in a semi-quantitative way by comparison to mouse Ig standards. CGG-specific antibodies were detected as described above, except that antibodies were revealed using isotype specific polyclonal goat anti-mouse antibodies conjugated to alkaline phosphatase (AP) (all from Southern Biotechnology Associates Inc, Birmingham, Ala., USA). To establish standards, plates were coated with unlabelled isotype specific polyclonal goat anti-mouse antibodies (5 μg/ml) (Southern Biotechnology). The plates were blocked as above and then purified mouse antibodies were added at known concentration (mouse Ig Standard Panel from Southern Biotechnology). After washes, the standards were revealed using isotype specific goat anti-mouse antibodies conjugated to AP. p-NPP tablets (Sigma) were used as the AP substrate. The enzymatic reaction was stopped by adding 3M NaOH. OD was read at 405 nm. Using SoftmaxPro (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, Calif.), we established standard curves for each isotype and calculated the amount of CGG specific antibodies.  
         [0185]    To measure OVA-specific antibody levels, a standard, direct ELISA assay was performed. Briefly, 96 well flat-bottom microtiter plates (DYNEX Immulon 4MBX) were coated with 100 μl of a 1 μg/ml (for total IgG detection) or 4 μg/ml (for IgG2a and IgG1 detection) solution of ovalbumine (Sigma Chemical Co, St. Louis, Mo.) diluted in NaHCO 3  buffer, pH 9.6 (coating buffer). After overnight incubation at 4° C., plates were washed three times with PBS+0.01% Tween 20 (washing solution) and blocked with PBS containing 5% bovine serum albumin (BSA) (Sigma Chemical Co, St. Louis, Mo.) for 2 hr at room temperature. 100 μl of previously diluted (to a 1:2 ratio) serum samples were then added to each well and incubated for 1 h and 30 min at 37° C. After washing, plates were incubated 1 h at 37° C. with 100 μl of a peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody. The following secondary antibodies were used: anti total mouse IgG (Sigma Chemical Co, St. Louis, Mo.), diluted 1:1000 in PBS containing 5% BSA; anti mouse IgG2a (Cappel Research Products, Durham, N.C.), diluted 1:200; anti mouse IgG1 (Cappel Research Products, Durham, N.C.), diluted 1:400. At the end of the incubation, plates were washed three times and 100 μl of an enzyme substrate solution (4 mg of orto-phenylenediamine, in 20 ml of 0.1 M phosphate-citrate buffer containing 0.001% H 2 O 2 ) were added to each well and left in the dark for about 20 min. Enzymatic reaction was stopped with 50 μl of 4N H 2 SO 4  and plates were read in a microplate autoreader at 450 nm. Results are expressed as the mean of the endpoint dilution of three sera per experimental condition, where the endpoint is determined as the final serum dilution that yields an absorbance value higher than the mean+2 s.d. of three negative control samples included in each assay.  
         [0186]    DC Preparation and Injection  
         [0187]    DC were isolated from spleens using a method previously described (Vremec D et al. “The surface phenotype of dendritic cells purified from mouse thymus and spleen: investigation of the CD8 expression by a subpopulaton of dendritic cells” J Exp Med 176:47-58, 1992). Briefly, spleens from 129 or type I IFNR KO mice were cut into small pieces and digested, with agitation, in RPMI containing 5% FCS, Collagenase III (1 mg/ml, Lorne Laboratories, Reading, UK) and DNase I (0.6 mg/ml Sigma, St Louis, Mo.) for 5 min at 37° C. followed by 15 min at RT. DC-enriched cell populations were obtained using Nycodenz (Life Technology Paisley, UK) gradients. The low-density cell fraction was then labeled with anti-CD11c-FITC (Becton Dickinson, Oxford, UK) in PBS-EDTA-FCS for 20 min on ice. After washing, the cells were filtered (70 μm cell strainer, Falcon) and CD11c +  cells were sorted on a MoFlow flow cytometer (Cytomation, Fort Collins, Colo.), with the resulting population being &gt;98% CD11c + . After 2 washes in PBS, purified DC were incubated in PBS alone or in PBS containing 100 μg CGG for 30 min at 37° C. 5-7×10 5  purified DC, with or without CGG, were injected sc into type I IFNR KO mice±10 5  U IFN-α/β. Mice receiving CGG+DC+IFN-α/β were given additional sc injections of 10 5  U IFN-α/β 1 and 2 days later.  
         [0188]    T Cell Proliferation and Cytokine Assays  
         [0189]    CGG-Specific Proliferation Assays.  
         [0190]    DrLNs were cut into small pieces and digested in RPMI containing 5% FCS, collagenase III (1 mg/ml) and DNase I (0.6 mg/ml) for 20 min at RT with frequent mixing. Cell suspensions were then filtered (70 μm), washed and centrifuged at 1500 rpm for 10 min. For proliferation assays, unseparated cells (5×10 5  per well) were cultured in complete medium (RPMI 1640 supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated FCS (PAA Laboratories), 50 μM 2-ME (Sigma), 10 mM HEPES, 5% NCTC medium, 100 U/ml penicillin, 100 μg/ml streptomycin and 250 μg/ml gentamicin (all from Life Technologies)) in triplicate wells of 96-well plates±CGG (20 μg/ well). On the 4th day of culture, wells were pulsed with 1 μCi [ 3 H]-thymidine for 8 hours. Plates were then harvested and incorporated [ 3 H]-thymidine measured using a MicroBeta TRILUX counter (Wallac, Turku, Finland). For cytokine assays, DrLN cells were incubated with anti-Class II (TIB120), anti-CD8 (3155) and anti-CD11b (M1/70) for 15 min on ice. After washing, CD4 +  T cells were purified by negative selection using sheep anti-rat IgG and anti-mouse IgG magnetic Dynabeads (Dynal, Oslo, Norway). 2×10 4  purified CD4 +  T cells were cultured in complete medium in triplicate wells of 96-well plates with 5×10 5  T-depleted splenocytes from non-treated syngeneic mice. T-depleted splenocytes were prepared by incubating spleen cells for 45 min at 37° C. with rat anti-mouse-Thy-1 antibody (T24) and guinea pig complement (VH BIO Ltd, Gosford, UK). Before culture, T-depleted splenocytes were preincubated±CGG (20 μg/well) for 1 hour at 37° C. and irradiated at 3000 rads. After 3 days of culture, supernatants were harvested and cytokines measured using the Quantikine M kits for mouse IFN-γ and IL-4 from R&amp;D (Abingdon, Oxon, UK) as directed by the manufacturer.  
         [0191]    OVA-Specific Proliferative Assay  
         [0192]    To test antigen-induced proliferative response, mice were sacrificed 32-35 days after the first immunization. Cells of a single-spleen cell suspension from each mouse spleen were cultured in a flat bottomed 96 well tray at a concentration of 5×10 5  in 0.2 ml/well of 10% FCS RPMI medium containing different concentrations of OVA (0, 50, 100 and 200 μg/ml). After 4 days incubation at 37° C. in 5% CO 2  humidified incubator, 0.5 μCi of  3 H thymidine (DuPont-NEN, Boston, Mass.) were added. After further 18 h incubation, cells were harvested on filtermate A (Wallac, Turku, Finland) and radioactivity was read on a scintillator (Betaplate, Wallac, Turku, Finland). Results are expressed as mean cpm±SD. of three mice tested in triplicate.  
         [0193]    CGG-Specific Elispot Assay  
         [0194]    Multi-Screen-IP sterile Elispot plates (Millipore, Walford, UK) were coated overnight with CGG at 20 μg/ml in Carbonate buffer pH 9.6. After 5 washes in PBS, plates were blocked for 2 hours with 4% milk in PBS at 37° C. and washed 5 times in PBS. Cell suspensions were prepared from DrLNs as described above, washed, centrifuged at 1500 rpm for 10 min and resuspended in complete medium supplemented with 15% FCS. All samples were plated in triplicate at several different cell concentrations (from 2×10 4 -5×10 5  cells/well). Following overnight culture at 37° C. in 5% CO 2 , plates were then extensively washed with PBS-Tween (0.05%). CGG-specific antibodies were revealed by incubating the wells with isotype specific polyclonal goat anti-mouse antibodies conjugated to AP (Southern Biotechnology) for 2 hours at RT. After washes, BCIP (Sigma) diluted in (0.1 M Tris/HCl, pH 9.5; 10% diethanolamine; 0.1M NaCl, 5 mM MgCl 2 ) at 1 mg/ml was used as the substrate for AP. The reaction was stopped by washing the plates with tap water. Spots were counted under a microscope.  
       Example 1  
     Antibody Response in Mice Immunized with CGG+ Poly IC Importance of Type I IFN  
       [0195]    The ability of type I IFN to act as an adjuvant was first tested by using polyinosinic: polycytidylic acid (poly IC), a synthetic double stranded RNA, to induce production of type I IFN in vivo. C57BL/6 (B6) mice were immunized by injecting chicken gamma globulin (CGG) in PBS sc, and the effect of co-injecting poly IC examined. (C57BL/6 (B6) mice were immunized by injecting 100 μg of chicken gamma globulin (CGG) in PBS s.c., or the same amount of CGG mixed with 100 μg of poly IC in PBS sc). Ten days after immunization, the sera were assayed by ELISA for the presence of CGG-specific antibodies of various isotypes.  
         [0196]    The relevant results are reported on FIG. 1A. CGG alone was poorly immunogenic, and the response was largely restricted to antibodies of the IgG1 subclass; IgM, IgG2b, IgG2a and IgG3 antibodies were detected at very low levels. Co-injection of poly IC stimulated a clear-cut increase in CGG-specific antibody titer, which applied to all subclasses of IgG (FIG. 1A). This included 3-, 4.2-, 9- and 8.4-fold increases in the titers of IgG1, IgG2b, IgG2a and IgG3 antibodies respectively.  
         [0197]    Although poly IC is known to be a potent inducer of type I IFN, it also induces other cytokines. Therefore, it was important to determine whether the adjuvant activity of poly IC was in fact dependent on type I IFN. To do so, we compared the ability of poly IC to enhance the antibody response in mice lacking a functional receptor for type I IFN (type I IFNR KO mice, which were on a 129 background) and in control (129) mice (immunizations were performed as described above).  
         [0198]    As in B6 mice, poly IC markedly enhanced the antibody response to CGG in control 129 mice (FIG. 1B). In contrast, poly IC had a greatly reduced ability to do so in type I IFNR KO mice. Small increases in IgM, IgG1 and IgG2b titers were observed in type I IFNR KO mice, indicating that poly IC can enhance the production of these isotypes independently of type I IFN. However, most of the effect of poly IC was dependent on type I IFN, since the titers of these antibodies remained much lower in type I IFNR KO mice than in control mice.  
         [0199]    Furthermore, production of IgG2a and IgG3 anti-CGG antibodies was not stimulated at all by poly IC in type I IFNR KO mice. Taken together, these data show that induction of expression of type I IFN in the host stimulates a markedly increased antibody response to a soluble protein antigen, which includes antibodies of all IgG subclasses.  
       Example 2  
     Antibody Response in Mice Immunized with OVA+Adjuvants Importance of Type I IFN  
       [0200]    Mice were treated with a first i.d. injection of OVA, OVA+IFA, OVA+CFA, OVA+CpG or OVA+alum. For the antigen a dose of 10 μg in 50 μl was used, IFA and CFA were mixed with antigen at a 1:1 v/v ratio and emulsified until a stable emulsion was obtained, CpG was used in the amount of 10 μg and mixed with antigen, and alum was used in a sufficient amount for adsorbing OVA. Following the first immunization, a second (day 10) and a third (day 17) treatment with OVA alone was performed. Control mice were treated with saline. The results showed that OVA alone was poorly immunogenic, eliciting a very low antibody response, while co-injection of the adjuvant induced an increase of OVA-specific antibody response (FIG. 2). This enhancement was particularly marked in the case of IFA, CFA, or CpG, and less pronounced for alum. IgG subclass characterisation showed that IFA and CFA acted as effective adjuvant for both IgG1 and IgG2a subclasses (typically associated with Th-2 and, respectively, Th-1 types of antibody response) (FIG. 2A), while CpG was more specific for IgG2a (Th-1 type) and alum for IgG1 (Th-2 type) (FIG. 2B). To determine whether the adjuvant activity is mediated by type I IFN, we compared the ability of all these adjuvants to enhance the antibody response in mice lacking a functional receptor for type I IFN (type I IFNR KO mice C3H/HeJ). The results showed that OVA-specific IgG2a and IgG1 subclasses were only slightly increased in type I IFNR KO mice with respect to control mice (FIGS. 2A and 2B). This confirmed the functional role played by type I IFN in the enhancement of antibody response elicited by typical Th-1 promoting adjuvants.  
       Example 3  
     In Vitro Proliferation and IFN Gamma Production of T Cells from Mice Immunized with CGG+Poly IC Importance of Type I IFN  
       [0201]    The effect of type I IFN on T cell priming was also assessed. This was done initially by measuring the capacity of LN T cells to proliferate upon re-stimulation with CGG in vitro. Draining LNs (DrLNs) were removed 10 days after immunization (as described in Example 1) and the resulting cell suspensions cultured in the presence or absence of CGG. Co-injection of poly IC with CGG into control (129) mice led to a much higher CGG-specific in vitro proliferative response than immunization with CGG alone (FIG. 3A); pulsing with BrdU showed that most of the cells proliferating in vitro were CD4 +  (data not shown). The enhancement of T cell priming was partially independent of type I IFN, since poly IC treatment of type I IFNR KO mice also resulted in some increase in the in vitro proliferative response (FIG. 3A). However, the proliferation of cells from CGG+poly IC-injected type I IFNR KO mice was much lower than that of cells from CGG+poly IC-injected control mice, indicating that type I IFN were in fact strongly enhancing the T cell response in vivo. This was also evident when cytokine production by in vitro re-stimulated CD4 +  T cells was examined (FIG. 3B).  
         [0202]    Thus, while CD4 +  DrLN cells from mice immunized with CGG alone secreted little if any IFN-γ when stimulated by CGG in vitro, markedly higher amounts of IFN-γ were produced by CD4 +  cells from poly IC+CGG-injected mice. Importantly, poly IC augmented the priming of IFN γ-secreting CD4 +  T cells to a much greater extent in control mice than in type I IFNR KO mice. In contrast, low amounts of IL-4 were secreted from CD4 +  cells in all groups that were not significantly different from each other. Thus, induction of type I IFN in vivo enhances T cell priming, promoting the generation of IFN γ-secreting CD4 +  T cells.  
       Example 4  
     Role of Endogenous Type I IFN in In Vitro Proliferation of T Cells and in DTH Response in Mice Immunized with OVA+Adjuvants  
       [0203]    At the end of the immunization described in Example 2, mice were sacrificed and spleens taken for a proliferation assay against OVA. In FIG. 4, the results of  3 H thymidine uptake of splenocytes cultured with a medium containing 100 μg OVA are shown. In this experiment, all the spleen cells derived from type I IFN R +/+  mice immunized with OVA, OVA+CFA (FIG. 4A) or OVA, OVA+CPG, or OVA+alum (FIG. 4B) showed a significant proliferation (except for OVA+alum) with respect to saline-treated controls, whereas no proliferation was detected in any of the type I IFNR KO mouse treatment groups. In a parallel experiment, some normal and type I IFNR KO mice were immunized with slightly different protocol in which adjuvants were administered also in the second and the third immunization, and subsequently challenged with OVA into the footpad for DTH response measurement (FIGS. 4C and 4D). The defective DTH response observed in type I IFNR KO mice as compared to controls indicates that the adjuvant-induced DTH response in mediated by endogenous type I IFN. In this regard, it is worth mentioning that all the adjuvants capable of inducing DTH also stimulate type I IFN production after injection in mice (not shown).  
       Example 5  
     Stimulation of Primary Antibody Responses by Treatment with Type I IFN  
       [0204]    The effect of exogenous type I IFN on antibody responses was studied initially using a partially purified high titer preparation of murine type I IFN, which contained both IFN-α and IFN-β. B6 mice were injected sc with 100 μg of CGG alone or the same dose of CGG+10 5  U of IFN-α/β(IFN 1×). In addition, separate groups of mice injected with CGG+IFN-α/β received a second sc injection of IFN-α/β alone (10 5  U) 1 day later (IFN 2×), or sc injections of IFN-α/β (10 5  U) both 1 and 2 days later (IFN 3×). As shown in FIG. 5A, treatment of mice with IFN-α/β strongly enhanced the CGG-specific antibody response; the effect was most marked in mice receiving 3 injections of type I IFN and was apparent for all subclasses of IgG. CGG-specific IgE was not detectable in any group of mice (data not shown). Treatment with IFN-α/β similarly enhanced the antibody response in LPS-non-responsive C3H/HeJ mice, discounting the possibility of contamination with endotoxin (data not shown).  
         [0205]    A similar experiment was performed using affinity-purified IFN-β (FIG. 5B). In this case, a single injection of IFN-β was sufficient to enhance the primary antibody response, although, as for the partially purified IFN-α/β, the highest antibody titers were achieved after three injections of IFN-β. After one, two or three injections of IFN-β, antibody titers were increased respectively 5, 6 and 8-fold for IgM; 6.4, 8.5 and 12.8-fold for IgG1; 13.3, 16 and 26.6-fold for IgG2b; 25.6, 32 and 153.6-fold for IgG2a; 16.6, 64 and 117.3-fold for IgG3. Taken together with the experiment using partially purified IFN-α/β, these results clearly show that administration of type I IFN early during an immune response markedly increases the primary antibody response to a soluble protein antigen.  
       Example 6  
     Antibody Response in Mice Immunized with CGG+Type I IFN Pre-Adsorbed to Alum  
       [0206]    To determine whether prolonging the half-life of type I IFN would potentiate its ability to act as an adjuvant, type I IFN-α/βU) was mixed with CGG (100 μg) and a saturating amount of alum prior to sc injection; such a strategy has been shown to greatly augment the adjuvanticity of IL-12 (24). Strikingly, when pre-adsorbed to alum, a single injection of type I IFN enhanced the CGG-specific antibody response to a similar or greater extent than 3 injections of soluble type I IFN (FIG. 6).  
         [0207]    The augmenting effect of alum pre-adsorption was most marked with regard to IgG2a production. This result suggests that prolonging the presence of type I IFN does indeed increase its adjuvant activity and may have practical implications regarding the use of type I IFN as an adjuvant.  
       Example 7  
     Comparison Between Type I IFN and others Adjuvants  
       [0208]    To evaluate further the efficiency of type I IFN as an adjuvant, we compared their capacity to enhance the primary antibody response with that of commercial adjuvants. Initial comparisons were made with two oil-based adjuvants, Incomplete Freund&#39;s Adjuvant (IFA) and Titermax.  
         [0209]    The adjuvants were mixed with antigen solution, containing 100 μg of CGG, at a 1:1 v/v ratio and emulsified until a stable emulsion was formed. Then, mice were immunized and sera analysed for the presence of anti CGG antibodies. Although IFA and Titermax stimulated higher levels of IgG1 antibodies, type I IFN were equivalent to these adjuvants in ability to induce IgM and IgG2b antibodies, and far superior in increasing the production of IgG2a and IgG3 antibodies (FIG. 7).  
         [0210]    As a stricter test of adjuvant activity, type I IFN were compared to Complete Freund&#39;s Adjuvant (CFA). CFA has long been considered the “gold standard” for adjuvant activity in mice, and is known to enhance the production of antibodies of all isotypes. Thus, we compared CGG-specific antibody titers, 10 days after immunization, in control (WT 129) and IFN-IR KO mice injected with CGG alone, CGG+CFA or CGG+IFN-α/β (FIG. 8).  
         [0211]    In control mice, antibody titers were higher in mice injected with CGG+IFN-α/β or CGG+CFA than in those immunized with CGG alone. Remarkably, the adjuvant activity of IFN-α/β compared favourably with that of CFA. In fact, although CFA induced higher titers of IgM antibodies (on the 129 background only), IFN-α/β stimulated the production of similar titers of IgG1 and IgG2b antibodies. Furthermore, IFN-α/β induced higher levels of IgG2a and, at least on the 129 sv background, IgG3 antibodies than CFA. These results showed, therefore, that IFN-α/β does indeed have powerful adjuvant activity.  
         [0212]    The effects are particularly significant when it is considered that the responses being compared were those to soluble protein+soluble IFN-α/β, which are likely cleared rapidly, and to the oily emulsion of CFA, which can persist at the site of injection for a long period of time.  
       Example 8  
     Role of Endogenous Type I IFN in the Adjuvant Activity of CFA and in Stimulation of the Response to Protein Alone  
       [0213]    A notable difference between the adjuvant activities of CFA and IFA or Titermax is that only the former was able to induce significant titers of IgG2a or IgG3 antibodies. Since this is a property shared by type I IFN, it raised the question of whether the ability of CFA to do so was related to induction of endogenous type I IFN by this adjuvant. That type I IFN were induced by CFA seemed likely, given that a key constituent of CFA is heat-killed mycobacteria, and bacterial components such CpG DNA are known to stimulate production of type I IFN.  
         [0214]    To test this hypothesis, we compared the abilities of IFN-α/β and CFA to augment the antibody response to CGG in type I IFNR KO mice vs control mice (FIG. 8). As expected, IFN-α/β was completely unable to enhance the response to CGG in type I IFNR KO mice. Importantly, the ability of CFA to promote the antibody response was also highly deficient in type I IFNR KO mice. Although CFA still induced high titers of IgG1 antibodies in type I IFNR KO mice, there was no longer any enhancement of IgM, IgG2b, IgG2a or IgG3 antibodies compared to immunization with CGG alone. These results demonstrate an important role for type I IFN in the adjuvant activity of CFA.  
       Example 9  
     Induction of Long-Term Antibody Production and Memory by Type I IFN  
       [0215]    Having shown that type I IFN enhanced the primary antibody response, it was of interest to determine whether this response was long lasting. Initially, we tested for long-term antibody production by assaying the sera of mice 6 months after a single injection of CGG, or CGG+3 injections of IFN-α/β as described in Example 5 (FIG. 9A). Mice primed with CGG alone had extremely low levels of CGG-specific antibody after 6 months.  
         [0216]    In contrast, mice primed with CGG+IFN-α/β still had significant titers of CGG-specific antibodies in their sera. With the exception of IgG3, for which titers were very low and not significantly different from those in mice primed with CGG alone, antibodies of all tested isotypes were present. Thus, injection of type I IFN during priming allowed for long-term antibody production.  
         [0217]    It remained controversial whether long-term antibody production is maintained by long-lived plasma cells or by replenishment of antibody-producing cells from memory B cells. Therefore, it was of interest to investigate whether memory was also induced by immunization in the presence of type I IFN. To do so, we examined the ability of mice primed 6 months earlier to mount a secondary response to CGG. Thus, mice who had been injected 6 months previously with CGG alone or CGG+3 injections of IFN-α/β were re-injected with CGG alone (100 μg). To minimize the contribution from a primary response to CGG, the secondary response was studied on day 6 after challenge and naive, non-primed mice were used as controls. CGG-specific antibody titers were compared in the same mice before and after re-injection of CGG (FIG. 9B).  
         [0218]    In mice primed 6 months earlier with CGG alone, the response to CGG challenge was indistinguishable from that in naïve mice, indicating that there was no memory to CGG 6 months after priming with CGG alone. In marked contrast, however, mice primed 6 months previously with CGG+IFN-α/β did mount a rapid secondary response to CGG. The secondary response appeared, however, to be restricted to IgG2b and IgG2a antibody isotypes, despite the fact that high titers of IgG1 antibodies persisted in these mice. These results clearly showed that type I IFN promoted the generation of long-lived memory after a single injection of a soluble protein antigen.  
       Example 10  
     Enhancement of the Antibody Response and Isotype Switching Occurs Through Stimulation of Dendritic Cells by Type I IFN  
       [0219]    While type I IFN were clearly capable of markedly augmenting both the magnitude of the antibody response and switching to various IgG subclasses, their mechanism of action in vivo was unknown. We designed an adoptive transfer model in which DC were the only cells capable of responding to IFN-α/β In these experiments, 5-7×10 5  highly purified splenic DC from wild type 129 mice or type I IFNR KO mice were incubated briefly with 100 μg of CGG and injected sc into type I IFNR KO recipients with or without IFN-α/β (10 5  U) Mice receiving CGG+DC+IFN-α/β were given two further injections of IFN-α/β as before. CGG-specific antibody titers were then measured on day 10 after immunization (FIG. 10).  
         [0220]    As expected, IFN-α/β treatment of mice receiving CGG+type I IFNR KO DC did not enhance the antibody response, since no cells in these mice were able to respond to type I IFN. Conversely, injection of IFN-α/β into mice receiving CGG+wild type DC induced an increase in antibody titer for all four IgG subclasses compared to injection of CGG+wild type DC alone. Therefore, not only does stimulation of DC by type I IFN enhance the antibody response to co-injected protein, it is sufficient to induce isotype switching.  
       Example 11  
     Antibody Response of Mice Immunized with Type IFN Adjuvanted Influenza Vaccine  
       [0221]    We injected i.m. or i.n. C57BL/6 (B6) mice with 15 μg of purified sub-unit influenza vaccine alone or in association with 2×10 5  U of type I IFN. Seven or fourteen days after immunization, the sera were assayed by ELISA for the presence of influenza-specific antibodies. Type I IFN co-injection resulted in a strong dose dependent adjuvant effect on influenza-specific antibody response (FIG. 11A). FIG. 11B shows that a prolonged type I IFN administration for two days after antigen injection further increased influenza-specific antibody response.  
         [0222]    Notably, IFN-adjuvanted vaccine induced homogenous responses in all treated mice, whereas vaccine alone induced antibody response in a limited number of mice (about 30%) even after repeated immunizations. FIG. 11C shows the differential effects of using type I IFN as an adjuvant when administered at different times before, after or together with the vaccine. The optimal adjuvant effect was observed when IFN was co-injected with the vaccine. FIG. 12 a  shows that intranasal immunization with type I IFN-adjuvanted vaccine rendered the influenza vaccine highly immunogenic. Interestingly, the analysis of influenza specific antibody isotype showed the induction of IgG2a antibody subclass, typically associated with a Th-1 type immune response. Notably, IFN adjuvanted vaccine resulted in a stronger protective effect against virus challenge than vaccine alone (FIG. 12B).  
       Example 12  
     Type I IFN are Unusually Powerful Mucosal Adjuvants of Influenza Vaccine  
       [0223]    In a first set of experiments, C57BL/6 mice were immunized by giving 2 intranasal administrations, 14 days apart, of influenza vaccine alone or mixed with type I IFN; antibody levels were measured two weeks after each immunization (FIG. 14 a ). A general increase in antibody production (especially IgG2a) was detectable in IFN-treated animals after the first immunization. Two weeks after the second immunization, there was a further increase in antibody titers in IFN-treated mice compared to animals injected with the vaccine alone. Notably, at this time point, an impressive increase of IgG2a and IgA titers (1,000-fold and 100-fold, respectively) was observed in animals immunized with the vaccine mixed with IFN compared to mice injected with vaccine alone. Mice immunized with IFN as an adjuvant also showed higher levels of secretory pulmonary IgA than control animals. Of interest, all the mice given the IFN-adjuvanted vaccine intranasally were protected from influenza virus infection, as revealed by both survival values and lack of decrease in mouse weight after challenge, while only a partially protective effect was found in animals immunized with vaccine alone (FIG. 14 b ). In a similar immunization experiment in IFN-IR KO and control C3H/HeN mice, type I IFN proved to be superior to MF59 in inducing IgG2a and IgA in control animals at both time points, while MF59 was more effective in inducing IgG1 antibodies after two immunizations (FIG. 14 c , bottom). As expected, no significant antibody response for all Ig subclasses was observed in IFN-IR KO animals immunized intranasally with IFN as adjuvant. In contrast, MF59 was still capable of inducing IgG1 antibodies in IFN-IR KO mice, but the induction of IgG2a and IgA was largely abrogated compared to the response detected in control animals (FIG. 14 c ).  
       Example 13  
     Mice Survival After Viral Challenge and Increase of IgG Titers are not Strictly Related  
       [0224]    C57BL/6 mice were vaccinated with a single i.m. (systemic) or i.n. (mucosal) immunization with FLU vaccine as previously described, and IgG titer was measured after 14 days.  
         [0225]    As evident form FIG. 15 one single administration of adjuvanted vaccine proved sufficient to cause complete protection of the challenged animals.  
         [0226]    Moreover, the survival of mice after viral challenge is not strictly related to the increase of IgGs. In fact, the significant increase in IgG titer obtained with the vaccine without adjuvant does not cause any significant increase in survival rate: about 10% of mice survived after virus challenge.  
         [0227]    On the other hand, the effect of type I IFN adjuvant in combination with the vaccine, although leading to a moderate increase in IgG titer when compared to the sole vaccine effect, leads to a streaking increase in survival (about 100%) of mice after virus challenge, even after a single immunization treatment.  
     
       
       
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               cytosine-phsophorothioate-guanine (CpG)-rich 
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tgactgtgaa cgttcgagat ga                                              22