Abstract:
A method for removing hydrocarbons and scale forming compounds from tap water, contaminated aqueous solutions, seawater, and saline brines, such as produce water, comprising the addition of carbonate ions by CO 2  sparging, or divalent cations, so as precipitate calcium and magnesium carbonates by adjusting pH to about 10.2, thus permanently sequestering CO 2  from the atmosphere, and then removing such precipitates sequentially for either sale of disposal.

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
       [0001]    This invention relates to the field of water purification. In particular, embodiments of the invention relate to systems and methods of removing essentially all of a broad spectrum of hydrocarbons and scale forming ions from contaminated water and from saline aqueous solutions, such as seawater and produce water, in an automated process that requires minimal cleaning or user intervention and that, when dealing with seawater or highly saline brines, provides for permanent sequestration of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. 
       BACKGROUND 
       [0002]    Water purification technology is rapidly becoming an essential aspect of modern life as conventional water resources become increasingly scarce, municipal distribution systems for potable water deteriorate with age, and increased water usage depletes wells and reservoirs, causing saline water contamination. However, water purification technologies often are hindered in their performance by hydrocarbons and scale formation and subsequent fouling of either heat exchangers or membranes. Other household appliances, such as water heaters and washing machines are equally affected by scale whenever hard-water is used, and industrial processes are also subject to scaling of surfaces that are in contact with hot aqueous solutions. Scaling up problems and hydrocarbons are particularly important in industrial desalination plants and in the treatment of produce water from oil and gas extraction operations. There is a need for methods that eliminate both hydrocarbons and scale-forming ions from aqueous solutions. 
         [0003]    Water hardness is normally defined as the amount of calcium (Ca ++ ), magnesium (Mg ++ ), and other divalent ions that are present in the water, and is normally expressed in parts per million (ppm) of these ions or their equivalent as calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ). Scale forms because the water dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and such carbon dioxide provides carbonate ions that combine to form both, calcium and magnesium carbonates; upon heating, the solubility of calcium and magnesium carbonates markedly decreases and they precipitate as scale. In reality, scale comprises any chemical compound that precipitates from solution. Thus iron phosphates or calcium sulfate (gypsum) also produce scale. Table 1 lists a number of chemical compounds that exhibit low solubility in water and, thus, that can form scale; low solubility is defined here by the solubility product, that is, by the product of the ionic concentration of cations and anions of a particular chemical; in turn, solubility is usually expressed in moles per liter (mol/l). 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Solubility Products of Various Compounds 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Compound 
                 Formula 
                 K sp  (25° C.) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Aluminum hydroxide 
                 Al(OH) 3   
                   3 × 10 −34   
               
               
                 Aluminum phosphate 
                 AlPO 4   
                 9.84 × 10 −21   
               
               
                 Barium bromate 
                 Ba(BrO 3 ) 2   
                 2.43 × 10 −4   
               
               
                 Barium carbonate 
                 BaCO 3   
                 2.58 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Barium chromate 
                 BaCrO 4   
                 1.17 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Barium fluoride 
                 BaF 2   
                 1.84 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Barium hydroxide octahydrate 
                 Ba(OH) 2 ×8H 2 O 
                 2.55 × 10 −4   
               
               
                 Barium iodate 
                 Ba(IO 3 ) 2   
                 4.01 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Barium iodate monohydrate 
                 Ba(IO 3 ) 2 ×H 2 O 
                 1.67 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Barium molybdate 
                 BaMoO 4   
                 3.54 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Barium nitrate 
                 Ba(NO 3 ) 2   
                 4.64 × 10 −3   
               
               
                 Barium selenate 
                 BaSeO 4   
                 3.40 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Barium sulfate 
                 BaSO 4   
                 1.08 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Barium sulfite 
                 BaSO 3   
                  5.0 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Beryllium hydroxide 
                 Be(OH) 2   
                 6.92 × 10 −22   
               
               
                 Bismuth arsenate 
                 BiAsO 4   
                 4.43 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Bismuth iodide 
                 BiI 
                 7.71 × 10 −19   
               
               
                 Cadmium arsenate 
                 Cd 3 (AsO 4 ) 2   
                  2.2 × 10 −33   
               
               
                 Cadmium carbonate 
                 CdCO 3   
                  1.0 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Cadmium fluoride 
                 CdF 2   
                 6.44 × 10 −3   
               
               
                 Cadmium hydroxide 
                 Cd(OH) 2   
                  7.2 × 10 −15   
               
               
                 Cadmium iodate 
                 Cd(IO 3 ) 2   
                  2.5 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Cadmium oxalate trihydrate 
                 CdC 2 O 4 ×3H 2 O 
                 1.42 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Cadmium phosphate 
                 Cd 3 (PO 4 ) 2   
                 2.53 × 10 −33   
               
               
                 Cadmium sulfide 
                 CdS 
                   1 × 10 −27   
               
               
                 Cesium perchlorate 
                 CsClO 4   
                 3.95 × 10 −3   
               
               
                 Cesium periodate 
                 CsIO 4   
                 5.16 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Calcium carbonate (calcite) 
                 CaCO 3   
                 3.36 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Calcium carbonate (aragonite) 
                 CaCO 3   
                  6.0 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Calcium fluoride 
                 CaF 2   
                 3.45 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Calcium hydroxide 
                 Ca(OH) 2   
                 5.02 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Calcium iodate 
                 Ca(IO 3 ) 2   
                 6.47 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Calcium iodate hexahydrate 
                 Ca(IO 3 ) 2 ×6H 2 O 
                 7.10 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Calcium molybdate 
                 CaMoO 
                 1.46 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Calcium oxalate monohydrate 
                 CaC 2 O 4 ×H 2 O 
                 2.32 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Calcium phosphate 
                 Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2   
                 2.07 × 10 −33   
               
               
                 Calcium sulfate 
                 CaSO 4   
                 4.93 × 10 −5   
               
               
                 Calcium sulfate dihydrate 
                 CaSO 4 ×2H 2 O 
                 3.14 × 10 −5   
               
               
                 Calcium sulfate hemihydrate 
                 CaSO 4 ×0.5H 2 O 
                  3.1 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Cobalt(II) arsenate 
                 Co 3 (AsO 4 ) 2   
                 6.80 × 10 −29   
               
               
                 Cobalt(II) carbonate 
                 CoCO 3   
                  1.0 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Cobalt(II) hydroxide (blue) 
                 Co(OH) 2   
                 5.92 × 10 −15   
               
               
                 Cobalt(II) iodate dihydrate 
                 Co(IO 3 ) 2 ×2H 2 O 
                 1.21 × 10 −2   
               
               
                 Cobalt(II) phosphate 
                 Co 3 (PO 4 ) 2   
                 2.05 × 10 −35   
               
               
                 Cobalt(II) sulfide (alpha) 
                 CoS 
                   5 × 10 −22   
               
               
                 Cobalt(II) sulfide (beta) 
                 CoS 
                   3 × 10 −26   
               
               
                 Copper(I) bromide 
                 CuBr 
                 6.27 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Copper(I) chloride 
                 CuCl 
                 1.72 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Copper(I) cyanide 
                 CuCN 
                 3.47 × 10 −20   
               
               
                 Copper(I) hydroxide 
                 Cu 2 O 
                   2 × 10 −15   
               
               
                 Copper(I) iodide 
                 CuI 
                 1.27 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Copper(I) thiocyanate 
                 CuSCN 
                 1.77 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Copper(II) arsenate 
                 Cu 3 (AsO 4 ) 2   
                 7.95 × 10 −36   
               
               
                 Copper(II) hydroxide 
                 Cu(OH) 2   
                  4.8 × 10 −20   
               
               
                 Copper(II) iodate monohydrate 
                 Cu(IO 3 ) 2 ×H 2 O 
                 6.94 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Copper(II) oxalate 
                 CuC 2 O 4   
                 4.43 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Copper(II) phosphate 
                 Cu 3 (PO 4 ) 2   
                 1.40 × 10 −37   
               
               
                 Copper(II) sulfide 
                 CuS 
                   8 × 10 −37   
               
               
                 Europium(III) hydroxide 
                 Eu(OH) 3   
                 9.38 × 10 −27   
               
               
                 Gallium(III) hydroxide 
                 Ga(OH) 3   
                 7.28 × 10 −36   
               
               
                 Iron(II) carbonate 
                 FeCO 3   
                 3.13 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Iron(II) fluoride 
                 FeF 2   
                 2.36 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Iron(II) hydroxide 
                 Fe(OH) 2   
                 4.87 × 10 −17   
               
               
                 Iron(II) sulfide 
                 FeS 
                   8 × 10 −19   
               
               
                 Iron(III) hydroxide 
                 Fe(OH) 3   
                 2.79 × 10 −39   
               
               
                 Iron(III) phosphate dihydrate 
                 FePO 4 ×2H 2 O 
                 9.91 × 10 −16   
               
               
                 Lanthanum iodate 
                 La(IO 3 ) 3   
                 7.50 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Lead(II) bromide 
                 PbBr 2   
                 6.60 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Lead(II) carbonate 
                 PbCO 3   
                 7.40 × 10 −14   
               
               
                 Lead(II) chloride 
                 PbCl 2   
                 1.70 × 10 −5   
               
               
                 Lead(II) chromate 
                 PbCrO 4   
                   3 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Lead(II) fluoride 
                 PbF 2   
                  3.3 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Lead(II) hydroxide 
                 Pb(OH) 2   
                 1.43 × 10 −20   
               
               
                 Lead(II) iodate 
                 Pb(IO 3 ) 2   
                 3.69 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Lead(II) iodide 
                 PbI 2   
                  9.8 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Lead(II) oxalate 
                 PbC 2 O 4   
                  8.5 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Lead(II) selenate 
                 PbSeO 4   
                 1.37 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Lead(II) sulfate 
                 PbSO 4   
                 2.53 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Lead(II) sulfide 
                 PbS 
                   3 × 10 −28   
               
               
                 Lithium carbonate 
                 Li 2 CO 3   
                 8.15 × 10 −4   
               
               
                 Lithium fluoride 
                 LiF 
                 1.84 × 10 −3   
               
               
                 Lithium phosphate 
                 Li 3 PO 4   
                 2.37 × 10 −4   
               
               
                 Magnesium ammonium phosphate 
                 MgNH 4 PO 4   
                   3 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Magnesium carbonate 
                 MgCO 3   
                 6.82 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Magnesium carbonate trihydrate 
                 MgCO 3 ×3H 2 O 
                 2.38 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Magnesium carbonate pentahydrate 
                 MgCO 3 ×5H 2 O 
                 3.79 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Magnesium fluoride 
                 MgF 2   
                 5.16 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Magnesium hydroxide 
                 Mg(OH) 2   
                 5.61 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Magnesium oxalate dihydrate 
                 MgC 2 O 4 ×2H 2 O 
                 4.83 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Magnesium phosphate 
                 Mg 3 (PO 4 ) 2   
                 1.04 × 10 −24   
               
               
                 Manganese(II) carbonate 
                 MnCO 3   
                 2.24 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Manganese(II) iodate 
                 Mn(IO 3 ) 2   
                 4.37 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Manganese(II) hydroxide 
                 Mn(OH) 2   
                   2 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Manganese(II) oxalate dihydrate 
                 MnC 2 O 4 ×2H 2 O 
                 1.70 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Manganese(II) sulfide (pink) 
                 MnS 
                   3 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Manganese(II) sulfide (green) 
                 MnS 
                   3 × 10 −14   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) bromide 
                 Hg 2 Br 2   
                 6.40 × 10 −23   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) carbonate 
                 Hg 2 CO 3   
                  3.6 × 10 −17   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) chloride 
                 Hg 2 Cl 2   
                 1.43 × 10 −18   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) fluoride 
                 Hg 2 F 2   
                 3.10 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) iodide 
                 Hg 2 I 2   
                  5.2 × 10 −29   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) oxalate 
                 Hg 2 C 2 O 4   
                 1.75 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) sulfate 
                 Hg 2 SO 4   
                  6.5 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) thiocyanate 
                 Hg 2 (SCN) 2   
                  3.2 × 10 −20   
               
               
                 Mercury(II) bromide 
                 HgBr 2   
                  6.2 × 10 −20   
               
               
                 Mercury(II) hydroxide 
                 HgO 
                  3.6 × 10 −26   
               
               
                 Mercury(II) iodide 
                 HgI 2   
                  2.9 × 10 −29   
               
               
                 Mercury(II) sulfide (black) 
                 HgS 
                   2 × 10 −53   
               
               
                 Mercury(II) sulfide (red) 
                 HgS 
                   2 × 10 −54   
               
               
                 Neodymium carbonate 
                 Nd 2 (CO 3 ) 3   
                 1.08 × 10 −33   
               
               
                 Nickel(II) carbonate 
                 NiCO 3   
                 1.42 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Nickel(II) hydroxide 
                 Ni(OH) 2   
                 5.48 × 10 −16   
               
               
                 Nickel(II) iodate 
                 Ni(IO 3 ) 2   
                 4.71 × 10 −5   
               
               
                 Nickel(II) phosphate 
                 Ni 3 (PO 4 ) 2   
                 4.74 × 10 −32   
               
               
                 Nickel(II) sulfide (alpha) 
                 NiS 
                   4 × 10 −20   
               
               
                 Nickel(II) sulfide (beta) 
                 NiS 
                  1.3 × 10 −25   
               
               
                 Palladium(II) thiocyanate 
                 Pd(SCN) 2   
                 4.39 × 10 −23   
               
               
                 Potassium hexachloroplatinate 
                 K 2 PtCl 6   
                 7.48 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Potassium perchlorate 
                 KClO 4   
                 1.05 × 10 −2   
               
               
                 Potassium periodate 
                 KIO 4   
                 3.71 × 10 −4   
               
               
                 Praseodymium hydroxide 
                 Pr(OH) 3   
                 3.39 × 10 −24   
               
               
                 Radium iodate 
                 Ra(IO 3 ) 2   
                 1.16 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Radium sulfate 
                 RaSO 4   
                 3.66 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Rubidium perchlorate 
                 RuClO 4   
                 3.00 × 10 −3   
               
               
                 Scandium fluoride 
                 ScF 3   
                 5.81 × 10 −24   
               
               
                 Scandium hydroxide 
                 Sc(OH) 3   
                 2.22 × 10 −31   
               
               
                 Silver(I) acetate 
                 AgCH 3 COO 
                 1.94 × 10 −3   
               
               
                 Silver(I) arsenate 
                 Ag 3 AsO 4   
                 1.03 × 10 −22   
               
               
                 Silver(I) bromate 
                 AgBrO 3   
                 5.38 × 10 −5   
               
               
                 Silver(I) bromide 
                 AgBr 
                 5.35 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Silver(I) carbonate 
                 Ag 2 CO 3   
                 8.46 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Silver(I) chloride 
                 AgCl 
                 1.77 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Silver(I) chromate 
                 Ag 2 CrO 4   
                 1.12 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Silver(I) cyanide 
                 AgCN 
                 5.97 × 10 −17   
               
               
                 Silver(I) iodate 
                 AgIO 3   
                 3.17 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Silver(I) iodide 
                 AgI 
                 8.52 × 10 −17   
               
               
                 Silver(I) oxalate 
                 Ag 2 C 2 O 4   
                 5.40 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Silver(I) phosphate 
                 Ag 3 PO 4   
                 8.89 × 10 −17   
               
               
                 Silver(I) sulfate 
                 Ag 2 SO 4   
                 1.20 × 10 −5   
               
               
                 Silver(I) sulfite 
                 Ag 2 SO 3   
                 1.50 × 10 −14   
               
               
                 Silver(I) sulfide 
                 Ag 2 S 
                   8 × 10 −51   
               
               
                 Silver(I) thiocyanate 
                 AgSCN 
                 1.03 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Strontium arsenate 
                 Sr 3 (AsO 4 ) 2   
                 4.29 × 10 −19   
               
               
                 Strontium carbonate 
                 SrCO 3   
                 5.60 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Strontium fluoride 
                 SrF 2   
                 4.33 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Strontium iodate 
                 Sr(IO 3 ) 2   
                 1.14 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Strontium iodate monohydrate 
                 Sr(IO 3 ) 2 ×H 2 O 
                 3.77 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Strontium iodate hexahydrate 
                 Sr(IO 3 ) 2 ×6H 2 O 
                 4.55 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Strontium oxalate 
                 SrC 2 O 4   
                   5 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Strontium sulfate 
                 SrSO 4   
                 3.44 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) bromate 
                 TlBrO 3   
                 1.10 × 10 −4   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) bromide 
                 TlBr 
                 3.71 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) chloride 
                 TlCl 
                 1.86 × 10 −4   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) chromate 
                 Tl 2 CrO 4   
                 8.67 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) hydroxide 
                 Tl(OH) 3   
                 1.68 × 10 −44   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) iodate 
                 TlIO 3   
                 3.12 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) iodide 
                 TlI 
                 5.54 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) thiocyanate 
                 TlSCN 
                 1.57 × 10 −4   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) sulfide 
                 Tl 2 S 
                   6 × 10 −22   
               
               
                 Tin(II) hydroxide 
                 Sn(OH) 2   
                 5.45 × 10 −27   
               
               
                 Yttrium carbonate 
                 Y 2 (CO 3 ) 3   
                 1.03 × 10 −31   
               
               
                 Yttrium fluoride 
                 YF 3   
                 8.62 × 10 −21   
               
               
                 Yttrium hydroxide 
                 Y(OH) 3   
                 1.00 × 10 −22   
               
               
                 Yttrium iodate 
                 Y(IO 3 ) 3   
                 1.12 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Zinc arsenate 
                 Zn 3 (AsO 4 ) 2   
                  2.8 × 10 −28   
               
               
                 Zinc carbonate 
                 ZnCO 3   
                 1.46 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Zinc carbonate monohydrate 
                 ZnCO 3 ×H 2 O 
                 5.42 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Zinc fluoride 
                 ZnF 
                 3.04 × 10 −2   
               
               
                 Zinc hydroxide 
                 Zn(OH) 2   
                   3 × 10 −17   
               
               
                 Zinc iodate dihydrate 
                 Zn(IO 3 ) 2 ×2H 2 O 
                  4.1 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Zinc oxalate dihydrate 
                 ZnC 2 O 4 ×2H 2 O 
                 1.38 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Zinc selenide 
                 ZnSe 
                  3.6 × 10 −26   
               
               
                 Zinc selenite monohydrate 
                 ZnSe×H 2 O 
                 1.59 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Zinc sulfide (alpha) 
                 ZnS 
                   2 × 10 −25   
               
               
                 Zinc sulfide (beta) 
                 ZnS 
                   3 × 10 −23   
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0004]    Conventional descaling technologies include chemical and electromagnetic methods. Chemical methods utilize either pH adjustment, chemical sequestration with polyphosphates, zeolites and the like, or ionic exchange, and typically combinations of these methods. Normally, chemical methods aim at preventing scale from precipitating by lowering the pH and using chemical sequestration, but they are typically not 100% effective. Electromagnetic methods rely on the electromagnetic excitation of calcium or magnesium carbonate, so as to favor crystallographic forms that are non-adherent. For example, electromagnetic excitation favors the precipitation of aragonite rather than calcite, and the former is a softer, less adherent form of calcium carbonate. However, electromagnetic methods are only effective over relatively short distance and residence times. There is a need for permanently removing scale forming constituents from contaminated aqueous solutions, seawater or produce waters that are to be further processed. 
         [0005]    Hydrocarbon contamination is another serious problem in aqueous systems, particularly if the concentration of such hydrocarbons exceed their solubilities in water and free-standing oil exists either as separate droplets or as a separate liquid phase, as is commonly the case with produce water—the water that comes mixed with gas and oil in industrial extraction operations. Ordinarily, oil that is present as a separate liquid phase is removed by a series of mechanical devices that utilize density difference as a means of separating oil from water, such as API separators, hydrocyclones, flotation cells, and the like. These technologies work reasonably well in eliminating the bulk of the oil, but they do little to the hydrocarbon fraction that remains in solution. Accordingly, even after mechanical treatment, produce water contains objectionable amounts of hydrocarbon contamination and is not potable. There is a need for permanently reducing the level of hydrocarbon contamination in aqueous systems. 
         [0006]    Moreover, the growth in industrial activities since the industrial revolution has caused significant increases in the level of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in the atmosphere, and it is generally accepted that CO 2  increases are contributing to global warming. Many schemes for sequestering CO 2  are being proposed, such as deep-well injection, but such methods cannot guarantee the permanent sequestration of such green-house gas. There is a need for carbon sequestration methods that are cost-effective, permanent, and that yield chemical products that resist decomposition and are easily transported and stored. 
       SUMMARY 
       [0007]    Embodiments of the present invention provide an improved method of permanently removing hydrocarbons and hard water constituents from aqueous solutions by an integrated process that removes free-standing oil contaminants by mechanical means, then precipitates scale forming ions in the form of insoluble carbonates and subsequently precipitates other ions by heating. Because the composition of hard water varies by location, the precipitation step in the invention begins by adding stoichiometric amounts of either bicarbonate or divalent cations, such as calcium or magnesium, to form insoluble calcium or magnesium carbonate. Bicarbonate ions are added either through sparging the aqueous solution with carbon dioxide gas, or by adding bicarbonate ions directly in the form of sodium bicarbonate or other soluble bicarbonate chemicals. In alternate embodiments, hydroxide ions may be added (in the form of NaOH) to react in a similar manner with magnesium to form magnesium hydroxide. Calcium or magnesium ions may be added in the form of lime or equivalent alkaline compounds. The second step of precipitation in the process adjusts the pH of the aqueous solution to approximately 9.2 or greater, and preferably to the range of 10.2 to 10.5 or greater, in order to promote carbonate precipitation. The third step removes the precipitate formed in the previous step by either sedimentation or filtering. The fourth step consists of heating the aqueous solution to temperatures of the order of 120° C. for 5 to 10 minutes to promote the precipitation of insoluble sulfates and the like. The fifth step consists of removing the high-temperature precipitate by either sedimentation or filtering. A final step of degassing by steam stripping removes any remaining hydrocarbons in solution. 
         [0008]    An embodiment of the present invention provides a method for removing scale forming compounds from tap water, contaminated aqueous solutions, seawater, and saline brines contaminated with hydrocarbons, such as produce water, comprising first the addition of carbonate ions by CO 2  sparging, or divalent cations, such as calcium or magnesium in stoichiometric amounts, so as to subsequently precipitate calcium and magnesium carbonates by adjusting pH to about 10.2 or greater, thus permanently sequestering CO 2  from the atmosphere, and then removing such precipitates by either sedimentation or filtering, and second a heat treatment step that raises the temperature of the aqueous solution to the range of 100° C. to 120° C. for 5 to 10 minutes to promote the further precipitation of insoluble sulfates and the like, and removes the scale by either filtration or sedimentation. 
         [0009]    In a further aspect, calcium or magnesium additions are substituted for other divalent cations, such as barium, cadmium, cobalt, iron, lead, manganese, nickel, strontium, or zinc that have low solubility products in carbonate form. 
         [0010]    In a further aspect, calcium or magnesium additions are substituted for trivalent cations, such as aluminum or neodymium, that have low solubility products in carbonate or hydroxide from. 
         [0011]    In a further aspect, CO 2  sparging is replaced by the addition of soluble bicarbonate ions, such as sodium, potassium or ammonium bicarbonate. 
         [0012]    In a further aspect, carbonate and scale precipitates are removed by means other than sedimentation or filtering, such as centrifuging. 
         [0013]    In a further aspect, waste heat and heat pipes are utilized to transfer the heat and to raise the temperature of the aqueous solution. 
         [0014]    In a further aspect, simultaneous removal of high-temperature scale, such as insoluble sulfates and carbonates, with the degassing of VOCs, gases, and non-volatile organic compounds to levels below 10 ppm, is achieved. 
         [0015]    In a further aspect, the permanent sequestration of CO 2  from the atmosphere is achieved in conventional desalination systems, such as multiple stage flash (MSF) evaporation, multiple effect distillation (MED) plants, and vapor compression (VC) desalination systems 
         [0016]    In a further aspect, scale-forming salts are permanently removed from conventional desalination systems. 
         [0017]    In a further aspect, objectionable hydrocarbons and scale are removed from produce water from both, oil and gas extraction operations. 
         [0018]    In a further aspect, tap water, municipal water, or well water containing objectionable hard water constituents, such as calcium or magnesium, are descaled in residential water purification systems. 
         [0019]    In a further aspect, heat pipes are used to recover heat in descaling and hydrocarbon removal operations. 
         [0020]    In a further aspect, valuable scale-forming salts, such as magnesium, barium, and other salts, are recovered. 
         [0021]    In a further aspect, scale-forming compounds are precipitated in the form of non-adhering, easily filterable or sedimentable solids and ultimately removed. 
         [0022]    In a further aspect, waste heat is utilized from existing power plants, and CO 2  emissions from such plants are permanently sequestered. 
         [0023]    In a further aspect, oxygen and dissolved air are removed from seawater and produce water streams prior to further processing, so as to reduce corrosion and maintenance problems. 
         [0024]    In a further aspect, scale forming compounds are sequentially precipitated and removed, so they can be utilized and reused in downstream industrial processes. 
         [0025]    A further embodiment of the present invention provides a method for removing a scale forming compound from an aqueous solution, comprising: adding at least one ion to the solution in a stoichiometric amount sufficient to cause the precipitation of a first scale forming compound at an alkaline pH; adjusting the pH of the solution to an alkaline pH, thereby precipitating the first scale forming compound; removing the first scale forming compound from the solution; heating the solution to a temperature sufficient to cause the precipitation of a second scale forming compound from the solution; and removing the second scale forming compound from the solution. 
         [0026]    In a further aspect, the ion is selected from the group consisting of carbonate ions and divalent cations. In a further aspect, the carbonate ion is HCO 3   − . In a further aspect, the divalent cation is selected from the group consisting of Ca 2+  and Mg 2+ . 
         [0027]    In a further aspect, the stoichiometric amount is sufficient to substitute the divalent cation for a divalent cation selected from the group consisting of barium, cadmium, cobalt, iron, lead, manganese, nickel, strontium, and zinc in the first scale forming compound. 
         [0028]    In a further aspect, the stoichiometric amount is sufficient to substitute the divalent cation for a trivalent cation selected from the group consisting of aluminum and neodymium in the first scale forming compound. 
         [0029]    In a further aspect, adding at least one ion comprises sparging the solution with CO 2  gas. 
         [0030]    In a further aspect, the CO 2  is atmospheric CO 2 . 
         [0031]    In a further aspect, adding at least one ion comprises adding a soluble bicarbonate ion selected from the group consisting of sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, and ammonium bicarbonate to the solution. 
         [0032]    In a further aspect, adding at least one ion comprises adding a compound selected from the group consisting of CaO, Ca(OH) 2 , Mg(OH) 2 , and MgO to the solution. 
         [0033]    In a further aspect, the alkaline pH is a pH of approximately 9.2 or greater. 
         [0034]    In a further aspect, the first scale forming compound is selected from the group consisting of CaCO 3  and MgCO 3 . 
         [0035]    In a further aspect, adjusting the pH of the solution comprises adding a compound selected from the group consisting of CaO and NaOH to the solution. 
         [0036]    In a further aspect, removing the first scale forming compound comprises at least one of filtration, sedimentation, and centrifuging. 
         [0037]    In a further aspect, the temperature is within a range of approximately 100° C. to approximately 120° C. 
         [0038]    In a further aspect, waste heat from a power plant or similar industrial process is used to accomplish heating of the solution. 
         [0039]    In a further aspect, the temperature is maintained within the range for a period of from approximately 5 to approximately 10 minutes. 
         [0040]    In a further aspect, the second scale forming compound comprises a sulfate compound. 
         [0041]    In a further aspect, removing the second scale forming compound comprises at least one of filtration, sedimentation, and centrifuging. 
         [0042]    In a further aspect, heating the solution additionally comprises bringing the solution into contact with steam, whereby the degassing of volatile organic constituents (“VOCs”), gases, and non-volatile organic compounds to levels below 10 ppm from the solution is accomplished. 
         [0043]    In a further aspect, contaminants are removed from the solution, prior to adding at least one ion, removing contaminants from the solution. 
         [0044]    In a further aspect, the contaminants are selected from the group consisting of solid particles and hydrocarbon droplets. 
         [0045]    In a further aspect, the aqueous solution is selected from the group consisting of tap water, contaminated aqueous solutions, seawater, and saline brines contaminated with hydrocarbons. 
         [0046]    In a further aspect, after the second scale forming compound is removed, the aqueous solution is degassed, wherein the degassing is adapted to remove a hydrocarbon compound from the aqueous solution. 
         [0047]    A further embodiment of the present invention provides a method of obtaining scale forming compounds, comprising: providing an aqueous solution; adding at least one ion to the solution in a stoichiometric amount sufficient to cause the precipitation of a first scale forming compound at an alkaline pH; adjusting the pH of the solution to an alkaline pH, thereby precipitating the first scale forming compound; removing the first scale forming compound from the solution; heating the solution to a temperature sufficient to cause the precipitation of a second scale forming compound from the solution; removing the second scale forming compound from the solution; recovering the first scale forming compound; and recovering the second scale forming compound. 
         [0048]    In a further aspect, the first and second scale forming compounds are selected from the group of compounds listed in Table 1. 
         [0049]    A further embodiment of the present invention provides a method of sequestering atmospheric CO 2 , comprising: providing an aqueous solution containing at least one ion capable of forming a CO 2 -sequestering compound in the presence of carbonate ion; adding carbonate ion to the solution in a stoichiometric amount sufficient to cause the precipitation of the CO 2 -sequestering compound at an alkaline pH; adjusting the pH of the solution to an alkaline pH, thereby precipitating the CO 2 -sequestering compound; and removing the CO 2 -sequestering compound from the solution; wherein adding carbonate ion comprises adding atmospheric CO 2  to the solution, and wherein the atmospheric CO 2  is sequestered in the CO 2 -sequestering compound. 
         [0050]    In a further aspect, the aqueous solution is selected from the group consisting of contaminated aqueous solutions, seawater, and saline brines contaminated with hydrocarbons. 
         [0051]    In a further aspect, the alkaline pH is a pH of approximately 9.2 or greater. 
         [0052]    In a further aspect, the CO 2 -sequestering compound is selected from the group consisting of CaCO 3  and MgCO 3 . 
         [0053]    In a further aspect, removing the CO 2 -sequestering compound comprises at least one of filtration, sedimentation, and centrifuging. 
         [0054]    A further embodiment of the present invention provides an apparatus for removing a scale forming compound from an aqueous solution, comprising: an inlet for the aqueous solution; a source of CO 2  gas; a first tank in fluid communication with the inlet and the source of CO 2  gas; a source of a pH-raising agent; a second tank in fluid communication with the source of the pH-raising agent and the first tank; a filter in fluid communication with said second tank, wherein the filter is adapted to separate a first scale forming compound from the solution in said second tank; a pressure vessel in fluid communication with said filter and adapted to heat the solution within said pressure vessel to a temperature within a range of approximately 100° C. to approximately 120° C.; and a filter in fluid communication with said pressure vessel, wherein the filter is adapted to separate a second scale forming compound from the solution in the pressure vessel. 
         [0055]    In a further aspect, the apparatus additionally comprises a deoiler in fluid communication with the inlet and the first tank, wherein the deoiler is adapted to remove a contaminant selected from the group consisting of solid particles and hydrocarbon droplets from the solution. 
         [0056]    In a further aspect, the apparatus additionally comprises a degasser downstream of and in fluid communication with the pressure vessel, wherein the degasser is adapted to remove a hydrocarbon compound from the solution. 
         [0057]    A further embodiment of the present invention provides an apparatus for sequestering atmospheric CO 2  in a CO 2 -sequestering compound, comprising an inlet for an aqueous solution containing at least one ion capable of forming a CO 2 -sequestering compound in the presence of carbonate ion; a source of atmospheric CO 2  gas; a first tank in fluid communication with the inlet and the source of CO 2  gas; a source of a pH-raising agent; a second tank in fluid communication with the source of the pH-raising agent and the first tank; and a filter in fluid communication with said second tank, wherein the filter is adapted to separate the CO 2 -sequestering compound from the solution in said second tank. 
         [0058]    In a further aspect, the apparatus additionally comprises a deoiler in fluid communication with the inlet and the first tank, wherein the deoiler is adapted to remove a contaminant selected from the group consisting of solid particles and hydrocarbon droplets from the solution. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0059]      FIG. 1  is a diagram of an apparatus adapted to carry out an integrated pre-treatment method. 
           [0060]      FIG. 2  is a diagram of a deoiler. 
           [0061]      FIG. 3  is a chart showing the relationship between pH and the concentration of carbonic acid, bicarbonate ion, and carbonate ion in an aqueous solution. 
           [0062]      FIG. 4  is a diagram of an alternative degasser-precipitator. 
           [0063]      FIG. 5  is an illustration of the descaling method applied to a residential water purification system. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0064]    Embodiments of the invention are disclosed herein, in some cases in exemplary form or by reference to one or more Figures. However, any such disclosure of a particular embodiment is exemplary only, and is not indicative of the full scope of the invention. 
         [0065]    The following discussion makes reference to structural features of an exemplary descaling and pre-treatment method for contaminated aqueous solutions according to embodiments of the invention. Reference numerals correspond to those depicted in  FIGS. 1-5 . 
         [0066]    Seawater ( 10 ) or saline aquifer water ( 20 ) containing hydrocarbons and other contaminants are pumped to the incoming feed intake of the pre-treatment system by pump ( 30 ). The contaminated feedwater is first treated in a deoiler ( 40 ) that removes solid particles ( 42 ), such as sand and other solid debris, as well as visible oil in the from of oil droplets ( 44 ), so as to provide an aqueous product ( 48 ) that is essentially free of visible oil. The deoiler ( 40 ) operates on the basis of density difference. Incoming contaminated water ( 41 ) enters the deoiler ( 40 ) through an enlarged aperture that greatly reduces flow velocity, so as to allow solid particles ( 42 ) to settle out of suspension and exit the de-oiler through a solid waste duct ( 43 ). Once solids have been eliminated, the contaminated stream enters several inclined settling channels ( 49 ) where flow ( 47 ) is laminar and sufficiently slow to allow oil droplets ( 44 ) and ( 45 ) to coalesce and raise through the channel flow until they exit near the top ( 46 ) of the deoiler. The de-oiled stream exists near the bottom ( 48 ) of the deoiler. 
         [0067]    The de-oiled seawater or contaminated brine then begins the process of de-scaling. The fundamental principle in the proposed descaling method is to promote the precipitation of scale-forming compounds as insoluble carbonates. For this purpose, it is useful to consider the activity coefficients of carbonic acid (H 2 CO 3 ), bicarbonate ion (HCO 3 —), and carbonate ion (CO 3   2− ) as a function of pH, as illustrated by  FIG. 3 . At pH values below 6.0, the predominant species is carbonic acid. At pH values between 6.0 and 10.0, bicarbonate ion predominates, and at pH values above 10.3, carbonate ions are the predominant species. The method proposed consists of providing the necessary amount of carbon dioxide, such that upon pH adjustment to 9.2 and above, more preferably 10.2 and above, the bivalent cations and particularly the calcium (Ca 2+ ) and magnesium (Mg 2+ ) ions present in the contaminated solution will precipitate as insoluble carbonates. 
         [0068]    Most saline brines, including seawater, contain calcium and magnesium ions in excess of bicarbonate ion. Accordingly, most saline brines require additional carbonate ions for precipitating scale forming constituents, and the most practical method of providing carbonate ions is in the form of CO 2  that is dissolved as bicarbonate ion; upon alkaline pH adjustment, such bicarbonate ions turn into carbonate, which immediately precipitate as calcium or magnesium in accordance with their solubility products. The use of atmospheric CO 2  provides a permanent way of effecting sequestration of this harmful green-house gas. 
         [0069]    However, some brines contain an excess of bicarbonate ions, particularly those associated with produce water in oil or gas fields that traverse trona deposits. In those cases where bicarbonate ions appear in excess, the brine composition can be adjusted with lime (CaO), which serves the dual purpose of providing bivalent ions and increasing the pH to the alkaline range. 
         [0070]    Referring back to  FIGS. 1 to 5 , once the incoming contaminated water has been de-oiled, it goes into a stirred tank or static mixer ( 50 ) where CO 2  gas ( 60 ) is sparged to provide for the stoichiometric amounts of carbonate ions so as to effect an initial precipitation of calcium and magnesium ions as insoluble carbonates. The carbonated solution is then pumped into another stirred tank reactor or static mixer ( 80 ) by means of pump ( 70 ), and pH is adjusted in reactor ( 80 ) by means of a pH-additions of lime (CaO), lye (Na[OH]), or both, but preferably with sodium hydroxide. Upon pH adjustment to the alkaline side, but preferably to pH higher than 10.2, the saline or contaminated solution will show the immediate precipitation of insoluble carbonates ( 110 ) and the like, which are then filtered or sedimented out of the process water by either belt, disk or drum filters ( 100 ), or counter-current decantation (CCD) vessels, or thickeners. 
         [0071]    Following the initial precipitation of scale by pH adjustment and the removal of such scale by sedimentation or filtering, the clear solution enters a stirred reactor ( 120 ) where a second scale precipitation step takes place by heating. Heat from an external heat source ( 130 ), which can be waste steam from a power plant, or heat transferred by heat pipes from an industrial plant, is used to heat reactor ( 120 ) to temperatures of about 120° C., which requires a pressure vessel able to operate at overpressures of the order of 15 psig. Under such conditions, certain insoluble sulfates, such as calcium sulfate (gypsum), precipitate because their solubility in water markedly decreases. 
         [0072]    A discussion of heat pipes for transferring heat from condensing steam to inlet water is provided in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/090,248, entitled ENERGY-EFFICIENT DISTILLATION SYSTEM, filed Apr. 14, 2008, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/727,106, entitled ENERGY-EFFICIENT DISTILLATION SYSTEM, filed Oct. 14, 2005, both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. 
         [0073]    In an alternative embodiment, this second precipitation step is accomplished in a dual step that includes degassing by steam stripping. By reference to  FIG. 4 , the partially descaled process stream ( 125 ) enters a distillation tray column where it cascades through a series of sparging trays ( 121 ). Steam from a waste heat source ( 130 ), such as waste steam from a power plant, enters vessel ( 120 ) at the bottom at bubbles ( 122 ) through each distillation tray ( 121 ) in a counter-current fashion, thereby stripping volatile organic constituents (VOCs) from the process water, and simultaneously heating the process stream to temperatures of the order of 120° C., thereby precipitating insoluble salts that exhibit reduced solubility, such as certain sulfates. The liquid level in each steam stripping tray ( 121 ) is maintained by downcomer tubes ( 123 ) that transfer process water from an upper tray to a lower tray. As it rises through the degassing vessel, the steam becomes progressively loaded with organic contaminants, including contaminants that are considered non-volatile, and eventually exits the vessel at the top ( 126 ), so it can be condensed and discarded. The degassed stream containing the heat-precipitated scale exits the vessel at the bottom ( 127 ). 
         [0074]    In a further alternative embodiment, a degassing process similar to the above is conducted as a final step after the aqueous solution has been heated and the second precipitate has been removed. This final degassing operates to remove any remaining hydrocarbon compounds, and is particularly appropriate when the aqueous solution treated is heavily contaminated with hydrocarbons, such as, for example, in the case of process water employed in oil production. 
         [0075]    Next, the scale in the process water is filtered or sedimented out by means of either mechanical filters or thickeners. In a preferred embodiment, the process stream goes into dual sand filters ( 150 ) that alternate between filtering and a backwashing step by means of a mechanically actuated valve ( 140 ). The scale waste exits this filtering step at the top ( 160 ) and, depending on composition, can be either discarded or sold. The descaled and de-oiled process water ( 170 ) exits at the bottom, and can be used for any subsequent processing, such as desalination. 
       Exemplary Water Descaling System for Seawater 
       [0076]    The approximate chemical composition of seawater is presented in Table 2, below, and is typical of open ocean, but there are significant variations in seawater composition depending on geography and/or climate. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Detailed composition of seawater 
               
               
                 at 3.5% salinity 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Element 
                 At. weight 
                 ppm 
                 Element 
                 At. weight 
                 ppm 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Hydrogen H2O 
                 1.00797 
                 110,000 
                 Molybdenum Mo 
                    0.09594 
                 0.01 
               
               
                 Oxygen H2O 
                 15.9994 
                 883,000 
                 Ruthenium Ru 
                 101.07 
                 0.0000007 
               
               
                 Sodium NaCl 
                 22.9898 
                 10,800 
                 Rhodium Rh 
                  102.905 
                 — 
               
               
                 Chlorine NaCl 
                 35.453 
                 19,400 
                 Palladium Pd 
                 106.4  
                 — 
               
               
                 Magnesium Mg 
                 24.312 
                 1,290 
                 Argentum (silver) Ag 
                  107.870 
                 0.00028 
               
               
                 Sulfur S 
                 32.064 
                 904 
                 Cadmium Cd 
                 112.4  
                 0.00011 
               
               
                 Potassium K 
                 39.102 
                 392 
                 Indium In 
                 114.82 
                 — 
               
               
                 Calcium Ca 
                 10.08 
                 411 
                 Stannum (tin) Sn 
                 118.69 
                 0.00081 
               
               
                 Bromine Br 
                 79.909 
                 67.3 
                 Antimony Sb 
                 121.75 
                 0.00033 
               
               
                 Helium He 
                 4.0026 
                 0.0000072 
                 Tellurium Te 
                 127.6  
                 — 
               
               
                 Lithium Li 
                 6.939 
                 0.170 
                 Iodine I 
                  166.904 
                 0.064 
               
               
                 Beryllium Be 
                 9.0133 
                 0.0000006 
                 Xenon Xe 
                 131.30 
                 0.000047 
               
               
                 Boron B 
                 10.811 
                 4.450 
                 Cesium Cs 
                  132.905 
                 0.0003 
               
               
                 Carbon C 
                 12.011 
                 28.0 
                 Barium Ba 
                 137.34 
                 0.021 
               
               
                 Nitrogen ion 
                 14.007 
                 15.5 
                 Lanthanum La 
                 138.91 
                 0.0000029 
               
               
                 Fluorine F 
                 18.998 
                 13 
                 Cerium Ce 
                 140.12 
                 0.0000012 
               
               
                 Neon Ne 
                 20.183 
                 0.00012 
                 Praesodymium Pr 
                  140.907 
                 0.00000064 
               
               
                 Aluminum Al 
                 26.982 
                 0.001 
                 Neodymium Nd 
                 144.24 
                 0.0000028 
               
               
                 Silicon Si 
                 28.086 
                 2.9 
                 Samarium Sm 
                 150.35 
                 0.00000045 
               
               
                 Phosphorus P 
                 30.974 
                 0.088 
                 Europium Eu 
                 151.96 
                 0.0000013 
               
               
                 Argon Ar 
                 39.948 
                 0.450 
                 Gadolinium Gd 
                 157.25 
                 0.0000007 
               
               
                 Scandium Sc 
                 44.956 
                 &lt;0.000004 
                 Terbium Tb 
                  158.924 
                 0.00000014 
               
               
                 Titanium Ti 
                 47.90 
                 0.001 
                 Dysprosium Dy 
                 162.50 
                 0.00000091 
               
               
                 Vanadium V 
                 50.942 
                 0.0019 
                 Holmium Ho 
                  164.930 
                 0.00000022 
               
               
                 Chromium Cr 
                 51.996 
                 0.0002 
                 Erbium Er 
                 167.26 
                 0.00000087 
               
               
                 Manganese Mn 
                 54.938 
                 0.0004 
                 Thulium Tm 
                  168.934 
                 0.00000017 
               
               
                 Ferrum (Iron) Fe 
                 55.847 
                 0.0034 
                 Ytterbium Yb 
                 173.04 
                 0.00000082 
               
               
                 Cobalt Co 
                 58.933 
                 0.00039 
                 Lutetium Lu 
                 174.97 
                 0.00000015 
               
               
                 Nickel Ni 
                 58.71 
                 0.0066 
                 Hafnium Hf 
                 178.49 
                 &lt;0.000008 
               
               
                 Copper Cu 
                 63.54 
                 0.0009 
                 Tantalum Ta 
                  180.948 
                 &lt;0.0000025 
               
               
                 Zinc Zn 
                 65.37 
                 0.005 
                 Tungsten W 
                 183.85 
                 &lt;0.000001 
               
               
                 Gallium Ga 
                 69.72 
                 0.00003 
                 Rhenium Re 
                 186.2  
                 0.0000084 
               
               
                 Germanium Ge 
                 72.59 
                 0.00006 
                 Osmium Os 
                 190.2  
                 — 
               
               
                 Arsenic As 
                 74.922 
                 0.0026 
                 Iridium Ir 
                 192.2  
                 — 
               
               
                 Selenium Se 
                 78.96 
                 0.0009 
                 Platinum Pt 
                 195.09 
                 — 
               
               
                 Krypton Kr 
                 83.80 
                 0.00021 
                 Aurum (gold) Au 
                  196.967 
                 0.000011 
               
               
                 Rubidium Rb 
                 85.47 
                 0.120 
                 Mercury Hg 
                 200.59 
                 0.00015 
               
               
                 Strontium Sr 
                 87.62 
                 8.1 
                 Thallium Tl 
                 204.37 
                 — 
               
               
                 Yttrium Y 
                 88.905 
                 0.000013 
                 Lead Pb 
                 207.19 
                 0.00003 
               
               
                 Zirconium Zr 
                 91.22 
                 0.000026 
                 Bismuth Bi 
                  208.980 
                 0.00002 
               
               
                 Niobium Nb 
                 92.906 
                 0.000015 
                 Thorium Th 
                 232.04 
                 0.0000004 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Uranium U 
                 238.03 
                 0.0033 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Plutonium Pu 
                 (244)   
                 — 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Note! 
               
               
                 ppm = parts per million = mg/litre = 0.001 g/kg 
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0077]    Thus, the first task is to examine which salts exhibit the lowest solubility constants, limiting our examination to the most abundant elements in seawater. They are: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Calcium compounds 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Solubility 
               
               
                   
                 Product 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Calcium carbonate (calcite) 
                 CaCO 3   
                 3.36 × 10 −9   
               
               
                   
                 Calcium carbonate (aragonite) 
                 CaCO 3   
                  6.0 × 10 −9   
               
               
                   
                 Calcium fluoride 
                 CaF 2   
                 3.45 × 10 −11   
               
               
                   
                 Calcium hydroxide 
                 Ca(OH) 2   
                 5.02 × 10 −6   
               
               
                   
                 Calcium iodate 
                 Ca(IO 3 ) 2   
                 6.47 × 10 −6   
               
               
                   
                 Calcium iodate hexahydrate 
                 Ca(IO 3 ) 2 ×6H 2 O 
                 7.10 × 10 −7   
               
               
                   
                 Calcium molybdate 
                 CaMoO 
                 1.46 × 10 −8   
               
               
                   
                 Calcium oxalate monohydrate 
                 CaC 2 O 4 ×H 2 O 
                 2.32 × 10 −9   
               
               
                   
                 Calcium phosphate 
                 Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2   
                 2.07 × 10 −33   
               
               
                   
                 Calcium sulfate 
                 CaSO 4   
                 4.93 × 10 −5   
               
               
                   
                 Calcium sulfate dihydrate 
                 CaSO 4 ×2H 2 O 
                 3.14 × 10 −5   
               
               
                   
                 Calcium sulfate hemihydrate 
                 CaSO 4 ×0.5H 2 O 
                  3.1 × 10 −7   
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0078]    Calcium ion concentration averages 416 ppm in seawater, or 10.4 mmol/lt, while bicarbonate ion represents 145 ppm, or 2.34 mmol/lt. Since bicarbonate easily decomposes into carbonate upon heating, calcite scale is the first scale that forms. Calcium sulfate (gypsum) is 10,000 times more soluble than calcite, so even though sulfate ion concentration averages 2701 ppm, or 28.1 mmol/lt, it precipitates next. Phosphorous amounts to 0.088 ppm, so the potential phosphate ion is sufficiently small to ignore the amount of phosphate scale. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Magnesium Compounds 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 K sp   
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Magnesium ammonium phosphate 
                 MgNH 4 PO 4   
                   3 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Magnesium carbonate 
                 MgCO 3   
                 6.82 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Magnesium carbonate trihydrate 
                 MgCO 3 ×3H 2 O 
                 2.38 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Magnesium carbonate pentahydrate 
                 MgCO 3  ×5H 2 O 
                 3.79 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Magnesium fluoride 
                 MgF 2   
                 5.16 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Magnesium hydroxide 
                 Mg(OH) 2   
                 5.61 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Magnesium oxalate dihydrate 
                 MgC 2 O 4  ×2H 2 O 
                 4.83 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Magnesium phosphate 
                 Mg 3 (PO 4 ) 2   
                 1.04 × 10 −24   
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0079]    Magnesium is three times more abundant than calcium in seawater at 1,290 ppm (53.3 mmol/lt), but MgCO 3  is 1,000 times more soluble than its calcium counterpart, so it will precipitate after most of the calcium ions have been depleted. Fluoride ion is not present in sufficient quantities to cause significant scale, similar to the earlier discussion regarding phosphate scale formation. Similarly, although scale forming compounds are known that incorporate potassium, iron, or aluminum, as shown in Tables 5-7 below, in the case of seawater either these ions are present at such low concentrations that they do not precipitate, or if present in high amounts (as is the case, for example, for potassium), they are so soluble in aqueous solutions (i.e., have such high solubility constants) that they do not precipitate. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Potassium compounds 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 K sp   
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Potassium hexachloroplatinate 
                 K 2 PtCl 6   
                 7.48 × 10 −6   
               
               
                   
                 Potassium perchlorate 
                 KClO 4   
                 1.05 × 10 −2   
               
               
                   
                 Potassium periodate 
                 KIO 4   
                 3.71 × 10 −4   
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Iron compounds 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 K sp   
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Iron(II) carbonate 
                 FeCO 3   
                 3.13 × 10 −11   
               
               
                   
                 Iron(II) fluoride 
                 FeF 2   
                 2.36 × 10 −6   
               
               
                   
                 Iron(II) hydroxide 
                 Fe(OH) 2   
                 4.87 × 10 −17   
               
               
                   
                 Iron(II) sulfide 
                 FeS 
                   8 × 10 −19   
               
               
                   
                 Iron(III) hydroxide 
                 Fe(OH) 3   
                 2.79 × 10 −39   
               
               
                   
                 Iron(III) phosphate dihydrate 
                 FePO 4  ×2H 2 O 
                 9.91 × 10 −16   
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Aluminum compounds 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 K sp   
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Aluminum hydroxide 
                 Al(OH) 3   
                   3 × 10 −34   
               
               
                   
                 Aluminum phosphate 
                 AlPO 4   
                 9.84 × 10 −21   
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0080]    The method and system of the present disclosure are used to purify both seawater and a solution that is more saline than seawater. The results show significant amelioration of the development of scale in the purification apparatus. 
       Example 1 
     Removal of Nonvolatile or Volatile Organics in Degasser 
       [0081]    The method and system of the present disclosure are used to purify solutions containing commercially-observed amounts of nonvolatile and volatile organic contaminants, including methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE). The results show significant reduction in the amount of the contaminants as compared with conventional purification methods. 
       Example 2 
     Removal of Scale in Residential Water Purification Systems 
       [0082]    In an alternative embodiment, the method of the invention can be used for softening hard waters from municipal systems, of from well waters containing high levels of calcium or magnesium salts. 
         [0083]    Further information regarding residential water purification systems is provided in U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 11/994,832, entitled WATER PURIFICATION SYSTEM, filed Jan. 4, 2008; 11/444,911, entitled FULLY AUTOMATED WATER PROCESSING CONTROL SYSTEM, filed May 31, 2006; 11/444,912, entitled AN IMPROVED SELF-CLEANING WATER PROCESSING APPARATUS, filed May 31, 2006; and 11/255,083, entitled WATER PURIFICATION SYSTEM, filed Oct. 19, 2005, and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,678,235, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. 
         [0084]    By reference to  FIG. 4 , tap water or water from a well enters the residential water purification system through a pressure reducer ( 200 ) that ensures constant flow of incoming water into the purification system. A canister ( 201 ) containing sodium hydroxide (lye-NaOH) and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda—NaHCO 3 ) provides a pre-measured amount of these chemicals to a dosage meter ( 202 ) to stoichiometrically precipitate up to 300 ppm of calcium and magnesium ions in the form of insoluble carbonates, while simultaneously raising the pH to values of at least 10.2. These chemicals dissolve in the tap water line ( 203 ) that exits the pressure reducer ( 200 ) and cause the precipitation of soft scale. 
         [0085]    The partially descaled process water then enters boiler ( 204 ) by means of a plastic line ( 205  where the water is pre-heated by the boiling water in the boiler, and exists through a vertical tube ( 206 ) that connects to the upper part of a sedimentation vessel ( 207 ). Additional scale is precipitated by the pre-heating action which raises the temperature of the incoming water to just below boiling and thus promotes the precipitation of insoluble salts that show a marked decrease in solubility with temperature. The use of a plastic line or tube to effect pre-heating of the incoming water in the boiler subjects the plastic to frequent flexing by the boiling action, and thus prevents adherence of the scale to the surfaces of the pre-heating line. 
         [0086]    The thermally precipitated scale plus the previously precipitated scale by pH adjustment settle by sedimentation in vessel ( 207 ), and are periodically flushed out of the vessel at the bottom ( 208 ). The descaled water then enters a degasser ( 209 ), where VOCs and non-volatile organic compounds are steam stripped by a counter-current flow of steam or hot air, as described in the aforementioned patent applications. 
       Example 3 
     Removal of Scale in Treatment of Waste Influent Compositions 
       [0087]    An aqueous waste influent composition obtained as a waste stream from a fertilizer processing facility was treated in the manner described above in order to remove scale-forming compounds, as a pre-treatment to eventual purification of the product in a separate water purification apparatus in which the formation of scale would be highly undesirable. The throughput of the treatment apparatus was 6 gallons per day (GPD); this apparatus was used a pilot apparatus for testing an industrial situation requiring 2000 m 3 /day (528,401.6 GPD). The composition of the waste influent with respect to relevant elements and ions is given in Table 8 below. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 8 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Waste Influent Composition 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 ppm 
               
               
                   
                 (mg/l) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 water analysis 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Barium 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 Calcium 
                 500 
               
               
                   
                 Magnesium 
                 300 
               
               
                   
                 Iron (III) 
                 2 
               
               
                   
                 Bicarbonate 
               
               
                   
                 Sulfate 
                 800 
               
               
                   
                 Phosphate 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 Silica 
                 50 
               
               
                   
                 Strontium 
               
               
                   
                 Soluble salts 
               
               
                   
                 Sodium 
                 700 
               
               
                   
                 Potassium 
                 30 
               
               
                   
                 Arsenic 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 Fluoride 
                 2 
               
               
                   
                 Chloride 
                 1000 
               
               
                   
                 Nitrate 
                 10 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0088]    The waste influent had a total dissolved solids (TDS) content of 35,000 ppm (g/l). As can be seen from Table 8, the waste influent had particularly high concentrations of calcium and magnesium, which tend to give rise to scale. 
         [0089]    This waste influent was processed in the manner described above; because the influent contained little or no hydrocarbons, deoiling and degassing were not conducted. In greater detail, CO 2  carbonation and addition of NaOH (to provide hydroxide ions to react with the Mg in solution) was followed by pH adjustment to a pH of 9.3 using further NaOH. The dosages of chemicals set forth in Table 9 below would be employed in the commercial-scale process (actual amounts employed were adjusted for a pilot throughput of 6 GPD). 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 9 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Chemicals employed 
               
               
                 Chemicals Used 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 ton/day 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 CO 2   
                 1.21 
               
               
                   
                 NaOH for Mg 
                 2.17 
               
               
                   
                 NaOH for pH 
                 0.12 
               
               
                   
                 Total NaOH 
                 2.29 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0090]    The process resulted in a filtered scale forming composition (“filter cake”) and an effluent (product). The mass balance of the commercial-scale process is shown in Table 10 below. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 10 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Mass Balance 
               
               
                 Mass Balance for Pre-treatment 
               
               
                 Moisture in filter cake = 20.00% 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 metric 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 ton 
                 s. ton 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Waste (precipitate/filler) is 
                 4.59 
                 5.05 
               
               
                   
                 (tonne/ton) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 m 3 /d 
                 GPD 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Influent (Feedwater) flow is = 
                 2000 
                 528401.6 
               
               
                   
                 Amount of brine lost in filter cake 
                 0.89 
                 236.44 
               
               
                   
                 Effluent flow (product) 
                 1999.11 
                 528165.15 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0091]    The precipitate product obtained has the approximate composition shown in Table 11 below. The numbers shown in Table 11 for the commercial-scale process are based on the amounts produced in the pilot-scale process. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 11 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Precipitate Composition 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 54.46% 
                 of precipitate is CaCO 3  = 
                 2.50 mt/d, or 
                 2.75 ton/d 
               
               
                   
                 of precipitate is 
               
               
                 45.36% 
                 Mg(OH) 2  = 
                 2.08 mt/d, or 
                 2.29 ton/d 
               
               
                 0.18% 
                 of precipitate is FeCO 3  = 
                 0.01 mt/d, or 
                 0.01 ton/d 
               
               
                 0.00% 
                 of precipitate is SrCO 3  = 
                 0.00 mt/d, or 
                 0.00 ton/d 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Total 
                 5.05 ton/d 
               
               
                 precipitate is 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0092]    As can be seen from Table 11, the overwhelming majority of the precipitate comprised either CaCO 3  or Mg(OH) 2 , so that a large amount of the calcium and magnesium in the waste influent was removed by the process. The amounts of relevant elements and compounds contained in the feed waste solution and in the effluent product are summarized in Table 12 below. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 12 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Composition of Solution Before and After Treatment 
               
               
                 Water Analysis of Pre-treatment 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Feed, ppm 
                 Effluent, ppm 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Barium 
                 0 
                 0.00 
               
               
                   
                 Calcium 
                 500 
                 5.64 
               
               
                   
                 Magnesium 
                 300 
                 4.01 
               
               
                   
                 Iron (III) 
                 2 
                 0.00 
               
               
                   
                 Bicarbonate 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 Sulfate 
                 800 
                 800 
               
               
                   
                 Phosphate 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 Silica 
                 50 
                 50 
               
               
                   
                 Strontium 
                 0 
                 0.00 
               
               
                   
                 Soluble salts 
               
               
                   
                 Sodium 
                 700 
                 700 
               
               
                   
                 Potassium 
                 30 
                 30 
               
               
                   
                 Arsenic 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 Fluoride 
                 2 
                 2 
               
               
                   
                 Chloride 
                 1000 
                 1000 
               
               
                   
                 Nitrate 
                 10 
                 10 
               
               
                   
                 TDS-calculated 
                 3394 
                 2601.655 
               
               
                   
                 TDS-Actual 
                 35,000 
                 26829.09 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0093]    The results shown in Table 12 indicate that the levels of elements giving rise to scale-forming compounds, such as calcium and magnesium, are reduced by up to approximately 99% by the treatment process described above. Additionally, the amount of iron was reduced to undetectable levels. Furthermore, the total dissolved solids in the aqueous solution were reduced by more than 20%. 
       Example 4 
     Removal of Scale in Treatment of Seawater 
       [0094]    The treatment process of the present disclosure was applied to seawater that had been adjusted to a high level of TDS and a high degree of water hardness, to test the capacity of the process to deal with such input solutions. The water was pretreated using the process of the present disclosure, before being purified in a water purification apparatus such as that described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,678,235. As discussed in greater detail below, the seawater subjected to the pretreatment process of the present disclosure showed no formation of scale when used as feed water in the water purification apparatus. 
         [0095]    The following amounts of various compounds were added to fresh ocean water, to produce the input aqueous solution of the present example. 7 grams/liter Ca(OH) 2  were added to produce a target Ca 2+  concentration of 7.1 kppm. 29 grams/liter of NaCl were also added, and the TDS of the resulting water sample was 66 kppm. 
         [0096]    A first precipitation was conducted at room temperature by adding approximately 12 grams/liter of NaHCO 3 , and NaOH as necessary to increase the pH of the solution to greater than 10.5. The carbonate compounds CaCO 3  and MgCO 3  were precipitated in this first room temperature procedure. The water was filtered to remove the solid precipitates. 
         [0097]    A second precipitation was then conducted at an elevated temperature. Specifically, the filtered water was heated to 120° C. for a period of 10-15 minutes. As a result, sulfates, primarily CaSO 4  and MgSO 4 , were precipitated. The water was allowed to cool, then filtered to remove the precipitates. The descaled and filtered water was checked again for precipitates by boiling a sample in a microwave oven. No precipitates were observed in this test The TDS of the descaled and filtered water was approximately 66 kppm. 
         [0098]    The descaled water was used as an influent for a water purification apparatus in accordance with U.S. Pat. No. 7,678,235. The product water was collected from the apparatus, and the TDS of the product water was measured. While the inlet water had a TDS of 66 kppm, the product water of the water purification apparatus was less than 10 ppm. No appreciable development of scale was observed in the boiler of the apparatus. 
         [0099]    In some embodiments, the system for descaling water and saline solutions, embodiments of which are disclosed herein, can be combined with other systems and devices to provide further beneficial features. For example, the system can be used in conjunction with any of the devices or methods disclosed in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/676,870 entitled, SOLAR ALIGNMENT DEVICE, filed May 2, 2005; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/697,104 entitled, VISUAL WATER FLOW INDICATOR, filed Jul. 6, 2005; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/697,106 entitled, APPARATUS FOR RESTORING THE MINERAL CONTENT OF DRINKING WATER, filed Jul. 6, 2005; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/697,107 entitled, IMPROVED CYCLONE DEMISTER, filed Jul. 6, 2005; PCT Application No: US2004/039993, filed Dec. 1, 2004; PCT Application No: US2004/039991, filed Dec. 1, 2004; PCT Application No: US2006/040103, filed Oct. 13, 2006, U.S. patent application No, 12/281,608, filed Sep. 3, 2008, PCT Application No. US2008/03744, filed Mar. 21, 2008, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/526,580, filed Dec. 2, 2003; each of the foregoing applications is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
         [0100]    One skilled in the art will appreciate that these methods and devices are and may be adapted to carry out the objects and obtain the ends and advantages mentioned, as well as various other advantages and benefits. The methods, procedures, and devices described herein are presently representative of preferred embodiments and are exemplary and are not intended as limitations on the scope of the invention. Changes therein and other uses will occur to those skilled in the art which are encompassed within the spirit of the invention and are defined by the scope of the disclosure. 
         [0101]    It will be apparent to one skilled in the art that varying substitutions and modifications can be made to the invention disclosed herein without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. 
         [0102]    Those skilled in the art recognize that the aspects and embodiments of the invention set forth herein can be practiced separate from each other or in conjunction with each other. Therefore, combinations of separate embodiments are within the scope of the invention as disclosed herein. 
         [0103]    All patents and publications are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. 
         [0104]    The invention illustratively described herein suitably can be practiced in the absence of any element or elements, limitation or limitations which is not specifically disclosed herein. The terms and expressions which have been employed are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention that in the use of such terms and expressions indicates the exclusion of equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof. It is recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the invention disclosed. Thus, it should be understood that although the present invention has been specifically disclosed by preferred embodiments and optional features, modification and variation of the concepts herein disclosed may be resorted to by those skilled in the art, and that such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of this invention as defined by the disclosure.