Abstract:
A pump system and controller for a chemical reactor for converting water and carbon dioxide into a fuel gas is provided. Carbon dioxide gas bubbles are created and introduced into pumped water and delivered to a regenerative turbine pump where bubbles are collapsed to produce an ionized gas and ionized liquid mixture containing hydrogen, hydroxyl radicals and hydroxide, which subsequently react with the carbon dioxide gas present in the bubble, reducing it to carbon monoxide, with further reactions yielding methane.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
       [0001]    This application claims the benefit of the priority of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/385,423, filed Sep. 22, 2010, and United States Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/385,392, filed Sep. 22, 2010, the entire disclosures of which are expressly incorporated herein by reference. 
     
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
       [0002]    The present invention relates to chemical reactors and pump systems and more specifically to a chemical reactor having a regenerative turbine pump for producing fuel gas. 
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0003]    Endothermic synthesis reactions convert water and carbon dioxide to a fuel gas mixture containing carbon monoxide, methane and hydrogen. Such reactions include the reverse water gas shift, the Sabatier reaction and the Fischer-Tropsch process. 
         [0004]    Cavitation caused by ultrasonic and hydrodynamic equipment and techniques has been used for catalysis of many known and well defined endothermic reaction traditionally implemented with high temperature/high pressure processes for many years. The advantage of cavitation as a mechanism of chemical catalysis is the effect of high pressure and temperatures achieved in the domain of effect near the collapsed bubble, the rate of heating being sufficient to start and sustain reactions in aqueous and other solutions. 
         [0005]    Reduction and oxidation synthesis has been implemented using high pressure/high temperature reactors for decades. More recently, in the field of ultrasonic sonochemistry, some of these reactions have been duplicated in experimental configurations; the results reported in the literature suggest that sonochemical reduction catalysis, specifically hydrolysis resulting in protonation of carbon dioxide in aqueous solutions, reducing it to carbon monoxide, can be catalyzed under specific conditions using ultrasonic cavitation. As this mechanism appears effective for reduction catalysis, it follows that further protonation using cavitational techniques or methods analogous to cavitational chemical catalysis result in the production of CH 4  and other alkanes. 
         [0006]    Implementation of hydrodynamic cavitation and sonochemistry for commercial or industrial scale chemical synthesis has arguably been curtailed by the nature of the mechanism used to catalyze reactions for these purposes—cavitation. While single bubble collapse as achieved in single bubble sonoluminescence has been demonstrated as a stable, controlled bubble collapse technique using the methods of ultrasonic cavitation, cavitation as applied in industrial processes almost invariably use multi-bubble cavitation as the catalytic mechanism. This technique, when used at high power levels on materials containing carbon dioxide, such as fossil fuel combustion waste gas streams, surface or pitted waste waters, process effluents or seawater with significant quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid require continuous modification of process conditions to sustain economically feasible throughput rates. These types of changes to cavitation bases mechanism are difficult as both ultrasonic and hydrodynamic cavitation require limited and specific conditions to achieve the high temperature and pressure collapse characteristics required to sustain productive rates of specific reaction catalysis. 
         [0007]    Ultrasonic sonochemical processes are dependent on specific frequencies, or specific ultrasonic wave generation surface or horn travel distances or both. Once these variables are optimized in process, changes to reagent composition, ambient pressures, temperature, dissolved gasses or other solvent or solute properties often immediately destabilize the bubble cloud formation and collapse, significantly halting or slowing reaction catalysis, rendering the continued application of the technique without process variable changes uneconomic. Adjustments to frequency and amplitude of the ultrasonic field directly affect the properties of the created and collapsing bubble, changing the resonant frequency. The changes to frequency or amplitude, ambient pressure, temperature, the amount of carbon dioxide or carbonic acid in solution, or solution pH, may result in conditions that, while producing cavitation, produce bubbles with properties of size, resonant frequency or collapse rate that are not optimal for the catalyzing economic reduction of carbon dioxide to alkane fuel gasses. This limitation is due to the dependence of bubble properties on ultrasonic field frequency and amplitude. The bubble properties can be modulated through advanced process control of these process parameters, but only certain frequency and amplitude combinations are effective. As a consequence, reactive closed loop control of chemical synthesis through reduction based on this mechanism is limited in the scope of variation, detrimentally affecting the economics of processes using this mechanism of reaction catalysis. 
         [0008]    There are many hydrodynamic cavitation implementation techniques using a variety of methods to manipulate the formation and collapse of bubbles through pressure and flow control. In addition, custom fittings and shaped orifices and other fixture based techniques for laminar and other unusual flow patterns, with and without closed loop control, have been in used to produce cavitation and catalyze compositional degradations and synthesis. Hydrodynamic cavitational techniques also suffer from restrictions due to optimal condition requirements similar to ultrasonic cavitation, where variation in composition, viscosities, dissolved or suspended solids content, dissolved gasses and other properties of the solvent or solute detrimentally affect the properties and formation of the clouds of bubbles and their subsequent collapse rates, shapes and characteristics. 
         [0009]    Both ultrasonic and hydrodynamic cavitation also result in cavitational damage to process circuit elements as conditions for controlled cavitation often result in insipient or other undesirable cavitational effects at or on surfaces or system components, resulting in component wear, significantly affecting process economics. 
         [0010]    Carbon dioxide and water are often, by design, the final products of many synthesis processes. Many industrial activities and process circuits yield carbon dioxide as a product, such as fossil fuel combustion for energy and heating, iron and steel production, cement manufacturing, natural gas systems, municipal solid waste combustion and many others. Recent measurements indicate U.S. production of carbon dioxide in excess of five thousand megatons per year. See U.S. EPA website, Climate Change—Greenhouse Gas Emissions page, http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/co2_human.html 
         [0011]    Carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere undergoes a continuous process of equilibrium exchanges between the gaseous state as a component gas of the atmosphere, dissolved carbon dioxide in surface waters and carbonic acid in surface waters. The solubility of carbon dioxide is higher in salt water than fresh water, thus a significant quantity of carbon dioxide released into the environment arguably currently resides in the oceans and other surface salt water. See the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration PMEL website, Carbon Program, Ocean Carbon Update page, http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/Ocean+Carbon+Uptake and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration PMEL website, Carbon Program, Ocean Acidification page, http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/Ocean+Acidification. 
         [0012]    As a consequence of the production of significant amounts of carbon dioxide over the years, and the dissolution of carbon dioxide into surface waters over time, a method that can be used to harvest carbon dioxide from emissions sources, the atmosphere directly and surface waters and subsequently convert the harvested carbon dioxide to recoverable fuel gasses or liquids would provide a new and renewable energy supply. Current solutions and techniques for carbon dioxide removal focus almost entirely on atmospheric carbon dioxide and contemplate methods to sequester or store carbon dioxide in perpetuity at great expense without the benefit of recycling or reuse. The economics of these approaches render them likely unfeasible, especially considering that the scale of carbon dioxide processing contemplated is megatonnage. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0013]    The invention provides a solution to the aforementioned limitations of both hydrodynamic and ultrasonic cavitation and a means to effectively and economically recover and recycle carbon dioxide using an approach scalable to megaton gas processing and suitable for application to gaseous, liquid and solid feedstocks containing carbon dioxide. Rather than causing bubble collapse through cavitation, the invention provides methods and configurations to produce bubbles in a controlled way directly and then, also in a directly controlled way, collapse those bubbles at a specific rate to a specific size. In addition, the bubbles collapse while entrained in fluid flow, preventing undesirable bubble collapse upon process component surfaces. As the formation and collapse of the bubbles in the invention occurs independent of optimal flow, pressure, temperature, viscosity, and other solvent and solute properties, and the bubble sizes and collapse rates are directly controlled and not a function of effective ultrasonic amplitudes or frequencies, or fixed pressure or flow established in specialized fittings, this mechanism of bubble collapse can be applied to catalyze reactions economically across a broader range of carbon dioxide containing feedstock variability. The invention also provides methods and systems to accept a gas stream containing carbon dioxide and dissolve it in an aqueous solution to permit processing and methods and systems to process and reduce carbon dioxide and carbonic acid in aqueous solutions, such as seawater, permitting the application for carbon dioxide conversion to fuel gas at both point sources of gas emission, such as power plants, and from environmental resources, such as seawater, using the same apparatus and methods of chemical catalysis and synthesis. 
         [0014]    A pump system and controller for a chemical reactor for converting water and carbon dioxide into a fuel gas are disclosed. One aspect of the invention provides methods and apparatus to produce carbon dioxide gas combined with water vapor bubbles and at a rapid rate, introducing them in a controlled fashion into pumped water in a regenerative turbine pump and then collapsing the bubbles produced to convert the internal water vapor of the bubbles into an ionized gas and ionized liquid mixture containing hydrogen, hydroxyl radicals and hydroxide, which subsequently react with the carbon dioxide gas present in the bubble, reducing it to carbon monoxide, with further reactions yielding methane. The carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide or methane is reacted with hydrogen to produce alkane gasses, such as propane or butane. 
         [0015]    Another aspect of the invention provides methods and apparatus that use the properties of collapsing bubbles, formed of carbon dioxide gas and water vapor, in water, as a catalyst for reactions between the water vapor and liquid, hydrogen and carbon dioxide in the gas and liquid phases of the bubble, or as a catalyst for reactions between liquid water, water vapor, carbon, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide gasses contained in the bubble and the water, hydrogen, hydroxyl radicals and hydroxide in the pumped bubble containing water media. 
         [0016]    Another aspect of the invention provides methods and apparatus to form carbon dioxide gas and water vapor containing bubbles in a pumped water media and to collapse them in isolation from each other using a controlled hydrodynamically generated pressure pulse of sufficient magnitude, both in rate of pressure increase and ultimate maximum pressure that the bubble vibrates, for example at its eigenfrequency, during collapse for a sufficient interval of time to permit the formation of a plasma hot spot within the gas and liquid phases of the collapsing bubble. 
         [0017]    Yet another aspect of the invention provides a device that permits concentrations of carbon dioxide and water vapor of the bubbles formed in a pumped media at a pump system inlet to be both directly and indirectly controlled, at the time of formation and during evolution through the various possible bubble sizes through to collapse, as the bubbles pass from the pump inlet&#39;s low pressure zone through the pump at increasing pressure and out the discharge at a particular controlled maximum pressure. 
         [0018]    Still another aspect of the invention provides a pump system based on a regenerative turbine pump with components arranged to allow controlled bubble production and introduction into the pump inlet and subsequent collapse of the bubbles entrained in the helical flow of the pump within the individual bucket chambers formed by the regenerative turbine pump impeller, wherein the bubbles are collapsed singly without the interfering effects of the collapse of adjacent bubbles. 
         [0019]    Another aspect of the invention provides methods and apparatus for electric motor driven pump speed and pressure control. The pump control system dynamically calculates optimal pump speed and pump system pressures for one of the alternate apparatus configurations or applications, to start and sustain the formation in the pumped media of a specific number of gas and vapor bubbles of a particular size and then subsequently collapse the same bubbles at a particular rate to a specific ultimate final bubble size. The pump control system incorporates a controller that provides a speed setpoint signal to the pump motor drive and pressure setpoint signals used to operate pressure regulating valves controlling pump inlet, casing and discharge pressures. 
         [0020]    The controller can be used as an analytical tool to determine the optimal operational parameter values required for producing bubbles of a certain size and collapsing them at a specific rate to plasma hot spots or as required by a particular application of the invention. In this way, an application protocol describing the operational conditions and process variable selections most likely to produce a desired result with the apparatus can be developed using the apparatus and controller as reporting those setpoint combinations yielding desirable or best fit operational characteristics using controller residing result evaluation algorithms. 
         [0021]    The following description, with attached diagrams, provides details of the important aspects of the invention. Note, however, that the invention has other useful and novel aspects apart from those discussed. These additional aspects and advantages of the invention will become apparent when considering together the following detailed description and drawings. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0022]      FIG. 1  shows the interconnection between  FIGS. 1A and 1B ; 
           [0023]      FIGS. 1A and 1B  show a piping and instrumentation diagram shown over two pages depicting an exemplary implementation of the apparatus of the present invention including a pump system, subsystems, components and apparatus controller used to inject carbon dioxide gas bubbles into water and subsequently collapse them in a regenerative turbine pump to form a fuel gas which is separated from the pumped fluid; 
           [0024]      FIGS. 2A-2C  are cross-sectional views of the regenerative turbine pump&#39;s casing and impeller blade channel; 
           [0025]      FIG. 3  is a flowchart showing examples of the controller&#39;s logic, including alternate operational sequences as required by the various functional configurations of the apparatus of the present invention, in accordance with several aspects of the invention; 
           [0026]      FIG. 4  is a flowchart showing processing steps carried out by a carbon dioxide reduction logic of the present invention; 
           [0027]      FIG. 5  is a flowchart showing processing steps carried out by a bubble generation logic of the present invention; and 
           [0028]      FIG. 6  is a flowchart showing processing steps carried out by a bubble collapse logic of the present invention. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
       [0029]    The apparatus of the present invention includes several independent subsystems that together provide for the production and injection of carbon dioxide gas into a water stream to form bubbles, and collapse of the bubbles at a controlled rate to plasma, reducing the carbon dioxide to fuel gas. The apparatus includes a regenerative turbine pump to effectively entrain and collapse bubbles.  FIGS. 1A and 1B  depict an exemplary piping and instrumentation layout of the apparatus  10 , including subsystems, shown separated and shown over two pages. 
         [0030]    A controlled linear stream of carbon dioxide bubbles, which could be approximately 0.5 micron to 1 mm diameter in size, is injected into a pumped water media at the inlet, but outside of the casing, of a regenerative turbine pump. The carbon dioxide bubbles are then collapsed, to approximately 0.1 um to 0.2 um, in less than approximately 4 milliseconds with a pressure rise of approximately 1,000 psig, for example, while entrained in the helical pumped media flow within the regenerative turbine pump impeller&#39;s blade channel so that a plasma hot spot is formed at the center of each collapsed bubble. In this way carbon dioxide gas is brought into close proximity to hydrogen released from water at the high pressure reached at the core of the collapsed carbon dioxide bubble (approximately 7,200 psig, for example) and the commensurate collapsed bubble domain&#39;s high temperature (greater than approximately 2,000° C., for example), resulting in carbon dioxide reduction to carbon monoxide and methane. 
         [0031]    Referring to  FIGS. 1A and 1B , an exemplary apparatus is generally indicated at  10 . Proceeding from the apparatus inlet downstream through to the apparatus discharge, the liquid flow into the apparatus begins with an inlet pipe  14  connected between water source  12  and process water supply tank  20 . Delivery pressure at the inlet pipe  14  centerline is preferably equal to or greater than the net positive suction head required (NPSHr) by the regenerative turbine pump  60  at its expected maximum flow during carbon dioxide reduction and is also preferably greater than the expected maximum pressure required by the bubble generation apparatus  30 , approximately 3 to 5 psig, for example. 
         [0032]    When the system is initially started, the process water supply tank  20  is filled from the water source to an initial level as controlled by the process water supply level controller  18 . After initial fill and during system operation process water is recirculated from the gas liquid separator  90  and returned to the process water supply tank  20 . Insufficient suction head at the inlet pipe  14  can be overcome through the addition of a water booster pump (not shown) between the process water supply tank  20  and the inlet pressure control valve  24 . During operation, process water is converted to hydrogen and oxygen and reacted. Make-up water is added to the process water supply tank  20  as determined by the level controller  18  through motorized liquid level control valve  16  to restore water consumed by the carbon dioxide conversion reaction. 
         [0033]    When the regenerative turbine pump  60  is operating, the process water flows from the process water supply tank  20 , through the pump inlet pipe  22 , then through an inlet pressure control valve  24  with a motorized inlet valve pilot regulator  26  for controlling flow. The controller  100  actuates the motorized inlet valve pilot regulator  26  as directed by controller logic  101  and carbon dioxide reduction logic  106  in response to conditions in the pumped water at the pump inlet  61 , such as pressure and temperature measured by pump inlet pressure  111  and temperature  112  sensors. Pump inlet pressure sensor  111  may include pump pressure element  111   a , pump pressure transmitter  111   b  and pump pressure indicator  111   c . Temperature sensor  112  may include temperature element  112   a , temperature transmitter  112   b  and temperature indicator  112   c . The sensors comprise a detector element to measure and a transmitter to send the value. While the sensors are shown as discrete devices, the sensors could be a single device. Values sent from transmitters are shown to users on indicators, which can be local or remote gauges or computer graphical monitors. An example of a suitable commercially available pressure sensor/transmitter is Ashcroft Xmitr, 0-100 psi, 3″. The primary control algorithms, operation and detection sequencing instructions and setpoints or setpoint algorithms, are stored in the controller, which can be a PC, Panel-PC, PLC (programmable logic controller) or some other specific purpose programmable HMI (human-machine interface) device or controller. An example of a suitable commercially available PLC is Allen-Bradley Micrologix 1400 Model 1766-L32BWAA. An example of a suitable commercially available PLC software with PID algorithms is RSLogix 500 Professional. An example of a suitable commercially available PC is HP Compaq dx2450. 
         [0034]    The controller  100  calculates and adjusts the process water pressure setpoint downstream of the inlet pressure control valve  24  by adjusting the inlet pressure control valve  24  using the motorized inlet valve pilot regulator  26 . These adjustments can be made using the pump inlet pipe  22  process water condition information gathered by the pump inlet pipe sensors  40 ,  111  and  112 , regulating pressure as required by the inlet bubble generation, apparatus  30  and enabling sustained generation carbon dioxide bubbles having a size of approximately 0.5 micron to 1 mm in diameter, for example. Inlet bubble detector sensor  40  may include sensor element  40   a , transmitter  40   b  and indicator  40   c . The controller  100  can detect pump inlet pipe  22  pressure, temperature and generated bubble properties, and regulate apparatus inlet pressure, and calculate a new position setpoint for the motorized inlet valve pilot regulator  26 , which in turn adjusts the position of the inlet pressure control valve  24 , regulating the pump inlet pipe  22  pressure at the bubble generation apparatus  30 . In this way, changes in liquid supply temperature, pressure or other parameter values that occur during the operation of the apparatus, such as a level drop in a water supply  20  tank, pump inlet pipe  22  turbulence, performance change in an upstream connected process, change in liquid supply pressure, or a change in the flow rate requirements of the downstream subsystems can be detected and compensated for using closed-loop control, maintaining pressure and flow as required by the bubble generation apparatus  30 . 
         [0035]    Continuing with  FIGS. 1A and 1B , the process water flows from the inlet pressure control valve  24  through the inlet bubble generation apparatus  30 , where carbon dioxide gas is injected into the inlet pipe forming bubbles in the process water. Any suitable bubble production method using suitable apparatus and methods can be employed. It is expected that a useful configuration of the inlet bubble generation apparatus  30  will produce a steady, linear bubble stream in the range of approximately 9,000 to 10,000 bubbles per second, for example, with stable bubble diameters in the range of approximately 0.5 microns to 1 mm, for example. The aforementioned ranges can vary for different operating conditions. Also, it is desirable for the bubble generation apparatus  30  to produce a linear stream of bubbles as opposed to uncontrolled clouds of bubbles produced by some types of bubblers and elements of cavitation reactors, even if the number and size of bubbles in the cloud are controlled. The following configuration of the bubble generation apparatus  30 , while not representative of all possible alternatives as might be required for carbon dioxide reduction under all operating conditions, provides for bubble production in sufficient number, size, and placement. 
         [0036]    The bubble generation apparatus  30  uses an injection nozzle  32 , which is sized and shaped to produce bubbles based on flow rate and throughput of the system, installed in the pump inlet pipe  22  line, pointed downstream and axially centered in the pump inlet pipe  22  before the inlet bubble detection apparatus  40  or the regenerative turbine pump  60 , optionally followed by a vortex fitting (not shown) such as, for example, a standard NIBCO vortex insertion feeder manufactured by NIBCO, Inc., from Elkhart, Ind., or a Steinen Tan-Jet nozzle, manufactured by Wm. Steinen Mfg. Co., based in Parsippany, N.J., to assist bubble entrainment. In this arrangement the carbon dioxide gas supply  34  is connected to a compressor  36  which discharges the gas into a pressure regulated line. Inline gas injection nozzle pressure and compressor speed control programmable logic controller (PLC)  136  reads the ranged analog or digital injector pressure signal from the inline gas injection nozzle pressure  135  which may include pressure element  135   a , pressure transmitter  135   b  and pressure indicator  135   c . Gas injection nozzle PLC  136  continuously retrieves the current inline gas injection nozzle pressure setpoint  198  and recalculates a new pressure setpoint, transmitting a ranged analog or digital signal to the motorized gas pressure control valve  35  that regulates the injection nozzle pressure. If the inline gas injection nozzle pressure setpoint  198  cannot be achieved by the carbon dioxide gas supply  34  pressure, as regulated by the gas supply pressure controller  38 , which controls motorized gas pressure control valve  42 , then PLC  136  starts the compressor  36 , and using the gas injection nozzle pressure at sensor  135  as the process variable, upwardly adjusts the inline gas injection nozzle compressor speed setpoint  199  until the inline gas injection nozzle pressure setpoint  198  is fractionally exceeded. Fine downward gas pressure adjustment is accomplished by changing the pressure setpoint transmitted to the motorized gas pressure control valve  35 . Once PLC  136  calculates a pressure setpoint, it is transmitted to inline gas injection nozzle pressure control proportional-integral-derivative controller (PID)  137 , with injection nozzle pressure as the process variable. PLC  136  relays the current speed of the motor (not shown) of compressor  36  from the compressor speed controller  37  to inline gas injection nozzle compressor speed control PID  133  along with the current compressor speed setpoint  199 . This enables bubble generation across a wide range of operating pressures, and direct control of bubble content, size and number by varying the inline gas injection nozzle pressure setpoint  198  or the inline gas injection nozzle  32  shape or size, in addition to pressure of the liquid in the pump inlet pipe  22  regulated by the inlet pressure control valve  24 . 
         [0037]    Other bubble generator apparatus may be used instead of directly injecting bubbles into the fluid, as disclosed in commonly owned copending U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______, titled “Chemical Reactor System and Methods to Create Plasma Hot Spots in a Pumped Media,” and filed contemporaneously herewith. The disclosure of this application is expressly incorporated herein by reference. For example, gas bubbles could be aspirated through an eductor comprising a venturi having a side port for gas admittance. Pressure control before and after the venturi allows for the production of bubbles at a controlled rate. Alternatively, a venturi could be used to generate bubbles. 
         [0038]    Next, the process water containing entrained carbon dioxide bubbles passes through the inlet bubble detection apparatus  40 . Under fixed or low flow operating conditions, or with feedstock that is invariant in composition, it may be sufficient to monitor the bubble generation apparatus  30  operating conditions as reported by inlet pressure  111  and temperature  112  sensors without need for a bubble detection apparatus where the process output is suitable. Where such correlations are inadequate, or where bubble production parameter values must be more precisely controlled, additional analog or digital detection of the size and number of bubbles actually created may be required. In these applications, the controller  100  uses controller logic  101  that receives the analog or digital bubble production data signal output from the inlet bubble detection apparatus  40 , and in conjunction with other data from inlet sensors  111  and  112  data, calculates new operational parameter values, such as the pressure of the inlet bubble generating inline carbon dioxide injection nozzle  32 , establishing closed-loop bubble production control. The controller logic  101  could be programmed using any suitable high or low-level computer programming language, and could be embodied as computer-executable instructions stored in a computer-readable medium, such as flash memory or other type of non-volatile memory. The inlet bubble detection apparatus  40  can be any one of a number of devices that are designed to produce a ranged analog or digital signal that corresponds to the number and sizes of bubbles present in a particular location in a two phase liquid media, such as an interferometric laser imaging sizer, a broadband sound velocimeter, Doppler Sonography, or another acoustic technique for bubble sizing. Properties of the pumped media such as composition, opacity, inclusions, temperature, as well as the size and number of bubbles to be produced and the intended function of the invention will guide the selection of the appropriate inlet bubble detection apparatus  40  to be used in conjunction with a particular application. 
         [0039]    Next, the process water containing the entrained carbon dioxide bubbles passes from the inlet bubble detection apparatus  40  and enters the regenerative turbine pump  60 . The turbine pump design with pump inlet, discharge, casing, channel layout, and connecting piping arrangements and low internal clearances enables the regenerative turbine pump to entrain carbon dioxide gas bubbles in a helical flow of the pumped water within the pump casing&#39;s channel, preventing the bubbles from adhering to or forming on the internal surfaces of the pump or where the pumped bubble containing liquid media flows. 
         [0040]    Referring now to  FIGS. 2A-2C , the bubbles and process water pass through the pump inlet  61 , which preferably has a smooth, straight-walled bore with minimal change in internal diameter across the pumped media flow path and which preferably intersects the casing tangentially, so that turbulence within the pump inlet, and consequently disruption to bubble size and location in the flow path, is minimized. The pumped media then passes into the regenerative turbine pump&#39;s casing  62  where the process water is forced, by containment within the impeller&#39;s buckets  64  formed by impeller blade  65  within the pump casing&#39;s annular space, to flow in a helical pathway  66 . This occurs as the pumped liquid moves with the pump impeller  63  through the pump casing  62 . The process water rotates about the axis of the direction of flow, causing an entrained bubble  67  to remain at the center of the flow path, preventing its adhesion to the pump casing&#39;s  62  internal surfaces and restraining it to a single impeller bucket  64 . 
         [0041]    The rotational speed setpoint of the pump impeller  63  required to establish stable and complete carbon dioxide conversion is maintained and adjusted as required by the controller  100  (see  FIGS. 1A and 1B ) during apparatus operation. The rotational speed is set so that the number of impeller buckets  64  that pass by the pump inlet  61  per second closely matches the number of flow entrained bubbles that pass through the pump inlet  61  per second. In addition, the pump speed setpoint and the regulated pump inlet and discharge pressure setpoints are those values that cause the process water flow rate to be such that the carbon dioxide bubbles are moved singularly into the impeller buckets  64 , minimizing or eliminating the incidence of impeller buckets  64  that contain multiple bubbles or none during operation. Finally, the pump impeller  63  rotational speed and pump discharge  68  pressure are adjusted and maintained during operation that the bubbles individually entrained in the process water flow, and contained within individual impeller buckets  64 , are collapsed as the surrounding process water flows from the pump inlet  61  to the pump discharge  68  at cut-water  69  and the pressure within the bubble containing impeller buckets  64  increases from the pump inlet  61  pressure to the final regulated pump discharge  68  pressure. In this way the initial and final bubble sizes, rate of bubble collapse, and final collapsed bubble core temperature and pressure, and consequently the rate of carbon dioxide reduction, is directly and mechanically controlled. The actual rate of bubble collapse is determined by the difference between the initial and final bubble size and the rate of pressure rise within the pump casing  62 . Direct, automatic, mechanical control of these parameter values allows the apparatus function to be modulated, both initially and dynamically during operation, for optimal carbon dioxide reduction. 
         [0042]    An example of a regenerative turbine pump for use in the present apparatus is the Regenerative Turbine Chemical Pump made by Roth Pump Company, Rock Island, Ill. Roth regenerative turbine chemical duty pumps provide continuous, high pressure pumping of non-lubricating and corrosive liquids. These regenerative turbine pumps are provided with one piece, machined self-centering impellers for operation with a wide variety of chemicals with process heads up to 1400 ft. (427 m.), 600 psi (40 bar), TDH at 3500 rpm, NPSH from 3 to 14 ft. (0.91 to 4.2 m.), and temperatures to 450° F. (232° C.). Another example of a regenerative turbine pump for use with the present apparatus is Dynaflow Regeneration Turbine Pump made by Dynaflow Engineering, Middlesex, N.J. Another example of a regenerative turbine pump for use with the present apparatus is Model MT5003P3T6 made by Warrender, LTD., Wood Dale, Ill. 
         [0043]    Continuing downstream of the pump casing and referring to  FIGS. 1A and 1B , the pumped process water, now containing bubbles of and dissolved carbon monoxide, methane and hydrogen, passes out of the pump casing and through the pump discharge  68 . The pump discharge  68  also preferably has a smooth, straight-walled bore with minimal change in internal diameter across the pumped media flow path and also preferably intersects the casing tangentially, so that turbulence is minimized. 
         [0044]    Next the fuel gas laden process water passes through the optional discharge bubble detection apparatus  71 . Discharge bubble detection apparatus  71  may include sensor element  71   a , transmitter  71   b  and indicator  71   c . As with inlet detection, the controller  100  can monitor conditions or properties of the process water in order to determine the correct speed setpoint  109  of the regenerative turbine pump  60  and the correct pressure setpoints  108  of discharge pressure control valve  80 . To control bubble collapse rate and prevent incomplete reaction, detection and measurement of the number and size of carbon dioxide bubbles that remain in the process water stream discharged from the regenerative turbine pump  60  can be used to recalculate a correction to the pump speed or the discharge pressure setpoints  109 ,  108 . It is expected that the rate of bubble collapse within the regenerative turbine pump  60  will increase as the maximum pump discharge pressure setpoint  108 , as controlled by the regenerative turbine pump  60  impeller ( FIG. 2C ,  63 ) speed and regulated by the discharge pressure control valve  80 , is increased. 
         [0045]    Once bubble generation is underway, the optional discharge bubble detection apparatus  71  is used to detect and measure any bubbles that remain in the process water flow downstream of the regenerative turbine pump  60 . If bubbles are detected in the discharge flow, where none should be present, or if bubbles larger then those that should be present are detected, then the discharge pressure setpoint can be increased. 
         [0046]    An increase in regenerative turbine pump  60  discharge pressure can be accomplished in at least two ways. First, where the current discharge pressure setpoint, as regulated by the discharge pressure control valve  80 , is less than the shutoff, or maximum, pressure of the regenerative turbine pump  60  while operating at its current speed setpoint, then the discharge pressure control valve  80  is used to increase the discharge pressure setpoint. Second, where the current discharge pressure setpoint is equal to the maximum possible at the current regenerative turbine pump speed setpoint, then the pump impeller  63  speed setpoint is increased. Consequently, the maximum possible discharge pressure setpoint is increased. Once the regenerative turbine pump impeller  63  speed setpoint is increased, additional upward discharge pressure increase and regulation is accomplished by increasing the discharge pressure setpoint of the discharge pressure control valve  80 . In this way, the discharge pressure setpoint and the regenerative turbine pump  60  speed setpoint can be manipulated independently, allowing a particular application to achieve and sustain a particular discharge pressure setpoint, as required to collapse the generated bubbles, while at the same time varying the regenerative turbine pump impeller  63  speed setpoint. This enables the precise timing of the impeller buckets ( FIG. 2A ,  64 ) passing by the regenerative turbine pump  60  inlet to the number of bubbles output by the bubble generation apparatus  30 , enabling the aforementioned desired collapse of bubbles singularly in an isolated way at, for example, their eigenfrequencies. 
         [0047]    Again, continuing with  FIGS. 1A and 1B , the process water now passes by the discharge pressure  113  and temperature sensors  114 , as well as any other detectors or sensors that are installed to measure the composition or condition of the process water in the discharge pipe  75 . The discharge pressure and temperature sensors  113 ,  114  may include sensor elements  113   a ,  114   a , transmitters  113   b ,  114   b , and indicators  113   c ,  114   c . The process water flows through the discharge pressure control valve  80  and into the gas liquid separator  90 . The discharge pressure control valve  80  is configured for regulation of process water pressure upstream of the discharge pressure control valve  80 , that is, pressure regulation occurs in the discharge pipe  75  between the regenerative turbine pump  60  and the discharge pressure control valve  80 . The inlet pressure control valve  24 , on the other hand, regulates pump inlet pipe  22  pressure downstream of the inlet pressure control valve  24 . In this way, the pressure to collapse the carbon dioxide bubbles is set and regulated by combined manipulation of the discharge pressure control valve  80  pressure setpoint  108  and the regenerative turbine pump  60  speed setpoint  109 . 
         [0048]    Finally, the process water containing dissolved fuel gas and bubbles of fuel gas passes into the gas liquid separator  90 . Fuel gas is drawn out of the separator by action of the fuel gas transfer pump  92 . De-gasification is controlled by maintaining a stable light vacuum (for example, ˜0.95 atm) within the separator. Fuel gas transfer pump control PLC  206  receives the separator  90  pressure data from the gas liquid separator pressure sensor  209 , which may include pressure element  209   a , pressure transmitter  209   b , and pressure indicator  209   c  and uses this value as a process variable, continuously recalculating a speed setpoint  217  for the fuel gas transfer pump  92 . The pressure process control variable is transmitted to the fuel gas transfer pump speed control PID  207  along with the currently calculated fuel gas transfer pump speed setpoint  217 . PID  207  calculates and transmits an analog or digital signal representing the desired fuel gas transfer pump  92  speed setpoint  217  to the fuel gas transfer pump speed controller  208  which varies the delivered NC power frequency such that the fuel gas transfer pump  92  rotates at the speed setpoint  217 . PLC  206  communicates directly with PLC  211 , providing fuel gas production rate data to PLC  211  for use in overall process efficiency calculation and setpoint adjustment, and for process interruption and/or operational parameter adjustments in response to inefficient or improper operation as determined by conditions in the gas liquid separator  90 . The gas liquid separator liquid level controller  94  operates the process water transfer pump  96  as required, returning process water through the process water return pipe  98  to the process water supply  20 . The fuel gas transfer pump  92  delivers the carbon monoxide, methane and hydrogen fuel gas to either a fuel gas storage vessel (not shown) or to a fuel consuming device or process. 
         [0049]    The process water and fuel gas handling subsystems of the apparatus may be outfitted with relief, bypass or other unloader valves (not shown) and other safety devices and features as required by the nature of the particular application. Additionally, inlet and discharge isolation (not shown) and check valves (not shown) should be installed where required to prevent improper flow and to provide for apparatus isolation, testing and service. 
         [0050]    The controller  100  provides both operation condition detection and control services for the apparatus. In its role as a pump motor control system, the controller  100  generates and transmits to the variable frequency drive  126  motor controller start, stop and other variable frequency drive function commands and the pump motor speed setpoint  109  signal. The variable frequency drive  126  is connected to and provides power for the regenerative turbine pump  60  motor, controlling the motor&#39;s rotational speed and consequently the coupled regenerative turbine pump  60  speed as directed by the motor speed control pilot signal received from the controller  100 . In addition to regenerative turbine pump  60  motor control, the controller  100  operates the motorized inlet valve pilot regulator  26  and motorized discharge valve pilot regulator  82 , varying the inlet pressure, as regulated by the inlet pressure control valve  24 , and the discharge pressure, as regulated by the discharge pressure control valve  80 . The controller  100  also monitors and can record apparatus subsystem parameter values received from the pump inlet pipe  22  and discharge pipe  75  sensors  40 ,  71 ,  111 ,  112 ,  113 ,  114  and recalculates setpoints related to the system&#39;s operation as required by a particular application. 
         [0051]    The controller logic  101  stored and executed by the controller logic PLC  211  provides the controller  100  and the apparatus operational sequence and other functions. The controller logic  101  can be changed as required to include functions specific to a particular apparatus configuration.  FIGS. 1A and 1B  show an exemplary set of detectors and controlling devices for implementing the operational methods explained herein. Other configurations of the apparatus are possible using other equipment, detectors and controllers not shown, or not using some of the shown apparatus subsystems or components. To accommodate possible physical configuration changes to the apparatus, the controller logic  101 —those programming instruction pertaining to the installed apparatus and controller  100  device identification, state detection, control and task distribution—can be altered such as by uploading the program to an external computer or device for storage, required modification and subsequent download back to controller logic PLC  211 . Alternately, separate instances of apparatus configuration specific controller logic  101  can be stored locally in the controller  100  or in an external computer or device, to be uploaded or executed as required by the controller logic PLC  211 . Additionally, it may be necessary to change the operational sequence of the apparatus for a particular application. Carbon dioxide reduction logic  106 —such as the order of sensor or detector evaluation, the order of setpoint modification, the algorithms for setpoint modification, or algorithms used to identify and recover from operational fault states—may be stored in or accessible to and executed on the controller logic PLC  211 . As with controller logic  101 , a unique version of the carbon dioxide reduction logic  106  can be stored locally in the controller or on an external device or carbon dioxide reduction logic  106  can be uploaded to an external device or computer, modified, and downloaded back to the controller logic PLC  211 . Inlet pressure setpoint  107  and discharge pressure setpoint  108  data that describe operational parameters such as pressure, temperature and bubble properties, and pump motor speed setpoint  109  data, are provided as individual values, independent or dependant values or value ranges or algorithms used to calculate values or value ranges, may be stored with or accessible to controller logic PLC  211  and can be uploaded and downloaded to an external device or computer. In each case, where data or program code stored in or accessible to the controller logic PLC  211  is to be modified, rather than uploading, modifying and downloading existing setpoint data  107 ,  108 ,  109  controller logic  101  or carbon dioxide reduction logic  106  program code, it is also possible to access and modify this information on or accessible to the controller  100  directly using an external device or computer. In addition, an operator control panel (not shown) can be provided to allow manual control of the apparatus, manual entry of setpoint data  107 ,  108 ,  109 , manual manipulation of or interaction with controller logic  101  or carbon dioxide reduction logic  106 , or manual control of invention subsystems or components directly, such as the pressure control valves  24 ,  80  or the variable frequency drive  126 . 
         [0052]    The external link PLC  118  provides a direct connection and controller  100  interface to an external device or computer, direct access to the data and program code stored on or with the controller PLC  211  from an external device, and logic for automated or externally directed upload and download of carbon dioxide reduction logic  106  and controller logic  101  and setpoint data  107 ,  108 ,  109 . Where the apparatus is part of a larger system, the controller logic  101  can incorporate steps to accept directives from and report operational parameter values and status to an external system, computer or device. In these cases, the external link PLC  118  can be configured and programmed to marshal this external communication and control between the external device or computer and the controller logic PLC  211 . 
         [0053]    Note that although  FIGS. 1A and 1B  depict discrete PLC&#39;s in the controller  100 , such as one for external link  118  and one for controller logic  211 , as well as others such as inlet pressure control PLC  200 , discharge pressure control PLC  102 , pump motor speed control PLC  104 , these functions could be combined in a single PLC, a personal computer (PC) such as PC  119  or other similar device. In addition, while the external link PLC  118  and controller logic PLC  211 , as well as the other PLC&#39;s  200 ,  102 ,  104  and PID&#39;s including inlet pressure control PID  201 , discharge pressure control PID  103  and pump motor speed control PID  105 , are shown in  FIGS. 1A and 1B  to be incorporated into a single controller, devices performing these functions could be installed in separate locations as part of separate controllers—this alternate control component arrangement may be likely where the apparatus is incorporated into a larger overall process or system. Also, while controller logic  101  and carbon dioxide reduction logic  106  are depicted in  FIGS. 1A and 1B  as residing in and executing on the controller logic PLC  211 , it is possible that the controller logic  101  could reside in and execute on a different PLC, PC or other similar device than the one that stores and runs carbon dioxide reduction logic  106 , and these separate PLC or alternate devices could also reside in separate controllers. Similar variation in component function distribution, grouping or placement is possible with the other sensor-transmitter-indicator devices such as  40 ,  71 ,  110 ,  111 ,  112 ,  113 ,  114 ,  135 , PLC  200 ,  102 ,  104  and PID  201 ,  103 ,  105  as well. The controller  100  component arrangements and functions rendered in  FIGS. 1A and 1B  are exemplary of stand-alone, self-contained operation and control of the apparatus, for use as depicted when the system is configured and connected upstream and downstream as shown, or as a design feature guide for different physical configurations of the invention or where the invention is incorporated as a single element or step in a multi-function or multi-step process. Consequently, in the discussion of the controller  100  component functions contained herein, it should be understood that where a particular PLC, PID or other device with specific functions is discussed, a PC, PLC or other functionally equivalent device could be substituted for the one described. Additionally, discrete functions performed by the described controller  100  component may be performed by another device along with other unrelated functions. 
         [0054]    Individual subsystem controls and instrumentation may be grouped in the controller  100  by related function and may be monitored and controlled as a group by a discrete individual PLC, PC or other similar device. This permits discrete subsystem data storage and programming. In this way the addition, configuration change or removal of subsystems or subsystem components requires only the addition, change, reprogramming or deletion of those corresponding elements of the controller  100  directly responsible for the state detection or control of the affected subsystem or component. 
         [0055]    Controller logic PLC  211  executes the controller logic  101  and carbon dioxide reduction logic  106  program instructions that direct the operational sequence of the apparatus subsystems, as previously described, and responds to external computer or operator requests. PLC  211  also handles operational sequence interruptions and operational parameter value data requests generated by the subsystem controllers PLC  200 , PLC  102  and PLC  104 . PLC  211  may also be used for handling and maintaining overall operational status information and requests for this information transmitted from the subsystem controllers and for relaying setpoint and subsystem status information between the apparatus subsystems as they request such data or status for their operation. Operational limit conditions, error states and other events than occur during invention operation that require the apparatus to change operational mode, halt, reset or communicate an operational or component status or alarm to an operator, external computer or device may also be handled by the controller logic PLC  211 . 
         [0056]    The inlet pressure control PLC  200  receives from controller logic PLC  211 , initially and periodically as required, inlet pressure setpoint  107  data, as values, value ranges or as an algorithm used to calculate a setpoint value or value range using pump inlet pipe  22  sensor  40 ,  111 ,  112  data. The inlet pressure setpoint  107  data values specify, for a particular application, the required pressure and temperature of the pumped media or the required number and size of bubble that emit from the bubble generation apparatus  30 , or both. Additionally, inlet pressure setpoint  107  data may be provided for other properties of the pumped media at the pump inlet pipe  22  or of the generated bubbles, if apparatus to measure these are present. Inlet pressure control PLC  200  receives ranged analog or digital signal input from sensor transmitters whose elements are mounted at the bubble generation apparatus  30  inlet, such as the inlet pressure transmitter  111   b  and the inlet temperature transmitter  112   b . Inlet pressure control PLC  200  is also connected to and receives a ranged analog or digital signal input from the inlet bubble detection apparatus  40 , which may be interpolated to represent the size and number of bubbles detected. Utilizing inlet pressure control, carbon dioxide reduction logic  106  and inlet pressure setpoint  107  data, inlet pressure control PLC  200  monitors pump inlet pipe  22  temperature, pressure, and other properties, as well as bubble number and size and recalculates continuously during operation the required target inlet pressure setpoint  107 . During operation, the inlet pressure setpoint  107  required to maintain uniform, stable, continuous operation of the bubble generation apparatus  30 , as specified by a particular application, may vary due to pump inlet pipe  22  or discharge pipe  75  turbulence, pumped media flow rate or temperature change, pump speed change, discharge pressure change, or change in another property of the bubbles or pumped media. As these changes occur, the properties of the generated bubbles may vary outside an application&#39;s specified range. Inlet pressure control PLC  200  can calculate a new inlet pressure setpoint  107  expected to mitigate the bubble property changes and restore bubble production to the application&#39;s specifications. This processing continues until interrupted by controller logic PLC  211 , which can provide new inlet pressure setpoint  107  data or direct inlet pressure control PLC  200  to set a specific inlet pressure setpoint  107  and stop processing. In addition, the controller  100  can provide panel mounted operators (not shown) and pump inlet pipe  22  sensor indicators—inlet pressure indicator PI  111   c , inlet temperature indicator TI  112   c —that enable manual control of the inlet pressure setpoint  107 . An inlet pressure setpoint  107  manually input via a panel operator may be processed by controller logic PLC  211  as setpoint data from an external device or computer would be and as a specific inlet pressure setpoint  107  with no additional processing by inlet pressure control PLC  200 . 
         [0057]    Once an inlet pressure setpoint  107  is calculated by inlet pressure control PLC  200  it is transmitted together with the current inlet pressure process variable to inlet pressure control PID  201 . PID  201  continuously receives updated inlet pressure process variable and setpoint pressure values. PID  201  then calculates and transmits a ranged analog or digital signal corresponding to the position of the motorized inlet valve pilot regulator  26  required to set the inlet pressure control valve  24  to the inlet pressure setpoint  107 . If the motorized inlet valve pilot regulator  26  is equipped with its own controller, inlet pressure control PID  201  will transmit a ranged analog or digital signal representing the inlet pressure setpoint  107  to the motorized inlet pilot valve&#39;s controller, which will in turn calculate the required pilot valve position to set the inlet pressure control valve  24  to the inlet pressure setpoint  107 . 
         [0058]    Alternately, controller logic PLC  211  can direct—either as part of its intrinsic logic or as commanded by an external computer or device or operator—inlet pressure control PLC  200  to use the analog or digital signal from the inlet bubble detection apparatus  40  as the inlet pressure control PID  201  process variable. Two sequential operational modes are employed to implement this control technique. First, inlet pressure control PLC  200 , using the aforementioned inlet pressure setpoint  107  handling techniques and in conjunction with inlet pressure control PID  201 , sets the inlet pressure so that the bubble generation apparatus  30  is operating within application specifications for bubble number and size. Second, the interpolated analog or digital signal from the inlet bubble detection apparatus  40  corresponding to the optimal bubble properties is captured and used as the controlling setpoint in place of the inlet pressure setpoint  107 . This captured setpoint signal is continuously transmitted together with the signal from the inlet bubble detection apparatus  40 , which in this case is used as the process variable, to inlet pressure control PID  201 . PID  201  subsequently varies the position signal or pressure value transmitted to the motorized inlet valve pilot regulator  26 , and consequently the regulated pressure at the bubble generation apparatus  30  inlet, in response to changes in bubble properties. In this way closed loop control of the inlet pressure required by the bubble generation apparatus  30  is continued in response to the inlet bubble detection apparatus  40  signal. Inlet pressure control PLC  200  can continue its control operation in this alternate mode or switch back to inlet pressure setpoint  107 , and detected inlet pressure process variable based control of inlet pressure control PID  201 . 
         [0059]    Once the motorized inlet valve pilot regulator  26  position is set, the inlet pressure control valve  24  will maintain the set pressure without further pilot control adjustment. Consequently, in applications where repeated or continuous change in or adjustment of the inlet pressure setpoint  107  does not occur during normal operation, the inlet pressure control PID  201  can be omitted or replaced with a proportional-integral controller (PI) or other similar, simpler, proportional controller. It is understood, however, that in many applications, fine control of inlet pressure setpoint  107  variations will be required to sustain optimal apparatus operational parameter values. 
         [0060]    Once bubbles are generated, they pass through the regenerative turbine pump  60  and are collapsed. Discharge pressure control PLC  102  and pump motor speed control PLC  104  both contribute to the process of pump discharge  68  and discharge pipe  75  pressure control. Discharge pressure control PLC  102  receives discharge pressure setpoint  108  data from controller logic PLC  211 , initially and periodically, similar to inlet pressure control PLC  200 , as values, ranges or algorithms to calculate the discharge pressure setpoint. Discharge pressure control PLC  102  receives and monitors ranged analog or digital signals from the discharge pipe  75  mounted sensors: discharge pressure sensor  113 , discharge temperature sensor  114 , and discharge bubble detection apparatus  71 , as well as any other properties of the discharged process water that the apparatus might be additionally equipped to detect. Discharge pressure control PLC  102  continuously monitors the various aforementioned discharge pipe  75  process variables and recalculates the discharge pressure setpoint  108  required to collapse the bubbles at the rate and to the size required by the particular application. Similarly to bubble generation control, bubble collapse rate, final bubble size, or total bubble collapse control may require variable discharge pressure and pump rotation speed setpoints as operational parameters change. Discharge pressure control PLC  102  monitors discharge pipe process variables and continuously recalculates the discharge pressure setpoint  108  expected to mitigate any variance from bubble collapse specifications for an application. 
         [0061]    Operation of the discharge pressure control valve  80 , through operation of the motorized discharge valve pilot regulator  82  by discharge pressure control PID  103 , as directed by pressure control PLC  102 , utilize signal types, signal processing, process variable selection—such as discharge pressure or discharge bubble detection apparatus  71  signal—and operational considerations and control techniques similar to the analogous pump inlet pipe  22  pressure control accomplished by inlet pressure control PLC  200  and PID  201 , motorized inlet valve pilot regulator  26  and inlet pressure control valve  24 . Remote control of the discharge pressure setpoint  108  by an external computer or device can be relayed through controller logic PLC  211  and discharge pressure control PLC  102 . Also, as is the case with manual pump inlet pipe  22  pressure control, manual discharge pipe  75  pressure control is possible using panel mounted operators (not shown) and the feedback from the panel mounted indicators including valve position indicator  110 , speed indicator  134 , valve position indicator  132 , pump speed indicator  115 , pump speed indicator  215 , discharge pressure indicator  113 , discharge temperature indicator  114 , and discharge bubble detection apparatus indicator  71 , and the motorized discharge valve pilot regulator  82  position indicator  116 . 
         [0062]    As hereinbefore set forth, the rotational speed setpoint  109  of the regenerative turbine pump  60  can be calculated by the controller  100  considering various factors. For example, the pump motor speed setpoint  109  must be high enough that the regenerative turbine pump  60 , when its impeller ( FIG. 2A ,  63 ) is driven at the pump motor speed setpoint  109 , will output a minimum pressure equal to or greater then the calculated discharge pressure setpoint  108 . Subsequent to reaching the aforementioned minimum rotational speed, the pump motor speed setpoint  109  can be upwardly (or to a limited degree downwardly) adjusted so that the rate of the passage of the regenerative turbine pump  60  impeller&#39;s buckets ( FIG. 2A ,  64 ) matches the generated bubble production rate. In this way the bubbles flow singularly into the regenerative turbine pump&#39;s  60  impeller buckets. 
         [0063]    To accomplish this, the controller  100  permits direct interaction between discharge pressure control PLC  102  and pump motor speed control PLC  104  and relays inlet bubble detection apparatus  40  interpolated data that provides the number of bubbles generated per minute (or other time interval) from inlet pressure control PLC  200 , via the controller logic PLC  211 , to pump motor speed control PLC  104 . 
         [0064]    Controller logic PLC  211 , in addition to and in support of controller logic  101 , also stores and distributes to the controller&#39;s subsystems PLC  200 ,  102 ,  104  upon request parametric data describing the operational performance characteristics and limits of the current configurations of the apparatus subsystems, including information about the installed regenerative turbine pump  60 . This pump configuration information can include performance curve data based on the regenerative turbine pump&#39;s  60  rotational speed, providing specifications such as maximum discharge pressure, maximum rotational speed, or flow rate, horsepower requirement or NPSHr as a function of the rotational speed. This configuration data is used by the apparatus subsystems&#39; control PLC  200 ,  102 ,  104  to verify setpoint data ranges and identify out of limit operational conditions and for operational error control. In addition to this standard pump performance curve information, data regarding the regenerative turbine pump  60  impeller&#39;s ( FIG. 2A ,  63 ) design is stored accessible to the controller logic PLC  211  and reported to pump motor speed control PLC  104 , including the number of impeller buckets ( FIG. 2A ,  64 ) along the circumference of the pump&#39;s impeller. 
         [0065]    Controller logic PLC  211 , using the stored subsystem configuration data, controller logic  101 , carbon dioxide reduction logic  106 , and setpoint data  107 ,  108 ,  109 , retrieves or calculates and then transmits at operation startup an initial discharge pressure setpoint  108  to the discharge pressure control PLC  102  and an initial pump motor speed setpoint  109  to the pump motor speed control PLC  104 . The discharge pressure control PLC  102  then recalculates the discharge pressure setpoint  108  and transmits it, along with the process variable, either the pump discharge pipe  75  pressure sensor  113  signal or the discharge bubble detection apparatus  71  signal, to the discharge pressure control PID  103  so it can position the motorized discharge valve pilot regulator  82 . If the bubble collapse rate is insufficient, or the final bubble size is greater than the invention application specification, or bubbles are to be totally collapsed and yet are still seen by the discharge bubble detection apparatus  71 , then the discharge pressure setpoint  108  is increased. The newly calculated higher discharge pressure setpoint  108  is transmitted directly from discharge pressure control PLC  102  to pump motor speed control PLC  104 . PLC  104  evaluates the current discharge pressure setpoint  108 , and using the stored regenerative turbine pump performance data, in conjunction with the current pump motor speed setpoint  109 , determines whether the maximum pressure at the current pump motor speed setpoint  109  is greater than the transmitted newly calculated higher discharge pressure setpoint  108 . If the current pump motor speed setpoint  109  is too low, pump motor speed control PLC  104  calculates a new pump motor speed setpoint  109  to cause the regenerative turbine pump  60  to output at least the new discharge pressure setpoint  108  requested by the discharge pressure control PLC  102 . Conversely, where the collapsed bubbles are too small or the calculated collapse rate is too great, the discharge pressure setpoint  108 , and possibly the pump motor speed setpoint  109  can be lowered. Both of these processes can be implemented using a ranged analog or digital signal representing the speed setpoint, calculated by pump motor speed control PID  105  and transmitted to the variable frequency drive  126 , which in turn varies the power frequency supplied to the pump&#39;s motor so that it rotates at the pump motor speed setpoint  109 . The variable frequency drive  126  continuously returns operational status data, including current actual pump motor rotational speed, to the pump motor speed control PLC  104 , which in turn relays this actual pump motor rotational speed data to the pump motor speed control PID  105  as the process variable. Once the final adjustment of the pump motor speed setpoint  109  is complete and bubble collapse occurs as desired, pump motor speed control PLC  104  can switch the process variable used by the pump motor speed control PID  105  from the actual rotational speed signal relayed from the variable frequency drive  126  to the bubble properties signal transmitted from the discharge bubble detection apparatus  71 . As with inlet pressure control, the discharge pressure control PID  103  and the pump motor speed control PID  105  process variables can be switched as required between the actual discharge pipe pressure as detected by the discharge pressure sensor  113  or the discharge bubble detection apparatus  71  signal. 
         [0066]    Once the minimum discharge pressure setpoint  108  for a bubble collapse rate and final bubble size for a particular application is achieved, fine pump motor speed setpoint  109  adjustment can commence. To accomplish this, pump motor speed control PLC  104  requests the current bubble generation rate from PLC  211 , which in turn retrieves the current inlet bubble detection apparatus  40  bubble property values from inlet pressure control PLC  200 . Once the current bubble production rate is retrieved, pump motor speed control PLC  104  then calculates the current impeller bucket ( FIG. 2A ,  64 ) passage rate as impeller ( FIG. 2A ,  63 ) revolutions per minute (or other time interval) multiplied by the total number of impeller buckets  64  on the impeller&#39;s circumference, yielding the total number of impeller buckets passing by the pump inlet  61  per minute or other time interval. With this bubble generation rate data and impeller bucket passage rate data, pump motor speed control PLC  104  continuously recalculates a new pump motor speed setpoint  109  that synchronizes the impeller bucket passage rate to the bubble generation rate so that the bubbles are collapsed singly in the impeller buckets  64 . 
         [0067]    It should be understood that to accomplish the timing between generated bubble and impeller bucket  64 , and as a pre-requisite step of application design, the number of bubbles generated and number of impeller buckets should be coordinated so that the impeller can be rotated at the minimum speed to collapse the bubbles as required by an application using a particular impeller design and bubble generation apparatus  30  configuration. 
         [0068]    The apparatus can be operated in one of at least three separate purpose modes: as directed by an external device or computer, or as directed by algorithms executed by controller logic PLC  211  using controller  100  and residing controller logic  101 , carbon dioxide reduction logic  106  and setpoint data  107 ,  108 ,  109 , or manually using panel mounted controls and indicators. In each of these three modes, the operational parameter values and setpoints, or the algorithms used to calculate them, as well as the useful subsystem process variable identities, are known and are input as controller carbon dioxide reduction logic  106  and setpoint data  107 ,  108 ,  109  intended and expected to achieve a particular operational result. 
         [0069]    In another mode, where the controller  100  is used as a tool to determine the optimal operational parameter values and the identities of those process variables required to produce a particular functional result. In this experimental or application development operational mode, the setpoint data  107 ,  108 ,  109  submitted represent test value ranges, or are algorithms used to calculate test value ranges, and include target performance specifications for bubble production and collapse. In this mode, the carbon dioxide reduction logic  106  can provide both an operational test sequence algorithm that controls how each setpoint should be varied across the submitted setpoint data  107 ,  108 ,  109  range, as well as an algorithm and criteria to evaluate each set of operational parameter values against the target application performance specifications. During test execution, carbon dioxide reduction logic  106  stores those operational setpoints that provide useful results, either a good fit or a poor match to the target performance. 
         [0070]    The controller  100  can be used as an analytical tool to determine the optimal operational parameter values required for producing bubbles of a certain size and collapsing them at a specific rate to plasma hot spots or as required by a particular application of the invention. The controller  100  allows automatic sequential execution of operational trials using electronically stored inlet and discharge pressure setpoint values or value ranges and pump speed setpoint values or value ranges that may produce desirable performance characteristics, as required by a particular application. The controller  100  automatically recalculates and varies the operational setpoints using the originally input setpoint values or value ranges and value modification algorithms residing in the controller. Alternately, the operational trials could be directed using an external computer, PLC or other functionally equivalent device to submit test setpoint data  107 ,  108 ,  109  and test application logic to controller PLC  211 , through external interface PLC  118 . Once testing is complete, result data can be read by or uploaded to an external computer or device for storage or further analysis. Rather than storing only criteria matching operational test data, all result data could be stored, locally in the controller  100  or on a remote computer or storage device for further analysis. The controller  100  concurrently records and subsequently analyses the trial operational results. In this way, an application protocol describing the operational conditions and process variable selections most likely to produce a desired result with the apparatus can be developed using the apparatus and controller  100  as reporting those setpoint combinations yielding desirable or best fit operational characteristics using controller residing result evaluation algorithms. 
         [0071]      FIG. 3  is a flowchart showing processing steps that are carried out by the controller logic  101  of the present invention. Beginning in step  1010 , the controller logic  101  inventories subsystems and obtains the status of the subsystems. A determination is made in step  1020  as to whether any errors are present. If errors are present, in step  1030  the errors are displayed and the status of the errors is transmitted for review, and then the system is halted in step  1040 . Otherwise, if there are no errors in step  1020 , a determination is made as whether to initiate automatic control mode in step  1050 . If a negative determination is made, in step  1060  another determination is made as to whether to initiate manual control mode. If a negative determination is made, yet another determination is made as to whether to initiate external control mode in step  1070 . If external control mode is not executed, a control mode error is transmitted (“thrown”) in step  1080  and the processing reverts to step  1030  in which error stats are displayed and the status is transmitted. 
         [0072]    If automatic control mode is initiated in step  1050 , the setpoint data  107 ,  108 ,  109  is obtained from controller in step  1090 , and step  1120  occurs. If manual control mode is initiated in step  1060 , the setpoint data  107 ,  108 ,  109  are obtained from an operator panel in step  1100 , and step  1120  occurs. If external control mode is initiated in step  1070 , the setpoint data  107 ,  108 ,  109  are obtained from an external device in step  1110 , and step  1120  occurs. In step  1120 , the setpoint data is transmitted, the pump  60  and subsystems are started and the status is obtained. Thereafter, in step  1130  a determination is made as to whether the setpoint range is acceptable. If a negative determination is made, an input setpoint range error is thrown in step  1140 , and the processing reverts to step  1030 . If the setpoint range is acceptable, carbon dioxide reduction logic  106  is performed in step  1150 . 
         [0073]    Next, in step  1160 , a determination is made as to whether a subsystem error exists. If a positive determination is made, the processing reverts to step  1030 . If no errors exist, a determination is made as to whether to initiate operational command in step  1170 . If a positive determination is made, external or manual control mode operation command is processed in step  1180 , and then, in step  1190 , a determination is made as to whether to initiate new setpoint data. If a positive determination is made, the processing reverts to step  1050 . If not, the processing reverts to step  1150 . 
         [0074]    If operational command is not initiated in step  1170 , a determination is made as to whether there is a change in operational mode in step  1200 . If a positive determination is made in step  1200 , a determination is then made as to whether to halt the request in step  1210 . If a positive determination is made, the processing reverts to step  1030 . Otherwise, the processing reverts to step  1050 . If operational mode change is not performed in step  1200 , a determination is made as to whether to request subsystem data in step  1220 . If a positive determination is made, the subsystem data request is processed in step  1230 , and the operation of the system continues in step  1240 , and the processing reverts to step  1150 . Otherwise, the operation of the system continues in step  1240 , and the processing reverts to step  1150 . 
         [0075]      FIG. 4  is a flowchart showing processing steps of the carbon dioxide reduction logic  106 . Beginning in step  1300 , bubble generation logic is performed. In step  1310 , a determination is made as to whether any error states or events are present. If any error states or events are present, the processing reverts to step  1150 . Otherwise, bubble collapse logic is performed in step  1320 . In step  1330 , a determination is made as to whether any error states or events are present. If any error states or events are present, the processing reverts to step  1150 . If step  1330  determines that there are no error states or events, control returns to step  1300 . 
         [0076]      FIG. 5  is a flowchart showing processing steps of the bubble generation logic. Beginning in step  1400 , a determination is made as to whether any setpoints are out of range. If a positive determination is made, a bubble generation setpoint error is thrown in step  1410  and the processing reverts to step  1300 . Otherwise, a determination is made as to whether the bubble generation is acceptable in step  1420 . If a positive determination is made, the processing reverts to step  1300 . If the bubble generation is not acceptable, the inlet pressure setpoint is adjusted to correct bubble generation in step  1430 , and the process reverts to step  1400 . 
         [0077]      FIG. 6  is a flowchart showing processing steps of the bubble collapse logic. Beginning in step  1500 , a determination is made as to whether any setpoints are out of range. If a positive determination is made, a bubble collapse setpoint error is thrown in step  1510  and the processing reverts to step  1320 . Otherwise, a determination is made as to whether the bubble collapse is acceptable in step  1520 . If a positive determination is made, the processing reverts to step  1320 . If the bubble collapse is not acceptable, the discharge pressure setpoint is adjusted to correct bubble collapse in step  1530 . Next, in step  1540 , a determination is made as to whether the available pressure is too low. If a negative determination, the process reverts to step  1500 . Otherwise, the pump speed setpoint is increased in step  1550 , and the process reverts to step  1500 . 
         [0078]    It will be understood that the embodiments described herein are merely exemplary and that a person skilled in the art may make many variations and modifications without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. All such variations and modifications are intended to be included within the scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.