Abstract:
Provided herein are novel food additive polysaccharides. The polysaccharides of the invention can be used, for example to emulsify a food or to suspend compounds in a food composition. Also provided are algae capable of incorporating compounds into polysaccharides to alter the rheological properties of the polysaccharides. Also provided are large scale, low cost methods of precipitating and purifying novel hydrocolloids.

Description:
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
       [0001]     Carbohydrates have the general molecular formula CH 2 O, and thus were once thought to represent “hydrated carbon”. However, the arrangement of atoms in carbohydrates has little to do with water molecules. Starch and cellulose are two common carbohydrates. Both are macromolecules with molecular weights in the hundreds of thousands. Both are polymers; that is, each is built from repeating units, monomers, much as a chain is built from its links.  
         [0002]     Three common sugars share the same molecular formula: C 6 H 12 O 6 . Because of their six carbon atoms, each is a hexose. Glucose is the immediate source of energy for cellular respiration. Galactose is a sugar in milk. Fructose is a sugar found in honey. Although all three share the same molecular formula (C 6 H 12 O 6 ), the arrangement of atoms differs in each case. Substances such as these three, which have identical molecular formulas but different structural formulas, are known as structural isomers. Glucose, galactose, and fructose are “single” sugars or monosaccharides.  
         [0003]     Two monosaccharides can be linked together to form a “double” sugar or disaccharide. Three common disaccharides are sucrose, common table sugar (glucose+fructose); lactose, the major sugar in milk (glucose+galactose); and maltose, the product of starch digestion (glucose+glucose). Although the process of linking the two monomers is complex, the end result in each case is the loss of a hydrogen atom (H) from one of the monosaccharides and a hydroxyl group (OH) from the other. The resulting linkage between the sugars is called a glycosidic bond. The molecular formula of each of these disaccharides is C 12 H 22 O 11 =2 C 6 H 12 O 6 —H2O. All sugars are very soluble in water because of their many hydroxyl groups. Although not as concentrated a fuel as fats, sugars are the most important source of energy for many cells.  
       BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
       [0004]     The present invention relates to polysaccharides from microalgae. Representative polysaccharides include those present in the cell wall of microalgae as well as secreted polysaccharides, or exopolysaccharides. In addition to the polysaccharides themselves, such as in an isolated, purified, or semi-purified form, the invention includes a variety of compositions containing one or more microalgal polysaccharides as disclosed herein. The compositions include nutraceutical and industrial compositions which may be used for a variety of indications and uses as described herein.  
         [0005]     The invention further relates to methods of producing or preparing microalgal polysaccharides. In some disclosed methods, exogenous sugars are incorporated into the polysaccharides to produce polysaccharides distinct from those present in microalgae that do not incorporate exogenous sugars. The invention also includes methods of trophic conversion and recombinant gene expression in microalgae. In some methods, recombinant microalgae are prepared to express heterologous gene products, such as mammalian proteins as a non-limiting example, while in other embodiments, the microalgae are modified to produce more of a small molecule already made by microalgae in the absence of genetic modification.  
         [0006]     Additionally, the invention relates to methods of using the polysaccharides and/or compositions containing them. In some disclosed methods, one or more polysaccharides are used to stabilize or emulsify foods.  
         [0007]     So in one aspect, the invention includes a nutraceutical composition containing one or more polysaccharides disclosed herein and a carrier suitable for human consumption. In other aspects, the composition contains the carrier and homogenized microalgae cells, such as red microalgae cells as a non-limiting example. In some embodiments, the composition contains the carrier and a purified first polysaccharide produced from a microalgal species listed in Table 1, which lists non-limiting examples of microalgae for the practice of the invention. Non-limiting examples of the carrier include a human nutritional supplement, such as vitamins, minerals, herbal extracts, monosaccharides or polysaccharides (e.g. glucosamine, glucosamine sulfate, chondroitin, or chondroitin sulfate, etc.) and proteins (e.g. protein supplements, etc.); a human food product; and various human foods per se.  
         [0008]     In other aspects, the invention includes methods of preparing or producing a microalgal polysaccharide. In some aspects relating to an exopolysaccharide, the invention includes methods that separate the exopolysaccharide from other molecules present in the medium used to culture exopolysaccharide producing microalgae. In some embodiments, separation includes removal of the microalgae from the culture medium containing the exopolysaccharide, after the microalgae has been cultured for a period of time. Of course the methods may be practiced with microalgal polysaccharides other than exopolysaccharides. In other embodiments, the methods include those where the microalgae was cultured in a bioreactor, optionally where a gas is infused into the bioreactor.  
         [0009]     In one embodiment, the invention includes a method of producing an exopolysaccharide, wherein the method comprises culturing microalgae in a bioreactor, wherein gas is infused into the bioreactor; separating the microalgae from culture media, wherein the culture media contains the exopolysaccharide; and separating the exopolysaccharide from other molecules present in the culture media.  
         [0010]     The microalgae of the invention may be that of any species, including those listed in Table 1 herein. In some embodiments, the microalgae is a red algae, such as the red algae  Porphyridium , which has two known species ( Porphyridium  sp. and  Porphyridium cruentum ) that have been observed to secrete large amounts of polysaccharide into their surrounding growth media. In other embodiments, the microalgae is of a genus selected from  Rhodella, Chlorella , and  Achnanthes . Non-limiting examples of species within a microalgal genus of the invention include  Porphyridium  sp.,  Porphyridium cruentum, Porphyridium purpureum, Porphyridium aerugineum, Rhodella maculata, Rhodella reticulata, Chlorella autotrophica, Chlorella stigmatophora, Chlorella capsulata, Achnanthes brevipes  and  Achnanthes longipes.    
         [0011]     In some embodiments, a polysaccharide preparation method is practiced with culture media containing over 26.7, or over 27, mM sulfate (or total SO 4   2− ). Non-limiting examples include media with more than about 28, more than about 30, more than about 35, more than about 40, more than about 45, more than about 50, more than about 55, more than about 60, more than about 65, more than about 70, more than about 75, more than about 80, more than about 85, more than about 90, more than about 95, or more than about 100 mM sulfate. Sulfate in the media may be provided in one or more of the following forms: Na 2 SO 4 .10H 2 O, MgSO 4 .7H 2 0, MnSO 4 , and CuSO 4 .  
         [0012]     Other embodiments of the method include the separation of an exopolysaccharide from other molecules present in the culture media by tangential flow filtration. Alternatively, the methods may be practiced by separating an exopolysaccharide from other molecules present in the culture media by alcohol precipitation. Non-limiting examples of alcohols to use include ethanol, isopropanol, and methanol.  
         [0013]     In other embodiments, a method may further comprise treating a polysaccharide or exopolysaccharide with a protease to degrade polypeptide (or proteinaceous) material attached to, or found with, the polysaccharide or exopolysaccharide. The methods may optionally comprise separating the polysaccharide or exopolysaccharide from proteins, peptides, and amino acids after protease treatment.  
         [0014]     Other compositions of the invention may be formulated by subjecting a culture of microalgal cells and soluble exopolysaccharide to tangential flow filtration until the composition is substantially free of salts. Alternatively, a polysaccharide is prepared after proteolysis of polypeptides present with the polysaccharide. The polysaccharide and any contaminating polypeptides may be that of a culture medium separated from microalgal cells in a culture thereof. In some embodiments, the cells are of the genus  Porphyridium.    
         [0015]     In a yet further embodiment, a method of stabilizing or emulsifying a food composition is described. In one embodiment, a method includes adding a polysaccharide produced by microalgae into a food composition.  
         [0016]     In further aspects, the invention describes recombinant methods to modify microalgal cells. In some embodiments, the methods produce a microalgal cell that expresses an exogenous gene product. The exogenous gene product may encode a carbohydrate transporter protein as a non-limiting example. The recombinantly modified cells per se, whether newly created or maintained in culture, are also part of the invention.  
         [0017]     The invention also describes methods of recombinantly modifying a microalgal cell. In some embodiments, a method of trophically converting a microalgal cell, such as members of the genus  Porphyridium , is described. The method may include selecting cells for a phenotype after transforming cells with a nucleic acid molecule in an expressible form. In some methods, the phenotype may be the ability to undergo cell division in the absence of light and/or in the presence of a carbohydrate that is transported by a carbohydrate transporter protein encoded by the nucleic acid molecule.  
         [0018]     These methods may also be considered a method of expressing an exogenous gene in a microalgal cell. The method may include use of an expression vector containing a nucleic acid sequence encoding a polypeptide, such as a carbohydrate transporter protein. Alternatively, the method may include transforming a microalgal cell with a dual expression vector containing 1) a resistance cassette with a gene encoding a protein that confers resistance to an antibiotic, such as zeocin as a non-limiting example, operably linked to a promoter active in microalgae; and 2) a second expression cassette with a gene encoding a second protein operably linked to a promoter active in microalgae. After transformation, cells may be selected for the ability to survive in the presence of the antibiotic, such as at least 2.5 μg/ml zeocin as a non-limiting example where zeocin resistance is used. Alternatively, the antibiotic can be at least 3.0 μg/ml zeocin, at least 4.0 μg/ml zeocin, at least 5.0 μg/ml zeocin, at least 6.0 μg/ml zeocin, at least 7.0 μg/ml zeocin, and at least 8.0 μg/ml zeocin.  
         [0019]     The invention further relates to microalgal cells expressing a carbohydrate transporter protein for use in a method of producing a glycopolymer. In some embodiments, the method may include providing a transgenic cell containing an expressible gene encoding a monosaccharide transporter; and culturing the cell in the presence of at least one monosaccharide, transported into the cell by the transporter, wherein the monosaccharide is incorporated into a polysaccharide made by the cell.  
         [0020]     Alternatively, a method of trophically converting a microalgae cell may include selecting for the ability to undergo cell division in the absence of light after subjecting the microalgal cell to a mutagen and placing the cell in the presence of a molecule listed in Tables 2 or 3 herein.  
         [0021]     The details of additional embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the drawings and detailed description, and from the claims. 
     
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0022]      FIG. 1  shows precipitation of 4 liters of  Porphyridium cruentum  exopolysaccharide using 38.5% isopropanol. (a) supernatant; (b) addition of 38.5% isopropanol; (c) precipitated polysaccharide; (d) separating step.  
         [0023]      FIG. 2  shows  Porphyridium  sp. cultured on agar plates containing various concentrations of zeocin.  
         [0024]      FIG. 3  shows growth of  Porphyridium  sp. and  Porphyridium cruentum  cells grown in light in the presence of various concentrations of glycerol.  
         [0025]      FIG. 4  shows  Porphyridium  sp. cells grown in the dark in the presence of various concentrations of glycerol.  
         [0026]      FIG. 5  shows protein concentration measurements of autoclaved, protease-treated, and diafiltered exopolysaccharide.  
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION  
       [0027]     U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/411,910 is hereby incorporated in its entirety for all purposes. U.S. patent application Ser. No.: ______, filed ______, entitled “Polysaccharide Compositions and Methods of Administering, Producing, and Formulating Polysaccharide Compositions”, is hereby incorporated in its entirety for all purposes. All other references cited are incorporated in their entirety for all purposes.  
         [0028]     Definitions: The following definitions are intended to convey the intended meaning of terms used throughout the specification and claims, however they are not limiting in the sense that minor or trivial differences fall within their scope.  
         [0029]     “Active in microalgae” means a nucleic acid that is functional in microalgae. For example, a promoter that has been used to drive an antibiotic resistance gene to impart antibiotic resistance to a transgenic microalgae is active in microalgae. Nonlimiting examples of promoters active in microalgae are promoters endogenous to certain algae species and promoters found in plant viruses.  
         [0030]     “Axenic” means a culture of an organism that is free from contamination by other living organisms.  
         [0031]     “Bioreactor” means an enclosure or partial enclosure in which cells are cultured in suspension.  
         [0032]     “Carbohydrate modifying enzyme” means an enzyme that utilizes a carbohydrate as a substrate and structurally modifies the carbohydrate.  
         [0033]     “Carbohydrate transporter” means a polypeptide that resides in a lipid bilayer and facilitates the transport of carbohydrates across the lipid bilayer.  
         [0034]     “Carrier suitable for human consumption” refers to compounds and materials suitable for human ingestion or otherwise physiologically compatible with oral administration to humans. Usually, such carriers are of plant or animal origin. Although such carriers sometimes contain residual amounts of solvents and buffers used in the processing of the polysaccharides and other compositions of the invention, they do not consist exclusively of such solvents or buffers, and usually have less than 50% and preferably less than 10% w/w of such solvents or buffers.  
         [0035]     “Conditions favorable to cell division” means conditions in which cells divide at least once every 72 hours.  
         [0036]     “DHA” means Docosahexaenoic acid.  
         [0037]     “Exogenous gene” means agene transformed into a wild-type organism. The gene can be heterologous from a different species, or homologous from the same species, in which case the gene occupies a different location in the genome of the organism than the endogenous gene.  
         [0038]     “Exogenously provided” describes a molecule provided to the culture media of a cell culture.  
         [0039]     “Exopolysaccharide” means a polysaccharide that is secreted from a cell into the extracellular environment.  
         [0040]     “Filtrate” means the portion of a tangential flow filtration sample that has passed through the filter.  
         [0041]     “Fixed carbon source” means molecule(s) containing carbon that are present at ambient temperature and pressure in solid or liquid form.  
         [0042]     “Glycopolymer” means a biologically produced molecule comprising at least two monosaccharides. Examples of glycopolymers include glycosylated proteins, polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, and disaccharides.  
         [0043]     “Microalgae” means a single-celled organism that is capable of performing photosynthesis. Microalgae include obligate photoautotrophs, which cannot metabolize a fixed carbon source as energy, as well as heterotrophs, which can live solely off of light, solely off of a fixed carbon source, or a combination of the two.  
         [0044]     “Naturally produced” describes a compound that is produced by a wild-type organism.  
         [0045]     “Photobioreactor” means a waterproof container, at least part of which is at least partially transparent, allowing light to pass through, in which one or more microalgae cells are cultured. Photobioreactors may be sealed, as in the instance of a polyethylene bag, or may be open to the environment, as in the instance of a pond.  
         [0046]     “Polysaccharide material” is a composition that contains more than one species of polysaccharide, and optionally contaminants such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, such as, for example, a microalgal cell homogenate.  
         [0047]     “Polysaccharide” means a compound or preparation containing one or more molecules that contain at least two saccharide molecules covalently linked. A “polysaccharide”, “endopolysaccharide” or “exopolysaccharide” can be a preparation of polymer molecules that have similar or identical repeating units but different molecular weights within the population.  
         [0048]     “Port”, in the context of a photobioreactor, means an opening in the photobioreactor that allows influx or efflux of materials such as gases, liquids, and cells. Ports are usually connected to tubing leading to and/or from the photobioreactor.  
         [0049]     “Red microalgae” means unicellular algae that is of the list of classes comprising Bangiophyceae, Florideophyceae, Goniotrichales, or is otherwise a member of the Rhodophyta.  
         [0050]     “Retentate” means the portion of a tangential flow filtration sample that has not passed through the filter.  
         [0051]     “Substantially free of protein” means compositions that are preferably of high purity and are substantially free of potentially harmful contaminants, including proteins (e.g., at least National Food (NF) grade, generally at least analytical grade, and more typically at least pharmaceutical grade). Compositions are at least 80, at least 90, at least 99 or at least 99.9% w/w pure of undesired contaminants such as proteins are substantially free of protein. To the extent that a given compound must be synthesized prior to use, the resulting product is typically substantially free of any potentially toxic agents, particularly any endotoxins, which may be present during the synthesis or purification process. Compositions are usually made under GMP conditions. Compositions for parenteral administration are usually sterile and substantially isotonic.  
         [0000]     I General  
         [0052]     Polysaccharides form a heterogeneous group of polymers of different length and composition. They are constructed from monosaccharide residues that are linked by glycosidic bonds. Glycosidic linkages may be located between the C 1  (or C 2 ) of one sugar residue and the C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5  or C 6  of the second residue. A branched sugar results if more than two types of linkage are present in single monosaccharide molecule.  
         [0053]     Monosaccharides are simple sugars with multiple hydroxyl groups. Based on the number of carbons (e.g., 3, 4, 5, or 6) a monosaccharide is a triose, tetrose, pentose, or hexose. Pentoses and hexoses can cyclize, as the aldehyde or keto group reacts with a hydroxyl on one of the distal carbons. Examples of monosaccharides are galactose, glucose, and rhamnose.  
         [0054]     Polysaccharides are molecules comprising a plurality of monosaccharides covalently linked to each other through glycosidic bonds. Polysaccharides consisting of a relatively small number of monosaccharide units, such as 10 or less, are sometimes referred to as oligosaccharides. The end of the polysaccharide with an anomeric carbon (C 1 ) that is not involved in a glycosidic bond is called the reducing end. A polysaccharide may consist of one monosaccharide type, known as a homopolymer, or two or more types of monosaccharides, known as a heteropolymer. Examples of homopolysaccharides are cellulose, amylose, inulin, chitin, chitosan, amylopectin, glycogen, and pectin. Amylose is a glucose polymer with α(1→4) glycosidic linkages. Amylopectin is a glucose polymer with α(1→4) linkages and branches formed by α(1→6) linkages. Examples of heteropolysaccharides are glucomannan, galactoglucomannan, xyloglucan, 4-O-methylglucuronoxylan, arabinoxylan, and 4-O-Methylglucuronoarabinoxylan.  
         [0055]     Polysaccharides can be structurally modified both enzymatically and chemically. Examples of modifications include sulfation, phosphorylation, methylation, O-acetylation, fatty acylation, amino N-acetylation, N-sulfation, branching, and carboxyl lactonization.  
         [0056]     Glycosaminoglycans are polysaccharides of repeating disaccharides. Within the disaccharides, the sugars tend to be modified, with acidic groups, amino groups, sulfated hydroxyl and amino groups. Glycosaminoglycans tend to be negatively charged, because of the prevalence of acidic groups. Examples of glycosaminoglycans are heparin, chondroitin, and hyaluronic acid.  
         [0057]     Polysaccharides are produced in eukaryotes mainly in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus. Polysaccharide biosynthesis enzymes are usually retained in the ER, and amino acid motifs imparting ER retention have been identified (Gene. 2000 Dec. 31; 261(2):321-7). Polysaccharides are also produced by some prokaryotes, such as lactic acid bacteria.  
         [0058]     Polysaccharides that are secreted from cells are known as exopolysaccharides. Many types of cell walls, in plants, algae, and bacteria, are composed of polysaccharides. The cell walls are formed through secretion of polysaccharides. Some species, including algae and bacteria, secrete polysaccharides that are released from the cells. In other words, these molecules are not held in association with the cells as are cell wall polysaccharides. Instead, these molecules are released from the cells. For example, cultures of some species of microalgae secrete exopolysaccharides that are suspended in the culture media.  
         [0000]     II Methods of Producing Polysaccharides  
         [0059]     A. Cell Culture Methods: Microalgae  
         [0060]     Polysaccharides can be produced by culturing microalgae. Examples of microalgae that can be cultured to produce polysaccharides are shown in Table 1. Also listed are references that enable the skilled artisan to culture the microalgae species under conditions sufficient for polysaccharide production. Also listed are strain numbers from various publicly available algae collections, as well as strains published in journals that require public dissemination of reagents as a prerequisite for publication.  
                               TABLE 1                               Culture and                       polysaccharide           Strain Number/   purification method   Monosaccharide       Species   Source   reference   Composition   Culture conditions                     Porphyridium     UTEX 1  161   M. A. Guzman-Murillo   Xylose,   Cultures obtained from various sources and were         cruentum         and F. Ascencio., Letters   Glucose,   cultured in F/2 broth prepared with seawater               in Applied Microbiology   Galactose,   filtered through a 0.45 um Millipore filter or               2000, 30, 473-478   Glucoronic   distilled water depending on microalgae salt                   acid   tolerance. Incubated at 25° C. in flasks and                       illuminated with white fluorescent lamps.         Porphyridium     UTEX 161   Fabregas et al., Antiviral   Xylose,   Cultured in 80 ml glass tubes with aeration of         cruentum         Research 44(1999)-67-73   Glucose,   100 ml/min and 10% CO 2 , for 10 s every ten minutes                   Galactose and   to maintain pH &gt; 7.6. Maintained at 22° in 12:12                   Glucoronic   Light/dark periodicity. Light at 152.3 umol/m2/s.                   acid   Salinity 3.5% (nutrient enriched as Fabregas, 1984                       modified in 4 mmol Nitrogen/L)         Porphyridium  sp.   UTEX 637   Dvir, Brit. J. of Nutrition   Xylose,   Outdoor cultivation for 21 days in artficial sea               (2000), 84, 469-476.   Glucose and   water in polyethylene sleeves. See Jones (1963)               [Review: S. Geresh   Galactose,   and Cohen &amp; Malis Arad, 1989)               Biosource Technology 38   Methyl               (1991) 195-201]-   hexoses,               Huleihel, 2003, Applied   Mannose,               Spectoscopy, v57, No. 4   Rhamnose               2003         Porphyridium     SAG 2  111.79   Talyshinsky, Marina   xylose,   see Dubinsky et al. Plant Physio. And Biochem.         aerugineum         Cancer Cell Int&#39;l 2002, 2;   glucose,   (192) 30: 409-414. Pursuant to Ramus_1972--&gt;               Review: S. Geresh   galactose,   Axenic culutres are grown in MCYII liquid               Biosource Technology 38   methyl   medium at 25° C. and illuminated with Cool White               (1991) 195-201]1 See   hexoses   fluorescent tubes on a 16:8 hr light dark cycle.               Ramus_1972       Cells kept in suspension by agitation on a                       gyrorotary shaker or by a stream of filtered air.         Porphyridium     strain 1380-1a   Schmitt D., Water   unknown   See cited reference         purpurpeum         Research               Volume 35, Issue               3, Mar. 2001, Pages 779-785,               Bioprocess Biosyst               Eng. 2002 Apr; 25(1): 35-42.               Epub 2002 Mar 6         Chaetoceros  sp.   USCE 3     M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   See cited reference               and F. Ascencio., Letters               in Applied Microbiology               2000, 30, 473-478         Chlorella     USCE   M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   See cited reference         autotropica         and F. Ascencio., Letters               in Applied Microbiology               2000, 30, 473-478         Chlorella     UTEX 580   Fabregas et al., Antiviral   unknown   Cultured in 80 ml glass tubes with aeration of         autotropica         Research 44(1999)-67-73       100 ml/min and 10% CO2, for 10 s every ten                       minutes to maintain pH &gt; 7.6. Maintained at 22° in                       12:12 Light/dark periodicity. Light at 152.3                       umol/m2/s. Salinity 3.5% (nutrient enriched as                       Fabregas, 1984)         Chlorella     UTEX LB2074   M. A. Guzman-Murillo   Unknown   Cultures obtained from various sources and were         capsulata         and F. Ascencio., Letters       cultured in F/2 broth prepared with seawater               in Applied Microbiology       filtered through a 0.45 um Millipore filter or               2000, 30, 473-478       distilled water depending on microalgae salt                       tolerance. Incubated at 25° C. in flasks and                       illuminated with white fluorescent lamps.         Chlorella     GGMMCC 4     S. Guzman, Phytotherapy   glucose,   Grown in 10 L of membrane filtered (0.24 um)         stigmatophora         Rscrh (2003) 17: 665-670   glucuronic   seawater and sterilized at 120° for 30 min and                   acid, xylose,   enriched with Erd Schreiber medium. Cultures                   ribose/fucose   maintained at 18 +/− 1° C. under constant 1% CO 2                         bubbling.         Dunalliela     DCCBC 5     Fabregas et al., Antiviral   unknown   Cultured in 80 ml glass tubes with aeration of         tertiolecta         Research 44(1999)-67-73       100 ml/min and 10% CO2, for 10 s every ten                       minutes to maintain pH &gt; 7.6. Maintained at 22° in                       12:12 Light/dark periodicity. Light at 152.3                       umol/m2/s. Salinity 3.5% (nutrient enriched as                       Fabregas, 1984)         Dunalliela     DCCBC   Fabregas et al., Antiviral   unknown   Cultured in 80 ml glass tubes with aeration of         bardawil         Research 44(1999)-67-73       100 ml/min and 10% CO2, for 10 s every ten                       minutes to maintain pH &gt; 7.6. Maintained at 22° in                       12:12 Light/dark periodicity. Light at 152.3                       umol/m 2 /s. Salinity 3.5% (nutrient enriched as                       Fabregas, 1984)         Isochrysis     HCTMS 6     M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   Cultures obtained from various sources and were         galbana  var.       and F. Ascencio., Letters       cultured in F/2 broth prepared with seawater         tahitiana         in Applied Microbiology       filtered through a 0.45 um millipore filter or               2000, 30, 473-478       distilled water depending on microalgae salt                       tolerance. Incubated at 25° C. in flasks and                       illuminated with white fluorescent lamps.         Isochrysis     UTEX LB 987   Fabregas et al., Antiviral   unknown   Cultured in 80 ml glass tubes with aeration of         galbana  var.       Research 44(1999)-67-73       100 ml/min and 10% CO2, for 10 s every ten         Tiso                 minutes to maintain pH &gt; 7.6. Maintained at 22° in                       12:12 Light/dark periodicity. Light 152.3                       umol/m 2 /s. Salinity 3.5% (nutrient enriched as                       Fabregas, 1984)         Isochrysis  sp.   CCMP 7     M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   Cultures obtained from various sources and were               and F. Ascencio., Letters       cultured in F/2 broth prepared with seawater               in Applied Microbiology       filtered through a 0.45 um Millipore filter or               2000, 30, 473-478       distilled water depending on microalgae salt                       tolerance. Incubated at 25° C. in flasks and                       illuminated with white fluorescent lamps.         Phaeodactylum     UTEX 642, 646,   M. A. M. A. Guzman-   unknown   Cultures obtained from various sources and were         tricornutum     2089   Murillo and F. Ascencio.,       cultured in F/2 broth prepared with seawater               Letters in Applied       filtered through a 0.45 um Millipore filter or               Microbiology 2000, 30,       distilled water depending on microalgae salt               473-478       tolerance. Incubated at 25° C. in flasks and                       illuminated with white fluorescent lamps.         Phaeodactylum     GGMCC   S. Guzman, Phytotherapy   glucose,   Grown in 10 L of membrane filtered (0.24 um)         tricornutum         Rscrh (2003) 17: 665-670   glucuronic   seawater and sterilized at 120° for 30 min and                   acid, and   enriched with Erd Schreiber medium. Cultures                   mannose   maintained at 18 +/− 1° C. under constant 1% CO2                       bubbling.         Tetraselmis  sp.   CCMP   M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   Cultures obtained from various sources and were           1634-1640;   and F. Ascencio., Letters       cultured in F/2 broth prepared with seawater           UTEX 2767   in Applied Microbiology       filtered through a 0.45 um Millipore filter or               2000, 30, 473-478       distilled water depending on microalgae salt                       tolerance. Incubated at 25° C. in flasks and                       illuminated with white fluorescent lamps.         Botrycoccus     UTEX 572 and   M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   Cultures obtained from various sources and were         braunii     2441   and F. Ascencio., Letters       cultured in F/2 broth prepared with seawater               in Applied Microbiology       filtered through a 0.45 um Millipore filter or               2000, 30, 473-478       distilled water depending on microalgae salt                       tolerance. Incubated at 25° C. in flasks and                       illuminated with white fluorescent lamps.         Cholorococcum     UTEX 105   M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   Cultures obtained from various sources and were               and F. Ascencio., Letters       cultured in F/2 broth prepared with seawater               in Applied Microbiology       filtered through a 0.45 um Millipore filter or               2000, 30, 473-478       distilled water depending on microalgae salt                       tolerance. Incubated at 25° C. in flasks and                       illuminated with white fluorescent lamps.         Hormotilopsis     UTEX 104   M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   Cultures obtained from various sources and were         gelatinosa         and F. Ascencio., Letters       cultured in F/2 broth prepared with seawater               in Applied Microbiology       filtered through a 0.45 um Millipore filter or               2000, 30, 473-478       distilled water depending on microalgae salt                       tolerance. Incubated at 25° C. in flasks and                       illuminated with white fluorescent lamps.         Neochloris     UTEX 1185   M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   Cultures obtained from various sources and were         oleoabundans         and F. Ascencio., Letters       cultured in F/2 broth prepared with seawater               in Applied Microbiology       filtered through a 0.45 um Millipore filter or               2000, 30, 473-478       distilled water depending on microalgae salt                       tolerance. Incubated at 25° C. in flasks and                       illuminated with white fluorescent lamps.         Ochromonas     UTEX L1298   M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   Cultures obtained from various sources and were         Danica         and F. Ascencio., Letters       cultured in F/2 broth prepared with seawater               in Applied Microbiology       filtered through a 0.45 um Millipore filter or               2000, 30, 473-478       distilled water depending on microalgae salt                       tolerance. Incubated at 25° C. in flasks and                       illuminated with white fluorescent lamps.         Gyrodinium     KG03; KGO9;   Yim, Joung Han et. Al., J.   Homopolysac   Isolated from seawater collected from red-tide         impudicum     KGJO1   of Microbiol DECEMBER. 2004,   charide of   bloom in Korean coastal water. Maintained in f/2               305-14; Yim, J. H. (2000)   galactose w/   medium at 22° under circadian light at               Ph.D. Dissertations,   2.96% uronic   100 uE/m2/sec: dark cycle of 14 h:10 h for 19 days.               University of Kyung Hee,   acid   Selected with neomycin and/or cephalosporin               Seoul       20 ug/ml         Ellipsoidon  sp.   See cited   Fabregas et al., Antiviral   unknown   Cultured in 80 ml glass tubes with aeration of           references   Research 44(1999)-67-73;       100 ml/min and 10% CO2, for 10 s every ten               Lewin, R. A. Cheng,       minutes to maintain pH &gt; 7.6. Maintained at 22° in               L., 1989. Phycologya 28,       12:12 Light/dark periodicity. Light at 152.3               96-108       umol/m2/s. Salinity 3.5% (nutrient enriched as                       Fabregas, 1984)         Rhodella     UTEX 2320   Talyshinsky, Marina   unknown   See Dubinsky O. et al. Composition of Cell wall         reticulata         Cancer Cell Int&#39;l 2002, 2       polysaccharide produced by unicellular red algae                       Rhodella reticulata. 1992 Plant Physiology and                       biochemistry 30: 409-414         Rhodella     UTEX LB 2506   Evans, LV., et al. J. Cell   Galactose,   Grown in either SWM3 medium or ASP12, MgC12         maculata         Sci 16, 1-21(1974);   xylose,   supplement. 100 mls in 250 mls volumetric               EVANS, L. V. (1970).   glucuronic   Erlenmeyer flask with gentle shaking and 4000 lx               Br. phycol. J. 5, 1-13.   acid   Northern Light fluorescent light for 16 hours.         Gymnodinium  sp.   Oku-1   Sogawa, K., et al., Life   unknown   See cited reference               Sciences, Vol. 66, No. 16,               pp. PL 227-231 (2000)               AND Umermura, Ken:               Biochemical               Pharmacology 66 (2003)               481-487         Spirilina     UTEX LB 1926   Kaji, T et. Al., Life Sci   Na-Sp   See cited reference         platensis         2002 Mar 8; 70(16): 1841-8   contains two               Schaeffer and Krylov   disaccharide               (2000) Review-   repeats:               Ectoxicology and   Aldobiuronic               Environmental Safety.   acid and               45, 208-227.   Acofriose +                   other minor                   saccharides                   and sodium                   ion         Cochlodinuium     Oku-2   Hasui., et. Al., Int. J. Bio.   mannose,   Precultures grown in 500 ml conicals containing         polykrikoides         Macromol. Volume 17   galactose,   300 mls ESM (?) at 21.5° C. for 14 days in               No. 5 1995.   glucose and   continuous light (3500 lux) in growth cabinet) and                   uronic acid   then transferred to 5 liter conical flask containing 3                       liters of ESM. Grown 50 days and then filtered thru                       wortmann GFF filter.         Nostoc     PCC 8  7413,   Sangar, VK Applied   unknown   Growth in nitrogen fixing conditions in BG-11         muscorum     7936, 8113   Micro. (1972) &amp; A. M.       medium in aerated cultures maintained in log phase               Burja et al Tetrahydron       for several months. 250 mL culture media that were               57 (2001) 937-9377;       disposed in a temperature controlled incubator and               Otero A., J Biotechnol.       continuously illuminated with 70 umol photon m-2               2003 Apr 24; 102(2): 143-52       s-1 at 30° C.         Cyanospira     See cited   A. M. Burja et al.   unknown   See cited reference         capsulata     references   Tetrahydron 57 (2001)               937-9377 &amp; Garozzo, D.,               Carbohydrate Res. 1998               307 113-124; Ascensio,               F., Folia Microbiol               (Praha). 2004; 49(1): 64-70.,               Cesaro, A., et al., Int               J Biol Macromol. 1990               Apr; 12(2): 79-84         Cyanothece  sp.   ATCC 51142   Ascensio F., Folia   unknown   Maintained at 27° C. in ASN III medium with               Microbiol (Praha).       light/dark cycle of 16/8 h under fluorescent light of               2004; 49(1): 64-70.       3,000 lux light intensity. In Phillips each of 15                       strains were grown photoautotrophically in                       enriched seawater medium. When required the                       amount of NaNO3 was reduced from 1.5 to 0.35                       g/L. Strains axenically grown in an atmosphere of                       95% air and 5% CO2 for 8 days under continuous                       illumination. with mean photon flux of 30 umol                       photon/m2/s for the first 3 days of growth and 80                       umol photon/m/s         Chlorella     UTEX 343;   Cheng_2004 Journal of   unknown   See cited reference         pyrenoidosa     UTEX 1806   Medicinal Food 7(2)               146-152         Phaeodactylum     CCAP 1052/1A   Fabregas et al., Antiviral   unknown   Cultured in 80 ml glass tubes with aeration of         tricornutum         Research 44(1999)-67-73       100 ml/min and 10% CO2, for 10 s every ten                       minutes to maintain pH &gt; 7.6. Maintained at 22° in                       12:12 Light/dark periodicity. Light at 152.3                       umol/m2/s. Salinity 3.5% (nutrient enriched as                       Fabregas, 1984)         Chlorella     USCE   M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   See cited reference         autotropica         and F. Ascencio., Letters               in Applied Microbiology               2000, 30, 473-478         Chlorella  sp.   CCM   M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   See cited reference               and F. Ascencio., Letters               in Applied Microbiology               2000, 30, 473-478         Dunalliela     USCE   M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   See cited reference         tertiolecta         and F. Ascencio., Letters               in Applied Microbiology               2000, 30, 473-478         Isochrysis     UTEX LB 987   Fabregas et al., Antiviral   unknown   Cultured in 80 ml glass tubes with aeration of         galabana         Research 44(1999)-67-73       100 ml/min and 10% CO 2 , for 10 s every ten minutes                       to maintain pH &gt; 7.6. Maintained at 22° in 12:12                       Light/dark periodicity. Light at 152.3 umol/m2/s.                       Salinity 3.5% (nutrient enriched as Fabregas, 1984)         Tetraselmis     CCAP 66/1A-D   Fabregas et al., Antiviral   unknown   Cultured in 80 ml glass tubes with aeration of         tetrathele         Research 44(1999)-67-73       100 ml/min and 10% CO 2 , for 10 s every ten minutes                       to maintain pH &gt; 7.6. Maintained at 22° in 12:12                       Light/dark periodicity. Light at 152.3 umol/m2/s.                       Salinity 3.5% (nutrient enriched as Fabregas, 1984)         Tetraselmis     UTEX LB 2286   M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   See cited reference         suecica         and F. Ascencio., Letters               in Applied Microbiology               2000, 30, 473-478         Tetraselmis     CCAP 66/4   Fabregas et al., Antiviral   unknown   Cultured in 80 ml glass tubes with aeration of         suecica         Research 44(1999)-67-73       100 ml/min and 10% CO 2 , for 10 s every ten minutes               and Otero and Fabregas-       to maintain pH &gt; 7.6. Maintained at 22° in 12:12               Aquaculture 159 (1997)       Light/dark periodicity. Light at 152.3 umol/m2/s.               111-123       Salinity 3.5% (nutrient enriched as Fabregas, 1984)         Botrycoccus     UTEX 2629   M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   See cited reference         sudeticus         and F. Ascencio., Letters               in Applied Microbiology               2000, 30, 473-478         Chlamydomon     UTEX 729   Moore and Tisher   unknown   See cited reference       as  mexicana         Science. 1964 Aug 7;               145: 586-7.         Dysmorphococcus     UTEX LB 65   M. A. Guzman-Murillo   unknown   See cited reference         globosus         and F. Ascencio., Letters               in Applied Microbiology               2000, 30, 473-478         Rhodella     UTEX LB 2320   S. Geresh et al., J   unknown   See cited reference         reticulata         Biochem. Biophys.               Methods 50 (2002) 179-187               [Review: S. Geresh               Biosource Technology 38               (1991) 195-201]         Anabena     ATCC 29414   Sangar, VK Appl   In Vegative   See cited reference         cylindrica         Microbiol. 1972   wall where               Nov; 24(5): 732-4   only 18% is                   carbohydrate-                   Glucose                   [35%],                   mannose                   [50%],                   galactose,                   xylose, and                   fucose. In                   heterocyst                   wall where                   73% is                   carbohydrate-                   Glucose 73%                   and Mannose                   is 21% with                   some                   galactose and                   xylose         Anabena flosaquae     A37; JM   Moore, BG [1965] Can J.   Glucose and   See cited reference and APPLIED           Kingsbury   Microbiol.   mannose   ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY, April 1978,           Laboratory,   Dec; 11(6): 877-85       718-723)           Cornell           University         Palmella     See cited   Sangar, VK Appl   unknown   See cited reference         mucosa     references   Microbiol. 1972               Nov; 24(5): 732-4; Lewin               RA., (1956) Can J               Microbiol. 2: 665-672;               Arch Mikrobiol. 1964               Aug 17; 49: 158-66         Anacystis     PCC 6301   Sangar, VK Appl   Glucose,   See cited reference         nidulans         Microbiol. 1972   galactose,               Nov; 24(5): 732-4   mannose         Phormidium     See cited   Vicente-Garcia V. et al.,   Galactose,   Cultivated in 2 L BG-11 medium at 28° C. Acetone       94a   reference   Biotechnol Bioeng. 2004   Mannose,   was added to precipitate exopolysaccharide.               Feb 5; 85(3): 306-10   Galacturonic                   acid,                   Arabinose,                   and Ribose         Anabaenaopsis     1402/1 9     David KA, Fay P. Appl   unknown   See cited reference         circularis         Environ Microbiol. 1977               Dec; 34(6): 640-6         Aphanocapsa     MN-11   Sudo H., et al., Current   Rhamnose;   Cultured aerobically for 20 days in seawater-based         halophtia         Micrcobiology Vol. 30   mannose; fucose;   medium, with 8% NaCl, and 40 mg/L NaHPO4.               (1995), pp. 219-222   galactose;   Nitrate changed the Exopolysaccharide content.                   xylose;   Highest cell density was obtained from culture                   glucose In   supplemented with 100 mg/l NaNO 3 . Phosphorous                   ratio of   (40 mg/L) could be added to control the biomass                   :15:53:3:3:25   and exopolysaccharide concentration.         Aphanocapsa     See reference   De Philippis R et al., Sci   unknown   Incubated at 20 and 28° C. with artificial light at a       sp       Total Environ. 2005 Nov 2;       photon flux of 5-20 umol m −2  s −1 .         Cylindrotheca     See reference   De Philippis R et al., Sci   Glucuronic   Stock enriched cultures incubated at 20 and 28° C.       sp       Total Environ. 2005 Nov 2;   acid,   with artificial light at a photon flux of 5-20 umol                   Galacturonic   m-2 s-1. Exopolysaccharide production done in                   acid, Glucose,   glass tubes containing 100 mL culture at 28° C. with                   Mannose,   continuous illumination at photon density of 5-10                   Arabinose,   uE m-2 s-1.                   Fructose and                   Rhamnose         Navicula  sp   see reference   De Philippis R et al., Sci   Glucuronic   Incubated at 20 and 28° C. with artificial light at               Total Environ. 2005 Nov 2;   acid,   a photon flux of 5-20 umol m-2 s-1. EPS production                   Galacturonic   done in glass tubes containing 100 mL culture at                   acid, Glucose,   28° C. with continuous illumination at photon                   Mannose,   density of 5-10 uE m-2 s-1.                   Arabinose,                   Fructose and                   Rhamnose         Gloeocapsa  sp   See reference   De Philippis R et al., Sci   unknown   Incubated at 20 and 28° C. with artifical light at a               Total Environ. 2005 Nov 2;       photon flux of 5-20 umol m-2 s-1.         Leptolyngbya  sp   See reference   De Philippis R et al., Sci   unknown   Incubated at 20 and 28° C. with artificial light at a               Total Environ. 2005 Nov 2;       photon flux of 5-20 umol m-2 s-1.         Symploca  sp.   See reference   De Philippis R et al., Sci   unknown   Incubated at 20 and 28° C. with artificial light at a               Total Environ. 2005 Nov 2;       photon flux of 5-20 umol m-2 s-1.         Synechocystis     PCC 6714/6803   Jurgens UJ, Weckesser J.   Glucoseamine,   Photoautotrophically grown in BG-11 medium, pH               J Bacteriol. 1986   mannosamine,   7.5 at 25° C. Mass cultures prepared in a 12 liter               Nov; 168(2): 568-73   galactosamine,   fermentor and gassed by air and carbon dioxide at                   mannose and   flow rates of 250 and 2.5 liters/h, with illumination                   glucose   from white fluorescent lamps at a constant light                       intensity of 5,000 lux.         Stauroneis     See reference   Lind, JL (1997) Planta   unknown   See cited reference         decipiens         203: 213-221         Achnanthes     Indiana   Holdsworth, RH., Cell   unknown   See cited reference         brevipes     University   Biol. 1968 Jun; 37(3): 831-7           Culture           Collection         Achnanthes     Strain 330 from   Wang, Y., et al., Plant   unknown   See cited reference         longipes     National Institute   Physiol. 1997           for   Apr; 113(4): 1071-1080.           Environmental           Studies                  
 
         [0061]     Microalgae are preferably cultured in liquid media for polysaccharide production. Culture condition parameters can be manipulated to optimize total polysaccharide production as well as to alter the structure of polysaccharides produced by microalgae.  
         [0062]     Microalgal culture media usually contains components such as a fixed nitrogen source, trace elements, a buffer for pH maintenance, and phosphate. Other components can include a fixed carbon source such as acetate or glucose, and salts such as sodium chloride, particularly for seawater microalgae. Examples of trace elements include zinc, boron, cobalt, copper, manganese, and molybdenum in, for example, the respective forms of ZnCl 2 , H 3 BO 3 , CoCl 2 .6H 2 O, CuCl 2 .2H 2 O, MnCl 2 .4H 2 O and (NH 4 ) 6 Mo 7 O 24 .4H 2 O.  
         [0063]     Some microalgae species can grow by utilizing a fixed carbon source such as glucose or acetate. Such microalgae can be cultured in bioreactors that do not allow light to enter. Alternatively, such microalgae can also be cultured in photobioreactors that contain the fixed carbon source and allow light to strike the cells. Such growth is known as heterotrophic growth. Any strain of microalgae, including those listed in Table 1, can be cultured in the presence of any one or more fixed carbon source including those listed in Tables 2 and 3.  
                       TABLE 2                                       2,3-Butanediol           2-Aminoethanol           2′-Deoxy Adenosine           3-Methyl Glucose           Acetic Acid           Adenosine           Adenosine-5′-Monophosphate           Adonitol           Amygdalin           Arbutin           Bromosuccinic Acid           Cis-Aconitic Acid           Citric Acid           D,L-Carnitine           D,L-Lactic Acid           D,L-α-Glycerol Phosphate           D-Alanine           D-Arabitol           D-Cellobiose           Dextrin           D-Fructose           D-Fructose-6-Phosphate           D-Galactonic Acid Lactone           D-Galactose           D-Galacturonic Acid           D-Gluconic Acid           D-Glucosaminic Acid           D-Glucose-6-Phosphate           D-Glucuronic Acid           D-Lactic Acid Methyl Ester           D-L-α-Glycerol Phosphate           D-Malic Acid           D-Mannitol           D-Mannose           D-Melezitose           D-Melibiose           D-Psicose           D-Raffinose           D-Ribose           D-Saccharic Acid           D-Serine           D-Sorbitol           D-Tagatose           D-Trehalose           D-Xylose           Formic Acid           Gentiobiose           Glucuronamide           Glycerol           Glycogen           Glycyl-LAspartic Acid           Glycyl-LGlutamic Acid           Hydroxy-LProline           i-Erythritol           Inosine           Inulin           Itaconic Acid           Lactamide           Lactulose           L-Alaninamide           L-Alanine           L-Alanylglycine           L-Alanyl-Glycine           L-Arabinose           L-Asparagine           L-Aspartic Acid           L-Fucose           L-Glutamic Acid           L-Histidine           L-Lactic Acid           L-Leucine           L-Malic Acid           L-Ornithine           LPhenylalanine           L-Proline           L-Pyroglutamic Acid           L-Rhamnose           L-Serine           L-Threonine           Malonic Acid           Maltose           Maltotriose           Mannan           m-Inositol           N-Acetyl-DGalactosamine           N-Acetyl-DGlucosamine           N-Acetyl-LGlutamic Acid           N-Acetyl-β-DMannosamine           Palatinose           Phenyethylamine           p-Hydroxy-Phenylacetic Acid           Propionic Acid           Putrescine           Pyruvic Acid           Pyruvic Acid Methyl Ester           Quinic Acid           Salicin           Sebacic Acid           Sedoheptulosan           Stachyose           Succinamic Acid           Succinic Acid           Succinic Acid Mono-Methyl-Ester           Sucrose           Thymidine           Thymidine-5′-Monophosphate           Turanose           Tween 40           Tween 80           Uridine           Uridine-5′-Monophosphate           Urocanic Acid           Water           Xylitol           α-Cyclodextrin           α-D-Glucose           α-D-Glucose-1-Phosphate           α-D-Lactose           α-Hydroxybutyric Acid           α-Keto Butyric Acid           α-Keto Glutaric Acid           α-Keto Valeric Acid           α-Ketoglutaric Acid           α-Ketovaleric Acid           α-Methyl-DGalactoside           α-Methyl-DGlucoside           α-Methyl-DMannoside           β-Cyclodextrin           β-Hydroxybutyric Acid           β-Methyl-DGalactoside           β-Methyl-D-Glucoside           γ-Amino Butyric Acid           γ-Hydroxybutyric Acid                      
 
         [0064]    
       
         
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 (2-amino-3,4-dihydroxy-5-hydroxymethyl-1-cyclohexyl)glucopyranoside 
               
               
                 (3,4-disinapoyl)fructofuranosyl-(6-sinapoyl)glucopyranoside 
               
               
                 (3-sinapoyl)fructofuranosyl-(6-sinapoyl)glucopyranoside 
               
               
                 1 reference 
               
               
                 1,10-di-O-(2-acetamido-2-deoxyglucopyranosyl)-2-azi-1,10-decanediol 
               
               
                 1,3-mannosylmannose 
               
               
                 1,6-anhydrolactose 
               
               
                 1,6-anhydrolactose hexaacetate 
               
               
                 1,6-dichlorosucrose 
               
               
                 1-chlorosucrose 
               
               
                 1-desoxy-1-glycinomaltose 
               
               
                 1-O-alpha-2-acetamido-2-deoxygalactopyranosyl-inositol 
               
               
                 1-O-methyl-di-N-trifluoroacetyl-beta-chitobioside 
               
               
                 1-propyl-4-O-beta galactopyranosyl-alpha galactopyranoside 
               
               
                 2-(acetylamino)-4-O-(2-(acetylamino)-2-deoxy-4-O-sulfogalactopyranosyl)-2-deoxyglucose 
               
               
                 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethyl lactoside 
               
               
                 2,1′,3′,4′,6′-penta-O-acetylsucrose 
               
               
                 2,2′-O-(2,2′-diacetamido-2,3,2′,3′-tetradeoxy-6,6′-di-O-(2-tetradecylhexadecanoyl)- 
               
               
                 alpha,alpha′-trehalose-3,3′-diyl)bis(N-lactoyl-alanyl-isoglutamine) 
               
               
                 2,3,6,2′,3′,4′,6′,-hepta-O-acetylcellobiose 
               
               
                 2,3′-anhydrosucrose 
               
               
                 2,3-di-O-phytanyl-1-O-(mannopyranosyl-(2-sulfate)-(1-2)-glucopyranosyl)-sn-glycerol 
               
               
                 2,3-epoxypropyl O-galactopyranosyl(1-6)galactopyranoside 
               
               
                 2,3-isoprolylideneerthrofuranosyl 2,3-O-isopropylideneerythrofuranoside 
               
               
                 2′,4′-dinitrophenyl 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-beta-xylobioside 
               
               
                 2,5-anhydromannitol iduronate 
               
               
                 2,6-sialyllactose 
               
               
                 2-acetamido-2,4-dideoxy-4-fluoro-3-O-galactopyranosylglucopyranose 
               
               
                 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-3-O-(gluco-4-enepyranosyluronic acid)glucose 
               
               
                 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-3-O-rhamnopyranosylglucose 
               
               
                 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-6-O-beta galactopyranosylgalactopyranose 
               
               
                 2-acetamido-2-deoxyglucosylgalactitol 
               
               
                 2-acetamido-3-O-(3-acetamido-3,6-dideoxy-beta-glucopyranosyl)-2-deoxy-galactopyranose 
               
               
                 2-amino-6-O-(2-amino-2-deoxy-glucopyranosyl)-2-deoxyglucose 
               
               
                 2-azido-2-deoxymannopyranosyl-(1,4)-rhamnopyranose 
               
               
                 2-deoxy-6-O-(2,3-dideoxy-4,6-O-isopropylidene-2,3-(N-tosylepimino)mannopyranosyl)-4,5- 
               
               
                 O-isopropylidene-1,3-di-N-tosylstreptamine 
               
               
                 2-deoxymaltose 
               
               
                 2-iodobenzyl-1-thiocellobioside 
               
               
                 2-N-(4-benzoyl)benzoyl-1,3-bis(mannos-4-yloxy)-2-propylamine 
               
               
                 2-nitrophenyl-2-acetamido-2-deoxy-6-O-beta galactopyranosyl-alpha galactopyranoside 
               
               
                 2-O-(glucopyranosyluronic acid)xylose 
               
               
                 2-O-glucopyranosylribitol-1-phosphate 
               
               
                 2-O-glucopyranosylribitol-4′-phosphate 
               
               
                 2-O-rhamnopyranosyl-rhamnopyranosyl-3-hydroxyldecanoyl-3-hydroxydecanoate 
               
               
                 2-O-talopyranosylmannopyranoside 
               
               
                 2-thiokojibiose 
               
               
                 2-thiosophorose 
               
               
                 3,3′-neotrehalosadiamine 
               
               
                 3,6,3′,6′-dianhydro(galactopyranosylgalactopyranoside) 
               
               
                 3,6-di-O-methyl-beta-glucopyranosyl-(1-4)-2,3-di-O-methyl-alpha-rhamnopyranose 
               
               
                 3-amino-3-deoxyaltropyranosyl-3-amino-3-deoxyaltropyranoside 
               
               
                 3-deoxy-3-fluorosucrose 
               
               
                 3-deoxy-5-O-rhamnopyranosyl-2-octulopyranosonate 
               
               
                 3-deoxyoctulosonic acid-(alpha-2-4)-3-deoxyoctulosonic acid 
               
               
                 3-deoxysucrose 
               
               
                 3-ketolactose 
               
               
                 3-ketosucrose 
               
               
                 3-ketotrehalose 
               
               
                 3-methyllactose 
               
               
                 3-O-(2-acetamido-6-O-(N-acetylneuraminyl)-2-deoxygalactosyl)serine 
               
               
                 3-O-(glucopyranosyluronic acid)galactopyranose 
               
               
                 3-O-beta-glucuronosylgalactose 
               
               
                 3-O-fucopyranosyl-2-acetamido-2-deoxyglucopyranose 
               
               
                 3′-O-galactopyranosyl-1-4-O-galactopyranosylcytarabine 
               
               
                 3-O-galactosylarabinose 
               
               
                 3-O-talopyranosylmannopyranoside 
               
               
                 3-trehalosamine 
               
               
                 4-(trifluoroacetamido)phenyl-2-acetamido-2-deoxy-4-O-beta-mannopyranosyl-beta- 
               
               
                 glucopyranoside 
               
               
                 4,4′,6,6′-tetrachloro-4,4′,6,6′-tetradeoxygalactotrehalose 
               
               
                 4,6,4′,6′-dianhydro(galactopyranosylgalactopyranoside) 
               
               
                 4,6-dideoxysucrose 
               
               
                 4,6-O-(1-ethoxy-2-propenylidene)sucrose hexaacetate 
               
               
                 4-chloro-4-deoxy-alpha-galactopyranosyl 3,4-anhydro-1,6-dichloro-1,6-dideoxy-beta-lyxo- 
               
               
                 hexulofuranoside 
               
               
                 4-glucopyranosylmannose 
               
               
                 4-methylumbelliferylcellobioside 
               
               
                 4-nitrophenyl 2-fucopyranosyl-fucopyranoside 
               
               
                 4-nitrophenyl 2-O-alpha-D-galactopyranosyl-alpha-D-mannopyranoside 
               
               
                 4-nitrophenyl 2-O-alpha-D-glucopyranosyl-alpha-D-mannopyranoside 
               
               
                 4-nitrophenyl 2-O-alpha-D-mannopyranosyl-alpha-D-mannopyranoside 
               
               
                 4-nitrophenyl 6-O-alpha-D-mannopyranosyl-alpha-D-mannopyranoside 
               
               
                 4-nitrophenyl-2-acetamido-2-deoxy-6-O-beta-D-galactopyranosyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside 
               
               
                 4-O-(2-acetamido-2-deoxy-beta-glucopyranosyl)ribitol 
               
               
                 4-O-(2-amino-2-deoxy-alpha-glucopyranosyl)-3-deoxy-manno-2-octulosonic acid 
               
               
                 4-O-(glucopyranosyluronic acid)xylose 
               
               
                 4-O-acetyl-alpha-N-acetylneuraminyl-(2-3)-lactose 
               
               
                 4-O-alpha-D-galactopyranosyl-D-galactose 
               
               
                 4-O-galactopyranosyl-3,6-anhydrogalactose dimethylacetal 
               
               
                 4-O-galactopyranosylxylose 
               
               
                 4-O-mannopyranosyl-2-acetamido-2-deoxyglucose 
               
               
                 4-thioxylobiose 
               
               
                 4-trehalosamine 
               
               
                 4-trifluoroacetamidophenyl 2-acetamido-4-O-(2-acetamido-2-deoxyglucopyranosyl)-2- 
               
               
                 deoxymannopyranosiduronic acid 
               
               
                 5-bromoindoxyl-beta-cellobioside 
               
               
                 5′-O-(fructofuranosyl-2-1-fructofuranosyl)pyridoxine 
               
               
                 5-O-beta-galactofuranosyl-galactofuranose 
               
               
                 6 beta-galactinol 
               
               
                 6(2)-thiopanose 
               
               
                 6,6′-di-O-corynomycoloyl-alpha-mannopyranosyl-alpha-mannopyranoside 
               
               
                 6,6-di-O-maltosyl-beta-cyclodextrin 
               
               
                 6,6′-di-O-mycoloyl-alpha-mannopyranosyl-alpha-mannopyranoside 
               
               
                 6-chloro-6-deoxysucrose 
               
               
                 6-deoxy-6-fluorosucrose 
               
               
                 6-deoxy-alpha-gluco-pyranosiduronic acid 
               
               
                 6-deoxy-gluco-heptopyranosyl 6-deoxy-gluco-heptopyranoside 
               
               
                 6-deoxysucrose 
               
               
                 6-O-decanoyl-3,4-di-O-isobutyrylsucrose 
               
               
                 6-O-galactopyranosyl-2-acetamido-2-deoxygalactose 
               
               
                 6-O-galactopyranosylgalactose 
               
               
                 6-O-heptopyranosylglucopyranose 
               
               
                 6-thiosucrose 
               
               
                 7-O-(2-amino-2-deoxyglucopyranosyl)heptose 
               
               
                 8-methoxycarbonyloctyl-3-O-glucopyranosyl-mannopyranoside 
               
               
                 8-O-(4-amino-4-deoxyarabinopyranosyl)-3-deoxyoctulosonic acid 
               
               
                 allolactose 
               
               
                 allosucrose 
               
               
                 allyl 6-O-(3-deoxyoct-2-ulopyranosylonic acid)-(1-6)-2-deoxy-2-(3- 
               
               
                 hydroxytetradecanamido)glucopyranoside 4-phosphate 
               
               
                 alpha-(2-9)-disialic acid 
               
               
                 alpha,alpha-trehalose 6,6′-diphosphate 
               
               
                 alpha-glucopyranosyl alpha-xylopyranoside 
               
               
                 alpha-maltosyl fluoride 
               
               
                 aprosulate 
               
               
                 benzyl 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-3-O-(2-O-methyl-beta-galactosyl)-beta-glucopyranoside 
               
               
                 benzyl 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-3-O-beta fucopyranosyl-alpha-galactopyranoside 
               
               
                 benzyl 2-acetamido-6-O-(2-acetamido-2,4-dideoxy-4-fluoroglucopyranosyl)-2- 
               
               
                 deoxygalactopyranoside 
               
               
                 benzyl gentiobioside 
               
               
                 beta-D-galactosyl(1-3)-4-nitrophenyl-N-acetyl-alpha-D-galactosamine 
               
               
                 beta-methylmelibiose 
               
               
                 calcium sucrose phosphate 
               
               
                 camiglibose 
               
               
                 cellobial 
               
               
                 cellobionic acid 
               
               
                 cellobionolactone 
               
               
                 Cellobiose 
               
               
                 cellobiose octaacetate 
               
               
                 cellobiosyl bromide heptaacetate 
               
               
                 Celsior 
               
               
                 chitobiose 
               
               
                 chondrosine 
               
               
                 Cristolax 
               
               
                 deuterated methyl beta-mannobioside 
               
               
                 dextrin maltose 
               
               
                 D-glucopyranose, O-D-glucopyranosyl 
               
               
                 Dietary Sucrose 
               
               
                 difructose anhydride I 
               
               
                 difructose anhydride III 
               
               
                 difructose anhydride IV 
               
               
                 digalacturonic acid 
               
               
                 DT 5461 
               
               
                 ediol 
               
               
                 epilactose 
               
               
                 epsilon-N-1-(1-deoxylactulosyl)lysine 
               
               
                 feruloyl arabinobiose 
               
               
                 floridoside 
               
               
                 fructofuranosyl-(2-6)-glucopyranoside 
               
               
                 FZ 560 
               
               
                 galactosyl-(1-3)galactose 
               
               
                 garamine 
               
               
                 gentiobiose 
               
               
                 geranyl 6-O-alpha-L-arabinopyranosyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside 
               
               
                 geranyl 6-O-xylopyranosyl-glucopyranoside 
               
               
                 glucosaminyl-1,6-inositol-1,2-cyclic monophosphate 
               
               
                 glucosyl (1-4) N-acetylglucosamine 
               
               
                 glucuronosyl(1-4)-rhamnose 
               
               
                 heptosyl-2-keto-3-deoxyoctonate 
               
               
                 inulobiose 
               
               
                 Isomaltose 
               
               
                 isomaltulose 
               
               
                 isoprimeverose 
               
               
                 kojibiose 
               
               
                 lactobionic acid 
               
               
                 lacto-N-biose II 
               
               
                 Lactose 
               
               
                 lactosylurea 
               
               
                 Lactulose 
               
               
                 laminaribiose 
               
               
                 lepidimoide 
               
               
                 leucrose 
               
               
                 levanbiose 
               
               
                 lucidin 3-O-beta-primveroside 
               
               
                 LW 10121 
               
               
                 LW 10125 
               
               
                 LW 10244 
               
               
                 maltal 
               
               
                 maltitol 
               
               
                 Maltose 
               
               
                 maltose hexastearate 
               
               
                 maltose-maleimide 
               
               
                 maltosylnitromethane heptaacetate 
               
               
                 maltosyltriethoxycholesterol 
               
               
                 maltotetraose 
               
               
                 Malun 25 
               
               
                 mannosucrose 
               
               
                 mannosyl-(1-4)-N-acetylglucosaminyl-(1-N)-urea 
               
               
                 mannosyl(2)-N-acetyl(2)-glucose 
               
               
                 melibionic acid 
               
               
                 Melibiose 
               
               
                 melibiouronic acid 
               
               
                 methyl 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-3-O-(alpha-idopyranosyluronic acid)-4-O-sulfo-beta- 
               
               
                 galactopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-3-O-(beta-glucopyranosyluronic acid)-4-O-sulfo-beta- 
               
               
                 galactopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-3-O-glucopyranosyluronoylglucopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl 2-O-alpha-rhamnopyranosyl-beta-galactopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl 2-O-beta-rhamnopyranosyl-beta-galactopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl 2-O-fucopyranosylfucopyranoside 3 sulfate 
               
               
                 methyl 2-O-mannopyranosylmannopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl 2-O-mannopyranosyl-rhamnopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl 3-O-(2-acetamido-2-deoxy-6-thioglucopyranosyl)galactopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl 3-O-galactopyranosylmannopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl 3-O-mannopyranosylmannopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl 3-O-mannopyranosyltalopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl 3-O-talopyranosyltalopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl 4-O-(6-deoxy-manno-heptopyranosyl)galactopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl 6-O-acetyl-3-O-benzoyl-4-O-(2,3,4,6-tetra-O-benzoylgalactopyranosyl)-2-deoxy-2- 
               
               
                 phthalimidoglucopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl 6-O-mannopyranosylmannopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl beta-xylobioside 
               
               
                 methyl fucopyranosyl(1-4)-2-acetamido-2-deoxyglucopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl laminarabioside 
               
               
                 methyl O-(3-deoxy-3-fluorogalactopyranosyl)(1-6)galactopyranoside 
               
               
                 methyl-2-acetamido-2-deoxyglucopyranosyl-1-4-glucopyranosiduronic acid 
               
               
                 methyl-2-O-fucopyranosylfucopyranoside 4-sulfate 
               
               
                 MK 458 
               
               
                 N(1)-2-carboxy-4,6-dinitrophenyl-N(6)-lactobionoyl-1,6-hexanediamine 
               
               
                 N-(2,4-dinitro-5-fluorophenyl)-1,2-bis(mannos-4′-yloxy)propyl-2-amine 
               
               
                 N-(2′-mercaptoethyl)lactamine 
               
               
                 N-(2-nitro-4-azophenyl)-1,3-bis(mannos-4′-yloxy)propyl-2-amine 
               
               
                 N-(4-azidosalicylamide)-1,2-bis(mannos-4′-yloxy)propyl-2-amine 
               
               
                 N,N-diacetylchitobiose 
               
               
                 N-acetylchondrosine 
               
               
                 N-acetyldermosine 
               
               
                 N-acetylgalactosaminyl-(1-4)-galactose 
               
               
                 N-acetylgalactosaminyl-(1-4)-glucose 
               
               
                 N-acetylgalactosaminyl-1-4-N-acetylglucosamine 
               
               
                 N-acetylgalactosaminyl-1-4-N-acetylglucosamine 
               
               
                 N-acetylgalactosaminyl-alpha(1-3)galactose 
               
               
                 N-acetylglucosamine-N-acetylmuramyl-alanyl-isoglutaminyl-alanyl-glycerol dipalmitoyl 
               
               
                 N-acetylglucosaminyl beta(1-6)N-acetylgalactosamine 
               
               
                 N-acetylglucosaminyl-1-2-mannopyranose 
               
               
                 N-acetylhyalobiuronic acid 
               
               
                 N-acetylneuraminoyllactose 
               
               
                 N-acetylneuraminoyllactose sulfate ester 
               
               
                 N-acetylneuraminyl-(2-3)-galactose 
               
               
                 N-acetylneuraminyl-(2-6)-galactose 
               
               
                 N-benzyl-4-O-(beta-galactopyranosyl)glucamine-N-carbodithioate 
               
               
                 neoagarobiose 
               
               
                 N-formylkansosaminyl-(1-3)-2-O-methylrhamnopyranose 
               
               
                 O-((Nalpha)-acetylglucosamine 6-sulfate)-(1-3)-idonic acid 
               
               
                 O-(4-O-feruloyl-alpha-xylopyranosyl)-(1-6)-glucopyranose 
               
               
                 O-(alpha-idopyranosyluronic acid)-(1-3)-2,5-anhydroalditol-4-sulfate 
               
               
                 O-(glucuronic acid 2-sulfate)-(1-3)-O-(2,5)-andydrotalitol 6-sulfate 
               
               
                 O-(glucuronic acid 2-sulfate)-(1-4)-O-(2,5)-anhydromannitol 6-sulfate 
               
               
                 O-alpha-glucopyranosyluronate-(1-2)-galactose 
               
               
                 O-beta-galactopyranosyl-(1-4)-O-beta-xylopyranosyl-(1-0)-serine 
               
               
                 octyl maltopyranoside 
               
               
                 O-demethylpaulomycin A 
               
               
                 O-demethylpaulomycin B 
               
               
                 O-methyl-di-N-acetyl beta-chitobioside 
               
               
                 Palatinit 
               
               
                 paldimycin 
               
               
                 paulomenol A 
               
               
                 paulomenol B 
               
               
                 paulomycin A 
               
               
                 paulomycin A2 
               
               
                 paulomycin B 
               
               
                 paulomycin C 
               
               
                 paulomycin D 
               
               
                 paulomycin E 
               
               
                 paulomycin F 
               
               
                 phenyl 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-3-O-beta-D-galactopyranosyl-alpha-D-galactopyranoside 
               
               
                 phenyl O-(2,3,4,6-tetra-O-acetylgalactopyranosyl)-(1-3)-4,6-di-O-acetyl-2-deoxy-2- 
               
               
                 phthalimido-1-thioglucopyranoside 
               
               
                 poly-N-4-vinylbenzyllactonamide 
               
               
                 pseudo-cellobiose 
               
               
                 pseudo-maltose 
               
               
                 rhamnopyranosyl-(1-2)-rhamnopyranoside-(1-methyl ether) 
               
               
                 rhoifolin 
               
               
                 ruberythric acid 
               
               
                 S-3105 
               
               
                 senfolomycin A 
               
               
                 senfolomycin B 
               
               
                 solabiose 
               
               
                 SS 554 
               
               
                 streptobiosamine 
               
               
                 Sucralfate 
               
               
                 Sucrose 
               
               
                 sucrose acetate isobutyrate 
               
               
                 sucrose caproate 
               
               
                 sucrose distearate 
               
               
                 sucrose monolaurate 
               
               
                 sucrose monopalmitate 
               
               
                 sucrose monostearate 
               
               
                 sucrose myristate 
               
               
                 sucrose octaacetate 
               
               
                 sucrose octabenzoic acid 
               
               
                 sucrose octaisobutyrate 
               
               
                 sucrose octasulfate 
               
               
                 sucrose polyester 
               
               
                 sucrose sulfate 
               
               
                 swertiamacroside 
               
               
                 T-1266 
               
               
                 tangshenoside I 
               
               
                 tetrahydro-2-((tetrahydro-2-furanyl)oxy)-2H-pyran 
               
               
                 thionigerose 
               
               
                 Trehalose 
               
               
                 trehalose 2-sulfate 
               
               
                 trehalose 6,6′-dipalmitate 
               
               
                 trehalose-6-phosphate 
               
               
                 trehalulose 
               
               
                 trehazolin 
               
               
                 trichlorosucrose 
               
               
                 tunicamine 
               
               
                 turanose 
               
               
                 U 77802 
               
               
                 U 77803 
               
               
                 xylobiose 
               
               
                 xylose-glucose 
               
               
                 xylosucrose 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0065]     Microalgae contain photosynthetic machinery capable of metabolizing photons, and transferring energy harvested from photons into fixed chemical energy sources such as monosaccharide. Glucose is a common monosaccharide produced by microalgae by metabolizing light energy and fixing carbon from carbon dioxide. Some microalgae can also grow in the absence of light on a fixed carbon source that is exogenously provided (for example see Plant Physiol. 2005 February; 137(2):460-74). In addition to being a source of chemical energy, monosaccharides such as glucose are also substrate for production of polysaccharides (see Example 14). The invention provides methods of producing polysaccharides with novel monosaccharide compositions. For example, microalgae is cultured in the presence of culture media that contains exogenously provided monosaccharide, such as glucose. The monosaccharide is taken up by the cell by either active or passive transport and incorporated into polysaccharide molecules produced by the cell. This novel method of polysaccharide composition manipulation can be performed with, for example, any microalgae listed in Table 1 using any monosaccharide or disaccharide listed in Tables 2 or 3.  
         [0066]     In some embodiments, the fixed carbon source is one or more selected from glucose, galactose, xylose, mannose, rhamnose, N-acetylglucosamine, glycerol, floridoside, and glucuronic acid. The methods may be practiced cell growth in the presence of at least about 5.0 μM, at least about 10 μM, at least about 15.0 μM, at least about 20.0 μM, at least about 25.0 μM, at least about 30.0 μM, at least about 35.0 μM, at least about 40.0 μM, at least about 45.0 μM, at least about 50.0 μM, at least about 55.0 μM, at least about 60.0 μM, at least about 75.0 μM, at least about 80.0 μM, at least about 85.0 μM, at least about 90.0 μM, at least about 95.0 μM, at least about 100.0 μM, or at least about 150.0 μM, of one or more exogenously provided fixed carbon sources selected from Tables 2 and 3.  
         [0067]     In some embodiments using cells of the genus  Porphyridium , the methods include the use of approximately 0.5-0.75% glycerol as a fixed carbon source when the cells are cultured in the presence of light. Alternatively, a range of glycerol, from approximately 4.0% to approximately 9.0% may be used when the  Porphyridium  cells are cultured in the dark, more preferably from 5.0% to 8.0%, and more preferably 7.0%.  
         [0068]     After culturing the microalgae in the presence of the exogenously provided carbon source, the monosaccharide composition of the polysaccharide can be analyzed as described in Example 5. Microalgae can be transformed with genes encoding carbohydrate transporters to facilitate the uptake of exogenously provided carbohydrates such SEQ ID NOs: 12, 14, 16, 18 and 19.  
         [0069]     Microalgae culture media can contain a fixed nitrogen source such as KNO 3 . Alternatively, microalgae are placed in culture conditions that do not include a fixed nitrogen source. For example,  Porphyridium  sp. cells are cultured for a first period of time in the presence of a fixed nitrogen source, and then the cells are cultured in the absence of a fixed nitrogen source (see for example Adda M., Biomass 10:131-140. (1986); Sudo H., et al., Current Microbiology Vol. 30 (1995), pp. 219-222; Marinho-Soriano E., Bioresour Technol. 2005 February; 96(3):379-82; Bioresour. Technol. 42:141-147 (1992)).  
         [0070]     Other culture parameters can also be manipulated, such as the pH of the culture media, the identity and concentration of trace elements such as those listed in Table 3, and other media constituents.  
         [0071]     Microalgae can be grown in the presence of light. The number of photons striking a culture of microalgae cells can be manipulated, as well as other parameters such as the wavelength spectrum and ratio of dark:light hours per day. Microalgae can also be cultured in natural light, as well as simultaneous and/or alternating combinations of natural light and artificial light. For example, microalgae of the genus  Chlorella  be cultured under natural light during daylight hours and under artificial light during night hours.  
         [0072]     The gas content of a photobioreactor can be manipulated. Part of the volume of a photobioreactor can contain gas rather than liquid. Gas inlets can be used to pump gases into the photobioreactor. Any gas can be pumped into a photobioreactor, including air, air/CO 2  mixtures, noble gases such as argon and others. The rate of entry of gas into a photobioreactor can also be manipulated. Increasing gas flow into a photobioreactor increases the turbidity of a culture of microalgae. Placement of ports conveying gases into a photobioreactor can also affect the turbidity of a culture at a given gas flow rate. Air/CO 2  mixtures can be modulated to generate different polysaccharide compositions by manipulating carbon flux. For example, air:CO 2  mixtures of about 99.75% air:0.25% CO 2 , about 99.5% air:0.5% CO 2 , about 99.0% air:1.00% CO 2 , about 98.0% air:2.0% CO 2 , about 97.0% air:3.0% CO 2 , about 96.0% air:4.0% CO 2 , and about 95.00% air:5.0% CO 2  can be infused into a bioreactor or photobioreactor.  
         [0073]     Microalgae cultures can also be subjected to mixing using devices such as spinning blades and propellers, rocking of a culture, stir bars, and other instruments.  
         [0074]     B. Cell Culture Methods: Photobioreactors  
         [0075]     Microalgae can be grown and maintained in closed photobioreactors made of different types of transparent or semitransparent material. Such material can include Plexiglas® enclosures, glass enclosures, bags bade from substances such as polyethylene, transparent or semitransparent pipes, and other materials. Microalgae can also be grown in open ponds.  
         [0076]     Photobioreactors can have ports allowing entry of gases, solids, semisolids and liquids into the chamber containing the microalgae. Ports are usually attached to tubing or other means of conveying substances. Gas ports, for example, convey gases into the culture. Pumping gases into a photobioreactor can serve to both feed cells CO 2  and other gases and to aerate the culture and therefore generate turbidity. The amount of turbidity of a culture varies as the number and position of gas ports is altered. For example, gas ports can be placed along the bottom of a cylindrical polyethylene bag. Microalgae grow faster when CO 2  is added to air and bubbled into a photobioreactor. For example, a 5% CO 2 :95% air mixture is infused into a photobioreactor containing cells of the genus  Porphyridium  (see for example Biotechnol Bioeng. 1998 Sep. 20; 59(6):705-13; textbook from office; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,643,585 and 5,534,417; Lebeau, T., et. al. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol (2003) 60:612-623; Muller-Fuega, A., Journal of Biotechnology 103 (2003 153-163; Muller-Fuega, A., Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Vol. 84, No. 5, Dec. 5, 2003; Garcia-Sanchez, J. L., Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Vol. 84, No. 5, Dec. 5, 2003; Garcia-Gonzales, M., Journal of Biotechnology, 115 (2005) 81-90. Molina Grima, E., Biotechnology Advances 20 (2003) 491-515).  
         [0077]     Photobioreactors can be exposed to one or more light sources to provide microalgae with light as an energy source via light directed to a surface of the photobioreactor. Preferably the light source provides an intensity that is sufficient for the cells to grow, but not so intense as to cause oxidative damage or cause a photoinhibitive response. In some instances a light source has a wavelength range that mimics or approximately mimics the range of the sun. In other instances a different wavelength range is used. Photobioreactors can be placed outdoors or in a greenhouse or other facility that allows sunlight to strike the surface. Preferred photon intensities for species of the genus Porphyridium are between 50 and 300 uE m −2  s −1  (see for example Photosynth Res. 2005 June; 84 (1-3):21-7).  
         [0078]     Photobioreactor preferably have one or more parts that allow media entry. It is not necessary that only one substance enter or leave a port. For example, a port can be used to flow culture media into the photobioreactor and then later can be used for sampling, gas entry, gas exit, or other purposes. In some instances a photobioreactor is filled with culture media at the beginning of a culture and no more growth media is infused after the culture is inoculated. In other words, the microalgal biomass is cultured in an aqueous medium for a period of time during which the microalgae reproduce and increase in number; however quantities of aqueous culture medium are not flowed through the photobioreactor throughout the time period. Thus in some embodiments, aqueous culture medium is not flowed through the photobioreactor after inoculation.  
         [0079]     In other instances culture media can be flowed though the photobioreactor throughout the time period during which the microalgae reproduce and increase in number. In some instances media is infused into the photobioreactor after inoculation but before the cells reach a desired density. In other words, a turbulent flow regime of gas entry and media entry is not maintained for reproduction of microalgae until a desired increase in number of said microalgae has been achieved, but instead a parameter such as gas entry or media entry is altered before the cells reach a desired density.  
         [0080]     Photobioreactors preferably have one or more ports that allow gas entry. Gas can serve to both provide nutrients such as CO 2  as well as to provide turbulence in the culture media. Turbulence can be achieved by placing a gas entry port below the level of the aqueous culture media so that gas entering the photobioreactor bubbles to the surface of the culture. One or more gas exit ports allow gas to escape, thereby preventing pressure buildup in the photobioreactor. Preferably a gas exit port leads to a “one-way” valve that prevents contaminating microorganisms to enter the photobioreactor. In some instances cells are cultured in a photobioreactor for a period of time during which the microalgae reproduce and increase in number, however a turbulent flow regime with turbulent eddies predominantly throughout the culture media caused by gas entry is not maintained for all of the period of time. In other instances a turbulent flow regime with turbulent eddies predominantly throughout the culture media caused by gas entry can be maintained for all of the period of time during which the microalgae reproduce and increase in number. In some instances a predetermined range of ratios between the scale of the photobioreactor and the scale of eddies is not maintained for the period of time during which the microalgae reproduce and increase in number. In other instances such a range can be maintained.  
         [0081]     Photobioreactors preferably have at least one port that can be used for sampling the culture. Preferably a sampling port can be used repeatedly without altering compromising the axenic nature of the culture. A sampling port can be configured with a valve or other device that allows the flow of sample to be stopped and started. Alternatively a sampling port can allow continuous sampling. Photobioreactors preferably have at least one port that allows inoculation of a culture. Such a port can also be used for other purposes such as media or gas entry.  
         [0082]     Microalgae that produce polysaccharides can be cultured in photobioreactors. Microalgae that produce polysaccharide that is not attached to cells can be cultured for a period of time and then separated from the culture media and secreted polysaccharide by methods such as centrifugation and tangential flow filtration. Preferred organisms for culturing in photobioreactors to produce polysaccharides include  Porphyridium  sp.,  Porphyridium cruentum, Porphyridium purpureum, Porphyridium aerugineum, Rhodella maculata, Rhodella reticulata, Chlorella autotrophica, Chlorella stigmatophora, Chlorella capsulata, Achnanthes brevipes  and  Achnanthes longipes.    
         [0083]     C. Non-Microalgal Polysaccharide Production  
         [0084]     Organisms besides microalgae can be used to produce polysaccharides, such as lactic acid bacteria (see for example Stinglee, F., Molecular Microbiology (1999) 32 (6), 1287-1295; Ruas_Madiedo, P., J. Dairy Sci. 88:843-856 (2005); Laws, A., Biotechnology Advances 19 (2001) 597-625; Xanthan gum bacteria: Pollock, T J., J. Ind. Microbiol Biotechnol., 1997 August; 19(2):92-7; Becker, A., Appl. Micrbiol. Bio/technol. 1998 August; 50(2):92-7; Garcia-Ochoa, F., Biotechnology Advances 18 (2000) 549-579, seaweed: Talarico, L B., et al., Antiviral Research 66 (2005) 103-110; Dussealt, J., et al., J Biomed Mater Res A., (2005) November 1; Melo, F. R., J Biol Chem 279:20824-35 (2004)).  
         [0085]     D. Ex Vivo Methods  
         [0086]     Microalgae and other organisms can be manipulated to produce polysaccharide molecules that are not naturally produced by methods such as feeding cells with monosaccharides that are not produced by the cells (Nature. 2004 August 19; 430(7002):873-7). For example, species listed in Table I are grown according to the referenced growth protocols, with the additional step of adding to the culture media a fixed carbon source that is not in the culture media as published and referenced in Table 1 and is not produced by the cells in a detectable amount. In addition, such cells can first be transformed to contain a carbohydrate transporter, thus facilitating the entry of monosaccharides.  
         [0087]     E. In Vitro Methods  
         [0088]     Polysaccharides can be altered by enzymatic and chemical modification. For example, carbohydrate modifying enzymes can be added to a preparation of polysaccharide and allowed to catalyze reactions that alter the structure of the polysaccharide. Chemical methods can be used to, for example, modify the sulfation pattern of a polysaccharide (see for example Carbohydr. Polym. 63:75-80 (2000); Pomin V H., Glycobiology. 2005 December; 15(12):1376-85; Naggi A., Semin Thromb Hemost. 2001 October; 27(5):437-43 Review; Habuchi, O., Glycobiology. 1996 January; 6 (1); 51-7; Chen, J., J. Biol. Chem. In press; Geresh., S et al., J. Biochem. Biophys. Methods 50 (2002) 179-187).  
         [0089]     F. Polysaccharide Purification Methods  
         [0090]     Exopolysaccharides can be purified from microalgal cultures by various methods, including those disclosed herein.  
         [0091]     Precipitation  
         [0092]     For example, polysaccharides can be precipitated by adding compounds such as cetylpyridinium chloride, isopropanol, ethanol, or methanol to an aqueous solution containing a polysaccharide in solution. Pellets of precipitated polysaccharide can be washed and resuspended in water, buffers such as phosphate buffered saline or Tris, or other aqueous solutions (see for example Farias, W. R. L., et al., J. Biol. Chem. (2000) 275; (38) 29299-29307; U.S. Pat. No. 6,342,367; U.S. Pat. No. 6,969,705).  
         [0093]     Dialysis  
         [0094]     Polysaccharides can also be dialyzed to remove excess salt and other small molecules (see for example Gloaguen, V., et al., Carbohydr Res. 2004 Jan. 2; 339(1):97-103; Microbiol Immunol. 2000; 44(5):395-400).  
         [0095]     Tangential Flow Filtration  
         [0096]     Filtration can be used to concentrate polysaccharide and remove salts. For example, tangential flow filtration (TFF), also known as cross-flow filtration, can be used (see for example Millipore Pellicon® device, used with 1000 kD membrane (catalog number P2C01MC01); Geresh, Carb. Polym. 50; 183-189 (2002)). It is preferred that the polysaccharides do not pass through the filter at a significant level. It is also preferred that polysaccharides do not adhere to the filter material. TFF can also be performed using hollow fiber filtration systems.  
         [0097]     Non-limiting examples of tangential flow filtration include use of a filter with a pore size of at least about 0.1 micrometer, at least about 0.12 micrometer, at least about 0.14 micrometer, at least about 0.16 micrometer, at least about 0.18 micrometer, at least about 0.2 micrometer, at least about 0.22 micrometer, or at least about 0.45 micrometer. Preferred pore sizes of TFF allow contaminants to pass through but not polysaccharide molecules.  
         [0098]     Ion Exchange Chromatography  
         [0099]     Anionic polysaccharides can be purified by anion exchange chromatography. (Jacobsson, I., Biochem J. 1979 Apr. 1; 179(1):77-89; Karamanos, N K., Eur J. Biochem. 1992 Mar. 1; 204(2):553-60).  
         [0100]     Protease Treatment  
         [0101]     Polysaccharides can be treated with proteases to degrade contaminating proteins. In some instances the contaminating proteins are attached, either covalently or noncovalently to polysaccharides. In other instances the polysaccharide molecules are in a preparation that also contains proteins. Proteases can be added to polysaccharide preparations containing proteins to degrade proteins (for example, the protease from  Streptomyces griseus  can be used (SigmaAldrich catalog number P5147). After digestion, the polysaccharide is preferably purified from residual proteins, peptide fragments, and amino acids. This purification can be accomplished, for example, by methods listed above such as dialysis, filtration, and precipitation.  
         [0102]     Heat treatment can also be used to eliminate proteins in polysaccharide preparations (see for example Biotechnol Lett. 2005 January; 27(1):13-8; FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2004 Oct. 1; 42(2): 155-66; Carbohydr Res. 2000 Sep. 8; 328(2): 199-207; J Biomed Mater Res. 1999; 48(2): 111-6; Carbohydr Res. 1990 Oct. 15; 207(1): 101-20).  
         [0103]     The invention thus includes production of an exopolysaccharide comprising separating the exopolysaccharide from contaminants after proteins attached to the exopolysaccharide have been degraded or destroyed. The proteins may be those attached to the exopolysaccharide during culture of a microalgal cell in media, which is first separated from the cells prior to proteolysis or protease treatment. The cells may be those of the genus  Porphyridium  as a non-limiting example.  
         [0104]     In one non-limiting example, a method of producing an exopolysaccharide is provided wherein the method comprises culturing cells of the genus  Porphyridium ; separating cells from culture media; destroying protein attached to the exopolysaccharide present in the culture media; and separating the exopolysaccharide from contaminants. In some methods, the contaminant(s) are selected from amino acids, peptides, proteases, protein fragments, and salts. In other methods, the contaminant is selected from NaCl, MgSO 4 , MgCl 2 , CaCl 2 , KNO 3 , KH 2 PO 4 , NaHCO 3 , Tris, ZnCl 2 , H 3 BO 3 , CoCl 2 , CuCl 2 , MnCl 2 , (NH 4 )  6 Mo 7 O 24 , FeCl3 and EDTA.  
         [0105]     Drying Methods  
         [0106]     After purification of methods such as those above, polysaccharides can be dried using methods such as lyophilization and heat drying (see for example Shastry, S., Brazilian Journal of Microbiology (2005) 36:57-62; Matthews K H., Int J. Pharm. 2005 Jan. 31; 289 (1-2):51-62. Epub 2004 Dec. 30; Gloaguen, V., et al., Carbohydr Res. 2004 Jan. 2; 339(1):97-103).  
         [0107]     Tray dryers accept moist solid on trays. Hot air (or nitrogen) is circulated to dry. Shelf dryers can also employ reduced pressure or vacuum to dry at room temperature when products are temperature sensitive and are similar to a freeze-drier but less costly to use and can be easily scaled-up.  
         [0108]     Spray dryers are relatively simple in operation, which accept feed in fluid state and convert it into a dried particulate form by spraying the fluid into a hot drying medium.  
         [0109]     Rotary dryers operate by continuously feeding wet material, which is dried by contact with heated air, while being transported along the interior of a rotating cylinder, with the rotating shell acting as the conveying device and stirrer.  
         [0110]     Spin flash dryers are used for drying of wet cake, slurry, or paste which is normally difficult to dry in other dryers. The material is fed by a screw feeder through a variable speed drive into the vertical drying chamber where it is heated by air and at the same time disintegrated by a specially designed disintegrator. The heating of air may be direct or indirect depending upon the application. The dry powder is collected through a cyclone separator/bag filter or with a combination of both.  
         [0111]     Whole Cell Extraction  
         [0112]     Intracellular polysaccharides and cell wall polysaccharides can be purified from whole cell mass (see form example U.S. Pat. No. 4,992,540; U.S. Pat. No. 4,810,646; J Sietsma J H., et al., Gen Microbiol. 1981 July; 125(1):209-12; Fleet G H, Manners D J., J Gen Microbiol. 1976 May; 94(1):180-92).  
         [0113]     G. Microalgae Homogenization Methods  
         [0114]     A pressure disrupter pumps of a slurry through a restricted orifice valve. High pressure (up to 1500 bar) is applied, followed by an instant expansion through an exiting nozzle. Cell disruption is accomplished by three different mechanisms: impingement on the valve, high liquid shear in the orifice, and sudden pressure drop upon discharge, causing an explosion of the cell. The method is applied mainly for the release of intracellular molecules. According to Hetherington et al., cell disruption (and consequently the rate of protein release) is a first-order process, described by the relation: log[Rm/(Rm−R)]=K N P72.9. R is the amount of soluble protein; Rm is the maximum amount of soluble protein K is the temperature dependent rate constant; N is the number of passes through the homogenizer (which represents the residence time). P is the operating pressure.  
         [0115]     In a ball mill, cells are agitated in suspension with small abrasive particles. Cells break because of shear forces, grinding between beads, and collisions with beads. The beads disrupt the cells to release biomolecules. The kinetics of biomolecule release by this method is also a first-order process.  
         [0116]     Another widely applied method is the cell lysis with high frequency sound that is produced electronically and transported through a metallic tip to an appropriately concentrated cellular suspension, i.e.: sonication. The concept of ultrasonic disruption is based on the creation of cavities in cell suspension.  
         [0117]     Blending (high speed or Waring), the French press, or even centrifugation in case of weak cell walls, also disrupt the cells by using the same concepts.  
         [0118]     Cells can also be ground after drying in devices such as a colloid mill.  
         [0119]     Because the percentage of polysaccharide as a function of the dry weight of a microalgae cell can frequently be in excess of 50%, microalgae cell homogenates can be considered partially pure polysaccharide compositions. Cell disruption aids in increasing the amount of solvent-accessible polysaccharide by breaking apart cell walls that are largely composed of polysaccharide.  
         [0120]     H. Analysis Methods  
         [0121]     Assays for detecting polysaccharides can be used to quantitate starting polysaccharide concentration, measure yield during purification, calculate density of secreted polysaccharide in a photobioreactor, measure polysaccharide concentration in a finished product, and other purposes.  
         [0122]     The phenol: sulfuric acid assay detects carbohydrates (see Hellebust, Handbook of Psychological Methods, Cambridge University Press, 1978; and Cuesta G., et al., J Microbiol Methods. 2003 January; 52(1):69-73). The 1,6 dimethylmethylene blue assay detects anionic polysaccharides. (see for example Braz J Med Biol Res. 1999 May; 32(5):545-50; Clin Chem. 1986 November; 32(11):2073-6).  
         [0123]     Polysaccharides can also be analyzed through methods such as HPLC, size exclusion chromatography, and anion exchange chromatography (see for example Prosky L, Asp N, Schweizer T F, DeVries J W &amp; Furda I (1988) Determination of insoluble, soluble and total dietary fiber in food and food products: Interlaboratory study. Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists 71, 1017±1023; Int J Biol Macromol. 2003 November; 33 (1-3):9-18)  
         [0124]     Polysaccharides can also be detected using gel electrophoresis (see for example Anal Biochem. 2003 Oct. 15; 321(2):174-82; Anal Biochem. 2002 Jan. 1; 300(1):53-68).  
         [0125]     Monosaccharide analysis of polysaccharides can be performed by combined gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) of the per-O-trimethylsilyl (TMS) derivatives of the monosaccharide methyl glycosides produced from the sample by acidic methanolysis (see Merkle and Poppe (1994) Methods Enzymol. 230: 1-15; York, et al. (1985) Methods Enzymol. 118:3-40).  
         [0000]     III Compositions  
         [0126]     A. General  
         [0127]     Compositions of the invention include a microalgal polysaccharide or homogenate as described herein. In embodiments relating to polysaccharides, including exopolysaccharides, the composition may comprise a homogenous or a heterogeneous population of polysaccharide molecules, including sulfated polysaccharides as non-limiting embodiments. Non-limiting examples of homogenous populations include those containing a single type of polysaccharide molecule, such as that with the same structure and molecular weight. Non-limiting examples of heterogeneous populations include those containing more than one type of polysaccharide molecule, such as a mixture of polysaccharides having a molecular weight (MW) within a range or a MW above or below a MW value. For example, the  Porphyridium  sp. exopolysaccharide is typically produced in a range of sizes from 3-5 million Daltons. Of course a polysaccharide containing composition of the invention may be optionally protease treated, or reduced in the amount of protein, as described above.  
         [0128]     In some embodiments, a composition of the invention may comprise one or more polysaccharides produced by microalgae that have not been recombinantly modified. The microalgae may be those which are naturally occurring or those which have been maintained in culture in the absence of alteration by recombinant DNA techniques or genetic engineering.  
         [0129]     In other embodiments, the polysaccharides are those from modified microalgae, such as, but not limited to, microalgae modified by recombinant techniques. Non-limiting examples of such techniques include introduction and/or expression of an exogenous nucleic acid sequence encoding a gene product; genetic manipulation to decrease or inhibit expression of an endogenous microalgal gene product; and/or genetic manipulation to increase expression of an endogenous microalgal gene product. The invention contemplates recombinant modification of the various microalgae species described herein. In some embodiments, the microalgae is from the genus  Porphyridium.    
         [0130]     Polysaccharides provided by the invention that are produced by genetically modified microalgae or microalgae that are provided with an exogenous carbon source can be distinct from those produced by microalgae cultured in minimal growth media under photoautotrophic conditions (i.e.: in the absence of a fixed carbon source) at least in that they contain a different monosaccharide content relative to polysaccharides from unmodified microalgae or microalgae cultured in minimal growth media under photoautotrophic conditions. Non-limiting examples include polysaccharides having an increased amount of arabinose (Ara), rhamnose (Rha), fucose (Fuc), xylose (Xyl), glucuronic acid (GlcA), galacturonic acid (GalA), mannose (Man), galactose (Gal), glucose (Glc), N-acetyl galactosamine (GalNAc), N-acetyl glucosamine (GlcNAc), and/or N-acetyl neuraminic acid (NANA), per unit mass (or per mole) of polysaccharide, relative to polysaccharides from either non-genetically modified microalgae or microalgae cultured photoautotrophically. An increased amount of a monosaccharide may also be expressed in terms of an increase relative to other monosaccharides rather than relative to the unit mass, or mole, of polysaccharide. An example of genetic modification leading to production of modified polysaccharides is transforming a microalgae with a carbohydrate transporter gene, and culturing a transformant in the presence of a monosaccharide which is transported into the cell from the culture media by the carbohydrate transporter protein encoded by the carbohydrate transporter gene. In some instances the culture can be in the dark, where the monosaccharide, such as glucose, is used as the sole energy source for the cell. In other instances the culture is in the light, where the cells undergo photosynthesis and therefore produce monosaccharides such as glucose in the chloroplast and transport the monosaccharides into the cytoplasm, while additional exogenously provided monosaccharides are transported into the cell by the carbohydrate transporter protein. In both instances monosaccharides from the cytoplasm are transported into the endoplasmic reticulum, where polysaccharide synthesis occurs. Novel polysaccharides produced by non-genetically engineered microalgae can also be generated by nutritional manipulation, ie: exogenously providing carbohydrates in the culture media that are taken up through endogenous transport mechanisms. Uptake of the exogenously provided carbohydrates can be induced, for example, by culturing the cells in the dark, thereby forcing the cells to utilize the exogenously provided carbon source. For example,  Porphyridium  cells cultured in the presence of 7% glycerol in the dark produce a novel polysaccharide because the intracellular carbon flux under these nutritionally manipulated conditions is different from that under photosynthetic conditions. Insertion of carbohydrate transporter genes into microalgae facilitates, but is not strictly necessary for, polysaccharide structure manipulation because expression of such genes can significantly increase the concentration of a particular monosaccharide in the cytoplasm of the cell. Many carbohydrate transporter genes encode proteins that transport more than one monosaccharide, albeit with different affinities for different monosaccharides (see for example Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1465 (2000) 263-274). In some instances a microalgae species can be transformed with a carbohydrate transporter gene and placed under different nutritional conditions, wherein one set of conditions includes the presence of exogenously provided galactose, and the other set of conditions includes the presence of exogenously provided xylose, and the transgenic species produces structurally distinct polysaccharides under the two conditions. By altering the identity and concentration of monosaccharides in the cytoplasm of the microalgae, through genetic and/or nutritional manipulation, the invention provides novel polysaccharides. Nutritional manipulation can also be performed, for example, by culturing the microalgae in the presence of high amounts of sulfate, as described herein. In some instances nutritional manipulation includes addition of one or more exogenously provided carbon sources as well as one or more other non-carbohydrate culture component, such as 50 mM MgSO 4 .  
         [0131]     In some embodiments, the increase in one or more of the above listed monosaccharides in a polysaccharide may be from below to above detectable levels and/or by at least about 5%, to at least about 2000%, relative to a polysaccharide produced from the same microalgae in the absence of genetic or nutritional manipulation. Therefore an increase in one or more of the above monosaccharides, or other carbohydrates listed in Tables 2 or 3, by at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 100%, at least about 105%, at least about 110%, at least about 150%, at least about 200%, at least about 250%, at least about 300%, at least about 350%, at least about 400%, at least about 450%, at least about 500%, at least about 550%, at least about 600%, at least about 650%, at least about 700%, at least about 750%, at least about 800%, at least about 850%, at least about 900%, at least about 1000%, at least about 1100%, at least about 1200%, at least about 1300%, at least about 1400%, at least about 1500%, at least about 1600%, at least about 1700%, at least about 1800%, or at least about 1900%, or more, may be used in the practice of the invention.  
         [0132]     In cases wherein the polysaccharides from unmodified microalgae do not contain one or more of the above monosaccharides, the presence of the monosaccharide in a microalgal polysaccharide indicates the presence of a polysaccharide distinct from that in unmodified microalgae. Thus using particular strains of  Porphyridium  sp. and  Porphyridium cruentum  as non-limiting examples, the invention includes modification of these microalgae to incorporate arabinose and/or fucose, because polysaccharides from two strains of these species do not contain detectable amounts of these monosaccharides (see Example 5 herein). In another non-limiting example, the modification of  Porphyridium  sp. to produce polysaccharides containing a detectable amount of glucuronic acid, galacturonic acid, or N-acetyl galactosamine, or more than a trace amount of N-acetyl glucosamine, is specifically included in the instant disclosure. In a further non-limiting example, the modification of  Porphyridium cruentum  to produce polysaccharides containing a detectable amount of rhamnose, mannose, or N-acetyl neuraminic acid, or more than a trace amount of N-acetyl-glucosamine, is also specifically included in the instant disclosure.  
         [0133]     Put more generally, the invention includes a method of producing a polysaccharide comprising culturing a microalgae cell in the presence of at least about 0.01 micromolar of an exogenously provided fixed carbon compound, wherein the compound is incorporated into the polysaccharide produced by the cell. In some embodiments, the compound is selected from Table 2 or 3. The cells may optionally be selected from the species listed in Table 1, and cultured by modification, using the methods disclosed herein, or the culture conditions also lusted in Table 1.  
         [0134]     The methods may also be considered a method of producing a glycopolymer by culturing a transgenic microalgal cell in the presence of at least one monosaccharide, wherein the monosaccharide is transported by the transporter into the cell and is incorporated into a microalgal polysaccharide.  
         [0135]     In some embodiments, the cell is selected from Table 1, such as where the cell is of the genus  Porphyridium , as a non-limiting example. In some cases, the cell is selected from  Porphyridium  sp. and  Porphyridium cruentum . Embodiments include those wherein the polysaccharide is enriched for the at least one monosaccharide compared to an endogenous polysaccharide produced by a non-transgenic cell of the same species. The monosaccharide may be selected from Arabinose, Fructose, Galactose, Glucose, Mannose, Xylose, Glucuronic acid, Glucosamine, Galactosamine, Rhamnose and N-acetyl glucosamine.  
         [0136]     These methods of the invention are facilitated by use of a transgenic cell expressing a sugar transporter, optionally wherein the transporter has a lower K m  for glucose than at least one monosaccharide selected from the group consisting of galactose, xylose, glucuronic acid, mannose, and rhamnose. In other embodiments, the transporter has a lower K m  for galactose than at least one monosaccharide selected from the group consisting of glucose, xylose, glucuronic acid, mannose, and rhamnose. In additional embodiments, the transporter has a lower K m  for xylose than at least one monosaccharide selected from the group consisting of glucose, galactose, glucuronic acid, mannose, and rhamnose. In further embodiments, the transporter has a lower K m  for glucuronic acid than at least one monosaccharide selected from the group consisting of glucose, galactose, xylose, mannose, and rhamnose. In yet additional embodiments, the transporter has a lower K m  for mannose than at least one monosaccharide selected from the group consisting of glucose, galactose, xylose, glucuronic acid, and rhamnose. In yet further embodiments, the transporter has a lower K m  for rhamnose than at least one monosaccharide selected from the group consisting of glucose, galactose, xylose, glucuronic acid, and mannose. Manipulation of the concentration and identity of monosaccharides provided in the culture media, combined with use of transporters that have a different K m  for different monosaccharides, provides novel polysaccharides. These general methods can also be used in cells other than microalgae, for example, bacteria that produce polysaccharides.  
         [0137]     In alternative embodiments, the cell is cultured in the presence of at least two monosaccharides, both of which are transporter by the transporter. In some cases, the two monosaccharides are any two selected from glucose, galactose, xylose, glucuronic acid, rhamnose and mannose.  
         [0138]     In one non-limiting example, the method comprises providing a transgenic cell containing a recombinant gene encoding a monosaccharide transporter; and culturing the cell in the presence of at least one monosaccharide, wherein the monosaccharide is transported by the transporter into the cell and is incorporated into a polysaccharide of the cell. It is pointed out that transportation of a monosaccharide from the media into a microalgal cell allows for the monosaccharide to be used as an energy source, as disclosed below, and for the monosaccharide to be transported into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by cellular transporters. In the ER, polysaccharide production and glycosylation, occurs such that in the presence of exogenously provided monosaccharides, the sugar content of the microalgal polysaccharides change.  
         [0139]     In some aspects, the invention includes a novel microalgal polysaccharide, such as from microalgae of the genus  Porphyridium , comprising detectable amounts of xylose, glucose, and galactose wherein the molar amount of one or more of these three monosaccharides in the polysaccharide is not present in a polysaccharide of  Porphyridium  that is not genetically or nutritionally modified. An example of a non-nutritionally and non-genetically modified  Porphyridium  polysaccharide can be found, for example, in Jones R., Journal of Cellular Comparative Physiology 60; 61-64 (1962). In some embodiments, the amount of glucose, in the polysaccharide, is at least about 65% of the molar amount of galactose in the same polysaccharide. In other embodiments, glucose is at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 100%, at least about 105%, at least about 110%, at least about 120%, at least about 130%, at least about 140%, at least about 150%, at least about 200%, at least about 250%, at least about 300%, at least about 350%, at least about 400%, at least about 450%, at least about 500%, or more, of the molar amount of galactose in the polysaccharide. Further embodiments of the invention include those wherein the amount of glucose in a microalgal polysaccharide is equal to, or approximately equal to, the amount of galactose (such that the amount of glucose is about 100% of the amount of galactose). Moreover, the invention includes microalgal polysaccharides wherein the amount of glucose is more than the amount of galactose.  
         [0140]     Alternatively, the amount of glucose, in the polysaccharide, is less than about 65% of the molar amount of galactose in the same polysaccharide. The invention thus provides for polysaccharides wherein the amount of glucose is less than about 60%, less than about 55%, less than about 50%, less than about 45%, less than about 40%, less than about 35%, less than about 30%, less than about 25%, less than about 20%, less than about 15%, less than about 10%, or less than about 5% of the molar amount of galactose in the polysaccharide.  
         [0141]     In other aspects, the invention includes a microalgal polysaccharide, such as from microalgae of the genus  Porphyridium , comprising detectable amounts of xylose, glucose, galactose, mannose, and rhamnose, wherein the molar amount of one or more of these five monosaccharides in the polysaccharide is not present in a polysaccharide of non-genetically modified and/or non-nutritionally modified microalgae. In some embodiments, the amount of rhamnose in the polysaccharide is at least about 100% of the molar amount of mannose in the same polysaccharide. In other embodiments, rhamnose is at least about 110%, at least about 120%, at least about 130%, at least about 140%, at least about 150%, at least about 200%, at least about 250%, at least about 300%, at least about 350%, at least about 400%, at least about 450%, or at least about 500%, or more, of the molar amount of mannose in the polysaccharide. Further embodiments of the invention include those wherein the amount of rhamnose in a microalgal polysaccharide is more than the amount of mannose on a molar basis.  
         [0142]     Alternatively, the amount of rhamnose, in the polysaccharide, is less than about 75% of the molar amount of mannose in the same polysaccharide. The invention thus provides for polysaccharides wherein the amount of rhamnose is less than about 70%, less than about 65%, less than about 60%, less than about 55%, less than about 50%, less than about 45%, less than about 40%, less than about 35%, less than about 30%, less than about 25%, less than about 20%, less than about 15%, less than about 10%, or less than about 5% of the molar amount of mannose in the polysaccharide.  
         [0143]     In additional aspects, the invention includes a microalgal polysaccharide, such as from microalgae of the genus  Porphyridium , comprising detectable amounts of xylose, glucose, galactose, mannose, and rhamnose, wherein the amount of mannose, in the polysaccharide, is at least about 130% of the molar amount of rhamnose in the same polysaccharide. In other embodiments, mannose is at least about 140%, at least about 150%, at least about 200%, at least about 250%, at least about 300%, at least about 350%, at least about 400%, at least about 450%, or at least about 500%, or more, of the molar amount of rhamnose in the polysaccharide.  
         [0144]     Alternatively, the amount of mannose, in the polysaccharide, is equal to or less than the molar amount of rhamnose in the same polysaccharide. The invention thus provides for polysaccharides wherein the amount of mannose is less than about 95%, less than about 90%, less than about 85%, less than about 80%, less than about 75%, less than about 70%, less than about 65%, less than about 60%, less than about 60%, less than about 55%, less than about 50%, less than about 45%, less than about 40%, less than about 35%, less than about 30%, less than about 25%, less than about 20%, less than about 15%, less than about 10%, or less than about 5% of the molar amount of rhamnose in the polysaccharide.  
         [0145]     In further aspects, the invention includes a microalgal polysaccharide, such as from microalgae of the genus  Porphyridium , comprising detectable amounts of xylose, glucose, and galactose, wherein the amount of galactose in the polysaccharide, is at least about 100% of the molar amount of xylose in the same polysaccharide. In other embodiments, rhamnose is at least about 105%, at least about 110%, at least about 120%, at least about 130%, at least about 140%, at least about 150%, at least about 200%, at least about 250%, at least about 300%, at least about 350%, at least about 400%, at least about 450%, or at least about 500%, or more, of the molar amount of mannose in the polysaccharide. Further embodiments of the invention include those wherein the amount of galactose in a microalgal polysaccharide is more than the amount of xylose on a molar basis.  
         [0146]     Alternatively, the amount of galactose, in the polysaccharide, is less than about 55% of the molar amount of xylose in the same polysaccharide. The invention thus provides for polysaccharides wherein the amount of galactose is less than about 50%, less than about 45%, less than about 40%, less than about 35%, less than about 30%, less than about 25%, less than about 20%, less than about 15%, less than about 10%, or less than about 5% of the molar amount of xylose in the polysaccharide.  
         [0147]     In yet additional aspects, the invention includes a microalgal polysaccharide, such as from microalgae of the genus  Porphyridium , comprising detectable amounts of xylose, glucose, glucuronic acid and galactose, wherein the molar amount of one or more of these five monosaccharides in the polysaccharide is not present in a polysaccharide of unmodified microalgae. In some embodiments, the amount of glucuronic acid, in the polysaccharide, is at least about 50% of the molar amount of glucose in the same polysaccharide. In other embodiments, glucuronic acid is at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 100%, at least about 105%, at least about 110%, at least about 120%, at least about 130%, at least about 140%, at least about 150%, at least about 200%, at least about 250%, at least about 300%, at least about 350%, at least about 400%, at least about 450%, or at least about 500%, or more, of the molar amount of glucose in the polysaccharide. Further embodiments of the invention include those wherein the amount of glucuronic acid in a microalgal polysaccharide is more than the amount of glucose on a molar basis.  
         [0148]     In other embodiments, the exopolysaccharide, or cell homogenate polysaccharide, comprises glucose and galactose wherein the molar amount of glucose in the exopolysaccharide, or cell homogenate polysaccharide, is at least about 55% of the molar amount of galactose in the exopolysaccharide or polysaccharide. Alternatively, the molar amount of glucose in the exopolysaccharide, or cell homogenate polysaccharide, is at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, or at least about 100% of the molar amount of galactose in the exopolysaccharide or polysaccharide.  
         [0149]     In yet further aspects, the invention includes a microalgal polysaccharide, such as from microalgae of the genus  Porphyridium , comprising detectable amounts of xylose, glucose, glucuronic acid, galactose, at least one monosaccharide selected from arabinose, fucose, N-acetyl galactosamine, and N-acetyl neuraminic acid, or any combination of two or more of these four monosaccharides.  
         [0000]     IV Food Additive Compositions  
         [0150]     A. Food Compositions  
         [0151]     The invention further provides for the use of polysaccharides as food additives. In some embodiments, the polysaccharides are used to aid in keeping food products homogenous and/or thicken food products, such as in a manner analogous to various gums (e.g. xanthan gum or gum Arabic) known to the skilled person. In these contexts, the polysaccharides act as a hydrocolloid polysaccharide and may be used in the same manner as other hydrocolloid polysaccharides. See for example U.S. Pat. No. 5,126,158. In other embodiments, the polysaccharides are used to stabilize or emulsify foods. These uses of the polysaccharides are based upon their rheological properties, which are similar or superior to those of previously used gums and additives. In some embodiments, the polysaccharides will be those of from a  Porphyridium  species, such as one that has been subject to genetic and/or nutritional manipulation to produce polysaccharides with altered monosaccharide content and/or altered sulfation.  
         [0152]     The methods of the invention thus include a method comprising addition of one or more polysaccharides of the invention to a food product. The addition may be for use as a thickener or an emulsifier, such as to keep foods homogenous. In some embodiments, the addition is to a beverage product, such as to thicken it or improve its texture, appearance, or “feel” upon consumption. In other embodiments, the method stabilizes and/or emulsifies a food composition or product. The method may comprise adding one or more microalgal polysaccharide, as described herein, to the food composition or product. Non-limiting examples include polysaccharides produced by microalgae described herein. In some instances, the microalgae is of the genus  Porphyridium.    
         [0153]     Optionally, polysaccharide compositions used as food additives can contain less than 1% protein as a function of dry weight of the composition, less than 0.1% protein, less than 0.01% protein, less than 0.001% protein, less than 0.0001% protein, less than 0.00001% protein, and less than 0.000001% protein.  
         [0154]     B. Methods of Use  
         [0155]     A polysaccharide (as well as homogenate or extract) containing food product or nutraceutical of the invention may be consumed as a source of nutrition and/or sustenance. Thus the invention includes methods of providing food, nutrition or sustenance to a subject, such as a human being, by administration of a composition or nutraceutical as described herein. While a food product may be a primary source of sustenance, a nutraceutical may be used as a nutritional supplement. Thus the invention also includes methods of administering both to a subject. The administered food product may comprise a polysaccharide, extract, or homogenate as described herein. In some embodiments, the polysaccharide, extract or homogenate is used to thicken, stabilize or emulsify foods. Desirable ranges of concentration of polysaccharides in foods include, for example, 0.01 to 0.5% by weight of the food.  
         [0156]     In other aspects, other methods for the use of a polysaccharide containing composition, including those containing a microalgal homogenate or extract of the invention, are disclosed. In some methods, the composition is used to regulate, or aid in the regulation of insulin. Administration of algal polysaccharides included in the invention reduces insulin secretion in response to a given stimulus. Subjects, including human beings, in need of insulin regulation may be identified by any means known to the skilled person. In some embodiments, the subject is identified as being at risk for diabetes by a skilled clinician. Being at risk includes having one or more risk factors, as assessed by the skilled person, which increase the chances of needing insulin regulation and/or having diabetes. Non-limiting examples of risk factors include those of lifestyle, behavior, health status, disease, and medication use. In some embodiments, the risk factors may amount to the present of “pre-diabetes” or “metabolic disease”.  
         [0157]     Non-limiting examples of lifestyle factors include inactivity, stress, diet, and aging. Non-limiting examples of behavior factors include levels of sexual activity, smoking, alcohol use, and drug use. Non-limiting examples of health status factors include obesity, cholesterol, diabetes, immunosuppression, and hypertension as well as gender status as a woman, such as pregnancy, childbirth, and menopause. The compositions are particularly useful for lowering cholesterol levels in patients having abnormally high levels of cholesterol of at least 240 mg/dL total cholesterol, at least 160 mg/dL LDL cholesterol, no more than 40 mg/dL HDL cholesterol, and/or at least 400 mg/dL triglycerides.  
         [0158]     C. Methods of Screening for Desirable Properties  
         [0159]     Compounds including novel polysaccharides of the invention can be screened for desirable properties such as the ability to increase viscosity in foods, act as a suspending agent in foods, and act as an emulsion stabilizer in foods. Assays for testing for these properties are known in the art. See for example Journal Of Agricultural And Food Chemistry. 53:419-423; Journal of Nutrition Vol. 127 No. 11 November 1997, pp. 2246-2252; Adv Colloid Interface Sci. 2002 Oct. 21; 99(2):77-162; Baird, J K, Analysis of Gums in Foods, Chapter 23, Industrial Gums, Third Edition (Academic Press 1993). Viscosity can be measured, for example, using known methods (see Carbohydr Res. 2005 Jan. 17; 340(1):97-106; Biomacromolecules. 2004 March-April; 5(2):610-7; Biomacromolecules. 2003 July-August; 4(4):1045-54; J Biomed Mater Res. 2002 Sep. 15; 61(4):533-40; Carbohydr Res. 2005 Apr. 11; 340(5):791-809).  
         [0000]     V Gene Expression in Microalgae  
         [0160]     Genes can be expressed in microalgae by providing, for example, coding sequences in operable linkage with promoters.  
         [0161]     An exemplary vector design for expression of a gene in microalgae contains a first gene in operable linkage with a promoter active in algae, the first gene encoding a protein that imparts resistance to an antibiotic or herbicide. Optionally the first gene is followed by a 3′ untranslated sequence containing a polyadenylation signal. The vector may also contain a second promoter active in algae in operable linkage with a second gene. The second gene can encode any protein, for example an enzyme that produces small molecules or a mammalian growth hormone that can be advantageously present in a nutraceutical.  
         [0162]     It is preferable to use codon-optimized cDNAs: for methods of recoding genes for expression in microalgae, see for example US patent application 20040209256.  
         [0163]     It has been shown that many promoters in expression vectors are active in algae, including both promoters that are endogenous to the algae being transformed algae as well as promoters that are not endogenous to the algae being transformed (i.e.: promoters from other algae, promoters from plants, and promoters from plant viruses or algae viruses). Example of methods for transforming microalgae, in addition to those demonstrated in the Examples section below, including methods comprising the use of exogenous and/or endogenous promoters that are active in microalgae, and antibiotic resistance genes functional in microalgae, have been described. See for example; Curr Microbiol. 1997 December; 35(6):356-62 ( Chlorella vulgaris ); Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2002 January; 4(1):63-73 ( Chlorella ellipsoidea ); Mol Gen Genet. 1996 Oct. 16; 252(5):572-9 ( Phaeodactylum tricornutum ); Plant Mol. Biol. 1996 April; 31(1):1-12 ( Volvox carteri ); Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1994 Nov. 22; 91(24):11562-6 ( Volvox carteri ); Falciatore A, Casotti R, Leblanc C, Abrescia C, Bowler C, PMID: 10383998, 1999 May; 1(3):239-251 (Laboratory of Molecular Plant Biology, Stazione Zoologica, Villa Comunale, I-80121 Naples, Italy) ( Phaeodactylum tricornutum  and  Thalassiosira weissflogii ); Plant Physiol. 2002 May; 129(1):7-12. ( Porphyridium  sp.); Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003 Jan. 21; 100(2):438-42. ( Chlamydomonas reinhardtii ); Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1990 February; 87(3):1228-32. ( Chlamydomonas reinhardtii ); Nucleic Acids Res. 1992 Jun. 25; 20(12):2959-65; Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2002 January; 4(1):63-73 ( Chlorella ); Biochem Mol Biol Int. 1995 August; 36(5):1025-35 ( Chlamydomonas reinhardtii ); J. Microbiol. 2005 August; 43(4):361-5 ( Dunaliella ); Yi Chuan Xue Bao. 2005 April; 32(4):424-33 ( Dunaliella ); Mar Biotechnol (NY). 1999 May; 1(3):239-251. ( Thalassiosira  and  Phaedactylum ); Koksharova, Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2002 February; 58(2):123-37 (various species); Mol Genet Genomics. 2004 February; 271(1):50-9 ( Thermosynechococcus elongates ); J. Bacteriol. (2000), 182, 211-215; FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2003 Apr. 25; 221(2): 155-9; Plant Physiol. 1994 June; 105(2):635-41; Plant Mol. Biol. 1995 December; 29(5):897-907 ( Synechococcus  PCC 7942); Mar Pollut Bull. 2002; 45 (1-12): 163-7 ( Anabaena  PCC 7120); Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1984 March; 81(5):1561-5 ( Anabaena  (various strains)); Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001 Mar. 27; 98(7):4243-8 ( Synechocystis ); Wirth, Mol Gen Genet 1989 March; 216(1):175-7 (various species); Mol Microbiol, 2002 June; 44(6):1517-31 and Plasmid, 1993 September; 30(2):90-105 ( Fremyella diplosiphon ); Hall et al. (1993) Gene 124: 75-81 ( Chlamydomonas reinhardtii ); Gruber et al. (1991). Current Micro. 22: 15-20; Jarvis et al. (1991) Current Genet. 19: 317-322 ( Chlorella ); for additional promoters see also Table 1 from U.S. Pat. No. 6,027,900).  
         [0164]     Suitable promoters may be used to express a nucleic acid sequence in microalgae. In some embodiments, the sequence is that of an exogenous gene or nucleic acid. In particular embodiments, the exogenous gene is one that encodes a carbohydrate transporter protein. Such a gene may be advantageously expressed in a microalgal cell to allow entry of a monosaccharide transported by the transporter protein. In cases of an exogenous nucleic acid coding sequence, the codon usage may be optionally optimized in whole or in part to facilitate expression in microalgae.  
         [0165]     The invention thus includes, in some embodiments, a microalgal cell comprising an exogenous gene that encodes a carbohydrate transporter protein. The cell may be that of the genus  Porphyridum  as a non-limiting example. Non-limiting examples of genes encoding carbohydrate transporters to facilitate the uptake of exogenously provided carbohydrates include SEQ ID NOs: 12, 14, 16, 18 and 19 as provided herein. In some embodiments the nucleic acid sequence encodes a protein with at least about 60% amino acid sequence identity with a protein with a sequence represented by one of SEQ ID NOs: 12, 14, 16, 18 and 19. In other embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence encodes a protein with at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 98%, or higher, amino acid identity with a sequence of these SEQ ID NOs: 12, 14, 16, 18 and 19. In further embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence has at least 60% nucleotide identity with a nucleic acid molecule with a sequence represented by one of SEQ ID NOs: 13, 15 and 17. In other embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence has at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 98%, or higher, nucleic acid identity with a sequence of these SEQ ID NOs.  
         [0166]     In other embodiments, the invention includes genetic expression methods comprising the use of an expression vector. In one method, a microalgal cell, such as a  Porphyridium  cell, is transformed with a dual expression vector under conditions wherein vector mediated gene expression occurs. The expression vector may comprise a resistance cassette comprising a gene encoding a protein that confers resistance to an antibiotic, such as zeocin, or another selectable marker such as a carbohydrate transporter gene for selection in the dark in the presence of a fixed carbon source, operably linked to a promoter active in microalgae. The vector may also comprise a second expression cassette comprising a second protein to a promoter active in microalgae. The two cassettes are physically linked in the vector. The transformed cells may be optionally selected based upon the ability to grow in the presence of the antibiotic or other selectable marker under conditions wherein cells lacking the resistance cassette would not grow, such as in the dark. The resistance cassette, as well as the expression cassette, may be taken in whole or in part from another vector molecule.  
         [0167]     In one non-limiting example, a method of expressing an exogenous gene in a cell of the genus  Porphyridium  is provided. The method may comprise operably linking a gene encoding a protein that confers resistance to the antibiotic zeocin to a promoter active in microalgae to form a resistance cassette; operably linking a gene encoding a second protein to a promoter active in microalgae to form a second expression cassette, wherein the resistance cassette and second expression cassette are physically connected to form a dual expression vector; transforming the cell with the dual expression vector; and selecting for the ability to survive in the presence of at least 2.5 ug/ml zeocin, preferably at least 3.0 ug/ml zeocin, and more preferably at least 3.5 ug/ml zeocin, more preferably at least 5.0 ug/ml zeocin.  
         [0168]     For sequence comparison to determine percent nucleotide or amino acid identity, typically one sequence acts as a reference sequence, to which test sequences are compared. When using a sequence comparison algorithm, test and reference sequences are input into a computer, subsequence coordinates are designated, if necessary, and sequence algorithm program parameters are designated. The sequence comparison algorithm then calculates the percent sequence identity for the test sequence(s) relative to the reference sequence, based on the designated program parameters.  
         [0169]     Optimal alignment of sequences for comparison can be conducted, e.g., by the local homology algorithm of Smith &amp; Waterman,  Adv. Appl. Math.  2:482 (1981), by the homology alignment algorithm of Needleman &amp; Wunsch,  J. Mol. Biol.  48:443 (1970), by the search for similarity method of Pearson &amp; Lipman,  Proc. Nat&#39;l. Acad. Sci. USA  85:2444 (1988), by computerized implementations of these algorithms (GAP, BESTFIT, FASTA, and TFASTA in the Wisconsin Genetics Software Package, Genetics Computer Group, 575 Science Dr., Madison, Wis.), or by visual inspection (see generally Ausubel et al., supra).  
         [0170]     Another example of algorithm that is suitable for determining percent sequence identity and sequence similarity is the BLAST algorithm, which is described in Altschul et al.,  J. Mol. Biol.  215:403-410 (1990). Software for performing BLAST analyses is publicly available through the National Center for Biotechnology Information (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/). This algorithm involves first identifying high scoring sequence pairs (HSPs) by identifying short words of length W in the query sequence, which either match or satisfy some positive-valued threshold score T when aligned with a word of the same length in a database sequence. T is referred to as the neighborhood word score threshold (Altschul et al., supra.). These initial neighborhood word hits act as seeds for initiating searches to find longer HSPs containing them. The word hits are then extended in both directions along each sequence for as far as the cumulative alignment score can be increased. Cumulative scores are calculated using, for nucleotide sequences, the parameters M (reward score for a pair of matching residues; always &gt;0) and N (penalty score for mismatching residues; always &lt;0). For amino acid sequences, a scoring matrix is used to calculate the cumulative score. Extension of the word hits in each direction are halted when: the cumulative alignment score falls off by the quantity X from its maximum achieved value; the cumulative score goes to zero or below, due to the accumulation of one or more negative-scoring residue alignments; or the end of either sequence is reached. For identifying whether a nucleic acid or polypeptide is within the scope of the invention, the default parameters of the BLAST programs are suitable. The BLASTN program (for nucleotide sequences) uses as defaults a word length (W) of 11, an expectation (E) of 10, M=5, N=−4, and a comparison of both strands. For amino acid sequences, the BLASTP program uses as defaults a word length (W) of 3, an expectation (E) of 10, and the BLOSUM62 scoring matrix. The TBLATN program (using protein sequence for nucleotide sequence) uses as defaults a word length (W) of 3, an expectation (E) of 10, and a BLOSUM 62 scoring matrix. (see Henikoff &amp; Henikoff,  Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA  89:10915 (1989)).  
         [0171]     In addition to calculating percent sequence identity, the BLAST algorithm also performs a statistical analysis of the similarity between two sequences (see, e.g., Karlin &amp; Altschul,  Proc. Nat&#39;l. Acad. Sci. USA  90:5873-5787 (1993)). One measure of similarity provided by the BLAST algorithm is the smallest sum probability (P(N)), which provides an indication of the probability by which a match between two nucleotide or amino acid sequences would occur by chance. For example, a nucleic acid is considered similar to a reference sequence if the smallest sum probability in a comparison of the test nucleic acid to the reference nucleic acid is less than about 0.1, more preferably less than about 0.01, and most preferably less than about 0.001.  
         [0000]     VIII Methods of Trophic Conversion  
         [0172]     As explained herein, microalgae generally have the ability to live off a fixed carbon sources such as glucose, but many do not have transporters that allow for uptake of the fixed carbon source from the culture media. Microalgae cells can be transformed with a gene that encodes a plasma membrane sugar transporter that allows for the selection of growth in the dark, in the absence of photosynthesis, in the presence of the transporter&#39;s substrate sugar. Such transformed cells provide a significant benefit in that the need for light energy is reduced or eliminated because the cells may grow and produce cellular products, including polysaccharides, in the presence of fixed carbon material as the energy source. See for example, Science. 2001 Jun. 15; 292(5524):2073-5. Such growth achieves much higher cell densities in a shorter period of time than photoautotrophic growth.  
         [0173]     The transformed microalgal cell may be one that is described above as expressing a sugar transporter. Nucleic acids and vectors for such expression are also described above. For example, nucleic acids encoding carbohydrate transporters such as SEQ ID NOs: 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, and 20-30 are placed in operable linkage with a promoter active in microalgae. Preferably, the nucleic acid encoding a carbohydrate transporter contains preferred codons of the organism the vector is transformed into. For example, the nucleic acids of SEQ ID NOs: 13, 15, and 17 encode the carbohydrate transporter proteins of SEQ ID NOs: 12, 14, and 16, respectively. As a nonlimiting example, a codon-optimized cDNA encoding a carbohydrate transporter protein, optimized for expression in  Porphyridium  sp., is placed in operable linkage with a promoter and 3′UTR active in microalgae. The vector is used to transform a cell of the genus  Porphyridium  using methods disclosed herein, including biolistic transformation, electroporation, and glass bead transformation. A preferred promoter is active in more than one species of microalgae, such as for example the  Chlamydomonas reinhardtii  RBCS2 promoter (SEQ ID NO: 32). Any promoter active in microalgae can be used to express a gene in such constructs, and preferred promoters such as RBCS2 and viral promoters have been shown to be active in multiple species of microalgae (see for example Plant Cell Rep. 2005 March; 23 (10-11):727-35; J. Microbiol. 2005 August; 43(4):361-5; Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2002 January; 4(1):63-73). Promoters, cDNAs, and 3′UTRs, as well as other elements of the vectors, can be generated through cloning techniques using fragments isolated from native sources (see for example Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Sambrook et al. (3d edition, 2001, Cold Spring Harbor Press; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,202). Alternatively, elements can be generated synthetically using known methods (see for example Gene. 1995 Oct. 16; 164(1):49-53).  
         [0174]     Alternatively, cells may be mutagenized and then selected for the ability to grow in the absence of light energy but in the presence of a fixed carbon source.  
         [0175]     Thus the invention includes a method of producing microalgal cells that have gained the ability to grow via a fixed carbon source in the absence of photosynthesis. This may also be referred to as trophic conversion of a microalgal cell to no longer be an obligate photoautotroph. In some embodiments, the method comprises identifying or selecting cells that have gained the ability to utilize energy from a fixed carbon source.  
         [0176]     In some embodiments, the methods comprise selecting microalgal cells, such as a  Porphyridium  cell, for the ability to undergo cell division in the absence of light, or light energy. The cells, such as one from a species listed in Table 1, may be those which have been transformed with a sugar transporter or those which have been mutagenized, chemically or non-chemically. The selection may be, for example, on about 0.1% or about 1% glucose, or another fixed carbon source, in the dark. Preferred fixed carbon compounds are listed in Tables 2 and 3.  
         [0177]     Non-limiting examples of carbohydrate transporter proteins, optionally operably linked to promoters active in microalgae, as well as expression cassettes and vectors comprising them, have been described above. Alternatively, the nucleic acids may be incorporated into the genome of a microalgal cell such that an endogenous promoter is used to express the transporter. Additional embodiments of the methods include expression of transporters of a carbohydrate selected from Table 2 or 3. Non-limiting examples of mutagenesis include contact or propagation in the presence of a mutagen, such as ultraviolet light, nitrosoguanidine, and/or ethane methyl sulfonate (EMS).  
         [0178]     As one non-limiting example, a method of the invention comprises providing a nucleic acid encoding a carbohydrate transporter protein; transforming a  Porphyridium  cell with the nucleic acid; and selecting for the ability to undergo cell division in the absence of light or in the presence of a carbohydrate that is transported by the carbohydrate transporter protein. In another non-limiting example, a method comprises subjecting a microalgal cell to a mutagen; placing the cell in the presence of a molecule listed in Tables 2 or 3; and selecting for the ability to undergo cell division in the absence of light.  
         [0179]     The methods may also be considered to be for trophically converting a microalgal cell to no longer be an obligate phototroph. It is pointed out that the ability to select for loss of obligate phototropism also provides an alternative means to select for expression of a sugar transporter in the absence of a selectable marker because correct expression and functionality of the transporter is the selectable phenotype when cells are grown in the absence of light for photosynthesis.  
         [0180]     It should be apparent to one skilled in the art that various embodiments and modifications may be made to the invention disclosed in this application without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. All publications mentioned herein are cited for the purpose of describing and disclosing reagents, methodologies and concepts that may be used in connection with the present invention. Nothing herein is to be construed as an admission that these references are prior art in relation to the inventions described herein.  
       EXAMPLES  
     Example 1  
       [0000]     Growth of  Porphyridium cruentum  and  Porphyridium  sp.  
         [0181]      Porphyridium  sp. (strain UTEX 637) and  Porphyridium cruentum  (strain UTEX 161) were inoculated into autoclaved 2 liter Erlenmeyer flasks containing an artificial seawater media:  
                                                 1495 ASW medium recipe from the American Type Culture Collection       (components are per 1 liter of media)                                    NaCl   27.0   g           MgSO 4 •7H 2 O   6.6   g           MgCl 2 •6H 2 O   5.6   g           CaCl 2 •2H 2 O   1.5   g           KNO 3     1.0   g           KH 2 PO 4     0.07   g           NaHCO 3     0.04   g           1.0 M Tris-HCl buffer, pH 7.6   20.0   ml           Trace Metal Solution (see below)   1.0   ml           Chelated Iron Solution (see below)   1.0   ml           Distilled water   bring to 1.0   L                        
         [0182]     Trace Metal Solution:  
                                                           ZnCl 2     4.0   mg           H 3 BO 3     60.0   mg           CoCl 2 •6H 2 O   1.5   mg           CuCl2•2H 2 O   4.0   mg           MnCl 2 •4H 2 O   40.0   mg           (NH 4 ) 6 Mo 7 O 24 •4H 2 O   37.0   mg           Distilled water   100.0   ml                      
 
         [0183]     Chelated Iron Solution:  
                                                           FeCl 3 •4H 2 O   240.0   mg           0.05 M EDTA, pH 7.6   100.0   ml                      
 
 Media was autoclaved for at least 15 minutes at 121° C. 
 
         [0184]     Inoculated cultures in 2 liter flasks were maintained at room temperature on stir plates. Stir bars were placed in the flasks before autoclaving. A mixture of 5% CO 2  and air was bubbled into the flasks. Gas was filter sterilized before entry. The flasks were under 24 hour illumination from above by standard fluorescent lights (approximately 150 uE/m −1 /s −1 ). Cells were grown for approximately 12 days, at which point the cultures contained approximately of 4×10 6  cells/mL.  
       Example 2  
       [0185]     Dense  Porphyridium  sp. and  Porphyridium cruentum  cultures were centrifuged at 4000 rcf. The supernatant was subjected to tangential flow filtration in a Millipore Pellicon 2 device through a 1000 kD regenerated cellulose membrane (filter catalog number P2C01MC01). Approximately 4.1 liters of  Porphyridium cruentum  and 15 liters of  Porphyridium  sp. supernatants were concentrated to a volume of approximately 200 ml in separate experiments. The concentrated exopolysaccharide solutions were then diafiltered with 10 liters of 1 mM Tris (pH 7.5). The retentate was then flushed with 1 mM Tris (pH 7.5), and the total recovered polysaccharide was lyophilized to completion. Yield calculations were performed by the dimethylmethylene blue (DMMB) assay. The lyophilized polysaccharide was resuspended in deionized water and protein was measured by the bicinchoninic acid (BCA) method. Total dry product measured after lyophilization was 3.28 g for  Porphyridium  sp. and 2.0 g for  Porphyridium cruentum . Total protein calculated as a percentage of total dry product was 12.6% for  Porphyridium  sp. and 15.0% for  Porphyridium cruentum.    
       Example 3  
       [0186]      Porphyridium  sp. culture was centrifuged at 4000 rcf and supernatant was collected. The supernatant was divided into six 30 ml aliquots. Three aliquots were autoclaved for 15 min at 121° C. After cooling to room temperature, one aliquot was mixed with methanol (58.3% vol/vol), one was mixed with ethanol (47.5% vol/vol) and one was mixed with isopropanol (50% vol/vol). The same concentrations of these alcohols were added to the three supernatant aliquots that were not autoclaved. Polysaccharide precipitates from all six samples were collected immediately by centrifugation at 4000 rcf at 20° C. for 10 min and pellets were washed in 20% of their respective alcohols. Pellets were then dried by lyophilization and resuspended in 15 ml deionized water by placement in a 60° C. water bath. Polysaccharide pellets from non-autoclaved samples were partially soluble or insoluble. Polysaccharide pellets from autoclaved ethanol and methanol precipitation were partially soluble. The polysaccharide pellet obtained from isopropanol precipitation of the autoclaved supernatant was completely soluble in water.  
       Example 4  
       [0187]     Approximately 10 milligrams of purified polysaccharide from  Porphyridium  sp. and  Porphyridium cruentum  (described in Example 3) were subjected to monosaccharide analysis.  
         [0188]     Monosaccharide analysis was performed by combined gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) of the per-O-trimethylsilyl (TMS) derivatives of the monosaccharide methyl glycosides produced from the sample by acidic methanolysis.  
         [0189]     Methyl glycosides prepared from 500 μg of the dry sample provided by the client by methanolysis in 1 M HCl in methanol at 80° C. (18-22 hours), followed by re-N-acetylation with pyridine and acetic anhydride in methanol (for detection of amino sugars). The samples were then per-O-trimethylsilylated by treatment with Tri-Sil (Pierce) at 80° C. (30 mins). These procedures were carried out as previously described in Merkle and Poppe (1994) Methods Enzymol. 230: 1-15; York, et al. (1985) Methods Enzymol. 118:3-40. GC/MS analysis of the TMS methyl glycosides was performed on an HP 5890 GC interfaced to a 5970 MSD, using a Supelco DB-1 fused silica capillary column (30 m 0.25 mm ID).  
         [0190]     Monosaccharide compositions were determined as follows:  
                                 TABLE 10                             Porphyridium  sp. monosaccharide analysis                Glycosyl residue   Mass (μg)   Mole %                       Arabinose (Ara)   n.d.   n.d.           Rhamnose (Rha)   2.7   1.6           Fucose (Fuc)   n.d.   n.d.           Xylose (Xyl)   70.2   44.2           Glucuronic acid (GlcA)   n.d.   n.d.           Galacturonic acid (GalA)   n.d.   n.d.           Mannose (Man)   3.5   1.8           Galactose (Gal)   65.4   34.2           Glucose (Glc)   34.7   18.2           N-acetyl galactosamine (GalNAc)   n.d.   n.d.           N-acetyl glucosamine (GlcNAc)   trace   trace               Σ = 176.5                      
 
         [0191]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 11 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                   Porphyridium cruentum  monosaccharide analysis 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Glycosyl residue 
                 Mass (μg) 
                 Mole % 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Arabinose (Ara) 
                 n.d. 
                 n.d. 
               
               
                   
                 Rhamnose (Rha) 
                 n.d. 
                 n.d. 
               
               
                   
                 Fucose (Fuc) 
                 n.d. 
                 n.d. 
               
               
                   
                 Xylose (Xyl) 
                 148.8 
                 53.2 
               
               
                   
                 Glucuronic Acid (GlcA) 
                 14.8 
                 4.1 
               
               
                   
                 Mannose (Man) 
                 n.d. 
                 n.d. 
               
               
                   
                 Galactose (Gal) 
                 88.3 
                 26.3 
               
               
                   
                 Glucose (Glc) 
                 55.0 
                 16.4 
               
               
                   
                 N-acetyl glucosamine (GlcNAc) 
                 trace 
                 trace 
               
               
                   
                 N-acetyl neuraminic acid (NANA) 
                 n.d. 
                 n.d. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Σ = 292.1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   Mole % values are expressed as mole percent of total carbohydrate in the sample.    
               
               
                   
                   n.d. = none detected.    
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Example 5  
       [0192]      Porphyridium  sp. was grown as described. 2 liters of centrifuged  Porphyridium  sp. culture supernatant were autoclaved at 121° C. for 20 minutes and then treated with 50% isopropanol to precipitate polysaccharides. Prior to autoclaving the 2 liters of supernatant contained 90.38 mg polysaccharide. The pellet was washed with 20% isopropanol and dried by lyophilization. The dried material was resuspended in deionized water. The resuspended polysaccharide solution was dialyzed to completion against deionized water in a Spectra/Por cellulose ester dialysis membrane (25,000 MWCO). 4.24% of the solid content in the solution was proteins as measured by the BCA assay.  
       Example 6  
       [0193]      Porphyridium  sp. was grown as described. 1 liters of centrifuged  Porphyridium  sp. culture supernatant was autoclaved at 121° C. for 15 minutes and then treated with 10% protease (Sigma catalog number P-5147; protease treatment amount relative to protein content of the supernatant as determined by BCA assay). The protease reaction proceeded for 4 days at 37° C. The solution was then subjected to tangential flow filtration in a Millipore Pellicon® cassette system using a 0.1 micrometer regenerated cellulose membrane. The retentate was diafiltered to completion with deionized water. No protein was detected in the diafiltered retentate by the BCA assay. See  FIG. 5 .  
         [0194]     Optionally, the retentate can be autoclaved to achieve sterility if the filtration system is not sterile. Optionally the sterile retentate can be mixed with pharmaceutically acceptable carrier(s) and filled in vials for injection.  
         [0195]     Optionally, the protein free polysaccharide can be fragmented by, for example, sonication to reduce viscosity for parenteral injection as, for example, an antiviral compound. Preferably the sterile polysaccharide is not fragmented when prepared for injection as a joint lubricant.  
       Example 7  
       [0196]     Cultures of  Porphyridium  sp. (UTEX 637) and  Porphyridium cruentum  (strain UTEX 161) were grown, to a density of 4×10 6  cells/mL, as described in Example 1. For each strain, about 2×10 6  cells/mL cells per well (˜500 uL) were transferred to 11 wells of a 24 well microtiter plate. These wells contained ATCC 1495 media supplemented with varying concentration of glycerol as follows: 0%, 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 5%, 7% and 10%. Duplicate microtiter plates were shaken (a) under continuous illumination of approximately 2400 lux as measured by a VWR Traceable light meter (cat #21800-014), and (b) in the absence of light. After 5 days, the effect of increasing concentrations of glycerol on the growth rate of these two species of  Porphyridium  in the light was monitored using a hemocytometer. The results are given in  FIG. 3  and indicate that in light, 0.25 to 0.75 percent glycerol supports the highest growth rate, with an apparent optimum concentration of 0.5%.  
         [0197]     Cells in the dark were observed after about 2 weeks of growth. The results are given in  FIG. 4  and indicate that in complete darkness, 5.0 to 7.0% glycerol supports the highest growth rate, with an apparent optimum concentration of 7.0%.  
       Example 8  
       [0198]     Approximately 4500 cells (300 ul of 1.5×10 5  cells per ml) of  Porphyridium  sp. and  Porphyridium cruentum  cultures in liquid ATCC 1495 ASW media were plated onto ATCC 1495 ASW agar plates (1.5% agar). The plates contained varying amounts of zeocin, sulfometuron, hygromycin and spectinomycin. The plates were put under constant artificial fluorescent light of approximately 480 lux. After 14 days, plates were checked for growth. Results were as follows:  
         [0199]     Zeocin  
                                   Conc. (ug/ml)   Growth                   0.0   ++++       2.5   +       5.0   −       7.0   −                  
 
         [0200]     Hygromycin  
                                             Conc. (ug/ml)   Growth                                0.0   ++++       5.0   ++++       10.0   ++++       50.0   ++++                  
 
         [0201]     Specinomycin  
                                                                 Conc. (ug/ml)   Growth                                        0.0   ++++           100.0   ++++           250.0   ++++           750.0   ++++                      
 
         [0202]     After the initial results above were obtained, a titration of zeocin was performed to more accurately determine growth levels of  Porphyridium  in the presence of zeocin.  Porphyridium  sp. cells were plated as described above. Results are shown in  FIG. 2 .  
       Example 9  
       [0000]     Trophic Conversion: transporters  
         [0000]     Cloning  
         [0203]     Plasmid pBluescript KS+ is used as a recipient vector for an expression cassette. A promoter active in microalgae is cloned into pBluescript KS+, followed by a 3′ UTR also active in microalgae. Unique restriction sites are left between the promoter and 3′UTR. A nucleic acid encoding a glucose transporter (SEQ ID NO: 13) using most preferred codons of  Porphyridium  sp. is cloned into the unique restriction sites between the promoter and 3′UTR. The promoter:cDNA:3′UTR (SEQ ID NO: 31) is cloned into a plasmid.  
         [0204]     The plasmid is used to transform  Porphyridium  sp. cells using the biolistic transformation parameters described in Plant Physiol. 2002 May; 129(1):7-12. After transformation, some plated cells are scraped from the plate using a sterile cell scraper are transferred into Erlenmeyer flasks wrapped with aluminum foil sufficient to prevent the entry of light into the culture. Identical preparations of transformed, scraped cells are cultured, shaking at ˜50 rpm in 24 well plates in the dark, in ATCC 1495 media in the presence of 0.1, 1.0, and 2.5% glucose, and monitored for growth. Other cells are transformed on plates containing solid agar ATCC 1495 media, supplemented with either 0.1, 1.0, or 2.5% glucose, and monitored for growth in complete darkness.  
       Example 10  
       [0205]     Cultures of  Porphyridium  sp. (UTEX 637) and  Porphyridium cruentum  (strain UTEX 161) were subjected to chemical mutagenesis (from the protocol in Gorman D S, Levine R P. (1965) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 54(6):1665-9). Cells were grown to a density of 4×10 6  cells/mL as described in Example 1. Cells were harvested, washed with 70 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH 6.9) and resuspended to a density of 4×10 7  cells/mL. To 1 mL of cells (from both strains), 0.1M ethyl methane sulfonate (EMS) was added. A 200 uL aliquot was taken for the zero time point. The tubes were incubated in the dark at room temperature. 200 uL aliquots were removed from the tube at various time points: 15 min, 30 min, 45 min and 60 min. At each time, the aliquot of cells were treated with 800 uL of 5% sodium thiosulfate to inactivate the EMS. Cells from each aliquot were spun down and washed three times with 1 mL of 70 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH 6.9), followed by a wash with 1 mL of ATCC 1495 media. The cells were resuspended in 200 uL of ATCC 1495 media, and plated at three different concentrations (1×, 10 −2 ×, 10 −4 ×) on duplicate plates of ATCC 1495 media, and incubated under continuous light.  
         [0206]     After mutagenesis, some plated cells are scraped from the plate using a sterile cell scraper are transferred into Erlenmeyer flasks wrapped with aluminum foil sufficient to prevent the entry of light into the culture. Identical preparations of transformed, scraped cells are cultured, shaking at ˜50 rpm in 24 well plates in the dark, in ATCC 1495 media in the presence of 0.1, 1.0, and 2.5% glucose, and monitored for growth. Other cells are transformed on plates containing solid agar ATCC 1495 media, with either 0.1, 1.0, or 2.5% glucose, and monitored for growth in complete darkness. Cell treated as described can also be cultured in the presence of an exogenous carbon source from Tables 2 or 3.  
       Example 11  
       [0000]     Genetic and Nutritional Manipulation to Generate Novel Polysaccharides  
         [0207]     Cells prepared as described in Example 9, containing a monosaccharide transporter and capable of importing glucose, are cultured in ATCC 1495 media in the light in the presence of 1.0% glucose for approximately 12 days. Exopolysaccharide is purified as described in Example 2. Monosaccharide analysis is performed as described in Example 4.  
         [0208]     Cells prepared as described in Example 9, containing a monosaccharide transporter and capable of importing xylose, are cultured in ATCC 1495 media in the light in the presence of 1.0% xylose for approximately 12 days. Exopolysaccharide is purified as described in Example 2. Monosaccharide analysis is performed as described in Example 4.  
         [0209]     Cells prepared as described in Example 9, containing a monosaccharide transporter and capable of importing galactose, are cultured in ATCC 1495 media in the light in the presence of 1.0% galactose for approximately 12 days. Exopolysaccharide is purified as described in Example 2. Monosaccharide analysis is performed as described in Example 4.  
         [0210]     Cells prepared as described in Example 9, containing a monosaccharide transporter and capable of importing glucuronic acid, are cultured in ATCC 1495 media in the light in the presence of 1.0% glucuronic acid for approximately 12 days. Exopolysaccharide is purified as described in Example 2. Monosaccharide analysis is performed as described in Example 4.  
         [0211]     Cells prepared as described in Example 9, containing a monosaccharide transporter and capable of importing glucose, are cultured in ATCC 1495 media in the dark in the presence of 1.0% glucose for approximately 12 days. Exopolysaccharide is purified as described in Example 2. Monosaccharide analysis is performed as described in Example 4.  
         [0212]     Cells prepared as described in Example 9, containing a monosaccharide transporter and capable of importing xylose, are cultured in ATCC 1495 media in the dark in the presence of 1.0% xylose for approximately 12 days. Exopolysaccharide is purified as described in Example 2. Monosaccharide analysis is performed as described in Example 4.  
         [0213]     Cells prepared as described in Example 9, containing a monosaccharide transporter and capable of importing galactose, are cultured in ATCC 1495 media in the dark in the presence of 1.0% galactose for approximately 12 days. Exopolysaccharide is purified as described in Example 2. Monosaccharide analysis is performed as described in Example 4.  
         [0214]     Cells prepared as described in Example 9, containing a monosaccharide transporter and capable of importing glucuronic acid, are cultured in ATCC 1495 media in the dark in the presence of 1.0% glucuronic acid for approximately 12 days. Exopolysaccharide is purified as described in Example 2. Monosaccharide analysis is performed as described in Example 4.  
       Example 12  
       [0215]      Porphyridium cruentum  was grown as described above in ATCC 1495 media. Porphyridium cruentum culture supernatant were autoclaved at 121° C. for 20 minutes. 1.333 liters of isopropanol was added to a 4 liter preparation of autoclaved supernatant to a concentration of 25% (vol/vol). Precipitated exopolysaccharide was removed. Additional isopropanol (381 mL, 786 mL, 167 mL, and 1.333 liters) was added stepwise to the preparation to produce (vol/vol) concentrations of isopropanol of 30%, 38.5%, 40%, and 50%, respectively. Precipitated exopolysaccharide was removed after each increment of isopropanol was added. It was observed that very little additional exopolysaccharide was precipitated upon bringing the concentration from 38.5% to 40% and from 40% to 50%. It was also observed that significant amounts of salt were precipitated upon bringing the concentration from 38.5% to 40% and from 40% to 50%.  
         [0216]     An additional 4 liters of exopolysaccharide was precipitated with by addition of 38.5% isopropanol. See  FIG. 1 .  
         [0217]     All references cited herein, including patents, patent applications, and publications, are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties, whether previously specifically incorporated or not.  
         [0218]     Having now fully described this invention, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the same can be performed within a wide range of equivalent parameters, concentrations, and conditions without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention and without undue experimentation.  
         [0219]     While this invention has been described in connection with specific embodiments thereof, it will be understood that it is capable of further modifications. This application is intended to cover any variations, uses, or adaptations of the invention following, in general, the principles of the invention and including such departures from the present disclosure as come within known or customary practice within the art to which the invention pertains and as may be applied to the essential features hereinbefore set forth.