Abstract:
Detecting and determination of halooorganic compounds is described, which is applicable in the pharmaceutical industry, in fluorinated drug research and manufacturing; in the medical and clinical studies of the effects of fluoroorganic compounds; in the environmental and agricultural studies and screening, in the analysis of water, soils and air contaminated with fluoroorganic compounds.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation-in part of U.S. Patent Application Ser. No. 09/947,312, filed Sept. 5, 2001, now U.S. Patent No. 6,445,449, which is a continuation of U.S. Patent Application Serial No. 09/343,148, filed Jun. 29, 1999, now U.S. Patent No. 6,307,625, which claims benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/09 1,090, filed Jun. 29, 1998, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/138,643, filed Jun. 10, 1999. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Quantitative and qualitative analysis of compounds and molecules is an important task. One type of analysis is the detection of chemical and biological compounds using, for example, radioactive labeling. Chemical compounds and biological molecules are radioactive labeled to form tracers. The radioactive compounds, molecules, and their metabolites are then followed through the body and observed for emitted radioactivity. This type of detection, however, has limited sensitivity and requires expensive safety and precautionary measures. 
    
    
     
       DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a schematic drawing of a Raman spectrometer in accordance with an embodiment. 
         FIG. 2  is a Raman spectrum of C 8 H 17 Br (bromoperfluorooctane) and C 8 H 18  using the spectrometer of  FIG. 1 . 
         FIG. 3  is a Raman spectrum of C 9 F 19 COOH (C 10 HF 19 O 2 ; bromoperfluordecanoic acid). C 9 H 20  (nonane, a hydrocarbon) using the spectrometer of  FIG. 1 . 
         FIG. 4  is a Raman spectrum of C 6 H 3 (CF 3 ) 3  [1,3,5-tris(trisfluoromethyl)benzene] and C 6 H 6  (benzene) using the spectrometer of  FIG. 1 . 
         FIG. 5  is a Raman spectrum of a commercial preparation of fluoxetine hydrochloride using the spectrometer of  FIG. 1 . 
         FIG. 6  is a schematic drawing of a resonance Raman spectrometer in accordance with an embodiment. 
         FIG. 7  is a resonance Raman spectrum of irradiate perfluorodecalin showing a difluoromethylene absorption. The top spectrum is an unprocessed resonance Raman spectrum of perfluorodecalin (C 10 F 18 ). The bottom spectrum is a partially processed resonance Raman spectrum of perfluorodecalin. 
         FIG. 8  is a resonance Raman spectrum of 1-bromoperfluorooctane using the spectrometer of  FIG. 6 . 
         FIG. 9  shows structures of some commercially useful fluoroorganic compounds. 
         FIG. 10  shows structures of various compounds having Raman spectra. 
         FIG. 11  illustrates Raman spectra of C n F 2n+1 Br for n=6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14 in the region 0-1500 cm −1 . 
         FIG. 12  illustrates the dependency of Raman spectra on the unit length of a molecule in the lower frequency region LAM. 
         FIG. 13  illustrates the dependency of Raman spectra on the unit length of a molecule in the higher frequency region LOM. 
         FIG. 14  illustrates experimental Raman frequencies. 
         FIG. 15  illustrates the Raman spectra of a two-component mixture of C n F 2n+1 Br obtained at three concentrations of components at a Raman signal for a CF 2  bond. 
         FIG. 16  illustrates the Raman spectra of a two-component mixture of C n F 2n+1 Br obtained at three different concentrations of the components at a characteristic Raman signal in the lower frequency region LAM band. 
         FIG. 17  is a schematic drawing of an instrument in a first embodiment. 
         FIG. 18  illustrates a schematic drawing of an instrument in a second embodiment 
         FIG. 19  is a schematic drawing of an instrument in a third embodiment. 
         FIG. 20  illustrates a probe in an embodiment. 
         FIG. 21  illustrates a spectrum of m-Fluoro-DL-phenylalanine 
         FIG. 22  illustrates a spectrum of 5-Fluoruracil. 
         FIG. 23  illustrates a spectrum of B-Fluoropyruvic acid. 
         FIG. 24  illustrates a spectrum m-Fluoro-DL-Tryptophane. 
         FIG. 25  illustrates a spectrum of 5-Fluorouridine. 
         FIG. 26  illustrates spectra of naphthaline with zero delay and C 9 F 21 N with a 50 ns delay. 
         FIG. 27  illustrates spectra of D-Tyrosine at different time delays. 
         FIG. 28  illustrates spectra of m-Fluoro-D-Tyrosine at different time delays. 
         FIG. 29  illustrates spectra of Chicken DNA. 
         FIG. 30  illustrates spectra of 5-Fluoro-Uridine water solution. 
         FIG. 31  illustrates spectra of 5-Fluoro-Uridine solid at different time delays. 
         FIG. 32  illustrates a spectrum of 5-Fluoro-Uridine film after a water solution evaporation with a zero time delay. 
         FIG. 33  illustrates spectra of D-Tyrosine at different time delays. 
         FIG. 34  illustrates a spectrum of F-modified Tryptophane with a zero time delay. 
         FIG. 35  illustrates spectra of  Bacillius Thuringiensus.    
         FIG. 36  illustrates spectra of  Bacterius Thuringiensus.    
         FIG. 37  illustrates spectra of modified Soy at different time delays. 
         FIG. 38  illustrates spectra of unmodified Soy at different time delays. 
         FIG. 39  illustrates a spectrum of a DNA (RNA) hybridization F-modified bioprobe. 
         FIG. 40  illustrates a spectrum of an unlabelled DNA (RNA) sample. 
         FIG. 41  illustrates a DNA (RNA) hybridized to a C—F labeled bioprobe. 
     
    
    
     Like reference numbers and designations in the various drawings indicate like elements. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       FIG. 1  illustrates a Raman instrument  100  that includes a metal-vapor laser. Suitable lasers include a copper-vapor or a gold-vapor laser. The Raman instrument  100  also includes a mirror  102  with dielectric and highly reflective coating to efficiently reflect a generated laser radiation, and a photodiode  103  for collecting a laser radiation. The instrument  100  also includes an electronic unit  104  (e.g., a stroboscopic generator) and a condensing lens  105  that focuses a laser beam on the sample  106  to be analyzed (the sample  106  not being a component of the apparatus). Condensing lenses  107  and  108  are used to focus beams on the spectrometer slit after passing through the sample  106  and an absorbance filter  109  is used to pass a Raman emission signal (secondary radiation). The Raman instrument  100  also includes a single or double monochromator spectrometer  110 , a detector of secondary radiation  111  (e.g., a photomultiplier), a pulse recording system  112  controlled by the stroboscopic system  104 , and, optionally, a computer  113  for data collection and processing and for management of the spectrometer  110 . The spectrophotometer  110  may be a single, double, or triple monochomator for the visible and ultraviolet region of the spectra, equipped with a photomultiplier  111  and sensitive photon-counting detector system  112 . The high energy laser  101  pulses irradiate the fluoroorganic sample  106  and also activate a device  104 , to form a strobe-impulse used to synchronize the pulse recording system  112 . Samples may be placed into cylindrical quartz cuvettes having parallel windows (not shown). Raman spectra are observed at 90° with respect to the incident pulse by using a single or double monochromator  110  with a single channel detection. When irradiated, the sample  106  emits pulsed Raman radiation and also scatters part of the incident Raman pulse. The absorbance filter  109  removes scattered radiation and passes the pulsed Raman radiation to the spectrometer  110 . Signals are photomultiplied and sent to a synchronized pulse recording system  112 . To obtain ultraviolet radiation (255.3 nm; 271.2 nm and 289.1 nm), a doubling crystal, such as BaB 2 O 4 , or a tripling crystal, can be used. 
     A suitable laser  101  that can be used with the apparatus is designed and manufactured at Lebedev Institute of Physics (Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia). One such laser is a 3-watt or 10-watt Russian-designed air-cooled copper-vapor laser manufactured by the Lebedev Physics Institute. A stroboscopic generator  104  that can be used with the instrument  100  is also designed and manufactured at Lebedev Institute of Physics (Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia). The spectrophotometer  110  can be any standard monochomator or a commercial product such as a Jobin-Yvon U1000 double monochromator Raman spectrometer. The spectrophotometer may be modified to permit observation of the spectra of fluoroorganic compounds as shown in  FIGS. 2-8 , below. The optical filter can be a GUI-6 absorption optical filter. The monochromator can be an MSD-2 monochromator. The photomultiplier  111  can be an FEU-106 photomultiplier. 
     Excitation light emitted by the metal-vapor laser 101 is attenuated by an optical absorption filter  109  placed in front of a sample  106 . The filter  106  is used to limit the excitation light going to the sample. In the spectral range 200-400 nm, the filter  109  can be an ultraviolet filter, such as a GUI-6. In the range 360-480 nm, the filter can be a blue wavelength filter, such as a BG-12. GUI-6 and BG-12 filters are commercially available from AGFA. The luminescence spectra normalized to allow for the transmission coefficient of the relevant filter  109 . 
     A pulsed metal-vapor laser  101  has significant advantages over continuous wave argon or helium-neon lasers. The pulsed signal generates significantly less photodecomposition and permits the simple elimination of primary fluorescence. Further, laser  101  is significantly cheaper than Raman spectrometers that use longer wavelength excitation lasers, particularly to the Nd:YAG laser at 1064 nm, to eliminate fluorescence. This is because the longer wavelength lasers require expensive CCD signal detectors that significantly increase cost. 
     The metal-vapor laser  101  can provide about 16 times the signal of commercial Nd:YAG laser Raman spectrometers. Because the Raman vibrational scattering emissions are detected during a narrow time internal (“gate”) approximately equal to the laser pulse duration (10 −8  sec), fluorescence is eliminated. Pulsed techniques also give enhanced sensitivity. 
     Thus, the intense characteristic Raman band of the symmetric vibrational normal mode of carbon-fluorine bond or groups in the Raman spectra of organic compounds, excited by the pulse laser source, can be established. For example, to achieve optimal excitation of a C—F band, the exposure of the sample to the excitation source must be 10-8 seconds or more. The Raman spectrum is measured within the above exposure period. Therefore, the Raman spectra is not affected by fluorescence. 
     Using the Raman instrument  100 , an emitting signal of a carbon-fluorine bond normal mode (vibrational) or carbon-fluorine group normal mode (rotational), which occurs within a narrow frequency range, is very strong with recognizable narrow band widths. The term “normal mode” refers to the symmetric vibrational process of excited atoms. The radiation characteristic of carbon-fluorine bonds may be detected in the 500-800 cm −1  region. Other radiation in the 950-1400 cm −1  region commonly associated with fluoroorganic compounds can also be observed. 
     The published frequency range for carbon-fluorine bond infrared absorption is 1000 cm −1  to 1400 cm −1  These other bands are useful and can be used to confirm carbon-fluorine groups detected by the instrument. However, these infrared absorptions are subject to interference by other functional groups in the fluoroorganic compound, as discussed above. 
     A type of carbon-fluorine bond can also be identified. The vibration of fluorine against carbon (such C—F vibrations occur in the infrared at 1000-1400 cm −1 ) is not measured. Rather, deviations from the totally symmetric Raman active mode of the groups (such as the carbon-fluorine group in the aromatic compound hexafluorobenzene or the trifluoromethyl group in trifluoromethylated compounds, such as 1,3,5-tris(trisfluoromethyl)benzene), are detected. Changes in the polarization of carbon-fluorine groups as part of the total molecular vibrational normal modes may also be detected. 
     The laser  101  is adaptable to frequency doubling to give a strong signal in the ultraviolet (UV) at about 255.4 nm. UV signals at 272 nm and 289 nm are also available. Irradiation of samples in the ultraviolet allows the observation of resonance Raman spectra which have signals approximately 10 4  to 10 5  stronger (10,000-100,000 times stronger) than normal Raman signals. Resonance Raman signals means detection of compounds containing carbon-fluorine bonds at the parts per billion (ppb) level. Frequency doubling of the wavelengths is observed for both the copper-vapor laser and the gold-vapor laser. 
       FIG. 6  is a schematic drawing of a Raman spectrometer  200  as adapted for resonance Raman spectroscopy. The Raman spectrometer  200  is similar to the Raman instrument  100  in  FIG. 1 . However, the spectrometer  200  includes a non-linear frequency doubling crystal  4 . The frequency doubling crystal can be constructed of barium borate. The spectrometer  200  may also include additional filters  14 . 
     The doubled frequencies, expressed as wavelengths, for a copper-vapor laser may be about 255 nm and 289 nm. A combination band at 272 nm may also be useful. For a gold-vapor laser, the doubled frequency wavelength is about 314 nm. Almost all of the compounds of TABLE 1 below have aromatic rings and are almost certain to give significant enhancement of the resonance Raman emission signal due to the high self-absorbance of the aromatic ring structures. Aromatic rings absorb energy at frequencies similar to those emitted (self-absorption). Using a frequency doubling crystal, the frequency may be shifted from 510.6 nm to 255.3 nm where it is absorbed. 
     The spectrometer  200  permits a significant suppression of dark current and environmental noise, and also increases sensitivity. The background of continuous fluorescence can be suppressed by using a strobe-impulse. The strobe-impulse is synchronized with a laser source pulse and “opens” a detection system for only about 10 −8  sec. This period corresponds to the duration of the laser pulse. As a result, the spectrometer  200  permits a low level detection of fluoroorganic compounds. 
     A Raman band that is characteristic of carbon-fluorine bonds can be found in the range 540 cm −1  to 785 cm −1 , based on experimental observations. For estimation purposes, a range of 500-800 cm −1  is reasonable. 
     Many fluoroorganic compounds are manufactured commercially. Most of the compounds find use as drugs in medicine or veterinary medicine, anesthetics, herbicides, insecticides, pesticides or as industrial intermediates.  FIG. 9  shows the structures of some commercially useful compounds. These compounds include carbon-fluorine bonds of trifluoromethyl groups, aromatic carbon-fluorine bonds, and perfluoroalkyl groups. 
     Aromatic carbon-fluorine bonds are observed in the range of 540-610 cm −1 . Examples are hexafluorobenzene, 569 cm −1 ; and pentafluoropyridine, 589 cm −1 . 
     Trifluoromethyl groups are observed in the range of 710-785 cm −1 . Examples are: 1-bromoperfluorooctane, 726 cm −1 ; perfluorodecanoic acid, 730 cm −1 ; triperfluoropropylamine, 750 cm −1 ; 1,3,5-tris —(trifluoromethylbenzene), 730 cm −1 ; fluoxetine (Prozac®) commercial powdered pill at 770 cm −1 . TABLE 1 (see, Key et al.,  Environmental Science and Technology  31: 2445-2454, 1997) lists commercial fluoroorganic compounds containing trifluoromethyl groups. Most of these compounds have an aromatic ring, so resonance Raman can be observed. For example, Prozac® gives a sharp identifiable signal at 770 cm −1 , as shown in  FIG. 5 . 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 APPLICATIONS OF TRIFLUOROMETHYL-SUBSTITUTED 
               
               
                 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Herbicides 
                 Insecticides 
                 Medicinal (Use) 
               
               
                   
                 acifluorifen 
                 acrinathrin 
                 bendroflumethiazide 
               
               
                   
                 benfluralin 
                 bifenthrin 
                 (antihypertensive) 
               
               
                   
                 diflufenican 
                 chlorfluazuron 
                 dexfenfluramine 
               
               
                   
                 dinitramine 
                 cyhalothrin 
                 (obesity) 
               
               
                   
                 dithiopyr 
                 flucofuron 
                 fenfluramine 
               
               
                   
                 ethaifluralin 
                 flufenoxuron 
                 (anorectic) 
               
               
                   
                 flazasulfuron 
                 X-fluvalinate 
                 fluoxetine 
               
               
                   
                 fluazifop 
                 hydramethylnon 
                 (antidepressant) 
               
               
                   
                 fluchioralin 
                 tefluthrin 
                 fluphenazine 
               
               
                   
                 flumetralin 
                 triflumuron 
                 (antipsychotic) 
               
               
                   
                 fluometuron 
                 Rodenticide 
                 halofantrine and 
               
               
                   
                 fluoroglycofen 
                 bromethalin 
                 mefloquine•HCl 
               
               
                   
                 flurazole 
                 flocoumafen 
                 (antimalarials) 
               
               
                   
                 flurochloridane 
                 flupropadine 
                 nilutamide (cancer) 
               
               
                   
                 flurprimidol 
                 Fungicide 
                 tolrestat (diabetes) 
               
               
                   
                 flurtamone 
                 fluazinam 
               
               
                   
                 fluxofenim 
                 flusulfamide 
               
               
                   
                 fomesafen 
                 flutolanil 
               
               
                   
                 furyloxyfen 
                 furconazole 
               
               
                   
                 haloxyfop 
                 triflumizole 
               
               
                   
                 lactofen 
                 Anaesthetics 
               
               
                   
                 mefluidide 
                 fluroxene 
               
               
                   
                 nipyraclofen 
                 halothane 
               
               
                   
                 norflurazon 
                 methoxyflurane 
               
               
                   
                 oxyfluorfen 
                 isoflurane 
               
               
                   
                 perfluidone 
                 sevoflurane 
               
               
                   
                 prodiamine 
                 desfiurane 
               
               
                   
                 profluralin 
                 Lampricide 
               
               
                   
                 thiazafluron 
                 trifluoromethyl- 
               
               
                   
                 trifluralin 
                 nitrophenol 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     When no trifluoromethyl group is present, difluromethylene groups are observed in a range centered at 690 cm −1 . An example is perfluorodecalin, a component of blood substitutes developed in Japan and Russia. 
     In particular embodiments, Raman spectroscopy can be performed on 1-bromoperfluorooctane (C 8 F 17 Br; BPFO), polycrystalline perfluorodecanoic acid (C 9 F 19 COOH; PFDA), 1,3,5-tris —(trifluoromethyl)—benzene (C 6 H 3 (CF 3 ) 3 ; TTFMB); or fluoxetine (Prozac®). The first compound (C 8 F 17 Br) is a candidate to carry oxygen in a blood substitute. The second compound (C 8 F 17 COOH) is an analog of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), but less volatile. PFOA has been found in tissues of workers exposed to PFOA in the workplace. The third compound (C 6 H 3 (CF 3 ) 3 ) contains carbon-fluorine bonds that are in trifluoromethyl groups. C 6 H 3 (CF 3 ) 3  is an analog of many useful compounds now sold commercially as drugs, herbicides, and pesticides, some of which are presented in TABLE 1. Fluoxetine (Prozac®; C 17 H 18 F 3 NO) is a widely prescribed drug which contains a trifluoromethyl group. 
     In further embodiments, resonance Raman spectroscopy can be performed on perfluorodecalin (C 8 F 18 , PFD) and 1-bromoperfluorooctane (C 8 F 17 Br, BPFO). The schematic of the instrument used to observe the resonance Raman spectra is given in  FIG. 6 . Most of the compounds of TABLE 1 should give enhanced resonance Raman spectra. 
     A Raman spectrum (0-1500 cm −1 ) of liquid C 8 F 17 Br (BPFO) is shown in  FIG. 2 . A very strong peak at 730 cm −1  is present in this spectrum. The compound C 8 F 17 Br is a fluoro-derivative of octane (C 8 H 18 ) in which the 18 hydrogens are replaced with 17 fluorine atoms and one atom of bromine.  FIG. 2  also shows a Raman spectrum of C 8 H 18  in the upper right corner. This spectrum does not have a peak near 730 cm −1 . As in C 6 H 3 (CF 3 ) 3  spectrum, the appearance of the 730 cm −1  peak in C 8 F 17 Br is due to a carbon-fluorine bond signature. This peak corresponds to a fully symmetric vibrational normal mode of a molecule containing the carbon-fluorine bond, specifically the trifluoromethyl group or perfluoroalkyl group. 
     A Raman spectrum for polycrystalline C 9 F 19 COOH (PFDA) is given in  FIG. 3 . As for earlier discussed fluoroorganic compounds, a characteristic peak at 726 cm −1  has been observed for C 8 F 17 COOH. This peak was assigned as a fully symmetric vibrational normal mode of a molecule containing the C—F bond, specifically the trifluoromethyl group or perfluoroalkyl group. The Raman spectrum of nonane (C 9 H 20 ) is shown in the upper right corner in  FIG. 3 . The nonane spectrum does not have any characteristic spectral lines close to 730 cm −1 . 
     A Raman spectrum for C 6 H 3 (CF 3 ) 3  (TTFMB) and benzene (C 6 H 6 , upper right) are shown in  FIG. 4 . When these two Raman spectra are compared, each has a well-resolved peak at 992 cm −1 , which corresponds to the fully symmetric vibrational mode of the benzene ring. At wave numbers greater than 992 cm −1  the Raman spectrum of C 6 H 3 (CF 3 ) 3  shows a doublet at 1085 −1 , 125 cm −1,  and spectral lines at 1376 cm −1 , 1513 cm −1 , and 1637 cm −1  instead of the single lines at 1178 cm −1  and 1586 cm −1  found for carbon in benzene. The difference between C 6 H 3 (CF 3 ) 3  and unsubstituted benzene becomes apparent below 992 cm −1 . Benzene shows only two weak peaks which correspond to the deformation modes of the C—C bond. By contrast, C 6 H 3 (CF 3 ) 3  shows a strong peak at 730 cm −1  comparable in intensity to the peaks in C 6 H 3 (CF 3 ) 3  and C 6 H 6  at 992 cm −1 . The 730 cm −1  peak is assigned as a fully symmetric vibrational normal mode of the trifluoromethyl group of the molecule. 
     The Raman spectrum in  FIG. 5  is of the contents of a fluoroxetine (C 17 H 18 F 3 NO) hydrochloride (Prozac®) capsule in the solid powdered form. The composition of the capsule is unknown other than the presence of fluoroxetine hydrochloride. The very narrow sharp peak at 770 cm −1  is assigned to a symmetrical vibration involving the trifluoromethyl group. The symmetric aromatic vibration is found at 1001 cm −1 . 
     The Raman spectra of each of the four fluoroorganic compounds (C 8 F 17 Br, C 8 F 17 COOH, C 6 H 3 (CF 3 ) 3 , and C 17 H 18 F 3 NO) show a characteristic fully symmetric vibrational strong peak at frequencies in the range of 720-770 cm −1  which are assigned to molecular vibrations of the trifluoromethyl group or perfluoroalkyl groups. Comparison of the Raman spectra of the fluoroorganic compounds with their hydrocarbon analogs, suggest that the observed spectral emissions in the range of 690-770 cm −1  are associated with the carbon-fluorine bonds of the compounds studied. 
     Resonance Raman spectra of perfluorodecalin (C 8 F 18 ) and 1-bromofluorooctane (C 8 F 17 Br) are shown in  FIG. 7  and  FIG. 8 . These spectra are shown at two different scales, but are not otherwise electronically processed to enhance the signals. The narrow sharp emission at 692 cm −1  is believed to be the totally symmetric normal mode of the difluoromethylene groups (CF 2 ). 1-bromoperfluorooctane has a weak ultraviolet absorption maximum about 275 nm (ε=50) and gives a resonance Raman spectrum with a 730 cm −1  emission signal, which is the same emission shown in the regular Raman spectrum ( FIG. 2 ). 
     Carbons in the “quasi-linear” or “quasi-one-dimensional” fluororganic molecule chain having a formula C n H 2n+2  e.g., C n F 2n+1  can also be identified. These molecules are often used in drug formulations, which transport oxygen or carbon dioxide in blood substitutes. These molecules are also used in other pharmaceutical and medicinal applications. Examples of these molecules include C 11 H 11 F 3 N 2 O 2  (flutamide) and C 10 F 19 O 2 K (potassium perfluorodecanoate). 
     Many linear or quasi-linear fluororganic compounds with different substitution groups can be identified. For example, a substitution group occurs when hydrogens of a molecule are replaced with fluorine to create a fluorocarbon compound. Suitable compounds include anesthetics and those listed in Table 2 below. 
     The C n H 2n+2  molecules may be modeled as a resonator. The length of the molecule is inversely proportional to the number of carbons (“n”) in the hydrocarbon chain, if n is relatively large. Fluororganic compounds experience a longitudinal acoustic mode (LAM) and a longitudinal optical mode (LOM) frequency shift. These shifts are dependent on the number of carbons in the molecule chain. 
     A Raman spectra was obtained using an argon laser at about 488.0 nm or a copper-vapor laser at about 510.5 nm. The laser power was about 100 mW. A computerized DFC-24 recording spectrometer with 1 cm −1  slit width was employed which was capable of monitoring the position of the gratings. The samples were clear liquid or white crystalline powders. Quartz cuvettes with parallel windows and close fitting tops were used for liquid samples. Raman observations were made at 90-degrees from the incident radiation. 
       FIG. 11  shows Raman spectra in the region 0-1400 cm −1  for C n F 2n+1 Br. A sharp peak in the region 719-730 cm 1  was observed for all Raman spectra. This peak corresponds to the fully symmetrical normal vibration of CF 2  bond.  FIG. 12  illustrates that with an increase in n, the maximum peak increased linearly. This means that the peak intensity depends on the length of the molecule. 
       FIG. 12  illustrates an intensive peak in the region 0-500 cm −1  and overlapping bands in the region 200-300 cm −1 . For n=6, 7, and 8, the observed lower frequency band (LAM) included several components. For n=9, 10 and 14 the band did not have splitting. A peak signal that was single was observed from C 14  to C 9 . However, from C 8  to C 6 , the peak began to split. 
       FIGS. 12 and 13  show that lower frequency LAM 80-150 cm −1  and higher frequency regions LOM 700-750 cm −1  of Raman spectra of C n F 2n+1 Br compounds depend on the number of carbons in the molecule chain. The frequency of the LAM decreases as n increases ( FIG. 12 ). However, the frequency of LOM increases when n increases ( FIG. 3 ). 
       FIGS. 15 and 16  show Raman spectra of mixtures of fluoroorganic compounds in the spectral area characteristic for a CF 2  bond and the Raman spectra of such mixtures in the lower frequency region LAM. At a concentration higher than about 2%, the Raman peaks were identified for the certain type of the fluoroorganic compound. 
     Table 2 below lists Raman spectral data for C 12 F 2n+1 Br in the LAM and LOM frequency ranges. 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Wave number, cm −1   
                 Relative Intensity 
                 Bandwidth, cm −1   
                 Compound 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 77.7 
                 3634 
                 7.4 
                 C 14 F 29 Br 
               
               
                 100.9 
                 1236 
                 5.4 
                 C 10 F 21 Br 
               
               
                 111.4 
                 1533 
                 7.0 
                 C 9 F 19 Br 
               
               
                 117.5 
                 1409 
                 6.0 
                 C 8 F 17 Br 
               
               
                 134.6 
                 4694 
                 7.1 
                 C 7 F 15 Br 
               
               
                 142.1 
                 4804 
                 6.3 
                 C 6 F 13 Br 
               
               
                 730.3 
                 2962 
                 5.5 
                 C 14 F 29 Br 
               
               
                 727.3 
                 2964 
                 4.4 
                 C 10 F 21 Br 
               
               
                 725.4 
                 3398 
                 4.7 
                 C 9 F 19 Br 
               
               
                 723.9 
                 5310 
                 4.7 
                 C 8 F 17 Br 
               
               
                 721.1 
                 5048 
                 4.1 
                 C 7 F 15 Br 
               
               
                 719.8 
                 5567 
                 4.2 
                 C 6 F 13 Br 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Comparison of the different Raman spectra of mixtures of fluororganic compounds indicates that the observed shifts depends on the length of the molecules. The acoustic and optical modes of vibration can be described using the dispersion law as follows:
 
ω acoustic =2( S/a )×sin 2 ( ka/ 2),  (1)
 
ω optical =ω 0   2 −4( S   2   /a   2 )×sin 2 ( ka/ 2),  (2)
         where ω acoustic  is the frequency of the acoustic mode;   ω optical  is the frequency of the optical mode;   k is a vector which has a value of 2 π/λ, where λ is the wavelength;   a is the distance between atoms of a molecule chain;   S is the acoustical propagation speed.       

     The vector k and the frequencies ω acoustic  and ω optical  can have various discrete values if the length of the molecule chain is finite and has determined limits. Using the shift of the acoustical and optical frequencies and plotting CF molecular length of CF versus the frequency shift, the molecular length (“L”) of quasi-linear molecules in mixtures of fluorocarbon molecules can be estimated. Accordingly, the minimum value for the frequencies can be calculated as follows:
 
For  f=ω   acoustic  /2π at the acoustic mode LAM: f acoustic  =2 ( S/ 2 πa )× sin  ( ka/ 2) ≅( S/πa )×( πa/ 2 L )=( S/ 2 L ), where L&gt;&gt;a and k min = π/L.  (3)
 
For  f =ω   optical /2π at the optical mode LOM: f optical   2 =f 0   2 −4 ( S   2 /4π 2   a   2 )×sin 2 (π a/ 2 L )≅f 0   2   −S   2 /4 L   2 , where L is the length of the molecule.  (4)
 
     Assuming that ν 0 =ω 0 /2πc, ν=ω/2πc, and k min =π/L, where ν and ν 0  are wave numbers, and c is the speed of light, the wavenumber dependencies the length (L) of the molecule for the acoustical (ν acoustic ) and optical (ω optical ) branches can be calculated as:
 
ν acoustic =( S/πac )×sin (π a/ 2 L ).  (5)
 
ν optical   2 =ν 0   2 −( S   2 /π 2   a   2   c   2 )×sin 2 (π a /2 L ).  (6)
 
       FIG. 14  illustrates experimental Raman frequencies indicated by circles for C n F 2n+1 Br at n=6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 14. The experimental frequencies represent the values of the spectra indicated in  FIGS. 11-13 .  FIG. 14  also illustrates calculated frequencies, as indicated by solid lines, that match the above spectra values. These calculations assume that L=na/2, where n is the number of carbons, e.g., 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 14. Comparison of the experimental and calculated frequencies indicates that actual Raman frequencies for varying values of n can be accurately calculated using the preferred method. 
     The dependency of the length of the molecule on the Raman signal has been established in “quasi-one-dimensional” molecules of fluororganic compounds. With an increase in the molecular length, the high frequency (optical) mode LOM of CF 2  linearly increases, and the lower frequency (acoustical) mode LOM decreased. Accordingly, the length of the molecular species in a mixture using the changing optical and acoustical frequency modes can be approximated. 
       FIG. 17  illustrates an instrument  300  in an embodiment. The instrument  300  may be used for Pulsed Laser Isochronic Raman Spectroscopy (“PLIR”), Pulsed Isochronic Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (“PLISERS”) or Pulsed Laser Isochronic Fluorescence (“PLIF”) applications. The PLISERS, PLIF and PLIR applications may occur in the ultraviolet (“UV”), infrared (“IR”), or visible (“VIS”) region. For PLIF applications, the instrument  300  may be used to analyze a sample, product, or biological molecule using a carbon—halogen bond, such as a carbon-fluorine (“C—F”) bond, as a tracer or fluorescence label. For PLIR and/or PLISERS applications, the instrument  300  may be used to analyze a sample, product, or biological molecule using a carbon—halogen bond, such as a C—F bond, as a chemical or Raman (optical) label. 
     The instrument  300  may include a laser source  301 , which may be a pulsed metal vapor source or other pulsed laser source. In one embodiment, the laser source  300  may provide a short duration of pulses, for example, in nanoseconds. The average power of the laser source  301  may be approximately 0.25-3 watts, and the peak power may be about 10-25 kilowatts. In one embodiment, the laser source  301  may be a visible copper vapor laser or an infrared gold metal vapor laser. Copper and gold vapor lasers may be used to reject fluorescence during Raman measurements. A copper vapor laser may increase the Raman cross-section. Such lasers may be used with time-gating and time-delay devices, and each laser may provide a high level of specificity for the detection for carbon—halogen bonds such as C—F bonds. A copper vapor laser may also reduce signal-to-noise ratios and provide a sensitivity of detection at femto molar and/or a femto gram levels. The laser source  301  may also have long hours of operation, for example, 1500 hours without the need of changing an active element, e.g., a tube. 
     For IR applications, an Nd: YAG pulsed laser or other solid-state pulse laser may be used. The laser source  301  may also have a sealed-offUV or VIS copper vapor laser having an excitation at about 510.6 nanometers to about 578.2 nanometers. In another embodiment, a UV nitrogen pulsed laser may be used to detect carbon—halogen bonds in organo—halogen compounds, products, and biological molecules containing such bonds. 
     In one embodiment, the excitation wavelength of the laser source  301 , after doubling of the laser wavelength, may be about 255.3 nanometers or more. The frequency repetition may be about 10 KHz and the duration of the pulses may be about 10-100 nanoseconds, have a beam diameter of about 14 nm, and a divergence of about 0.5 mrad. 
     The instrument  300  may also include a crystal  302  that is coupled to the laser source  301 . The crystal  302  may provide excitation in the UV region. A suitable crystal may be a BaB 2 O 4  crystal. A spectrometer  303 , such as a single, double, or triple monochromater, may also be included in the instrument  300 . The spectrometer  303  may be suitable for use in the UV and VIS regions. An interference filter may be used instead of the spectrometer  303 . The spectrometer  303  may have a slit of about 25-50 microns, with grooves of 1200-2400 lines/mm, be equipped with drive controls and other controls  312 , including a stepping motor. The instrument  300  may also include one or more fibers  305  and a sample holder  302 . The fiber  305  may be an optical fiber. The fiber  305  may be a bundle of fibers. The fiber  305  may be multifurcated (i.e. have one or more branches), and the fiber  305  may include a probe  317  coupled to an end of each branch to sense secondary emissions emitted from the sample. The probe  317  and the fiber  305  may be made of quartz and transmit VIS and UV radiation to a sample. The probes  317  may be optical probes, and may have different lengths. Each probe may also provide different time delays discussed below. 
     In one embodiment, for UV applications, light from the source  301  with a suitable wavelength may pass through the crystal  302 . The output of the crystal  302  may then pass through a device  315 , such as a dielectric mirror, to focus a beam on the sample. For applications in the VIS region, the signal from the source  301  may be applied directly to the sample without the need of crystal  302 . Exposed to the radiation from the laser source  301 , the sample may emit secondary emissions, which are sensed by one or more of the probes,  317 . The fiber  305  transports the emissions to an entrance of a spectrometer  303 . 
     Emissions introduced to the spectrometer  303  may then be delivered to a detector  304 , such as photomultiplier. The detector  304  may also be a CCD configured to operate in the range of about 200-800 nm. The detector  304  may be used in UV and VIS applications. A power supply  320  may be coupled to and supply a voltage to the detector  304 . The supply  320  may be, for example, a thyratron device. The resulting signal from the detector  304  may then be delivered to an amplifier  309 , e.g., a stroboscopic amplifier, which translates emissions for processing by a data processing device  310 . 
     The device  315  may also include a splitter to direct a portion of the beam from he laser source  301  to a photodiode  306  for collecting the radiation. The radiation is then passed to a time gating device  307  and a time delay device  308  to generate a pulse, such as a stroboscopic pulse  308   a , to synchronize the detector  304  using device  310 . The time delay and time gating devices enhance the sensitivity of detection and allow fluorescence and Raleigh emissions to be virtually eliminated. 
     In one embodiment, the time delay device  308  and the time gating device  308  may be used to provide time delays in the range of about 0-200 ns with time gates of about 1-10 ns. The time delay device  308  may provide between 0-100 ms time delays. The measured spectral range may be about 0-3000 cm −1 . The instrument  301  may also be timed for a specified carbon—halogen characteristic of about 500-900 cm −1 . 
     In an embodiment, the fiber  305  and/or the probe  317  may be used to obtain Raman, resonance Raman, surface enhanced Raman, and surface enhanced resonance Raman signatures, and to perform 1D-, 2D-, 3D-Raman measurements with a high level of sensitivity in the UV and VIS regions. The sensitivity may be about 10 −15  grams or lower. For PLISERS applications, a fiber optic probe ( FIG. 20 ) may be used. 
     In one embodiment, the device  310  maybe used to cause the instrument  300  to measure Raman emissions from the sample before the emitted fluorescence. In another embodiment, the fluorescence emission may be measured after the Raman emission. The device  310  may also store characteristics of different compounds, molecules, biological products, and other sources of the sample for comparison and identification. 
     To perform 2D- and 3D- measurements, the fiber  305  may include branches, each with one or more probes  317  of different lengths, e.g., bifurcations, trifurcations, or multifurcations, that transmit UV or VIS radiation may be used. The probes  317  and/or the fiber  305  may be coupled to be sample holder  330  at different points. In this case, measurements may be made by using different probe lengths and by changing the respective time delay lengths for each probe or branch. The space resolution of the Raman 2D-, 3D- mapping may depend on a diameter of the fiber and/or probe and the duration of the laser.  FIG. 19  illustrates an instrument  500 , that may be similar to instrument  300 . However, the instrument 500 may also include a sample holder 502 and a stepping motor  520 . The stepping motor  520  may be coupled to the sample holder  502  to move the sample holder  502 . The instrument  500  may also include a fiber  505  similar to fiber  305 . One or more probes  512  may also be coupled to the fiber  505 . The sample holder  502  may hold any number of samples of different shapes and sizes depending on the application. In one embodiment, each sample may have a dedicated probe. In another embodiment, the number of probes may be less than the number of samples. 
       FIG. 20  illustrates an embodiment of a probe  512  for use with PLISERS applications. The probe  512  may be coupled to the laser source and may include a polished tip  513 , which may be coated with one or more nobel metal islands (shown in white circles)  514 . The black circles  515  represent molecules of a sample to be analyzed. The probe may be positioned proximate the sample, and surface enhanced Raman scattering may occur proximate to the nobel metal inclusions The emissions from the sample may be transported via the probe  512  to the fiber  505 . 
       FIG. 18  illustrates an instrument  400 . The instrument  400  is similar to the instrument  300 . However, the instrument may include a filter  403  such as a narrow band filter, angled away or toward the sample. Emissions passed through the filter are detected using an imaging device  404 , such as a digital camera. In one embodiment, the device  404  may include a data transmission device  415 , such as an IR transmitter. The device may also include a memory  414  to store spectral data. The device  404  may also include a telescopic lens  425 , and may be positioned a distance away from the filter  403 , for example, 1-3 meters. The instrument  400  may also include a controller  426 , such as a stepping motor. 
     Organofluorine compounds may be analyzed using a characteristic Raman signature of a carbon halogen bond, such as a carbon-fluorine (“C—F”) bond. One or more of the instrument  300 ,  400 , or  500  may be used depending on the application (PLIR, PLIF, or PLISERS). In the case of solutions or mixtures, the intensity of the signature emission of the C—F bond may be directly proportional to the concentration of the organofluorine compound.Using the time-delay device and the time-gating device, impurities or additional molecules may be suppressed or differentiated from the characteristic signature of the C—F bond to analyze other components. The analysis may be performed by detecting the C—F bond through its Raman characteristic signal rather than detecting the presence of the entire organo fluorine compound or its fragments. In one embodiment, such an analysis may be used to determine the concentration of a compound or molecule by measuring an intensity of a marker band. In this case, the relative Raman intensity of the C—F bond may be directly proportional to the concentration of the compound. 
     The instrument  300 ,  400 ,  500  may be used to obtain PLIR spectra. For example,  FIG. 21  and  FIG. 24  show PLIR spectra for two solid fluoroamino acids, m-Fluoro-DL-phenylalanine and m-Fluoro-DL-Tryptophane. Such amino acids may also be detected when incorporated into peptides or proteins. Other examples include fluorinated compounds, such as 5-Fluorouracil ( FIG. 22 ), 5-Fluoropyruvic acid ( FIG. 23 ). 
       FIG. 25  shows a PLIR spectra of 5-Fluorouridine, which may be recorded with the instrument  400  configured with a double monochromator, pulsed copper vapor laser with an excitation wavelength at 510.6 nm, and 100 mW of average power. The spectra reveals a characteristic signature of a C—F bond of about 700 cm −1 . 
     PLIF spectra of various fluorinated and non-fluorinated biological molecules and samples may also be obtained using one or more of the instrument  300 ,  400 ,  500 . Examples include PLIF spectra of a water solution (1 mg/L) of m-Fluoro-D-Tyrosine ( FIG. 28 ), which may be recorded at different time delays and its natural analog, D-Tyrosine (1 mg/L) water solution, which is also recorded at different time-delays ( FIG. 27 ). Other examples include solid film on a glass surface (spot size 100 microns) of 60 fg of 5-Fluorouridine ( FIG. 32 ); Naphthaline with zero delay and C 9 F 21 N with a 50 ns delay; ( FIG. 26 ); F-modified Tryptophane at zero time delay ( FIG. 34 ); micron-size solid particles of 5-Fluorouridine ( FIG. 31 ); 1 mg/L water solution of 5-Fluorouridine ( FIG. 30 ); F-modified m-Fluoro-D-Tyrosine and regular D-Tyrosine at different concentrations and time-delays ( FIGS. 28 and 33 ); and a 10 −6  g/mL solution of Chicken DNA ( FIG. 29 ) taken at different time-delays. 
     In another example, natural and genetically modified PLIF spectra of Soy may be recorded for time delays of about 0-50 ns. ( FIGS. 37 and 38 ). A difference in PLIF spectra between genetically and modified natural Soy may also be measured. In particular, the fluorescence intensity of genetically modified Soy may be higher than unmodified Soy, and the maximum fluorescence signal may be shifted along with the shape of the resulting curve. The Raman spectra also demonstrates the difference in the spectrum of modified and unmodified Soy. 
     Microorganisms may be directly detected in the field, soil, open or ambient air by using collected proceeds, e.g. filters, in water, foodstuffs, serum, biological fluids by recording PLIIR and PLIF spectral data. For example,  FIGS. 35 and 36  show spectra for  Bacillius Thurigiensus  and  Bacterius Thuringeinsus , respectively. This data may be compared with pre-recorded spectral libraries found in a data processing device, such as device  310 . Time-gating device and time delay devices may be used to suppress background and fluorescence interference in a Raman mode. Fluorescent and resonance Raman spectra may be used to differentiate between microorganisms and their strains due to different patterns of decay in mixtures. 
     In one embodiment, detection of a carbon—halogen bond, such as a C—F bond, may be performed, when microorganisms and/or viruses are cultivated in or on growth-media, which contain different, small amounts of halogenated or fluorinated amino acids, nucleotides or fluorinated bases. During growth, C—F bonds may be incorporated as labels into the proteins and/or the nucleic acids of the microorganisms and viruses. This may result in different characteristic pulsed Raman and pulsed fluorescence spectra, which may be compared with the spectra of the unlabeled microorganisms and viruses. The changes of the C—F modified spectra in the pulsed Raman and the pulsed fluorescence mode may be used to differentiate strains of these microorganisms and viruses. 
     In another embodiment, a carbon—halogen labeled bioprobe, e.g., DNA/RNA-probes, peptides, proteins, monoclonal -, recombinant antibodies, aptamers, mirror-, photo-aptamers (containing e.g. BrdU), ribozymes, and antisense-molecules, containing one or more carbon—halogen bonds, may be hybridized or bound to target-molecules in the cells, on the surface of these microorganisms/viruses, in their lysates, or by using specific nucleic acids and proteins that are characteristic of each virus or microorganism. 
     One or more carbon—halogen bonds, such as a C—F bond, may be attached to or incorporated into bioprobes. The bioprobes may be a nucleic acid or protein. The recorded spectra may be characteristic spectra of the C—F-modified bioprobe, which may be used in single samples or in a multiplex analysis. Spectra for the bound and unbound C—F modified bioprobes may be generated using an instrument, e.g., instrument  300 , that indicate differences in Raman intensities and possible Raman shifts. The detection may be used for quantitative analysis. The characteristic signal of the C—F bond may be quantified because the relative intensity of an associated Raman C—F peak is directly proportional to the concentration of the analyte. 
       FIG. 39  illustrates an example of a spectrum for a C—F-modified bioprobe.  FIG. 40  illustrates a spectrum of an unmodified biologic.  FIG. 41  illustrates an example of a spectrum for a hybridized or bound C—F bioprobe. 
     In an embodiment, the instrument  300 ,  400 ,  500  may be used in invasive and non-invasive applications to obtain Raman spectra to identify diseased or normal tissues, biopsies, or cells. The instrument may be used in combination or coupled to a surgical tool, such as a fiber optic probe; scalpel, catheter, or other similar device in order to record pulsed Raman and pulsed fluorescent spectra by rejecting strong background fluorescence. In another embodiment, carbon—halogen containing metabolic contrast media, e.g., Fluorinated Glucose, may be used to differentiate tissues with low fluorinated glucose turnover. Other carbon—halogen labeled chromophores, such as F-Tryptophan, F-Tyrosin, F-Uridin and Tifluoroleucine may be used to indicate a disease state when incorporated into nucleic acids or proteins. The generated spectra may be used to identify a malignancy. Alternatively, other C—F labeled biologics, drugs, or metabolites may be used for the identification of abnormal cells and tissues. 
     In another embodiment, genome and proteom data libraries may be used to identify specific gene sequences and/or proteins, which may be characteristic for the identification of disease!cancer cells or tissues under investigation with C—F labeled nucleic acid probes or C—F labeled immunologic markers. A selection against these targets may be made, and a synthesis of the carbon—halogen containing compound, drug, or biologic, which binds to specific known target molecules of the disease/malignant cells or tissues, may be chosen. Target gene sequences may be hybridized with their carbon—halogen modified DNA/RNA matching strands, peptides, nucleic acids, antisense molecules, and ribozymes. Target proteins may be bound to peptides, proteins, antibodies, or aptamers either in tissues, cells, or after their isolation in solution or on surfaces. 
     Raman spectra of unlabeled tissues, cells and of each of the matching carbon—halogen modified bioprobes, e.g., a C—F modified bioprobe, may have to be pre-recorded before reacting with each other. This may result in specific spectra of the unlabeled tissues or target molecules, and of each carbon halogen modified bioprobe. These modified bioprobes may also be quantifiable due to the direct dependency between the relative intensity of the C—F peak and the concentration of each bioprobe. After the reaction/hybridization takes place, the Raman spectra of the bound and unbound C—F labeled bioprobe may then be recorded. The Raman signal for the C—F bond may shift to a higher frequency, when the C—F modified bioprobe is bound. 
     In another embodiment, diseases may be diagnosed by using a laser source with a lasing media of a mixture of copper and gold metal vapor, a lead vapor laser, or a barium metal vapor. Such laser sources may produce wavelengths in the red, green, and yellow region. Such lasers may have a wavelength of about 500-800 nm. The instrument  300 ,  400 ,  500  may include a probe made from, for example, fiber optics to enable recording of a Raman signal using halogenated chromophores, which bind specifically to characteristic disease-proteins e.g. beta-amyloid for Alzheimer disease. The radiation may penatrate through the bone, and a Raman signal of a C—F bond of a contrast media, which is directly proportional to the concentration of the chromophore changes between diseased and normal cells, may be measured. 
     Multiplex analysis of genes may be performed to determine gene copy numbers and mRNA expression levels using multiple reporter dyes or single dyes. In gene quantification studies, the formation of a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) product is monitored continuously during amplification using fluorescent primers, fluorogenic probes, or fluorescent dyes that bind to double stranded DNA. 
     In one embodiment time-gated measurements may be used to distinguish between different C—F labels based on each labels&#39; lifetime of emission in the fluorescence mode. A fixed set of excitation and emission filters may be used for measurements, and discrimination between labels may be achieved electronically. 
     The time based multiplex analysis of different C—F labels in the pulsed Raman mode of nucleic acids, proteins, or peptides is based on labeling with either C—F, CF 2 , or CF 3 , bonds. The bonds may be contained in aromatic or aliphatic, or N-containing compounds. Each of the C—F compounds and C—F molecules may have a characteristic Raman signature located in the area of 500 cm − 800 cm −1 , when excited by a pulsed laser source independent of the nature of the sample or media. The C—F compounds may also be differentiated from each other depending on the chemical structure of the compound. The C—F compounds that are aliphatic may be differentiated from each other based on the length of the molecule of each compound. 
     The instrument  300   400 ,  500  may be used in chromatography. For example, the instrument may be coupled to a chromatography instrument to detect a C—F bond in an eluent. 
     As discussed above, a carbon—halogen bond, such as a C—F bond, may be used as a label in PLIR, PLIF, and PLISERS applications because the bond exhibits a signal in a characteristic area, e.g., 500-900 cm −1 . The signal associated with the C—F bond may also be detected in a highly fluorescence surface, such as a nylon surface or biological matter by using time-gating and time-delay techniques. The C—F bond may retain its signal after being attached to biological molecules, such as Uridine ( FIG. 25 ), Tryptophane ( FIG. 24 ), Phenylalanine ( FIG. 21 ) and Uracil ( FIG. 22 ). 
     For PLIF applications, the C—F bond may produce a different spectrum from an unlabeled compound or biological molecule. ( FIGS. 30 and 32 ). For PLIR and PLISERS applications, an unlabeled nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) fragment may not exhibit specific Raman signals. The incorporation of a C—F bond into such molecules may improve specificity of analysis. For PLISERS applications, bioprobes may be bound on a surface of a chip, bead, or nanoparticle. Such probes may be used for hybridization with C—F labeled probes. The signal of a C—F bond may be enhanced by a factor of about 10 6  during a detection of the C—F label in colloidal solutions including gold or silver nanoparticles, or when detection is performed on surfaces, such as glass, chips, beads, or nanoparticles. A C—F bond or several C—F bonds may also exhibit a signal, when used with various platforms such as surfaces, gels or in solution. The C—F label may retain a characteristic signal after being attached to DNA-, RNA strands, peptide-nucleic acids or other biological probes, such as peptides, proteins, monoclonolal-, recombinant antibodies, antisense-molecules, ribozymes, aptamers, (oligo-) saccharides, or lipids. The C—F labeled probe may also be detected after hybridization or binding to a target molecule. The degree of hybridization/binding may be determined by measuring a change in the intensity of a C—F signal of the bound and unbound species, and a possible shift and the intensity of the C—F signal. Detection of fluorinated and non-fluorinated fluorescence dyes may also be performed in PLIF applications. 
     The analysis of fluoroorganic compounds where the compound is a drug, herbicide on vegetation, or pesticide on vegetation or animals may be performed. Fluorooorganic compounds used as drugs in animals to determine their presence and the presence of metabolites before excretion may be followed. Applications include pharmaceutical research and development, drug clinical trials, drug manufacturing, medical and biomedical applications. Also, organic fluorine compounds or derivatives which contaminate the environment can be detected at the nanogram level. Applications include environmental analysis of water, soil and air contaminated with fluorooorganic compounds, continuous monitoring of manufacturing fluorocarbon products and intermediates, and other similar applications. Dielectrics containing carbon-fluorine bonds are a further area of interest. The ultimate environmental fate of many fluorocarbon refrigerants is trifluoroacetic acid, which has been found in wetlands in environmental studies. Large numbers of soil samples for trifluoroacetic acid or for agriculture fluorinated pesticides may be analyzed. The research cost for developing new fluoroorganic pharmaceutical preparations, herbicides, and pesticides may be reduced. 
     Applications with respect to detecting other carbon—halogen bonds include carbon-chlorine, carbon-bromine, carbon-iodine, and carbon-astatine. 
     A number of embodiments of the present invention have been described. Nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. The copper-vapor laser-based Raman spectrograph described above may find broader applications. Accordingly, other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims.