Abstract:
A method and apparatus are disclosed for identifying boundaries between thin beds having different resistivities. In one embodiment, the method includes (a) transmitting an oscillatory signal from a first transmitter; (b) determining a first phase difference between signals induced in two receivers by the oscillatory signal from the first transmitter; (c) transmitting an oscillatory signal from a second transmitter; (d) determining a second phase difference between signals induced in the two receivers by the oscillatory signal from the second transmitter; and (e) calculating a interferometric difference between the first and second phase differences. When the transmitters are symmetrically located with respect to the receivers, the interferometric difference exhibits a maximum or minimum value near the boundary location. This low-complexity method provides good boundary detection results when the bed thickness is larger than the transmitter-receiver spacing. In a second method embodiment, the interferometric difference is calculated from the logarithm of the measured attenuation.

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates generally to downhole tools for determining characteristics of the borehole and formation during or after the drilling of a well. More particularly, the present invention relates to a resistivity logging tool for measuring formation resistivity parameters. Still more particularly, the present invention relates to a method for processing resistivity measurement variables to improve the detection of bed boundaries. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Modern petroleum drilling and production operations demand a great quantity of information relating to parameters and conditions downhole. Such information typically includes characteristics of the earth formations traversed by the wellbore, in addition to data relating to the size and configuration of the borehole itself. The collection of information relating to conditions downhole, which commonly is referred to as “logging,” can be performed by several methods. 
     In conventional oil well wireline logging, a probe or “sonde” is lowered into the borehole after some or all of the well has been drilled, and is used to determine certain characteristics of the formations traversed by the borehole. The sonde may include one or more sensors to measure parameters downhole and typically is constructed as a hermetically sealed cylinder for housing the sensors, which hangs at the end of a long cable or “wireline.” The cable or wireline provides mechanical support to the sonde and also provides an electrical connection between the sensors and associated instrumentation within the sonde, and electrical equipment located at the surface of the well. Normally, the cable supplies operating power to the sonde and is used as an electrical conductor to transmit information signals from the sonde to the surface. In accordance with conventional techniques, various parameters of the earth&#39;s formations are measured and correlated with the position of the sonde in the borehole as the sonde is pulled uphole. 
     While wireline logging is useful in assimilating information relating to formations downhole, it nonetheless has certain disadvantages. For example, before the wireline logging tool can be run in the wellbore, the drillstring and bottomhole assembly must first be removed or “tripped” from the borehole, resulting in considerable cost and loss of drilling time for the driller (who typically is paying daily fees for the rental of drilling equipment). Because of these limitations associated with wireline logging, there has been an emphasis on developing tools that could collect data during the drilling process itself. By collecting and processing data during the drilling process, without the necessity of tripping the drilling assembly to insert a wireline logging tool, the driller can make accurate modifications or corrections in “real-time” to optimize drilling performance. Designs for measuring conditions downhole and the movement and location of the drilling assembly, contemporaneously with the drilling of the well, have come to be known as “measurement-while-drilling” techniques, or “MWD.” Similar techniques, concentrating more on the measurement of formation parameters of the type associated with wireline tools, commonly have been referred to as “logging while drilling” techniques, or “LWD.” While distinctions between MWD and LWD may exist, the terms MWD and LWD often are used interchangeably. For the purposes of this disclosure, the term MWD will be used with the understanding that the term encompasses both the collection of formation parameters and the collection of information relating to the position of the drilling assembly while the bottomhole assembly is in the well. 
     The sensors used in a wireline sonde or MWD logging tools usually include a source device for transmitting energy into the formation, and one or more receivers for detecting the energy reflected from the formation. Various sensors have been used to determine particular characteristics of the formation, including nuclear sensors, acoustic sensors, and electrical sensors. See generally J. Lab,  A Practical Introduction to Borehole Geophysics  (Society of Exploration Geophysicists 1986); D. R. Skinner,  Introduction to Petroleum Production,  Volume 1, at 54-63 (Gulf Publishing Co. 1981). 
     For a formation to contain petroleum, and for the formation to permit the petroleum to flow through it, the rock comprising the formation must have certain well known physical characteristics. One measurable characteristic is the resistivity (or conductivity) of the formation. 
     A variety of tool types are used for measuring resistivity. Induction tools are one type of resistivity tool generally known in the art. An induction tool comprises a pair of antenna coils, one of which transmits while the other receives. Induction tools measure the resistivity of the formation by measuring the current induced in the receiving antenna as a result of magnetic flux caused by current in the emitting antenna. Specifically, an alternating current with a known intensity is fed to the emitting coil or antenna. Current flow through the emitting coil induces currents in the formation that flow in coaxial loops around the tool. These currents in turn induce a signal in the receiving coil. This signal induced in the receiving coil can be measured and is generally proportional to the conductivity of the formation. 
     Of similar construction is a second type of resistivity tool called an electromagnetic propagation (EMP) tool. These tools operate at much higher frequencies than induction tools (about 10 6  Hz as compared with about 10 4  Hz). EMP tools use transmitter coils to transmit radio frequency signals into the formation, and use receiver coils to measure the relative amplitude and phase of the signals received by the receivers. The formation resistivity causes changes in the intensity and timing of the transmitted wave, so the receiver does not receive an exact copy of the wave that the transmitter sent. Instead, the resistivity of the formation reduces (or “attenuates”) the intensity of the signal and causes a time delay (or “phase shift”) in the signal. Accordingly, the attenuation and phase shift can be measured at the receiver and used to gauge the resistivity of the formation. Higher frequency signals provide a higher measurement accuracy, but tend to have a reduced investigation depth. Consequently, when multiple transmitter coils are present, the transmitter-receiver configuration(s) with a shallower investigation depth may employ a higher frequency (e.g. 2 MHz) for better accuracy, and transmitter-receiver configuration(s) with deeper investigation depths may require a lower frequency (e.g. 0.5 MHz) for adequate performance. Resistivity derived from attenuation measurements is commonly called “attenuation resistivity,” and resistivity derived from phase measurements is commonly known as “phase resistivity.” See generally, James R. Jordan, et al.,  Well Logging II—Electric And Acoustic Logging,  SPE Monograph Series, Volume 10, at 71-87 (1986). 
     The various “beds” or layers in the earth have characteristic resistivities which can be used to identify their position. For example, in a so-called “shaley-sand” formation, the shale bed can have a low resistivity of about 1 ohm-m. A bed of oil-saturated sandstone, on the other hand, is likely to have a higher resistivity of about 10 ohm-m, or more. The sudden change in resistivity at the boundary between beds of shale and sandstone can be used to locate these boundaries. However, for relatively thin beds and deviated boreholes, this detection can be difficult to accomplish reliably. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     Accordingly, there is provided herein a method and apparatus for identifying boundaries between thin beds having different resistivities. In one embodiment, the method includes (a) transmitting an oscillatory signal from a first transmitter; (b) determining a first phase difference between signals induced in two receivers by the oscillatory signal from the first transmitter; (c) transmitting an oscillatory signal from a second transmitter; (d) determining a second phase difference between signals induced in the two receivers by the oscillatory signal from the second transmitter; and (e) calculating a interferometric difference between the first and second phase differences. When the transmitters are symmetrically located with respect to the receivers, the interferometric difference exhibits a maximum or minimum value near the boundary location. This low-complexity method provides good boundary detection results when the bed thickness is larger than the transmitter-receiver spacing. In a second method embodiment, the interferometric difference is calculated from the logarithm of the measured attenuation. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     A better understanding of the present invention can be obtained when the following detailed description of the preferred embodiment is considered in conjunction with the following drawings, in which: 
     FIG. 1 is a block diagram (in part) of a resistivity tool according to a preferred embodiment; 
     FIG. 2 is a graph showing resistivity as a function of depth for a series of progressively thicker beds; 
     FIG. 3 is a graph of apparent resistivity as indicated by measured attenuation and phase shift; 
     FIG. 4 is a graph of interferometric differences in both phase and amplitude; 
     FIG. 5 is graph of apparent resistivity for dipping beds; 
     FIG. 6 is a graph of interferometric differences for dipping beds; 
     FIG. 7 is a graph of interferometric phase differences for different receiver spacings; 
     FIG. 8 is a graph of interferometric phase differences for different transmitter-receiver spacings; 
     FIG. 9 is a graph of apparent phase resistivity for different signal frequencies; 
     FIG. 10 is a flowchart of a method for measuring attenuation and/or phase shift in a resistivity tool; and 
     FIG. 11 is a flowchart of a method for detecting bed boundaries. 
    
    
     While the invention is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof are shown by way of example in the drawings and will herein be described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the drawings and detailed description thereto are not intended to limit the invention to the particular form disclosed, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT 
     As with all downhole well components, resistivity tools are exposed to a harsh environment that includes a wide temperature and pressure range. To avoid a correspondingly wide variation in tool performance, various compensation techniques are employed. One useful compensation technique for resistivity tools is to provide the tool with a symmetric configuration. It is herein proposed that the symmetric halves of such tools can be used in an “interfering” fashion to detect bed boundaries. 
     Turning now to the figures, FIG. 1 shows a resistivity tool subassembly  102 . The subassembly  102  is provided with one or more regions  106  of reduced diameter. A wire coil  104  is placed in the region  106  and spaced away from the surface of subassembly  102  by a constant distance. To mechanically support and protect the coil  104 , a non-conductive filler material (not shown) such as epoxy, rubber, or ceramics may be used in the reduced diameter regions  106 . Coils  104  and  112  are transmitter coils, and coils  108  and  110  are receiving coils. In operation, transmitter coils  104  and  112  alternately transmit interrogating electromagnetic signals which propagate through the wellbore and surrounding formation. Receiver coils  108 ,  110  detect the interrogating electromagnetic signals and provide a measure of the amplitude attenuation and phase shift between coils  108  and  110 . From the amplitude attenuation and phase shift, the resistivity of the formation can be estimated using conventional techniques. 
     The transmitter and receiver coils may comprise as little as one loop of wire, although more loops may provide additional signal power. The distance between the coils and the tool surface is preferably in the range from {fraction (1/16)} inch to ¾ inch, but may be larger. The spacing D between the receiver coils  108 ,  110  is preferably between 1 and 15 inches, and the transmitter-receiver spacing L is preferably between 10 and 30 inches. 
     Oscillator  114  generates a sinusoidal signal. Amplifier  116  amplifies the sinusoidal signal and switch  118  routes the amplified signal through one of the impedance matching circuits  120 ,  122  to the corresponding transmitter coil. Signals from the receiver coils  108 ,  110  pass through corresponding impedance matching circuits  124  and  126  and are amplified by corresponding amplifiers  128  and  130 . Attenuation detector  134  measures the amplitude of the signals from the amplifiers  128 ,  130 , and determines attenuation by finding the ratio of the signal amplitudes. Phase difference detector  132  measures the phase difference between the signals from amplifiers  128 ,  130 . The digital signal processor  144  reads the attenuation and phase difference measurements from the detectors  132 ,  134 . The digital signal processor controls the setting of switch  118  to measure the attenuation and/or phase shift of signals propagating from either transmitter. One implementation of attenuation detector  134  and phase difference detector  132  is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,389,881 (Bittar, et. al.) which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. 
     An exemplary flowchart of the software executed by the digital signal processor  144  is shown in FIG.  10 . Starting at block  202 , the digital signal processor sets switch  132  to select receiver  108  in block  204 . In block  206 , the digital signal processor sets switch  118  to select transmitter  104 . A pause is made in block  208  to allow the transient ringing of the coils to damp out. Then in block  210  the digital signal processor measures the attenuation and/or phase shift of the signal between receivers  108 ,  110 . In block  216 , the digital signal processor selects transmitter  112  and pauses in block  218  to again allow the transient ringing of the coils to damp out. A determination of the attenuation and/or phase shift of the signal between receivers  110 ,  108  is made in block  220 . The determined attenuation and phase shifts are provided to the downhole controller in block  226 , and the digital signal processor returns to block  206 . 
     The downhole controller gathers the measurements from a variety of sensors including the resistivity sensor, encodes the measurements, and transmits the measurements to the surface, where they are combined with position information. The measurements are processed on the surface to determine downhole formation characteristics. FIG. 11 shows one method for processing the attenuation and phase shift measurements from the resistivity tool. A surface processor (typically a personal computer) retrieves the measurements and position information in block  232 . In block  234 , the surface processor calculates the apparent resistivity from the measurements, and plots the apparent resistivity as a function of the position. The apparent resistivity is the resistivity of a homogeneous formation that would produce the measured attenuation and/or phase shift. The apparent resistivity calculated from attenuation measurements is not necessarily the same as the apparent resistivity calculated from phase measurements. Accordingly, the apparent resistivity is also termed attenuation resistivity or phase resistivity to indicate the measurements upon which the calculation is based. 
     In block  236 , the surface processor uses a straightforward interferometric processing technique described below to determine the presence and location of boundaries, and plots the boundaries on the apparent resistivity graph. This technique is much less computationally intensive than other techniques such as de-convolution. 
     A derivation is now made to demonstrate how two symmetric halves of a resistivity tool can be used to provide compensation, and how those same halves can be used to calculate an interferometric measurement. An example of the compensated measurements and interferometric measurements for various device configurations will be discussed afterwards. 
     The voltage induced in a receiver coil R by a signal in a transmitter coil T can be written: 
     
       
           V=ξ   T ξ R   A e   i(φ+Φ     T     +Φ     R)   ,  (1) 
       
     
     where ξ T  and ξ R  are intrinsic efficiencies of the transmitter T and receiver R, respectively, and Φ T  and Φ R  are intrinsic phase shifts induced by the transmitter T and receiver R, respectively. In subsequent equations, subscripts “u” and “L” will be used to differentiate between the upper and lower transmitter and receiver coils. For example, T u  designates the upper transmitter  104 , and R L  designates the lower receiver  110 . The ideal amplitude A and ideal phase φ will be provided with subscripts “+” and “−” to indicate whether they correspond to the transmitter receiver spacing of L+(D/2) or L−(D/2) (L and D are shown in FIG.  1 ). 
     The ratio between voltages induced in the two receiver coils from the upper transmitter is:                    V       R   L          T   U           V       R   U          T   U           =         ξ     R   L         ξ     R   U              η   u                       (       δϕ   U     +     φ     R   L       -     φ     R   U         )             ,           (   2   )                                
     where η U =A + /A −  is the ideal attenuation, and δφ U =φ + −φ −  is the ideal phase shift in the signal from the upper transmitter. Similarly, the ratio between voltages induced by the lower transmitter is:                  V       R   U          T   L           V       R   L          T   L           =         ξ     R   U         ξ     R   L              η   L                         (       δϕ   L     +     φ     R   U       -     φ     R   L         )         .               (   3   )                                
     The intrinsic receiver efficiency and phase can be eliminated by combining equations (2) and (3)                      V       R   L          T   U           V       R   U          T   U                  V       R   U          T   L           V       R   L          T   L               =           η   u          η   L                               (       δϕ   U     +     δϕ   L       )       /   2       .               (   4   )                                
     Equation (4) therefore represents a way of compensating for variations in intrinsic efficiency and phase and to obtain correct attenuation and phase shift measurements when the formation is homogeneous (η U =η L  and δφ U =δφ L ). 
     It is important to eliminate the intrinsic circuit biases when absolute resistivity measurements are needed. However, boundary detection focuses on identifying sharp changes in resistivity. Accordingly, the attenuation and phase resistivity measurements using upper and lower transmitters can be combined in a different manner to highlight changes in phase and attenuation that are indicative of bed boundaries. 
     Consider the situation where the center of the resistivity tool is positioned at a boundary between two thick seismic beds. The signals travelling from one transmitter to the receivers travel mostly through one bed, while the signals travelling to the receivers from the other transmitter travel mostly through the other bed. The attenuation and phase shifts of the signals are indicative of the resistivity of the beds through which they travel, and the difference between the attenuations and phase shifts is maximized when the tool is centered at the boundary. The difference decreases as the tool moves away from the boundary. To measure the variations in attenuation and phase shift, the amplitude and phase of equations (2) and (3) is measured, and the differences taken. The following interferometric variations are proposed: 
     
       
           I (δφ)=(δφ u +Φ u −Φ L )=(δφ L +Φ L −Φ u )=δφ u −δφ L +2(Φ u −Φ L )  (5)                I        (     ln                 η     )       =         ln        (         ξ     R   L         ξ     R   U              η   u       )       -     ln        (         ξ     R   U         ξ     R   L              η   L       )         =       ln        (     η   u     )       -     ln        (     η   L     )       +     2        ln        (       ξ     R   L         ξ     R   U         )                     (   6   )                               
      
     
     The last term in each equation is relatively constant in the neighborhood of any given boundary. The preceding terms are equal in a homogeneous formation, but one always changes before the other as the tool crosses a boundary. Extreme values (local maximums and minimums) in the difference are indicative of the location of the boundary. 
     FIG. 2 shows an actual resistance of a hypothetical series of formation beds that is used below to demonstrate the performance of the interferometric technique. The formation includes six “thin” beds with a resistivity of 10 Ω-m, separated by “shoulder” beds with a resistivity of 1 Ω-m. The low-resistivity beds are 4 feet thick, while the high-resistivity beds have varying thicknesses of ¼, ½, 1, 2, 3, and 4 feet. 
     FIG. 3 shows apparent attenuation resistivity (broken line) and apparent phase resistivity (solid line) as measured by a compensated resistivity tool having L=25″ and D=10″ and operating at a frequency of 2 MHz. Actual bed boundaries are shown by vertical solid lines. FIG. 4 shows the interferometric attenuation (broken line) and phase shift (solid line) variations for the same tool configuration. For bed thicknesses less than 1 foot, the interferometric variation fails to accurately locate the boundaries. However, the peaks in the interferometric variations clearly correspond to the boundaries for thicknesses larger than 1 foot. The interferometric phase variation appears to provide a better sensitivity to the presence of boundaries than the interferometric attenuation variation. 
     FIG. 5 shows the apparent attenuation resistivity and apparent phase resistivity for the same tool configuration when the tool encounters the beds at a 60° dip angle. It is noted that the boundary “horns” may cause difficulty in identifying the number and location of bed boundaries. FIG. 6 shows the interferometric attenuation and phase shift variations, and here a clear correspondence exists between the peaks in the interferometric phase shift variation and the bed boundaries. 
     Returning to the original bed dip angle, FIG. 7 shows interferometric phase shift variation for tools with a varying receiver spacing of D=2″, 6″, 10″, and 14″. Although the peaks move slightly for thinner beds, the main effect of varying the receiver spacing is the increased amplitude of the peaks for shorter spacings. FIG. 8 shows interferometric phase shift variation for tools with a varying transmitter-receiver spacing of L=10″, 15″, and 25″. For the shorter spacings, the peaks much more closely correspond with the boundaries of thin beds, although a price is paid in terms of the amplitude of the peaks. It is noted that the shorter spacings allow significantly better boundary detection for bed thicknesses less than 1 foot. FIG. 9 shows the interferometric phase shift variation for two frequencies f=0.5 MHz and 2 MHz. The higher frequency has a higher amplitude and better correspondence of peaks to bed boundaries. 
     It is noted that the interferometric differences can be found from the logarithm of the ratio of equations (2) and (3):                ln        (         V       R   L          T   U           V       R   U          T   U           /       V       R   U          T   L           V       R   L          T   L             )       =     ln        [         (       ξ     R   L         ξ     R   U         )     2            η   u       η   L                         (       δϕ   U     -     δϕ   L     +     2        (       φ     R   L       -     φ     R   U         )         )           ]               (   7   )                       ln        (         V       R   L          T   U           V       R   U          T   U           /       V       R   U          T   L           V       R   L          T   L             )       =                  ln                   η   U       -     ln                   η   L       +     2        ln        (       ξ     R   L         ξ     R   U         )         +                                      (       δϕ   U     -     δϕ   L     +     2        (       φ     R   L       -     φ     R   U         )         )                     (   8   )                 ln        (         V       R   L          T   U           V       R   U          T   U           /       V       R   U          T   L           V       R   L          T   L             )       =       I        (     ln                 η     )       +                        I        (   δϕ   )                   (   9   )                                
     Taking the magnitude of this logarithm effectively combines the interferometric differences, but the interferometric phase shift variation dominates. This interferometric magnitude may be preferred in some situations. 
     Returning to FIG. 11, in block  236  the surface processor calculates the interferometric variations as a function of position, and identifies initial boundary locations at the local minimum and local maximum points. It may be preferred to establish predetermined thresholds relative to the average interferometric variation that the local maximum or local minimum must exceed before a boundary is identified. For example, the local maximum or minimum interferometric phase variation might be required to be at least 10 degrees away from the average variation, or the interferometric attenuation variation might be required to be 3 dB away from the average. In some embodiments, the surface processor will adjust the initial boundary locations if the bed is determined to have a thickness less than some threshold. 
     While the present invention has been described and disclosed in terms of a preferred embodiment, it will be understood that variations in the details thereof can be made without departing from the scope of the invention.