Abstract:
Transporters are membrane proteins that translocate solutes across biological membranes. Active agents such as drugs, prodrugs, nutrients, nutraceuticals, and other bioactive substances are substrates for transporters. Some transporters require sodium to be co-transported with solute, in order to transport solute. This invention relates to a pharmaceutical formulation approach to enhance uptake of active agent by increasing the uptake of active agent by a sodium-dependent transporter, where sodium is fabricated with or co-administered with active agent. One example is the formulation of a dosage form containing the prodrug acyclovir valychenodeoxycholate, which targets the human apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter, and sodium chloride to enhance active agent uptake from the gastrointestinal tract.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS  
       [0001]     This application claims the benefit of provisional patent application Ser. No 60/490,031, filed 2003 Jul. 25 by the University of Maryland, Baltimore and now assigned to the inventor. 
     
    
     FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH  
       [0002]     Not Applicable  
       SEQUENCE LISTING OR PROGRAM  
       [0003]     Not Applicable  
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
       [0004]     This invention relates to a pharmaceutical formulation approach to increase active agent uptake by sodium-dependent transporters.  
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION—PRIOR ART  
       [0005]     Transporters are membrane proteins that translocate solutes across biological membranes. Drugs, prodrugs, nutrients, nutraceuticals, and other bioactive substances are substrates for transporters. A substrate is a solute that is translocated by a transporter. Some transporters require sodium to be co-transported with substrate, in order to transport substrate. These transporters are denoted sodium-dependent transporters. Sodium-dependent transporters include members of ( 1 - 8 ): 
        the major facilitator superfamily (MFS) [Transporter Classification number  2 .A. 1 ]    the anion:cation symporter (ACS) family [TC no.  2 .A. 1 . 14 ]    the organic cation transporter (OCT) family [TC no.  2 .A. 1 . 19 ]    the vesicular neurotransmitter (VNT) family [TC no.  2 .A. 1 . 22 ]    the solute:sodium symporter (SSS) family [TC no.  2 .A. 21 ]    the neurotransmitter:sodium symporter (NSS) family [TC no.  2 .A. 22 ]    the dicarboxylate/amino acid:cation (Na+ or H+) symporter (DAACS) family [TC no.  2 .A. 23 ]    the citrate:cation symporter (CCS) family [TC no.  2 .A. 24 ]    the alanine or glycine:cation symporter (AGCS) family [TC no.  2 .A. 25 ]    the branched-chain amino acid:cation symporter (LIVCS) family [TC no.  2 .A. 26 ]    the glutamate:Na+ symporter (ESS) family [TC no.  2 .A. 27 ]    the bile acid:Na+ symporter (BASS) family [TC no.  2 .A. 28 ]    the nucleobase:cation symporter- 2  (NCS 2 ) family [TC no.  40 ]    the concentrative nucleoside transporter (CNT) family [TC no.  2 .A. 41 ]    the divalent anion:Na+ symporter (DASS) family [TC no.  2 .A. 47 ]    the reduced folate carrier (RFC) family [TC no.  2 .A. 48 ]    the phosphate:Na+ symporter (PNaS) family [TC no.  2 .A. 58 ]    and the malonate:Na+ symporter (MSS) family [TC no.  2 .A. 70 ].        
 
         [0024]     The basic biology of transporters, including sodium-dependent transporters, is receiving attention since these proteins modulate the disposition of solutes in the body. Transporters are also now receiving attention as drug delivery targets. Valganciclovir [Valcyte] is a prodrug of the antiviral agent ganciclovir. Valganciclovir was designed a priori to employ a transporter to increase oral ganciclovir bioavailability. Valganciclovir targets hPepT 1 , the peptide transporter in the gut. PepT 1  is not a sodium-dependent transporter. More recently, we have used the apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (ASBT) to increase the oral bioavailability of the poorly absorbed anti-viral acyclovir ( 9 , 10 ). ASBT is a sodium-dependent transporter. Human ASBT is denoted hASBT.  
         [0025]     Although there has been at least some effort to exploit transporters as drug delivery targets, these limited efforts have focused on chemistry-based design considerations. For example, prodrugs of drugs have been designed to exploit transporters. There is no prior art that links sodium-dependent transporter-mediated uptake with a formulation approach that leverages the transporter&#39;s requirement of sodium.  
       BACKGROUND OF INVENTION—OBJECTIVE AND ADVANTAGES  
       [0026]     This invention relates to an approach to enhance uptake of active agent by increasing the uptake of active agent by a sodium-dependent transporter. Active agents can target sodium-dependent transporters in order to try to achieve improved uptake of the active agent. The formulation approach relies on co-administering the active agent with sodium. Preferably, the active agent is formulated into a dosage form with sodium.  
         [0027]      FIG. 1  illustrates how this invention provides for improved uptake of active agent, and specifically the impact of sodium on the uptake of an acyclovir prodrug that utilizes the hASBT transporter, which is a sodium-dependent transporter.  FIG. 1  shows sodium-enhanced uptake into COS-hASBT cells from prodrug acyclovir valylchenodeoxycholate. COS-hASBT cells express hASBT. Acyclovir valylchenodeoxycholate is a prodrug of acyclovir, where acyclovir valylchenodeoxycholate is a substrate for hASBT. Uptake from acyclovir valylchenodeoxycholate prodrug and uptake from acyclovir are shown as closed bar and open bar, respectively. Sodium did not enhance acyclovir uptake, as acyclovir is not a substrate for a sodium-dependent transporter. Uptake from acyclovir valylchenodeoxycholate prodrug was enhanced by sodium, as hASBT-mediated uptake of acyclovir valylchenodeoxycholate was stimulated by sodium. Error bars represent SEM&#39;s.  
         [0028]     The effort to exploit sodium-dependent transporter to enhance active agent uptake can be improved though the described formulation approach. Active agents include drugs, prodrugs, nutrients, nutraceuticals, and other bioactive substances. Improved uptake includes increased permeability and penetration across a biological membrane. Improved uptake also can denote reduced variability in permeability and penetration across a biological membrane. Enhanced uptake denotes improved uptake. An example of improved uptake is increased oral absorption of active agent from the gastrointestinal tract in a human or animal, after oral administration. Oral administration entails the taking of active agent and sodium by mouth. Another example is increased exposure of a target organ or tissue to the active agent.  
         [0029]     This invention entails the co-administration of active agent that is a substrate of a sodium-dependent transporter and sodium. Co-administration of active agent with sodium indicates that active agent and sodium are administered such that sodium is co-available with active agent to enhance uptake of active agent. This invention also entails the formulation of an active agent that is a substrate of a sodium-dependent transporter with sodium, in order to improve uptake of the active agent. Inclusion of sodium in a dosage form of active agent is preferable, as this approach is generally convenient.  
         [0030]     In the context of formulation design, sodium can refer to any material or excipient that contains sodium. For example, sodium can refer to sodium chloride. The active agent itself can be a sodium salt. Containing sodium indicates the presence of sodium in any form.  
         [0031]     This invention is applicable to a large number of sodium-dependent transporters, which are increasingly being leveraged as targets for improved active agent uptake. The table below lists example active agents, as well as a corresponding sodium-dependent nutrient transporter that the example agents are substrates for. For example, in the below table, acyclovir valychenodeoxycholate targets the human apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (hASBT), an example member of the BASS transporter family. Acyclovir valylchenodeoxycholate is a prodrug of the anti-viral acyclovir, and has already been shown enhance in vivo oral acyclovir bioavailability ( 9 , 10 ). As an example, this invention builds and expands upon this previous approach to employs hASBT to enhance oral bioavailability ( 10 ). Given an active agent&#39;s use of a sodium-dependent transporter to try to enhance uptake of the active agent, the current invention will facilitate favorable pharmacokinetics by administering the active agent with sodium. This formulation approach is applicable to the many other sodium-dependent transporters, including as-of-yet unknown transporters ( 11 ). This approach need not be limited to drugs and prodrugs, but can be applied to other active agents such as nutrients, bioactive substances, and nutraceuticals. This approach is not limited to the administration of active agents to humans, but includes application to all animals. This approach need not be limited to transporters at the intestinal level, but is also applicable to targets throughout the body (e.g. blood-brain barrier, liver, kidney, fetus) ( 12 - 32 ).  
         [0032]     The examples in the table below are only examples. Other active agents using other transporters are also amendable to this formulation approach (e.g. monocarboxylates [such as thyroid hormone] using a sodium-dependent monocarboxylate transporter [such as MCT 8 ]; iodine derivatives using the iodide transporter; dopamine using the creatine transporter; taurine using the taurine transporter), including active agents using sodium-dependent transporters that are unknown or undiscovered. In the table below, as is done in practice, the transporter is sometimes denoted by the gene that encodes for the transporter protein.  
                                   Active agent   Example Transporter Family                   acyclovir valychenodeoxycholate   bile acid:Na+ symporter (BASS) family           (e.g. apical sodium-dependent bile acid           transporter, Na+/taurocholate transport           protein) [33, 34]       captopril deoxycholate   bile acid:Na+ symporter (BASS) family           (e.g. apical sodium-dependent bile acid           transporter, Na+/taurocholate transport           protein) [33, 34]       biotin, pantothenate, lipoate   solute:sodium symporter (SSS) family (e.g.           sodium-dependent multivitamin           transporter) [35-40]       uridine, zidovudine, zaltidabine, cladribine,   concentrative nucleoside transporter (CNT)       cytarabine, gemcitabine, 5′deoxy-5-   family (e.g. CNT1) [41-46]       fluorouridine; other purine nucleosides and       purine nucleoside analogs       ribavirin, adenosine, cladribine,   concentrative nucleoside transporter (CNT)       didanosine; other pyridine nucleosides and   family (e.g. CNT2) [41-46]       pyridine nucleoside analogs       5-fluorouridine, floxuridine, zebularine,   concentrative nucleoside transporter (CNT)       gemcitabine, zalcitabine, didanoside; other   family (e.g. CNT3) [41-46]       purine nucleosides and purine nucleoside       analogs       alanine   dicarboxylate/amino acid:cation (Na+ or           H+) symporter (DAACS) family (e.g.           neutral amino acid:Na+ symporter; insulin-           activated amino acid:Na+ symporter;           broad-specificity amino acid:Na+           symporter); alanine or glycine:cation           symporter (AGCS) family (e.g. alanine [or           glycine]:Na+ symporter; Alanine:Na+           symporter) [47-54]       ascorbic acid, ascorbinic acid   dicarboxylate/amino acid:cation (Na+ or           H+) symporter (DAACS) family (e.g.           sodium-dependent vitamin C transporter 1,           sodium-dependent vitamin C transporter 2,           sodium-dependent vitamin C transporter 3)           [55-58]       glucose, galactose, alpha-methyl-   sodium/glucose cotransporter (e.g.       glycopyranoside, inositol, proline,   SLC5A1, also known as SGLT1) [59]       pantothernate, iodine, urea, myoinositol;       glucose derivatives such as 3-O-methyl-       glucosed or quercetin glycosides       glucose   sodium/glucose cotransporter (e.g.           SLC5A2, also known as SGLT2) [59]       myo-inositol, glucose   sodium/glucose cotransporter (e.g.           SLC5A4, also known as SGLT3) [59]       triethylamine, pyrilamine, quinidine,   organic cation transporter (e.g. OCTN2,       verapamil, carnitine, carnitine analogs,   also known as SLC22A5)       betaine, cephaloredine, choline, emetine,       valproate       HPO 4   2− , phosphate derivatives   phosphate carrier system (e.g. NaPiIIb)       neutral amino acids, pregabalin   amino acid B 0  carrier system       neutral amino acids   amino acid y + L carrier system (e.g.           SLC7A7, SLC3A2)       neutral amino acids, glutamic acid, imino   amino acid A carrier system (e.g. SLC5A4)       acids       cationic amino acids, neutral amino acids,   amino acid B O,+ carrier system (e.g.       pregabalin   SLC6A14)       beta-alanine, taurine   amino acid beta carrier system (e.g.           SLC6A6)       aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glutamic acid-   amino acid X AG− carrier system (e.g.       1a, aspartic acid-3   SLC1A5)       alanine, serine, cystine, glycine, threonine,   amino acid Asc carrier system (e.g.       alpha-aminobutyric acid, beta-alanine, D-   SLC7A10, SLC3A2)       serine                  
 
       SUMMARY  
       [0033]     Some active agents, such as some drugs, prodrugs, nutrients, nutraceuticals, and other bioactive substances, are substrates for sodium-dependent transporters. This invention relates to a pharmaceutical formulation approach to enhance uptake of active agent by increasing the uptake of active agent by a sodium-dependent transporter, where sodium is fabricated with or co-administered with active agent. One example is the formulation of a dosage form containing the prodrug acyclovir valychenodeoxycholate, which targets the human apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter, and sodium chloride to enhance active agent uptake from the gastrointestinal tract. 
     
    
     DRAWINGS  
       [0034]      FIG. 1  highlights the ability of sodium to enhance active agent uptake. 
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION  
       [heading-0035]     Preferred Embodiment  
         [0036]     This formulation approach relies on sodium-dependent transporter-mediated uptake, but is not limited to active agents with only one therapeutic category. Enhanced oral absorption is the primary area of potential application. The use of a material with a relatively high sodium composition on a weight basis, especially sodium chloride, is preferred. Preferably, co-administration of sodium will be achieved by formulating active agent with sodium in a dosage form, where at least 0.5 milliequivalent of sodium is present.  
         [0037]     The following materials were use. Acyclovir valychenodeoxycholate was synthesized in Dr. Polli&#39;s laboratory using previously described methods ( 10 ). Captopril deoxycholate was similarly synthesized in Dr. Polli&#39;s laboratory. Biotin, zidovudine, ribavirin, alanine, and ascorbic acid were obtained from Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.). Sodium chloride and sodium citrate tribasic dihydrate were obtained from Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.). Microcrystalline cellulose (Avicel PH101) and croscarmellose sodium (Ac-Di-Sol) were obtained from FMC Biopolymer (Newark, Del.). Magnesium stearate, sodium phosphate monobasic granular, sodium citrate tribasic dihydrate granular, and sodium starch glycolate were obtained from Spectrum (Gardina, Calif.). Sodium phosphate dibasic anhydrous was obtained from EM Industries (Gibbstown, N.J.). Silicified microcrystalline cellulose (Prosolv SMCC90) was obtained from Mendell (Patterson, N.J.). Crospovidone (Polyplasdone XL-10) was obtained from ISP Technologies Inc. (Wayne, N.J.). Lactose anhydrous was obtained from Quest International (Hoffman Estates, Ill.). Corn starch was obtained from Roquette America Inc. (Keokuk, Iowa). Dicalcium phosphate anhydrous was obtained from Rhone-Poulenc (Cranbury, N.J.). Carboxymethylcellulose sodium was obtained from Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.).  
         [0038]     For a number of active agents, tablets containing an active agent that is a substrate for a sodium-dependent transporter and containing sodium were fabricated. For each active agent, tablets were characterized in terms of their hardness and in vitro dosage form release properties, specifically in vitro disintegration and in vitro dissolution of sodium. Using a compendial dissolution test, each dosage form delivered sodium to the dissolution medium, from where active agent is taken up by one (or more) sodium-dependent transporters.  
         [0039]     Tablets were formulation to containing sodium and active agent that was a substrate for a sodium-dependent transporter. Formulations A-K were manufactured. Capsules, powders, solutions, suspensions, and other dosage forms are also possible ( 60 ). Co-administration of a formulation of active agent and a formulation of sodium is also possible. Each formulation A-K contains sodium (i.e. a material containing sodium, typically a sodium salt). Sodium-possessing formulation components were: sodium chloride, croscarmellose sodium, sodium phosphate dibasic anhydrous, sodium citrate tribasic dihydrate, sodium phosphate monobasic granular, sodium citrate tribasic dihydrate granular, sodium starch glycolate, and carboxymethylcellulose sodium. Many other sodium-possessing excipients are suitable as formulation components to provide sodium, and can also provide formulation benefit as fillers, binder, buffers, disintegrants, and other roles known in the art ( 61 - 63 ). While the current examples indicate the fabrication of a formulation that includes a sodium-possessing substance and an active agent, the describe approach can also be applied when the sodium-possessing substance and the active agent are not formulated as one dosage form, but are co-administered. However, the inclusion of sodium in a dosage form of active agent is preferable, as this approach is generally convenient. Each formulation also contained an active agent that is a substrate for a transporter that co-transports sodium ion. In these examples, active agents were: acyclovir valychenodeoxycholate, captopril deoxycholate, biotin, zidovudine, ribaviran, alanine, and ascorbic acid. Sodium salts of the active also can provide sodium. Formulations and other administration regimens can also include more than one active agent.  
         [0040]     In the examples below, most formulations also employed materials that were neither the active agent nor sodium-possessing ( 60 ). Examples include microcrystalline cellulose, magnesium stearate, silicified microcrystalline cellulose, crospovidone, lactose anhydrous, corm starch, and dicalcium phosphate anhydrous. Such materials are well-known to facilitate dosage form fabrication and/or dosage for performance.  
         [0041]     For each formulation, six tablets were subjected to tablet hardness testing using a Key hardness tester [model HT-300] (Key International, Inc., Elizabeth, N.J.). Values were measure in units of kilopond (KP) and converted to units of Newton (N).  
         [0042]     For each formulation, tablet disintegration testing and tablet dissolution testing were performed to assess the ability of the tablet to provide sodium ion into the surrounding medium. Six tablets were evaluated in the disintegration test. Either six or twelve tablets were evaluated in the dissolution test. The disintegration apparatus conformed to USP compendial specifications. The disintegration apparatus components [model Vanderkamp] were manufactured by Van Kel Industries (Edison, N.J.): the basket-rack assembly, motor, water heater, and water bath. Disintegration was performed at 30 cycles/min using 900 mL water at 37° C. in a 1 L flat-bottom flask.  
         [0043]     The dissolution apparatus conformed to USP compendial specifications. The apparatus was manufactured [model VK 700] by Van Kel Industries (Edison, N.J.), and also employed a water heater [model VK 750D] (Van Kel Industries, Edison, N.J.). Dissolution was performed with paddle using either 900 mL water at 37° C. or 900 mL water that had been adjusted to pH 1.5 at 37° C. Water was employed in evaluating Formulations A, B, C, G, H, I, J, and K. Water adjusted to pH 1.5 was employed in evaluating Formulations D, E, and F. A single sample was taken from each vessel at either 5, 10, or 30 min. Sodium was quantified using a Jenway flame photometer [model PFP7] (Jenway, Princeton, N.J.). The standard curve was linear (r 2 =0.997); standards were fitted with acceptable accuracy (&lt;2% error).  
         [0044]     Results were analyzed by student&#39;s t-test or by ANOVA with post hoc analysis, using SPSS version 10 (SPSS, Chicago, Ill.). A p-value less than 0.05 was considered significant. SEM&#39;s of ratios were calculated by the delta method.  
         [0045]     Formulations A-K each resulted in tablets that were white, round, and flat-faced. Other tablet tooling can be employed to provide other tablet shapes. Other excipients or formulations processes (e.g. coating) can be used to yield other tablet appearance. For each formulation, tablet hardness, disintegration, and dissolution attributes are listed below. Disintegration and sodium ion dissolution data reflect availability of sodium ion from the formulation.  
       Formulation A  
       [0046]     Tablets were fabricated from a powder mixture of acyclovir valychenodeoxycholate (100 mg/tablet), sodium chloride (250 mg/tablet), and microcrystalline cellulose (150 mg/tablet). Individual components were weighed out for 20 tablets and combined in a mortar to yield a uniform mixture. 500 mg of powder mixture was compressed on a Carver laboratory press [model 4687] (Fred S. Carver Inc., Menomee Falls, Wis.) using tablet tooling. The compact was compressed to 500 psi for 60 sec.  
                                                               Tablet Hardness of Formulation A                Tablet   Tablet Hardness (N)                            1   28.4               2   31.4           3   32.4           4   28.4           5   30.4           6   32.4           Mean (±SE)   30.6   (±0.8)                      
 
         [0047]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Table Disintegration of Formulation A 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Disintegration Time (sec) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 1 
                 4-5 
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 4-5 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 4-5 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 4-5 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 4-5 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 4-5 
               
               
                   
                 Mean 
                 4-5 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0048]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Tablet Dissolution of Formulation A 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Percent Sodium Ion Dissolved at Five 
               
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Minutes 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 112.5 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 99.2 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 106.9 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 102.1 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 96.9 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 103.5 
               
               
                   
                 7 
                 99.7 
               
               
                   
                 8 
                 103.8 
               
               
                   
                 9 
                 101.4 
               
               
                   
                 10 
                 92.8 
               
               
                   
                 11 
                 109.0 
               
               
                   
                 12 
                 103.1 
               
               
                   
                 Mean (±SE) 
                 102.6 
                 (±1.6) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Formulation B  
       [0049]     Tablets were fabricated from a powder mixture of acyclovir valychenodeoxycholate (200 mg/tablet) and sodium chloride (300 mg/tablet). Individual components were weighed out for 20 tablets and combined in a mortar to yield a uniform mixture. 500 mg of powder mixture was compressed on a Carver laboratory press. The compact was compressed to 1000 psi for 60 sec.  
                                                               Tablet Hardness of Formulation B                Tablet   Tablet Hardness (N)                            1   39.2               2   36.3           3   40.2           4   41.2           5   37.3           6   38.2           Mean (±SE)   38.7   (±0.7)                      
 
         [0050]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Table Disintegration of Formulation B 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Tablet 
                 Disintegration Time (sec) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 1 
                 9 
               
               
                 2 
                 9 
               
               
                 3 
                 7 
               
               
                 4 
                 7 
               
               
                 5 
                 6 
               
               
                 6 
                 6 
               
               
                 Mean 
                 7.4 (±0.5) 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0051]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Tablet Dissolution of Formulation B 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Percent Sodium Ion Dissolved at Five 
               
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Minutes 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 102.0 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 101.1 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 102.1 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 95.1 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 101.0 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 107.9 
               
               
                   
                 Mean (±SE) 
                 101.6 
                 (±1.5) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Formulation C  
       [0052]     Tablets were fabricated from a powder mixture of acyclovir valychenodeoxycholate (200 mg/tablet), sodium chloride (300 mg/tablet), croscamellose sodium (20 mg/tablet), and magnesium stearate (4 mg/tablet). Individual components were weighed out for 20 tablets and combined in a mortar to yield a uniform mixture. 524 mg of powder mixture was compressed on a Carver laboratory press. The compact was compressed to 1000 psi for 60 sec.  
                                                               Tablet Hardness of Formulation C                Tablet   Tablet Hardness (N)                            1   33.3               2   33.3           3   31.4           4   37.3           5   34.3           6   35.3           Mean (±SE)   30.6   (±0.7)                      
 
         [0053]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Table Disintegration of Formulation C 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Disintegration Time (sec) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 1 
                 &lt;3 
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 &lt;3 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 &lt;3 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 &lt;3 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 &lt;3 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 &lt;3 
               
               
                   
                 Mean 
                 &lt;3 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0054]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Tablet Dissolution of Formulation C 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Percent Sodium Ion Dissolved at Five 
               
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Minutes 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 101.6 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 99.5 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 98.5 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 94.3 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 98.6 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 93.9 
               
               
                   
                 Mean (±SE) 
                 97.7 
                 (±1.1) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Formulation D  
       [0055]     Tablets were fabricated from a powder mixture of acyclovir valychenodeoxycholate (200 mg/tablet) and sodium phosphate dibasic anhydrous (200 mg/tablet). Individual components were weighed out for 20 tablets and combined in a mortar to yield a uniform mixture. 400 mg of powder mixture was compressed on a Carver laboratory press. The compact was compressed to 1000 psi for 60 sec.  
                                                               Tablet Hardness of Formulation D                Tablet   Tablet Hardness (N)                            1   34.3               2   33.3           3   33.3           4   35.3           5   34.3           6   36.3           Mean (±SE)   34.5   (±0.4)                      
 
         [0056]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Table Disintegration of Formulation D 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Disintegration Time (sec) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 130 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 160 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 160 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 160 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 160 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 180 
               
               
                   
                 Mean 
                 158 
                 (±6) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0057]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Tablet Dissolution of Formulation D 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Percent Sodium Ion Dissolved at Thirty 
               
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Minutes 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 106.0 
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 94.2 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 106.5 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 102.0 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 105.0 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 103.7 
               
               
                   
                 Mean (±SE) 
                 (±1.9) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Formulation E  
       [0058]     Tablets were fabricated from a powder mixture of acyclovir valychenodeoxycholate (200 mg/tablet), sodium phosphate dibasic anhydrous (200 mg/tablet), silicified microcrystalline cellulose (100 mg/tablet), crospovidone (20 mg/tablet), and magnesium stearate (4 mg/tablet). Individual components were weighed out for 20 tablets and combined in a mortar to yield a uniform mixture. 524 mg of powder mixture was compressed on a Carver laboratory press. The compact was compressed to 1000 psi for 60 sec.  
                                                               Tablet Hardness of Formulation E                Tablet   Tablet Hardness (N)                            1   37.3               2   65.7           3   41.2           4   46.1           5   47.1           6   48.1           Mean (±SE)   47.6   (±4.6)                      
 
         [0059]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Table Disintegration of Formulation E 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Disintegration Time (sec) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 130 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 150 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 160 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 160 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 170 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 210 
               
               
                   
                 Mean 
                 163 
                 (±10) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0060]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Tablet Dissolution of Formulation E 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Percent Sodium Ion Dissolved at Ten 
               
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Minutes 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 103.4 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 100.5 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 104.5 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 105.9 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 92.5 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 98.9 
               
               
                   
                 Mean (±SE) 
                 101.0 
                 (±1.8) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Formulation F  
       [0061]     Tablets were fabricated from a powder mixture of captopril deoxycholate (25 mg/tablet), sodium citrate tribasic dihydrate (250 mg/tablet), microcrystalline cellulose (150 mg/tablet), lactose anhydrous (50 mg/tablet), croscarmellose sodium (30 mg/tablet), and magnesium stearate (3 mg/tablet). Individual components were weighed out for 20 tablets and combined in a mortar to yield a uniform mixture. 508 mg of powder mixture was compressed on a Carver laboratory press. The compact was compressed to 1000 psi for 60 sec.  
                                                               Tablet Hardness of Formulation F                Tablet   Tablet Hardness (N)                            1   56.9               2   55.9           3   50.0           4   57.9           5   60.8           6   53.9           Mean(±SE)   55.9   (±1.4)                      
 
         [0062]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Table Disintegration of Formulation F 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Disintegration Time (sec) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 80 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 85 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 85 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 85 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 95 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 95 
               
               
                   
                 Mean 
                 88 
                 (±2) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0063]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Tablet Dissolution of Formulation F 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Percent Sodium Ion Dissolved at Five 
               
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Minutes 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 98.3 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 93.0 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 97.4 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 96.3 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 98.4 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 96.6 
               
               
                   
                 Mean (±SE) 
                 96.7 
                 (±0.7) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Formulation G  
       [0064]     Tablets were fabricated from a powder mixture of biotin (30 microgram/tablet), sodium phosphate monobasic granular (100 mg/tablet), microcrystalline cellulose (200 mg/tablet), and corn starch (20 mg/tablet). Individual components were weighed out for 20 tablets and combined in a mortar to yield a uniform mixture. 320.030 mg of powder mixture was compressed on a Carver laboratory press. The compact was compressed to 1000 psi for 60 sec.  
                                                               Tablet Hardness of Formulation G                Tablet   Tablet Hardness (N)                            1   60.8               2   63.7           3   65.7           4   53.0           5   57.9           6   60.8           Mean (±SE)   60.3   (±1.7)                      
 
         [0065]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Table Disintegration of Formulation G 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Disintegration Time (sec) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 62 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 65 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 75 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 75 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 80 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 90 
               
               
                   
                 Mean 
                 75 
                 (±4) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0066]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Tablet Dissolution of Formulation G 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Percent Sodium Ion Dissolved at Ten 
               
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Minutes 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 111.2 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 108.2 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 93.0 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 105.5 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 111.4 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 106.3 
               
               
                   
                 Mean (±SE) 
                 105.9 
                 (±2.5) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Formulation H  
       [0067]     Tablets were fabricated from a powder mixture of zidovudine (100 mg/tablet), sodium citrate tribasic dihydrate granular (100 mg/tablet), silicified microcrystalline cellulose (200 mg/tablet), lactose anhydrous (50 mg/tablet), and sodium starch glycolate (25 mg/tablet). Individual components were weighed out for 20 tablets and combined in a mortar to yield a uniform mixture. 475 mg of powder mixture was compressed on a Carver laboratory press. The compact was compressed to 1000 psi for 60 sec.  
                                                               Tablet Hardness of Formulation H                Tablet   Tablet Hardness (N)                            1   46.1               2   41.2           3   40.2           4   47.1           5   52.0           6   50.0           Mean (±SE)   46.1   (±1.7)                      
 
         [0068]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Table Disintegration of Formulation H 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Disintegration Time (sec) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 42 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 47 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 52 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 53 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 61 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 63 
               
               
                   
                 Mean 
                 53 
                 (±3) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0069]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Tablet Dissolution of Formulation H 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Percent Sodium Ion Dissolved at Five 
               
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Minutes 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 104.3 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 106.2 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 103.5 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 109.4 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 99.0 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 109.2 
               
               
                   
                 Mean (±SE) 
                 105.3 
                 (±1.5) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Formulation I  
       [0070]     Tablets were fabricated from a powder mixture of ribavirin (200 mg/tablet), sodium chloride (150 mg/tablet), microcrystalline cellulose (200 mg/tablet), lactose anhydrous (25 mg/tablet), and magnesium stearate (3 mg/tablet). Individual components were weighed out for 20 tablets and combined in a mortar to yield a uniform mixture. 478 mg of powder mixture was compressed on a Carver laboratory press. The compact was compressed to 1000 psi for 60 sec.  
                                                               Tablet Hardness of Formulation I                Tablet   Tablet Hardness (N)                            1   41.2               2   46.1           3   47.1           4   38.2           5   40.2           6   38.2           Mean (±SE)   41.8   (±1.4)                      
 
         [0071]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Table Disintegration of Formulation I 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Disintegration Time (sec) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 1 
                 &lt;5 
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 &lt;5 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 &lt;5 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 &lt;5 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 &lt;5 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 &lt;5 
               
               
                   
                 Mean 
                 &lt;5 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0072]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Tablet Dissolution of Formulation I 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Percent Sodium Ion Dissolved at Five 
               
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Minutes 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 106.2 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 103.2 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 100.5 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 106.4 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 101.3 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 95.0 
               
               
                   
                 Mean (±SE) 
                 102.1 
                 (±1.6) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Formulation J  
       [0073]     Tablets were fabricated from a powder mixture of alanine (100 mg/tablet), sodium chloride (200 mg/tablet), sodium phosphate monobasic granular (50 mg/tablet), silicified microcrystalline cellulose (100 mg/tablet), and croscarmellose sodium (40 mg/tablet). Individual components were weighed out for 20 tablets and combined in a mortar to yield a uniform mixture. 490 mg of powder mixture was compressed on a Carver laboratory press. The compact was compressed to 1000 psi for 60 sec.  
                                                               Tablet Hardness of Formulation J                Tablet   Tablet Hardness (N)                            1   41.2               2   50.0           3   37.3           4   38.2           5   44.1           6   50.0           Mean (±SE)   43.5   (±2.1)                      
 
         [0074]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Table Disintegration of Formulation J 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Disintegration Time (sec) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 1 
                 &lt;5 
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 &lt;5 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 &lt;5 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 &lt;5 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 &lt;5 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 &lt;5 
               
               
                   
                 Mean 
                 &lt;5 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0075]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Tablet Dissolution of Formulation J 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Percent Sodium Ion Dissolved at Five 
               
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Minutes 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 105.4 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 105.2 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 102.2 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 99.5 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 98.0 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 100.3 
               
               
                   
                 Mean (±SE) 
                 101.8 
                 (±1.1) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Formulation K  
       [0076]     Tablets were fabricated from a powder mixture of ascorbic acid (100 mg/tablet), sodium chloride (150 mg/tablet), dicarcium phosphate anhydrous (25 mg/tablet), silicified microcrystalline cellulose (100 mg/tablet), carboxymethylcellulose sodium (25 mg/tablet), and croscarmellose sodium (25 mg/tablet). Individual components were weighed out for 20 tablets and combined in a mortar to yield a uniform mixture. 425 mg of powder mixture was compressed on a Carver laboratory press. The compact was compressed to 1000 psi for 60 sec.  
                                                               Tablet Hardness of Formulation K                Tablet   Tablet Hardness (N)                            1   44.1               2   41.2           3   46.1           4   50.0           5   40.2           6   42.2           Mean (±SE)   44.0   (±1.4)                      
 
         [0077]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Table Disintegration of Formulation K 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Disintegration Time (sec) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 5 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 5 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 5 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 7 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 7 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 7 
               
               
                   
                 Mean 
                 6 
                 (±0.4) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0078]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Tablet Dissolution of Formulation K 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Percent Sodium Ion Dissolved at Five 
               
               
                   
                 Tablet 
                 Minutes 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1 
                 101.0 
                   
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 107.2 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 104.2 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 101.5 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 99.0 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 102.3 
               
               
                   
                 Mean (±SE) 
                 102.5 
                 (±1.1) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0079]     The above formulations serve as examples. This approach provides for the delivery of sodium ion along with the delivery of an active agent that targets for a sodium-dependent transporter, in order to enhance uptake of the active agent. Targets indicates that the active agent is a substrate for a sodium-dependent transporter. In Formulation A, the solute is acyclovir valylchenodeoxycholate, a prodrug of acyclovir and which targets the BASS family, including the human apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (hASBT). A tablet was designed and manufactured to include both the prodrug and sodium chloride, as source of sodium ion. Other dosage forms (e.g. capsules, waffer) and other regimens (e.g. co-administration of two dosage forms, one containing the active agent and the other providing sodium) are possible. Other sources of sodium (e.g. sodium citrate, sodium phosphate) can be included in addition to sodium chloride and/or in place of sodium chloride. Sodium species are not typically designed into tablet and capsule formulations. The tablet was designed to release sodium in an immediate release fashion. Other release profiles (e.g. sustained release, delayed release) are also possible.  
         [0080]     Disintegration and dissolution are common in vitro tools to predict in vivo performance. Disintegration and dissolution are compendial tests. Disintegration and dissolution data indicate the availability of sodium ion from the dosage form into the medium from which prodrug is taken up by the transporter. Cell uptake studies indicate sodium to enhance hASBT uptake of prodrug. This prodrug approach itself has been shown in rats to enhance acyclovir oral bioavailability.  
         [0081]     This formulation approach is applicable to other sodium-dependent transporters in the gastrointestinal tract and throughout the body. Hence, in addition to improved oral absorption from the gut, this approach can improve the uptake of active agents into other tissues and organs (e.g. uptake to brain).  
         [0082]     All references cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety.  
         [heading-0083]     References:  
         [none]    
       
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         [0147]     Although the description above contains many specificities, these should not be construed as limiting the scope of the invention, but as merely as providing illustrations of some of the preferred embodiments of this invention.