Abstract:
A method for sequestering technetium is disclosed. The method includes contacting technetium with apatite under reducing conditions whereby the technetium is absorbed by the apatite.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/823,268, “APPETITE SEQUESTRATION OF TECHNETIUM”, filed May 14, 2013, and is a continuation-in-part to U.S. Nonprovisional patent application Ser. No. 13/890,022, “APPETITE SEQUESTRATION OF SELENIUM”, filed May 8, 2013, both of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties. 
    
    
     GOVERNMENT RIGHTS 
     The Government has rights to this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC04-94AL85000 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. 
    
    
     FIELD 
     The invention relates generally to contaminant sequestration, and more particularly to the treatment of technetium in soil, groundwater, streams, containers, materials and fluids, and more specifically to in situ formation of modified apatitic compounds that selectively trap and contain technetium. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Technetium is an element whose isotopes are all radioactive. Very small quantities of technetium also exist in nature as the result of spontaneous fission of uranium in uranium ore deposits and neutron capture by molybdenum in molybdenum ore deposits. The vast majority of technetium has been generated synthetically by the fission of uranium in nuclear reactors and is present in significant quantities spent nuclear reactor fuel. The chemical separation of plutonium and uranium from reactor fuel to develop nuclear weapons has generated significant quantities of technetium. For example, at the Hanford site near Richland Washington, technetium is stored in tanks along with other radioactive elements generated as waste a result of plutonium production. The long half-life of technetium-99, its ability to form an anionic species and its volatility make it a major concern for the environment and radioactive waste disposal. Furthermore the migration of technetium away from storage tanks continues to be a significant unresolved problem at several of government storage sites and nuclear actor accident sites including Fukushima, Japan. 
     Many of the processes designed to isolate and properly dispose of fission products are designed for cationic species like cesium and strontium and are not appropriate for technetium. Technetium, which commonly occurs as the anionic species pertechnetate, is difficult to capture for disposal and because it does not bind to mineral and soil materials, it is very mobile in the natural environment e.g. rivers, lakes streams and groundwater. Technetium is immobile in some environments, particularly in reducing environments such lake bottom sediments, where microbial activity has created reducing conditions. There exists a need for materials and technologies capable of both sorbing or trapping technetium and reducing it in order to prevent its migration. 
     Various techniques are used to try to isolate leaking storage containers and contaminated soil and sediments to prevent movement of technetium into uncontaminated soil and especially groundwater. As used herein, the term contaminant and contaminated soil will refer to technetium and technetium contaminated soil, respectively. 
     One approach is simply to attempt to dig up and remove the technetium contaminated soil. This, however, is costly, and disturbance of contaminated soil carries the risk that some technetium will be missed or released and left to migrate further. Excavation also has a negative effect on soil stability. Excessive digging and excavation around waste tanks, for example, has the potential to aggravate technetium transport by damaging heavily corroded containment drums and disturbing already contaminated soil. 
     Another approach is to establish an impermeable barrier or seal in the soil of a contaminated site in order to prevent migration of contaminants beyond the barriers. Barriers of this sort that are in use at various DOE sites around the United States and abroad include vertical sleeves of steel or plastic placed in trenches surrounding a site. They also include walls formed through the injection of highly pressurized cementatious grout in holes drilled in the soil. Emplacement of such barriers typically causes considerable disturbance to the soil and often there is no convenient way to create a “floor” or continuous barrier beneath the leaking tank or contaminated region. Consequently, the sequestration of the contaminants is incomplete and contaminants continue to migrate downward and may thereafter migrate outward. For areas under waste tanks, waste trenches and certain geological formations, forming a continuous impermeable barrier or seal is difficult and sometimes impossible. 
     Another approach is to create a permeable, chemically reactive barrier or zone that selectively actively attracts and chemically binds, sorbs, or traps contaminants (i.e., sequestration), while allowing water and other components or contaminants to pass through unaffected. 
     These chemically reactive materials can be combined with other components to form slurries that harden in the ground, forming semi-permeable reactive barriers. Jet injection processes, for example, are known and used wherein machines pump slurries in holes drilled around the perimeter of a leaking vessel or contaminated site. Additionally, trenches can be dug and backfilled using chemical sorbent materials. Each of these techniques, however, carries the disadvantages previously mentioned relating to significant disturbance of the soil and difficulty in fully surrounding (or encapsulating) a leaking waste tank or region of contaminated soil. 
     At this time, no chemically reactive material has been proposed or disclosed for the sequestration of technetium. 
     A need remains, therefore, for a method for sequestering technetium, and in particular, an in situ method of forming a permeable reactive barrier or zone to technetium. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     According to a an embodiment of the disclosure, a method for sequestering technetium is disclosed that includes introducing a apatite into a material and contacting the technetium with the apatite under conditions by which the technetium is absorbed by the apatite. 
     According to another embodiment of the disclosure, a method for removing technetium from a fluid is disclosed that includes contacting the fluid with apatite under technetium reducing conditions to absorb technetium into the apatite. 
     According to another embodiment of the disclosure, a composition is disclosed that includes calcium and citrate in a ratio of greater than or equal to 2:1 and phosphate. The calcium, citrate and phosphate are present in a solution. 
     An object of the present invention is to provide a cost efficient and effective method to sequester technetium. 
     Another object of the present invention is to form an apatite barrier in the presence of a reducing agent, preferably a stannous compound, to form permeable reactive barriers in sediment for immobilization of technetium. 
     Another object of the present invention is to use apatite in the presence of a reducing agent, preferably a stannous compound, in a formulation with other materials including grouts, cements, etc. as a waste form for technetium. 
     Another object of the present invention is to use apatite with a reducing agent, preferably a stannous compound, to remove either technetium in solution or in a gaseous form from waste streams in nuclear waste processing operations. 
     An advantage of the present invention is to strongly sequester technetium with apatite in the presence of a reducing agent, preferably a stannous compound, so as not to release the technetium under mild to moderate oxidizing conditions. 
     An advantage of the present invention is to effectively form an apatite barrier in the presence of a reducing agent, preferably a stannous compound, by jet grouting barrier material into sediment to form a permeable reactive barrier for technetium immobilization. 
     Other objects, advantages and novel features, and further scope of applicability of the present invention will be set forth in part in the detailed description to follow, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, and in part will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon examination of the following, or may be learned by practice of the invention. The objects and advantages of the invention may be realized and attained by means of the instruments and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated into and form a part of the specification, illustrate one or more embodiments of the present invention and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. The drawings are only for the purpose of illustrating one or more embodiments of the invention and are not to be construed as limiting the invention. In the drawings: 
         FIG. 1  is a schematic illustration showing a side view of how chemical solutions are injected into soil below a containment vessel to form a reactive barrier capable of preventing downward migration of technetium. 
         FIG. 2  is a schematic illustration showing an alternative to the embodiment shown in  FIG. 1 , but wherein a modified apatite barrier of this invention prevents migration of waste into a river. 
         FIG. 3  is a schematic illustration showing completely surrounding a buried waste source with a modified apatite barrier. 
         FIG. 4  is a plot of an X-ray diffraction pattern for apatite formed in situ using calcium citrate and sodium phosphate. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The present disclosure is directed to methods for the absorption and/or stabilization of technetium from and/or in a material by apatite. The term “material” includes fluid and/or solid materials. The term “apatite” as used in this disclosure includes apatite, hydroxyapatite and substituted hydroxyapatite. Substituted hydroxyapatite compounds may include, but are not limited to CO 3   2−  and HPO 4   2−  for PO 4   3− , Na + , K + , Li + , Mg 2+ , Pb 2+ , Sr 2+ , for Ca 2+  and F −  and Cl −  for OH − . Fluids may include fluids in streams, groundwater aquifers, holding tanks. Materials may include, but are not limited to soils, sediments, backfill and grouts. 
     Apatite may be introduced into the material by directly introducing or injecting apatite into the material or by forming apatite in situ in the material. Apatite may be directly introduced into the material by jet grouting, trenching, or other material introduction technique. 
     Apatite may be formed in the material by the introduction of apatite forming constituents or reagents into the material in the presence of naturally occurring microorganisms in the material. The apatite forming constituents may be mixed before introduction into the material or may be co-introduced into the material. Microorganisms metabolize the calcium citrate and release calcium so that the calcium is in a form that can react with the phosphate to form apatite. This action may also contribute to a reduction environment. The pH is buffered by the phosphate compounds in the formulation at the pH necessary for apatite formation. 
     The apatite forming constituents include calcium, citrate, a phosphate, and a reducing agent. In an embodiment, the reducing agent is a stannous compound. The citrate to calcium ratio is greater than or equal to about 2:1. In an embodiment, the calcium may be introduced as calcium chloride, calcium nitrate, or other soluble calcium salt, and the citrate may be introduced as sodium citrate and/or potassium citrate. According to an embodiment, the apatite solution includes calcium citrate, sodium citrate, a phosphate salt, and a stannous compound, with the ration of citrate to calcium greater than or equal to 2:1 
     The amount of citrate in the solution is about twice or more than the molarity of calcium in the solution in order for the calcium to be soluble in water and stable in the presence of phosphate ions. In an embodiment, citrate is added to the solution so that the amount of citrate in the solution is about twice or more than the molarity of calcium in the solution. 
     In an embodiment, the amount of sodium citrate in the solution is equal to two times the amount of exchangeable calcium and magnesium present in the sediment to be treated. Sodium citrate is added to the formulation to prevent magnesium and calcium naturally occurring in the sediment from reacting with the phosphate in the apatite forming solution while the apatite forming solution is being injected into the sediment. 
     In an embodiment, the amount of sodium citrate in the solution is between about 0.01 M to about 0.3 M. In an embodiment, the amount of sodium citrate in the solution is between about 0.1 M to about 0.3 M. In an embodiment, the amount of sodium citrate in solution is about 0.2 M. The amount of sodium citrate is approximately twice the amount of calcium citrate and is used to counterbalance the amount of calcium and magnesium in the soil to prevent the phosphate introduced into the soil from reacting with the calcium and magnesium in the soil. 
     The concentration of the constituents of the apatite solution depends on the soil concentration of exchangeable calcium and magnesium. In an embodiment, the amount of calcium citrate in the solution is between about 0.05 M to about 0.5 M. In another embodiment, the amount of calcium citrate in the solution is between about 0.2 M to about 0.4M. In another embodiment, the amount of calcium citrate in solution is between about 0.2 to about 0.25 M. 
     The phosphate is a phosphate salt. The phosphate salt may be selected from a group including, but not limited to sodium phosphate and potassium phosphate. The phosphate reagent and calcium citrate are not initially reactive, however, due to binding of the calcium by the citrate. Subsequently, over time, free calcium is slowly released from the citrate and becomes available to react with the phosphate reagent to form apatite. The rate of release of free calcium by biodegradation of the citrate may be controlled, for example, by modulating microbial action, such as by concurrent or sequential injection of microbial nutrients, or by control of the local temperature. Elevated temperatures and radiation can accelerate the process of releasing free calcium from the chelated calcium reagent. The Ca 2+  phosphate formation will also naturally go by itself by shifting the chemical equilibrium. As free calcium reacts with PO 4   2−  and produces solids, the reaction
 
[Ca free+PO 4   2−  free+OH − →Ca 10 (PO 4 ) 6 (OH) 2 ]
 
is shifted to the left and more Ca 2+  is released.
 
     The amount of phosphate ion in solution, added as either or both sodium phosphate or potassium phosphate, is in a ratio to calcium of between about 4 to about 8 parts phosphate to about 10 parts calcium. In another embodiment, amount of phosphate ion in solution is in a ratio to calcium of between about 6 parts phosphate to about 10 parts calcium. In an embodiment, the amount of phosphate in solution is between about 0.06 M to about 0.18 M. In another embodiment, the amount of phosphate in solution is between about 0.8 M and about 0.16 M. In another embodiment, the amount of phosphate in solution is between about 0.1 M and about 0.14 M. 
     According to the disclosure, calcium must be chelated with citrate in a ratio of 1 mole calcium (2+amount of exchangeable calcium+magnesium in soil) citrate, 0.6 moles of phosphate and the pH adjusted to 7.2 to 7.4. According to an embodiment of the disclosure, an apatite forming solution may contain about 2.2 M calcium-citrate and about 0.12 M sodium phosphate at a pH of about 7.4. 
     The pH of the solution is between about 6.0 to about 10.0. In an embodiment, the pH of the solution may be between about 7.2 to about 7.4. The pH of the solution may be controlled before and/or after injection into a soil. In an embodiment, micronutrients may be needed for the soil microbes and/or chemicals may need to be added to adjust the soil pH before injecting the apatite forming solution. In an embodiment, the site chemistry may have chemicals that retard the formation of apatite so we would add fluoride or another compound that enhances apatite formation. i.e. the formulation is site specific. The addition of these constituents to the solution and/or to the soil into which is solution is to be introduced to create and/or enhance a reduction environment for enhancing apatite formation is discussed in detail below. 
     The microorganisms in the soil digest and biodegrade the chelated calcium (calcium chelated by the citrate), thereby releasing free calcium, which reacts in situ with the phosphate salt to form a permeable reactive material including apatite. The citrate is metabolized by microorganisms in the soil or groundwater. In an embodiment, a microbial nutrient may be utilized to accelerate the biodegradation process. The microbial nutrient may be a nitrate or phosphate compound. The nitrate may be selected from a group including, but not limited to sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate, and ammonium nitrate. The phosphate may be selected from a group including, but not limited to ammonium phosphate. In general, any source of nitrogen nutrients that microbes can utilize may be used. 
     The apatite forming constituents and stannous compound may be introduced into the material by well injection, pouring the constituents upon the material and allowing the constituents to soak into the material, or by other introductory techniques. In an embodiment, the material is a soil. 
     In another embodiment, the phosphate reagent and a chelated calcium reagent can be injected in a dry, powder form, and water, brine or other water based solution can be injected later or the reagents can dissolve in preexisting groundwater. 
     According to the present invention, a reduction environment is formed, created, present in the material, or a combination thereof. The reduction environment reduces the technetium and allows the technetium to be absorbed by apatite. In an embodiment, a chemical reducing agent may be introduced into the material to create a reducing environment. The chemical reducing agent may be selected from a group including, but not limited to Sn(II) compounds and Fe(II) compounds. According to an embodiment, the reducing agent may be selected from a group including SnCl 2  or FeCl 2 , sodium thiosulfate, sodium dithionite, SnF2, Sn(II)-acetate, Sn(II)-lactate, Sn(II)-citrate or any other SN(II) chelated to an organic ligand. These reducing agents may be employed with the phosphate and chelated calcium reagents of this invention, or may be employed with any other method for introducing apatites to form in situ barriers or reactive zones. In one embodiment, subsequent to introduction of phosphate and chelated calcium reagents, and optimally subsequent to introduction of microbial nutrients and fluoride reagents, a suitable Fe (II) or Sn (II) reagent is introduced. Such introduction may be by the same means employed to introduce other reagents, such as by means of low or high pressure injection, dispersion over a soil layer, or other means. 
     According to an embodiment, the stannous compound may be selected from the group of stannous fluoride, stannous chloride, stannous acetate, ammonium stannous fluoride, stannous sulfate, stannous tartrate and stannous phthalate. The stannous compound is present in an amount to provide between about 0.1 and 0.5 moles of Sn for every mole of apatite formed. 
     In another embodiment, the reducing environment may be created by adding microbial nutrients and/or microorganisms to the material. The microbial nutrient may be selected from a group including, but not limited to nitrates and phosphates. The nitrate may be selected from a group including, but not limited to sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate, and ammonium nitrate. The phosphate may be selected from the group including, but not limited to ammonium phosphate. In another embodiment, any source of nitrogen nutrients that microbes can utilize may be utilized. 
     In another embodiment, the reducing environment may be caused by naturally occurring microorganisms or chemical compounds in the material. In an embodiment, any number of a wide variety of known microbial nutrients may be utilized to accelerate the biodegradation process and create and/or enhance the reduction environment. The nutrients may include nitrates, such as sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, phosphates, such as, but not limited to ammonium phosphate, sulfates, iron and manganese. In general, any source of phosphate and nitrogen nutrients that microbes can utilize may be used. 
     According to another embodiment of the present disclosure, the present invention also relates to the formation in soil of a permeable reactive barrier or zone including apatite. The apatite selectively traps and removes technetium while allowing water or other compounds to pass through. Apatite forming and a reducing agent are introduced into the soil by any of the methods as discussed above. The apatite and reducing agent may be introduced and/or formed around and/or within the technetium contaminated soil to form an apatite environment capable of binding technetium. 
     The word “soil” is defined herein to be any underground material that is capable of supporting transport, migration, movement, or diffusion of technetium by groundwater or other underground fluids or gases. The word “barrier” is defined herein to be an underground zone or region where technetium is selectively sequestered, sorbed, or adsorbed through chemical reactions and physical effects. The barrier can be permeable to groundwater flow, semi-permeable, or impermeable. The phrase “in situ formation” is defined herein to include in situ formation inside of a container, such as a tank containing hazardous wastes located above ground, or buried under the ground. The permeable reactive barrier selectively binds, traps, and/or sequesters technetium, where the word “selectively” refers to specific, targeted contaminants that are sequestered, while allowing water and other untargeted contaminants to pass through the permeable barrier. 
     In an embodiment, the present disclosure is directed to the formation of apatitic permeable reactive barriers (PRB&#39;s). Apatite is very water insoluble and thermodynamically very stable, and therefore advantageous as a sequestration barrier material because of its resistance to degradation in the presence of natural corrosive elements, including water. 
     According to an embodiment, in situ formation of apatite for permeable reactive barriers involves combining a phosphate, such as sodium phosphate (Na 3 PO 4 ) or potassium phosphate with a calcium salt, such as CaCl 2 , wherein the salt has formed in-situ from microbial decomposition (i.e., digestion) of an organic acid chelate, such as citric acid, chelated to the salt. The addition of an organic acid (e.g., citric acid) slows down the formation of apatite crystals, which eliminates the need to mix calcium chloride and potassium phosphate underground (if mixed aboveground, the solid precipitates could clog up the injection apparatus). Consequently, the chelated calcium reagent and the phosphate reagent can be premixed above ground without fear of prematurely forming the phosphate precipitate, and then easily injected as an aqueous solution into the contaminated soil. The stannous compound may be premixed or added at a later time. Conditions of pH, temperature, and reactant dilution affect the rate of reaction and success with which apatite is formed. If the proper conditions are not present, then apatite compounds will not form. For example, combining calcium and phosphate ions at concentrations greater than 10 mM will not form apatite at room temperature or colder. 
     Apatite is a forgiving family of minerals in that strict adherence to stoichiometric proportions is not necessary when combining reactants to form an effective permeable reactive barrier, especially where dilute reactants are injected at basic pH and elevated temperature. The use of aqueous solutions enables the reactants to diffuse through the soil some distance before free calcium becomes available through degradation of the chelate, whereupon the phosphate and calcium harden to form the phosphate precipitate. The outward diffusion of the two reagents prior to reacting permits a larger volume of soil to be treated. This is to be contrasted with the situation where solutions containing free calcium and free phosphate are simultaneously injected in the same hole and mix underground to rapidly react and form apatite. In this latter case, a much smaller volume would be treated. 
     In applying the method to actual cases of soil contamination, it is advantageous to ascertain the temperature and pH characteristics of the target soil prior to injection of reagents. Using that information, it is possible to adjust the reagent formulations and conditions so that they exhibit the optimum pH and temperature characteristics according to the invention as the reagents diffuse through the soil and react with each other. At a pH of between 7 and 9 in the soil, the conditions for forming apatite are most favorable. However, the pH of the solution that is injected might be less than 7 or greater than 9, depending on the pH of the soil prior to injection. 
     Formation of apatite optimally occurs at a pH from about 7 to about 9. Thus any of a wide variety of well-known reagents may be employed to adjust the pH to the optimal range, such as a carbonate buffer or a phosphate buffer. In one embodiment, pH-adjusting reagents can be delivered subsequent to injecting the solution of phosphate and chelated calcium, and may further serve to disperse the phosphate and chelated calcium over the desired area. Nutrients to enhance microbial action may be administered prior to, with or subsequent to administration of pH adjusting reagents. 
     Likewise, it is advantageous to ascertain and consider physical characteristics of soil, including the degree of compaction of the soil and presence of moving groundwater in the soil. This information can be used to appropriately adjust the injection pressure or select a suitable alternate injection method. If, for example, a predominant direction of groundwater flow is apparent, this can be used to advantage in dispersing the reagents into a specific soil region wherein a permeable reactive barrier is desired. Following are example embodiments illustrating various approaches to introducing reagents into soil according to the principles of the invention. 
     Using the methods of this invention, a phosphate reagent and a chelated calcium reagent are employed, and may be co-administered at a single site, in a borehole, or the like. The chelated calcium can include a biodegradable chelate, e.g., a biodegradable organic acid chelate. The chelate can be citrate, such that calcium citrate is utilized. Chelates other than citrate can be used as a biodegradable ligand for calcium, e.g., lactate, EDTA, isosaccarinic acid and other organics. In general, any organic, preferably acid, chelate that complexes with calcium may be employed. 
     Naturally occurring microorganisms in the soil can digest and biodegrade the chelate, thereby releasing free calcium, which reacts in situ with the phosphate reagent to form a permeable reactive material comprising calcium phosphate (including apatite or hydroxyapatite under the proper conditions). The citrate is metabolized by microorganisms in the soil or groundwater. Thus any of a wide variety of known microbial nutrients may be utilized to accelerate the biodegradation process, including nitrates, such as sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, or ammonium phosphate. In general, any source of nitrogen nutrients that microbes can utilize may be used. 
     According to an embodiment of the disclosure, the sediment and or apatite forming solution may be heated to increase the rate of apatite formation. Formation of apatitic occurs more rapidly and more completely at elevated temperatures. In an embodiment, the temperature may be between about 60° C. and about 100° C. Heating of the chelated calcium and phosphate reagents is not required to form apatite, since the release of free calcium due to microbial digestion generally occurs slowly over time, thereby producing low concentrations of free Ca. 
     In an embodiment, a fluoride reagent may be added to the composition and/or soil to enhance conditions for apatite formation. The fluoride reagent may be selected from the group including, but not limited to sodium fluoride or potassium fluoride. The fluoride reagent may be administered with the phosphate and chelated calcium, or subsequent thereto. 
     In one embodiment of the present invention, the sodium phosphate concentration can be in the range of about 0.00001 M to about 1 M. In another embodiment of the present invention, the concentration of chelated calcium can be in the range of about 0.00001 M to about 1 M. In another embodiment of the present invention, the ratio of calcium atoms to phosphate atoms in the solution can be about five to three (5:3). 
     In one embodiment, an aqueous solution comprising a mixture of 100 mM citrate, 50 mM calcium chloride, and 30 mM sodium hydrogen phosphate is premixed, for subsequent injection into the soil. The citrate and calcium chloride form a calcium citrate complex or chelate, thereby rendering the calcium unavailable for immediate reaction with the phosphate. A nitrate compound, such as 10 mM of ammonium nitrate, may be added to enhance microbial metabolism. Similarly, 20 mM of sodium fluoride may be added to enhance in situ apatite formation. Herein, the notation “1 M” means an aqueous concentration of 1 mole/liter, and “1 mM” means 10 −3  moles/liter. 
     In an embodiment, a single injection hole may be used for the injection of the constituents of the method, and where the permeable reactive barrier or zone provides complete or near-complete containment and immobilization of technetium in contaminated soil or groundwater. 
       FIG. 1  illustrates an embodiment of the present invention wherein a waste tank containing technetium is encapsulated with apatite using principles of the invention. Referring to  FIG. 1 , a waste tank  15  is shown in side view, buried in soil beneath the soil surface  5 . A borehole or injection well  10  through which chemical solutions are injected from the surface  5  is provided. The injection well  10  need not have a large diameter; rather it need be only of sufficient cross-sectional size to permit injection of aqueous solutions into a region in proximity to the waste tank  15 , as shown in  FIG. 1 . Injection may be accomplished by pumping the solution or solutions directly through the injection well  10 , or alternatively, by pumping reactant solutions through injection pipes positioned in the injection well  10 . In any case, the injection well  10  provides for penetration of the soil from the soil surface  5  to the region proximate to the waste tank  15 , as shown. In this embodiment of the present invention, the permeable reactive barrier can be formed without significant detriment to soil stability. 
     The diameter and other physical characteristics of the injection well  10  and the method for creating the injection well in the soil will depend on various factors such as degree of soil compaction, physical constituents in the soil, and so forth. In one embodiment, an injection well may be made by driving an injection pipe into the ground, if soil conditions will accommodate this. In other instances, it may be necessary to dig or drill to create the necessary injection well. If required for the desired dispersion pattern, more than one injection well  10  may be employed at a given site. 
     According to this embodiment, reactants of suitable pH and temperature (according to the principles explained above) are injected through the injection well  10 . Injections can be directed so that when the chemical reactions forming the phosphate precipitate take place, the tank  15  can be substantially surrounded or encapsulated by the phosphate precipitate. As noted, when the reactants in aqueous solution enter the soil, they tend to migrate as a result of capillary action through the soil. This capillary action is also responsible for causing the reactants to disperse in situ, thereby causing the formation of the apatite barrier over the desired area. Likewise, as noted, other factors including injection pressure and groundwater movement contribute to movement of the aqueous solutions, thereby causing formation of the apatite barrier over the desired area. 
     As can be seen in  FIG. 1 , a permeable reactive barrier  20  forms a barrier under waste tank  15 , preventing downward migration of the technetium containing contaminant plume  25  into groundwater  30 . It is contemplated that a plurality of injection wells  10  may be used, but the necessary number and orientation of the injection well  10  will depend on specific circumstances and conditions present concerning, for example, the waste to be encapsulated and the given soil conditions. To achieve optimal sequestration, precise placement of injection wells is not needed so long as qualitatively the permeable reactive barrier  20  that is formed substantially halts migration of the technetium. 
     In the illustration of  FIG. 1 , a leaking waste tank is shown (see plume  25 ), however, the principles of the invention are equally applicable where a plume containing technetium is present in the soil. Due to the reactive nature of the apatite barrier formed, movement of technetium can be arrested, and effective sequestration can be accomplished in a wide range of instances where the barrier is formed in situ around and even in the midst of contaminant species. 
       FIG. 2  illustrates an embodiment wherein the chemical reaction and injection principles described in the disclosure can be used to form a wall to obstruct migration of technetium. In the illustration, technetium from a waste site or plume  40  (such as in a waste trench) or other contaminant source pose a risk associated with movement toward water such as a stream or river  60 . In the illustrated example, an apatite barrier  55  is interposed between the plume  40  and river  60  according to the same principles described elsewhere in the present application. By drilling beneath ground surface  35  by use of well hole or bore  45 , an aqueous solution of calcium citrate, phosphate and a stannous compound are introduced, resulting in apatite permeable reactive barrier  55  in aquifer  50 , which aquifer  50  represents the migration path of waste. In addition to calcium citrate, phosphate, and a stannous compound, additional fluorides and microbial nutrients can also be introduced through bore  45 . Such introduction, including introduction of calcium citrate and phosphate, can be cycled or repeated as desired to result in apatite barrier  55  of desired size and density. The apatite permeable reactive barrier  55  permits water to pass through, but selectively sorbs and removes technetium, which binds to the apatite. 
     This embodiment illustrates that although the method of the present invention can sequester technetium sources by encapsulation, in situ formation of phosphate barriers (especially apatite) can be of benefit even where other barrier configurations, like walls, are used. Depending on the injection techniques used and the barrier required or desired, walls of this sort may be created at various depths. The invention method is useful for forming barriers at depths in excess of thirty feet, for example, where digging traditional trenches (and then filling them with a barrier material) to isolate waste is not a favored approach or perhaps even feasible. Problems with trenches of such depth result because they may need to be very wide depending on soil conditions in order to satisfy engineering and safety considerations. Costs and safety risks, including those associated with radiation hazard, are likely to be significant when such large trenches are dug. The barrier formation method of the present invention is not subject to geometric limitations of the sort associated with trenches. 
       FIG. 3  depicts a side view of a buried waste site  70  completely below ground surface  65 . Such waste site  70  is completely encapsulated by utilizing a multiplicity of well holes or bores  75 , through which calcium citrate, phosphate and a stannous compound, and optionally fluorides and microbial nutrients, are introduced and/or formed, resulting in encapsulating apatite barrier  80 . 
     Heat (consistent with the temperature ranges noted throughout this disclosure) can be applied to increase the rate of apatite formation. Heat can be introduced to system using pipes (e.g., metal pipes). Since the reagent solutions are electrolytes, electricity can be conducted between two adjacent wells, thereby generating resistance heating in situ. Alternatively, hot gas or gases, water, or steam can be pumped into an injection well and recovered from a recovery well to heat the soil. 
     Finally, it is noted that although the previously described embodiments focus on injecting reagents into the soil (albeit, even at low pressure), the necessary migration in situ can occur likewise in instances where reagents are simply poured on the surface of soil. This is because many of the physical principles causing percolation of reagents through soil apply regardless of whether the reagents are actively or passively introduced into the soil. Therefore, it is anticipated that certain applications wherein the principles of the invention are advantageous or desirable include relying on the option of simply pouring reagents in locations where migration of the reagents in the soil results in the requisite migration in situ in the soil. Therefore, unless otherwise specified or necessitated by context, the terms inject, injecting and injection are intended to encompass passive methods of introducing reagents into soil including simply pouring them on the soil surface. Similarly, the reagents may be introduced, by injection or other means as described, as a powder or slurry, and water or another suitable fluid subsequently introduced, by the same or different means, to disperse the reagents and to effect the desired molar concentration of reagents over the desired area. 
     According to another embodiment of the disclosure, modified apatite may be used to prevent the spread of technetium into groundwater and/or soil from a leaking or ruptured fluid holding tank. In this embodiment, apatite or apatite forming constituents may be injected or introduced into the soil or sediment surrounding or under the holding tank to form a permeable reactive barrier to prevent the spread of technetium. The apatite or apatite forming constituents may be introduced as disclosed above. 
     According to another embodiment of the disclosure, apatite may be used as a filter media or sorbent in a fluid treatment system to remove technetium from a contaminated fluid. For example, technetium may be used as a filter media in a filter or column in a pump and treat system that is used to remove technetium from groundwater, ponds, streams and fluid tanks. The filter column may be external to or submersed within the body of the contaminated fluid. 
     In an embodiment, the apatite filter arrangement may be as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,514,004, incorporated herein in its entirety. The fluid may be treated and returned to the fluid tank, another fluid tank, or introduced into a well, containment pond or stream. In this embodiment, the fluid would be treated, if necessary, to have its pH adjusted before being placed in contact with the apatite. The pH may be in the range of about 6.0 to about 10.0 In an embodiment, the pH may be in the range of about 7.2 to about 7.4. 
     The invention is further illustrated by the following non-limiting examples. 
     Example 1 
     100 mM sodium citrate, 50 mM calcium chloride and 30 mM sodium hydrogen phosphate (Na 2 HPO 4 ) at an initial pH of 8.5 were mixed and injected into soil from the Albuquerque area. The sodium citrate reacts with the calcium chloride to form calcium citrate plus NaCl. 10 mM nitrate was added to enhance microorganism metabolism, and 20 mM sodium flouride was added to enhance apatite formation. Over a two-week reaction period, the pH decreased to pH 7.4.  FIG. 4  shows the resulting X-ray diffraction pattern of the material precipitated into the soil. The vertical lines in  FIG. 4  are X-ray diffraction peak signatures for apatite. The measured X-ray diffraction pattern matches very well with that of apatite. 
     Example 2 
     Solutions of low concentration, 0.001 M of sodium citrate, 0.001 M of sodium phosphate, and 0.001 M calcium complexed to the citrate were mixed. After 2 weeks, 90% apatite was formed. 
     Example 3 
     Solutions with higher concentrations, 0.1 M of sodium citrate, 0.1 M of sodium phosphate, and 0.001 M calcium complexed to the citrate were mixed. After 2 weeks, 80% apatite was formed. 
     In another embodiment, apatite may be used to treat a fluid to remove and/or sequester technetium in a continuous or batch process. The fluid may be from, but not limited to a stream, pond, aquifer, or tank. In this embodiment, apatite is introduced into the fluid in a reducing environment that is either present or created as discussed above. For example, apatite along with a reducing agent described above is directly added to a tank containing a technetium bearing fluid to treat a fluid to remove and/or sequester technetium. In an embodiment, apatite may be placed in a tank within a permeable or mesh bag, and the reducing agent added, allowing the apatite to react and sequester the technetium. The bag may then be pulled out for disposal. 
     According to another embodiment, apatite is used to treat a solid or semi-solid material. In this embodiment, a technetium containing material is treated by adding apatite to the material. The material and apatite may be mixed to distribute the apatite throughout the material. The material needs to be a reducing environment, which may be present in the material or which may be created or enhanced as discussed above. The material may be further mixed with a cement or grout. The treated material may then be stored in a cask or container. 
     In another embodiment, the migration of technetium can be prevented at locations where solution mining or in-situ leaching is currently being or has been employed to recover uranium. The solution mining of uranium is accomplished by drilling wells into a uranium-bearing geologic formation and then injecting oxidizing solutions or acidic solutions into the formation. The solutions release uranium into solution and these uranium bearing solutions are then pumped back to the surface where the uranium is separated from solution and the water is then returned underground. This solution mining process releases contaminants including technetium into solution. In order to prevent the migration of these contaminants, the apatite reagents described above may be injected into geologic formations to form a permeable reactive barrier. It should be noted that the apatite also may absorb other contaminants such as, but not limited to uranium, radium, etc.) 
     The invention being thus described, it will be obvious that the same may be varied in many ways. Such variations are not to be regarded as a departure from the spirit and scope of the invention, and all such modifications as would be obvious to one skilled in the art are intended to be included within the scope of the appended claims. It is intended that the scope of the invention be defined by the claims appended hereto. The entire disclosures of all references, applications, patents and publications cited above are hereby incorporated by reference. 
     The preceding examples can be repeated with similar success by substituting the generically or specifically described reactants and/or operating conditions of this invention for those used in the preceding examples. 
     Although the invention has been described in detail with particular reference to these preferred embodiments, other embodiments can achieve the same results. Variations and modifications of the present invention will be obvious to those skilled in the art and it is intended to cover in the appended claims all such modifications and equivalents. The entire disclosures of all references, applications, patents, and publications cited above are hereby incorporated by reference.