Abstract:
This present invention provides a method for monitoring ARV resistance, to determine viral fitness, and to forecast possible drug failure. The method provides improved personalized HIV/AIDS care to the patient-physician over existing assays at a reduced cost. This set of assays will utilize the same PCR amplicon of the patient HIV genome, which encompasses all of the drug targeted HIV-1 genes (pol PR-RT-IN -env gp120-gp41 ) and not just PR-RT as with the prior systems. The greatest advantage of this method over previous is the rapid cloning of this amplicon into an HIV-1 genome vector through yeast recombination/gap repair. The vectors can be directly passed from yeast to mammalian cell line which has been specifically engineered to produce replication competent HIV-1 particles and to test susceptibility to all ARVs, i.e. PRIs, NRTIs, NNRTIs, T20, as well as entry and integrase inhibitors in development/clinical trials.

Description:
This application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/772,366, filed on Feb. 10, 2006. 
    
    
     This invention was made with government support under cooperative agreements awarded by NIAID, NIH Contract No. AI49170. The government may have certain rights to the invention. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a serious public health concern. AIDS is caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus type-1 (HIV-1) which can be subdivided into three highly divergent groups that include: M (main), O (outlier), and N (non-M or O). HIV-1 group M strains are responsible for over 95% of infections worldwide and are further separated into at least nine discreet subtypes or clades (A, B, C, D, F, G, H, J, and K), based on the sequence of complete genomes. Additionally, 13 recombinant forms (CRF) have been characterized that further increase the growing HIV-1 diversity. Overall HIV-1 displays 15-40% nucleotide diversity between subtypes and up to 30% nucleotide diversity within a subtype. Additionally, it has been estimated that there can be between 5 and 10% sequence diversity within an infected individual. In the past few years, HIV-1 research on pathogenesis, replication and host-virus interaction has shifted focus from subtype B laboratory strains to primary HIV-1 isolates of all subtypes. Thus, the heterogeneity of HIV-1 has introduced new challenges for cloning and subsequent functional studies. 
     Standard molecular biological techniques for manipulation of HIV-1 genetic elements are difficult to apply due to poor sequence conservation between different isolates. Unique restriction endonuclease sites are not conveniently distributed across the HIV-1 genome for selective introduction or mutation of various regions or genes. Additionally, the insertion of new restriction sites for cloning is problematic due to the likely disruption of one or more of the multiple open reading frames found in the virus. As a result, current research on HIV-1 replication relies upon a few closely related molecular clones that have matching restriction endonuclease sites. Alternatively, other methods for studying HIV-1 genes involve trans gene expression with respective deletion in a molecular clone to create pseudotyped viruses. However, these pseudotyped viruses are limited to a single round of replication since the full length functional genome is not packaged in the virus particle. 
     Treatment of individuals infected with HIV-1 with antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) has changed the face of the AIDS epidemic. Previously, all infection with HIV-1 led to AIDS and mortality in an average of two to seven years. The first anti-HIV-1 ARV, 3′-azido-3′-deoxythymidine (AZT, zidovudine, Retrovir®) was approved in 1987 for therapy but was largely unsuccessful in prolonged treatment due to resistance that develops over time. Until the advent of triple drug combination therapy (Highly Active AntiRetroviral Therapy or HAART), drug resistance was common in all treated patients and remained the primary reason for the failure of ARVs to control HIV viremia. Due to the issues of adherence, the need for lifelong therapy, drug tolerance, and incomplete viral suppression, resistance to ARV still emerges in patients undergoing HAART. Unfortunately, ARV resistance triggers a resumption of disease progression unless new ARVs can be administered in a HAART regimen. Pharmaceutical companies have been successful in continually developing new ARV and in different drug classes. 
     There are now FDA-approved drugs sub-grouped into three classes of anti-HIV ARVs, which target different steps in the HIV lifecycle: reverse transcriptase inhibitors (RTIs) (nonnucleoside (NNRTI), and nucleoside (NRTI)), protease inhibitors (PRIs), and entry inhibitors (EI) (enfutride, fuseon or T20). Several new HIV-1 entry inhibitors that occlude a viral receptor on the host cells have been effective in pre-clinical development and are now in advanced clinical trials. Additionally, Integrase, another catalytic enzyme of HIV-1 has also been recognized as a rational therapeutic target for the treatment of infection. Integration of the HIV-1 proviral DNA genome into the host genome is essential for viral mRNA transcription but also establishes a stable viral episome in the host genome. Integrase inhibitors and various derivatives could be on the cusp for phase III clinical trials and FDA approval for use in HAART regimens. The continual need for new HIV-1 inhibitors targeting new enzymes or viral processes is due to the emergence of primary resistance to the current PRI and RTIs licensed for therapy. Many of the drug resistant HIV-1 strains selected under a previous regimen also confer cross-resistance to other ARVs in the current FDA-approved arsenal. Cross-resistance limits the use of other drugs in salvage therapy (i.e. following resistance to the first line regimen). Thus, monitoring drug resistance has become a key clinical tool in the management of HIV infected patients by their physicians. 
     The most basic test for drug resistance is a genotypic drug resistance test which involves sequencing the drug targeted genes PR (encoding protease) and RT (encoding reverse transcriptase) and reporting a predicted resistance pattern. Predicted resistance is based on previous identification of specific resistance mutations and confirmation that these mutations conferred drug resistance in a HIV-1 strain. Since genotypic testing provides only predicted ARV resistance information, many physicians prefer an actual phenotypic drug resistance assay, which involves growing HIV containing patient PR-RT genes in the presence of increasing ARV concentrations. Unlike the multitude of hospital laboratories and companies that perform genotypic drug resistance assays, only two companies offer these HIV phenotypic drug resistance assays, i.e. Monogram Biosciences Inc. (formerly Virologic) and Virco (a division of Johnson &amp; Johnson). These methods employ restriction enzyme cloning, or low efficiency recombination in mammalian cells, respectively. Both methods are very costly and have severe limitations in the ease and adaptability during cloning of patient samples for phenotypic assays. Furthermore, re-development and testing of these phenotypic resistance assays is required to accommodate the new anti-HIV drugs that target other genes or processes (e.g. integration and viral entry) which are now in phase I/II and phase III clinical trials. 
     A simple sequencing and genotypic analyses is often sufficient to predict resistance due to the relative conservation of HIV-1 PR-RT sequences and well-characterized drug resistance mutations. However, due to the continual emergence of drug resistance, new anti-HIV inhibitors are always needed for effective salvage therapies in patient failing a HAART regimen. Pharmaceutical companies are now pursuing two new classes of ARVs that target the integrase (encoded by IN) and the entry process (involving the env glycoproteins and encoded by the env gene). Several inhibitors are in phase I/II and even phase III clinical trials with a high likelihood of FDA approval within the next two years. Resistance to IN inhibitors appears to be conferred by a distinct set of IN mutations but this data is still very preliminary. In contrast, there is appears to be no distinct pattern of mutations conferring resistance to each entry inhibitor. The env gene is poorly conserved among HIV-1 isolates. Furthermore, there is very large interface between the env gp120/gp41 glycoproteins and the cellular receptors, CD4 and CCR5 (or CXCR4). These two factors contribute to divergent selection of drug resistant mutations which would alter gp120/gp41 structure, transitional rearrangements, and interaction with receptors. Several leading investigators in this field now believe that it may be impossible to predict drug resistance through DNA sequencing/genotype analyses. 
     Thus, new methods are necessary for cloning into the full HIV-1 genome that also accommodate for the high genetic diversity seen between strains. 
     Homologous recombination in yeast has been used to clone genes or sequences without the use of restriction endonucleases. However, this cloning technique is unnecessary for most eukaryotic and prokaryotic sequences due to the limited diversity and conservation of sequences cleaved by restriction endonucleases. Yeast gap repair facilitates recombination between a PCR product and a linearized vector via short sequences of comparable homology in both DNA fragments. Selection of the recombined plasmids and their maintenance in yeast is mediated by positive and negative selectable elements within the vector. Finally, these plasmids can be rapidly isolated from yeast and shuttled into  E. coli  for further subcloning. 
     The use of a yeast-based recombination method that can be used to clone HIV-1 gag, pol or env sequences of any subtype into a vector for expression in mammalian cells, or for rapid subcloning into a HIV-1 molecular clone has been previously described. The method is not limited by the location of restriction endonuclease sites and holds significant advantages over standard cloning techniques such as: (1) PCR-based TA cloning methods where exogenous sequence must be introduced for subsequent gene expression or subcloning, or (2) PCR-based methods that introduce foreign restriction endonuclease sites by mutating HIV-1 sequence in the primer binding sites. According to that method, an HIV-1 sequence is PCR-amplified and recombined into the vector using a yeast-based recombination system within the proper reading frame, allowing entire genes, gene domains or sub-domains to be studied in context of specific functions. The vector may be transfected into higher eukaryotes for protein expression and functional studies. The HIV-1 genes from this vector can also be shuttled into the infectious HIV-1 molecular clone by classic restriction enzyme/bacterial cloning, which will then provide a vector to produce replication-competent virus in mammalian cells. Unfortunately, the repeated HIV-1 sequences at either end of the genome prevents the use of yeast-based cloning. Yeast simply recombines out the entire HIV-1 coding sequence and generates a non-functional HIV-1 cloning vector. 
     A need exists for a virus screening system that does not depend on a vector that can recombine to excise virus genes out of the vector and does not depend on the use of restriction endonucleases to create the isolates to be screened. 
     A need also exists for a method of screening that is not limited to specific genes of the HIV genome. A need further exists for a method of virus screening that can be used to determine susceptibility to various HIV inhibitors, most importantly the entry inhibitors such as CCR5 antagonists. An additional need exists for a method to test susceptibility of viral strains to drugs that target multiple viral constituents. 
     It is known that as a retrovirus, HIV-1 carries a genome consisting of ribonucleic acid (RNA) rather than deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). In addition to the same core gene structure shared among all retroviruses (i.e. the gag, pol, and env genes), the HIV-1 genome also harbors several genes found in multiply and singly spliced RNA transcripts (i.e. vif, vpr, tat, rev, vpu, and nef) that encode for several accessory proteins. Replication of the virus after infection of a cell involves reverse transcription of the viral RNA, that is, the creation of a DNA copy of the RNA template. This is accomplished by the enzyme reverse transcriptase. Reverse transcription begins in the primer binding site (pbs) immediately adjacent to one of the two end regions of the linear HIV genome known as the long terminal repeats (or LTRs), specifically the 5′ LTR. The 5′ LTR contains two subregions or segments, the “R” segment, followed by the “U5” segment. The 3′ LTR also contains an R segment, which is identical to the R segment of the 5′ LTR, but the 3′ R segment is preceded by a “U3” segment. 
       FIG. 1  provides a schematic representation of reverse transcription of a retroviral RNA genome. Reverse transcriptase begins synthesizing a DNA strand from a host tRNA Lys,3  annealed to the pbs region approximately 100-200 nucleotides from the 5′ end of the viral RNA strand and will proceed to make a DNA copy of the U5 and R RNA segments of the 5′ LTR (termed (−) strand strong stop DNA). When reverse transcriptase makes a DNA copy of all the RNA nucleotides at the 5′ end of the RNA strand, ribonuclease H (RNase H) will degrade the R segment of the viral RNA. The reverse transcriptase will then change templates to the 3′ LTR of the same or a different viral RNA strand. The R segment of the newly synthesized DNA is complementary to and binds to the “R” region of the 3′ LTR of the virus. The DNA segment then acts as a primer for further synthesis of a DNA copy of the viral RNA by reverse transcriptase through the U3 region and then the remainder of the viral genome, resulting in a full length DNA copy of the viral RNA genome. The RNA strand is then degraded by RNase H. Synthesis of a complementary second DNA strand begins at the site denote “PPT.” Strand transfer is also thought to occur with the synthesis of the double stranded DNA. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In general, two retroviral nucleic acid sequences are provided. One is devoid of at least a majority of the sequence for one of the two long terminal repeat regions but retains other HIV-1 genetic elements. The specific genetic element deleted is the R and U5 sequences of the 5′ long terminal repeat region. Another nucleic acid complements the first by containing the 5′ long terminal repeat and a short upstream HIV-1 RNA fragment. This nucleic acid contains the R and U5 sequences of the 5′ long terminal repeat region followed by the primer binding sequence (PBS) and the packaging sequence. A vector may comprise such a nucleic acid sequence. A vector may also comprise at least one origin of replication, a nucleic acid sequence that is substantially identical to the primer binding site of HIV-1, a selectable genetic element and a nucleic acid sequence that is substantially identical to the 3′ long terminal repeat sequence of HIV-1. The selectable genetic element may be URA3, for example. 
     A complementation genome, that is, a nucleic acid comprising a retroviral sequence devoid of the sequences encoding an envelope gene and a 3′ long terminal repeat region of the retrovirus may also be provided. It may optionally also be devoid of at least a portion of the retrovirus pol gene and further optionally, devoid of at least a portion of the retrovirus gag gene. 
     A method of determining the sensitivity of a retroviral strain to one or more antiviral compounds is provided. The method may comprise providing a first vector comprising at least one origin of replication, a sequence substantially identical to the primer binding site of the retroviral strain, a selectable marker and a sequence of at least a portion of a known retroviral strain devoid of a first long terminal repeat region, providing a retroviral sequence isolated from a patient wherein the sequence isolated from a patient is modified to comprise sequence substantially identical to at least a portion of the selectable marker and transforming a yeast cell line with the first vector and the retroviral sequence. The method further includes selecting against the presence of the selectable marker to provide a transformed yeast cell line having a second vector, wherein the selectable marker of the first vector has been replaced by the retroviral sequence. The second vector is used to transform a second cell line with a third vector, wherein the third vector comprises retroviral sequence substantially identical to the first long terminal repeat region, to provide a transformed second cell line. Viable retrovirus particles are isolated from the transformed second cell line and contacted with a third cell line in the presence of one or more antiviral compounds. The method then includes determining the susceptibility of the retrovirus to the one or more antiviral compounds. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a schematic representation of reverse transcription of a retroviral genome; 
         FIG. 2A  is a representation of a vector containing a near full length HIV sequence, its synthesis and its use to create a selectable vector containing HIV-1 genes; 
         FIG. 2B  is a representation of the use of a selectable vector containing HIV-1 genes and its use to clone a patient-specific HIV 1 PCR product to create a near full length HIV-1 isolate containing a specific segment of DNA that corresponds to a genetic sequence of HIV-1 isolated from a patient; 
         FIG. 3  is a representation of the use of the vectors of the present invention to produce infectious retroviral particles; 
         FIG. 4  is a schematic view of a drug susceptibility/resistance assay according to the present invention; 
         FIG. 5  is a representation of two control constructs additionally containing a gene encoding a fluorescent protein and a variation on such a construct providing an inducible fluorescent protein; 
         FIG. 6  is a summary of an example of a method of screening drug susceptibility; 
         FIG. 7  is a representation of a general overview of a method of drug screening. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     Utilizing the template switching behavior of reverse transcription in HIV provides a cloning and drug sensitivity screening technique. A vector containing a partial retrovirus genome, specifically, a vector containing a retrovirus genome devoid of one LTR is used. A suitable vector is shown in  FIG. 2 , which includes at least one origin of replication, a region of the DNA that is substantially identical to the primer binding site (pbs) of HIV, a selectable gene, a region of DNA that is substantially identical to the 3′ end of the long terminal repeat region of HIV. By “substantially identical” is meant that the regions have sufficient homology with the named segments of DNA as to be able to hybridize under stringent conditions. 
     The vector may be constructed by inserting a portion of an HIV strain genome into a suitable vector such as a plasmid. In the example shown in  FIG. 2 , a EcoRI (5747) to XhoI (8901) fragment of the HIV-1 genome is inserted into the plasmid pcDNA 3.1 at the EcoRI and XhoI restriction enzyme sites. A PCR-amplified product (3701 bp) containing the yeast centromere sequence (CEN6), the autonomously replicating sequence (ARSH4), and the beta-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase (LEU2) gene was cleaved with Xba I and then ligated into the pcDNA3.1 Zeo/HXB2 env construct to form pRec env ( FIG. 2 ). The insertion of these yeast sequences (LEU2, CEN6, and ARSH4) enables the plasmid to replicate in yeast in the absence of leucine. The pcDNA3.1 Zeo backbone also contains the  E. coli  origin of replication and ampicillin resistance gene for maintenance in bacteria, as well as a eukaryotic cytomegalovirus immediate-early promoter and bovine growth hormone poly A sequence for expression of foreign genes. The Zeocin resistance gene allow for maintenance in mammalian cells. 
     In the following examples, the vector pREC env can be used as a vector for a selection marker such as URA3. URA3 encodes the orotidine-5′-phosphate decarboxylase protein involved in the bio-synthesis of uracil. To insert PCR products and replace genes encoded by the vector, a yeast strain may be transformed with linearized pRec env vector, using a lithium acetate technique for example, along with a PCR product amplified using conserved primers (i.e. sequences that flank the target sequence in the vexctor). Yeast colonies containing a recombined sequences in the pRec vectors, for example, where a URA3 gene has been replaced by another sequence, may be selected on plates containing CMM-Leu +5-Fluoro-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydro-2,6-Dioxo-4-Pyrimidine Carboxylic Acid (FOA). FOA is converted to the toxic substrate 5-fluorouracil by the URA3 gene product, orotidine-5′-phosphate decarboxylase. FOA-resistant yeast were then grown in CMM-Leu and lysed for crude extraction. Ampicillin-resistant bacterial colonies transformed with this crude yeast extract can then screened for the env insert and absence of the URA3 gene. URA3 may be inserted into the pRec env vector at different sites for replacement of the gp120/gp41, the gp120, or V3 coding sequence in the HIV-1 envelope gene, for example. Vectors may also be synthesized having URA3 inserted into virtually any HIV-1 gene, coding region, or even noncoding region as described more fully below. 
     The cloning of a near full length HIV-1 yeast-based vector (pREC nfl HIV-1 ) was accomplished as follows. In deleting the 5′LTR, it was desired to maintain a competent reverse transcription scheme from the HIV-1 RNA expressed from this pREC nfl HIV-1 . The rationale for the present cloning approach involves an intricate working knowledge of the reverse transcription scheme. The HIV-1 genome, with a deleted 5′ LTR, was to be inserted precisely in front of the CMV promoter such that transcription would be initiated at the first nucleotide of the primer binding site (PBS). Cloning the HIV-1 sequence in this way could not be performed with restriction enzymes but can be performed by yeast recombination. As shown in  FIG. 2A , a PCR product is synthesized using PCR primers that hybridize to the 5′ and 3′ ends of a selectable marker such as the URA3 gene, which encodes a gene for uracil biosynthesis. The PCR primers also contain sequences that are homologous to target vector sequences such that the vector sequences flank the selectable marker in the resulting PCR product. Such primers will amplify URA3 but with a tail on the sense primer complementary to the CMV promoter prior to the transcriptional start site (10). Upstream of this tail but in the same primer, a sequence complementary to the PBS region (12). The antisense primer has (in 5′ to 3′ direction) the URA3 sequence, the HIV-1 U5 sequence of the 3′ LTR (14), and the vector sequence (16). In the example illustrated, the vector sequence is from pREC env. The sequences are arranged in the PCR primers such that vector sequence flanks the HIV-1 sequence in the resulting PCR product. These primers permit a two step introduction of the near full length (nfl) HIV-1 genome just upstream of the CMV promoter. 
     The PCR product is then used with the vector (pREC env) to transform yeast cells. Optionally, the vector may be linearized with a restriction enzyme that does not cut the PCR product to increase the frequency of recombination between the PCR product and the corresponding sequences in the vector. The resulting plasmid in the example shown in  FIG. 2A  is referred to as pREC Ura3. Recombinants (pREC Ura3) are selected by growing on media that selects for both of the selectable markers each contributed by the vector and the PCR product, in this example, by growing the yeast cells on leucine- and uracil-deficient media. 
     The recombined vector (pREC Ura3, in the example) may then be used to further act as a vector for further recombination with an HIV strain. Recombination occurs in yeast between the homologous regions of the recombined vector and the HIV genome; in the example presented, between the pbs and the 3′ LTR. Recombinants may be selected by selecting against the PCR-derived selectable marker. Where the Ura3 gene is the selectable marker, this may be accomplished by growing the yeast cells on fluoroorotic acid (5-fluoro-1,2,3,6-tetrahydro-2,6-dioxo-4-pyrimidine carboxylic acid, or FOA) which is converted into a toxic metabolite by cells expressing the Ura3 gene. This results in a vector containing an entire HIV genome, such as the NL4-3genome, but devoid of the 5′ LTR (a primary recombinant). In the example shown in  FIG. 2A , this plasmid is referred to as pREC nfl HIV-1. The sequence of PREC nfl HIV-1 is provided as SEQ. ID. NO. 1. In SEQ. ID. NO. 1, the sequence derived from HIV-1 extends from residue 1 to residue 9076. The location of the Bam HI restriction endonuclease site at residue 7833 should be noted, as this location figures into the orientation of plasmids additionally containing genes encoding fluorescent proteins, as described hereinbelow. 
     The vector containing a near full length HIV-1 genome may then be used for further recombination with other HIV isolates or portions of the genome of other HIV isolates via homologous recombination in yeast as described above. In this way, individual variations in genes may be examined and interactions of variant gene products may be examined with more well characterized gene products. In the example shown in  FIG. 2A , URA3 is recombined in yeast similar to the earlier steps to replace a section of the env gene in pREC nfl HIV-1 to create pREC nfl HIV-1 Δenv/URA3, which contains the nfl HIV-1 sequence except with a URA3 gene inserted into and replacing a portion of the envelope gene. Such recombinants may again be selected by growing the yeast transformed with the URA3 and the pREC nfl HIV-1 Δenv/URA3 on leucine-deficient, uracil-deficient media. In the example shown, the 5′ and 3′ ends of the env gene remain so as to permit further recombination as described below. 
     Constructs such as pREC nfl HIV-1 Δenv/URA3 may be utilized to examine the properties such as drug resistance conferred by different env genes in a standardized environment, that is, in relation to well defined components of an HIV strain, such as NL4-3. However, as explained more fully below, any portion of the HIV-1 genome may be replaced with a selectable marker such as URA3. In  FIG. 2B , pREC nfl HIV-1 Δenv/URA3 is shown as a vector for recombination with a patient-derived env gene, generated for example, by PCR. The PCR product recombines with the remaining portions of the env gene flanking the URA3 gene in pREC nfl HIV-1 Δenv/URA3. The resulting recombinants contain a near full length HIV-1 sequence from NL4-3, with a patient-derived env gene replacing the env gene of NL4-3. Such recombinants may be selected by selecting against the URA3 gene, that is, by growing the yeast on media containing FOA. 
     Other constructs can be made in a similar manner as that described above, starting with pREC nfl HIV-1, and replacing other portions of the HIV genome with a selectable marker such as URA3. A list of near full length HIV-1 isolates containing a URA3 substitution that have been made is provided in Table 1. Table 1 lists the region of HIV-1 replaced by URA3, the location of the substitution relative to the sequence of isolate NL4-3, and the size of the portion of the HIV genome replaced with URA3. One such construct replaces a portion of the pol gene with URA3, pRECnfl HIV-1Δpol/URA3. The sequence of pRECnfl HIV-1Δpol/URA3 is provided as SEQ. ID. No. 2. 
     A list of oligonucleotide primers used to make the substitutions listed in Table 1, are provided in Table 2 below. The oligonucleotides, some of which are degenerate primers, amplify a section of the HIV-1 genome, which is then recombined into the vector by homologous recombination. The degenerate primers permit the target sequences to be amplified despite variations in the target sequences. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 pREC NFL HIV-1 vectors with various 
               
               
                 coding region replacements with URA3 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Location of 
                 Size of 
               
               
                 pREC- NFL-HIV-1  Deletions 
                 Deletion in NL4-3 
                 Deletion 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Δhiv-1\URA3 
                  790-9533 
                 8745 
               
               
                 Δgag-pol-env\URA3 
                  790-8785 
                 7998 
               
               
                 Δgag-pol-env2\URA3 
                  790-8264 
                 7476 
               
               
                 Δgag-pol\URA3 
                  790-5096 
                 4515 
               
               
                 Δgag\URA3 
                  790-2292 
                 1503 
               
               
                 Δgag p17\URA3 
                  790-1185 
                 396 
               
               
                 Δgag p24\URA3 
                 1186-1878 
                 693 
               
               
                 Δgag p7\URA3 
                 1921-2133 
                 213 
               
               
                 Δgag p6\URA3 
                 2134-2292 
                 159 
               
               
                 Δpol\URA3 
                 2085-5096 
                 3012 
               
               
                 Δpol prot\URA3 
                 2253-2549 
                 297 
               
               
                 Δpol rt\URA3 
                 2550-3869 
                 1320 
               
               
                 Δpol prot-rt\URA3 
                 2253-3869 
                 1617 
               
               
                 Δpol rnase H\URA3 
                 3870-4229 
                 360 
               
               
                 Δpol-env\URA3 
                 2085-8785 
                 6701 
               
               
                 Δpol-env-s\URA3 
                 2085-8264 
                 6180 
               
               
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 4230-5096 
                 867 
               
               
                 Δvif-vpr-tat-rev vpu-env-nef\URA3 
                 5041-9407 
                 4367 
               
               
                 Δvif\URA3 
                 5041-5619 
                 579 
               
               
                 Δvpr\URA3 
                 5559-5849 
                 291 
               
               
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 5830-8459 
                 2630 
               
               
                 Δtat-ex1\URA3 
                 5830-6044 
                 215 
               
               
                 Δtat-ex2\URA3 
                 8369-8459 
                 91 
               
               
                 Δrev\URA3 
                 5969-8643 
                 2675 
               
               
                 Δrev-ex1\URA3 
                 5969-6044 
                 76 
               
               
                 Δrev-ex2\URA3 
                 8370-8643 
                 274 
               
               
                 Δvpi\URA3 
                 6061-6306 
                 246 
               
               
                 Δenv\URA3 
                 6221-8785 
                 2565 
               
               
                 Δenv-s\URA3 
                 6221-8264 
                 2043 
               
               
                 Δenv gp120\URA3 
                 6221-7747 
                 1527 
               
               
                 Δenv gp120 v1/v2\URA3 
                 6611-6802 
                 192 
               
               
                 Δenv gp120 v3\URA3 
                 7100-7207 
                 108 
               
               
                 Δenv gp120 v4/v5\URA3 
                 7368-7627 
                 260 
               
               
                 Δenv gp41\URA3 
                 7748-8785 
                 1038 
               
               
                 Δenv gp41-s\URA3 
                 7748-8264 
                 517 
               
               
                 Δrre\URA3 
                 7716-8069 
                 354 
               
               
                 Δnef\URA3 
                 8787-9407 
                 621 
               
               
                 Δ3′-ltr U3\URA3 
                 9076-9533 
                 458 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Oligonucleotide primers for the insertion of HIV-1 coding 
               
               
                 regions into pREC NFL HIV-1 vectors in Table 1 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Primer Name 
                 pREC- NFL-HIV-1  Deletions 
                 Location 
                 Sequence 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ext B int.11 
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 5197→5246 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 8 
               
               
                 ext B int.12 
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 5185→5234 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 9 
               
               
                 intern B int.13 
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 5157→5206 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 10 
               
               
                 intern B int.14 
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 5127→5176 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 11 
               
               
                 intern F int.7 
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 4171→4220 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 12 
               
               
                 intern F int.8 
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 4147→4196 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 13 
               
               
                 ext F int.9 
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 4120→4169 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 14 
               
               
                 ext F int.10 
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 4068→4117 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 15 
               
               
                 int B Rnase.7 
                 Δpol rnase H\URA3 
                 4231→4280 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 16 
               
               
                 int BRnase.8 
                 Δpol rnase H\URA3 
                 4248→4297 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 16 
               
               
                 ext B Rnase.9 
                 Δpol rnase H\URA3 
                 4272→4321 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 17 
               
               
                 ext B Rnase.10 
                 Δpol rnase H\URA3 
                 4290→4339 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 18 
               
               
                 int F POL.5 
                 Δpol\URA3 
                 2014→2063 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 19 
               
               
                 int F POL.6 
                 Δpol\URA3 
                 1992→2041 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 20 
               
               
                 ext F POL.7 
                 Δpol\URA3 
                 1984→2033 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 21 
               
               
                 ext F POL.8 
                 Δpol\URA3 
                 1962→2011 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 22 
               
               
                 int F p7.7 
                 Δgag p7\URA3 
                 1843→1892 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 23 
               
               
                 int F p7.8 
                 Δgag p7\URA3 
                 1834→1883 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 24 
               
               
                 ext F p7.9 
                 Δgag p7\URA3 
                 1792→1841 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 25 
               
               
                 ext F p7.10 
                 Δgag p7\URA3 
                 1807→1856 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 26 
               
               
                 Ext B VPU.3 
                 Δvpu\URA3 
                 6385→6434 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 27 
               
               
                 EXt B VPU.4 
                 Δvpu\URA3 
                 6372→6421 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 28 
               
               
                 INT B VPU.5 
                 Δvpu\URA3 
                 6349→6398 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 29 
               
               
                 INT B VPU.6 
                 Δvpu\URA3 
                 6341→6390 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 30 
               
               
                 Int F gp120.3 
                 Δenv gp120\URA3 
                 6173→6222 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 31 
               
               
                 Int F gp120.4 
                 Δenv gp120\URA3 
                 6143→6192 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 32 
               
               
                 Ext F gp120.5 
                 Δenv gp120\URA3 
                 6090→6139 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 33 
               
               
                 Ext F gp120.6 
                 Δenv gp120\URA3 
                 6066→6118 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 34 
               
               
                 TAT REC CON 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 5758→5808 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 35 
               
               
                 FWD 1 
               
               
                 TAT REC CON 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 5732→5782 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 36 
               
               
                 FWD 2 
               
               
                 TAT REC CON 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 5713→5762 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 37 
               
               
                 FWD 3 
               
               
                 TAT REC CON 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 8425→8474 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 38 
               
               
                 BWD 4 
               
               
                 TAT REC CON 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 8429→8478 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 39 
               
               
                 BWD 5 
               
               
                 TAT REC CON 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 8439→8488 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 40 
               
               
                 BWD 6 
               
               
                 TAT REC CON 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 8493→8542 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 41 
               
               
                 BWD 7 
               
               
                 EXT TAT REC 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 5488→5537 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 42 
               
               
                 CON FWD 8 
               
               
                 EXT TAT REC 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 5428→5477 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 43 
               
               
                 CON FWD 9 
               
               
                 EXT TAT REC 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 5409→5458 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 44 
               
               
                 CON FWD 10 
               
               
                 EXT TAT REC 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 8699→8748 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 45 
               
               
                 CON BWD 11 
               
               
                 EXT TAT REC 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 8640→8689 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 46 
               
               
                 CON BWD 12 
               
               
                 EXT TAT REC 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 8562→8611 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 47 
               
               
                 CON BWD 13 
               
               
                 POL RT REC 
                 Δpol rt\URA3 
                 2458→2507 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 48 
               
               
                 CON FWD 7 
               
               
                 POL RT REC 
                 Δpol rt\URA3 
                 2445→2494 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 49 
               
               
                 CON FWD 8 
               
               
                 POL PRO REC 
                 Δpol prot\URA3 
                 2604→2653 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 50 
               
               
                 CON BWD 7 
               
               
                 POL PRO REC 
                 Δpol prot\URA3 
                 2588→2637 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 51 
               
               
                 CON BWD 8 
               
               
                 VPR REC CON 
                 Δvpr\URA3 
                 5911→5960 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 52 
               
               
                 BWD 4 
               
               
                 VPR REC CON 
                 Δvpr\URA3 
                 5877→5926 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 53 
               
               
                 BWD 5 
               
               
                 VPR REC CON 
                 Δvpr\URA3 
                 5851→5900 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 54 
               
               
                 BWD 6 
               
               
                 GAG P17 REC 
                 Δgag p17\URA3 
                 666→715 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 55 
               
               
                 CON FWD 7 
               
               
                 GAG P17 REC 
                 Δgag p17\URA3 
                 658→707 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 56 
               
               
                 CON FWD 8 
               
               
                 ext short B 
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 5216→5235 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 57 
               
               
                 int.11.12 
               
               
                 inter short B int.13 
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 5185→5204 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 58 
               
               
                 inter short B int.14 
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 5154→5173 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 59 
               
               
                 int short F int.7 
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 4171→4190 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 60 
               
               
                 int short F int.8 
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 4148→4167 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 61 
               
               
                 ext short F int.9 
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 4121→4140 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 62 
               
               
                 ext short F int.10 
                 Δpol int\URA3 
                 4071→4090 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 63 
               
               
                 int short B 
                 Δpol rnase H\URA3 
                 4282→4263 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 64 
               
               
                 Rnase.7.8 
               
               
                 ext short B 
                 Δpol rnase H\URA3 
                 4323→4305 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 65 
               
               
                 Rnase.9.10 
               
               
                 int short F p7.7.8 
                 Δgag p7\URA3 
                 1847→1865 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 66 
               
               
                 ext short F p7.9.10 
                 Δgag p7\URA3 
                 1804→1823 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 67 
               
               
                 Int Fwd gp120.3 
                 Δenv gp120\URA3 
                 6179→6198 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 68 
               
               
                 Int Fwd gp120.4 
                 Δenv gp120\URA3 
                 6146→6165 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 69 
               
               
                 Ext Fwd gp120.5 
                 Δenv gp120\URA3 
                 6092→6111 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 70 
               
               
                 Ext Fwd gp120.6 
                 Δenv gp120\URA3 
                 6068→6090 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 71 
               
               
                 TAT Short FWD.1 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 5760→5782 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 72 
               
               
                 TAT Short FWD.2 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 5733→5754 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 73 
               
               
                 TAT Short FWD.3 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 5716→5737 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 74 
               
               
                 TAT Short BWD.4 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 8474→8453 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 75 
               
               
                 TAT Short BWD.5 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 8476→8455 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 76 
               
               
                 TAT Short BWD.6 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 8485→8464 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 77 
               
               
                 TAT Short BWD.7 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 8534→8513 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 78 
               
               
                 TAT Short FWD.8 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 5491→5512 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 79 
               
               
                 TAT Short FWD.9 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 5429→5450 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 80 
               
               
                 EXT Short 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 5411→5432 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 81 
               
               
                 FWD.10 
               
               
                 TAT Short 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 8748→8727 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 82 
               
               
                 BWD.11 
               
               
                 TAT Short 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 8688→8667 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 83 
               
               
                 BWD.12 
               
               
                 TAT Short 
                 Δtat\URA3 
                 8603→8582 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 84 
               
               
                 BWD.13 
               
               
                 POL RT Short 
                 Δpol rt\URA3 
                 2463→2484 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 85 
               
               
                 FWD.7 
               
               
                 POL RT Short 
                 Δpol rt\URA3 
                 2450→2471 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 86 
               
               
                 FWD.8 
               
               
                 POL PRO Short 
                 Δpol prot\URA3 
                 2640→2619 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 87 
               
               
                 BWD.7 
               
               
                 POL PRO Short 
                 Δpol prot\URA3 
                 2631→2610 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 88 
               
               
                 BWD.8 
               
               
                 VPR Short BWD.4 
                 Δvpr\URA3 
                 5956→5935 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 89 
               
               
                 VPR Short BWD.5 
                 Δvpr\URA3 
                 5923→5902 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 90 
               
               
                 VPR Short BWD.6 
                 Δvpr\URA3 
                 5895→5874 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 91 
               
               
                 GAG P17 Short 
                 Δgag p17\URA3 
                 671→692 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 92 
               
               
                 FWD.7 
               
               
                 GAG P17 Short 
                 Δgag p17\URA3 
                 660→681 
                 SEQ. ID. NO. 93 
               
               
                 FWD.8 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Degenerate Bases Key: 
               
               
                 N = A + C + G + T 
               
               
                 V = A + C + G V 
               
               
                 D = A + T + G 
               
               
                 B = T + C + G 
               
               
                 H = A + T + C 
               
               
                 W = A + T 
               
               
                 S = C + G 
               
               
                 K = T + G 
               
               
                 M = A + C 
               
               
                 Y = C + T 
               
               
                 R = A + G 
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The primary recombinant virus devoid of a 5′ LTR may be used to efficiently obtain infectious virus with the aid of a complementation genome. As shown schematically in the inset box in  FIG. 3 , the complementation genome contains the R and U5 segments of the 5′ LTR, the pbs and the RNA packaging (ψ) region of the HIV genome and may be carried by a second vector such as a plasmid. Isolates containing differing lengths of the HIV-1 genome but supplying the aforementioned segments of the 5′LTR are shown as cpltRU5gag/tag, cpltRU5gag2/tag, cpltRU5gag3/tag, and cplt_nflΔrbf RNA. The complementation genome may be under control of a CMV promoter as in the plasmid denoted as pCMV_cpltRU5gag/tag, or not under the control of such a promoter as in the plasmid pHIV-1 5′LTR. The sequence of pCMV_cpltRU5gag/tag is provided as SEQ. ID. No. 3. The sequence of pHIV-1 5′LTR is provided as SEQ. ID. No. 4. 
     As described above, the pREC nfl HIV-1  will not transcribe HIV-1 RNA to support the production of infectious virus. To obtain infectious virus, the nfl HIV-1 RNA must be complemented by a shorter HIV-1 RNA template which contains (in 5′ to 3′ order) the U5-R regions of the LTR, the PBS, the uncoding HIV-1 sequence and part of the gag open reading frame (plasmid referred to as pCMV_cpltRU5gag). The latter two sequence elements contain the RNA packaging sequence (ψ). A stably transformed 293T cell line containing a vector expressing the cpltRU5gag RNA has been produced. When the cpltRU5gag RNA is packaged with a nfl HIV-1 RNA, the virus produced supports full reverse transcription and as a result, wild type virus production. This virus can then be used for numerous phenotypic assays described herein. Alternately, other constructs may be used to enhance packaging of a RU5gag RNA with nfl HIV-1 RNA. 
     Optionally, the complementation genome may further include portions or the entirety of the gag and pol genes of HIV-1. Mammalian cells such as 293T cells may be transformed with a vector containing the complementation genome and a vector containing the primary recombinant. A subset of the viral particles produced by the transformed cells will contain both the primary recombinant genome and the complementation genome. Other subsets of viral particles will contain only the primary recombinant genome or only the complementation genome and will not produce active infections. Viral particles containing a primary recombinant genome and a complementation genome are believed to be infectious because of template switching occurring during reverse transcription of the viral genome. Reverse transcription of viral genomic RNA begins at the pbs site, proceeds with reverse transcription through the U5 and R segments and then through template switching described above, reverse transcription will continue with the viral RNA that is complete with the exception of the 5′ LTR. Cells infected in this way will produce viral particles containing full-length recombinant genomes. Such recombinant viruses may then be tested for their relative fitness in general, that is, their efficiency in infecting cells, as well as their susceptibility to various drug therapies. 
     Preliminary quantitations of the short and nfl HIV-1 RNA in the 293 cpltRU5gag  cells transfected with the pREC nfl HIV-1  vector and in the purified virus particles produced from these cells were performed. A delayed expression of the cpltRU5gag RNA, believed to be due to requirement of Tat transactivation, i.e. produced from transcribed pREC nfl HIV-1 , was found. As a result, the virus produced early after pREC nfl HIV-1  transfection was less infectious (homozygous for nfl RNA) than the more heterozygous virus produced later on. Stable 293T cells expressing cpltRU5gag RNA (293 cpltRU5gag  cells) producing Tat under the control of tetracycline and the TetON system (Clontech) have been produced. Upon pREC nfl HIV-1  transient transfection, the virus produced from tetracycline treated 293 cpltRU5gag (+Tat) cells is approximately 100-fold more infectious than that produced from 293 cpltRU5gag . 
     Alternate strategies may be used for the production of this deleted HIV-1 RNA for the complementation of nfl HIV-1 RNA to produce infectious viruses. First, the length of the shorter RNA template may be extended to the end of gag without interfering with the patient pol-env amplicon in the nfl RNA ( FIG. 3 ). The marker in this case would be a destroyed frameshift site at the gag-pol gene interface. HIV-1 has −1 ribosomal frameshift that ensures 50-fold higher levels of gag precursor proteins are translated than the gag-pol precursor. Mutations could be generated in this complementation RNA vector to delete the gag stop codon, delete the stem-loop responsible for the −1 ribosomal frameshift, and finally, delete a short sequence in pol such that a premature stop codon would be introduced. The RNA from this vector would be referred to as cplt_nflΔrbf RNA). Non-infectious virus particle production would result from an infection with a virus particle containing the nfl HIV-1 RNA and the cplt_nflΔrbf RNA but only if template switching of the elongating (−) strand DNA occurred from the nfl HIV-1 RNA to the cplt_nflΔrbf RNA in the patient pol-env region. 
     When the complementing RNA is co-packaged with HIV-1 nfl RNA into virus particles, this heterozygous virus may be infectious for a susceptible cell. As shown in  FIG. 3 , HIV (−) strong stop DNA is initiated from the complementing RNA and then jumps to the R region on the 3′ end of nfl RNA. A second strand switch involving the pbs as a complementary sequence would then permit synthesis of a complete HIV-1 DNA genome for integration. This process would be analogous to the intrastrand model of retroviral reverse transcription. Assuming Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (x 2 +y 2 +2xy) and that packaging of both RNAs are equal, then one half of the virus should be infectious (2xy) whereas the other half would contain either two copies of the complementing RNA or the nfl RNA (x 2  or y 2 ). 
     The recombinants may be utilized in a method for creating an integrated HIV-1 phenotypic/genotypic system for patient management and care. Currently, there are a number of companies that provide HIV-1 drug resistance genotypes and two biotechnology firms that offer phenotypic drug resistance tests. Phenotypic assays are very expensive (˜$1000/assay) and have the potential to double or triple if new classes of ARV are FDA approved. The high costs are related to a labor intensive cloning methods to introduce the PR-RT, env, and IN amplicons into separate HIV-1 vectors. In contrast, this HIV-1 cloning method provided is based on yeast recombination/gap repair which is highly efficient, less labor intensive, and more reliable. This vector can recombine a number of targets within the HIV-1 genome, including a large PR-RT-IN (pol)-env amplicon, which represents all of the drug targeted genes of HIV-1 (both FDA approved ARVs and new classes of inhibitors currently being tested). The HIV-1 vector which accepts the patient pol-env or other amplicon may also contain a firefly luciferase gene or other fluorescent protein, which is then used in tri-infections with two laboratory control strains (i.e. HIV-1 NL4-3 and an NL4-3/BaL env chimera) containing two other biomarker genes (i.e. renilla luciferase and green fluorescent protein, respectively). This tri-infection in the absence or presence of increasing concentrations of ARVs will provide concurrent, internally controlled measures of drug resistance, fitness, and biological phenotype (e.g. CXCR4 vs. CCR5 co-receptor usage). 
     The phenotypic assays may be combined with a new genotypic drug resistance approach. The assays allow the rapid quantification of low levels of drug resistant mutations found in the HIV-1 population within an infected patient. HIV-1 exists as a swarm of clones (or quasispecies) in an HIV-1 infected patient. Single mutations for resistance to a drug pre-exist in a quasispecies even prior to treatment. These single mutations typically dominate the intrapatient HIV-1 population in cases of drug failure and resistance. Virus clones containing these drug resistant mutations fade in the quasispecies following cessation of treatment with that ARV. Nonetheless, they remain an obstacle to the success of any HAART regimen containing that ARV since the drug resistant mutations are found at higher percentages in the quasispecies than in drug naïve patients. A multiplexed oligonucleotide ligation assay (OLA) can quantify the level of specific drug resistant mutations in a quasispecies (as low as 0.1%). This OLA will employ the same amplicon used for the phenotypic assays and the sequencing analyses. A measure of drug resistant mutations in the patient HIV-1 quasispecies is now gaining attention as a clinical tool for monitoring treatment success as well as in choosing the appropriate HAART regimen. 
     In contrast to other prior assays, the assay may employ a fluorescent color system for the drug susceptibility and fitness assays. This may require separately cloning identifiable markers such as the renilla (ren) and firefly (fire) luciferase (luc) genes, red fluorescent protein (dsRED), click beetle green luciferase (CBG), click beetle red luciferase (CBR) and/or the enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) gene into a near full length HIV-1 isolate, either containing or not containing a selectable marker substituted into a region of the HIV-1 genome by yeast recombination as described above. For example, as shown in  FIG. 4 , insertion of a firefly luciferase (fireluc) gene into pREC nfl HIV-1  pol-env/URA3 between the HIV-1 env and nef genes results in pREC nfl HIV-1 fireluc  pol-env/URA3. Insertion of renilla luciferase (renluc) into a vector carrying the NL4-3 genome between the env and nef genes results in pREC nfl HIV-1 renluc  pol-env/URA3. Finally, insertion of EGFP into a hybrid genome of NL4-3/Bal produces pREC nfl HIV-1 EGFP  pol-env/URA3. The latter two constructs act as controls in the following system. 
     Replacing the NL4-3 env gene (CXCR4-utilizing) in the vector pNL4-3 with the env gene of HIV-1 BaL (CCR5-utilizing) (referred to as pNL4-3_BaL env) produces NL4-3_BaL env virus, which utilizes the CCR5 receptor for entry and only infects the U87.CD4.CCR5 cells whereas the NL4-3 only infects U87.CD4.CXCR4 cells. Inducible and constitutively active promoters may drive luciferase/EGFP expression in these constructs. For example, a fluorescent protein gene may be placed under the control of the TetOn responsive element (TRE). As also shown in  FIG. 4 , the fluorescent protein gene may be inserted in either a forward or reverse orientation. Currently, each of the fluorescent protein genes for renluc, fireluc, dsRED, CBG, CBR and eGFP have been inserted into the vectors listed in Table 1, between the env and nef genes. Additionally, renluc, CBG and CBR have been inserted into pREC nfl HIV-1 plasmids. The sequence of pREC nfl HIV-1-renluc is provided as SEQ. ID. NO. 5. The sequence of pREC nfl HIV-1-renluc is provided as SEQ. ID. NO. 5. The sequence of pREC nfl HIV-1-CBG is provided as SEQ. ID. NO. 6. The sequence of pREC nfl HIV-1-CBR is provided as SEQ. ID. NO. 7. These latter plasmids may be subjected to homologous recombination in yeast to replace parts of the HIV-1 genome as provided above. It should be noted also, that in these sequences, the Bam HI restriction endonuclease site at residue 1 corresponds to the BamHI site at residue 7833 of pREC-nfl HIV-1, with the inserted sequence encoding a fluorescent protein being located downstream of the BamHI site, beginning at residue 334. For SEQ. ID. NO. 5, renluc is located between residues 334 and 1269. For SEQ. ID. NO. 6, CBG is located between residues 334 and 1962. For SEQ. ID. NO. 7, CBR is located between residues 334 and 1962. 
     The actual phenotypic drug sensitivity/fitness assays on the patient-derived pol-env HIV-1 fireluc may be performed by adding this virus or the two control viruses (HIV-1 NL4-3  ren luc and HIV-1 NL4-3-Bal env  EGFP) into 96 well plates containing U87 cells created to express CD4 plus CXCR4 mixed with U87 cells created to express CD4 and CCR5. Since EGFP, firefly luciferase, and renilla luciferase emit different wavelengths of fluorescence/light, one can compare the production of the patient-derived pol-env HIV-1 isolate to that of two control strains and calculate a relative fitness value, all in the same well. These dual infections may also be performed in 96 well plates in the presence of all ARVs (in triplicate with eight wells containing 10-fold increasing drug concentrations). Unlike prior assays, the present invention can monitor drug sensitivity in terms of IC50 and IC90 values (concentrations for 50 and 90% inhibition) of the patient-derived virus and control strain in the same well due to the distinct spectrum from three luminescent proteins. This will prevent any inter-assay variations and even provide fitness analyses in the presence of drugs. 
     As mentioned above, an alternative variation may employ an inducible expression system such as the Tet-On transcription control system from ClonTech, as represented in  FIG. 5 . Briefly, the TRE (tet responsive element) is linked to a minimal CMV promoter upstream of a fluorescent protein gene such as ren or fire luc genes and then cloned between env and nef. rTetR would be expressed in the U87.CD4.CCR5 (or CXCR4) target cells where it would bind to the TRE and drives transcription only in the presence of doxycyclin. The Tet-On system has advantages over the Tet-Off system for this vector because TRE would not be occupied by the rTetR in absence of doxycyclin and as a result, transcription initiated from the LTR could read through this element and hopefully, not block normal transcription/translation of viral RNA/proteins. When virus measurements are needed, luciferase expression can be turned on with 1 ug/ml of doxycyclin at days 3-4 post infection. It is important to note that the addition of these fragments into the HIV-1 genome could disrupt numerous processes and reduce infectious potential. It is possible that these luc inserts may further decrease replication efficiency or result in a defective/dead virus. In the latter case, the luc genes may be introduced in place of nef. Previous studies have shown HIV-1 can replicate when the nef gene (prior to overlapping segment with the U3 region) is deleted or replaced with an exogenous gene. It is also envisioned that the TRE-luc or TRE-GFP genetic elements may be placed in the opposite orientation, i.e. in opposite direction of HIV-1 transcription. 
     An example of the assay system is represented in  FIG. 4 . A patient derived pol env gp120 fragment is recombined into a nfl HIV-1 isolate containing a fireluc gene as described above. A renluc containing NL4-3 isolate and a CBR-containing NL4-3/BaL env isolate act as the controls. Each isolate is transfected into 293T cells separately containing the complementation genome. Viable viral particles are produced from each strain and may be quantified by a virtual TCID 50  assay. The virtual TCID 50  assay was developed following the observation that the endogenous reverse transcriptase activity in a virus particle was strong correlate of infectious titer (measured by standard TCID 50  assays). The virtual TCID 50  assays take about 5 hrs to complete or about 1/100 the time of a standard TCID50 assay. The viral particles are then added to U87.CD4.CXCR4 or U87.CD4.CCR5 cells. Luciferase activity and EGFP fluorescent levels will be measured over time (3 days to 12 days). 
     The standard protocol for drug sensitivity assays includes adding one or more ARV at various dilutions into plate wells prior to the addition of cells (2 h incubation) and then the three viruses (two control and one patient-derived). Since the assay measures virus production (or luciferase activity) as a correlate of luc mRNA expression/protein translation originating from integrated HIV-1 DNA, the original virus inoculums can remain in the well. If the Tet-On system is used to drive luciferase/EGFP expression, doxycyclin is added at day 3. With or without the Tet-on system, cells may be lysed at 4-5 days using commercially available Luciferase Assays and read on a plate reader. 
     Because the control NL4-3 ren luc and NL4-3_BaL env CBR viruses have different env sequences, they infect different U87.CD4 cells in the mixture (CXCR4 or CCR5, respectively). The NL4-3_BaL env CBR will be inhibited by increasing concentrations of the CCR5 antagonist drugs and thus, EGFP signal will be reduced. However, the NL4-3 ren luc will not be inhibited by increasing concentrations of the CCR5 antagonist drugs. 
     If the patient-derived HIV-1  NL4-3     —     patient pol-env  fire luc is CCR5 tropic, it will be inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by the CCR5 antagonistic resulting in a loss in firefly luciferase signal. If the patient derived virus is CXCR4 tropic, the signal would not diminish with all CCR5-antagonist concentrations. The opposite of the latter and former scenarios would result in testing sensitivity to a CXCR4 antagonist. Finally, dual tropism could result in a drug sensitivity curve suggesting the lack of complete virus inhibition even at the highest CCR5 antagonist or CXCR4 antagonist concentrations. Alternatively, a dominance of the CXCR4 phenotype (as suggested by preliminary data) would result in a lack of inhibition by CCR5 inhibitors. In all likelihood, a resistant CCR5-antagonist phenotype would be recorded with CXCR4-tropic HIV-1  NL4-3     —     patient pol-env  or with most dual tropic viruses. In contrast, there will likely be some low level infections of U87.CD4.CCR5 cells by dual tropic HIV-1  NL4-3     —     patient pol-env  in the presence of CXCR4 antagonists. 
     The basic principle of this integrated/comprehensive drug sensitivity assay will be to examine the IC 50  values for multiple ARVs including entry inhibitors and to establish simultaneous reference values with the two control viruses. 
     All PIs, NRTIs, NNRTIs and INIs inhibit HIV-1 regardless of co-receptor usage. Since the NL4-3 ren luc and NL4-3_BaL env EGFP viruses both have the same gag-pol genes (i.e. NL4-3), the drug sensitivity of these two viruses to all ARVs (except X4 and R5 antagonists) are the same in both cell lines (.CXCR4 or .CCR5, respectively). When testing sensitivity to T20/Fuseon, the NL4-3 ren luc is intrinsically-resistant whereas NL4-3_BaL env EGFP is sensitive to the drug. 
     Drug sensitivity and IC50/IC90 values are measured by drug dose-dependent inhibition from a maximal virus production. Fitness examines the relative production of each control virus and patient-derived virus in the absence and the presence of drugs. Ex vivo HIV-1 fitness has an impact on disease progression. In addition, patient-derived viruses treated with ARVs or that become resistant to these drugs have a reduced replicative fitness (in the absence of ARVs). In the presence of ARVs, it is obvious that ARV-resistant virus have selected advantage over the drug sensitive virus. Recent studies have suggested that even ARV-resistant viruses cannot achieve maximal replication rates (or comparable to “wild type” viruses in the absence of drugs) because the drug resistant mutations are associated with a fitness cost. In cases where patients harbor multi-drug resistant viruses to all ARVs, there may be an advantage of maintaining the drug resistant mutations in the virus with drug selective pressure (i.e. keep the patient on treatment) because the virus may be debilitated. 
     Prior assays have established a replicative capacity (RC) value to report back to patients/physicians. However, this RC value is limited to the impact of the PR-RT gene on HIV-1 fitness. In addition, the sensitivity and dynamic range of this assay is limited because the patient derived PR-RT virus is not directly competed with the control virus (NL4-3) in a multiple cycle infection. Furthermore, the prior RC assay is a monoassay where there is no internal control, whereas the present invention&#39;s fitness assay involves 2 viruses that compete head-to-head to determine which is more fit. Instead, all control NL4-3 and patient-derived virus replications rates are obtained from separate single-cycle infections. Fitness will be measured relative HIV-1 NL4-3  ren luc production if the patient derived virus is dual tropic or CXCR4-tropic. The maximal levels of EGFP, ren luc, and fire luc activity is based on mono-infections with these viruses. 
       FIG. 6  illustrates the assay system in practice. Panel A shows a HindIII, PstI, and SacI restriction enzyme map of pNL4-3, pREC nfl HIV-1, pREC-LTR2, and pCMV_cpltRU5/tag. Bands correspond with all the predicted cut sites in the plasmid maps. The nfl HIV-1 RNA, transcribed from pREC nfl HIV-1 could then be complemented in 293 cells stably transformed with pCMV_cpltRU5gag/tag (293 cpltRU5gag). The transcribed cpltRU5gag/Tag RNA was easily RT-PCR amplified from the 293 cpltRU5gag cells (Panel B). Upon transfection with pREC nfl HIV-1, virus is produced from 293 or 293 cpltRU5gag cells (Panel C). However, only virus produced from pREC nfl HIV-1 transfected 293 cpltRU5gag cells could infect U87.CD4.CXCR4 cells and not U87.CD4.CCR5 cells (Panel D). This demonstrates that a 5′LTR-deleted HIV-1 RNA genome can be complemented during reverse transcription with a small HIV-1 RNA that gets co-packaged and that can act as template for (−) strand strong stop DNA synthesis. The production of replication competent virus following this complementation was remarkably robust. 
     Organisms other than yeast may also be utilized to provide homologous recombination. For example, the bacterial strains TB10-pyrF287 and TB10ΔpyrF can also be used for recombination of PCR fragments into the pREC nfl HIV-1 plasmids. TB10ΔpyrF strain genotype is nad::Tn10/pλ-Δcro-bro tetr pyrF. TB10ΔpyrF287 strain genotype is nad::Tn10/pλ-Δcro-bro tetr pyrF287. Both strains were derived from TB10 from Tom Bernhardt and Pete DeBoer. These strains express λ bet, gam, and exo for hyper-recombination. Additionally, pyrF is the homolog to URA3. We have deleted and mutated pyrF in TB10-pyrF287 and TB10λpyrF to allow URA3 plasmids to be used for selection. This will allow the same plasmids to be currently used in the yeast system to be used in the bacterial system. 
     Based upon the foregoing disclosure, it should now be apparent that the vectors provided herein will provide a method of screening HIV-1 drug sensitivity. A representation of the method is provided as  FIG. 7 . It is, therefore, to be understood that any variations evident fall within the scope of the claimed invention and thus, the selection of specific component elements can be determined without departing from the spirit of the invention herein disclosed and described.