Abstract:
Methods are disclosed for the sterilization of functioning biological materials, biochemical entities and biologically active molecules and for their preservation for storage at room temperature. Biological contaminants are significantly reduced in titer or eliminated while maintaining preservation of functional integrity of sterilized and stabilized products derived from the present methods. These materials may be mainly structural in function, such as bone, or may demonstrate active molecular function, as in the case of hemoglobin and antibodies. Treatments for stabilizing the sterilized biologics include alteration of material temperature, control of radiation dose rate, optimization of irradiation time, control of oxygen content, the use of stabilizers, specification of pH, inclusion of particular solvents, and alteration of the type of radiation applied. A sterilized and stabilized biological product so treated can be stored at room temperature, thereby making it much more available and easier to use versus, lyophilized, conventional frozen or cold stored biologics.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION  
       [0001]    This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/387,177, filed Jun. 7, 2002, the content of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. 
     
    
     
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
         [0002]    The present invention relates to the general field of biochemistry and medical sciences, and more particularly to the preservation by irradiation of functioning biological materials, biochemical entities, and biologically active molecules, such as, but not limited to, hemoglobin (within and independent of red cells), antibodies, cytokines, blood components including both formed and non-formed elements, proteins and other cellular components, intact human and animal tissues, and materials acting an antigens for testing for sensitivity and for desensitization, and for vaccines.  
           [0003]    Biological materials have been used in a wide range of applications for many years ranging from human and veterinary medical use, diagnostic usage, and in experimental or chemical processes. These materials are often biologically active, meaning that they can perform the same or similar structural, enzymatic, or other molecular functions as they carried out in the organism or plant of origin so that they may be used as diagnostic, preventive, or therapeutic agents. Despite the vast benefits of biological materials, there are risks in using them. These materials can be contaminated with various biological contaminants ranging from viruses to bacteria, etc. These contaminants can cause serious health problems if transmitted to a human or animal. They also have the ability to reduce the efficacy or even destroy the materials that they contaminate.  
           [0004]    There are many techniques for testing and screening biological materials for biological contaminants or pathogens, but these screening procedures have drawbacks. They are not always reliable, can be costly, and can only test for very specific contaminants. It is much more effective to reduce the risk of wide groups of contaminants. A number of techniques have been utilized to reduce the risk of contamination, including heat treatment, chemical solvents, and radiation. Heat treatment has been shown to often adversely affect the biological activity of the product, reducing the product&#39;s efficacy. Chemical solvents, disinfectants, and antibacterial agents have been used to reduce the possibility of contamination, especially the chance of bacterial proliferation after packaging and before use. These solvents and agents can be harmful if they come in contact with humans and often have to be removed from the product prior to use in humans.  
           [0005]    Radiation treatment is another way to sterilize a product. Radiation is extremely effective at reducing a wide range of biological contaminants, especially including bacteria and viruses. The published literature in this area teaches that the technique of radiation sterilization is extremely flexible and that one skilled in the art may manipulate certain criteria to include the type of irradiation utilized, oxygen content, pH, rate of irradiation, temperature, solvents, stabilizers, etc. so as to alter the product&#39;s reaction to the radiation. However, most work heretofore in developing radiation treatment protocols has focused on ways to inactivate contaminants while rendering the biological material mostly unchanged, in both structure and biological function. Such sterilized and stabilized products should be functional, meaning that they can perform the same or similar structural, enzymatic, or other molecular functions as they carried out in the organism or plant of origin so that they may be used as diagnostic, preventive, or therapeutic agents.  
           [0006]    A. Blood and Blood Components  
           [0007]    One deficiency in the prior art is in the preparation of blood and blood components for medical use. A wide variety of injuries and medical procedures require the administration of whole blood or a variety of blood components. Every patient does not require whole blood and, in fact, the presence of all of the blood components can cause medical problems. Separate blood fractions can be stored under those special conditions best suited to assure their biological activity at the time of transfusion. For example, when donor blood is received at a processing center, erythrocytes are separated and stored by various methods. Such cells are storable in citrate-phosphate-dextrose at 4° C. for up to five weeks, generally as a unit of packed erythrocytes having a volume of from 200 to 300 ml and a hematocrit value (expressed as corpuscular volume percent) of about 70 to 90%. Erythrocytes may also be treated with glycerol and then frozen at from −30° to −196° C., and stored for up to seven years in a glycerol solution, but must be kept frozen at low temperatures in order to survive sufficiently for transfusion. Both these methods require careful maintenance of storage temperature to avoid disruption of the desired biological activity of the erythrocytes, and provide a twenty-four hour survival time for at least 70% of the transfused cells, which is considered to be an acceptable level for use in transfusion practice in accordance with the American Association of Blood Bank standards.  
           [0008]    One known method of storing red blood cells has been the freezing (freeze-drying) of red blood cells, since such cells could be stored at room temperature for an extended period of time and easily reconstituted for use in mammals. When RBCs have been lyophilized according to many previous methods, for example, in either an aqueous or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution, the reconstituted cells are damaged to the extent that the cells are not capable of metabolizing, and the cell hemoglobin cannot carry oxygen. Glutaraldehyde-fixed erythrocytes, which have been lyophilized and reconstituted, have found use primarily in agglutination assays.  
           [0009]    It is known that low dose gamma irradiation of blood may be performed to prevent transfusion-associated graft-versus-host disease. Graft versus host disease (GVHD) occurs when donor lymphocytes engraft in a susceptible recipient. These donor lymphocytes proliferate and damage target organs, especially bone marrow, skin, liver, and gastrointestinal tract, which ultimately can be fatal. The disease initially was recognized as a complication of intrauterine transfusion and transfusion to recipients of allogeneic marrow transplant into patients who had received total body irradiation. GVHD also has been seen in other immunologically incompetent patients whose exposure to donor lymphocytes has been from transfusion of cellular blood products or, rarely, a transplanted organ. Finally, the most commonly reported setting for transfusion associated GVHD (TA-GVHD) is immunocompetent recipients of blood from biologically related or HLA identical donors. Products implicated in cases of TA-GVHD include non-irradiated whole blood, packed red blood cells, platelets, granulocytes and fresh non-frozen plasma. Frozen deglycerolized red blood cells, fresh frozen plasma and cryoprecipitate have not been implicated.  
           [0010]    It is to be understood that the term “blood product” as discussed herein may and usually does include whole blood (and fractions thereof), platelets and/or red cells. The term “white blood cells” as used herein is intended to include the general class of leukocytes, including mononuclear cells and neutrophils, lymphocytes, and any other cells found in the blood, above and beyond red cells and platelets. Also, substantially “cell-free” blood products may contain some white cells. At present, gamma irradiation of blood products is the only procedure known to prevent transfusion associated GVHD. The most common irradiation sources are cobalt-60 and cesium-137. Most blood centers rely on a nominal dose of 25 Gy with no less than 15 Gy delivered to any area of the bag for these isotopes to inactivate lymphocytes in cellular products for transfusion.  
           [0011]    One of the many problems that plague the use of blood transfusions is the transmission of agents causing infectious disease. Since pathogenic organisms are found in different fractions of whole blood, risks of post-transfusion diseases vary depending on the blood product or component used. Several products that are prepared for human, veterinary or experimental use may contain unwanted and potentially dangerous contaminants such as viruses, bacteria, yeasts, molds, mycoplasmas and parasites. A number of these infectious agents are of serious clinical importance in that such agents are not only dangerous to the recipient patients, but can also pose a danger to physicians, and other hospital personnel, handling the blood and blood products. Consequently, it is of utmost importance that such products are determined to be contaminant free before they are used. This is especially critical when the product is to be administered directly to a patient for example in blood transfusions, organ transplants and other forms of human therapies.  
           [0012]    B. Antibodies and Biological Molecules Acting as Antigens  
           [0013]    Prior art methods are also deficient regarding preservation of antibodies and biological molecules acting as antigens. Antibodies are now widely used for diagnostic testing. Indeed, many bacteriologic and pathologic diagnoses are rendered by tests depending on the reaction of antibodies with a particular antigen. Such tests include the simple hemagglutination assay used to type blood to the ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay) test. Storage of antibodies at room temperature would permit their ready use in field hospitals, such as those of military campaigns, so that accurate, rapid diagnosis could be accomplished in an area without established laboratory facilities. Presently, the requirement and need for refrigeration greatly complicates the treatment of patients with antibody preparations. Accordingly, production, transport, and storage of such is unduly expensive and frequently cost-prohibitive.  
           [0014]    C. Tissues and Organs for Use in Medical Applications  
           [0015]    At present cold storage is the predominant means of preserving allograft tissues and tissue-derived materials for transplantation. Recently there have been a number of infections tracked to banked bone and tendon. Sterilization with irradiation can prevent transmission of both bacterial and viral pathogens. Furthermore, storage at room temperature after irradiation will greatly simplify the preparation, storage, and use of allograft tissues and their derivatives, including bone, collagen and acellular dermis.  
           [0016]    Previously, most procedures have involved methods that screen or test products formed from biological materials, biochemical entities and biologically active molecules for a particular contaminant rather than removal of the contaminant from the product. Products that test positive for a contaminant are merely not used. Examples of screening procedures include the testing for a particular virus in human blood from blood donors. However, such procedures are not always reliable. This reduces the value or certainty of the test in view of the consequences associated with a false negative result. False negative results can be life threatening in certain cases, for example in the case of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), e.g., when testing for the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Furthermore, in some instances, it can take weeks, if not months, to determine whether or not the product is contaminated.  
           [0017]    More recent efforts have focused on methods to remove or inactivate contaminants in biological materials, biochemical entities and biologically active molecules before their use. Such methods include heat-treatment, filtration, addition of chemical inactivants and treatment with gamma or other radiation. It is well documented that gamma irradiation is effective in destroying viruses and bacteria. In fact, one author concludes that gamma irradiation is the most effective method for reducing or eliminating levels of viruses. Though biological materials have been sterilized by irradiation, the materials have traditionally been stored refrigerated or frozen following processing. Viral inactivation by stringent heat based sterilization is not acceptable since this could also destroy the functional components of the blood, particularly the erythrocytes (red blood cells) and thrombocytes (platelets) and the labile plasma proteins.  
           [0018]    In view of the above, there is a need to provide a method of sterilizing products containing biological materials, biochemical entities and biologically active molecules that is effective in removing biological contaminants while at the same time having no adverse effect on the product. Examples of unwanted biological contaminants include viruses, bacteria, yeasts, molds, mycoplasmas and parasites. It is therefore highly desirable to have a safe and economical method and apparatus that will eradicate pathogenic viruses, microorganisms, or parasites present in human whole blood or blood products before such products are infused into a recipient, hence, infecting the recipient with such disease producing agents. At the same time, properly decontaminated blood will also spare the daily threat of infection to hospital personnel who must handle these body fluids. This need is even more acute in a blood bank where donor blood and blood products are stored and processed. It is equally desirable to have a safe and economical method and apparatus that will eradicate pathogenic viruses, microorganisms or parasites present in biological material human or animal tissues (e.g., skin, bone, fascia, and tendon) before such tissues are introduced or transplanted into a recipient, thereby preventing infection of the recipient with such diseases. Accordingly, the present invention solves these and other needs.  
         SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
         [0019]    Briefly and in general terms, the present invention is directed to preservation by irradiation of biological materials, functioning biochemical entities and biologically active molecules. The present invention further includes methods for preparing products derived from biological materials, biochemical entities, biologically active molecules for storage at ambient or room temperature, specifically without the need for pre-irradiation lyophilization (freeze-drying) or post-irradiation freezing or refrigeration. More particularly, the invention relates to inactivation of potential biological contaminants (e.g., viruses, bacteria, yeasts, molds, mycoplasmas and parasites) of compositions including antibodies, peripheral blood cells (e.g., red blood cells and platelets), plasma protein fractions (e.g., albumin and clotting factors) collected from whole blood (e.g., the blood of virally infected persons), body fluids (including but not limited to, urine, spinal fluids, amniotic fluids, and synovial fluids), ex vivo media used in the preparation of anti-viral vaccines, and cell culture media (e.g., fetal bovine serum and bovine serum) or products derived from such compositions, and solutions of sugars, amino acids, peptides, and lipids for intravenous nutrition. The present invention is further directed to blood based proteins and biologically derived proteins, including, but not limited to monoclonal antibodies, botulinum toxin and plant derived proteins, hemoglobin (within and independent of red cells), antibodies and vaccines. Prior or potential contamination is not a prerequisite for the value of this invention.  
           [0020]    Most work in radiation treatment protocols heretofore has focused on ways to inactivate contaminants while rendering the biological material mostly unchanged, in both structure and biological function. The present invention builds on known radiation treatment protocols and teaches that radiation treatments can be effective at not only sterilizing, but also at preserving the function of the biological materials, biochemical entities and biologically active molecules without the need for overtly controlling the temperature of the sterilized product following irradiation. The unique preservation and treatment methods of the present invention render the sterilized product storable at ambient temperature, while maintaining the efficacy of the product&#39;s biological activity and mechanism of action.  
           [0021]    This is a significant advance for a number of reasons. Most importantly, being able to store the processed material at ambient temperature reduces the risk of damaging the material&#39;s efficacy if handling procedures are not strictly followed. In many parts of the world, even refrigeration remains a luxury. This has a dramatic impact on the public health of these regions as medicines and vaccines are routinely inactivated due to the inability to keep them refrigerated. The ability to supply a vaccine or biological material that is stable at ambient temperatures in the developing world would have a major impact on human health in those regions. Storage at ambient temperatures also would have a major impact in the developed world by saving money on storage and transportation costs, providing a more convenient and easier to use product in many cases, and making production a less expensive process.  
           [0022]    One opportunity for use of the present invention is in the preparation of blood and blood components for medical use. The present invention includes methods of sterilizing and storing a whole blood sample or a fraction of biologically derived proteins or structures including formed elements such as cells and tissues, of either plant or animal origin, so that the risk of transmission of infectious diseases, particularly viral diseases, is substantially reduced or eliminated. The present invention further includes methods of preparing biological materials that are inexpensive and easily available to a large percentage of the medical community. Such methods allow for the preservation of a biological material without the need for refrigeration or other treatment that would result in significant additional expense. In addition, the present invention teaches the sterilization and stabilization of biological proteins, such as sterilization of antibodies and other chemical components of the blood, so that the biological proteins may be stored safely at room temperature and subsequently used with greatly reduced risk of bacterial or specific viral contamination.  
           [0023]    Many functional biological materials may be made in accordance with the method of the present invention. Such sterilized products may be used in a method for prophylaxis or treatment of a condition or disease, such that the biological material may be stored at ambient temperature prior to administering an effective amount of the biological material to a patient. Similarly, sterilized and stabilized products formed from irradiated biological materials, biochemical entities and biologically active molecules may be incorporated into diagnostic test methods and kits and for use as elements in industrial and chemical processes. Likewise, nutritional solutions containing sugars, amino acids, peptides and lipids may be sterilized and prepared for storage at room (ambient) temperature by this method.  
           [0024]    The method of the present invention includes a method of irradiating one or more biological materials, biochemical entities and biologically active molecules so as to preserve its function and permit storing the resulting sterilized and stabilized product at or about ambient temperature. Functional biological materials suitable for use with the present invention include, but are not limited to, blood or a blood component, such as red blood cells, white blood cells, including monocytes, platelets, clotting factors, immunoglobulins, including mono and polyimmunoglobulins. Likewise suitable functional biological materials include, but are not limited to, animal tissue (including those of mammals and other animal phyla), such as cartilage, bone marrow (including bone marrow cell suspensions), whole or processed ligaments, tendons, nerves, bone (including demineralized bone matrix), grafts, joints, femurs, femoral heads, teeth, skin grafts, heart valves, corneas, arteries, veins, lipids, carbohydrates, collagen (including native, afibrillar, atelomeric, soluble, and insoluble, recombinant and transgenic, both native sequence and modified) and organs (including organs for transplantation, such as hearts, livers, lungs, kidneys, intestines, pancreas, limbs and digits).  
           [0025]    Similarly, the present invention may be applied to non-cellular material, such as proteins (including recombinant and transgenic proteins), proteinaceous materials, amino acids, peptides, sugars, lipids, enzymes (including digestive enzymes such as trypsin, chymotrypsin, alpha-glucosidase and iduronodate-2-sulfatase), antigens, marrow, chitin and its derivatives (including NO-carboxy chitosan—NOCC). The sterilization and stabilization aspects of the methods and resulting products of the present invention include irradiating biological materials, biochemical entities and biologically active molecules by subjecting a measured quantity to a calculated amount of radiation so as to be effective to reduce the risks of viral and bacterial contamination and to otherwise sterilize and stabilize the biological material.  
           [0026]    In the present invention the process of irradiation may be conducted at a variety of temperatures, including but not limited to a common range from room temperature down to extremely cold temperatures including those at the temperature of liquid nitrogen. On rare occasions irradiation with simultaneous heating of the target specimen may be advantageous.  
           [0027]    Other features and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the following detailed description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which illustrate, by way of example, the features of the invention. 
       
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0028]    [0028]FIG. 1 depicts a table the characteristic of samples tested.  
         [0029]    [0029]FIG. 2 depicts a chart of Hct vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0030]    [0030]FIG. 3 depicts a chart of pO 2  vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0031]    [0031]FIG. 4 depicts a chart of O 2  SAT vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0032]    [0032]FIG. 5 depicts a chart of FO 2 Hb vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0033]    [0033]FIG. 6 depicts a chart of FMetHb vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0034]    [0034]FIG. 7 depicts a chart of FHHb vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0035]    [0035]FIG. 8 depicts a chart of Na vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0036]    [0036]FIG. 9 depicts a chart of WBC vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0037]    [0037]FIG. 10 depicts a chart of RBC vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0038]    [0038]FIG. 11 depicts a chart of HGB vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0039]    [0039]FIG. 12 depicts a chart of HCT vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0040]    [0040]FIG. 13 depicts a chart of MCV vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0041]    [0041]FIG. 14 depicts a chart of MCH vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0042]    [0042]FIG. 15 depicts a chart of PLT vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0043]    [0043]FIG. 16 depicts a chart of MCHC vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0044]    [0044]FIG. 17 depicts a chart of RDW vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0045]    [0045]FIG. 18 depicts a chart of MPV vs. Mrads with/without Metheylene Blue.  
         [0046]    [0046]FIG. 19 is a photograph of a titer plate depicting an antibody with preservation of biological activity after four weeks from irradiation in accordance with the present invention.  
         [0047]    [0047]FIG. 20 is a photograph of a titer place depicting a Wright stain, of red blood cells after gamma irradiation and storage for four weeks at room temperature.  
         [0048]    [0048]FIG. 21 is a photograph of a portion of a titer plate depicting an antibody with preservation of biological activity after four weeks from irradiation in accordance with the present invention.  
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS  
       [0049]    The present invention relates to methods for sterilizing and preserving biological materials, biochemical entities, and biologically active molecules (biologics) to reduce the level of one or more potential biological contaminants or pathogens therein, such as viruses, bacteria (including intercellular and intracellular bacteria, such as mycoplasmas, ureaplasmas, nanobacteria, chlamydia, rickettsias), yeasts, molds, fungi, single or multicellular parasites, and/or prions or similar agents responsible, alone or in combination, for transmissible spongiform encephalo-pathies (TSE). Current storage methods of such biologics typically involve freeze-drying the biologics before sterilization and/or refrigerating the product after sterilization and before transfusion or use in a human body. Certain methods previously disclosed make use of ionizing radiation, but such methods use additional additives and solutions in conjunction with the radiation. For example, some studies have focused on eliminating leukocytes and have generally used low doses of irradiation incapable of effectively inactivating viral burdens in the cells and plasma. There is also no mention in the prior art literature of the ability to store red blood cells at room temperature following irradiation. Our process does not require these additional solutions. Numerous studies show that red blood cells are not destroyed by the dose needed to inactivate known pathogenic viruses. Therefore, the invention is a simpler way to preserve and sterilize blood before transfusion and a way to make it safer for the recipient.  
         [0050]    This invention allows for an easier method of preservation and storage of red blood cells while improving the safety of the material after irradiation. The prior art makes no mention of storage of red blood cells at ambient (e.g., room) temperature after irradiation. The prior art also incorporates additional solutions during the irradiation process. It may be beneficial to add a solution that offsets the leakage of potassium from the red blood cells, such as a buffer with or without a potassium-binding agent. The solution may also include additional glucose in the blood bag to supply the red blood cells with additional energy sources. Simply irradiating red blood cells in the proper solution environment within their basic storage bags is suitable for eliminating many known pathogens and allowing the red blood cells to be stored at room temperature.  
         [0051]    I. Contaminants  
         [0052]    As used herein, the term “biological contaminant or pathogen” is intended to mean a contaminant or pathogen (alone or in combination) that, upon direct or indirect contact with a biological material, may have a deleterious effect on the biological material or upon a recipient thereof. Such biological contaminants or pathogens include various viruses, bacteria (including intercellular and intracellular bacteria, such as mycoplasmas, ureaplasmas, nanobacteria, chlamydia, rickettsias), yeasts, molds, fungi, single or multicellular parasites, prions, agents responsible for TSE, and other agents known to those of skill in the art to be found in or to infect biological materials, biochemical entities and biologically active molecules. Further examples of biological contaminants or pathogens include, but are not limited to, the following: viruses (such as human immunodeficiency viruses and other retroviruses), herpes viruses, filoviruses, circoviruses, paramyxoviruses, cytomegoloviruses, hepatitis viruses (including hepatitis A, B, and C and other variants thereof), pox viruses, toga viruses, Epstein-Barr viruses and parvoviruses; bacteria (including mycoplasmsa, ureaplasmas, nanobacteria, chlamydia, rickettsias), such as Escherichia, Bacillus, Campylobacter, Streptococcus and Staphylococcus; parasites, such as Trypanosoma and malarial parasites, including Plasmodium species; yeasts; molds; and prions, or similar agents, responsible alone or in combination for TSE, such as scrapie, kuru, BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), CJD (Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease), Gerstmann-Straeussler-Scheinkler syndrome, and fatal familial insomnia. As used herein, the term “active biological contaminant or pathogen” is intended to mean a biological contaminant or pathogen that is capable of causing a deleterious effect, either alone or in combination with another factor, such as a second biological contaminant or pathogen or a native protein (wild-type or mutant) or antibody, in the biological material and/or a recipient thereof.  
         [0053]    II. Biologics  
         [0054]    A. Biological Materials  
         [0055]    As used herein, the term “biological material” is intended to mean any substance derived or obtained from a living organism. Illustrative examples of biological materials include, but are not limited to, cells, tissues, blood, blood components, proteins (including recombinant proteins, transgenic proteins and proteinaceous materials), amino acids, peptides (including all natural and synthetic peptides), sugars, lipids, enzymes, including digestive enzymes (such as trypsin, chymotrypsin, alpha-glucosidase and iduronodate-2-sulfatase) immunoglobulins (including monoglobulins and polyimmunoglobulins), botanicals and food. Preferred examples of biological materials include, but are not limited to, ligaments, tendons, nerves, bone (including demineralized bone matrix, grafts, joints, femurs and femoral heads), bone marrow (including bone marrow cell suspensions, whole or processed), teeth, skin grafts, heart valves, cartilage, corneas, arteries, veins, organs (including organs for transplantation, such as hearts, livers, lungs, kidneys, intestines, pancreas), limbs, digits, lipids, carbohydrates, collagen (including native, afibrillar, atelomeric, soluble and insoluble, recombinant and transgenic, both native sequence and modified), enzymes, chitin and its derivatives (including NO-carboxy chitosan “NOCC”), stem cells, islet of Langerhans cells and other cells for transplantation (including genetically altered cells), red blood cells, white blood cells (including monocytes) and platelets.  
         [0056]    1. Blood  
         [0057]    What has been needed, and heretofore unavailable, is a rapid and safe means of sterilizing blood, blood components and blood products for transfusion while preserving vital function of the formed elements and proteins of the transfusion. Radiation provides not only a means of producing transfusion components of increased safety but it also permits the storage of previously frozen or refrigerated blood components and whole blood at room temperature. Such products and methods of making them will prove to be of great benefit by making the blood supply and the supply of blood components safer and more readily available by virtue of storage at room temperature. It is also anticipated that the shelf life of irradiated blood and blood products will far exceed that of refrigerated blood. Currently about twenty percent of blood transfusion units outdate before transfusion. An increased shelf life will allow use of these outdated units that are wasted at present. This extension of shelf life will therefore have the effect of increasing the blood supply, another salutary effect of the introduction of this new technology.  
         [0058]    The present invention is directed to the treatment of tissue to remove biological contaminants, and more particularly to the sterilization and storage of blood and blood components. Moreover, the present invention is directed to the storage of red blood cells at room temperature following irradiation. This invention will permit the transport and storage of banked blood at room temperature.  
         [0059]    As used herein, the term “blood components” is intended to mean one or more of the components that may be separated from whole blood and include, but are not limited to, cellular blood components (such as red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets), blood proteins (such as blood clotting factors, enzymes, albumin, plasminogen, fibrinogen, and immunoglobulins) and liquid blood components (such as plasma, plasma protein fraction “PPF”, cryoprecipitate, plasma fractions, and plasma-containing compositions). As used herein, the term “liquid blood component” is intended to mean one or more of the fluid, non-cellular components of whole blood, such as plasma (the fluid, non-cellular portion of the whole blood of humans or animals as found prior to coagulation) and serum (the fluid, non-cellular portion of the whole blood of humans or animals as found after coagulation).  
         [0060]    As used herein, the term “cellular blood component” is intended to mean one or more of the components of whole blood that comprises cells, such as red blood cells, white blood cells, stem cells, and platelets. Viable red blood cells can be characterized by one or more of the following: capability of synthesizing ATP; cell morphology; P 50  values; oxyhemoglobin, methemoglobin and hemichrome values; MCV, MCH, and MCHC values; cell enzyme activity; and in vivo survival. Thus, if lyophilized then reconstituted and virally inactivated cells are damaged to the extent that the cells are not capable of metabolizing or synthesizing ATP, or the cell circulation is compromised, then their utility in transfusion medicine is compromised. Conversely, irradiated red cells may still perform biochemical functions without the need for nucleic acid synthetic activity. Unlike most other mammalian cells, red cells are unique in not having a nucleus and therefore they represent more resistant targets in that protein elements may still function after irradiation since they are much smaller that the DNA of the cell and therefore less likely to be inactivated by the incident radiation of a sterilizing beam.  
         [0061]    As used herein, the term “blood protein” is intended to mean one or more of the proteins that are normally found in whole blood. Illustrative examples of blood proteins found in animals include, but are not limited to, coagulation proteins both vitamin K-dependent (such as Factor VII and Factor IX) and non-vitamin K-dependent (such as Factor VIII and von Willebrands factor), albumin, lipoproteins (HDL), low density lipoproteins (LDL), very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), complement proteins globulins (such as imunoglobulins IgA, IgM, IgG and IgE). A preferred group of blood proteins includes Factor I (fibrinogen), Factor II (prothrombin), Factor III (tissue factor), Factor V (proaccelerin), Factor VI (accelerin), Factor VII (proconvertin, serum prothrombin conversion), Factor VIII (antihemophiliac factor A), Factor IX (antihemophiliac factor B), Factor X (Stuart-Prower factor), Factor XI (plasma thromboplastin antecedent), Factor XII (Hageman factor), Factor XIII (protransglutamidase), von Willebrands factor (vWF), Factor Ia, Factor IIa, Factor IIIa, Factor Va, Factor VIa, Factor VIIa, Factor VIIIa, Factor IXa, Factor Xa, Factor XIa, Factor XIIa, and Factor XIIIa. Another preferred group of blood proteins includes proteins found inside red blood cells (such as hemoglobin), various growth factors, and derivatives of such proteins.  
         [0062]    Plasma and serum (the fluid phase after a clot has formed) are components of blood. Numerous proteins and other factors are present and of value in a wide range of medical applications. Antibodies are present in plasma and serum. These may be used in many applications in treating patients (as in the case of gamma globulin, pooled antibodies) and in research. The method of preservation of red blood cells detailed here also applies to the preparation of antibodies and other proteins in that such isolates may be irradiated for the purposes of sterilization and to permit storage at room temperature. This will be of great use in medical settings and in laboratory research. This technology can be applied to antibodies prepared from human blood or from the blood of other animals or from tissue culture fluids from cell cultures producing antibodies. This technology can also be used to prepare sterile viral vaccines for storage at room temperature, thereby greatly simplifying the distribution and administration of vaccines. Additionally red blood cells can be treated and stored at room temperature for use in hemagglutination blood typing tests.  
         [0063]    2. Blood Bags  
         [0064]    Suitable materials for manufacturing bags and other containers for sterilized and stabilized biological materials, biochemical entities and biologically active molecules include, but are not limited to silicones, plastics, and foils. For example, collapsible, oxygen permeable, silicone bags are suitable for storing irradiated biologics, such as sterilized and stabilized blood products. The use of such bags could be important in converting methemoglobin formed during irradiation to oxyhemoglobin prior to transfusion. An oxygen rich environment could also help make the irradiation more effective at a lower total dose of radiation. Flexible, collapsible bags made of poly(ethylene-vinyl acetate) (E.V.A.) plastic are commercially available from Fenwal Division of Baxter Travenol Laboratories, Inc. of Deerfield, Ill.  
         [0065]    Red blood cells are often washed to decrease the number of leukocytes in the blood. Leukocytes can elicit an immune response from the recipient of the blood. Due to the risk of bacterial contamination of the blood, these washing processes decrease the shelf life for red blood cells to twenty-four hours. Resealing the bag used to store the blood and irradiating it would greatly lengthen the shelf life. Current standards for shelf-life following irradiation are twenty-eight days from the time of irradiation or the original expiration date on the unit, whichever comes first. This would greatly extend the shelf life of the washed red blood cells.  
         [0066]    B. Biochemical Entities  
         [0067]    The present invention is directed to preservation by irradiation of functioning biochemical entities and biologically active molecules, such as, but not limited to, hemoglobin (within and independent of red cells), antibodies, peptides (both natural and synthetic), vaccines and other antigens. More particularly, the invention relates to inactivation of potential biological contaminants (e.g., viruses, bacteria, yeast, molds, mycoplasmas and parasites) of compositions comprising antibodies, peripheral blood cells (e.g., red blood cells and platelets), plasma protein fractions (e.g., albumin and clotting factors) collected from whole blood (e.g., the blood of virally infected persons), body fluids (including but not limited to, urine, spinal fluids, amniotic fluids, and synovial fluids), ex vivo media used in the preparation of anti-viral vaccines, and cell culture media (e.g., fetal bovine serum and bovine serum) or products derived from such compositions. The present invention further includes methods for preparing whole blood products for storage at room temperature. The present invention is further directed to blood based proteins and biologically derived proteins, including, but not limited to, botulinum toxin and plant derived proteins.  
         [0068]    In other embodiments of the present invention, antibodies, clotting factors, growth factors, and other biologically derived proteins, including whole viruses or portions thereof, may be preserved with the irradiation techniques described above for blood and blood components. High dose gamma irradiation will inactivate bacteria and viruses and allow the irradiated materials to be stored at room temperature. This can provide greater availability of biological preparations of vital importance, such as polio vaccine which now must be refrigerated, a barrier to use in such needful areas as Central Africa where there are few facilities with a refrigerator able to store vaccines requiring cold storage.  
         [0069]    C. Biologically Active Molecules  
         [0070]    As used herein, the term “proteinaceous material” is intended to mean any material derived or obtained from a living organism that comprises at least one protein or peptide. A proteinaceous material may be a naturally occurring material, either in its native state or following processing/purification and/or derivatization, or an artificially produced material, produced by chemical synthesis or recombinant/transgenic technology and, optionally, process/purified and/or derivatized. Illustrative examples of proteinaceous materials include, but are not limited to, proteins and peptides produced from cell culture, milk and other diary products; ascites; hormones; growth factors; materials extracted or isolated from animal tissue or plant matter (including pharmaceuticals such as insulin); plasma and plasma protein fraction (including fresh, frozen and freeze-dried); fibrinogen and derivatives thereof (such as fibrin, fibrin I, fibrin II, soluble fibrin, fibrin monomer and fibrin sealant products); whole blood; protein C; protein S; alpha-1 anti-trypsin (alpha-1 protease inhibitor); butyl-cholinesterase; anticoagulants; streptokinase; tissue plasminogen activator (tPA); erythropoietin (EPO); urokinase; NEUPOGEN (Filgrastim, a granulocyte stimulating factor); anti-thrombin-3; alpha-galactosidase; iduraonate-2-sulfatase; (fetal) bovine serum/horse serum; meat; immunoglobulins (including anti-sera, monoclonal antibodies, polyclonal antibodies and genetically engineered or produced antibodies); albumin; alpha-globulins; beta-globulins; gamma-globulins; coagulation proteins; complement proteins; and interferons.  
         [0071]    III. Radiation  
         [0072]    As used herein, the term “sterilize” is intended to mean a reduction in the level of at least one active or potentially active biological contaminant or pathogen found in the biological material being treated according to the present invention. As used herein, the term “radiation” is intended to mean radiation of sufficient energy to sterilize at least some component of the irradiated biological material. Types of radiation include, but are not limited to, corpuscular (streams of subatomic particles—such as neutrons, electrons and protons); electromagnetic (originating in a varying electromagnetic field—such as radio waves, visible light—both monochromatic and polychromatic, invisible light, infrared, ultraviolet radiation, x-radiation, gamma rays and mixtures thereof); sound waves and pressure waves. Such radiation is often described as either ionizing radiation (capable of producing ions in irradiated materials)—such as gamma rays), and non-ionizing radiation—such as visible light. The sources of such radiation may vary and, in general, the selection of a specific source of radiation is not critical provided that sufficient radiation is given in an appropriate time and at an appropriate rate to effect sterilization. In practice, gamma radiation is usually produced by isotopes of cobalt or cesium, while UV and X-rays are produced by machines that emit UV and X-radiation, respectively. Electrons are often used to sterilize materials in a method known as “e-beam” irradiation that involves their production via a machine. Visible light, both monochromatic and polychromatic, is produced by machines and may, in practice, be combined with invisible light, such as infrared and UV, that is produced by the same machine or a different machine.  
         [0073]    It is known in the art to sterilize a biological material that is sensitive to radiation by irradiating the biological material with radiation for a time effective to sterilize the biological material at a rate effective to sterilize the biological material and to protect the biological material from radiation. See U.S. Publ. No. 2003/0012687 A1 (Macphee et al.), Ser. No. 09/973,958, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,xxx,xxx, the content of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. The present invention, however, builds on such prior art disclosures and describes the first known use of gamma irradiation to sterilize and prepare biologically active molecules, such as a whole blood sample, for use as a biological agent that may be stored at ambient temperature. Because of the risk of the transmission of infectious diseases such as HIV, hepatitis, and other viral diseases, the use of a safe, effective and inexpensive method has become apparent. The only apparent factors limiting the usefulness of this technique are the availability of suitable biologically active molecules (such as blood, blood components, biological proteins, vaccines, viruses and other antigens) and a Cobalt-60 source, or other source of suitable radiation. The low cost of the method of the present invention and the fact that the biologically active molecules are virus-free, and specifically HIV-free, will make this a most attractive means of preparing such biologically active molecules for use in a variety of patients with various needs. Because the process according to the present invention can be often carried out at ambient temperature without requiring the cooling, freezing or chemical treatment of the product containing biologically active molecules before the process is carried out, some of the extra treatment steps that are present in prior art processes are avoided.  
         [0074]    By one method of the present invention, gamma radiation is delivered over an extended period of time so as to substantially reduce the damage to the product containing biologically active molecules. Typically, irradiation is carried out for a period of time of not less than ten hours, preferably from about twenty to about forty hours, more preferably from about twenty to about thirty hours. The rate of irradiation is in the range of from about 0.5 kGy/hr to about 3.0 kGy/hr, depending on the product to be sterilized as well as the length of the irradiation time. The total amount of irradiation given is typically in the range of from about twenty to about thirty-two kGy, as these levels have been shown to be effective in reducing levels of contaminants such as viruses. Radiation dose delivery as high as 4.0 kGy/min for a time as low as five minutes and higher may be employed for sterilization of biological products with preservation of function and subsequent storage at room temperature.  
         [0075]    Preservation by gamma irradiation of biologically active molecules (such as whole blood, blood components, biological proteins and viral entities) has many advantages and makes use of such biologically active molecules a possibility in areas where it is not currently available, such as small hospitals, doctors&#39; offices, and developing countries of the world. The preparation of irradiated whole blood is inexpensive and simple to perform, requiring only basic materials and access to a Cobalt-60 source. Irradiated whole blood can be stored on the shelf at room temperature and does not require liquid nitrogen or low temperature freezer storage. Application of irradiated whole blood requires no thawing, washing or rehydration, as found with other methods of whole blood preservation.  
         [0076]    In one method of the present invention, the product containing biologically active molecules may be irradiated in a form containing preferably less than twenty-percent solids. Consequently, certain products may be diluted before irradiation. Treating products in diluted form may also serve to reduce degradation of the product during irradiation. The choice of diluent depends on the nature of the product to be irradiated. For example, when irradiating blood cells one would choose a physiologically acceptable diluent such as citrate phosphate dextrose.  
         [0077]    The method of the present invention is useful in treating organic products that are sensitive to irradiation. Such products may be prone to degradation when irradiated by standard methods. However, irradiating sensitive products by the present method would not be expected to be harmful to the products. The method is typically applied to biological products such as blood and blood components, although it is not limited thereto. In cases where living cells (such as blood cells) are to be irradiated, a scavenger may be added to bind free radicals and other materials that are toxic to cells. Suitable scavengers include, but are not limited to, antioxidants, free-radical scavengers, and ligands that stabilize molecules.  
         [0078]    Other aspects of the present invention can be practiced by irradiating samples of biologically active molecules for a period of time sufficient to provide a sterilizing dose of radiation. Accordingly, such dosage is calculated using ordinary and usual parameters of dosimetry. Irradiation dosages, sufficient to effect sterilization, are known in the art. Rinsing is not obligatory to practice the invention.  
         [0079]    One example of a protocol including the dosage of gamma radiation and time to deliver the dose for irradiation of red blood cells includes:  
         [0080]    (i) The dose of irradiation delivered should be 2500 cGy targeted to the central portion of the container and the minimum dose should be 1500 cGy at any other point;  
         [0081]    (ii) The time required to deliver the dose should be based on the radiation intensity of the source. The decay of the source should be calculated according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. FDA currently recommends re-calibration of the source annually for Cesium-137 and semi-annually for Cobalt-60. The procedure for calculating decay, included in the operator&#39;s manual for the irradiator, may be referenced in the standard operating procedure (SOP);  
         [0082]    (iii) The SOP should indicate the maximum number of units of blood or blood components that can be irradiated at one time. This is a batch and may be dictated by the device manufacturer&#39;s procedure and based on the firm&#39;s validation data; and  
         [0083]    (iv) At no time should the total irradiation dose exceed 5000 cGy to any portion of the container.  
         [0084]    As an alternative, blood can be exposed to doses of radiation on the order of 30.0 kGy to sterilize the blood of bacteria, viruses, and other potential pathogens, with subsequent storage at room temperature.  
       EXAMPLES  
       [0085]    FIGS.  1 - 21  summarize the experimental data carried out on whole blood using one embodiment of the method of the present invention. Referring now to Table I, blood from a blood bank was irradiated with gamma rays for a total exposure of 30 kGy. The blood was recovered in a USP anticoagulant citrate phosphate dextrose adenine solution (CPDA-1) blood-pack unit (Baxter Healthcare Corporation, Deerfield, Ill.). It was stored at 4° C. for one week after expiration before irradiation. The table lists several characteristics of the blood before and after irradiation. It is noted that the pO 2 , HbO 2 , and O 2  Saturation are significantly reduced after irradiation. The MetHb (methemoglobin) reflecting oxidation of the iron atoms in the hemoglobin is markedly increased. This finding presented a need for finding a way to reduce these changes so that irradiated blood would be more able to readily carry oxygen after transfusion.  
         [0086]    Experimental results demonstrating the effects of irradiation of whole blood in accordance with the present invention can be found in FIG. 1. The protocol for the experimental that generated this data was as follows: Freshly drawn whole blood anticoagulated with EDTA in five milliliter (ml) evacuated tubes was irradiated at room temperature with gamma irradiation in doses varying from zero to fifty kGy in ten kGy steps. One half of the number of tubes served as controls to paired tubes to which 0.01 ml of methylene blue one percent solution (ten mg/ml) was added. Before analysis, oxygen gas was briefly bubbled through the tubes containing the methylene blue to test whether oxyhemoglobin could be formed in high concentration. After irradiation, the blood samples were analyzed in a hospital hematology laboratory using the standard machines of that facility. A number of the results are depicted in FIGS.  2 - 21 .  
         [0087]    Referring now to FIG. 2, the experiment demonstrates the maintenance of hematocrit after gamma irradiation of whole blood pursuant to the teachings of the present invention. Methylene blue was added as 0.01 ml of a one percent (ten mg/ml) solution per five ml sample tube equivalent to the pharmacologic dose of one to two mg/kg used for treating methemoglobinemia in a patient. As shown in FIG. 3, the partial pressure curve for oxygen showing that after irradiation with methylene blue and exposure to oxygen, there is a higher pO 2  in the sample tubes. Referring now to FIG. 4, the experimental data demonstrates a uniformly high (approaching one hundred percent) saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen in the methylene blue treated irradiated specimens. The saturations at two and three Mrads for the tubes without methylene blue are thought to be due to oxygenation occurring when the blood was agitated in preparation for testing. This demonstrates that methylene blue treated irradiated blood exposed to oxygen can bind the gas. The fraction of hemoglobin bound with oxygen does decrease with increasing radiation dosage, as shown in FIG. 5.  
         [0088]    Referring now to FIG. 6, the experiment demonstrates that increasing radiation dose does correlate with increasing methemoglobin content. The MetHb levels for the tubes without methylene blue are unexpectedly low based on other observations, including those of Table I above. Similarly and as shown in FIG. 7, the fraction of hemolysed free hemoglobin is much higher in the tubes without added methylene blue. In addition, sodium concentration in the blood sample tubes demonstrates a relative hyponatremia. Control and methylene blue containing samples show similar values (FIG. 8). Likewise and as shown in FIGS. 9 &amp; 10, white blood cell count and red cell number is not significantly affected by irradiation or presence of methylene blue.  
         [0089]    Referring now to FIG. 11, the experiment data shows that hemoglobin content as gm % is affected by irradiation. This is thought to reflect an artifact resulting from radiation-induced change. Others have reported macrocytosis post radiation with increased hematocrit as seen in some samples here (FIG. 12). As shown in FIG. 13, mean corpuscular volume seems to increase with irradiation, as others have noted. FIGS. 14 and 16 show mean corpuscular hemoglobin and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration as measured in an experiment conducted in accordance with the present invention. The data also shows that red cell distribution width (FIG. 17) is not dramatically different with the exception of one point that may represent a systematic error of some sort. The data also demonstrates a rise in platelet count (FIG. 15), perhaps as a result of hemoconcentration; whereas, mean platelet volume does not change dramatically under the experimental conditions (FIG. 18).  
         [0090]    Samples from the irradiated unit of whole blood were examined under the microscope with appropriate hematologic staining and intact red cells were visualized after 30.0 kGys of gamma radiation (FIG. 20). Biochemical analysis revealed methemoglobinemia reversible with standard techniques utilized in medical practice. It appears that the addition of methylene blue and oxygen exposure may be beneficial to convert the iron in the hemoglobin from the oxidized Fe+++ state to the Fe++ state normally present in functioning hemoglobin. Furthermore, a silicone blood bag may help with this conversion by allowing the diffusion of oxygen into the blood and onto the Fe++ atoms before transfusion. As shown in FIG. 20, red blood cells maintained discoid morphology depicted by a Wright stain of red blood cells from a unit of blood collected in a citrate phosphate dextrose adenine (CPDA) blood bag irradiated with 30 kGy and then stored for approximately four weeks at room temperature before study.  
         [0091]    In FIGS. 19 and 21, a demonstration of the ability of anti-A antibody to agglutinate Group A red blood cells is shown. For this experiment, anti-A antiserum was divided into two aliquots. One was stored in the refrigerator; the other was irradiated with 30.0 kGys of gamma radiation and stored at room temperature for one month at room temperature. In this experiment, the ability of the two antisera to agglutinate Group A cells was tested with a serial 1:2 dilution of antibody in physiologic saline in round bottom wells containing Group A cells. The titer of the refrigerated antibody was 1:80 and the titer of the irradiated antibody stored at room temperature was 1:40. The halo of unagglutinated cells is not clearly visible in the black and white reproduction shown in FIGS. 19 and 21.  
         [0092]    In one embodiment of the present invention, whole blood from an HIV and hepatitis negative donor may be obtained at the hour of its becoming outdated. Such HIV infected blood may be kept cooled to 4° C. and irradiated with 30 kGy of gamma irradiation. It may then be shipped and stored at room temperature for an extended period of time.  
         [0093]    While particular forms of the invention have been illustrated and described, it will also be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. More specifically, it should be clear that the present invention is not limited to the preservation of the specifically recited biological materials, biochemical entities and biologically active molecules, but also applies to the preservation of many suitable biologics not specifically named. Likewise, the invention is not limited to any particular medical device structure capable of performing the disclosed inventive methods and products. Accordingly, it is not intended that the invention be limited, except as by the appended claims.