Abstract:
The present invention relates to testing structures or bodies to determine if they contain defects. The defects may be, for example, cracks, delamination etc. Conventional non-destructive testing exploits the non-linearities of such defects. The non-linearities produce intermodulation products in the form of side-bands of an excitation signal. The amplitudes of the side-bands are used to provide an indication of the structural health of the body. However, it has been found that such methods of testing bodies suffer from the vagaries of the environment, temperature and transducer manufacturing tolerances etc. This can lead to inaccurate test results. Suitably, embodiments of the present invention provide a method of determining the structural health of a body; the method comprising the steps of identifying at least one phase characteristic of a signal represented by first data, the first data being, or having been, derived from the body while bearing at least a guided wave, produced in response to application of a first excitation signal to the body, and a second excitation signal; and providing a measure of the structural health of the body using the at least one phase characteristic. More accurate testing can be performed that is independent of at least some of the above-mentioned vagaries by basing the assessment of the structural body on defect induced phase modulation.

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION  
       [0001]     The present invention relates to structural health monitoring.  
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
       [0002]     Non-destructive testing of structural bodies involves launching waves into, for example, an aircraft wing and measuring the resultant waves. Recently, non-linear non-destructive testing has exploited the non-linear effects that defects in a body under test produce. In particular, second harmonic generation and modulation have been used to assess the distortion of ultrasonic probing signals and vibration signals induced by such defects. The presence of a defect is detected by measuring second harmonics generated by the non-linear distortion of sinusoidal acoustic or vibration signals due to defects in the body. More recently, vibro-acoustic modulation non-destructive testing techniques have been developed in which relatively advanced modulation methods have been used to identify structural defects from the non-linear interaction between an ultrasonic probing signal and vibration in the presence of a defect. The non-linear effect manifests itself as side-band components in the spectrum of the detected signal. The side-bands appear either side of the fundamental frequency of the probing signal. The side-bands provide a valuable insight into the structural well being or otherwise of the body under test.  
         [0003]     However, these techniques suffer from a number of fundamental problems. A fundamental problem with vibro-acoustic testing is the sensitivity of the damage detection. The modulation experienced using relatively low frequency waves is only evident in the presence of relatively large defects. When ultrasonic waves are used, although the sensitivity is improved, current signal processing techniques are not sufficiently sophisticated to take advantage of this improvement. Furthermore, the results of using, for example, guided waves in Structural Health Monitoring (SHM), are known to vary with variations in environmental effects. For example, testing a body on a cold day may lead to different results as compared to testing the same body on a much warmer day. The results can also be influenced by the transducers used for testing and, more particularly, by the quality of the acoustic coupling between the transducers used for launching and detecting the probing signal or Lamb waves. Clearly, these variations in the accuracy of any non-destructive test method are undesirable, at best, and, at worst, may lead to a body being certified as structurally sound when that body is, in fact, structurally unsound.  
         [0004]     It is an object of the embodiments of the present invention at least to mitigate some of the problems of the prior art.  
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
       [0005]     Accordingly, a first aspect of embodiments of the present invention provides a method of determining the structural health of a body; the method comprising the steps of identifying at least one phase characteristic of a signal represented by first data, the first data being, or having been, derived from the body while bearing at least a guided wave, produced in response to application of a first excitation signal, and a second excitation, and providing a measure of the structural health of the body using the at least one phase characteristic.  
         [0006]     Preferred embodiments provide a method in which the step of identifying the phase characteristic comprises the step of calculating a phase modulation of the first data using  
           ϕ   ⁡     (   t   )       =     arctan   ⁢           ⁢         x   ^     ⁡     (   t   )         x   ⁡     (   t   )             ,       
 
 where {circumflex over (x)}(t) is the Hilbert transform of the signal represented by the first data and x(t) is the signal represented by the first data. 
 
         [0007]     Preferably, embodiments provide a method in which the step of providing the measure of structural health comprises the step of determining the amplitude of the phase modulation.  
         [0008]     Alternatively, or additionally, embodiments are provided in which the step of determining the amplitude of the phase modulation comprises the step of determining the maximum amplitude of the phase modulation.  
         [0009]     Preferably, embodiments provide a method in which the step of identifying comprises the steps of taking the Fourier transform of the first data and applying the convolution theorem which gives 
 
 F[{circumflex over (x)} ( t )]= {circumflex over (X)} ( f )= X ( f ){− j sgn ( f )}, 
 
 where sgn(f) is the signum function defined as  
         sgn   ⁡     (   f   )       =     {                 1   ⁢           ⁢   for   ⁢           ⁢   f     ≥   0     ⁢                         -   1     ⁢           ⁢   for   ⁢           ⁢   f     &lt;   0     ⁢               ,           
 
 where f is frequency. 
 
         [0010]     It has been found that exploiting the phase characteristics of the detected signal provides a method of testing that is independent of variations in environmental conditions and transducer coupling quality or transducer characteristics. Furthermore, the sensitivity of the embodiments of the present invention to damage is improved as compared to the above-described prior art ultra-sonic techniques.  
         [0011]     Accordingly, a further aspect of embodiments of the present invention provides a method for testing a body; the method comprising the steps of comparing first data, derived from the body in response to a first excitation signal launched into the body to produce a first guided wave within the body, with second data, derived from the body while bearing a second guided wave produced by a second excitation signal, to identify the phase difference between the first and second data; and providing an indication of the structural health of the body using the phase difference. Preferably, the first and second excitation signals are substantially identical.  
         [0012]     Embodiments also provide a method in which the step of identifying comprises the step of comparing the first data with further data, representing a previously determined response of the body to bearing a previous guided wave in response to a previous excitation signal having been launched into the body, to identify a phase difference between the first and second data; and in which the at least one phase characteristic comprises the phase difference.  
         [0013]     Further embodiments can be realised in which the testing of a body is undertaken using, firstly, guided waves in the presence of the second excitation signal, that is, for example, the low-frequency excitation signal, and, secondly, using only guided waves without the second excitation signal. In the absence of any damage in the body under test, the results of the above should be substantially similar. In the presence of damage, the results should be different. Suitably, embodiments provide a method of determining the structural health of a body; the method comprising the steps of comparing first data derived from a body while bearing at least a guided wave, produced in response to application of a first excitation signal to the body, and a second excitation signal with second data derived from the body while bearing at least a guided wave, produced in response to application of the first excitation signal to the body in the absence of the second excitation signal; and deriving a measure of damage from the comparison of the first and second data.  
         [0014]     The embodiments of the present invention advantageously allow improved structural integrity monitoring, that is, one skilled in the art can have greater confidence in the results of any structural integrity monitoring as compared to the prior art. 
     
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0015]     Embodiments of the present invention will now be described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings in which:  
         [0016]      FIG. 1  illustrates a system for non-destructive testing of a body;  
         [0017]      FIG. 2  depicts a graph of an excitation signal according to an embodiment; and  
         [0018]      FIG. 3  shows a graph of a sampled signal from which the presence of defects in a body can be detected. 
     
    
     DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS  
       [0019]     Referring to  FIG. 1 , there is shown a system  100  for non-destructive testing of a body  102 . The system  100  comprises a pair of piezo-electric transducers  104  and  106 . The first transducer  104  is used to couple an excitation signal  108  to the body  102 . The dimensions of the body  102  and the characteristics of the excitation signal  108  are such that resonant modes of the transducers are stimulated to produce guided waves  110  that propagate within the body. In preferred embodiments, the guided-waves are Lamb waves. The mode of stimulation is such that either anti-symmetrical or symmetrical Lamb waves modes are produced. The second transducer  106  is arranged to detect the guided-waves  110 . The guided waves  110  cause the second transducer to produce an electrical signal  112 . The electrical signal  112  is sampled using a data acquisition system  118  and the data samples are stored within a computer  116 .  
         [0020]     In the embodiment shown in  FIG. 1 , the excitation signal  108 , used to actuate the first transducer  104 , is also sampled by the data acquisition system  118 . The sampled excitation signal and the sampled guided wave are stored within the computer  116  for later processing.  
         [0021]     The first  104  and second  106  transducers are positioned on a surface of the body  102  to be tested. Due to the spaced-apart nature of the transducers, the portion of the body  102  between the transducers is under test. The first transducer  104  is arranged to produce guided waves  110  within the body  102  that propagate between the transducers. This arrangement has the advantage that the guided waves  110  are influenced by any defects between the two transducers.  
         [0022]     In preferred embodiments, the excitation signal  108  comprises at least one of impulse signals, sine waves, that is, a sine burst of a limited number of cycles, and signals with or without an envelope. In preferred embodiments, the excitation signal  108  also comprises a relatively low frequency excitation, which is substantially continuous or an impact or impulse signal.  
         [0023]     Preferably, the first transducer  104  is used to launch a guided wave via an impulse excitation or sine burst signal with or without an envelope. The second transducer is used to launch a vibration signal, preferably, in the form of a continuous-wave low-frequency signal or impact excitation. The vibration signal should preferably exist within the structure when the guided wave encounters the defect.  
         [0024]     It will be appreciated that the frequency of the excitation signal and the transducers selected to induce and detect the guided waves will depend upon the characteristics of the material from which the body under test is fabricated and the dimensions and shape of the body under test.  
         [0025]     Preferred embodiments use two excitation signals or an excitation signal having at least two frequency components. The first signal or component, such as excitation signal  108 , is a relatively high frequency signal. For example, the first signal or component may have a frequency in the range of 30 kHz to 10 MHz. The frequency of the first signal or component is selected so that S 0  or A 0  Lamb wave modes are induced. Alternatively, or additionally, the excitation signal might be selected to be as close as possible to a resonant mode of the first transducer. Selecting the excitation signal to be as close as possible to the resonant mode of the first transducer has the advantage that the amplitude of the excitation signal can be reduced as compared to prior art techniques. The first excitation signal is fed to the first transducer  104 .  
         [0026]     The second signal or component  108 ′ has a relatively low frequency. The frequency of the second signal or component  108 ′ may be selected to be in the region of a modal frequency, preferably, the first modal frequency, of the body  102  to be analysed. The second signal or component  108 ′ may have a frequency component in the range of 1 Hz to 10 kHz.  
         [0027]     Preferred embodiments produce guided waves within the body under test by applying high  108  and low  108 ′ frequency signals to respective transducers. For example, the first transducer  104  may be used to carry the relatively high frequency component excitation signal  108  while a third transducer  104 ′ is used to carry the relatively low frequency component excitation signal  108 ′.  
         [0028]     However, alternative embodiments launch a single excitation wave, having two frequency components, into the body under test, using a single transducer to carry both frequency components, rather than launching two excitation waves into the body using respective transducers.  
         [0029]     In preferred embodiments, the sampling frequency of the transducer for detecting the guided waves is higher than the frequency, or highest frequency component, of the relatively high frequency signal or component. The sampling frequency should preferably be sufficiently high to obtain an acceptable level of resolution in the time domain. Preferably, the sampling frequency is at least  20  times higher than the maximum frequency or frequency component of the first excitation signal.  
         [0030]     It can be appreciated that the preferred embodiments use a combination of high frequency acousto-ultrasonic signals and low frequency vibrations.  
         [0031]     Having sampled the guided wave and, in some embodiments, the excitation signal or signals, the data are analysed, in the time domain, to identify any phase modulation that can be attributed to damage or defects within the body. If the high frequency acousto-ultrasonic wave has been phase modulated due to a defect, the sampled guided wave has corresponding phase characteristics. For example, the sampled guided wave may lag behind the excitation signal by a phase angle.  
         [0032]     According to an embodiment, a damage index, D, is defined as 
 
 D= 1 −R (τ i ),   (1) 
 
 where R(τ i ) is the cross-correlation function between the reference or excitation signal, x ref (t), and the sampled guided signal, x(t), for a given time-shift or lag of τ i . The cross-correlation is given by  
                 R   ⁡     (   τ   )       =       ∑     i   =   1     N     ⁢         x   ref     ⁡     (   t   )       ⁢     x   ⁡     (     t   +   τ     )             ,           (   2   )             
 
 where N is the number of data samples. 
 
         [0033]     The cross-correlation between the reference signal, x ref (t), and the sampled guided wave signal, x(t), provides an indication of the phase difference between the two signals, that is, an indication of the phase modulation attributable to the damage within the structure. The reference signal may be either the excitation signal, or at least the high frequency component thereof, or previously gathered data of the response of the body bearing a guided wave produced in response to application of an earlier test signal to the body.  
         [0034]     In the embodiment in which the reference signal is the excitation signal, typically the excitation signal will need to be extended since, in some instances, the excitation signal has a relatively short-duration.  
         [0035]     In a further embodiment, which uses a Hilbert transform method, the phase modulation is obtained from the acousto-ultrasonic signal, x(t), that is, the sampled guided wave, as  
                 ϕ   ⁡     (   t   )       =     arctan   ⁢           ⁢         x   ^     ⁡     (   t   )         x   ⁡     (   t   )             ,           (   3   )             
 
 where {circumflex over (x)}(t) is the Hilbert transform of x(t). The Hilbert transform of x(t), given in convolution form, is  
               H   ⁡     [     x   ⁡     (   t   )       ]       =         x   ^     ⁡     (   t   )       =       1   π     ⁢     x   ⁡     (   t   )       *       1   t     .                 (   4   )             
 
         [0036]     The Hilbert transform may be calculated using the Fourier transform. Taking the Fourier transform of equation (4) and applying the convolution theorem gives 
 
 F[{circumflex over (x)} ( t )]= {circumflex over (X)} ( f )= X ( f ){− j sgn ( f )},   (5) 
 
 where sgn(f) is the signum function defined as  
               sgn   ⁡     (   f   )       =     {                 1   ⁢           ⁢   for   ⁢           ⁢   f     ≥   0     ⁢                         -   1     ⁢           ⁢   for   ⁢           ⁢   f     &lt;   0     ⁢               ,     where   ⁢           ⁢   f   ⁢           ⁢   is   ⁢           ⁢   frequency                 (   6   )             
 
         [0037]     The {circumflex over (X)} signal in equation (5) is the signal X(f) having had its phase shifted by π/2 for negative frequency components and −π/2 for positive frequency components. Therefore, the Hilbert transform, {circumflex over (x)}(t), for x(t) can readily be obtained by taking the Fourier transform, X(f), of x(t); shifting the phase of the Fourier transform according to equation (5) and calculating the inverse Fourier transform, which gives {circumflex over (x)}(t), which can then be used in equation (3) to calculate the phase of x(t). The intensity of the variation in the phase of x(t) provides an indication of the damage of the structure.  
         [0038]     Alternative embodiments can be realised in which the phase modulation is calculated from the Fourier transform, X(f), of x(t) as follows.  
                   X   a     ⁡     (   f   )       =         X   ⁡     (   f   )       +     j   ⁢           ⁢       X   ^     ⁡     (   f   )           =       X   ⁡     (   f   )       +       sgn   ⁡     (   f   )       ⁢     X   ⁡     (   f   )               ,     
     ⁢     =     {             0   ⁢           ⁢   if   ⁢           ⁢   f     &lt;   0                   X   ⁡     (   f   )       ⁢           ⁢   if   ⁢           ⁢   f     =   0                 2   ⁢     X   ⁡     (   f   )       ⁢           ⁢   if   ⁢           ⁢   f     &gt;   0                       (   7   )             
 
         [0039]     The inverse Fourier transform of the spectrum of the analytic signal, X a (f), will have real and imaginary components related by the Hilbert transform and the phase of the analytic signal, x a (t), is given by equation (3) above, that is, the phase of the analytic signal is the instantaneous phase of the signal x(t) given by equation (3). As indicated above, the variation, or modulation, in the instantaneous phase of the sampled signal x(t) provides an indication of the damage of the structure under test.  
         [0040]     Once the phase modulation has been established, a damage index, D, can be defined, for some embodiments, as  
               D   =       A   ψ       A   m         ,           (   8   )             
 
 where A Ψ  is the amplitude of the phase modulation process, that is, the instantaneous phase of the vibro-acousto-ultrasonic response or signal  110  and A m  is the maximum amplitude of the signal  110 . 
 
         [0041]     It has been found that the damage index, D, can be normalised according to the severity of damage. At least for metallic structures, the logarithm of D, defined by equation (1) above, follows a crack propagation curve and can be correlated with a stress intensity factor, ΔK, as follows  
                   ⅆ   D       ⅆ   n       =         C   D     ⁡     (     Δ   ⁢           ⁢   K     )         m   D         ,           (   9   )             
 
 where n is the number of fatigue cycles and C and m are constants for a given material. It can be appreciated that if the subscript D is replaced by L, which represents crack length, the Paris-Erdogan equation follows, which is  
                 ⅆ   L       ⅆ   n       =           C   L     ⁡     (     Δ   ⁢           ⁢   K     )         m   L       .             (   10   )             
 
         [0042]     It can be appreciated from the above that a graph of damage index would be parallel to a crack propagation curve. Therefore, m D  and m L  are substantially identical in the above equations. C D  and C L  may be correlated to obtain the crack length, L, from the damage index D. Therefore, providing one skilled in the art can measure, that is, observe a crack, the crack length can also be determined using the damage index, D. Furthermore, a damage prognosis based on D may utilise fatigue analysis theory.  
         [0043]     Using embodiments of the present invention, cracks having a length of between 0.5 mm and 1 mm, at a depth of 0.2 mm to 2 mm, have been detected in plates of 750 mm×300 mm×2 mm. Embodiments of the present invention have been realised using two piezoceramic transducers, which were Sonox P5&#39;s having a 0.25 inch diameter and a 0.01 inch thickness. They were located at a distance of approximately 45 mm from a crack and arranged such that the growing crack was between the transducers. The excitation signal was a five-cycle burst sine wave having a frequency of 410 kHz and an amplitude of 5V. The low frequency excitation signal was a 100 Hz sine wave induced by a GW Type V4 Shaker and a GW power amplifier. Both excitation signals were generated using a TTi TGA 1230 Arbitrary Waveform Generator. A LeCroy oscilloscope was used to capture the data at a sampling frequency of 25 MHz.  
         [0044]     The above embodiments have been described with reference to the use of piezo-ceramic transducers. These transducers have the advantage that they can be integrated into the structures to be analysed and used as both actuators and sensors. However, other transducers may equally well be used. For example, classical wedge-webs may be used to launch the Lamb waves. Optical transducers can be used to detect the response of the body to the presence of the Lamb waves.  
         [0045]     Referring to  FIG. 2 , there is shown a graph  200  of an HF excitation signal, or at least an HF component thereof, according to an embodiment. The excitation signal is a burst sine wave.  FIG. 3  shows a graph  300  of the output of the second transducer  106 , which is arranged to detect the guided waves. It can be appreciated, in the embodiments shown, that the excitation signal has a significantly shorter duration as compared to the guided wave. It is for this reason that the excitation signal may need to be extended in duration if it is to be used as a reference signal.  
         [0046]     Although some of the above embodiments have been described with reference to a damage index defined as D=1−R(τ i ), embodiments are not limited to such an arrangement. Embodiments can be realised in which other damage indices can also be realised such as, for example, D=1−R, D=1/R, D=R or a power of R according to whether or not one wished the damage index to increase or decrease with the severity of the damage.  
         [0047]     Although the above embodiments have been described with reference to the Hilbert transform and correlation function, embodiments are not limited to such a transform. Other embodiments can be realised in which a wavelet-based procedure is used. Such a wavelet-based procedure is described in, for example, W. J. Staszewski,  Wavelets for Mechanical and Structural Damage Identification,  Studia i Materialy, Monograph No. 510/1469/2000, Polish Academy of Sciences Press, Gdansk, 2000, which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. Alternatively, or additionally, one skilled in the art may use the procedures described in, for example, C. Cempel, W. J. Staszewski, 1992, Signal Demodulation Techniques in Vibroacoustical Diagnostics of Machinery, Machine Dynamics Problems, Vol. 4, pp. 161-173, which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. Other embodiments using signal demodulation procedures can be realised in which, for example, a wavelet-based procedure is used.  
         [0048]     Although the above embodiments have been described with reference to the use of two transducers, embodiments of the present invention are not limited thereto. Embodiments can be realised in which a number of transducers are used. The transducers may be distributed in a predetermined manner, relative to the first or excitation transducer, across a surface of a body. Since the spatial relationship between the transducers is known in advance, this can be taken into account when implementing embodiments of the present invention.  
         [0049]     While the excitation signals in the above embodiments have been chosen to excite A 0  or S 0  mode guided waves, the present invention is not limited thereto. Embodiments can equally well be realised in which the excitation signal is chosen based on the resonant characteristics of the transducers. Selecting the excitation signal based on the resonant characteristics of the transducers has the advantage that, at least for some transducers, the electro-mechanical coupling is improved as compared to using those transducers to produce S 0  or A 0  waves. Preferred embodiments select the transducers and excitation signals such that the S 0  or A 0  modes are produced at frequencies that are close to the resonant modes of the transducers.  
         [0050]     Furthermore, the modes of the Lamb waves used in embodiments of the present invention are not limited to being either S 0  or A 0  modes. A combination of these modes could equally well be used. Still further, higher order guided wave modes could be used either jointly or severally with the other above-described modes. The embodiments of the present invention have the advantage over classical methods, which are limited to S 0  or A 0  modes, that they are still effective in the presence of mode conversion, which will inevitably happen in complex structures given the boundary conditions.  
         [0051]     Embodiments can be realised in which the reference signal is derived from the body before it has been commissioned and the signal resulting from the guided waves is compared with that previously derived reference signal. It can be appreciated that this is in contrast to the above embodiments in which the reference signal and the signal derived from the resulting guided waves are produced substantially concurrently.  
         [0052]     Further embodiments can be realised in which the testing of a body is undertaken using, firstly, guided waves in the presence of the second excitation signal, that is, for example, the low-frequency excitation signal, and, secondly, using only guided waves without the second excitation signal. In the absence of any damage in the body under test, the results of the above should be substantially similar. In the presence of damage, the results should be different.  
         [0053]     Although the above embodiments have been described with reference to the application of a relatively low frequency signal via a transducer, embodiments are not limited to such an arrangement. Embodiments can be realised in which the second excitation signal takes the form of inherent, natural, loading experienced by the body in use or in the form of applied mechanical loading.  
         [0054]     Furthermore, The above embodiments have been realised using phase modulation (demodulation). However, embodiments can be realised using frequency modulation (demodulation) by noting the relationship between phase and frequency given below in equation (11),  
             ψ   =       1     2   ⁢   π       ⁢       ⅆ   ϕ       ⅆ   t                 (   11   )             
 
 where phase t is frequency, φ is phase and t is time variable as indicated above. Therefore, frequency modulation (demodulation), shift, delay, and difference are equivalent to phase modulation (demodulation), shift, delay, and difference. 
 
         [0055]     The reader&#39;s attention is directed to all papers and documents which are filed concurrently with or previous to this specification in connection with this application and which are open to public inspection with this specification, and the contents of all such papers and documents are incorporated herein by reference.  
         [0056]     All of the features disclosed in this specification (including any accompanying claims, abstract and drawings) and/or all of the steps of any method or process so disclosed, may be combined in any combination, except combinations where at least some of such features and/or steps are mutually exclusive.  
         [0057]     Each feature disclosed in this specification (including any accompanying claims, abstract and drawings) might be replaced by alternative features serving the same, equivalent or similar purpose, unless expressly stated otherwise. Thus, unless expressly stated otherwise, each feature disclosed is one example only of a generic series of equivalent or similar features.  
         [0058]     The invention is not restricted to the details of any foregoing embodiments. The invention extends to any novel one, or any novel combination, of the features disclosed in this specification (including any accompanying claims, abstract and drawings), or to any novel one, or any novel combination, of the steps of any method or process so disclosed.