Abstract:
An electric field activated fuel cell. Electrodes have sharp tips and are subjected to electric fields to generate ions. Ion conductive media may include polar solvents, liquid electrolytes, solid electrolytes and nonpolar solvent with phase transfer catalysts. Charge leaks preferentially from sharp electrode surface tips. Ionized fluid atoms and molecules migrate across the ion conductive media, leading to reaction completion and newly formed products.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 61/652,858, filed May 30, 2012 and Ser. No. 61/724,880, filed Nov. 11, 2012. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Prior Art 
       [0002]    The following is a tabulation of some prior art that presently appears relevant: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 US Patents Issue 
                   
               
               
                 Patent Number 
                 Kind Code 
                 Date/Pub date 
                 Patentee 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 2,004,352 
                   
                 1935 Jun. 11 
                 Simon 
               
               
                 3,612,923 
                 A 
                 1971 Oct. 12 
                 Collier Edward L 
               
               
                 3,755,704 
                   
                 1973 Aug. 28 
                 Spindt et al. 
               
               
                 5,213,911 
                 A 
                 1993 May 25 
                 Bloom et al. 
               
               
                 6,468,684 
                 B1 
                 2002 Oct. 22 
                 Chisholm et al. 
               
               
                 6,713,206 
                 B2 
                 2004 Mar. 30 
                 Markoski et al. 
               
               
                 7,588,694 
                 B1 
                 2009 Sep. 15 
                 Robert W Bradshaw 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Douglas A. 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Brosseau 
               
               
                 GB667298 
                   
                 1950 Sep. 05 
                 Bacon, F. T. 
               
               
                 2010/0227120 
                 A1 
                 2010 Sep. 09 
                 Haile et al. 
               
               
                 EP20000102641 
                 B1 
                 2000 Feb. 8 
                 Hiroki Fujita 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0003]    Fuel cells offer hope in a world of diminishing hydrocarbon resources. Many fuel cells operate at efficiencies as high as 60%. This contrasts with the internal combustion engine in an automobile, which typically operates at 20-25% efficiency. In comparison with piston engines, fuel cells also have lower emissions, and longer periods of steady operation with fewer maintenance requirements. Unfortunately, all fuel cells suffer from problems that have prevented wider adoption of the technology. These problems are related to the material requirements of the design. Most fuel cells need specific material components to operate. This is especially true of the parts of the fuel cell where chemical reactions are taking place and where ions flow. These names for these parts of the fuel cell are the anode, cathode and electrolyte. 
         [0004]    In the anode, electrons are separated from the fuel. The fuel acquires a positive charge. These electrons travel through a wire to the load, where they perform work. After the load the electrons travel to the cathode. In the cathode, the electrons ionize oxygen. Oxygen acquires a negative charge. The ions are allowed to cross an electrolyte, in order to react. At the end of the reaction, the fluid fuel and oxygen have been converted to exhaust. These exhaust fluids are usually water and/or carbon dioxide. 
         [0005]    Anode, cathode and electrolyte are general terms that are used for a variety of applications. Often, the anode and cathode are ordinary metal conductors, and operate quite simply as a source and sink of electrical current. However in a fuel cell, the anode and cathode may have additional responsibilities. In addition to current conduction, the anode and cathode are responsible for activating the fuel and oxygen. This activation includes ionization of the fuel and oxygen. The electrolyte then conducts these ions to meet and react. The anode, cathode and electrolyte need to activate the chemical species, catalyze a phase transition and complete a joined chemical reaction. Also, exhaust is vented. Hence, the functions of the anode, cathode and electrolyte include: chemical activation, ionization, conduction of ions, reaction completion, and ultimately exhaust. 
         [0006]    In most fuel cell designs, the anode, cathode and electrolyte perform these functions over a short distance. Thickness leads to resistance losses, so fuel cell designers generally keep the components thin to reduce these losses. Yet, even though the layers may be very thin, they usually are of complex composition. For example, the location where oxygen is reduced in the cathode is called the triple phase boundary. This is the location where the electrolyte, gas, and electrically connected catalyst particles all meet. This mixture of materials is a solid, but the anode and cathode also need to be highly porous. While permitting reactant fluids to enter, they also need to allow exhaust gases to exit. To achieve the triple phase boundary, many fuels cell employ a dispersion of metal catalyst in the porous structures. Others use selected concentrations of metal oxides and/or a specific, stabilized, chemical phase of a solid in order to function correctly. Support materials are included as scaffolding or simply to hold the parts together. The three components, anode, electrolyte, and cathode, need to match. They should work together at the same temperature, and catalyze the same joined chemical reactions. Hence, the selection of materials for the anode, electrolyte and cathode is difficult, and the fabrication of these components is complicated. 
         [0007]    Fuel cells differ according to the type of electrolyte. The simplest type of electrolyte is a polar solvent with dissolved salts. In battery and fuel cell applications, the function of an electrolyte is to conduct ions. In addition to liquid electrolytes, a wide group of materials are now known to conduct ions. These include, solid electrolytes, ion conductive membranes, ionic liquids, and even nonpolar solvents infused with phase transfer catalysts. Despite this wealth of types and phases of ion conductive media, only a few select electrolytes are used in fuel cell applications. 
         [0008]    The Bacon cell is the name for the alkaline hydrogen cell. The electrolyte of the Bacon cell is usually aqueous potassium hydroxide. At the boundary between cathode and electrolyte, oxygen reacts with water to form hydroxide ions. These hydroxide ions migrate through the electrolyte to the anode. At the boundary between the anode and the electrolyte, hydrogen ions react with the hydroxide to form water. In the Bacon cell, hydroxide is the ion carried by the electrolyte. 
         [0009]    Unfortunately, the Bacon cell needs pure oxygen to operate for long periods of time. Otherwise, if exposed to air, the electrolyte reacts with carbon dioxide to form insoluble potassium carbonate. The potassium carbonate plugs the electrolyte and eventually stops the operation of the fuel cell. Pure oxygen is expensive to produce. The Bacon cell also uses hydrogen fuel. Hydrogen fuel is more expensive to produce than gasoline, diesel and oil. Thus the Bacon cell suffers from expensive oxygen, hydrogen, and a difficult electrolyte that is easily clogged. These problems have prevented the Bacon cell from being widely adopted. 
         [0010]    Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells are similar to the Bacon cell in that they consume oxygen and hydrogen. Although they may use an air cathode as a source of oxygen without clogging, the PEM fuel cells still have many problems. The electrolyte in the PEM fuel cell is Nafion. Nafion is an electrolyte that conducts hydrogen ions well, when properly moistened. Maintaining the correct moisture level in the Nafion becomes difficult as the fuel cell heats up. Nafion is also expensive. The PEM fuel cell uses platinum metal in the anode and cathode. Platinum is a scarce metal and is very expensive. No substitute for platinum has been found. Thus the PEM fuel cell has three expensive components: Nafion, hydrogen, and platinum. The expensive material costs and high fuel costs have prevented the PEM fuel cell from being widely adopted. 
         [0011]    New materials have been developed for the hydrogen fuel cell. Chisholm (U.S. Pat. No. 6,468,684) introduced a family of electrolytes called solid acids. A candidate material, cesium dihydrogen phosphate (CsH 2 PO 4 ) electrolyte, conducts hydrogen ions. CsH 2 PO 4  is a solid above 100 degrees Celsius, and conducts hydrogen at moderate temperatures. In contrast to the PEM fuel cell, the CsH 2 PO 4  fuel cell has a cheaper electrolyte, and reduced water management problems. Haile et al (US Pub #:2010/0227120) have even lowered electrode resistance losses. However, the solid acid fuel cell is still dependent on platinum catalyst, and expensive hydrogen fuel. These problems have prevented the solid acid fuel cell from being widely adopted. 
         [0012]    The solid oxide fuel cell uses a different electrolyte. The most common electrolyte is a ceramic material, yttria stabilized zirconia. Yttria stabilized zirconia conducts oxygen ions. Conductivity is low, until high temperatures are reached. The operating temperature is often greater than 800 degrees Celsius. Lengthy startup periods are needed to reach these high temperatures. The high temperatures also increase the use of expensive, thermally resistant materials to insulate and support the fuel cell. The anode, cathode and interconnect material need to thermally expand at a similar rate as the electrolyte, or they will fracture and separate with thermal cycling. Hence the materials used for the cathode and anode are restricted, because these materials need similar thermal expansion characteristics. The anode is commonly made of nickel with yttria stabilized zirconia—a cermet. The cathode is usually made of lanthanum strontium manganite. Cermet and ceramics often require a difficult sintering process during manufacture. In addition to these problems, solid oxide fuel cells suffer from sulfur poisoning and coking in the anode. The fuel may need processing prior to entering the fuel cell. All of these problems have limited solid oxide fuel cells to stationary applications. 
         [0013]    Newer materials have been researched in an attempt to lower operating temperatures. Bloom et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 5,213,911) introduced a Bismuth Aluminum oxide electrolyte (Bi 2 Al 4 O 9 ) which conducts oxygen at a lower temperature (600° C. to 800° C.). A variety of electrolyte materials are being considered. Examples include: LaGaO 3 , copper-doped bismuth vanadium oxide (BICUVOX), Ba 2 In 2 O 5 , calcia doped lanthanum germanium oxides, rare earth doped ceria, etc. Bismuth-containing electrolytes provide the lowest operating temperatures, however tests have shown them to be unstable. High temperatures are still required for all the electrolytes. None of these electrolytes have made significant headway in replacing yttria-stabilized zirconia. 
         [0014]    Molten carbonate fuel cells use a molten carbonate salt electrolyte. Just as with the solid oxide fuel cell, the molten carbonate fuel cell operates at high temperatures. These high temperatures necessitate the use of expensive, thermally resistant materials to insulate and support the fuel cell. The high temperatures also cause lengthy startup times. However, the molten carbonate fuel cell has an additional problem. The high temperatures coupled with a corrosive electrolyte accelerate corrosion of the components. Corrosion issues, long startup times, and expensive, temperature resistant materials have restricted the molten carbonate fuel cell to stationary applications. 
         [0015]    This review of fuel cell types have revealed many problems in the prior art. All of these fuel cells suffer from one or more of the following problems. 
         [0000]    (a) The electrolyte becomes clogged with alkali carbonates.
 
(b) The electrolyte is expensive and suffers from the need of careful moisture maintenance.
 
(c) The anode and cathode require scarce and expensive catalyst metals.
 
(d) The fuel cell uses expensive hydrogen to operate.
 
(e) The fuel cell has lengthy startup times.
 
(f) High temperatures are required for chemical activation, and the fuel cell design uses expensive, temperature resistant materials (refractory ceramic, cermets, and metals)
 
(g) The anode is poisoned by sulfur in the fuel and suffers flow restrictions due to coking.
 
(h) Fuel treatment is necessary, prior to fuel entering cell.
 
(i) The choice of anode, cathode, electrolyte, and interconnect materials are restricted, in that they need to be carefully matched. They need to have nearly identical thermal expansion rates, and they need to catalyze a joined chemical reaction.
 
(j) High temperatures and a corrosive electrolyte cause accelerated corrosion of the fuel cell components.
 
       SUMMARY 
       [0016]    The cathode, anode, and electrolyte, perform many functions. These include chemical activation, ionization, conduction of ions, and completion of the reaction. One or more aspects introduce processes of activation and ionization and conduction. These processes are new to fuel cell applications. These processes augment or serve as an alternative to prior art methods. 
       Advantages 
       [0017]    Accordingly, one advantage of one or more aspects includes a new method and structures for ion generation and chemical activation. High temperatures are not required. In addition, the anode and cathode achieve ionization without the use of expensive electrocatalytic metals. Additional advantages of one or more aspects include methods of chemical activation that are not limited to hydrogen fuel, and may be applied to other fuel sources such as ammonia, and hydrocarbon fuels. Additional aspects of one or more aspects include a much wider choice of materials for anode, cathode and electrolyte. The anode cathode and polar solvent/electrolyte materials may be chosen independently of one another and they do not need to have similar rates of thermal expansion. Other advantages will be apparent from a consideration of the drawings and ensuing description. 
     
    
     
       DRAWINGS 
       Figures 
         [0018]    In the drawings, related figures have the same number but different alphabetic suffixes. 
           [0019]      FIG. 1A  shows a single sharp-tipped electrode immersed in an electric field provided by insulated capacitor plates above and below. 
           [0020]      FIG. 1B  shows an assembly of two electrodes as illustrated in  FIG. 1A , with adjoining layers of polar solvent/electrolyte. 
           [0021]      FIG. 1C  shows a schematic electrical circuit connection to the electrically conductive components shown in  FIG. 1B . 
           [0022]      FIG. 2A  shows an orthogonal view of an electrode array 
           [0023]      FIG. 2B  shows a perspective view of the array shown in  FIG. 2A . 
           [0024]      FIG. 2C  shows an exploded orthogonal view of cathode array, anode array, and intermediate ion conductive layers. 
           [0025]      FIG. 2D  shows an exploded perspective view of  FIG. 2C . 
           [0026]      FIG. 2E  shows a schematic electrical circuit connection to the electrically conductive components of  FIGS. 2A-2D   
           [0027]      FIG. 3A  shows two electrode arrays bracketed by fluid flow and tip plates 
           [0028]      FIG. 3B  shows a schematic electrical connection to the electrically conductive components of  FIG. 3A   
           [0029]      FIG. 4A  shows an assembly of conductive plates, dielectric, and fluid, functioning as an ion conductive media. 
       
    
    
     REFERENCE NUMERALS 
       [0000]    
       
           100  electrically insulting dielectric 
           102  tip plate 
           104  fluid media 
           106  electrode tip 
           108  electrode 
           110  electrode base 
           112  base plate 
           120  cathode base plate 
           122  cathode 
           124  cathode tip 
           126  ion conductive media diffused with oxidant. 
           128  cathode tip plate 
           130  ion conductive media 
           132  anode tip plate 
           134  ion conductive media diffused with fuel 
           136  anode tip 
           138  anode 
           140  anode base plate 
           150  switch 
           152  capacitor 
           154  voltage/power supply 
           156  load 
           200  electrically insulting dielectric 
           202  tip plate 
           206  wedge electrode tip 
           208  electrode 
           210  wedge electrode base 
           212  base plate 
           220  cathode base plate 
           222  cathode 
           224  cathode tip 
           226  ion conductive media diffused with oxidant. 
           228  cathode tip plate 
           230  ion conductive media 
           232  anode tip plate 
           234  ion conductive media diffused with fuel 
           236  anode tip 
           238  anode 
           240  anode base plate 
           242  cathode array 
           244  anode array 
           300  electrically insulating dielectric 
           301  cathode fluid flow 
           303  anode fluid flow 
           322  cathode 
           324  cathode tip 
           328  cathode tip plate 
           330  ion conductive media/electrolyte 
           332  anode tip plate 
           336  anode tip 
           338  anode 
           332  anode tip plate 
           400  electrically insulated dielectric 
           402  electrolyte countercharge plate 
           404  ion conductive fluid/polar solvent 
           407  pore 
           422  cathode 
           438  anode 
       
     
       DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0088]      FIG. 1A  shows a sectioned electrode  108  with a flat curved base  110 , and a sharp tip  106 . The electrode is surrounded by electrically insulating dielectric  100 . The electrode  108  is sandwiched above by a circular capacitor plate  102 , and below by a flat capacitor plate  112 . The tip plate  102  and the base plate  112  are both surrounded by electrically insulating dielectric  100 . The electrode and the base capacitor plate are separated from the tip plate by fluid  104 . The tip of the electrode  106  is the only electrically conductive material that is in contact with the fluid  104 . 
         [0089]      FIG. 1B  shows an images of two sectioned electrodes as first introduced in  FIG. 1A , including sandwiching insulated plates. The cathode  122  is surrounded by electrically insulating dielectric  100  except for the cathode tip  124  that is exposed to the oxidant fluid interfacial layer  126 . The cathode tip plate  128  is surrounded by dielectric  100 . The cathode base plate  120 , is surrounded by electrically insulating dielectric  100 . The anode  138 , is surrounded by electrically insulating dielectric, except for the anode tip  136  that is exposed to the reducing fluid interfacial layer  134 . The anode tip plate  132  is surrounded by electrically insulated dielectric  100 . The anode base plate  140  is surrounded by electrically insulated dielectric  100 . The anode and cathode tips plates are separated by an ion conductive media  130 . 
         [0090]    The spacing of the components shown in  FIG. 1B  is intended to be flexible. In  FIG. 1B  the electrodes and insulated plates have been lined up to simplify the operational description. However, a variation in the spacing is acceptable, so long as the anode and cathode may be exposed to an electric field. A different geometry is introduced in  FIGS. 2A-2E . 
         [0091]      FIG. 1C  shows a schematic of a simple electrical circuit and electrical connections to the electrically conductive components of  FIG. 1B . A voltage supply  154 , introduces charge to the cathode tip plate  128  and anode tip plate  132 . This same power supply may optionally polarize base plates  120  and  140 . The cathode  122  is connected to the anode  138  through the load  156 , and a storage capacitor  152 . The cathode may optionally charge the anode base plate  140 . The anode may optionally charge the cathode base plate  120 . 
         [0092]      FIGS. 2A ,  2 B show sectioned views of an electrode array. The array represents a structure prepared using lithographic methods, and subsequently separated from the substrate. Structural components that provide precision separation of the elements of the array are not shown in  FIGS. 2A-2D , in order to simplify the operational description. The array contains components similar to those introduced in  FIGS. 1A ,  1 B,  1 C. The electrode  208 , is now approximately the shape of a wedge, and the tip of the wedge  206  faces the tip plate  202 . The tip plate  202  and base plate  212  are surrounded by electrically insulating dielectric  200 . The wedge electrode base  210 , the tip plates  202  and base plates  212  all provide electrical connection so that the array may be extended. 
         [0093]      FIG. 2C  shows a sectioned exploded view of a cathode and anode array separated by layers of ion conductive media  226 ,  230 ,  234 . Cathodes  222 , are partially or completely immersed in ion conductive media  226 . The cathodes terminate in cathode tips  224 . The cathode tip plate  228  is surrounded by electrically insulating dielectric  200 . The cathode base plate  220  is surrounded by electrically insulating dielectric  200  and is sandwiched by one or two cathodes. Layers  226 ,  230  and  234  are ion conductive. Layer  226  also serves as the oxidant fluid interface, for example diffused with air. Layer  234  also serves as the reducing fluid interface, for example diffused with fuel. The anodes  238  are partially or completely immersed in layer  234 . The anodes terminate in tips  236 . The anode tip plate  232  is surrounded by electrically insulating dielectric  200 . The anode base plate  240  is surrounded by insulating dielectric  200  and is sandwiched by one or two anodes. 
         [0094]      FIG. 2D  shows a perspective view of  FIG. 2C . In this view the cathode array is separated from the anode array  244  by three layers of ion conductive media  226 ,  230 ,  234 . Scaffolding, spacing, and structural elements have been omitted to clarify the operational description. The spacing of the components shown in  FIG. 2A-2E  is intended to be flexible. The size and shape of the components may be varied. For instance the vertical thickness of the wedge electrode may be reduced or enlarged. The distance between the wedge tips and the tip plates may be reduced. Variation in the spacing and dimensions is acceptable, so long as the operational goals of ion generation, ion conduction and reaction completion are met for a specific fuel and oxidant combination. 
         [0095]      FIG. 2E  shows a schematic of a simple electrical circuit and electrical connections to the electrically conductive components of  FIGS. 2C-2D . A voltage supply  254 , introduces charge to the cathode tip plate  228  and anode tip plate  232 . The power supply may optionally charge base plates  220  and  240  with a reverse polarity. The cathode  122  is connected to the anode  238  through the load  256 , and a storage capacitor  252 . The cathode may charge the anode base plate  240 . The anode may charge the cathode base plate  220 . 
         [0096]      FIG. 3A  shows a sectional view of a cathode  322 , and anode  338 . The blunt backsides of the cathode and anode face each other, separated by electrically insulating dielectric  300 . The sharp cathode tips  324  point towards electrically insulated cathode tip plate  328  and is in contact with the cathode fluid and cathode fluid flow  301 . The sharp anode tips  336  point towards the electrically insulated anode tip plate  332  and is in contact with the anode fluid and anode fluid flow  303 . Layers of the electrically insulating dielectric  300  jut into the fluid flow and protect the anode and cathode tip from flow friction. The ion conductive media/electrolyte  330  lies downstream of the electrode assembly and is in contact with and separates the cathode fluid flow  301  and anode fluid flow  303 . 
         [0097]      FIG. 3B  shows a sample electrical connection to the electrically conducting parts of  FIG. 3A . A voltage supply  354  injects positive charge into the cathode tip plate, and negative charge into the anode tip plate  332 . The cathode plate  322  and the anode plate  338  may be connected to storage capacitor  352  and the load  356 . 
         [0098]      FIG. 4A  shows an ion conductive assembly. The countercharge plate  402  is electrically insulated from the ion conductive fluid  404  by electrically insulating dielectric layer  400 . The cathodes  422  and anodes  438  are exposed to the ion conductive fluid  404  and positioned in the near vicinity of the dielectric  400  surface. The ion conductive fluid  400  fills the pore space  407  between dielectric layers  400 . Structures that provide spacing/scaffolding are not shown in order to simplify the operational description. The regular size, and ordering of the components indicates a structure that may be extended indefinitely in the assembly plane. 
         [0099]    The dimensions of the components in  FIGS. 1-4  may vary. This variation may include small dimensions created by lithographic methods. This variation may include pushing miniaturization to the resolution limit of the lithographic method. This variation may include minimizing geometry to nanoscale dimensions resulting in small, sharp nanoscale electrode tips and tiny clearances between the electrode tip and tip plate. The dimension may be such that if exposed to a vacuum and voltage is correctly applied, field emission occurs from the cathode tips at low voltages. 
       Operation: 
       [0100]      FIG. 1A  introduces a single electrode  108  bracketed by insulated capacitor plates  102 ,  112 . The function of the capacitor plates is to immerse the electrode in an externally supplied electric field. For example, when functioning as a cathode, the tip plate  102  is supplied with a positive charge, and the base plate is supplied with a negative charge. The resulting electric field induces electrostatic induction in electrode  108  resulting in negative charge accumulating/piling up at the electrode tip  106 . At the correct field strength, electric charge moves from the electrode tip  106  into the surrounding fluid space  104 , creating ions. These ions will move towards the surface of the dielectric  100  surrounding the tip plate. While the electric field tends to move ions toward the surface of the dielectric, the Boltzmann energy distribution, and the chemical potential gradient allow some ions to drift away from the tip plate. 
         [0101]      FIG. 1B  presents an arrangement of two electrodes, with sandwiching plates immersed in and separated by ion conductive media. The layers of media  126 ,  130 , and  134  may be composed of polar solvents, gels, solid electrolytes, nonpolar layers diffused with phase change catalysts, ion conductive membranes, insulated, charged wires and/or any combination thereof.  126 ,  130 , and  134  promote the passage of ions, but resist electrical current flow. Layer  126  also serves as the oxidant fluid interface, for example diffused with oxygen molecules. Layer  134  also serves as the reducing fluid interface, for example, diffused with fuel molecules. Cathode tip plate  128  may be infused with positive charge. The positive charge influences charge distribution in the cathode  122 . Negative charge congregates in the tip  124 , and leaks into fluid layer  126 , resulting in the creation of oxygen ions. Anode tip plate  132  is infused with negative charge. The negative charge influences charge distribution in the anode  138 . Positive charge congregates in the tip of the anode  136 , and leaks into fluid layer  134 , resulting in the creation of fuel ions. The cations encounter an electrostatic attraction towards the surface of the dielectric surrounding the anode tip plate  132 ,  100 . The anions encounter an electrostatic attraction towards the surface of the dielectric surrounding the cathode tip plate  128 ,  100 . However these ions are not static and immovable. A Boltzmann distribution of energies and chemical potential ensure that some ions move deeper into ion conductive layer  130 . Anions that cross layer  130  may react with cations resulting in reaction completion. Or cations that cross layer  130  may react with anions also resulting in reaction completion. 
         [0102]    The dimensions of the components in  FIG. 1A  and  FIG. 1B  are sufficiently small, such that if exposed to a vacuum, field emission occurs from the cathode tips at small voltages. The electrodes in FIGS.  1 , 2 , 3  all leak charge, into reactant fluids, and this leakage occurs in the absence of any direct electrical power connection to the electrodes. Charge is induced to concentrate at the electrode/reactant fluid interface, and this concentration is increased in the presence of sharp tips, such as anode tip  136  and cathode tip  124 . The charge concentration occurs due to electrostatic induction in the electrode. The electrostatic induction is caused by the external application of an electric field. 
         [0103]    If the sample oxidant fluid diffusing into layer  126  is air, then the cathode assembly shown in  FIG. 1B  is functioning as an air cathode. Air cathodes are used in fuel cells as well as metal air batteries, and the method claims apply to both.  FIG. 1B  also presents a geometry of components that has been straightened to simplify the operational description. However, plate position and relative geometry of the plates, electrodes and ion conductive layers may be varied to best suit the chemical activation requirements of the fuel cell design. A different type of geometry, possibly more suitable to lithographic manufacturing processes, is introduced in  FIGS. 2A-2D . 
         [0104]      FIG. 1C  shows a schematic electrical circuit with electrical connections to the electrically conductive parts of the figure. In this figure a voltage source  154  charges the cathode tip plate with a positive potential, and the anode tip plate with a negative potential. This voltage source may optionally charge (with a crossover connection) the cathode base plate  120  and the anode base plate  140 . The applied potential in the tip plates causes charge to leak off the cathode  124  and anode  136  tips. The countercharge remaining in the electrodes results in the charging of the storage capacitor  152 . The charge stored in capacitor  152  may be discharged through the load  156 . The cathode potential may optionally charge the anode base plate  140 . The anode potential may optionally charge the cathode base plate  120 . 
         [0105]      FIGS. 2A ,  2 B show electrode arrays in sectional and perspective views.  FIGS. 2A and 2B  include similar components as introduced in  FIGS. 1A   1 B. However, the geometry has been changed. The electrodes  208  are approximately wedge-shaped. The tip of these electrodes  206  refers to the sharp end of the wedge. The electrodes are sandwiched by a base plate  212  and tip plate  202 . Both the base and tip plates are electrically insulated by a layer of dielectric  200 .  FIG. 2A  shows a section view orthogonal to the lithographic plane. The perspective view,  FIG. 2B , shows a total of 12 electrode tips. The symmetry of the array and the electrical connections  202 ,  210 ,  212 , shown in the section plane, indicate that this array may be repeated and extended indefinitely in either direction along the lithographic plane. The wedge shape of the electrodes indicates the shape resulting from the top down application of standard lithographic techniques—coat, mask, expose, etch, rinse, repeat, etc. In contrast to the extraordinary complexity of modern microprocessor manufacturing, the array shown in  FIGS. 2A ,  2 B has only a few layers, which results in a relatively simple design achieved with a minimum of process steps. 
         [0106]    The array shown in  FIGS. 2A ,  2 B differs from  FIG. 1B  operationally, in that all the electrodes in the array are assigned the same polarity. The array may serve as an anode array, or cathode array, but not both at the same time. For example, when functioning as a cathode, the electrode tip plate  202  is assigned a positive voltage. Negative charge is attracted to the tip  224  end of the wedge electrodes and some negative charge leaks from the wedge tips into the surrounding fluid media. The negative voltage assigned to the base plate  212  also helps to promote charge leakage from the tip. 
         [0107]      FIGS. 2C ,  2 D show the cathode array  242 , separated from the anode array  244  by layers of ion conductive media  226 ,  230 ,  234 . Electrical charge leaks from the tips of the cathode wedge electrodes  224  in the cathode array, reducing oxygen and creating oxygen ions. Electrical charge leaks from the anode tips  236 , oxidizing the fuel and creating fuel ions. Reactant ions drift across ion conductive media  230 , leading to reaction completion. If the oxidative fluid diffusing into layer media  226  is air, then the cathode assembly in  FIGS. 2C ,  2 D is functioning as an air cathode. The function of this air cathode is not limited to fuel cells, but also applicable to air cathode batteries, and this function is included in the method claim. 
         [0108]      FIG. 2E  shows a schematic of a simple electrical circuit and electrical connections to the electrically conductive components of  FIGS. 2C-2D . A voltage supply  254 , introduces charge to the cathode tip plate  228  and anode tip plate  232 . The power supply may optionally charge base plates  220  and  240  with a reverse polarity. The cathode  122  is connected to the anode  238  through the load  256 , and a storage capacitor  252 . The cathode may charge the anode base plate  240 . The anode may charge the cathode base plate  220 . 
         [0109]      FIG. 3A ,  3 B contain the same structural elements as shown in previous figures, but with a new geometry. A voltage supply  354  injects positive charge into cathode tip plate  328  and negative charge into anode tip plate  332 . The anode  338  and cathode  322  are subjected to an electric field. Negative charge concentrates in the cathode tips  324 , and leaks into cathode fluid flow  301 . Positive charge concentrates in the anode tips  336  and leaks into the anode fluid flow  303 . Cathode fluid flow  301 , and anode fluid flow  303 , move these charges downstream to the electrolyte  330 . The fluid flow increases the rate of reactant ionization. Ions cross the electrolyte leading to reaction completion. The countercharge remaining on the electrodes is stored in the capacitor  352 , and/or used to power the load  356 . The dielectric  300  provides electrical insulation, but also protects the anode and cathode tips from the frictional flow of the anode and cathode fluids. 
         [0110]      FIG. 4  shows a series of conductive plates  402  that are isolated from ion conductive fluid  404  by electrically insulating dielectric  400 . Charge is introduced to the plates  402  in order to induce a monolayer of ions to form on the insulator  400  surface. The counter ion in the ion conductive fluid is reduced or eliminated. The reduction/elimination of the counter ion also reduces/eliminates contamination by the counter ion. The voltage assigned to plate  402  may be raised to a maximum voltage just short of dielectric breakdown. For example, if the ion conductive fluid is water, and the plates  402  are charged with a positive charge, negative charge leaks from the cathode  422  and forms a monolayer of hydroxide ions at the dielectric  400 , fluid  404  interface. The anode  438 , and cathode  422 , are positioned close to the dielectric/fluid interface and function as working electrodes. The careful positioning of the electrodes may expose the electrodes to the nearby chemical environment which includes hydroxide ion. The fluid pore spaces  407  between dielectric insulation  400  now serve as an ion conduit, allowing the migration of anions between cathode and anode, on or in the near vicinity of the dielectric  400 , fluid  404  interface. In this manner, ionic charge is transferred between cathode and anode. In this operational example, the anion flow may include both hydroxide and carbonate. In the absence of contaminating alkali cations, there is no formation of insoluble alkali carbonates. In general, the polarity of the voltage assigned to the plates  402  may be switched, thus allowing conduction of any species of ion.