Abstract:
A biocompatible, mechanical, micromachined pressure sensor and methods of manufacturing such a pressure sensor are provided. The pressure sensor of the current invention comprises a high-aspect-ratio curved-tube structure fabricated through a one-layer parylene process. The pressure sensor of the current invention requires zero power consumption and indicates the pressure variation by changes of the in situ in-plane motion of the sensor, which can be gauged externally by a direct and convenient optical observation. In one embodiment, the pressure sensor of the current invention has been shown to work as an IOP sensor for eye implantation where the intraocular in-plane motion of the sensor can be recorded from outside of the eye, such that the intraocular pressure in glaucoma patients can be constantly monitored.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S)  
       [0001]     This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/578,052, filed Jun. 7, 2004, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. 
     
    
     STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH  
       [0002]     The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention pursuant to grant number EEC-0310723, awarded by the National Science Foundation, Engineering Research Centers Program. 
     
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION  
       [0003]     The current invention is directed to an implantable optical pressure sensors; and more particularly to an implantable mechanical intraocular pressure sensor for passive measurement of the intraocular pressure and methods of manufacturing such sensors.  
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
       [0004]     Glaucoma is a debilitating disease that results in loss of vision for an estimated 65 million people worldwide. Glaucoma is the second leading cause of blindness in the U.S. and the leading cause of preventable blindness. Yet, only half of the people with Glaucoma know they have the disease. Glaucoma is principally defined by damage to the optic nerve, the ultimate pathway for visual information after processing by the retina at the posterior aspect of the eye. Of the many risk factors for this optic neuropathy, perhaps the most significant is elevated intraocular pressure (IOP). Because IOP is strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of glaucoma, and because treatment involves lowering patients&#39; IOP, methods of precisely monitoring real-time pressure changes are critical for treatment of this disease. This task is complicated by the very sensitive pressure measurements required to detect abnormal pressures in the eye (e.g., normal eye pressure typically ranges from 10-21 mmHg, averaging about 15 mmHg with a ±mmHg deviation), and the invasive nature of current intraocular pressure sensors.  
         [0005]     There is no known sensor on the market for the constant real-time measurement of these small intraocular pressures. The potential of such a sensor is that measurements can be made for years for ongoing monitoring of glaucoma treatment. For example, current tonometry techniques involve indirect measurement of IOP. The tonometers used in common practice are difficult to implement for regularly monitoring pressure fluctuations and treatment progress because they rely on skilled operators using external measurement devices that requires constant out-patient treatment and provides only intermittent monitoring of the IOP. In response to the deficiency of current measurement methods, many micromachined or “MEMS” pressure sensor designs have been proposed. MEMS devices are of interest because in principal the small scale of MEMS devices allows for the implantation of a sensor for constant IOP monitoring. These microfabricated devices can provide accurate and precise pressure readouts, but conventional designs all require electrical circuitry and hermetic sealing, a significant impediment to their implementation. None of the IOP sensors proposed solve the two principal difficulties of these devices; power consumption and biocompatibility.  
         [0006]     Accordingly, an improved sensor for providing faithful IOP measurement inside the eye without the twin problems of power consumption and biocompatibility is needed.  
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
       [0007]     The current invention is directed to a passive, biocompatible micromachined pressure sensor comprising a micromachined curved tube that contracts and expands in response to changes in pressure.  
         [0008]     In one embodiment, the sensor comprises an implantable micromachined Bourdon tube. In such an embodiment the sensor can be implanted under the cornea so that IOP changes can be constantly monitored.  
         [0009]     In another exemplary embodiment, the sensor in accordance with the current invention can be measured passively through optical inspection of the device using standard ophthalmologic equipment, such as stereoscopes and magnifiers.  
         [0010]     In yet another exemplary embodiment, the sensor in accordance with the current invention has a 1 mmHg resolution and a ±6 mmHg dynamic range.  
         [0011]     In still another exemplary embodiment, the invention is directed to a method of manufacturing a sensor in accordance with the current invention. In one such embodiment, the sensor is made using standard micromachining techniques in a simple two mask process.  
         [0012]     In still yet another exemplary embodiment, the sensor in accordance with the current invention is formed of a USP Class VI biocompatible material. In one such embodiment the biocompatible material is pure parylene or has a parylene coating. 
     
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0013]     These and other features and advantages of the present invention will be better understood by reference to the following detailed description when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings wherein:  
         [0014]      FIG. 1   a  provides a schematic view of a Bourdon tube sensor in accordance with one exemplary embodiment of the current invention.  
         [0015]      FIG. 1   b  provides a schematic view of an enlarged cross-sectional view of the Bourdon tube sensor shown in  FIG. 1   a.    
         [0016]      FIG. 2  provides a schematic perspective view of an intraocular pressure in accordance with the current invention and its relative motion with increasing and decreasing pressure.  
         [0017]      FIG. 3  shows SEM micrographs (stereoscope image in  FIG. 3   a  and microscope image in  FIG. 3   b ) of a micromachined sensor in accordance with one embodiment of the current invention.  
         [0018]      FIGS. 4   a  to  4   c  provide graphical plots of data on the relative motion of exemplary embodiments of intraocular pressure sensors in accordance with the current invention under changing pressure conditions.  
         [0019]      FIGS. 5   a  to  5   f  show microscope micrographs of various bent tube configurations for pressure sensors in accordance with additional embodiments of the current invention.  
         [0020]      FIGS. 6   a  and  6   b  show schematic diagrams of spiral-type pressure sensors having large moment arms in accordance with another embodiment of the current invention.  
         [0021]      FIGS. 7   a  and  7   b  show schematic diagrams of a compact linear-type pressure sensor in accordance with another embodiment of the current invention.  
         [0022]      FIG. 8  shows a schematic diagram of the process flow for an embodiment of a method for manufacturing the pressure sensor of the current invention.  
         [0023]      FIGS. 9   a  and  9   b  show microscope micrographs of trenches at different stages of formation in accordance with the method of the current invention.  
         [0024]      FIG. 10  shows an microscope micrograph of a pressure sensor formed in accordance with the method of the current invention.  
         [0025]      FIG. 11   a  and  11   b  provide microscope micrographs showing details of trenches formed in accordance with the methods of the current invention.  
         [0026]      FIG. 12  shows a schematic of a measurement apparatus for use with the current invention.  
         [0027]      FIG. 13   a  shows a stereoscope micrograph of an array of pressure sensors formed in accordance with the current invention for operation in air.  
         [0028]      FIG. 13   b  shows a graphical plot of data taken from pressure measurements obtained in air using the pressure sensors shown in  FIG. 13   a.    
         [0029]      FIG. 14   a  shows a microscope micrograph of an array of pressure sensors formed in accordance with the current invention for operation in IPA.  
         [0030]      FIG. 14   b  shows a graphical plot of data taken from pressure measurements obtained in IPA using the pressure sensors shown in  FIG. 14   a.    
         [0031]      FIG. 15   a  shows a microscope micrograph of an array of pressure sensors formed in accordance with the current invention for operation in water.  
         [0032]      FIG. 15   b  shows a graphical plot of data taken from pressure measurements obtained in water using the pressure sensors shown in  FIG. 15   a.   
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION  
       [0033]     The current invention is directed to a passive, biocompatible micromachined pressure sensor comprising a micromachined curved tube that contracts and expands in response to changes in pressure, hereinafter referred to as an “implantable sensor” or simply “sensor.” The implantable sensor of the current invention is inspired by a common pressure gauge called the Bourdon tube. A Bourdon tube is a toroidal, elastic shell with thin walls, oval cross section, and with closed ends. (Schematic diagrams of a Bourdon tube are provided in  FIGS. 1   a  and  1   b .) As shown in  FIG. 2 , when such a closed flexible tube is exposed on the outside or on the inside to uniform normal wall pressure, the curvature of the center line of the tube changes proportionally with the applied wall pressure. Measurements of the resultant motion of one end of the tube with reference to the other may then be interpreted, after appropriate calibration, as pressure measurements. The current invention recognizes that micromachined Bourdon tubes and other tubular curved closed-ended structures may be used as implantable pressure sensors for IOP applications.  
         [0034]     As shown in  FIGS. 1 and 2 , in one embodiment, the sensor  10  of the current invention takes the shape of a standard Bourdon tube, i.e., a high-aspect-ratio 3-D free-standing Archimedean spiral  11 , with closed ends  12  and  14 . As shown best in  FIG. 2 , the central part of the device is a cylinder  16  fixed to a substrate  18  which also keeps the device fixed. Although not required, the device may also be provided with measurement fiducials  20  on the outside aspect to provide a more easy optical measurement of the relative motion of the outer end  14  of the sensor. In such an embodiment, the fixation of the device on the substrate is of added importance so that the end  14  of the sensor is kept in register with the fiducials  20 . A micrograph of a Bourdon tube-type sensor in accordance with the current invention, including the measurement fiducials is shown in  FIG. 3 .  
         [0035]     The mechanism of the sensor of the current invention relies on the phenomenon that, when the pressure inside a closed flexible bent structure that has been fixed to the surface at one end, such as the Bourdon tube shown in  FIG. 2 , is controlled as a constant, the pressure difference ΔP between inside and outside of the sensor imparts a bending moment to the spiral around the fixed end. This bending moment is the source of the output radial displacement μ r  and angular displacement μ θ . Although this kind of design (Bourdon tube) has been used widely in industry, exact solutions of resultant deformations and stresses are hard to find due to the complicated hollow, toroidal shape. Present analyses are thus all based on a highly simplified and approximated calculation. See, e.g., R. A. Clark and E. Reissner, “Deformations and Stresses in Bourdon Tubes,”  Journal of Applied Physics,  21(12), 1950, pp. 1340-1341; R. Dressler, “Elastic Shell-Theory Formulation for Bourdon Tubes,”  Journal of Basic Engineering,  Trans. of ASME, 87(4), 1965, pp. 1072-1077; and A. Wolf, “An Elementary Theory of the Bourdon Gage,”  Journal of Applied Mechanics,  Trans. of ASME, 13(3), 1946, pp. 207-210, the disclosures of which are all incorporated herein by reference.  
         [0036]     Among different simplified formulations, the elastic thin-shell theory presented by Wolf is applied for the following analysis of the theoretical pressure sensitivity of the sensors of the current invention. In  FIGS. 1   a  and  1   b,  a number of dimensional characteristics are defined, these values will be used in the following analysis, where R is the varying curvature, in which R max  and R min  are maximum and minimum curvatures of the spiral; θ is the coiled angle of the spiral; and t, 2 w, 2 h are wall thickness, width, and height of the hollow elliptical structure, respectively. By applying the theory of pure bending in thin shells, the approximated sensitivity of radial deformation can be retrieved as:  
                 δ   ⁢           ⁢   R     R     =       4   15     ⁢       Δ   ⁢           ⁢   P     E     ⁢     (     1   -     v   2       )     ⁢       h   4       wt   3       ⁢       C   1       1   +       4   35     ⁢     (     1   -     v   2       )     ⁢       h   4         R   2     ⁢     t   2         ⁢     C   2                     Eq   .           ⁢     (   1   )               
 
         [0037]     in which ΔP is the pressure difference between the inside and outside of the tube, E is the Young&#39;s modulus, σ is Poisson&#39;s ratio, and C 1  and C 2  are constant coefficients from Table 1, below.  
                             TABLE 1                           Constants C 1 &amp;  C 2              w/h   C 1     C 2                 0.0   1.000   1.000       0.1   1.273   1.040       0.2   1.469   1.059       0.3   1.574   1.057       0.4   1.574   1.024                  
 
 In turn, the radial displacement of the sensor arm is given by:  
                 u   r     =       [       δ   ⁢           ⁢   R     R     ]       R   max         ⁢     
     ⁢       R   max     =       (         4   ⁢     C   1       15     ⁢       Δ   ⁢           ⁢   P     E     ⁢     (     1   -     v   2       )     ⁢       h   4       wt   3         )     ⁢       R   max   3         R   max   2     +       4   35     ⁢     (     1   -     v   2       )     ⁢       h   4       t   2       ⁢     C   2                       Eq   .           ⁢     (   2   )               
 
 And the angular displacement of the sensor arm is given by:  
                 u   θ     =         (         4   ⁢     C   1       15     ⁢       Δ   ⁢           ⁢   P     E     ⁢     (     1   -     v   2       )     ⁢       h   4       wt   3       ⁢       θ   total       R   max         )     ⁡     [       R   2     -     D   ⁢           ⁢     log   ⁡     (         R   2     +   D       )           ]         R   min       R   max         ⁢     
     ⁢     (     in   ⁢           ⁢   meters     )             Eq   .           ⁢     (   3   )                   ≈         (       48   π     ⁢     C   1     ⁢       Δ   ⁢           ⁢   P     E     ⁢     (     1   -     v   2       )     ⁢       h   4       wt   3       ⁢       θ   total       R   max   2         )     ⁡     [       R   2     -     D   ⁢           ⁢     log   ⁡     (         R   2     +   D       )           ]         R   min       R   max         ⁢     
     ⁢     (     in   ⁢           ⁢   degrees     )             Eq   .           ⁢     (   4   )                   with   ⁢     :     ⁢           ⁢   D     =       4   35     ⁢     (     1   -     v   2       )     ⁢       h   4       t   2       ⁢     C   2               Eq   .           ⁢     (   5   )               
 
         [0038]     Table 2, below summarize the theoretical results for resolving a 1 mmHg (133.32 Pa) pressure difference using several different designs of sensors incorporating Bourdon tubes having different critical dimensions. Some of the geometrical features are intentionally chosen to indicate the limitations of the state-of-the-art micromachining process. The sensitivity of the various design and the control of the level of displacement are also plotted in  FIGS. 4   a  to  4   c,  which show the μ r  for a 1 mmHg pressure difference ( 4   a ), the μ θ  for a 1 mmHg pressure difference ( 4   b ), and ΔP−μ θ  ( 4   c ), respectively. As shown, simply varying the relative dimensions of the body of the sensor can be used to tune the sensitivity of the sensor, and the size of the indicating displacement of the sensor of the current invention.  
                                                                                                                 TABLE 2                           Theoretical Results for Various Sensor Designs                design1   design2   design3   design4   design5                        t   1   μm   2   μm   3   μm   4   μm   5   μm       2w   2   μm   4   μm   6   μm   8   μm   10   μm       2h*   40   μm   80   μm   120   μm   160   μm   200   μm       R min     100   μm   100   μm   100   μm   100   μm   100   μm       R max     1000   μm   1000   μm   1000   μm   1000   μm   1000   μm       coiled   35       35       35       35       35       turns**       u r     1.944   μm   1.858   μm   1.731   μm   1.579   μm   1.419   μm            u θ     21.054°   19.859°   18.589°   17.415°   16.393°                 *determined mostly by the high-aspect-ratio DRIE process            **the total spiral angle θ total  = (coiled turns) * 360°            
 
         [0039]     It should be understood that although only Bourdon-type sensors are discussed above, the same principals of operation, critical dimensions, and theoretical calculations can be applied to any closed hollow structure having a curved body that serves as a fixed moment arm. For example,  FIGS. 5   a  to  5   f  show a variety of bent close-ended hollow bodies that could be utilized as pressure sensors in the current invention. These vary from simple hook designs ( 5   a ) to full spiral tubes ( 5   f ). These embodiments are provided to emphasize that the number and type of turns is not critical to the operation of the current invention. In addition, as shown the fixed end of the sensor need not be located central to the curved body, but can also be located at the outer end of the curved body such that the movement occurs in the interior of the sensor body. In such an embodiment, only the technique for measuring the motion of the sensor body relative to the substrate would need to be altered. In short, the only requirements are at least one bent flexible portion of a tube  22  having two closed ends, a first end fixed to a substrate  24  and a second end  26 , which is free to move in response to a pressure change.  
         [0040]     Further, as shown in  FIGS. 6   a  and  6   b  other modifications to the sensor may be made, such as lengthening the indicator portion  28  at the free end of the sensor body  30  such that even minor movements of the bent tube produce very large displacements at the far end  32  of the sensor body. Likewise, as shown in  FIG. 6   b,  an even more sensitive arrangement would involve the disposition of two of the extended sensors of  FIG. 6   a  in opposition to one another, such that the two indicator portions  34  and  36  would move in opposite directions one from the other in response to a pressure change, effectively doubling the sensitivity of the single extended arm pressure sensor of  FIG. 6   a.  An SEM micrograph of such an opposing tip sensor formed in accordance with the current invention is provided in the inset to  FIG. 6   b.    
         [0041]     Finally, although only rotational motion sensors arrangements are discussed above, it should be understood that other arrangements of pressure sensitive constructs are contemplated by the current invention. For example, in one embodiment of the invention shown schematically in  FIGS. 7   a  and  7   b,  a series of curved section  38  arranged and joined end to end in a zigzag fashion. In this embodiment one end of the curved section at one end of the zigzag structure is fixed to the substrate  40  and the remaining sections are free to move, such that a change in pressure imparts a linear motion  42  in the series of bent tubes (see, e.g.,  FIG. 7   b ).  
         [0042]     It should also be understood that although only a single sensor is shown in each of the embodiments discussed above, multiple sensors or large arrays of sensors could be provided on a single substrate to provide verification and back-up sensors. In addition, although only simple rectangular or square planar substrates are shown in the embodiments discussed above, it should be understood that the support or substrate for the sensors of the current invention can take any suitable form.  
         [0043]     The above embodiments are not meant to provide a definitive list of possible sensor designs. The concept of the device is based on a Bourdon tube, but only requires that the pressure inside a hollow bent body is sealed at a designated constant, such that when a uniform pressure difference is generated across the channel walls, a bending moment is created in opposition to a fixed end of the body that in turn forces an in-plane radial and angular deformation of the hollow body. The deformation, which can be visualized by movement of the free end of the hollow body, is linearly related to the pressure difference. Therefore, the corresponding environmental (outside-wall) pressure can be measured. The remaining aspects of the geometry depend principally on design considerations, such as preventing out-of-plane deformation, and the sensitivity required for the desired application. For example, the angular deformation indicated by the tip rotation can be amplified by increasing the number of coiled turns or increasing the length of the indicator arm of the free tip. In addition, as discussed above, a channel structure with thinner walls and higher aspect-ratio profile is more sensitive to environmental pressure change. In any application, each of these design factors must be considered to achieve the desired pressure sensitivity of the device.  
         [0044]     Although only devices have been discussed thus far, the current invention is also direct to methods of manufacturing the pressure sensors of the current invention.  FIG. 8  shows a schematic flow-chart for one exemplary manufacturing method,  FIGS. 9   a  and  9   b  shown SEM micrographs of cross-sections of the hollow body made in accordance with the current invention during various stages of the process.  
         [0045]     As shown, the fabrication process begins with 5000 Å wet oxidation on a standard silicon wafer ( 8   a ). After patterning the oxide (see inset of  FIG. 8   a ), a conventional Bosch process in a PlasmaTherm DRIE is used to etch trenches ( 8   b ). SF 6  plasma etching is then performed to isotropically undercut the silicon surrounding the trenches. 75 μm deep, 6 μm wide trenches with 2.5 μm sidewall undercut can be created by using the above process (see inset to  FIG. 8   b  and microscope micrograph of  FIG. 9   a ). Before parylene deposition, a short C 4 F 8  deposition is performed to intentionally degrade the adhesion between the silicon and the parylene. Subsequently a 5 μm thick parylene layer is deposited ( 8   c ). This conformal deposition concurrently seals the trenches to form the spiral channel (see inset to  FIG. 8   d  and microscope micrograph of  FIG. 9   b ), the pointing tip, the surrounding indicators, and a parylene “web” structure at the center that supports the channel. The parylene is then patterned by using oxygen plasma ( 8   d  and see inset of  FIG. 8   d ). During this step, a thin opening ring is created in the center to prevent the complete sealing of the device. Finally, after photoresist and oxide removal, the spiral channel is released from the substrate by XeF 2  gaseous etching ( 8   e ).  
         [0046]     A fabricated device with a radius of 1 mm is shown in  FIG. 10 . The radius of the central supporting cylinder is 100 μm. The spiral channel ends at a 100 μm long, 6 μm wide pointing tip (shown in detail in the inset to  FIG. 10 ), and the rotation angle can be optically recorded from 5 degree/division indicators surrounding the device. Because the sensor device is still open to environmental pressure, a photoresist drop is dispensed over the central cylinder and dried to seal the channel at a controllable pressure. At the current phase of development, the device is sealed at 1 atm as the gauge reference.  
         [0047]     Ideally, the undercut surrounding the etched trenches should be isotropic. The physical motion of the reactive ions in plasma, however, leads the SF 6  plasma to first create a “mushroom-like” profile at the bottom of trenches, and as the etching time increases, the trench sidewalls are etched in a “vase-like” profile instead of a uniform one (see SEM in  FIG. 11   a ). This phenomenon is more obvious in higher aspect-ratio trenches. In order to create a better profile for greater pressure responses of the spiral channel, a modified DRIE may be used in which SF6 is used to undercut/compensate the trench, but then an oxygen plasma is used to clean surplus C 4 F 8  to avoid the effects created by the excess reactive ions in the plasma.  
         [0048]     Another issue is that the released spirals are vulnerable to outside variation, such as fluid flow, vibration, and electrostatic attraction. These environmental changes can cause the sensor body to move sideways to contact other structures or to unwind out of plane. As a result, the sensor may be disposed within a depression on the substrate, as shown in  FIG. 10  to provide a more robust structural design or with additional supporting structures.  
         [0049]     In summary one embodiment of a method of forming a pressure sensor in accordance with the current invention involves the following steps: 
    1) wet oxidation of silicon wafer;     2) spin-on photoresist, expose, and develop;     3) Pattern transfer using buffered oxide etch;     4) DRIE: standard Bosch process;     5) SF 6  etching for isotropic undercut;     6) double-sided parylene coating;     7) spin-on photoresist, expose, and develop;     8) Parylene etch using oxygen plasma;     9) photoresist removal;     10) Oxide removal; and     11) Silicon release etch (such as XeF 2  gaseous etching, SF 6  plasma etching, and HNA wet etching).    
 
         [0061]     Although any suitable material can be used to manufacture the sensors of the current invention, in one preferred embodiment, a biocompatible material such as parylene (poly-para-xylylene) is selected. Parylene is an ideal structural material for implantable sensors because of its desirable properties, such as high flexibility (Young modulus ˜3 GPa), chemical inertness, and biocompatibility. Moreover, parylene is compatible with microfabrication technology and can be deposited as a pinhole-free conformal coating at room temperature. It has been widely used in microfluidic and bioMEMS devices. Recently, the micromachining techniques and applications of high-aspect-ratio parylene structures have been successfully demonstrated. It should be understood that any suitable parylene material could be used such as parylene C, parylene N, parylene D, parylene F, parylene A, parylene AM, and parylene HT.  
         [0062]     Finally, although the above discussion has focused on the construction and structure of the basic microstructure, it should be understood that a device such including the pressure sensor according to the invention may also include a body, and any additional machinery or circuitry necessary for the device&#39;s operation. For example, the body of the pressure sensor itself can be made of any material suitable for micromachining utilizing standard lithographic or MEMS techniques to enclose the microstructure, such as, for example, aluminum, silicon, or silicon dioxide. In a preferred embodiment, the body further comprises a cap layer, which can be of any design, such that the cap layer protects the sensor from unwanted contact with the external environment. Such a cap layer could be made of any suitable material, such as, for example, a polymer (including but not limited to parylene, PDMS, or polyimide), aluminum, silicon dioxide, or silicon. Such a cap layer could be formed by any conventional MEMS process, such as growth or deposition over a sacrificial layer (not shown) deposited to encapsulate the pressure sensor wherein the sacrificial layer can subsequently be removed to expose the sensor itself. Alternatively, these support structures could be formed in a single deposition step with the pressure sensor. In a more preferred embodiment, one of the substrate, the cap layer, or walls of the sensor is transparent such that the optical source can be used to interrogate the sensor.  
       EXAMPLES  
       [0063]     The invention can be better understood with reference to the following non-limiting examples. The testing setup used in the following examples is illustrated in  FIG. 12 . A system consisting of an N 2  gas cylinder, a particle filter, an Airtrol R-800-60 pressure regulator, and two needle valves is used to regulate the pressure. One needle valve releases the applied pressure after each measurement. This system is connected to a closed chamber to provide different positive-applied pressures. The cap of the chamber is transparent to facilitate external optical observation. A device with a 10-turn spiral is placed inside the chamber and tested (inset to  FIG. 12 ). When a pressure difference is applied between the outside and the inside of the channel, the pointing tip starts to rotate. This behavior is monitored through a stereoscope with 20× magnification and a mounted CCD camera to capture the image. Along with the optical readout, an OMEGA PCL100-30 pressure calibrator is also used to measure the real-time numerical pressure. These two readouts are analyzed to characterize the performance of the device.  
         [0064]     The device was then tested in various media (e.g., air ( FIG. 13 ), IPA ( FIG. 14 ), and water ( FIG. 15 )) to accomplish feasibility and performance testing. For air, the pressure-rotation relationship is plotted in  FIG. 13   b . It was found that, the tip rotation does increase when the pressure difference increases, and their relationship can be fitted well to a linear curve. Likewise, the resulting pressure-rotation relationship of the sensor of the current invention in isopropyl alcohol (IPA) is plotted in  FIG. 14   b,  and remains a linear response. Under this condition, tip rotation is continuous with pressure changes, and the sensitivity in IPA is also improved from that in air. In the pressure range of 6 psi, the measured sensitivity has an average of 0.22 degree/mmHg, with ±9% variation in specific rotation angles. Finally, the sensor of the current invention was also tested in water, which is most comparable to the saline medium of interest in IOP sensing applications. When first immersed in water, the device was not functional because the hydrophobic parylene surface induces formation of bubbles on the surface of device. Thus, when the pressure is above a certain value, some bubbles break and can cause serious deformation of the spiral because of the high surface tension of the water. This problem was solved by appropriate surface treatment in oxygen plasma, as discussed further in, T.-J. Yao, “Parylene for MEMS Applications,”  Ph.D. dissertation, California Institute of Technology,  2002, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. The spiral can be modified to be more hydrophilic, which reduces bubbling and enables use of the device in water. With the treatment, the device becomes operational in aqueous environments. For example, a pressure-rotation plot of the sensor according to the current invention is shown in  FIG. 15   b.  The measured sensitivity is 0.13 degree/mmHg with ±15% variation.  
         [0065]     The above experiments demonstrate that a mechanical passive micromachined pressure sensor can be successfully fabricated with as low as 0.13 degree/mmHg sensitivity. The passive pressure-driven rotation in a high-aspect-ratio tube can also facilitate a direct and convenient in situ optical measurement of pressure, and with the appropriate biocompatible materials this device can be implanted for IOP measurements. Different testing media have been used to verify the efficacy of the device in different environments. In IPA and water, the device can realize continuous pressure measurement. By improving the channel structure and increasing the number of turns in the spiral or the moment arm of the sensor, the pressure response can be greatly enhanced.  
         [0066]     Although specific embodiments and exemplary embodiments are disclosed herein, it is expected that persons skilled in the art can and will design alternative passive mechanical pressure sensors and methods to produce the passive mechanical pressure sensors that are within the scope of the following claims either literally or under the Doctrine of Equivalents.