Abstract:
A system and method for displaying an image using projection optics is disclosed. In one embodiment, a projector comprises an array of display elements, each display element comprising a first layer which is at least partially reflective and a second layer which is at least partially reflective and spaced a variable distance from the first layer, a controller configured to change the variable distances of the display elements based on image data representing an image, a light source configured to illuminate the array of display elements, and at least one lens configured to refract light reflected by or transmitted through the array so as project the image.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/991,378, filed Nov. 11, 2001, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/769,947, filed Dec. 19, 1996 and now abandoned, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/238,750, filed May 5, 1994 and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 5,835,255, and is also a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/554,630, filed Nov. 6, 1995 and now abandoned. The above-referenced applications are herein incorporated by reference. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0002]    This invention relates to visible spectrum (which we define to include portions of the ultra-violet and infrared spectra) modulator arrays and interferometric modulation. 
         [0003]    The first patent application cited above describes two kinds of structures whose impedance, the reciprocal of admittance, can be actively modified so that they can modulate light. One scheme is a deformable cavity whose optical properties can be altered by deformation, electrostatically or otherwise, of one or both of the cavity walls. The composition and thickness of these walls, which comprise layers of dielectric, semiconductor, or metallic films, allows for a variety of modulator designs exhibiting different optical responses to applied voltages. 
         [0004]    The second patent application cited above describes designs which rely on an induced absorber. These designs operate in reflective mode and can be fabricated simply and on a variety of substrates. 
         [0005]    The devices disclosed in both of these patent applications are part of a broad class of devices which we will refer to as IMods (short for “interferometric modulators”). An IMod is a microfabricated device that modulates incident light by the manipulation of admittance via the modification of its interferometric characteristics. 
         [0006]    Any object or image supporter which uses modulated light to convey information through vision is a form of visual media. The information being conveyed lies on a continuum. At one end of the continuum, the information is codified as in text or drawings, and at the other end of the continuum, it is abstract and in the form of symbolic patterns as in art or representations of reality (a picture). 
         [0007]    Information conveyed by visual media may encompass knowledge, stimulate thought, or inspire feelings. But regardless of its function, it has historically been portrayed in a static form. That is, the information content represented is unchanging over time. Static techniques encompass an extremely wide range, but in general include some kind of mechanism for producing variations in color and/or brightness comprising the image, and a way to physically support the mechanism. Examples of the former include dyes, inks, paints, pigments, chalk, and photographic emulsion, while examples of the latter include paper, canvas, plastic, wood, and metal. 
         [0008]    In recent history, static display techniques are being displaced by active schemes. A prime example is the cathode ray tube (CRT), but flat panel displays (FPD) offer promise of becoming dominant because of the need to display information in ever smaller and more portable formats. 
         [0009]    An advanced form of the FPD is the active matrix liquid crystal display (AMLCD). AMLCDs tend to be expensive and large, and are heavy users of power. They also have a limited ability to convey visual information with the range of color, brightness, and contrast that the human eye is capable of perceiving, using reflected light, which is how real objects usually present themselves to a viewer. (Few naturally occurring things emit their own light.) 
         [0010]    Butterflies, on the other hand, achieve a broad range of color, brightness, and contrast, using incident light, processed interferometrically, before delivery to the viewer. 
       SUMMARY 
       [0011]    In general, in one aspect, the invention features a modulator of light having an interference cavity for causing interference modulation of the light, the cavity having a mirror, the mirror having a corrugated surface. 
         [0012]    In general, in another aspect of the invention, the interference modulation of the light produces a quiescent color visible to an observer, the quiescent color being determined by the spatial configuration of the modulator. 
         [0013]    In implementations of the invention, the interference cavity may include a mirror and a supporting structure holding the mirror, and the spatial configuration may include a configuration of the supporting structure, or patterning of the mirror. The supporting structure may be coupled to a rear surface of the mirror. The invention eliminates the need for separately defined spacers and improves the fill-factor. 
         [0014]    In general, in another aspect of the invention, the structure for modulating light includes modulators of light each including an interference cavity for causing interference modulation of the light, each of the modulators having a viewing cone. The viewing cones of the modulators are aligned in different directions. 
         [0015]    In implementations of the invention, the viewing cones of the different modulators may be aligned in random directions and may be narrower than the viewing cone of the overall structure. Viewing a randomly oriented array of interference modulators effectively reduces the color shift. 
         [0016]    In general, in another aspect of the invention, the modulators may be suspended in a solid or liquid medium. 
         [0017]    In general, in another aspect of the invention, an optical compensation mechanism is coupled to the modulators to enhance the optical performance of the structure. In implementations of the invention, the mechanism may be a combination of one or more of a holographically patterned material, a photonic crystal array, a multilayer array of dielectric mirrors, or an array of microlenses. The brightness and/or color may be controlled by error diffusion. An array of modulators may be viewed through a film of material which, because of its tailored optical properties, enhances the view from a limited range of angles, or takes incident light of random orientation and orders it. The film may also enhance the fill factor of the pixel. The film may also comprise a patterned light emitting material to provide supplemental lighting. 
         [0018]    In general, in another aspect of the invention, an optical fiber is coupled to the interference cavity. The invention may be used in the analysis of chemical, organic, or biological components. 
         [0019]    In general, in another aspect of the invention, there is an array of interference modulators of light, a lens system, a media transport mechanism and control electronics. 
         [0020]    In general, in another aspect, the invention features an information projection system having an array of interference modulators of light, a lens system, mechanical scanners, and control electronics. In implementations of the invention, the control electronics may be configured to generate projected images for virtual environments; and the array may include liquid crystals or micromechanical modulators. 
         [0021]    In general, in another aspect, the invention features an electronics product having an operational element, a housing enclosing the operational element and including a display having a surface viewed by a user, and an array of interference modulators of light on the surface. 
         [0022]    Implementations of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The operational element may include a personal communications device, or a personal information tool, or a vehicular control panel, or an instrument control panel, or a time keeping device. The array may substantially alter the aesthetic or decorative features of the surface. The aesthetic component may respond to a state of use of the consumer product. The array may also provide information. The modulation array of the housing may comprise liquid crystals, field emission, plasma, or organic emitter based technologies and associated electronics. 
         [0023]    In general, in another aspect, the invention features devices in which aggregate arrays of interference modulators are assembled as a display, e.g., as a sign or a billboard. 
         [0024]    In general, in another aspect, the invention features a vehicle having a body panel, an array of interference modulators of light on a surface of the body panel, and electronic circuitry for determining the aesthetic appearance of the body panel by controlling the array of interference modulators. 
         [0025]    In general, in another aspect, the invention features a building comprising external surface elements, an array of interference modulators of light on a surface of the body panel, and electronic circuitry for determining the aesthetic appearance of the surface elements by controlling the array of interference modulators. 
         [0026]    In general, in another aspect, the invention features a full color active display comprising a liquid crystal medium, and interferometric elements embedded in the medium. 
         [0027]    In general, in another aspect, the invention features a structure including a substrate, micromechanical elements formed on the substrate, and electronics connected to control the elements, the electronics being formed also on the substrate. 
         [0028]    Individual pixels of the array may consist of arrays of subpixels, allowing brightness and color control via the activation of some fraction of these subpixels in a process known as spatial dithering. Individual pixels or subpixel arrays may be turned on for a fraction of an arbitrary time interval to control brightness in a process known as pulse width modulation (PWM). Individual pixels or subpixel arrays may be turned on for a fraction of the time required to scan the entire array to control brightness in a process known as frame width modulation (FWM). These two schemes are facilitated by the inherent hysteresis of the IMod which allows for the use of digital driver circuits. Neighboring pixels yield a brightness value which is the average of the desired value when error diffusion is used. Brightness control may be achieved via a combination of spatial dithering, PWM/FWM, or error diffusion. Color control may be achieved by tuning individual colors to a particular color, or by combining pixels of different colors and different brightness. The terms pixels and IMods are interchangeable, but in general, pixel refers to a controllable element which may consist of one or more IMods or subpixels, and which is “seen” directly or indirectly by an individual. 
         [0029]    The arrays may fabricated on a solid substrate of some kind which may be of any material as long as it provides a surface, portions of which are optically smooth. The material may be transparent or opaque. The material may be flat or have a contoured surface, or be the surface of a three dimensional object. The arrays may be fabricated on the surface, or on the opposite or both sides if the substrate is transparent. In a further aspect the invention can be viewed in a variety of ways. 
         [0030]    Implementations of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The array may be directly viewed in that an individual can look at the array and see the represented information from any angle. The array may be directly viewed from a fixed angle. The array may be indirectly viewed in that the information is projected on to a secondary surface, or projected through an optical system, or both. 
         [0031]    In yet another aspect the invention can be electrically controlled and driven in several ways. 
         [0032]    Implementations of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The array may be fabricated on a substrate and the driver and controller electronics are fabricated on a separate substrate. The two substrates may be connected electrically or optically via cables, or optically, magnetically, or via radio frequencies via a free space connection. The array may be fabricated with driver, controller, or memory electronics, or some combination thereof, mounted on the same substrate and connected via conducting lines. The array may be fabricated on a substrate along with the driver, controller or memory electronics, or some combination thereof. The substrate may include active electronics which constitute driver, controller, or memory electronics, or some combination thereof, and the array may be fabricated on the substrate. The electronics may be implemented using microelectromechanical (MEM) devices. 
         [0033]    In an additional aspect the invention modulates light actively, using an array of modulators or sections of arrays which are addressed in several ways. 
         [0034]    Implementations of the invention may include one or more of the following features. Individual pixels or arrays of pixels may be connected to a single driver and may be activated independently of any other pixel or pixel array in a technique known as direct addressing. Individual pixels or arrays of pixels may be addressed using a two-dimensional matrix of conductors and addressed in a sequential fashion in a technique known as matrix addressing. Some combination of matrix or direct addressing may be used. 
         [0035]    Among the advantages of the invention are one or more of the following. 
         [0036]    Because interference modulators are fabricated on a single substrate, instead of a sandwich as in LCDs, many more possible roles are made available. The materials used in their construction are insensitive to degradation by UV exposure, and can withstand much greater variations in temperature. Extremely saturated colors may be produced. Extremely high resolutions make possible detail imperceptible to the human eye. Either transmitted or reflected light may be used as an illumination source, the latter more accurately representing how objects and images are perceived. The ability to fabricate these devices on virtually any substrate makes possible the surface modulation of essentially any man-made or naturally occurring object. It is possible to realize images which are much closer to what exists in nature and more realistic than what is possible using current printing methods. 
         [0037]    Interferometric modulation uses incident light to give excellent performance in terms of color saturation, dynamic range (brightness), contrast, and efficient use of incident light, performance which may approach the perceptual range of the human visual system. The fabrication technology allows interference modulators to be manufactured in a great variety of forms. This variety will enable active visual media (and superior static visual media) to become as ubiquitous as the traditional static media which surround us. 
         [0038]    In general, the invention provides the tools for creating an array of products and environments which are as visually rich and stimulating as anything found in nature. 
         [0039]    Other advantages and features will become apparent from the following description and from the claims. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0040]      FIGS. 1A and 1B  are top and perspective views of an IMod with spatially defined color. 
           [0041]      FIG. 2  is a side view of an IMod with spatially defined color. 
           [0042]      FIGS. 3A and 3B  are top and side views of a spatially defined mirror.  FIG. 3A  shows a mirror with a 50% etch while  FIG. 3B  shows a mirror with a 75% etch. 
           [0043]      FIG. 4  is a perspective view of a back-supported IMod with a good fill factor. 
           [0044]      FIGS. 5A ,  5 B, and  5 C are schematic views of an IMod and IMod array with a limited viewing cone.  FIG. 5A  shows the behavior of light within the viewing cone while  FIG. 5B  shows the behavior of light outside the cone.  FIG. 5C  shows the performance of an overall array. 
           [0045]      FIGS. 6A ,  6 B,  6 C,  6 D, and  6 E,  6 F are side views of optical compensation mechanisms used for minimizing color shift and enhancing fill factor.  FIG. 6A  shows a holographically patterned material,  FIG. 6B  shows a photonic crystal array,  FIG. 6C  shows a multilayer dielectric array,  FIG. 6D  shows an array of microlenses, while  FIGS. 6E and 6F  show side and top views of a supplemental lighting film. 
           [0046]      FIGS. 7A and 7B  are schematic views of an array which is addressed using spatial dithering.  FIG. 7A  shows a full-color pixel while  FIG. 7B  shows detail of a sub-pixel. 
           [0047]      FIG. 8  is a timing diagram for driving a binary IMod. 
           [0048]      FIG. 9  is a diagram of the hysteresis curve for an IMod device. 
           [0049]      FIGS. 10A and 10B  are a top view of an IMod array which is connected for matrix addressing and a digital driver.  FIG. 10A  shows the matrix array while  FIG. 10B  shows a digital driving circuit. 
           [0050]      FIG. 11  is a side view of an IMod array configured for direct viewing. 
           [0051]      FIG. 12  is a side view of an IMod array configured for direct viewing through an optical system. 
           [0052]      FIG. 13  is a diagram of an IMod array configured for indirect viewing. 
           [0053]      FIG. 14  is a perspective view of an IMod array and a separate driver/controller. 
           [0054]      FIGS. 15 and 16  are perspective views of IMod arrays and driver/controllers on the same substrates. 
           [0055]      FIGS. 17A and 17B  are front views of a direct driven IMod subarray display.  FIG. 17A  shows a seven segment display while  FIG. 17B  shows detail of one of the segments. 
           [0056]      FIGS. 18A and 18B  are top views of a matrix driven subarray display.  FIG. 18A  shows a matrix display while  FIG. 18B  shows detail of one of the elements. 
           [0057]      FIG. 19  is a side view of an IMod based fiber optic endcap modulator. 
           [0058]      FIG. 20  is a perspective view of a linear tunable IMod array. 
           [0059]      FIGS. 21A and 21B  are a representational side view of a linear IMod array used in an imaging application and a components diagram.  FIG. 21A  shows the view while  FIG. 21B  shows the components diagram. 
           [0060]      FIG. 22  is a perspective view of a two-dimensional tunable IMod array. 
           [0061]      FIG. 23  is a perspective view of a two-dimensional IMod array used in an imaging application. 
           [0062]      FIGS. 24A ,  24 B,  24 C,  24 D, and  24 E are views of an IMod display used in a watch application.  FIG. 24A  shows a perspective view of a watch display,  FIGS. 24B ,  24 C,  24 D, and  24 E show examples of watch faces. 
           [0063]      FIGS. 25A and 25B  are views of an IMod display used in a head mounted display application.  FIG. 25A  shows a head mounted display while  FIG. 25B  shows detail of the image projector. 
           [0064]      FIGS. 26A ,  26  B,  26  C, and  26  D are perspective views of an IMod display used in several portable information interface applications and a components diagram.  FIG. 26A  shows a portable information tool,  FIG. 26B  shows the components diagram,  FIG. 26C  shows a cellular phone, while  FIG. 26D  shows a pager. 
           [0065]      FIGS. 27A ,  27 B,  27 C,  27 D,  27 E,  27 F and  27 G are views of an IMod display used in applications for information and decorative display, a remote control, and components diagrams.  FIGS. 27A ,  27  B, and  27  D show several examples,  FIG. 27C  shows a components diagram,  FIG. 27E  shows a remote control, and  FIG. 27F  shows another components diagram. 
           [0066]      FIGS. 28A and 28B  are side views of an IMod display used in an application for automotive decoration and a components diagram.  FIG. 28A  shows a decorated automobile, while  FIG. 28B  shows the components diagram. 
           [0067]      FIGS. 29A ,  29 B, and  29 C are views of an IMod array used as a billboard display and a components diagram.  FIG. 29A  shows a full billboard,  FIG. 29B  shows a display segment, and  FIG. 29C  shows a segment pixel. 
           [0068]      FIGS. 30A and 30B  are views of an IMod array used as an architectural exterior and a components diagram.  FIG. 30A  shows the skyscraper, while  FIG. 30B  shows the components diagram. 
           [0069]      FIGS. 31A and 31B  are drawings of a liquid crystal impregnated with an interferometric pigment.  FIG. 31A  shows the liquid crystal cell in the undriven state while  FIG. 31B  shows it in the driven state. 
           [0070]      FIGS. 32A and 32B  are drawings of an IMod array used in a projection display and a components diagram.  FIG. 32A  shows the projection system, while  FIG. 32B  shows the components diagram. 
           [0071]      FIGS. 33A and 33B  are drawings of an IMod array used in a chemical detection device and a components diagram.  FIG. 33A  shows the detection device, while  FIG. 33B  shows the components diagram. 
           [0072]      FIGS. 34A ,  34 B, and  34 C are front and side views of an IMod based automotive heads up display and a components diagram.  FIG. 34A  shows the front view,  FIG. 34B  shows the side view, and  FIG. 34C  shows the components diagram. 
           [0073]      FIGS. 35A and 35B  are drawings of an IMod display used in an instrument panel and a components diagram.  FIG. 35A  shows the panel while  FIG. 35B  shows the components diagram. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     IMod Structures 
       [0074]    Referring to  FIGS. 1A and 1B , two IMod structures  114  and  116  each include a secondary mirror  102  with a corrugated pattern  104  etched into its upper (outer) surface  103 , using any of a variety of known techniques. The corrugation does not extend through the membrane  106  on which the mirror is formed so that the inner surface  108  of the mirror remains smooth.  FIG. 1B  reveals the pattern of etched corrugation  104  on the secondary mirror and the smooth inner surface  112  which remains after etch. The corrugated pattern, which can be formed in a variety of geometries (e.g., rectangular, pyramidal, conical), provides structural stiffening of the mirror, making it more immune to variations in material stresses, reducing total mass, and preventing deformation when the mirror is actuated. 
         [0075]    In general, an IMod which has either no voltage applied or some relatively steady state voltage, or bias voltage, applied is considered to be in a quiescent state and will reflect a particular color, a quiescent color. In the previously referenced patent applications, the quiescent color is determined by the thickness of the sacrificial spacer upon which the secondary mirror is fabricated. 
         [0076]    Each IMod  114 ,  116  is rectangular and connected at its four corners to four posts  118  via support arms such as  120  and  122 . In some cases (see discussion below), the IMod array will be operated at a stated constant bias voltage. In those cases, the secondary mirror  102  will always maintain a quiescent position which is closer to corresponding primary mirror  128  than without any bias voltage applied. The fabrication of IMods with differently sized support arms allows for the mechanical restoration force of each IMod to be determined by its geometry. Thus, with the same bias voltage applied to multiple IMods, each IMod may maintain a different biased position (distance from the primary mirror) via control of the dimensions of the support arm and its resulting spring constant. The thicker the support arm is, the greater its spring constant. Thus different colors (e.g., red, green, and blue) can be displayed by different IMods without requiring deposition of different thickness spacers. Instead, a single spacer, deposited and subsequently removed during fabrication, may be used while color is determined by modifying the support arm dimensions during the single photolithographic step used to define the arms. For example, in  FIG. 2 , IMods  114 ,  116  are both shown in quiescent states with the same bias voltage applied. However, the gap spacing  126  for IMod  114  is larger than gap spacing  128  for IMod  116  by virtue of the larger dimensions of its respective support arms. 
         [0077]    As shown in  FIGS. 3A and 3B , in another technique for achieving spatially defined color, instead of affecting the quiescent position of the movable membrane, one or both of the mirrors (walls) comprising the IMod is patterned to determine its qualities spatially instead of by material thickness. 
         [0078]    Thus, in  FIG. 3A , mirror  300  has two layers  302  and  304 . By etching layer  302  the effective index of refraction of layer  302 , and thus the performance of mirror  300 , may be altered by controlling the percentage of the layer which remains after the etch. For example, a material with index of 2 maintains that value if there is no etch at all. However if 75% of the material is etched away, the average index falls to 1.75. Etching enough of the material results in an index which is essentially that of air or of the material which may fill in the etched area. 
         [0079]    The mirror layer  308  in  FIG. 3B , by contrast has an effective refractive index which is less than that of mirror layer  302 . Because the overall behavior of both mirrors is determined by their materials properties, and the behavior of the IMod by the mirror properties, then the color of an IMod incorporating mirror  300  is different from an IMod comprising mirror  306  by virtue of spatially varying, e.g., etching or patterning, one or more of the layers comprising the mirrors. This, again, can be done in a single photolithographic step. 
         [0080]    Referring to  FIG. 4 , in another type of IMod a back supporting mechanism is used instead of an array of posts and support arms (which consume useful surface area on the display). Here, the secondary mirror  402  is mechanically held by support arm  400  at location  406 . Arm  400  contacts the substrate  403  at locations  408  where it occupies a minimal footprint, thereby maximizing the amount of area devoted to the mirrors  402 ,  404 . This effect is enhanced by notches  408 ,  410  which allow mirrors  402  and  404  to conform to the support. Rear support could also be achieved in other ways, perhaps using multiple arms to maintain parallelism. The rear supports can also provide a basis for multilevel conductor lines. For example, an elevated conductor line  412  may be tied to support arm  400 . This configuration minimizes the area on the substrate required for such purposes. 
       Reducing Color Shift and Supplying Supplemental Illumination 
       [0081]    As shown in  FIGS. 5A through 5C , to minimize color shift as the angle of incidence changes (a characteristic of interferometric structures) IMod structures  502 ,  506  are fabricated to have a very high aspect ratio, i.e., they are much taller than they are wide. Consequently, they only exhibit interferometric behavior within a narrow cone  501  of incidence angles. Incident light  500  which is within cone  501 , as in  FIG. 5A , interacts with the multiple layers (shown by striped sections in the figure) the composition and configuration of which are dictated by the design of the IMod. In general, as indicated in the previous patent applications, these can consist of combinations of thin films of metals, metallic oxides, or other compounds. The important fact being that the geometry of the stack dictates that interference occurs only within a narrow cone of incidence angles. On the other hand, as seen in  FIG. 5B , incident light  504  (outside of the cone) is relatively unaffected by the IMod because it interacts with only a very few layers. Such an IMod would appear, say blue, to a viewer who looks at it from a narrow range of angles. 
         [0082]    As seen in  FIG. 5C , if an array  507  of these structures  508  is fabricated such that they are oriented to cover many different viewing angles then the entire array can appear blue from a much larger range of angles. This random orientation may be achieved, for example, by fabrication on a randomly oriented surface or by random suspension in a liquid medium. 
         [0083]    As seen in  FIGS. 6A-6F , other techniques for minimizing color shift and for supplying supplemental illumination are possible. In these examples, a specially designed optical film is fabricated on the opposite surface of the substrate from the surface on which the IMod array resides. Such films can be designed and fabricated in a number of ways, and may be used in conjunction with each other. 
         [0084]    In  FIG. 6A , film  600  is a volume or surface relief holographic film. A volume holographic film may be produced by exposing a photosensitive polymer to the interference pattern produced by the intersection of two or more coherent light sources (i.e. lasers). Using the appropriate frequencies and beam orientations arbitrary periodic patterns of refractive indices within the film may be produced. A surface relief holographic film may be produced by creating a metal master using any number of microfabrication techniques known by those skilled in the art. The master is subsequently used to the pattern into the film. Such films can be used to enhance the transmission and reflection of light within a definable cone of angles, thus minimizing off-axis light. The colors and brightness of a display viewed with on axis light are enhanced and color shift is diminished because brightness goes down significantly outside of the cone. 
         [0085]    In  FIG. 6B , another approach is shown as device  604  in which an array of structures  606  is fabricated on the substrate. These structures, which can be fabricated using the techniques described in the previously referenced patent applications, can be considered photonic crystals, as described in the book “Photonic Crystals”, by John D. Joannopoulos, et al., and incorporated by reference. They are essentially three-dimensional interferometric arrays which demonstrate interference from all angles. This provides the ability to design waveguides which can perform a number of functions including channeling incident light of certain frequencies to the appropriately colored pixels, or by changing light of a certain incidence angle to a new incidence angle, or some combination of both. 
         [0086]    In another example, seen in  FIG. 6C , a three-layer polymeric film  610  contains suspended particles  611 . The particles are actually single or multi-layer dielectric mirrors which have been fabricated in the form of microscopic plates. These plates, for example, may be fabricated by deposition of multilayer dielectric films onto a polymer sheet which, when dissolved, leaves a film which can “ground up” in a way which produces the plates. The plates are subsequently mixed into a liquid plastic precursor. By the application of electric fields during the curing process, the orientation of these plates may be fixed during manufacture. The mirrors can be designed so that they only reflect at a range of grazing angles. Consequently, light is either reflected or transmitted depending on the incidence angle with respect to the mirror. In this case, layer  612  is oriented to reflect light  609  of high incidence that enters the film  610  closer to the perpendicular. Layer  614  reflects light  613  of lower incidence into a more perpendicular path. Layer  616  modifies the even lower angle incident light  615 . Because the layers minimally affect light which approaches perpendicularly, they each act as a separate “angle selective incidence filter” with the result that randomly oriented incident light couples into the substrate with a higher degree of perpendicularly. This minimizes the color shift of a display viewed through this film. 
         [0087]    In another example,  FIG. 6D , micro lenses  622  are used in an array in device  620 . Each lens  622  may be used to enhance the fill factor of the display by effectively magnifying the active area of each pixel. This approach could be used by itself or in conjunction with the previous color shift compensation films. 
         [0088]    In another example,  FIG. 6E , device  624  uses supplemental lighting in the form of a frontlighting array. In this case an organic light emitting material  626 , for example, Alq/diamine structures and poly(phenylene vinylene), can be deposited and patterned on the substrate. The top view,  FIG. 6F , reveals a pattern  627  which corresponds with the IMod array underneath. That is, the light emitting areas  626  are designed to obscure the inactive areas between the IMods, and allow a clear aperture in the remaining regions. Light is emitted into the substrate onto the IMod and is subsequently reflected back to the viewer. Conversely, a patterned emitting film may be applied to the backplate of the display and light transmitted forward through the gaps between the sub-pixels. By patterning a mirror on the front of the display, this light can be reflected back upon the IMod array. Peripherally mounted light sources in conjunction with films relying on total internal reflection are yet another approach. 
       Brightness Control 
       [0089]    Referring to  FIG. 7A , a full color spatially dithered pixel  701  includes side-by-side sub-pixels  700 ,  702 , and  704 . Sub-pixel  700 , for example, includes sub-arrays of IMods whose numbers differ in a binary fashion. For example, sub-array  706  is one IMod, sub-array  708  is 2 IMods, sub-array  710  is 4 IMods, while sub-array  718  is 128 IMods. Sub-array  712  is shown in greater detail in  FIG. 7B . In the arrays, each IMod is the same size so that the amount of area covered by each sub-array is proportional to the total number of IMods in the array. Row electrodes  724  and column electrodes  722  are patterned to allow for the selective and independent actuation of individual sub-arrays. Consequently, the overall brightness of the pixel may be controlled by actuating combinations of the sub-arrays using a binary weighting scheme. With a total of 8 sub-arrays, each sub-pixel is capable of 256 brightness levels. A brightness value of 136 may be achieved, for example, by the actuation of sub-arrays  718  and  712 . Color is obtained by combining different values of brightness of the three sub-pixels. 
         [0090]    The apparent dynamic range of the display may also be enhanced using a process known as error diffusion. In some applications, the number of bits available for representing the full range of brightness values (dynamic range) may be limited by the capabilities of the drivers, for example. In such a situation, the dynamic range may be enhanced by causing neighboring pixels to have a brightness value, the average of which is closer to an absolute value that cannot be obtained given the set number of bits. This process is accomplished electronically within the controller logic, and can be accomplished without significantly affecting the display resolution. 
       Digital Driving 
       [0091]    In a digital driving scheme, as shown in  FIGS. 8 ,  9 , and  10 ,  FIG. 8  is a timing diagram showing one set of voltages required to actuate a matrix addressed array of IMods. Column select pulses  800  and  802  are representative of what would be applied to a particular column. Further detail is revealed in pulse  800  which is shown to switch from voltage level Cbias to voltage Cselect. Row select pulses  804  and  806  are also shown, with  804  revealing that the required voltage levels are Rselect, Rbias, and Roff (O volts). When a column select pulse is present, and a row select pulse is applied, the pixel which resides at the intersection of the two is actuated as shown in the case of pixel  808  which resides on the row driven by select pulse  804 , and subsequently in pixel  810 , which resides on the row driven by pulse  806 . When select pulse  804  is driven to the Roff level, pixel  808  is turned off. Pixel  812  illustrates the behavior of a pixel in an arbitrary state when a Roff value is placed on the row line, i.e., if it is on it turns off, or if it is off it remains off. 
         [0092]    In  FIG. 9 , the voltages are shown in the context of a hysteresis curve which is typical of an IMod. As the applied voltage is increased, the membrane does not move significantly until the value rises beyond a certain point, which is known as the collapse threshold. After this point, the membrane undergoes full displacement. This state is maintained until the voltage is dropped below a point where actuation began. Several conditions must be met in order for this scheme to be successful. The combination of Csel and Rsel must be higher than the collapse threshold voltage, the combination of Cbias and Rsel must not fully actuate the membrane, the combination of Cbias and Rbias must maintain a displaced state, and the combination of Roff and Cbias must free the membrane. 
         [0093]      FIG. 10A  is representative of a typical matrix addressed array illustrating column lines  1000  and row lines  1002 .  FIG. 10B  illustrates a typical shift register based driver circuit. The size of the display array and the number of bits in the register would determine how many of these components would be required for both rows and columns. Bits corresponding to the appropriate row and column values are shifted into the register and loaded on the outputs when they are required during the course of the scanning the display. 
       Viewing Modes 
       [0094]    Referring to  FIG. 11 , among the different generic ways to view an IMod display  1104  (the best one being selected based on the particular product application) are a direct viewing mode with the viewer  1100  perceiving the display without the aid of an image forming optical system. Direct viewing can occur in reflection mode, using reflected light  1102 , or transmitted mode, using transmitted light  1106 , or some combination of the two. 
         [0095]    In another example,  FIG. 12 , direct viewing configurations may rely on intervening optics to form an image from an image source generated by IMod display  1204 . Reflected light  1202  or transmitted light  1212 , or a combination of the two, may be manipulated by macro lens system  1206 . A more complicated or space critical application might require more elaborate optics. In such a case, a lens system might be implemented using a micro-lens array  1208  with or without the aid of redirection mirrors  1214 . 
         [0096]    In  FIG. 13 , indirect viewing may be achieved with respect to an image generated by display  1304  using either transmitted light  1310  or reflected light  1301  from light source  1300 . Lens system  1302  is then used to form an image on viewing surface,  1306 , which is where the viewer perceives the image. 
       Packaging and Driving Electronics 
       [0097]    Referring to  FIGS. 14 through 16 , different techniques for packaging and providing driver electronics are illustrated in order of degree of integration.  FIG. 14  shows a configuration requiring two separate substrates. The IMod display array resides on substrate  1400  which could be any one of a variety of materials described in the referenced patent applications. The IMod array is not shown because it is obscured by backplate  1404 , which is bonded to substrate  1400  via seal  1402 . Backplate  1404  can also be of a number of different materials with the primary requirement being that it be impermeable to water, and that its thermal coefficient of expansion be close to that of the substrate. Seal  1402  can be achieved in a number of ways. One approach involves the application of an epoxy but this results in the generation of gases during the curing process which may interfere with the operation of the devices. Another approach involves fusion or eutectic bonding which utilizes heat to create a chemical or diffusion bond between two materials, in this case the substrate and the backplate. This process may be enhanced by forming a bead, in the form of seal  1402 , of additional materials such as silicon, aluminum, or other alloys which tend to bond well. This process may be further enhanced using a technique known as anodic bonding. This is similar to fusion bonding except that a voltage potential is applied across the backplate and substrate. This allows the bond to occur at a lower temperature. Other techniques are also possible. 
         [0098]    The electronics  1410  comprise all of the row and column drivers, memory, and controller logic required to actuate the IMods in a controlled fashion. Exactly where each of these functions reside would depend on the application and degree of integration required for an application. Specific examples will be discussed in subsequent portions of this patent application. In  FIG. 14 , the drive electronics  1410  are shown mounted on substrate  1412 . A connection is made between this substrate  1412  and the display substrate  1400 , by ribbon cable  1408  and subsequently to the display array via conductors  1406 . Many techniques exist for patterning the fine array of conductors for ribbon cable, as well as for connecting them to disparate substrates. 
         [0099]      FIG. 15  shows a display where the electronics have been mounted on the display substrate. Display substrate  1500  serves as a support not only for the IMod array but also for the integrated circuits  1508 . Conductors  1506  are patterned to create appropriate paths between the ICs and the array. ICs  1508  may be mounted on the substrate using a number of techniques including TAB mounting and chip-on-glass techniques which rely on anisotropically conducting films. 
         [0100]      FIG. 16  shows a display which includes fully integrated electronics and can be achieved in two fundamental ways. 
         [0101]    In one case, substrate  1600  is an electronically inactive medium upon which the IMod array and electronics  1608  are fabricated separately or in a fabrication process with some overlap. Electronics may be fabricated using a number of techniques for building thin film transistors using materials such as amorphous silicon, polysilicon, or cadmium selenide. Electronics may also be fabricated using microelectromechanical (MEM) switches instead of, or in conjunction with thin film transistors. All of these materials are deposited on the surface of the substrate, and provide the electronically or electromechanically active medium for circuits. This implementation demonstrates a powerful approach to surface micromachining, which could be described as epi-fab. Essentially, in epi-fab all components of any microelectromechanical structure, both the mechanical and the electronic, are fabricated entirely on the surface of an inert substrate. 
         [0102]    In the second case, the substrate is active silicon or gallium arsenide and the electronics are fabricated as a part of it. The IMod array is then fabricated on its surface. The electronics may also include more complex electronic circuits associated with the particular applications. Application specific circuits, e.g., microprocessors and memory for a laptop computer can be fabricated as well, further increasing the degree of integration. 
         [0103]      FIGS. 17A and 17B  show two drive/connection schemes. Direct drive is illustrated by a seven segment display  1700 . A common conductor  1702  connects all of the segments  1703  in parallel. In addition, separate segment conductors  1704  go to each segment individually. As shown in  FIG. 17B , in a detailed corner  1712  of one segment, an array of IMods  1708  are connected in parallel and would be connected as a group to a segment conductor  1704  and the common conductor  1702 . The general microscopic nature of this type of IMod structure makes it necessary to group the IMods together to form larger elements to allow for direct viewing of the display. Application of a voltage between a selected one of the segment conductors and the common conductor actuates all of the IMods within that segment. The direct drive approach is limited by the fact that the number of conductors becomes prohibitive if the number of graphical elements gets large enough. 
         [0104]    Referring to  FIGS. 18A and 18B , an active matrix drive approach is shown. Row lines  1800  and column lines  1804  result in a two-dimensional array the intersections of which provide pixel locations such as  1802 . As seen in  FIG. 18B , each of the pixel locations  1802  may be filled with an array of parallel connected IMods  1803 . In this scheme a common conductor  1808  may be connected to the row line, and the IMod array conductor,  1810 , may be connected to the column line, though this could be reversed. 
       Product and Device Applications 
       [0105]    The remaining figures illustrate product and device applications which use the fabrication, drive, and assembly techniques described thus far. 
         [0106]    The IMod as an easily fabricated, inexpensive, and capable modulator can be placed in an exceptional number of roles which require the manipulation of light. These areas fall into at least two categories: IMods which are used to modulate or otherwise affect light for purposes which do not result in direct visually perceived information (embedded applications); and IMods which are used to convey codified, abstract or other forms of information via light to be visually perceived by an individual (perceived applications). All of these applications, both embedded and perceived, can be roughly divided according to array size and geometry, however these boundaries are for descriptive purposes only and functional overlap can exist across these categories. They do not represent an exhaustive list of possibilities. 
         [0107]    One category of applications utilizes single or individual modulators which are generally for embedded applications. These may be coupled to optical fibers or active electronics to provide, among other things, a mechanism for selecting specific frequencies on a wavelength division multiplexed fiber-optic communication system, as well as a low data rate passive fiber optic modulator. Single modulators may be coupled to semiconductor lasers to provide, among other things, a mechanism for selecting specific frequencies transmitted by the laser, as well as a low data rate laser modulator. Single modulators may be coupled to optical fibers, lasers, or active electronics to alter the phase of light reflected. 
         [0108]    Linear arrays, though generally for embedded applications, also begin to have potential in perceived roles. Devices for printing imagery may utilize a linear array as the mechanism for impressing information on to reflected or transmitted light which is subsequently recorded in a light sensitive medium. Devices for scanning images may utilize a linear array to select different colors of a printed or real image for subsequent detection by a light sensitive device. 
         [0109]    Yet another category of applications includes microscopic two-dimensional arrays of IMods which may be used to provide reconfigurable optical interconnects or switches between components. Such arrays may also be used to provide optical beam steering of incident light. Using a lens system, to be discussed later, may allow such an array to be readable. 
         [0110]    Small arrays, on the order of 2″ square or smaller, may find a variety of uses for which this size is appropriate. Applications include direct view and projection displays. Projection displays can be used individually or in arrays to create virtual environments (VEs). A theater is an example of a single channel VE, while an omnimax theater, with many screens, represents a multi-channel virtual environment. Direct view displays can be used for alphanumeric and graphic displays for all kinds of consumer/commercial electronic products such as calculators, cellular phones, watches and sunglasses (active or static), jewelry, decorative/informative product labels or small format printing (business card logos, greeting card inserts, product labels logos, etc.); decorative clothing patches or inserts (sneakers, badges, belt buckles, etc.); decorative detailing or active/static graphic printing on products (tennis rackets, roller blades, bike helmets, etc.); and decorative detailing or active/static graphic printing on ceramic, glass, or metal items (plates, sculpture, forks and knives, etc.). Very large (billboard sized) displays may be produced by combining arrays of small arrays which are themselves directly driven. Embedded applications may include spatial light modulators for optical computing and optical storage. Modulator arrays fabricated on two dimensional light sensitive arrays, such as CCDs, may be used as frequency selective filter arrays for the selection of color separations during image acquisition. 
         [0111]    Another size category of devices, medium arrays, may be defined by arrays of roughly 2″ to 6″ square. These include direct view displays for consumer electronic products including organizers, personal digital assistants, and other medium sized display-centric devices; control panels for electronic products, pocket TVs, clock faces (active and static); products such as credit cards, greeting cards, wine and other product labels; small product exteriors (walkmen, CD cases, other consumer electronic products, etc.); and larger active/static graphical patches or inserts (furniture, clothing, skis, etc.) 
         [0112]    For arrays on the order of 6″ to 12″ square, large arrays, there exist other compelling applications. These include direct view displays for large format display-centric products (TVs, electronic readers for digital books, magazines and other traditionally printed media, special function tools); signs (window signs, highway signs, public information and advertising signs, etc.); large consumer product exteriors/active surfaces and body panels (microwave oven, telephone, bicycle, etc.); and furniture exteriors and lighting fixtures, high end products. Direct view 3-D displays and adaptive optics are also possible. 
         [0113]    Arrays approximately 12″ square or larger, and aggregate arrays (which are combinations of smaller arrays to achieve a larger one), further define a unique set of devices, and provide the potential to affect our overall environment. These include direct view displays for very large formats (billboards, public spaces, highway, industrial/military situation displays, etc.); Body panels and active exteriors for very large products (cars, motorcycles, air and water craft, sails, refrigerators); and active/static exteriors/interiors for very large objects (buildings, walls, windows). 
         [0114]    In  FIG. 19 , a fiber optic detector/modulator  1901  includes a single IMod  1904 . An optical fiber  1900  is bonded to substrate  1902 . IMod  1904  resides on the substrate which is bonded to backplate  1910  by a seal  1908  using anodic bonding for example. The backplate also serves as a substrate for detector  1906 . Electronics  1912  are mounted on substrate  1902  via chip-on-glass or some other previously described technique. Device  1901  could provide a number of functions depending on the nature of the IMod. For example, a reflective mode IMod could act as a modulator of light which is incident through the optical fiber. Using a design which switches between absorbing or reflecting, the intensity of the reflected light may be modulated. Using a transmissive IMod, the device could act as a transceiver. Switching the IMod between fully transmissive or fully reflective would also modulate the reflected light and thus perform as a data transmitter. Holding it in the fully transmissive state would allow the detector  1906  to respond to light incident through the fiber, thus acting like a receiver. Use of a tunable IMod would allow the device to act as a frequency sensitive detector, while not precluding modulation as well. 
         [0115]    Referring to  FIGS. 20 and 21A , a linear array  2104  of IMods  2001 ,  2003 ,  2005  is supported on a substrate  2004 . Each of the IMods includes a primary mirror  2006 , a secondary mirror  2002 , electrodes  2008 , support arms  2000 , and support plate  2010 . Each IMod would be driven separately in a binary or analog fashion depending on the application. In the representative application shown in  FIG. 21A , a transport mechanism  2106  moves a medium  2108  past a linear IMod array  2104  (the axis of the array is into the page). Two potential applications for such a configuration could include image acquisition or digital printing. In acquisition mode, component  2100  is a detector array which is coupled to IMod array  2104  via lens system  2102 . Component  2110  acts as a light source, illuminating pre-printed images which reside on media  2108 . By using the IMod as a tunable filter array, specific colors of the image on the media may be selected and detected, allowing for high resolution capture of graphical information residing on the media. 
         [0116]    Alternatively, component  2100  could be a light source which uses lens system  2102  to couple and collimate light through IMod array  2104  onto media  2108 . In this case, the media would be a photosensitive material which would undergo exposure as it passed beneath the array. This would provide a mechanism for the printing of high resolution color images. No electronic components reside on the array substrate in this example.  FIG. 21B  shows a components diagram illustrating one way in which this product could be implemented using off-the-shelf components. In this case, they comprise a central controller  2112 , (including processor  2114 , memory  2116 , and low level I/O  2118 ), high level I/O components (user interface  2120  and logic  2122 , detector array  2130 ), control components (light source  2132 , media transport  2128  and logic  2126 ), display  2140  (logic  2138 , drivers  2136 , IMod array  2134 ) and power supply  2124 . The central controller handles general purpose operational functions, the high level I/O components and display dictate how information gets in and out of the product, and the controller components manipulate peripheral devices. 
         [0117]    Referring to  FIG. 22 , a two-dimensional IMod device  2201  is fabricated directly on a photosensitive detector array  2206  such as a charge coupled device (CCD) or other light sensitive array. Array  2206  has photosensitive areas  2202  and charge transport and IMod drive electronics  2204 . Planarization layer  2208 , deposited on the CCD, provides a flat surface for the fabrication of the IMod array  2200 . Such a layer could be in the form of a curable polymer or spun-on oxide. Alternatively, some form of chemical mechanical polishing might be used to prepare an optically smooth surface on the integrated circuit. Device  2201  provides a fully integrated 2-D, tunable light detection system which can be used for image capture or image printing (if the detector is replaced with a light source). 
         [0118]      FIG. 23  illustrates a digital camera  2301  based on this device. Camera body  2300  provides mechanical support and housing for lens system  2304  and electronics and IMod detector array  2302 . Scene  2306  is imaged on the surface of the array using the lens system. By tuning the IMod array to the frequencies of light corresponding to red, green, and blue, a full color image may be acquired by combining successive digital exposures. Hyperspectral imagery (in other wavelength regions such as ultraviolet or infrared) may be obtained by tuning to frequencies between these points. Because of the high switching speed of the IMods, all three images may be acquired in the time it takes a conventional camera to capture one. 
         [0119]    Referring to  FIG. 24A , an application for small-sized displays is a digital watch  2400  (the back side of the watch is shown in  FIG. 24A ) which includes a reflective IMod display at its core. The IMod display comprises an IMod array  2402  and drive electronics,  2404 . The display (see examples in  FIGS. 24B-24E ) could vary in complexity from separate graphic elements driven in a direct drive manner, to a dense array using active matrix addressing, or some combination. The electronics could be fabricated on glass using polysilicon or amorphous silicon transistors, or MEM switches. While the direct drive approach would still exploit the saturated appearance of the IMod, a dense array would allow for the selection of arbitrary or pre-programmed graphical patterns such as  FIG. 24B . This would add an exciting new fashion component to watches not unlike the art oriented Swatch® only in electronic form. Owners could select from a series of preprogrammed displays  2408  ( FIG. 24D ), say by pushing the stem, or download limited edition displays digitally from their favorite artists. 
         [0120]    Referring to  FIG. 25A , a small transmissive IMod array is shown in a head mounted display  2511 . Support  2508  provides a frame for mounting the display components and the viewer screen  2512 . Referring also to  FIG. 25B , the display includes a light source  2500 , an IMod array  2502 , a lens system  2504 , and a reflector  2506 . The display is used in indirect mode with the image formed on screens  2512  for the benefit of viewer  2510 . Alternatively, the IMod array could be formed directly on the screen itself and thus be used in direct view mode. In both cases, the display could function to provide aesthetic imagery which could be seen by other individuals and provide an appealing dynamic external look. 
         [0121]    Referring to  FIGS. 26A through 26D , an IMod display  2604  is shown in a product with a very wide range of applications. In this case, the display is used in direct view mode, and could come in a variety of sizes depending on the specific product, but ranging in size from several inches across to about one foot diagonal. The primary goal is for a device that has a very small footprint and/or is portable, and the scheme is to facilitate mobility. The device  2600  could be described as a personal information tool, a portable digital assistant, a web browser, or by various other titles which are only now being coined to describe this class of products. In general its purpose would be to serve as a media interface for a variety of information gathering, processing, and dissemination functions, or as a mobile or stationary peripheral for a centralized processing station to which it is connected, perhaps via the internet or some wireless communications medium. A specialized peripheral in a home-based application might be a kitchen cooking assistant which would be portable and present easily readable recipes by virtue of the display and the fact that most of its processing is located in some other unit. Many other variations on this theme are possible. This tool comprises a display  2604  and some basic controls  2602 . Internal components would include some combination of processing electronics, information storage, and communications hardware. Representative products range from personal organizers and digital books and magazines, to application specific tools (construction, medical, scientific) or tools for browsing the internet. Techniques for operating such a tool are varied and could range from voice recognition, to touch sensitive screens. However, all of the products would have the ability to digitally display graphical information using reflected (preferred) or transmitted light with highly saturated colors. Because it is digital, the complexity and cost of the driving electronics would be significantly reduced, and because it can use reflected light, the power consumption is extremely low while the performance remains high. These two characteristics make such a high performance display oriented product viable from an economic and portability perspective.  FIG. 26C  is an example of one kind of personal communications device, a cellular phone in this case though the pager of  FIG. 26D  is an example of another. Display  2608  is capable of displaying both graphical and text information.  FIG. 26B  shows a components diagram illustrating one way in which these products could be implemented using available off-the-shelf components. In this case, they comprise a central controller  2610  (including processor  2612 , memory  2614 , and low level I/O  2616 ), high level I/O components (user interface  2618  and logic  2620 , audio I/O  2624 , digital camera  2628 , and wireless transceiver  2630 ), display  2638  (logic  2636 , drivers  2634 , IMod array  2632 ) and power supply  2622 . The central controller handles general purpose operational functions, while high level I/O components dictate how information gets in and out of the product. 
         [0122]    Referring to  FIG. 27A through 27G , several applications are shown which emphasize the aesthetic nature of an IMod display as well as its information conveying aspect. An IMod display could be included in a portable compact disc player  2700  of the kind that serves as a commodity status device made by many manufacturers. By virtue of an IMod display, a larger fraction of the exterior of the player may be devoted to information display functions, indicating status of the device as well as tracks playing. Because it consumes such a large fraction of the exterior, it would be possible to have the display play a more significant role in the appearance of the CD player. Static as well as dynamic patterns and images could be displayed which may or may not have any connection with the status of the player. However, because of the rich saturated colors, the appearance becomes a significant and distinct selling point for the manufacturer. This concept holds true for any number of consumer electronic devices whose form and function could be enhanced by an active exterior. A microwave oven which pulsed red when the food was done, or a bread baking machine whose exterior changed colors as the baking process progressed are just two examples.  FIG. 27C  shows a components diagram illustrating one way the CD player could be implemented using off-the-shelf components. In general, they comprise a central controller  2706  (including processor  2707 , memory  2710 , and low level I/O  2712 ), high level I/O components (user interface  2702  and logic  2704 ), display  2722  (logic  2720 , drivers  2718 , IMod array  2716 ) disc player mechanism  2714 , and power supply  2724 . The central controller handles general purpose operational functions, high level I/O components dictate how information gets in and out of the product, and the disc play mechanism manipulates mechanical servos. 
         [0123]    The skis of  FIG. 27D  and the sneaker of  FIG. 27F  are examples of consumer goods which could benefit purely from the aesthetic potential for an active exterior. In both cases, an IMod array has been fabricated on a substrate, for example flexible plastic, along with electronics and integrated into the product using any number of techniques currently used for incorporating or laminating composite pieces into fabric or solid composites. Power could be supplied by piezoelectric like devices which convert the mechanical power of movement (e.g., ski flexing or walking) into electricity. Remote control,  FIG. 27E , could be used to effect control over the images displayed. Further control could be exhibited to reflect the mode of use of the product. In the case of the skis, the pattern might become more dynamic as the skier gained speed, or in the case of the shoes the strength of the runner&#39;s stride. These are only a few of the possibilities for the aesthetic enhancement of consumer goods by the use of a dynamic exteriors.  FIG. 27G  illustrates how a display could respond to the state of the consumer product. The control mechanism would consist of a sensor  2732 , which could detect vibration (in a shoe or ski) or temperature (in a turkey), program logic  2734 , which would interpret the sensor output and provide preprogrammed (or reprogrammable) images or image data to display, communications input/output  2738 , and display control electronics  2736 . 
         [0124]    Referring to  FIGS. 28A and 28B , even larger IMod arrays are shown incorporated into the exterior of an automobile. In this case body panels  2800 ,  2802  as well as windows  2804 , could use reflective and transmissive IMod designs respectively. Dynamic control of the exterior appearance of a car would be a very appealing option for the owner, providing the ability for the owner to customize the appearance himself, or to “download” exteriors in a digital fashion. Such a control  2806  could take the form of a small panel integrated into the dashboard which displayed various exteriors under button control. The same techniques could be applied to other highly style oriented goods in the class and functional category, including motorcycles, sailboats; airplanes and more.  FIG. 28B  shows a components diagram illustrating one way in which this product could be implemented using off-the-shelf components. In general, they comprise a central controller  2808  (including processor  2810 , memory  2812 , and low level I/O  2814 ), high level I/O components (user interface  2816 , and logic  2818 ), display  2828  (logic  2826 , drivers  2824 , IMod array  2822 ) and power supply  2820 . The central controller handles general purpose operational functions, while high level I/O components dictate how information gets in and out of the product. 
         [0125]    Referring to  FIGS. 29A through 29D , billboard-sized arrays  2900  of IMod display segments could be assembled and replace current static displays used for advertising and public service announcements. Display  2900  would include reflective devices to be illuminated by ambient light or a supplemental light source  2902 . A large display could be assembled from individual segments  2904  ( FIG. 29B ) which would support segment pixels  2906 . Each segment pixel would include three sets of sub-pixel arrays  2910 ,  2912 , and  2914 , which would reside on pixel substrate  2908  ( FIG. 29C ). The resulting large displays could range from placards on the sides of buses and inside of subways, to billboards, to entire architectural structures such as homes or skyscrapers. In  FIG. 30A , skyscraper  3000  is an example of a large building which exploits the aesthetic and cheap manufacture of the IMod array. All of the glass used in the manufacture of such structures is coated with thin films up to 4 or more layers thick to provide energy efficient coatings. Similar coating techniques could be applied to the manufacture of the IMod arrays.  FIG. 30B  shows a components diagram illustrating one way in which both of these products could be implemented using off-the-shelf components. In this case, they comprise a central controller  3002  (including processor  3004 , memory  3006 , and low level I/O  3006 ), high level I/O components (PC based user interface  3008 ), display  3020  (logic  3018 , drivers  3016 , IMod array  3014 ), lighting control  3012 , and power supply  3010 . The central controller handles general purpose operational functions, high level I/O components dictate how information gets in and out of the product, and the controller components manipulate supplementary lighting and peripheral components. 
         [0126]    It should be noted that several alternative display technologies may also be applicable to some of the less rigorous aesthetic applications, in particular, small AMLCDs, LCDs fabricated on active crystalline silicon, field emission displays (FEDs), and possibly plasma based displays. These technologies are deficient due to their price, manufacturing complexity, and non-reflective (emissive) operation. However, certain high-end fashion oriented products (luxury watches, jewelry and clothing) may command a price and provide an environment which could make these viable approaches. Organic emitters could be particularly suited for exterior applications which are not necessarily exposed to environmental extremes and which might be seen in dimly lit situations. They are the only emissive technology which offers the potential for very low-cost and ease of manufacture. The Alq/diamine structures and poly(phenylene vinylene) materials, which were described before, could be patterned and directly addressed on a variety of substrates (plastic clothing inserts for example) to provide dynamic exteriors. 
         [0127]      FIG. 31A  shows interferometric particles suspended in a liquid crystal medium,  3100 , making possible full color liquid crystal displays based on the controlled orientation of the particles within the medium. As shown in  FIG. 31B , application of a voltage between electrodes  3102  from source  3104  causes the particles to be driven from their random quiescent orientation  3106  defined by the liquid crystal and the surfaces of the substrate into an orderly orientation  3108 . When the particles are randomly oriented, light of a specific color  3110  is reflected. When the particles are ordered, light  3112  passes through. 
         [0128]    Referring to  FIG. 32A , two kinds of projection display units,  3200  and  3202 , are shown. Each unit comprises components consisting of light source/optics  3206 , electronics  3204 , projection optics  3210 , and IMod array  3208 . While the IMod array in projector  3200  is designed for use in transmission mode, the IMod array in projector  3202  is designed for use in reflection mode. The other components are essentially the same with the exception of the need to modify the optics to accommodate the difference in the nature of the optical path. Screen  3212  shows a representative projected image.  FIG. 32B  shows a components diagram illustrating one way in which this product could be implemented using off-the-shelf components. In this case, they comprise a central controller  3212  (including processor  3214 , memory  3216 , and low level I/O  3218 ), high level I/O components (user interface  3220  and logic  3222 ), display  3236  (logic  3234 , drivers  3232 , IMod array  3230 ) focus/light source control  3226 , and power supply  3224 . The central controller handles general purpose operational functions, high level I/O components dictate how information gets in and out of the product, and the controller components manipulate peripheral devices. 
         [0129]    An application in chemical analysis is illustrated in  FIG. 33A . Transparent cavity  3300  is fabricated such that gas or liquid medium  3302  may pass through its length. Light source  3304  is positioned to project broad spectrum light through the medium into tunable IMod array  3306 . This array could be coupled to a fiber  3308 , or reside on a detector array with  3308  acting as data link to electronics  3310 . By spectrally analyzing the light which passes through the medium, much can be determined about its composition in a compact space. Such a device could be used to measure the pollutants in an air stream, the components in a liquid, separations in an chromatographic medium, fluorescing compounds in a medium, or other analytes which can be measured using light, depending on the frequency of the light source.  FIG. 33B  shows a components diagram illustrating one way in which this product could be implemented using off-the-shelf components. In this case, they comprise a central controller  3312  (including processor  3314 , memory  3316 , and low level I/O  3318 ), high level I/O components (user interface  3320 , and logic  3322 ), IMod drivers  3330  and IMod  3328 , light source  3326 , and power supply  3324 . The central controller handles general purpose operational functions, high level I/O components dictate how information gets in and out of the product, and the controller components manipulate peripheral devices. 
         [0130]      FIG. 34A  illustrates an automotive application from a driver&#39;s viewpoint.  FIG. 34B  represents a side view of the windshield and dashboard. A direct view graphical display  3404  portrays a variety of information, for example, an enhanced view of the roadway. An image generated in the windshield via a heads-up display. Such a display is a variation on the previously discussed projection system. In this case, the inside of the windshield acts as a translucent projection screen, and the projector  3406  is mounted in the dashboard. Automotive applications have very stringent requirements for heat, and UV stability, as well as high brightness ambient conditions which would be ideal for an IMod application.  FIG. 34C  shows a components diagram illustrating one way in which these products could be implemented using off-the-shelf components. In this case, they comprise a central controller  3410  (including processor  3412 , memory  3414 , and low level I/O  3416 ), high level I/O components (user interface  3418 , digital camera  3428 , auto sensors  3424 ), display  3436  (logic  3434 , drivers  3432 , IMod array  3430 ) and power supply  3422 . The central controller handles general purpose operational functions, high level I/O components dictate how information gets in and out of the product, and the controller components manipulate peripheral devices. 
         [0131]      FIG. 35A  portrays an application involving an instrument panel, in this case an oscilloscope  3500 , though many kinds of special purpose tools could benefit from a graphical display. In this situation, display  3502 , is used to show a waveform plot but could also, as described previously, display text, or combinations of graphics and text. Portable low-power tools for field use would benefit greatly from a full-color fast response FPD.  FIG. 35B  shows a components diagram illustrating one way in which these products could be implemented. All of the components are available off-the-shelf and could be configured by one who is skilled in the art. In this case, they comprise a central controller  3508  (including processor  3510 , memory  3514 , and low level I/O  3516 ), high level I/O components (user interface  3518  and logic  3520 ), display  3534  (logic  3532 , drivers  3530 , IMod array  3528 ) and power supply  3522 . The central controller handles general purpose operational functions, while high level I/O components dictate how information gets in and out of the product. 
         [0132]    Other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims.