The term “periodontal”means “around the tooth.” Periodontal disease (also known as periodontitis and gum disease) is a common inflammatory condition which affects the supporting and surrounding soft tissues of the tooth; also the jawbone itself when in its most advanced stages.
Periodontal disease is most often preceded by gingivitis which is a bacterial infection of the gum tissue. A bacterial infection affects the gums when the toxins contained in plaque begin to irritate and inflame the gum tissues. Once this bacterial infection colonizes in the gum pockets between the teeth, it becomes much more difficult to remove and treat. Periodontal disease is a progressive condition that eventually leads to the destruction of the connective tissue and jawbone. If left untreated, it can lead to shifting teeth, loose teeth and eventually tooth loss.
Periodontal disease is the leading cause of tooth loss among adults in the developed world and should always be promptly treated.
Types of Periodontal Disease
When left untreated, gingivitis (mild gum inflammation) can spread to below the gum line. When the gums become irritated by the toxins contained in plaque, a chronic inflammatory response causes the body to break down and destroy its own bone and soft tissue. There may be little or no symptoms as periodontal disease causes the teeth to separate from the infected gum tissue. Deepening pockets between the gums and teeth are generally indicative that soft tissue and bone is being destroyed by periodontal disease.
Here are some of the most common types of periodontal disease:
Chronic periodontitis – Inflammation within supporting tissues cause deep pockets and gum recession. It may appear the teeth are lengthening, but in actuality, the gums (gingiva) are receding. This is the most common form of periodontal disease and is characterized by progressive loss of attachment, interspersed with periods of rapid progression.
Aggressive periodontitis – This form of gum disease occurs in an otherwise clinically healthy individual. It is characterized by rapid loss of gum attachment, chronic bone destruction and familial aggregation.
Necrotizing periodontitis – This form of periodontal disease most often occurs in individuals suffering from systemic conditions such as HIV, immunosuppression and malnutrition. Necrosis (tissue death) occurs in the periodontal ligament, alveolar bone and gingival tissues.
Periodontitis caused by systemic disease – This form of gum disease often begins at an early age. Medical condition such as respiratory disease, diabetes and heart disease are common cofactors.
Treatment for Periodontal Disease
There are many surgical and nonsurgical treatments the periodontist may choose to perform, depending upon the exact condition of the teeth, gums and jawbone. A complete periodontal exam of the mouth will be done before any treatment is performed or recommended.
Here are some of the more common treatments for periodontal disease:
Scaling and root planing – In order to preserve the health of the gum tissue, the bacteria and calculus (tartar) which initially caused the infection, must be removed. The gum pockets will be cleaned and treated with antibiotics as necessary to help alleviate the infection. A prescription mouthwash may be incorporated into daily cleaning routines.
Tissue regeneration – When the bone and gum tissues have been destroyed, regrowth can be actively encouraged using grafting procedures. A membrane may be inserted into the affected areas to assist in the regeneration process.
Pocket elimination surgery – Pocket elimination surgery (also known as flap surgery) is a surgical treatment which can be performed to reduce the pocket size between the teeth and gums. Surgery on the jawbone is another option which serves to eliminate indentations in the bone which foster the colonization of bacteria.
Dental implants – When teeth have been lost due to periodontal disease, the aesthetics and functionality of the mouth can be restored by implanting prosthetic teeth into the jawbone. Tissue regeneration procedures may be required prior to the placement of a dental implant in order to strengthen the bone.
Ask your dentist if you have questions or concerns about periodontal disease, periodontal treatment, or dental implants.
Periodontal disease is diagnosed by your dentist or dental hygienist during a periodontal examination. This type of exam should always be part of your regular dental check-up.
A periodontal probe (small dental instrument) is gently used to measure the sulcus (pocket or space) between the tooth and the gums. The depth of a healthy sulcus measures three millimeters or less and does not bleed. The periodontal probe helps indicate if pockets are deeper than three millimeters. As periodontal disease progresses, the pockets usually get deeper.
Your dentist or hygienist will use pocket depths, amount of bleeding, inflammation, tooth mobility, etc., to make a diagnosis that will fall into a category below:
Gingivitis is the first stage of periodontal disease. Plaque and its toxin by-products irritate the gums, making them tender, inflamed, and likely to bleed.
Plaque hardens into calculus (tartar). As calculus and plaque continue to build up, the gums begin to recede from the teeth. Deeper pockets form between the gums and teeth and become filled with bacteria and pus. The gums become very irritated, inflamed, and bleed easily. Slight to moderate bone loss may be present.
The teeth lose more support as the gums, bone, and periodontal ligament continue to be destroyed. Unless treated, the affected teeth will become very loose and may be lost. Generalized moderate to severe bone loss may be present.
Periodontal treatment methods depend upon the type and severity of the disease. Your dentist and dental hygienist will evaluate for periodontal disease and recommend the appropriate treatment.
Periodontal disease progresses as the sulcus (pocket or space) between the tooth and gums gets filled with bacteria, plaque, and tartar, causing irritation to the surrounding tissues. When these irritants remain in the pocket space, they can cause damage to the gums and eventually, the bone that supports the teeth!
If the disease is caught in the early stages of gingivitis, and no damage has been done, one to two regular cleanings will be recommended. You will also be given instructions on improving your daily oral hygiene habits and having regular dental cleanings.
If the disease has progressed to more advanced stages, a special periodontal cleaning called scaling and root planing (deep cleaning) will be recommended. It is usually done one quadrant of the mouth at a time while the area is numb. In this procedure, tartar, plaque, and toxins are removed from above and below the gum line (scaling) and rough spots on root surfaces are made smooth (planing). This procedure helps gum tissue to heal and pockets to shrink. Medications, special medicated mouth rinses, and an electric tooth brush may be recommended to help control infection and healing.
If the pockets do not heal after scaling and root planing, periodontal surgery may be needed to reduce pocket depths, making teeth easier to clean. Your dentist may also recommend that you see a Periodontist (specialist of the gums and supporting bone).
The objective of scaling & root planning is to remove etiologic agents which cause inflammation to the gingival (gum) tissue and surrounding bone. Common etiologic agents removed by this conventional periodontal therapy include dental plaque and tartar (calculus).
These non-surgical procedures which completely cleanse the periodontium, work very effectively for individuals suffering from gingivitis (mild gum inflammation) and moderate/severe periodontal disease.
Reasons for scaling and root planing
Scaling and root planning can be used both as a preventative measure and as a stand-alone treatment. These procedures are performed as a preventative measure for a periodontitis sufferer.
Here are some reasons why these dental procedures may be necessary:
Disease prevention – The oral bacteria which cause periodontal infections can travel via the bloodstream to other parts of the body. Research has shown that lung infections and heart disease have been linked to periodontal bacteria. Scaling and root planing remove bacteria and halts periodontal disease from progressing, thus preventing the bacteria from traveling to other parts of the body.
Tooth protection – When gum pockets exceed 3mm in depth, there is a greater risk of periodontal disease. As pockets deepen, they tend to house more colonies of dangerous bacteria. Eventually, a chronic inflammatory response by the body begins to destroy gingival and bone tissue which may lead to tooth loss. Periodontal disease is the number one cause of tooth loss in the developed world.
Aesthetic effects – Scaling and root planing help remove tartar and plaque from the teeth and below the gumline. As an added bonus, if superficial stains are present on the teeth, they will be removed in the process of the scaling and root planning procedure.
Better breath – One of the most common signs of periodontal disease is halitosis (bad breath). Food particles and bacteria can cause a persistent bad odor in the oral cavity which is alleviated with cleaning procedures such as scaling and root planing.
What do scaling and root planing treatments involve?
Scaling and root planing treatments are only performed after a thorough examination of the mouth. The dentist will take X-rays, conduct visual examinations and make a diagnosis before recommending or beginning these procedures.
Depending on the current condition of the gums, the amount of calculus (tartar) present, the depth of the pockets and the progression of the periodontitis, local anesthetic may be used.
Scaling – This procedure is usually performed with special dental instruments and may include an ultrasonic scaling tool. The scaling tool removes calculus and plaque from the surface of the crown and root surfaces. In many cases, the scaling tool includes an irrigation process that can also be used to deliver an antimicrobial agent below the gums that can help reduce oral bacteria.
Root Planing – This procedure is a specific treatment which serves to remove cementum and surface dentin that is embedded with unwanted microorganisms, toxins and tartar. The root of the tooth is literally smoothed in order to promote good healing. Having clean, smooth root surfaces helps bacteria from easily colonizing in future.
Following these deep cleaning procedures, the gum pockets may be treated with antibiotics. This will soothe irritation and help the gum tissues to heal quickly.
During the next appointment, the dentist or hygienist will thoroughly examine the gums again to see how well the pockets have healed. If the gum pockets still measure more than 3mm in depth, additional and more intensive treatments may be recommended.
If you have any concerns or questions about scaling and root planing, or periodontal disease, please ask your dentist.
t only takes twenty four hours for plaque that is not removed from your teeth to turn into calculus (tartar)! Daily home cleaning helps control plaque and tartar formation, but those hard to reach areas will always need special attention.
Once your periodontal treatment has been completed, your dentist and dental hygienist will recommend that you have regular maintenance cleanings (periodontal cleanings), usually four times a year. At these cleaning appointments, the pocket depths will be carefully checked to ensure that they are healthy. Plaque and calculus that is difficult for you to remove on a daily basis will be removed from above and below the gum line.
In addition to your periodontal cleaning and evaluation, your appointment will usually include:
Examination of diagnostic x-rays (radiographs): Essential for detection of decay, tumors, cysts, and bone loss.X-rays also help determine tooth and root positions.
Oral cancer screening: Check the face, neck, lips, tongue, throat, cheek tissues, and gums for any signs of oral cancer.
Oral hygiene recommendations: Review and recommend oral hygiene aids as needed. (Electric toothbrushes, special periodontal brushes, fluorides, rinses, etc.)
Good oral hygiene practices and periodontal cleanings are essential in maintaining dental health and keeping periodontal disease under control!
Research studies have shown that there is a strong association between periodontal disease and other chronic conditions such as diabetes, heart disease, pregnancy complications and respiratory disease.
Periodontal disease is characterized by chronic inflammation of the gum tissue, periodontal infection below the gum line and a presence of disease-causing bacteria in the oral region. Halting the progression of periodontal disease and maintaining excellent standards of oral hygiene will not only reduce the risk of gum disease and bone loss, but also reduce the chances of developing other serious illnesses.
Common cofactors associated with periodontal disease:
A research study has shown that individuals with pre-existing diabetic conditions are more likely to either have, or be more susceptible to periodontal disease. Periodontal disease can increase blood sugar levels which makes controlling the amount of glucose in the blood difficult. This factor alone can increase the risk of serious diabetic complications. Conversely, diabetes thickens blood vessels and therefore makes it harder for the mouth to rid itself of excess sugar. Excess sugar in the mouth creates a breeding ground for the types of oral bacteria that cause gum disease.
There are several theories which explain the link between heart disease and periodontitis. One such theory is that the oral bacteria strains which exacerbate periodontal disease attach themselves to the coronary arteries when they enter the bloodstream. This in turn contributes to both blood clot formation and the narrowing of the coronary arteries, possibly leading to a heart attack.
A second possibility is that the inflammation caused by periodontal disease causes a significant plaque build up. This can swell the arteries and worsen pre-existing heart conditions. An article published by the American Academy of Periodontology suggests that patients whose bodies react to periodontal bacteria have an increased risk of developing heart disease.
Women in general are at increased risk of developing periodontal disease because of hormone fluctuations that occur during puberty, pregnancy and menopause. Research suggests that pregnant women suffering from periodontal disease are more at risk of preeclampsia and delivering underweight, premature babies.
Periodontitis increases levels of prostaglandin, which is one of the labor-inducing chemicals. Elevated levels prostaglandin may trigger premature labor, and increase the chances of delivering an underweight baby. Periodontal disease also elevates C-reactive proteins (which have previously been linked to heart disease). Heightened levels of these proteins can amplify the inflammatory response of the body and increase the chances of preeclampsia and low birth weight babies.
Oral bacterium linked with gum disease has been shown to possibly cause or worsen conditions such as emphysema, pneumonia and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). Oral bacteria can be drawn into the lower respiratory tract during the course of normal inhalation and colonize; causing bacterial infections. Studies have shown that the repeated infections which characterize COPD may be linked with periodontitis.
In addition to the bacterial risk, inflammation in gum tissue can lead to severe inflammation in the lining of the lungs, which aggravates pneumonia. Individuals who suffer from chronic or persistent respiratory issues generally have low immunity. This means that bacteria can readily colonize beneath the gum line unchallenged by body’s immune system.
If you have questions or concerns about periodontal disease and the mouth-body connection, please ask your dentist. We care about your overall health and your smile!
Periodontal disease, heart disease and stroke may seem to be unlikely bedfellows, but researchers have found that gum disease sufferers are nearly twice as likely to also suffer from coronary heart disease. In addition, research studies have discovered that oral infection is indeed a risk factor for stroke. People diagnosed with acute cerebrovascular ischemia were more likely to also be experiencing some degree of periodontal disease.
Periodontal disease is a progressive condition in which the gingival tissue surrounding the teeth is infected by the colonization of bacteria. Bacteria found in plaque colonize first above, then below the g gumline causing the tissue to pull away from the teeth. If periodontal disease is left untreated, deep pockets form between the gums and the teeth and the tissue of the underlying jawbone is also destroyed. The destruction of bone tissue causes the teeth to shift, wobble or completely detach from the bone.
Coronary heart disease occurs when the walls of the coronary arteries become progressively thicker due to the buildup of fatty proteins. The heart then suffers from a lack of oxygen and must labor significantly harder to pump blood to the rest of the body. Coronary heart disease sufferers sometimes experience blood clots which obstruct normal blood flow and reduce the amount of vital nutrients and oxygen the heart needs to function properly. This phenomenon often leads to heart attacks.
Reasons for the Connection
There is little doubt that the presence of periodontal disease can exacerbate existing heart conditions. The periodontist and cardiologist generally work as a team in order to treat individuals experiencing both conditions.
There are several theories which may explain the link between heart disease, stroke and periodontal disease, which include the following:
Oral bacteria affect the heart – There are many different strains of periodontal bacteria. Researchers assert that some of these strains of bacteria enter the bloodstream and attach to the fatty plaques in the heart blood vessels (coronary arteries). This attachment then contributes to clot formation causing grave danger to the individual.
Inflammation – Periodontal disease causes severe inflammation in the gum tissue which elevates the white blood cell count and also the high sensitivity C-reactive protein levels. Research studies have shown that elevated levels of C-reactive proteins have been linked to heart disease.
Infectious susceptibility – Individuals who experience particularly high levels of oral bacteria may have weaker immune systems and an inadequate host inflammatory response. These factors may induce specific vascular effects which have previously been shown to contribute in the onset of certain forms of heart disease.
Diagnosis and Treatment
Since periodontal disease appears to be a risk factor for both heart attack and stroke, it is extremely important to seek immediate treatment. Initially, the periodontist will conduct thorough examinations to assess the exact condition of the teeth, gums and jawbone. X-rays can be helpful in determining whether bone loss is prevalent in the upper and lower jaw.
The dentist is able to conduct deep cleaning treatments such as scaling and root planing to remove hardened calculus (tartar) deposits from the gum pockets. An antibiotic may be prescribed to ensure that the bacterium is completely destroyed and the periodontal infection does not spread. In most cases, periodontal disease can be prevented with regular cleanings and proper home care.
If you have questions or concerns about periodontal disease and its relation to heart disease and stroke, please ask your dentist.
It is well documented that people who suffer from diabetes are more susceptible to developing infections than non-diabetes sufferers. It is not widely known that t periodontal disease is often considered the sixth complication of diabetes; particularly when the diabetes is not under proper control.
Periodontal disease (often called periodontitis and gum disease) is a progressive condition that often leads to tooth loss if treatment is not promptly sought. Periodontal disease begins with a bacterial infection in the gingival tissue which surrounds the teeth. As the bacteria colonize, the gum pockets become deeper, the gums recede as tissue is destroyed and the periodontitis eventually attacks the underlying bone tissue.
Diabetes is characterized by too much glucose (or sugar) in the blood. Type II diabetics are unable to regulate insulin levels which means excess glucose stays in the blood. Type I diabetics do not produce any insulin at all. Diabetes is a serious condition which can lead to heart disease and stroke.
Reasons for the Connection
Experts suggest the relationship between diabetes and periodontal disease can worsen both conditions if either condition is not properly controlled.
Here are ways in which diabetes and periodontal disease are linked:
Increased blood sugar – Moderate and severe periodontal disease elevates sugar levels in the body, increasing the amount of time the body has to function with high blood sugar. This is why diabetics with periodontitis have difficulty keeping control of their blood sugar. In addition, the higher sugar levels found in the mouth of diabetics provide food for the very bacteria that worsen periodontal infections.
Blood vessel thickening – The thickening of the blood vessels is one of the other major concerns for diabetes sufferers. The blood vessels normally serve a vital function for tissues by delivering nutrients and removing waste products. With diabetes, the blood vessels become too thick for these exchanges to occur. This means that harmful waste is left in the mouth and can weaken the resistance of gum tissue, which can lead to infection and gum disease.
Smoking – Tobacco use does a great deal of damage in the oral region. Not only does tobacco use slow the healing process, it also vastly increases the chances of an individual developing periodontal disease. For diabetics who smoke, the risk is exponentially greater. In fact, diabetic smokers aged 45 and over are twenty times more likely to develop periodontal disease.
Poor oral hygiene – It is essential for diabetics to maintain excellent levels of oral health. When daily brushing and flossing does not occur, the harmful oral bacteria can ingest the excess sugar between the teeth and colonize more freely below the gum line. This exacerbates the metabolic problems that diabetes sufferers experience.
Diagnosis and Treatment
It is of paramount importance for people suffering from any type of diabetes to see the dentist at least twice yearly for checkups and professional cleanings. Studies have shown that simple non-surgical periodontal treatments can lower the HbA1c (hemoglobin molecule blood test) count by as much as 20% in a six month period.
The dentist will use medical history, family history and dental X-rays to assess the risk factors for periodontal disease and determine the exact condition of the gums, teeth and underlying jawbone. If necessary the dentist will work in conjunction with other doctors to ensure that both the diabetes and the gum disease are being managed and controlled as effectively as possible.
Non-surgical procedures performed by the dentist and dental hygienist include deep scaling, where calculus (tartar) will be removed from the teeth above and below the gumline, and root planing, where the root of the tooth is smoothed down to eliminate any remaining bacteria. Antibiotics may be applied to the gum pockets to promote healing.
Before and after periodontal treatment, the dentist and hygienist will recommend proper home care and oral maintenance as well as prescribing prescription mouthwashes which serve to deter further bacteria colonization.
If you have questions or concerns about diabetes or periodontal disease, please ask your dentist.


In the quest for optimal health and well-being, the importance of dietary choices cannot be overstated. One dietary approach that has gained widespread recognition for its positive impact on heart health is the plant-based diet. As individuals increasingly seek ways to nurture their cardiovascular well-being, embracing a plant-based lifestyle has emerged as a powerful tool. Let’s explore how adopting a plant-based diet can contribute to a healthier heart.
- Lowering Cholesterol Levels:
One of the key factors influencing heart health is cholesterol, specifically low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, often referred to as “bad” cholesterol. A plant-based diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and legumes has been shown to significantly reduce LDL cholesterol levels. Plant-based foods are naturally low in saturated fats, the primary dietary contributor to elevated cholesterol. Additionally, certain plant compounds, such as sterols and stanols, actively work to inhibit cholesterol absorption, further supporting cardiovascular health.
- Reducing Blood Pressure:
Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is a major risk factor for heart disease. Plant-based diets are inherently lower in sodium and higher in potassium, magnesium, and fiber, all of which contribute to blood pressure regulation. The abundance of potassium in fruits and vegetables helps balance sodium levels in the body, promoting healthy blood pressure. Moreover, the anti-inflammatory properties of plant-based foods contribute to overall vascular health, reducing the risk of hypertension-related complications.
- Enhancing Weight Management:
Maintaining a healthy weight is crucial for heart health, and a plant-based diet can be a valuable ally in achieving and sustaining weight loss. Plant-based foods are typically lower in calories and higher in fiber, promoting satiety and reducing the likelihood of overeating. Studies have shown that individuals adhering to a plant-based diet often have lower body mass indexes (BMIs) and a reduced risk of obesity, which is closely linked to cardiovascular issues.
- Antioxidant Protection:
The colorful array of fruits and vegetables found in a plant-based diet is a rich source of antioxidants. Antioxidants combat oxidative stress in the body, reducing inflammation and protecting the delicate endothelial lining of blood vessels. By neutralizing free radicals, antioxidants contribute to a lower risk of atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases.
- Improving Blood Sugar Control:
A plant-based diet can be particularly beneficial for individuals with diabetes or those at risk of developing the condition. By emphasizing complex carbohydrates, fiber, and low-glycemic foods, plant-based eating supports stable blood sugar levels. This is crucial in preventing insulin resistance and reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes, a condition closely associated with heart disease.
In conclusion, the positive impact of a plant-based diet on heart health cannot be overstated. By focusing on whole, nutrient-dense foods, individuals can proactively manage cholesterol levels, blood pressure, weight, and blood sugar, all of which contribute to a healthier cardiovascular system. Embracing a plant-based lifestyle is not just a dietary choice; it’s a holistic approach to well-being that nourishes the heart and fosters overall health. As the evidence continues to mount, it’s clear that the path to a healthier heart may very well be paved with plants.


World Hepatitis Day, observed on July 28 every year, aims to raise global awareness of a group of infectious diseases known as Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E and encourage prevention, diagnosis and treatment. Hepatitis affects millions of people worldwide, killing close to 1.4 million every year. It is time we were aware of this silent killer
By FM Bureau
World Hepatitis Day is one of eight official global public health campaigns marked by the World Health Organization (WHO), along with World Health Day, World Blood Donor Day, World Immunisation Week, World Tuberculosis Day, World No Tobacco Day, World Malaria Day and World AIDS Day.
Approximately 500 million people worldwide are living with either hepatitis B or hepatitis C. If left untreated and unmanaged, hepatitis B or C can lead to advanced liver scarring (cirrhosis) and other complications, including liver cancer or liver failure. While many people worry more about contracting AIDS than hepatitis, the reality is that every year 1.5 million people worldwide die from either hepatitis B or C faster than they would from HIV/AIDS.
Hepatitis groups, patients and advocates worldwide take part in events on 28 July to mark the occasion. Notably in 2012, a Guinness World Record was created when 12,588 people from 20 countries did the Three Wise Monkeys actions on World Hepatitis Day to signify the willful ignorance of the disease.
Raising awareness of the different forms of hepatitis and how they are transmitted; Strengthening prevention, screening and control of viral hepatitis and its related diseases; Increasing hepatitis B vaccine coverage and integration into national immunisation programmes; and Coordinating a global response to hepatitis.
Each year focuses on a specific theme. The list of themes is as follows:
2013: More must be done to stop this silent killer.
2012: It’s closer than you think.
2011: Hepatitis affects everyone, everywhere. Know it. Confront it.
The hepatitis B virus (HBV) is transmitted between people through contact with the blood or other body fluids (i.e. saliva, semen and vaginal fluid) of an infected person. Most common routes of transmission for hepatitis B or C viruses are the following:
In the case of hepatitis B, infection can also occur through having unprotected sex with an infected person. If you think you could have been at risk from either hepatitis B or C, it is important to get tested.
Hepatitis B Treatment
Acute hepatitis B: it is not usually necessary to treat a new hepatitis B infection in the first six months. Nine out of ten new infections clear up on their own, with or without treatment. In this early stage of disease, treatment makes very little difference to the chances of a cure. Antiviral drugs may only be necessary and helpful in rare cases, if the acute infection causes very aggressive liver inflammation.You can treat chronic hepatitis B with peg-interferon or with pills, which are called nucleoside or nucleotide analogues.This treatment may have side effects, such as fatigue, flu-like symptoms, depression, skin and hair problems and changes in blood chemistry, amongst others. Treatment continues for 24 to 48 weeks and while not all hepatitis B patients respond well to interferon, certain types of hepatitis B infection do. For example, patients with genotype A, HBeAg positive, with elevated liver enzymes but NO cirrhosis can often successfully reduce their viral infection to a milder state. Your doctor needs to monitor your interferon treatment closely. Interferon treatment should not be used if you already have cirrhosis of the liver
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Spring is here and the reds have arrived!
The red trillium plants are growing in the woodlands.
The maple sap is running (and dripping) and the red maple trees are showing a red glow at the tips of their branches.
The cardinals are happily singing in the trees.
In the sunny spots, the crocus are blooming in whites, yellows, purples and stripes; the anenome are fully opened; the daffodils, hyacinths, and tulips are beginning to blossom; the forsythia and mucronolatum azalea have just opened; the wood poppy and bleeding heart are showing many buds; the magnolia and peach trees are covered with buds.
In the shady places, the plants and flowers are beginning to appear. I can see the tips of many Jack-in-the-Pulpit plants starting to peep out of the ground. Today I counted 116 red trillium buds and 23 white trillium buds, with more plants that have yet to uncurl their leaves; also 14 dog-tooth violets; 4 flowering shoots of 'Dutchman's Breeches' which haven't bloomed for 2 years; 7 bloodroot flowers; 25 columbine plants, and a similar number of cardinal flower plants.
Now about that bloodroot. I wrote last year (on my 3rd blog entry in May 2008) about the sudden disappearance of the bloodroot from my garden. And in the area where it disappeared, where there were over 50 plants just 2 years ago, there are still NO SIGNS of the plant at all. And yet, across the yard near my trillium there have always been a few bloodroot plants (including last year), and this year there are 7 beautiful white, daisy-like flowers.
The sky has been blue all week, the grasses are greening, and the reds have arrived. It is a symphony of color, all to celebrate the arrival of spring.


Graduate Degree - Thesis and Dissertation - Animal Research Guidelines
If the thesis or dissertation includes use of animals, the use must be approved by the SJSU Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). Information concerning animal care and use is available from the IACUC Coordinator and online at http://www.sjsu.edu/research/iacuc/index.html. Animal research approval from SJSU must be obtained prior to data collection even if the work is done in conjunction with another institution from which approval has been granted. Federal law prohibits retroactive approval of animal research. The permission letter, obtained with IACUC approval, must be submitted along with the thesis or dissertation whether as an appendix or as a separate document. Failure to submit the necessary documentation can result in a delay or denial of the thesis or dissertation by Graduate Studies.


Mosquitoes in Iceland: Are There Any?
Iceland is undoubtedly one of the most amazing countries in the world. The fantastic nature, culture, and history make the small island so unique. Somebody who has already had the chance to visit our country might say that Iceland has everything. This is mostly true. There is no other country which offers such a variety of attractions. You will find here powerful waterfalls, one of the largest glaciers in Europe, active volcanoes. This is also one of the few countries where you will enjoy the Northern Lights show. As I have mentioned, however, Iceland has mostly everything. There is something that you will not find here. Many of you are inquiring about it while planning your trip. This is why we have decided to answer the question: does Iceland have mosquitos?
Why do mosquitoes exist?
There are about 3.5 thousand species of mosquitoes in the world. The larvae develop in the aquatic environment. Adults fly in the evenings in large swarms or wet meadows near lakes and ponds. This is where most of them are cumulated although nowadays they appear even in the cities.
Usually, a mosquito bite does not have any harmful effect on our health. It ends up with slight swelling and itching of the skin. In tropical countries, mosquitoes can be a deadly threat, though. Through your blood, they spread many diseases like malaria, yellow fever, or Zika virus. Why do we need the mosquitoes then?
The mosquitoes are indeed necessary and make an essential part of our ecosystem. Their disappearance might cause a real catastrophe, and there are two main reasons why that could happen. The most important is that the mosquitoes are food for other species like swifts, swallows, bats, frogs, and toads. Their larvae are food for fishes. Those species would also start to disappear if there were no mosquitoes.
The other reason is that the male mosquitoes feed on the flower’s nectar. Thanks to that, they pollinate them, similar to bees or bumblebees. Imagine that we got rid of the mosquitoes; some plants would not bear fruits because their flowers would not be pollinated.
An ecosystem disruption could have catastrophic consequences. So even though mosquitoes are very inconvenient, we should simply try to discourage them from coming closer to us. For that, you will find many repellents. Otherwise, you can always move to a mosquito-free country, like Iceland.
Does Iceland have mosquitoes?
Iceland is said to be the only country that is mosquito-free and it has no ticks either. There are two theories about why Iceland has no mosquitoes. The most probable one is that the weather conditions are not favorable for mosquitoes. Even though the mosquitoes can handle low temperatures as those of the Arctic winter, they are not able to adjust themselves to Icelandic weather. There are three main freezes throughout the year, making it impossible for mosquitoes to breed in any lake in Iceland. Before they mature to be able to reproduce, the cold comes again, freezing the waters they need to emerge from.
To breed, mosquitoes need certain conditions. They can reproduce in a hot and humid environment, but at the same time, they can manage in a cold climate. Icelandic climate, however, is too unstable for them, and these insects cannot survive.
Another theory is that the water and soil in Iceland contain some chemical composition that is not favorable for mosquitoes. Global warming, however, is continually causing climate changes. This might also have an impact on mosquitoes’ appearance in Iceland. The average air temperature is growing, and new species of insects have appeared in Iceland. Those have not thrived there before. In that scenario, the mosquitoes might soon be able to breed in Iceland too.
The Icelandic Institute of Natural History allows seeing a mosquito in Iceland. It is captured in a jar, and until the climate changes drastically, it is nowhere else to be seen in Iceland.
Mosquitoes and flies in Lake Myvatn
It is not entirely true that Iceland has no bugs and no insects at all. One species is quite symbolic for Iceland. The whole lake was named after them, and those are midges. The midge might sometimes be mistaken with mosquitoes or flies. Midges are small flying insects, very tiny, and very Icelandic. One of the most famous attractions in Iceland was named after midges - The Lake Myvatn. It means the lake of midges. The lake is located in an active volcanic area in the North of Iceland.
In Iceland there are two most common types: Chironomidae, known as lake midges, and Simuliidae, called black fly. The first type, lake midges, does not bite either sting, so do not worry about it. The only harm they do is that they are incredibly annoying. They resemble mosquitoes, and this is why many tourists are convinced they saw mosquitoes in Myvatn.
The second type, which is black flies, are more dangerous to you. They bite and drink the blood of humans and animals. They cause dozens of small bites, which is hard to deal with.
You can only expect them in summer in specific locations, usually near the lakes where they breed.
How to protect yourself against mosquitoes?
You will find many different products offering protection against mosquitoes. Not all of them are so effective as they are advertised. There are also some natural ways of protecting yourself against mosquito bites. The essential oils, especially lemongrass, clove, and eucalyptus, are an effective weapon. They can be used in scented candles or to rinse the curtains. This way the insects will be deterred from entering the apartment.
However, if you are traveling, you will need something more practical, which can be taken with you anywhere you go. The best way to fight mosquitoes is to use products that contain DEET. It is an insecticide that protects best against mosquito bites and also other insects like ticks. You will find hundreds of products, including DEET but with a different concentration of it and forms of applications. The higher the percentage of DEET is, the more potent, and at the same time, the more effective the product is.
You might not be able to find mosquito repellents in Iceland, neither in the pharmacies or the supermarkets. Those are not an issue in Iceland, so you do not need protection against it. What you can prepare yourself for are the midges. Especially if you plan a trip to Lake Myvatn or a horse riding tour, you might need some right, useful product to spray. Those products are in high demand, especially in summer, and sometimes get sold out very quickly. The most commonly used is the Moustidose Deet with 30% DEET. In case you have already experienced the bites and your skin itches, try to apply the topical corticosteroid Mildison. The allergy medicine will also help and will reduce the irritation.
Motorhome Iceland, 2021.


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Dr. Tim Kelly, DC, BCN is Board Certified in Neuropathy and is a highly sought after expert in the field of neuropathy.
What is Peripheral Neuropathy?
Peripheral neuropathy refers to the conditions that result when nerves that carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord from and to the rest of the body are damaged or diseased. The peripheral nerves make up an intricate network that connects the brain and spinal cord to the muscles, skin, and internal organs. This is a progressive disorder that only gets worse over time.
Neuropathy causes tingling or numbness, especially in the hands and feet. It affects more than 20 million Americans and is caused by damage to single or multiple nerves. There are different types of peripheral neuropathy, but the most common is in those with diabetes.
Peripheral neuropathy may develop at any phase of the diabetes journey, even sometimes as a pre-diabetic or while taking medications. Knowing what some of the causes are and being able to describe your symptoms to your health care team can help you manage neuropathy. Symptoms are often ignored by both patients and health care professionals. If you have symptoms of neuropathy, it is important to discuss this with our health care team as soon as possible.
Symptoms of Neuropathy
Peripheral neuropathy can affect the nerves that tell you the position of your hands or feet, let your sense hot or cold, or that senses pain. You can experience a tingling, burning, or numbness in certain areas of the body, commonly the hands or feet. These sensations can range from mild to painful and are almost always greatest at night.
Common signs and symptoms include:
It’s not easy to deal with neuropathy since there are no medications that can cure or stop the progression of this disorder. If you notice symptoms, talk to our health care team immediately.
Factors that Increase the Risk of Neuropathy
Neuropathy is most commonly due to diabetes, but various drugs can also cause it such as statins to lower cholesterol. Neuropathy may occur from cancer or the treatment received.
Life factors that may increase the chances of developing neuropathy:
Medications that may increase the risk of neuropathy:
Treatments for Neuropathy
The peripheral nerves have a great ability to heal. Even though it may take months, recovery can occur. However, in some situations, symptoms of neuropathy may lessen, but not completely go away.
Treatments for peripheral neuropathy depend on the cause. For instance:
Recovery may be helped by:
How Neuropathy Affects Your Life
Pain from neuropathy can greatly affect your daily activities and quality of life. Symptoms of neuropathy can range from mild to severe. Each patient’s experience will be different. However, with appropriate treatment, the effects of neuropathy can be limited or eliminated.
If you have neuropathy, you may have:
Patients with temperature sensitivity should avoid extreme temperatures and use protective clothing as needed. If there is numbness or an inability to feel pain, it is important to pay careful attention to the skin on the hands and feet because there could be an undetected wound or a break in the skin.
No matter whether your condition was caused by a sport, work accident or otherwise, we welcome the chance to serve you.
At Kelly Chiropractic, our goal is to provide the highest quality of multidisciplinary health care. We pride ourselves on delivering timely, professional, effective, and efficient services to our patients.
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Symptoms and Treatment of Athlete’s Foot
Athlete’s foot is a very common fungal infection of the foot. It usually first appears between the toes and is most commonly found in people whose feet sweat heavily. The infection can affect one or both feet, and can extend to the arms. This condition is caused by a fungus as wet socks, shoes and humidity create favorable conditions for the fungus to grow and cause an infection. Athlete’s foot is closely associated with other fungal infections such as eczema and has a tendency to repeat and return on a regular basis. Therefore, if you notice a rash on the feet that doesn’t withdraw within a few weeks, it is suggested to seek medical assistance.
Symptoms of Athlete’s Foot
Athlete’s foot usually causes a flaking red rash that starts between the toes. Itching is often worst right after you take off your shoes and socks. Some types of this condition are accompanied by blisters and ulcers. Furthermore, the skin becomes chronically dry which can extend along the entire foot. This is a very common condition that is not dangerous. It occurs as a result of wearing closed footwear in combination with excessive sweating of the feet. As it is contagious, you can become infected after using public swimming pools or saunas. It manifests itself in the form or redness accompanied by itching and cracking of the skin between toes. Often, the infection can be spread to the nails. In this case, the nail thickens, odor appears and the surface of the nail can become covered with white spots.
How to Treat Athlete’s Foot?
It is best to start treatment as soon as you notice the first symptoms. There is a number of natural remedies available along with over-the-counter medicines.
Sage is very effective in reducing sweating and acts as a cure for athlete’s foot. It can be used in a foot bath or ingested as tea or spice. A steam bath with sage is known to reduce perspiration.
You can use tea tree oil in your bath and even massage a few drops of the oil directly onto the affected area. Tea tree oil has anti-fungal properties that will boost the destruction of the fungus and prevent it from spreading.
By spreading a bit of baking soda or corn starch into your socks before putting shoes on, you create moisture control as baking soda is likely to soak up moisture and absorb the foot smell.
Garlic is a powerful tool for the treatment of fungi and bacteria. It is a natural antiseptic that strengthens your immune system and therefore, helps to fight the infection. The best way to use garlic is to put it in a sock that you wear overnight over the affected area.
To treat athlete’s foot, it is recommended to use antifungal products in the form of creams and liquids. Sometimes the treatment includes the use of capsules. Before applying the antifungal product, wash your feet with a nonabrasive cleaning agent and blot them dry with a towel. Wear cotton socks and change them frequently, at least twice a day. You can also use talc or an antiperspirant spray. Also, do not share your shoes and personal hygiene supplies.


When faced with the presence of gophers and moles in your yard, it's essential to tackle the issue promptly and effectively. These underground pests can wreak havoc on your lawn and garden, causing frustration for many homeowners.
Fortunately, there are various methods and strategies that can help in controlling and eliminating them. From identifying the signs of their presence to implementing natural repellents or employing trapping techniques, the path to a gopher and mole-free environment requires persistence and a well-thought-out plan.
Stay tuned to discover the most efficient ways to combat these troublesome critters and reclaim your outdoor space.
- Use natural repellents like castor oil or plant deterrents for eco-friendly control.
- Employ trapping techniques in active tunnels to effectively reduce gopher and mole populations.
- Implement poison-free methods such as sonic devices and wire mesh barriers for prevention.
- Consider professional pest removal services for thorough extermination of gophers and moles.
Identifying the Pest Signs
Identifying the signs of gophers and moles requires a keen eye for subtle disturbances in your yard or garden.
Gophers are known for creating crescent-shaped mounds of soil, typically with a plugged hole, as they push dirt to the surface while digging their tunnels. These mounds are usually larger and more horseshoe-shaped compared to molehills.
Moles, on the other hand, create volcano-shaped mounds with a visible entrance, as they dig closer to the surface in search of insects to feed on. Additionally, moles create surface tunnels that you may notice as raised ridges in your lawn.
In gardens, both gophers and moles can cause damage to plants by disrupting roots and potentially exposing them to disease. Look for wilting or dying plants, as well as upturned soil around the base of plants, which may indicate gopher activity. Moles, due to their tunneling behavior, can disturb the root systems of plants, causing them to wilt or die as well.
Understanding Their Behavior
Understanding the behavior of gophers and moles is essential for effectively managing their presence in your yard or garden.
Gophers are solitary creatures that create extensive tunnel systems for foraging and nesting. They are active year-round and can cause significant damage to plants by consuming roots and pulling them underground. Gophers are known to be territorial, and once one is eliminated, another may move in to take its place.
On the other hand, moles are also solitary animals that create tunnels primarily in search of earthworms and insects, their main food sources. Moles are more active during the night and prefer moist areas with soft soil. Their tunnels can disrupt plant roots and create unsightly ridges in lawns.
Understanding these creatures' habits, preferences, and behaviors can help in implementing effective control strategies tailored to each pest species. By being mindful of their behavior patterns, you can better protect your outdoor space from gophers and moles.
Natural Repellents and Deterrents
When dealing with gophers and moles in your yard or garden, utilizing natural repellents and deterrents can be an effective strategy to discourage these pests from causing damage. There are several natural options available to repel gophers and moles without resorting to harmful chemicals. Planting certain plants like daffodils, marigolds, or castor beans can act as deterrents due to their strong smells, which these pests find unpleasant.
Another effective natural repellent is using a castor oil-based mixture. This mixture can be sprayed in affected areas to create an unpleasant environment for gophers and moles, driving them away. Additionally, installing vibrating or solar-powered sonic stakes can help disrupt their underground communication and drive them out of the area.
Furthermore, some gardeners have found success with natural predators like owls, snakes, or domesticated pets like cats that can help keep gopher and mole populations in check. By incorporating these natural repellents and deterrents into your pest control strategy, you can effectively manage gopher and mole infestations in a safe and environmentally friendly manner.
Implementing trapping techniques is a practical and effective method for controlling gopher and mole populations in your yard or garden. Traps designed specifically for gophers and moles are commercially available and can be purchased online or at garden centers. When setting traps, it is essential to locate active tunnels by observing fresh mounds of dirt, which indicate recent activity. Place the trap in the main tunnel or runway, ensuring it is set properly to increase the chances of success.
There are various types of traps available, including snap traps, live traps, and harpoon traps. Snap traps are designed to kill the gophers or moles upon activation, while live traps allow for the capture of the pests unharmed, enabling you to release them elsewhere. Harpoon traps are another effective option, as they impale the pests when triggered.
Regularly checking and resetting traps is crucial for maintaining control over gopher and mole populations. Trapping can be a humane and environmentally friendly method of pest control when done correctly.
Poison-Free Extermination Methods
Exploring non-toxic extermination methods is essential for effectively managing gopher and mole populations in a safe and environmentally conscious manner.
One method is using castor oil-based repellents. These solutions can be sprayed on the surface of the soil to create an unpleasant environment for gophers and moles, encouraging them to relocate.
Another approach is to plant deterrent plants like daffodils, marigolds, or castor bean plants around the garden. These plants emit odors or toxins that these burrowing pests find unappealing, acting as a natural barrier.
Incorporating vibrating or sonic devices into the garden can also disturb gophers and moles, prompting them to leave the area. These devices emit vibrations or sounds that irritate the animals, driving them away.
Physical barriers such as wire mesh or hardware cloth buried at least a foot deep can prevent gophers and moles from tunneling into specific areas.
Implementing these poison-free methods can help control gopher and mole populations effectively without harming the environment or other wildlife.
Professional Pest Control Services
Professional pest control services offer expert extermination methods that are designed to efficiently eliminate gophers and moles from your property.
With certified pest removal technicians at the helm, you can trust that the job will be done thoroughly and effectively.
These professionals bring a wealth of experience and knowledge to tackle even the most stubborn infestations.
Expert Extermination Methods
Utilizing the expertise and specialized tools of professional pest control services is essential for effectively eradicating gophers and moles from your property.
Pest control experts employ a range of expert extermination methods tailored to the specific needs of your infestation. These professionals often utilize traps, baits, and in some cases, chemical treatments to eliminate gophers and moles from your premises.
Additionally, professionals can conduct thorough inspections to identify the extent of the infestation and implement a comprehensive eradication plan. By entrusting the eradication process to experienced pest control services, you can ensure a more efficient and successful removal of these unwanted pests from your property, providing you with long-lasting relief from gopher and mole infestations.
Certified Pest Removal
Engaging certified pest removal services is a strategic decision for addressing gopher and mole infestations with precision and expertise. Professional pest control services bring a wealth of experience and specialized knowledge to effectively deal with these burrowing pests.
Certified technicians utilize a range of advanced methods such as trapping, baiting, and fumigation tailored to the specific needs of each infestation. By conducting thorough inspections and employing targeted strategies, certified pest removal services can efficiently eliminate gophers and moles from your property while minimizing environmental impact.
Moreover, these experts can offer valuable advice on preventing future infestations, ensuring long-term protection for your lawn and garden. When facing persistent gopher and mole problems, entrusting the job to certified pest removal professionals can provide lasting relief and peace of mind.
Preventing Future Infestations
To prevent future infestations of gophers and moles, implementing effective exclusion methods is essential. Start by inspecting your property for any potential entry points, such as gaps under fences or around utility pipes. Seal these openings with hardware cloth or underground fencing to prevent gophers and moles from burrowing into your yard. Additionally, consider installing barriers like underground wire mesh baskets around garden beds to deter these pests from damaging your plants.
Maintaining a clean and tidy yard can also help prevent gophers and moles from taking up residence. Remove excess vegetation, piles of debris, and dense ground covers where these pests can hide and nest. Properly dispose of yard waste to eliminate potential food sources for gophers and moles.
Regularly inspect your lawn for signs of gopher and mole activity, such as mounds of soil or surface tunnels. By addressing any new infestations promptly, you can prevent these pests from establishing larger populations on your property. Implementing a combination of exclusion methods and vigilant monitoring can help keep gophers and moles at bay and maintain a pest-free yard.
Frequently Asked Questions
Can Gophers and Moles Cause Damage to Underground Utility Lines?
Gophers and moles can indeed cause damage to underground utility lines. Their burrowing activities can lead to disruptions in gas, water, and electrical lines, posing safety hazards and requiring professional intervention to mitigate risks.
Do Gophers and Moles Carry Any Diseases That Can Be Transmitted to Humans or Pets?
Gophers and moles do not typically carry diseases that can be transmitted to humans or pets. However, their burrowing activities can potentially damage underground utility lines, structures, and vegetation, leading to potential hazards and economic losses.
Are There Any Plants or Flowers That Can Naturally Repel Gophers and Moles From the Garden?
Certain plants and flowers are believed to naturally repel gophers and moles due to their strong scents or toxic properties. Examples include castor bean plants, daffodils, marigolds, and alliums. However, effectiveness may vary, and additional methods might be necessary for full control.
Can Gophers and Moles Attract Other Pests or Wildlife to the Yard?
Gophers and moles can indirectly attract predators like foxes and owls due to their presence in yards. These predators are drawn to feast on these burrowing mammals. Proper pest control measures can help mitigate any potential wildlife interactions in a yard.
How Long Does It Typically Take to Completely Get Rid of a Gopher or Mole Infestation Using Trapping Techniques or Natural Repellents?
Eliminating a gopher or mole infestation through trapping techniques or natural repellents usually takes patience and persistence. Factors such as the size of the infestation, effectiveness of chosen methods, and environmental conditions can impact the duration of eradication efforts.
In conclusion, effectively getting rid of gophers and moles requires a combination of:
- Identifying the pest signs
- Understanding their behavior
- Using natural repellents and deterrents
- Employing trapping techniques
- Utilizing poison-free extermination methods
- Considering professional pest control services.
By implementing these methods and taking preventative measures, you can successfully eliminate these pests from your property and prevent future infestations.


What happens if you have a bed-bug infestation? Bed bugs in a home can bring about a number of health conditions, including allergies, skin rashes and even psychological effects. If bitten, you may experience symptoms on your skin such as itching and redness. Bed bugs feed on blood, usually that of animals, but they will move on to humans if it is the only blood available. Bed lice are attracted by carbon dioxide, warmth and certain chemicals and tend to live longer in colder temperatures.
How Do They Spread?
Your house can become infected with bed bugs for various reasons. They can be carried on other people’s clothes, luggage or infested pets. If a nearby house or flat is infested, the bed bugs can move through walls or false ceilings. Some animals, such as bats and birds, can also bring them into buildings. The source of infestations also includes eggs which may have been laid in the seams of clothing.
How Can I Detect Them?
Bed bugs are usually nocturnal so it can be difficult to spot them. They tend to nest in dark areas and often lay thousands of eggs in the seams of fabrics. Signs that you may have a bed-bug infestation include bites on the body, droppings similar in appearance to sand, spots of blood on bed sheets and patches of skin which they have shed (this is actually an exoskeleton which is moulted). Bed bugs have a characteristic smell of rotten raspberries. The most accurate way to find the exact location of an infestation is with a bed-bug-detection dog, which speeds up the process considerably
Why Are Infestations So Frequent?
Between the 1930s and 1980s, the rate of outbreaks fell dramatically. However, since the 1980s infestations have seen a sharp increase. It has been suggested that this is because of resistance to pesticides and an increase in international travel, which helps the insects spread. There are several different species of bed bug around the world, but it is the common bed bug which is most adapted to human environments.
How Can They Be Eradicated?
It is a good idea to call in a professional who is used to tackling bed-bug outbreaks. When it comes to pest control services Dublin residents have a range of companies to choose from. They tend to approach the issue with several different approaches at a time, using both pesticide and non-pesticide methods. The most effective seems to be a combination of heating and drying the affected area.
Amy Jones is a writer and blogger who is interested in various aspects and problems of living in the modern world. She wrote this article on behalf of Total Pest Control Services Dublin.
January 9, 2013 at 5:02 pm Comments (0)


by David Moore
Published in by Cambridge University Press, New York Office (xiv + 469 pages); 1998 in hardback ISBN 0 521 55295 8) and in paperback in 2002 ISBN0 521 52857 7
STILL THE ONLY TEXT AVAILABLE THAT DEALS WITH THE DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY OF FUNGI
Fungal Morphogenesis brings together for the first time the full scope of fungal developmental biology. The book provides a coherent account which will be the basis for research in the future. The treatment also releases fungal morphogenesis from the confines of mycology, showing how and why this eukaryotic Kingdom deserves to be in the mainstream of developmental research. The author's view is quite simply that if you are ignorant of fungal morphogenesis then your understanding of developmental biology is incomplete.
The book is aimed at all biologists. Throughout, the author blends together physiological, biochemical, structural and molecular descriptions within an evolutionary framework, combining the older literature with the most recent. A comprehensive description of fungi is not attempted, though sufficient information is provided about fungal biology to give the general reader a rounded view of the mycological context within which fungal morphogenesis is played out, without obscuring the broader biological significance.
Jargon is avoided, technical terms demystified and a reader with knowledge of basic biology should not need to bring any other knowledge with him/her, nor need to refer elsewhere, in order to appreciate fungal morphogenesis.
The first chapter is an overview of the evolutionary origins of fungi and the central role they played (and still play) in the evolution of life on Earth. The second chapter introduces hyphal growth, the essence of the fungal life style, and identifies features which are crucial aspects of morphogenesis. Chapter 3 summarises fungal primary and secondary metabolism, necessary here because adaptation of primary metabolism and exploitation of secondary metabolism are both critical to fungal morphogenesis. In chapter 4 the impact of physiology on morphogenesis is discussed, with the genetic components of differentiation and morphogenetic change being dealt with in chapter 5. The development of form and structure is the main theme of a lengthy chapter 6, and the ideas developed here are brought together and summarised in the final chapter 7.
1. Fungi: a place in time and space; 1.1. Fungal lifestyle; 1.2. The essential nature of fungi; 1. 3. Evolutionary origins; 1.4. Evidence from fossils; 1.5. Origin of development; 1.6. Evolution within Kingdom Fungi; 1.7. Horizontal transfer of genetic information; 1.8. Comparing and combining
2. Hyphal growth; 2.1. Fungal cells; 2.2. Hyphal tip extension; 2.3. Septation; 2.4. Branching; 2.5. Growth kinetics; 2.6. Dynamic boundaries
3. Metabolism and biochemistry of hyphal systems; 3.1. Nutrients in nature; 3.2. Extracellular polymer-degrading enzymes; 3.3. Production, location, regulation and use of degradative enzymes; 3.4. The menu of basic nutrients; 3.5. The wall and membrane as barriers; 3.6. The flow of solutes; 3.7. Transport strategy; 3.8. Water relations; 3.9. Intermediary metabolism; 3.10. Carbon metabolism; 3.11. Fat catabolism; 3.12. Nitrogen metabolism; 3.13. Secondary metabolism
4. Physiological factors favoring morphogenesis; 4.1. Nutrition; 4.2. Adaptations of metabolism; 4.3. Environmental variables
5. The genetic component of hyphal differentiation; 5.1. Nuclear divisions; 5.2. Sexuality in fungi; 5.3. Shape and form in yeasts and hyphae; 5.4. Sexual reproductive structures; 5.5. Overview
6. Development of form; 6.1. Initiation of structures; 6.2. Cell differentiation; 6.3. Tissue domains; 6.4. Strategies of basidiomycete fruiting; 6.5. Commitment, regeneration and senescence; 6.6. Degeneration, senescence and death
7. The keys to form and structure; 7.1. The nature of morphogenetic control; 7.2. Fungal morphogenesis
ISBN: 0521552958; Binding: Hardback; Size: 236 x 159 mm; Pages: 486; Figures: 96 line diagrams, 22 half-tones, 23 tables and ISBN: 05215528577; in softcover with the same dimensions and content.
Fungal Morphogenesis was well received on publication (indeed, it appeared in the Top-ten Best Sellers list in the Professional Titles, Biology category produced by Yankee Book Peddlers for the 4th quarter of 1998). You can read some quotations from published reviews immediately below.
YOU CAN ORDER the book from Amazon and from Cambridge University Press in hardback, paperback or e-book formats.
Quotations from REVIEWS
"Fungal Morphogenesis is Volume 35 in the prestigious Cambridge University Press series on Developmental and Cell Biology, joining books on topics as diverse as kidney organogenesis and the development of fern gametophytes. Moore's intention is stated in the Preface: "I believe the fungi are too important to remain in an intellectual ghetto in some faintly plant-like place which most people visit rarely, and then with unease." He wants the scientific world to appreciate the unique attributes of fungi and at several points emphasizes that fungi are not plants... Fungal morphogenesis is addressed as a direct manifestation of biological diversity (i.e. fungal development as a topic in its own right) and within the context of broader biological significance (i.e., fungal development as a model for understanding molecular control of morphogenetic events). …. Living embedded in their food, and often responding to nutritional deprivation by sporulation, fungi are elastic in their morphological development. Moreover, their component cells, even differentiated ones, readily revert to vegetative growth. Moore makes the point that this does not mean that fungal development is less sophisticated than that found in animals and plants, but rather that the fungal life cycle is "supremely adaptable to challenging conditions." ... Experimental observations, in which specific cases are studied under particular conditions, must be weighed and synthesized in order to make generalizations. Moore admits "It is necessary to take the risk of being wrong in order to get some view of the overall picture," and does an admirable job of making provocative but not reckless hypotheses that can be tested in the laboratory. One particularly appealing aspect of the books is the author's familiarity with, and ready usage of, the zoological literature. Fungal morphogenesis is placed within the wider literature on animal pattern formation. Much can be learned from the embryology literature. Moore's erudition also informs his coverage of secondary metabolism. It is often stated that bacteria, fungi and plants are the main producers of these natural products. Moore points out that the supposed deficit of metabolite production by animals may be a matter of semantics. Animals produce toxins, hormones and other low molecular weight metabolites that can be viewed as secondary metabolites labeled with a different name.
... my opinion is highly positive. Moore is well read. He writes well and thinks broadly. He has the rare ability to describe both the forest and the trees. Since morphogenesis is the study of the whole process by which the organization and pattern of an organism is established, a book on fungal morphogenesis must integrate biochemical, structural, genetic and molecular mycological research. Moore's synthesis is a tour de force. It is rare to find a single author work that covers such a wide breadth of topics with such a pleasing combination of knowledge and eloquence. Tucked between the title page and the table of contents, Moore prints a John Lennon lyric: "Living is easy with eyes closed! Misunderstanding all you see" (Strawberry Fields, 1966). Mycologists and other biologists who delve into Fungal Morphogenesis will come away with a restless scientific unease over the extent of our ignorance and misunderstanding. This is Moore's intent. The final chapter of this fine monograph includes an apology "This will involve extensive generalizations and potentially outrageous extrapolations" and a challenge: "Do the research to prove me wrong." All developmental mycologists should own a desk copy of Fungal Morphogenesis and all science librarians should be alerted to order a copy for their collections." Joan Bennett (Department of Cell & Molecular Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans) in Inoculum: Supplement to Mycologia Volume 52(1), Februrary 2001, and Newsletter of the Mycological Society of America.
"A landmark treatise on fungi and a principal source of collected information for some time to come on all aspects of developmental biology". D. L. Richter (Michigan Technological University, USA) in CHOICE (publication of the Association of College & Research Libraries of the American Library Association), April, 1999.
"The book offers a deep and thorough description of issues concerning fungal developmental biology…What deserves special attention is the problem approach to the presentation of hypha tip development, branching, growth kinetics, cell differentiation, tissue domains, fructification strategies amongst Basidiomycetes, as well as regeneration, degeneration, aging and death. Also topics related to fungi enzymes, cell-wall and cell-membrane functions in metabolite transport, secondary metabolism, metabolism adaptations and molecular aspects of conidiation have been discussed in a very inspiring way. However, [the] book's biggest merit is the synthesis of an immense amount of biochemical, physiological, molecular and structural data and the presentation of an original morphoregulation hypothesis for fungi. The book should be considered essential for all mycologists, particularly those studying morphogenesis amongst fungi. This is mainly due to the fact that it indicates problems, which remain to be solved. The book addresses different issues from numerous areas. However, the author is a good teacher and, therefore, his work can be understood by a medium-advanced biologist. It should be recommended to all those interested in cell and developmental biology, as well as to microbiologists and geneticists." A. Borowska in Acta Mycologica, 1999, volume 34 (part2), p. 169.
"The greatest value of this book is that it brings the fungi within the mainstream of current developmental biology. ... the author often gives very personal opinions on controversial matters which makes for interesting reading." J. G. H. Wessels (Department of Biology, University of Groningen, The Netherlands), Mycologist, November 1999.
"In his latest book, David Moore, longtime editor of the journal Mycological Research, offers a provocative picture of the fundamental mechanisms by which hyphae extend and collaborate to form mushrooms. A book of this caliber has been needed for many years, and ... Moore has closed the gap between Sir John Burnett’s 1976 masterpiece, Fundamentals of Mycology, and the last quarter-century of experimental inquiry. ... Indeed, Moore has convinced me that were it not for the clinical and agricultural significance of invasive hyphal growth, fruit body morphogenesis would have long assumed primacy among the professional obsessions of experimental mycologists. ... there is much in this innovative text to inform all mycologists and other eukaryote microbiologists." Nicholas P. Money (Miami University, Oxford, Ohio ASM (American Society for Microbiology) News, Volume 65, Number 10, 1999, pp. 711 - 712.
"David Moore authoritatively blends together physiological, biochemical, molecular and structural descriptions within an evolutionary framework to provide a comprehensive account of fungal developmental biology in Fungal Morphogenesis. ... The book will be useful equally as a text and a reference book to students, teachers and researchers who are interested in fundamentals of fungal biology." Ajay Singh (Petrozyme Technologies Inc., Guelph, Ontario, Canada) Canadian Society of Microbiology Newsletter, Summer 1999, volume 46, no. 3, p. 11-12.
"Fungal Morphogenesis is a comprehensive book, covering most aspects of an exciting and important field. It is a daunting task to describe development over an entire kingdom, yet Moore manages to incorporate data from all classes of fungi into an overall synthesis of fungal development. He describes all of the current models of fungal morphogenesis and most of the relevant research. The extensive reference list includes the most pertinent fungal research over the past forty years" Laura Robertson & Hiten Madhani (Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA ) in Trends in Cell Biology, September 1999, volume 9, p. 374.
"Fungal Morphogenesis is a rare example of a single author book that covers a large and developing area. The author is an established authority on the developmental biology of mushrooms of higher fungi ... Material is brought together from a range of sources and approaches to provide a useful overview of the present status of the field as a whole and to highlight hot topics for the future" Neil Gow (University of Aberdeen, UK) in Trends in Microbiology (1999) volume 7, page 92.
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Middle ear infections, or otitis media, are common childhood ailments that can significantly affect children’s health and well-being. Understanding the impact of middle ear infections is crucial for parents and caregivers to recognise the signs, seek appropriate medical attention, and prevent potential complications. This article will explore the effects of middle ear infections in children, highlighting the immediate and long-term consequences.
The Immediate Effects of Middle Ear Infections
Middle ear infections can cause various immediate effects in children, often leading to discomfort and disruption in their daily lives. The following are some of the primary effects:
Ear Pain and Discomfort
Middle ear infections can cause intense ear pain, making it challenging for children to focus, sleep, and engage in normal activities. The pain may be sharp, throbbing, or persistent and can significantly impact a child’s quality of life.
The infection and inflammation in the middle ear can affect the movement of the eardrum and the tiny bones responsible for transmitting sound vibrations. As a result, children may experience temporary hearing loss or reduced hearing ability, leading to difficulties in understanding speech, following instructions, and participating in conversations.
Ear pain and discomfort can disrupt a child’s sleep patterns, leading to restless nights and fatigue. Lack of proper sleep can further impact a child’s mood, behaviour, and cognitive function, affecting their overall well-being and academic performance.
The Long-Term Effects of Middle Ear Infections
If left untreated or recurring frequently, middle ear infections can have long-term consequences on children’s health and development. It is essential to address these infections promptly to prevent the following potential effects:
Chronic or recurrent middle ear infections can lead to persistent fluid buildup in the middle ear, resulting in a condition known as otitis media with effusion (OME). OME can cause mild to moderate hearing loss, hindering a child’s ability to develop speech and language skills and impacting their social interactions and academic progress.
Speech and Language Delays
Hearing loss caused by middle ear infections can significantly affect a child’s speech and language development. Impaired hearing during critical stages of language acquisition can result in delays in speech production, vocabulary expansion, and language comprehension. Early intervention and treatment are crucial to minimise the long-term effects on communication skills.
The impact of middle ear infections on a child’s hearing and overall well-being can also lead to developmental delays in other areas. Children may experience delays in cognitive development, motor skills, and social-emotional growth, affecting their overall progress and quality of life.
Children with chronic ear infections may experience frustration, isolation, and low self-esteem due to difficulties in communication and social interactions. The constant presence of pain and discomfort can also affect their emotional well-being, leading to changes in behaviour, decreased participation in activities, and challenges in forming relationships.
Middle ear infections can have immediate and long-term effects on children’s health and development. Immediate effects include ear pain, hearing impairment, and sleep disturbances. If left untreated or recurring frequently, middle ear infections can lead to long-term consequences such as hearing loss, speech and language delays, developmental delays, and psychosocial impact. Recognising the signs of middle ear infections, seeking timely medical attention, and following appropriate treatment strategies are essential in minimising the effects and ensuring the well-being of children.
What are the potential long-term effects of untreated middle ear infections in children?
Untreated middle ear infections in children can have several long-term effects. Some of the potential consequences include:
Persistent or recurrent middle ear infections can lead to temporary or permanent hearing loss, affecting a child’s speech and language development.
Speech and Language Delays
Hearing loss caused by middle ear infections can result in delays in speech production, vocabulary expansion, and language comprehension.
Middle ear infections can impact a child’s cognitive development, motor skills, and social-emotional growth, potentially leading to developmental delays.
Children with chronic ear infections may experience frustration, isolation, and low self-esteem due to communication difficulties, impacting their emotional well-being and social interactions.
How are Middle Ear Infections Treated in Children?
Treating middle ear infections in children typically involves a combination of medical interventions and supportive care. Here are the common approaches:
- Antibiotics: If the infection is bacterial, antibiotics are prescribed to eliminate the bacteria causing the infection. It is essential to complete the entire course of antibiotics as the healthcare provider prescribes.
- Pain relief: Over-the-counter pain relievers, such as acetaminophen or ibuprofen, may be recommended to alleviate ear pain and discomfort. However, it is essential to consult a healthcare professional before giving any medication to children.
- Ear drops: In some cases, antibiotic ear drops may be prescribed to target the infection and directly reduce inflammation in the ear.
- Observation: In certain instances, especially for mild cases or viral infections, the healthcare provider may recommend a wait-and-watch approach with regular monitoring to see if the infection resolves independently.
- Surgical intervention: In severe or recurrent cases where other treatment methods have not been effective, surgical procedures such as inserting ear tubes (tympanostomy tubes) may be considered to improve fluid drainage and prevent future infections.
It is crucial to consult a healthcare professional for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment plan tailored to the child’s specific needs. They can guide the best course of action based on the severity and recurrence of the middle ear infections.


I also have a strange urge to document things. Travels, dreams, everyday life, the progress of gardens, sightings of birds, lizards, flowering eucalypts, shells, feathers, artefacts. Mostly, though, my efforts at documentation have been unsustained and/or unsystematic. More like random jottings in search of a notebook, first pages of journals abandoned in the fluster of life or great ideas that were never executed.
My most recent documentary project is to draw the sandbar at Point Walter.
The brief I have given myself is quite simple. Whenever I go to Point Walter and walk out along the sandbar, I draw something that catches my eye. If it's a small thing, I bring it home with me. If it is big, I draw it in situ. I try to record the things I notice: what birds are here today? What's the weather like? A lot more jellyfish than usual...
So here are a few pages:
Fragments of shells and pottery washed up on the sandbar.
Looking south from the sandbar.
Swans out on the sandbar, in the shallow water. They are not at all afraid, turning themselves into all kinds of pretzel as they sleep or preen.
One day, I found numerous crab body parts washed up. When I tried to find an online field guide to make an identification, 99% of the information listed under the heading 'Crabs of the Swan River Estuary' was about how to cook them. What has happened to natural history?
Another day I found this fan folded up and stuck vertically into the mud in shallow water.
The Uchiha Sasuke figurine was 100 metres further on.
Jellyfish. I had to draw them on the run as they floated in the water. On the surface, leaves of one of the common river plants are also floating along.
Crested terns, with rainclouds. Some raindrops on the page, too.
The view north on a cloudy day, and some pied oyster catchers.
The project continues. Lately the tides have been too high to walk out far. There is also a sign up, and a fence, barring entry to the little tufted island at the end of the sandbar so that birds can safely do their nesting. I want to go there. I want to draw every species of plant on that little bump at the end of the spit.


Psomagen Next Generation Scholarship
Psomagen Inc. is a leading bioscience firm committed to advanced human genomic sequencing. The corporation provides next-generation sequencing services utilized by researchers from many prestigious institutions and advanced clinical sequencing services to U.S. patients and hospitals.
Psomagen’s Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) is the future of DNA research, and the applications for this technology have the potential for enhancing individualized patient care. NGS applications include:
- Identifying rare genetic mutations and variations
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- Advanced analysis of gene expression
- Discovery of cancer-causing genetic mutations
- Faster sequencing
Psomagen is committed to supporting students in their educational path. With this in mind, Psomagen is pleased to announce the launch of a scholarship essay contest — the Psomagen Next Generation Scholarship. The essay winner selected will be awarded $2,000 towards their studies.


The first stage of wine fermentation involves yeast metabolizing in the must which results in the conversion of sugars to ethanol. There are many wild yeasts which can facilitate fermentation but the most common one is Saccharomyces cerevisiae which is also used in bread making (and the brewing of beer). I think this is pretty cool - the same little micro-organisms that work their magic on our wine are also the magic behind my favorite food - bread. It seemed like a fun experiment to try making a sourdough starter from the exact same yeast fermenting our wine.
It’s pretty easy to make a sourdough starter - you combine flour and water, leave in the open air for a while to (hopefully) pick up some nice local wild microorganisms (including yeast) and then start “feeding” daily. Feeding means discarding half the starter and topping up with fresh flour and water. After a day or so the yeast start multiplying. The yeast metabolize the sugars in the flour to produce carbon dioxide (and ethanol) and the whole mixture puffs itself up with CO2 bubbles, the yeast eventually consumes all the sugar from the fresh flour and needs feeding again. I joke with my kids that we have to keep feeding my microscopic pets and they fart out the CO2 bubbles. You have to feed the starter for about a week to establish a stable culture where the yeast has outcompeted any other microbes in the medium.
You can make bread with yeast alone but a sourdough starter usually also contains lactic acid bacteria [LAB]. (e.g. Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis, love that name!) These little microbes convert sugars to lactic acid, acetic acid and CO2 which produce some of the complex sour flavors we associate with sourdough. The super cool thing is that LAB and yeast coexist in a kind of symbiotic way in the starter. They work to make their home inhospitable to other microorganisms but very friendly for each other. Yeast produces ethanol which kills off most other stuff, but LAB like it. And LAB produce acids which, as we know given that our wine is pretty acidic too, the yeast are happy with. Yeast also produce amylase as they reproduce. I have “amylase convert starch to maltose” scarred into my long term memory from high school biology class. Guess what flour is? Lots of starch! And what do LAB eat? You guessed it - maltose! 🦠❤🦠.
Let’s get to it!
Harvesting the yeast
Several sourdough references recommend using grape juice to help get a regular starter going, so I was pretty optimistic that this was going to work. Immediately after punching down my wine (the 2021 Cabernet Sauvignon vintage) at the height of its fermentation I grabbed about 50ml of juice. At this stage of the wine fermentation there will be tons of yeast in every drop of must and the acidity and sugar in the juice should help give our sourdough starter a big kick start.
Mixing the first starter
- 100g bread flour (wholemeal recommended)
- 100g water
- ~30g juice from fermenting must
I thoroughly mixed the flour, water and yeasty grape juice together and left the container open to the air for about an hour, hoping to pick up some L. sanfranciscensis.
After an hour or so, I closed up the jar and left it in a warmish spot in my kitchen for the rest of the day. As you can see the initial starter looks a bit weird. It’s all purple! But before long, and much faster than simply using the flour + water + patience method, I noticed a throng of little CO2 bubbles in the starter.
It worked! Now a bit of patience and persistence was required. I fed the maturing starter once a day by pouring half away (leaving 100g of “yesterday’s” starter) and topping up with 50ml water and 50g flour.
After a week of feeding, the starter is finally ready to bake with. It had a very fragrant smell by this stage. Definitely different to my regular sourdough starters. So the big question was: “Will the bread be any good?”
Baking a loaf, the moment of truth
There was only one way to find out! I followed my regular sourdough recipe using 150g of the wine yeast starter to seed the production sourdough. And… It baked really well - the starter did a nice job of leavening the dough. Here’s the finished product:
And the taste? It’s different to my regular sourdough - a little less sour and a little more fragrant. But it’s good! My family’s verdict: “Can you make us more tomorrow?”


Plant hormones are important signaling molecules that control many developmental processes, including cell division, differentiation, organogenesis. In contrast to their animal counterparts, plant hormones can regulate a multitude of apparently unrelated physiological processes, their roles often overlap and they mutually modulate their effects. This indicates the important role of synergistic and antagonistic interactions between different plant hormones. However, the molecular basis of hormonal interactions is still largely unknown. The physiologically best characterized interaction is between auxin and cytokinin. These two plant hormones exhibit synergistic interaction to promote cell division in cell culture, but antagonistic interaction to regulate lateral root development or lateral bud outgrowth. The main aim of our studies is to reveal the molecular components and mechanisms balancing the output of auxin and cytokinin pathways in order to regulate plant organogenesis. We use lateral root organogenesis in Arabidopsis as an ideally suited model system for these questions, because it encompasses fundamental aspects of plant development, such as dedifferentiation, re-entry into the cell cycle, coordinated cell divisions and differentiation, and is in antagonistic manner regulated by auxin and cytokinin. Recently, we have shown that cytokinin modulation of polar auxin transport represents an important mode of auxin-cytokinin interaction. We further investigate underlying molecular mechanisms with focus on (i) transcriptional and (ii) postranscriptional control of auxin efflux carriers by cytokinin. We identified novel cytokinin response elements in promoters of AtPIN1 and AtPIN7 auxin efflux carriers and using yeast one hybrid we aim to determine cytokinin controlled upstream regulatory pathway. Beside transcriptional regulation, our recent data document impact of cytokinin on cellular trafficking of AtPIN1 protein and its stability. Investigation of cytokinin interaction with cellular endocytotic machinery applying chemical and forward genetic approaches will be our key strategies in the future to determine components of this regulatory pathway. To identify novel components of auxin-cytokinin interaction we have applied two main research strategies, transcriptome profiling and a forward genetic screen. Genes recovered from both transcriptome profiling and a forward genetic screen represent candidates for novel cross-talk components that will help us to reveal mechanisms integrating auxin and cytokinin signaling pathways.


The ‘Red Robin‘ plant, scientifically known as Photinia fraseri, is a vibrant addition to any garden, celebrated for its bright red foliage that matures to a rich, dark green. This dynamic color change offers a striking visual interest throughout the seasons, making Red Robin a popular choice for gardeners looking to add a splash of color to their outdoor spaces. Ideal for hedges, screens, or as a standalone feature, this versatile plant provides both privacy and aesthetic appeal.
Optimal conditions for growth
For those looking to cultivate Red Robin in their garden, selecting the right location is crucial. This plant thrives in well-drained soil and prefers a position that receives full sun to partial shade. Adequate sunlight is essential for the development of the signature red leaves, whereas too much shade can result in a lackluster display. Additionally, Red Robin is relatively hardy but benefits from protection against harsh winter winds.
Planting and maintenance tips
When planting Red Robin, spacing is important to consider, especially if creating a hedge. Plants should be spaced about 2 to 3 feet apart to allow for ample growth and air circulation. After planting, regular watering helps establish the plant, particularly in dry conditions. However, once established, Red Robin is drought-resistant and requires minimal maintenance.
Pruning for health and vibrancy
Pruning plays a significant role in the care of Red Robin, encouraging the growth of new, brightly colored leaves. Pruning should be done in the spring, just as the new growth begins, to shape the plant and maintain its density. This not only enhances the plant’s appearance but also promotes a healthier, more vigorous specimen.
Red Robin’s ability to provide year-round interest with minimal effort makes it a valued addition to any garden. Its striking color transition from red to green, combined with its versatility as a hedge or ornamental plant, offers endless landscaping possibilities. With proper care and placement, Red Robin can transform any garden into a vibrant, living canvas.