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Revision Notes Chapter 6 Life Processes
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The maintenance of living organisms must go on even at the conditions, when they are not physically active. Even when we sit idle and during sleeping, this maintenance job through cells functioning has to go on. The life process includes the activities performed by the different organs to maintain the body.
Some of the life processes in the living beings are described below:
The process of obtaining energy through consumption of food is called as nutrition.
The process of acquiring oxygen through breathing and make it available to cells for the process of breaking down of organic substances into simpler compounds is called as respiration.
Transportation is the process by which the food and oxygen is carried from one organ to other organs in the body.
It is the process by which the metabolic waste by-products are removed from the different organs and released out from the body.
Question. Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multicellular organisms like humans?
Answer: Multicellular organisms such as humans possess complex body designs. They have specialised cells and tissues for performing various necessary functions of the body such as intake of food and oxygen. Unlike unicellular organisms, multicellular cells are not in direct contact with the outside environment. Therefore, diffusion cannot meet their oxygen requirements.
Question. What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive?
Answer: Any visible movement such as walking, breathing, or growing is generally used to decide whether something is alive or not. However, a living organism can also have movements, which are not visible to the naked eye. Therefore, the presence of life processes is a fundamental criterion that can be used to decide whether something is alive or not.
Question. What are outside raw materials used for by an organism?
Answer: An organism uses outside raw materials mostly in the form of food and oxygen. The raw materials required by an organism can be quite varied depending on the complexity of the organism and its environment.
Question. What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life?
Answer: Life processes such as nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion, etc. are essential for maintaining life.
The process by which an organism takes food and utilizes it is called nutrition.
NEED OF NUTRITION
Organisms need energy to perform various activities. The energy is supplied by the nutrients. Organisms need various raw materials for growth and repair. These raw materials are provided by nutrients.
Materials which provide nutrition to organisms are called nutrients. Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are the main nutrients and are called macronutrients. Minerals and vitamins are required in small amounts and hence are called micronutrients.
TYPES OF NUTRITION:
1. Autotrophic Nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own food is called autotrophic nutrition. Green plants and blue-green algae follow the autotrophic mode of nutrition.
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which an organism takes food from another organism is called heterotrophic nutrition. Organisms; other than green plants and blue-green algae follow heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
Autotrophic organisms are able to produce organic matter from simple inorganic materials. They consequently create their own food—but require a source of energy to do this.
- Photoautotrophs harvest energy from light to produce organic matter.
- Chemoautotrophs use energy from inorganic reactions in the environment to drive the creation of organic matter.
Heterotrophic nutritrion is typical of animals. These organisms eat organic matter in other organisms—either alive (as hunters) or dead (as scavengers).
Saprotrophic organisms are the decay organisms. They digest dead materials using enzymes that they secrete externally. Fungi and many bacteria are saprotrophes.
Parasites (biotrophs) feed on living organisms without killing them.
Heterotrophic nutrition can be further divided into two types, viz. saprophytic nutrition and holozoic nutrition.
1. Saprophytic Nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition; the organism secretes the digestive juices on the food. The food is digested while it is still to be ingested. The digested food is then ingested by the organism. All the decomposers follow saprophytic nutrition. Some insects; like houseflies; also follow this mode of nutrition.
2. Holozoic Nutrition: In holozoic nutrition; the digestion happens inside the body of the organism, i.e. after the food is ingested. Most of the animals follow this mode of nutrition.
Green plants prepare their own food. They make food in the presence of sunlight. Sunlight provides energy, carbon dioxide and water are the raw materials and chloroplast is the site where food is made.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS: The process by which green plants prepare food is called photosynthesis. During this process; the solar energy is converted into chemical energy and
carbohydrates are formed. Green leaves are the main sites of photosynthesis. The green portion of the plant contains a pigment chloroplast; which contains chlorophyll. The whole process of photosynthesis can be shown by following equation:
STEPS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
- Sunlight activates chlorophyll; which leads to splitting of water molecule.
- The hydrogen; released by splitting of water molecule is utilized for reduction of carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates.
- Oxygen is the byproduct of photosynthesis.
- Carbohydrate is subsequently converted into starch and is stored in leaves and other storage parts.
- The splitting of water molecules is part of the light reaction.
- Other steps are part of the dark reaction during photosynthesis.
HOW DO RAW MATERIALS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS BECOME AVAILABLE TO THE PLANT?
- Water comes from soil; through the xylem tissue in roots and stems.
- Carbon dioxide comes in the leaves through stomata.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
- Photosynthesis is the main way through which the solar energy is made available for different living beings.
- Green plants are the main producers of food in the ecosystem. All other organisms directly or indirectly depend on green plants for food.
- The process of photosynthesis also helps in maintaining the balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the air.
Heterotrophic Nutrition: When an organism takes food from another organism, it is called heterotrophic nutrition. Different heterotrophic organisms follow different methods to take and utilize food. Based on this, heterotrophic nutrition can be divided into two types:
1. Saprophytic Nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition, the digestion of food takes place before ingestion of food. This type of nutrition is usually seen in fungi and some other microorganisms. The organism secretes digestive enzymes on the food and then ingests the simple substances. Saprophytes feed on dead materials and thus help in decomposition dead remains of plants and animals.
2. Holozoic Nutrition: In holozoic nutrition, the digestion of food follows after the ingestion of food. Thus, digestion takes place inside the body of the organism. Holozoic nutrition happens in five steps, viz. ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.
STEPS OF HOLOZOIC NUTRITION
- Ingestion: The process of taking in the food is called ingestion.
- Digestion: The process of breaking complex food substances into simple molecules is called digestion. Simple molecules; thus obtained; can be absorbed by the body.
- Absorption: The process of absorption of digested food is called absorption.
- Assimilation: The process of utilization of digested food; for energy and for growth and repair is called assimilation.
- Egestion: The process of removing undigested food from the body is called egestion.
NUTRITION IN AMOEBA:
Amoeba is a unicellular animal which follows holozoic mode of nutrition. The cell membrane of amoeba keeps on protruding into pseudopodia. Amoeba surrounds a food particle with pseudopodia and makes a food vacuole. The food vacuole contains the food particle and water. Digestive enzymes are secreted in the food vacuole and digestion takes place. After that, digested food is absorbed from the food vacuole. Finally, the food vacuole moves near the cell membrane and undigested food is expelled out.
NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS
Human beings are complex animals; which have a complex digestive system. The human digestive system is composed of an alimentary canal and some accessory glands. The alimentary canal is divided into several parts, viz. oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Salivary gland, liver and pancreas are the accessory glands which lie outside the alimentary canal.
STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Mouth or Buccal Cavity: The mouth has teeth and tongue. Salivary glands are also present in the mouth. The tongue has gustatory receptors which perceive the sense of taste. Tongue helps in turning over the food, so that saliva can be properly mixed in it.
Teeth help in breaking down the food into smaller particles so that swallowing of food becomes easier. There are four types of teeth in human beings. The incisor teeth are used for cutting the food. The canine teeth are used for tearing the food and for cracking hard substances. The premolars are used for coarse grinding of food. The molars are used for fine grinding of food.
Salivary glands secrete saliva. Saliva makes the food slippery which makes it easy to swallow the food. Saliva also contains the enzyme salivary amylase or ptyalin. Salivary amylase digests starch and converts it into sucrose.
- Stomach: Stomach is a bag-like organ. Highly muscular walls of the stomach help in churning the food. The walls of stomach secrete hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid kills the germs which may be present in food. Moreover, it makes the medium inside stomach as acidic. The acidic medium is necessary for gastric enzymes to work. The enzyme pepsin; secreted in stomach; does partial digestion of protein. The mucus; secreted by the walls of the stomach saves the inner lining of stomach from getting damaged from hydrochloric acid.
- Small Intestine: It is a highly coiled tube-like structure. The small intestine is longer than the large intestine but its lumen is smaller than that of the large intestine. The small intestine is divided into three parts, viz. duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
- Liver: Liver is the largest organ in the human body. Liver manufactures bile; which gets stored in gall bladder. From the gall bladder, bile is released as and when required.
- Pancreas: Pancreas is situated below the stomach. It secretes pancreatic juice which contains many digestive enzymes. Bile and pancreatic juice go to the duodenum through a hepato-pancreatic duct. Bile breaks down fat into smaller particles. This process is called emulsification of fat. After that, the enzyme lipase digests fat into fatty acids and glycerol. Trypsin and chymotrypsin are enzymes which digest protein into amino acids. Complex carbohydrates are digested into glucose. The major part of digestion takes place in the duodenum. No digestion takes place in jejunum. The inner wall in the ileum is projected into numerous finger-like structures; called villi. Villi increase the surface area inside the ileum so that optimum absorption can take place. Moreover, villi also reduce the lumen of the ileum so that food can stay for longer duration in it; for optimum absorption. Digested food is absorbed by villi.
- Large Intestine: Large intestine is smaller than small intestine. Undigested food goes into the large intestine. Some water and salt are absorbed by the walls of the large intestine. After that, the undigested food goes to the rectum; from where it is expelled out through the anus.
Flow chart of human digestive system
Question. What are the differences between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition?
Question. Where do plants get each of the raw materials required for photosynthesis?
Answer: The following raw materials are required for photosynthesis:
1. The raw material CO2 enters from the atmosphere through stomata.
2. Water is absorbed from the soil by the plant roots.
3. Sunlight, an important component to manufacture food, is absorbed by the chlorophyll and other green parts of the plants.
Question. What is the role of the acid in our stomach?
Answer: Following are the roles of acid in our stomach:
1. The hydrochloric acid present in our stomach dissolves bits of food and creates an acidic medium. In this acidic medium, enzyme pepsinogen is converted to pepsin, which is a protein-digesting enzyme.
2. The hydrochloric acid kills the harmful microbes that enter with food and thus prevents infection of digestive tract.
Question. What is the function of digestive enzymes?
Answer: Digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase, pepsin, trypsin, etc. help in the breaking down of complex food particles into simple ones. These simple particles can be easily absorbed by the blood and thus transported to all the cells of the body.
Question. How is the small intestine designed to absorb digested food?
Answer: The small intestine has millions of tiny finger-like projections called villi. These villi increase the surface area for more efficient food absorption. Within these villi, many blood vessels are present that absorb the digested food and carry it to the blood stream. From the blood stream, the absorbed food is delivered to each and every cell of the body.
The process by which a living being utilizes the food to get energy is called respiration. Respiration is an oxidation reaction in which carbohydrate is oxidized to produce energy. Mitochondrion is the site of respiration and the energy released is stored in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate). ATP is stored in mitochondria and is released as per need.
STEPS OF RESPIRATION:
- Breaking down glucose into pyruvate: This step happens in the cytoplasm. Glucose molecule is broken down into pyruvic acid. Glucose molecule is composed of 6 carbon atoms, while pyruvic acid is composed of 3 carbon atoms.
- Fate of Pyruvic Acid: Further breaking down of pyruvic acid takes place in mitochondria and the molecules formed depend on the type of respiration in a particular organism. Respiration is of two types, viz. aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
TYPES OF RESPIRATION:
1. Aerobic Respiration: This type of respiration happens in the presence of oxygen. Pyruvic acid is converted into carbon dioxide. Energy is released and water molecule is also formed at the end of this process.
2. Anaerobic Respiration: This type of respiration happens in the absence of oxygen. Pyruvic acid is either converted into ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. Ethyl alcohol is usually formed in case of anaerobic respiration in microbes; like yeast or bacteria. Lactic acid is formed in some microbes as well as in the muscle cells.
Pain in Leg Muscles on Running: When someone runs too fast, he may experience a throbbing pain in the leg muscles. This happens because of anaerobic respiration taking place in the muscles. During running, the energy demand from the muscle cells increases. This is compensated by anaerobic respiration and lactic acid is formed in the process. The deposition of lactic acid causes the pain the leg muscles. The pain subsides after taking rest for some time.
Exchange of Gases: For aerobic respiration; organisms need a continuous supply of oxygen, and carbon dioxide produced during the process needs to be removed from the body. Different organisms use different methods for intake of oxygen and expulsion of carbon dioxide. Diffusion is the method which is utilized by unicellular and some simple organisms for this purpose. In plants also, diffusion is utilized for exchange of gases. In complex animals, respiratory system does the job of exchange of gases. Gills are the respiratory organs for fishes. Fishes take in oxygen; which is dissolved in water; through gills. Since availability of oxygen is less in the aquatic environment so the breathing rate of aquatic organisms is faster. Insects have a system of spiracles and tracheae which is used for taking in oxygen.
Terrestrial organisms have developed lungs for exchange of gases. Availability of oxygen is not a problem in the terrestrial environment so breathing rate is slower compared to what it is in fishes.
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
The human respiratory system is composed of a pair of lungs. These are attached to a system of tubes which open on the outside through the nostrils. Following are the main structures in the human respiratory system:
- Nostrils: There two nostrils which converge to form a nasal passage. The inner lining of the nostrils is lined by hairs and remains wet due to mucus secretion. The mucus and the hairs help in filtering the dust particles out from inhaled air. Further, air is warmed up when it enters the nasal passage.
- Pharynx: It is a tube like structure which continues after the nasal passage.
- Larynx: This part comes after the pharynx. This is also called the voice box.
- Trachea: This is composed of rings of cartilage. Cartilaginous rings prevent the collapse of trachea in the absence of air.
- Bronchi: A pair of bronchi comes out from the trachea; with one bronchus going to each lung.
- Bronchioles: A bronchus divides into branches and sub-branches; inside the lung.
- Alveoli: These are air-sacs at the end of bronchioles. Alveolus is composed of a very thin membrane and is the place where blood capillaries open. This is alveolus; where oxygen mixes with the blood and carbon dioxide exits from the blood. The exchange of gases; in alveoli; takes place due to pressure differential.
Breathing Mechanism: The breathing mechanism of lungs is controlled by the diaphragm and the intercostalis muscles. Diaphragm is a membrane which separates the thoracic chamber from the abdominal cavity. When diaphragm moves down, the lungs expand and air is inhaled. When diaphragm moves up, the lungs contract and air is exhaled.
Question. What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism have with regard to obtaining oxygen for respiration?
Answer: Terrestrial organisms take up oxygen from the atmosphere whereas aquatic animals need to utilize oxygen present in the water. Air contains more O2 as compared to water. Since the content of O2 in air is high, the terrestrial animals do not have to breathe faster to get more oxygen. Therefore, unlike aquatic animals, terrestrial animals do not have to show various adaptations for better gaseous exchange.
Question. What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidized to provide energy in various organisms ?
Answer: Glucose is first broken down in the cell cytoplasm into a three carbon molecule called pyruvate. Pyruvate is further broken down by different ways to provide energy.
The breakdown of glucose by different pathways can be illustrated as follows.
In yeast and human muscle cells, the breakdown of pyruvate occurs in the absence of oxygen whereas in mitochondria, the breakdown of pyruvate occurs in the presence of oxygen.
Question. How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?
Answer: Haemoglobin transports oxygen molecule to all the body cells for cellular respiration. The haemoglobin pigment present in the blood gets attached to four O2 molecules that are obtained from breathing. It thus forms oxyhaemoglobin and the blood becomes oxygenated. This oxygenated blood is then distributed to all the body cells by the heart. After giving away O2 to the body cells, blood takes away CO2 which is the end product of cellular respiration. Now the blood becomes de-oxygenated.
Since haemoglobin pigment has less affinity for CO2 , CO2 is mainly transported in the dissolved form. This de-oxygenated blood gives CO2 to lung alveoli and takes O2 in return.
Question. How are the lungs designed in human beings to maximize the area for exchange of gases?
Answer: The exchange of gases takes place between the blood of the capillaries that surround the alveoli and the gases present in the alveoli. Thus, alveoli are the site for exchange of gases. The lungs get filled up with air during the process of inhalation as ribs are lifted up and diaphragm is flattened. The air that is rushed inside the lungs fills the numerous alveoli present in the lungs.
Each lung contains 300-350 million alveoli. These numerous alveoli increase the surface area for gaseous exchange making the process of respiration more efficient.
TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS
Circulatory System: The circulatory system is responsible for transport of various substances in human beings. It is composed of the heart, arteries, veins and blood capillaries. Blood plays the role of the carrier of substances.
Heart is a muscular organ; which is composed of cardiac muscles. It is so small that it can fit inside and adult’s fist. The heart is a pumping organ which pumps the blood. The human heart is composed of four chambers, viz. right auricle, right ventricle, left auricle and left ventricle.
- Systole: Contraction of cardiac muscles is called systole.
- Diastole: Relaxation of cardiac muscles is called diastole.
- Arteries: These are thick-walled blood vessels which carry oxygenated blood from the heart to different organs. Pulmonary arteries are exceptions because they carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to lungs; where oxygenation of blood takes place.
- Veins: These are thin-walled blood vessels which carry deoxygenated blood from different organs to the heart. Pulmonary veins are exceptions because they carry oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart. Valves are present in veins to prevent backflow of blood.
- Capillaries: These are the blood vessels which have single-celled walls.
- Blood: Blood is a connective tissue which plays the role of the carrier for various substances in the body. Blood is composed of plasma, blood cells and platelets.
- Blood Plasma: Blood plasma is a pale coloured liquid which is mostly composed of water. Blood plasma forms the matrix of blood.
- Blood Cells: There are two types of blood cells, viz. Red Blood Cells (RBCs) and White Blood Cells (WBCs).
- Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs): These are of red colour because of the presence of haemoglobin which is a pigment. Haemoglobin readily combines with oxygen and carbon dioxide. The transport of oxygen happens through haemoglobin. Some part of carbon dioxide is also transported through haemoglobin.
- White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs): These are of pale white colour. They play important role in the immunity.
- Platelets: Platelets are responsible for blood coagulation. Blood coagulation is a defense mechanism which prevents excess loss of blood; in case of an injury.
- Lymph: Lymph is similar to blood but RBCs are absent in lymph. Lymph is formed from the fluid which leaks from blood capillaries and goes to the intercellular spaces in the tissues. This fluid is collected through lymph vessels and finally returns to the blood capillaries. Lymph also plays an important role in the immune system.
- Double Circulation: In the human heart, blood passes through the heart twice in one cardiac cycle. This type of circulation is called double circulation. One complete heart beat in which all the chambers of the heart contract and relax once is called cardiac cycle. The heart beats about 72 times per minute in a normal adult. In one cardiac cycle, the heart pumps out 70 mL blood and thus about 4900 mL blood in a minute. Double circulation ensures complete segregation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood which is necessary for optimum energy production in warm-blooded animals.
Circulation of Blood through the heart:
Systemic Vein → Sinus Venosus → Right Auricle → Right Ventricle → Pulmonary Artery → Lungs → Pulmonary Vein → Left Auricle → Left Ventricle → Trunchus Arteriosus → Systemic Circulation
TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
Plants have specialized vascular tissues for transportation of substances. There are two types of vascular tissues in plants, viz. xylem and phloem.
1. Xylem: Xylem is responsible for transportation of water and minerals. It is composed of trachieds, xylem vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibre. Trachieds and xylem vessels are the conducting elements. The xylem makes a continuous tube in plants which runs from roots to stem and right up to the veins of leaves.
2. Phloem: Phloem is responsible for transportation of food. Phloem is composed of sieve tubes , companion cells, phloem parenchyma and bast fibres. Sieve tubes are the conducting elements in phloem.
Ascent of Sap
The upward movement of water and minerals from roots to different plant parts is called ascent of sap. Many factors are at play in ascent of sap and it takes place in many steps. They are explained as follows:
Root Pressure: The walls of cells of root hairs are very thin. Water; from soil; enters the root hairs because of osmosis. Root pressure is responsible for movement of water up to the base of the stem.
Capillary Action: A very fine tube is called capillary. Water; or any liquid; rises in the capillary because of physical forces and this phenomenon is called capillary action. Water; in stem; rises up to some height because of capillary action.
Adhesion-cohesion of Water Molecules: Water molecules make a continuous column in the xylem because of forces of adhesion and cohesion among the molecules.
Transpiration Pull: Loss of water vapour through stomata and lenticels; in plants; is called transpiration. Transpiration through stomata creates vacuum which creates a suction; called transpiration pull. The transpiration pull sucks the water column from the xylem tubes and thus water is able to rise to great heights in even the tallest plants.
Transport of Food: Transport of food in plants happens because of utilization of energy. Thus, unlike the transport through xylem; it is a form of active transport. Moreover, the flow of substances through phloem takes place in both directions, i.e. it is a two-way traffic in phloem.
Question. What are the components of the transport system in human beings? What are the functions of these components?
Answer: The main components of the transport system in human beings are the heart, blood, and blood vessels.
1. Heart pumps oxygenated blood throughout the body. It receives deoxygenated blood from the various body parts and sends this impure blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
2. Being a fluid connective tissue, blood helps in the transport of oxygen, nutrients, CO2, and nitrogenous wastes.
3. The blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries) carry blood either away from the heart to various organs or from various organs back to the heart.
Question. Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals and birds?
Answer: Warm-blooded animals such as birds and mammals maintain a constant body temperature by cooling themselves when they are in a hotter environment and by warming their bodies when they are in a cooler environment. Hence, these animals require more oxygen (O2) for more cellular respiration so that they can produce more energy to maintain their body temperature.
Thus, it is necessary for them to separate oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood, so that their circulatory system is more efficient and can maintain their constant body temperature.
Question. What are the components of the transport system in highly organised plants?
Answer: In highly organised plants, there are two different types of conducting tissues − xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and minerals obtained from the soil (via roots) to the rest of the plant. Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant body.
Question. How are water and minerals transported in plants?
Answer: The components of xylem tissue (tracheids and vessels) of roots, stems, and leaves are interconnected to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels that reaches all parts of the plant. Transpiration creates a suction pressure, as a result of which water is forced into the xylem cells of the roots. Then there is a steady movement of water from the root xylem to all the plant parts through the interconnected water-conducting channels.
Question. How is food transported in plants?
Answer: Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant body. The transportation of food in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy from ATP. As a result of this, the osmotic pressure in the tissue increases causing water to move into it. This pressure moves the material in the phloem to the tissues which have less pressure. This is helpful in moving materials according to the needs of the plant. For example, the food material, such as sucrose, is transported into the phloem tissue using ATP energy.
Removal of harmful waste from the body is called excretion. Many wastes are produced during various metabolic activities. These need to be removed in time because their accumulation in the body can be harmful and even lethal for an organism.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
The human excretory system is composed of a pair of kidneys. A tube; called ureter; comes out of each kidney and goes to the urinary bladder. Urine is collected in the urinary bladder, from where it is expelled out through urethra as and when required.
- Kidney: Kidney is a bean-shaped organ which lies near the vertebral column in the abdominal cavity. The kidney is composed of many filtering units; called nephrons. Nephron is called the functional unit of kidney.
- Nephron: It is composed of a tangled mess of tubes and a filtering part; called glomerulus. Glomerulus is a network of blood capillaries to which renal artery is attached. The artery which takes blood to the glomerulus is called afferent arteriole and the one receiving blood from the glomerulus is called efferent arteriole. Glomerulus is enclosed in a capsule like portion; called Bowman’s capsule. The capsule extends into a fine tube which is highly coiled. Tubes from various nephrons converge into collecting duct; which finally goes to the ureter.
- Filtration in Glomerulus: Filtration happens because of very high pressure inside the glomerulus. The lumen of efferent arteriole is smaller than that of afferent arteriole. Due to this, the blood entering the glomerulus experiences very high pressure and due to this, the waste products are filtered out through the thin membrane of capillaries in the glomerulus. The filtered blood is sent to the systemic circulation through efferent arteriole and the filtrate goes to the Bowman’s capsule. That is how urine is formed inside the kidneys. Reabsorption of water and some other filtrates takes place in the tubular part of the nephron. This increases the concentration of urine. The human urine is mainly composed of water and urea.
EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Plants have no special organs for removal of wastes. The waste products of respiration and photosynthesis are used as raw materials for each other. Oxygen gas produced as a by-product of photosynthesis is used up during respiration and carbon dioxide produced during respiration is used up during photosynthesis. Excretion is carried out in the plants in the following ways:
- The gaseous wastes, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour are removed through stomata of leaves and lenticels of stems.
- Some waste products collect in the leaves and bark of trees. When the leaves and bark are shed, the wastes are eliminated.
- Some waste products are rendered harmless and then stored in the plant body as solid bodies. Raphides, tannins, resins, gum, rubber and essential oils are some such wastes.
Question. Describe the structure and functioning of nephrons.
Answer: Nephrons are the basic filtering units of kidneys. Each kidney possesses large number of nephrons, approximately 1-1.5 million. The main components of the nephron are glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, and a long renal tubule.
Functioning of a nephron:
1. The blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into many capillaries associated with glomerulus.
2. The water and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowman’s capsule.
3. In the proximal tubule, some substances such as amino acids, glucose, and salts are selectively reabsorbed and unwanted molecules are added in the urine.
4. The filtrate then moves down into the loop of Henle, where more water is absorbed.
5. From here, the filtrate moves upwards into the distal tubule and finally to the collecting duct. Collecting duct collects urine from many nephrons.
6. The urine formed in each kidney enters a long tube called ureter. From ureter, it gets transported to the urinary bladder and then into the urethra.
Question. What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products?
Answer: Plants can get rid of excess of water by transpiration. Waste materials may be stored in the cell vacuoles or as gum and resin, especially in old xylem. It is also stored in the leaves that later fall off.
Question. How is the amount of urine produced regulated?
Answer: The amount of urine produced depends on the amount of excess water and dissolved wastes present in the body. Some other factors such as habitat of an organism and hormone such as Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) also regulates the amount of urine produced.
Question. The kidneys in human beings are a part of the system for
In human beings, the kidneys are a part of the system for excretion.
Question. The xylem in plants are responsible for
(a) transport of water.
(b) transport of food.
(c) transport of amino acids.
(d) transport of oxygen.
Answer: transport of water
In a plant, the xylem is responsible for transport of water.
Question. The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires
(a) carbon dioxide and water.
(d) all of the above.
Answer: all of the above.
The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and sunlight.
Question. The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in
The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in mitochondria.
Question. How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place?
Answer: Fats are present in the form of large globules in the small intestine. The small intestine gets the secretions in the form of bile juice and pancreatic juice respectively from the liver and the pancreas. The bile salts (from the liver) break down the large fat globules into smaller globules so that the pancreatic enzymes can easily act on them. This is referred to as emulsification of fats. It takes place in the small intestine.
Question. What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?
Answer: Saliva is secreted by the salivary glands, located under the tongue. It moistens the food for easy swallowing. It contains a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase, which breaks down starch into sugar.
Question. What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and what are its by-products?
Answer: Autotrophic nutrition takes place through the process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll pigment, and sunlight are the necessary conditions required for autotrophic nutrition. Carbohydrates (food) and O2 are the by-products of photosynthesis.
Question. What are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration? Name some organisms that use the anaerobic mode of respiration.
Anaerobic respiration occurs in the roots of some waterlogged plants, some parasitic worms, animal muscles, and some micro-organisms such as yeasts.
Question. How are the alveoli designed to maximise the exchange of gases?
Answer: The alveoli are the small balloon-like structures present in the lungs. The walls of the alveoli consist of extensive network of blood vessels. Each lung contains 300−350 million alveoli, making it a total of approximately 700 million in both the lungs. The alveolar surface when spread out covers about 80 m2 area. This large surface area makes the gaseous exchange more efficient.
Question. What would be the consequences of a deficiency of haemoglobin in our bodies?
Answer: Haemoglobin is the respiratory pigment that transports oxygen to the body cells for cellular respiration. Therefore, deficiency of haemoglobin in blood can affect the oxygen supplying capacity of blood. This can lead to deficiency of oxygen in the body cells. It can also lead to a disease called anaemia.
Question. Describe double circulation in human beings. Why is it necessary?
Answer: The human heart is divided into four chambers − the right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium, and the left ventricle.
Flow of blood in the heart:
The heart has superior and inferior vena cava, which carries de-oxygenated blood from the upper and lower regions of the body respectively and supplies this deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the heart.
The right atrium then contracts and passes the de-oxygenated blood to the right ventricle, through an auriculo-ventricular aperture.
Then the right ventricle contracts and passes the de-oxygenated blood into the two pulmonary arteries, which pumps it to the lungs where the blood becomes oxygenated.
From the lungs, the pulmonary veins transport the oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart.
Then the left atrium contracts and through the auriculo-ventricular aperture, the oxygenated blood enters the left ventricle.
The blood passes to aorta from the left ventricle. The aorta gives rise to many arteries that distribute the oxygenated blood to all the regions of the body.
Therefore, the blood goes twice through the heart. This is known as double circulation.
Importance of double circulation:
The separation of oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood allows a more efficient supply of oxygen to the body cells. This efficient system of oxygen supply is very useful in warmblooded animals such as human beings.
As we know, warm-blooded animals have to maintain a constant body temperature by cooling themselves when they are in a hotter environment and by warming their bodies when they are in a cooler environment. Hence, they require more O2 for more respiration so that they can produce more energy to maintain their body temperature. Thus, the circulatory system of humans is more efficient because of the double circulatory heart..
Question. What are the differences between the transport of materials in xylem and phloem?
Question. Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys with respect to their structure and functioning.
(i) Alveoli are tiny balloon-like structures present inside the lungs.
(ii) The walls of the alveoli are one cell thick and it contains an extensive network of blood capillaries.
(i) The exchange of O2 and CO2 takes place between the blood of the capillaries that surround the alveoli and the gases present in the alveoli.
(ii) Alveoli are the site of gaseous exchange.
(i) Nephrons are tubular structures present inside the kidneys.
(ii) Nephrons are made of glomerulus, bowman’s capsule, and a long renal tube. It also ontains a cluster of thin-walled capillaries.
(i) The blood enters the kidneys through the renal artery which branches into many capillaries in the glomerulus. The water and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowman’s capsule. Then the filtrate moves through the proximal tubule and then down into the loop of henle. From henle’s loop, filtrate passes into the distal tubule and then to the collecting duct. The collecting duct collects the urine from many nephrons and passes it to the ureter. During the flow of filtrate, some substances such as glucose, amino acids, and water are selectively reabsorbed.
(ii) Nephrons are the basic filtration unit.


In the nineteenth century, smallpox ravaged through the United States and Canada. At this time, a botanical preparation, derived from the carnivorous plant Sarracenia purpurea, was proclaimed as being a successful therapy for smallpox infections.
Botanicals: the (partially) unexplored country. Sometimes folk wisdom has pharmaceutical potential.
Via Chris Upton + helpers


As part of our writing unit, we’ve been learning how to :
- recognise and use complex adjectives and adverbs
- recognise and use language features in our writing
- use spoken dialogue in our writing
We’ve been using a great resource in the literacy shed to help develop our skills. We’ll share some of our writing soon.


13th Signal Battalion
The roots of the 13th Signal Battalion can be traced back to 1 July 1916
The roots of the 13th Signal Battalion can be traced back to 1 July 1916, when its predecessor, the 7th Field Battalion, Signal Corps was constituted in the Regular Army. On 14 July 1917, the 7th Battalion was organized at Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia and subsequently assigned to the 15th Cavalry in 1917. On 12 May 1918, the 7th Battalion was relieved from the 15th Cavalry Division and on 16 September 1921 was disbanded at Fort Bliss, Texas.
On 16 September 1921, The 13th Signal Troop was organized at Fort Bliss, Texas as and assigned to the 1st Cavalry Division. On 13 December 1923, the unit was redesignated as the 1st Signal Troop and remained assigned to the 1st Cavalry Division. On 19 September 1932, the 7th Field Battalion was reconstituted in the Regular Army and consolidated with the 1st Signal Troop, The consolidated unit was designated as 1st Signal Troop, an element of the 1st Cavalry Division.
Since its organization in 1921, signal equipment and procedures have changed drastically; the old pack radios and telegraph have fallen by the wayside. Modern equipment has evolved over the years, incorporation technology gains, to meet new mission requirements. The flags and torch were relegated to nothing more than collar insignia.
In 1936, the 1st Signal Troop participated in the maneuvers of the 1st Cavalry Division which was held at Marfa, Texas. It also took part in the Proposed Infantry Division Tests at Camp Bullis, Texas and in 1938, participated again in the 1st Cavalry Division Maneuvers at Balmorhea, Texas. With the European war on the horizon, maneuvers accelerated. In 1939 the Troop maneuvered at Camp Bullis, Texas and with the 1st Cavalry Division at Balmorhea, Texas. In 1940 the Troop took part in the Louisiana maneuvers in May and August.
World War II, Pacific Theater
Although the 1st Cavalry Division was created as a result of a proven need for large horse-mounted formations, by 1940 many thought that the march of warfare technology progress had left the horse far behind. The era of the tank, automobile, aircraft, and parachute had dawned and eclipsed the age of the armored horseman. On 7 December 1941, without warning, the Japanese destroyed the American fleet at Pearl Harbor. Immediately Troopers returned to the 1st Cavalry Division from all over the United States. They outfitted their horses and readied their weapons and vehicles in anticipation of the fight against the Axis.
In February 1943, the entire 1st Cavalry Division was alerted for an overseas assignment as a dismounted unit. An impatient 1st Cavalry Division was dismounted and they were processed for movement to the Southwest Pacific theater as foot Soldiers. In mid June 1943, the last troops of the division departed Fort Bliss, Texas for Camp Stoneman, California and later on 3 July, boarded the “S.S. Monterey and the S.S. George Washington” for Australia and the Southwest Pacific.
On 26 July, three weeks later, the division arrived at Brisbane and began a fifteen mile trip to their new temporary home, Camp Strathpine, Queensland, Australia. The division received six months of intense combat jungle warfare training at Camp Strathpine in the wilds of scenic Queensland and amphibious training at nearby Moreton Bay. In January 1944 the division was ordered to leave Australia and sail to Oro Bay, New Guinea. After a period of staging in New Guinea, it was time for the 1st Cavalry Division to receive their first baptism of fire.
On 27 February, Task Force “Brewer”, consisting of 1,026 Troopers, embarked from Cape Sudest, Oro Bay, New Guinea under the command of Brigadier General William C. Chase. Their destination was a remote, Japanese occupied island of the Admiralties, Los Negros, where they were to make a reconnaissance of force and if feasible, capture Momote Airdrome and secure a beachhead for the reinforcements that would follow.
Just after 8:00 on 29 February, the 1st Cavalry Troopers climbed down the nets of the APD’s and into the LCM’s and LCPR’s, the flat bottomed landing craft of the Navy. The task force, which included the 1st Signal Troop, landed at Hayane Harbor and took the Japanese by surprise.
On 18 May 1944, the Admiralty Islands campaign officially ended. Japanese casualties stood at 3,317 killed. The losses of the 1st Cavalry Division included 290 dead, 977 wounded and 4 missing in action. Training, discipline, determination and ingenuity had won over suicidal attacks. The First Cavalry Troopers were now seasoned Veterans.
The next action for the 1st Cavalry Division was on the Philippines Island of Leyte. On Columbus Day, 12 October 1944, the 1st Cavalry Division sailed away from its hard earned base in the Admiralties for the Leyte invasion, Operation King II. On 20 October, the invasion force must have appeared awesome to the waiting Japanese as it swept toward the eastern shores of Leyte. The Division fought tirelessly against Japanese fortifications. With the last of the strongholds of Leyte eliminated, the division moved on to Luzon, the main island of the Philippines. Leyte had been the biggest campaign of the Pacific war, but the record was about to be shattered by the invasion of Luzon.
On 26 January, conveys were formed and departed for the Lingayan Gulf, Luzon Island, the Philippines. Landing without incident on 27 January, the division assembled in an area near Guimba and prepared for operations in the south and southwest areas. One of the First Team’s most noted feats was accomplished during the fighting for Luzon. General MacArthur issued an order “Get to Manila!”. The resulting mission, and the participating units, was dubbed a “flying column” by General Mudge. The rescue mission, lead by Brig. General William C. Chase, was divided into three “serials”. On 3 February 1945, lead elements of the rescue column crossed the city limits of Manila at 6:35 PM, covering the 100 miles of rough terrain in approximately 66 hours. The first of many “Firsts” was recorded in history;
“First in Manila”
On 13 August 1945, the 1st Cavalry Division was alerted that they were selected to accompany General Douglas MacArthur to Tokyo and would be part of the 8th Army in the occupation of Japan. On 02 September the long convey of ships steered into Yokohama Harbor and past the battleship Missouri where General MacArthur would later receive the Japanese surrender party. The First Team was given the honor of leading the Allied Occupational Army into Tokyo. At noon on 5 September 1945, a reconnaissance team headed by Colonel Charles A. Sheldon, the Chief of Staff of the 1st Cavalry Division, entered Tokyo. This embarkment was the first official movement of American personnel into the capital of the mighty Japanese Empire.
At 8:00 on 8 September, a history making convey left Hara-Machida with Tokyo as their destination. Headed by Major General William C. Chase, commanding general of the 1st Cavalry Division, the party included a Veteran from each troop of the division. Passing through Hachioji, Fuchu and Chofu, the Cavalry halted briefly at the Tokyo City Limits. General Chase stepped across the line thereby putting the American Occupational Army officially in Tokyo and adding another “First” to its name;
“First in Tokyo”
The first mission of the Division was to assume control of the city. On 16 September, the 1st Cavalry Division was given responsibility for occupying the entire city of Tokyo and the adjacent parts of Tokyo and Saitama Prefectures. On 25 February, the 1st Signal Troop was assigned a permanent station at Camp Drake near Tokyo.
1946 was welcomed as a new dawning of peace for the 1st Cavalry Division. The days of privation, hardship, suffering and death were over for the first time since 7 December 1941. On 25 March 1949, the 1st Signal Troop was redesignated as the 13th Signal Company and remained assigned to the 1st Cavalry Division. The following years of the occupation found the 1st Cavalry Division in control of Tokyo and vicinity, the capital of the war-built Japanese Empire. 1950 called for an increased training to improve the ever increasing combat effectiveness of the division, which was soon to be tested.
It happened before dawn on 25 June 1950. Less than 5 years after the terrible devastations of World War II, a new war broke out from a distant land whose name means “Morning Calm”. On 18 July the 1st Cavalry Division was ordered to Korea. Initially scheduled to make an amphibious landing atInchon, it was redirected to the southeastern coast of Korea at Pohang-dong a port 80 miles north of Pusan. The North Koreans were 25 miles away when elements of the 1st Cavalry Division swept ashore to successfully carry out the first amphibious landing of the Korean War. Its initial mission was to establish the Pusan Perimeter. By 22 July, all regiments were deployed in battle positions; in itself a remarkable logistical achievement in the face of Typhoon Helene that pounded the Korean coastline.
The landing at Pohang-dong helped halt the North Korean war machine at the Pusan perimeter. The division broke out of the perimeter in mid-September and started north. Crossing the 38th Parallel on 9 October 1950, the Troopers of the 1st Cavalry Division crashed into Pyongyang, capturing the capital city of North Korea on 19 October. The sudden intervention of Communist Chinese forces dashed hopes of a quick end to the war. First Team Troopers fought courageously in the see-saw campaigns that followed, and successfully defended the city of Seoul. By January 1952, the division, after 18 months of continuous fighting, rotated back to Hokkaido, Japan.
On 20 August 1957, the First Cavalry Division, guarding the northern sections of Honshu, Japan was reduced to zero strength and transferred to Korea (minus equipment). With the advent of the Pentomic Organizational Structure, on 15 October 1957, the 13th Signal Company was reorganized and redesignated as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 13th Signal Battalion, an element of the 1st Cavalry Division.
In ceremonies held on 15 October, the colors of the 24th Division were retired and the colors of the 1st Cavalry Division were passed to the Commanding General of the old 24th Division, Major General Ralph W. Zwicker. “The First Team” had returned to Korea, standing ready to defend the country against Communist aggression.
On 1 November 1957, the organic elements of the 13th Signal Battalion were activated in Korea. The redesignated and reorganized First Cavalry was assigned the mission of patrolling “Freedom’s Frontier” (DMZ). In addition to their assigned duties of patrol along the southern border of the DMZ, training remained a number one priority for the Troopers and unit commanders. In January 1958, the largest training exercise in Korea since the end of hostilities, Operation Snowflake, was conducted. This exercise was followed by Operation Saber in May and Operation Horsefly in August. In June 1965 the 13th Signal Battalion began rotation back to the United States along with other units of the 1st Cavalry Division.
The 1st Cavalry Division went home, but only long enough to be reorganized and be prepared for a new mission. On 3 July 1965, in Doughboy Stadium at Fort Benning, Georgia the colors of the 11th Air Assault Division (Test) were cased and retired. As the band played the rousing strains of Garryowen, the colors of the 1st Cavalry Division were moved onto the field. As part of the reorganization, the 511th Signal Battalion, Support Command, 11th Air Assault Division (Test) was redesignated as the 13th Signal Battalion, Support Command, 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile).
Within 90 days of becoming the Army’s first airmobile division, the First Team was back in combat as the first fully committed division of the Vietnam War. The 13th Signal Battalion arrived in Qui Nhon, Republic of Vietnam, in Mid September 1965 and moved its personnel and equipment overland on Route 19 west to the division base camp at An Khe. They spent the remainder of the year outfitting the base camp with equipment to meet the tactical communications of the division.
The 13th Signal Battalion, working with the 8th Engineer Battalion, designed, constructed and equipped a signal complex on the top of nearby Hon Cong mountain which became the communications hub of the northern half of the Vietnam Republic. Access to the construction site was made possible by the use of CH-54 Flying Cranes to move the heavy earth moving equipment. All this was done while construction and upgrading of Camp Radcliff continued.
The 13th Signal Battalion teamed up with the information office to provide American Foeces Radio Saigon (AFRS) radio programming to the Skytroopers at Camp Radcliff. Since the AM signal from the Qui Nhon booster station could not be heard by the An Khe Valley, a transmitter and tower were obtained from the AFRS in Saigon. Early in December, AFRS – An Khe, broadcasting at 1,300 kilocycles signed on the air.
The battalion’s basic signal systems were given their first full scale combat test in the Plei Me Campaign that took place in Ia Drang Valley in October and November of 1965. The advance communications was located at the division forward command post at Pleiku, which in turn, was in a personnel pod carried by a CH-54 “Flying Crane”. All communications equipment and personnel at the forward communications pod were provided by the battalion. This center was operational 24 hours a day for the duration of the entire operation.
The airborne relay was particularly outstanding and very effective. This flying communications van was credited of saving the lives of many who otherwise would have been unable to communicate their needs or calls of distress. The unit consisted of a fixed wing aircraft equipped with two powerful FM radios. The craft would fly an orbit 10,000 feet above the widely dispersed combat units, to pick up and retransmit messages among units which would not otherwise be able to communicate.
The communication demands of Operation Paul Revere II precipitated the creation of a rear operation support system. The element was formed from all parts of the signal battalion in order to support the division forward command post. Another system innovation was instituted in the summer of 1966. The plan was to standardize the prewiring of the forward switchboard and produce a telephone directory prior to an operation, thus eliminating much of the confusion previously associated with a move of the division forward command post.
An air courier was required to meet and maintain the needs of Operation Thayer. A UH-1 helicopter was placed in a standby mode, with a dependable schedule throughout the campaign. Operation Paul Revere IV ran concurrently with Thayer II. In order to meets the needs of the dual operation, several distinct duplicate nets had to be created.
A major project for 1968 was the physical improvement of the Hon Cong Mountain facility. The needs for a stable power system was met with two 100 kilowatt generators installed with the aid of a CH-54 “Flying Crane”. During the year the residents of the hill remodeled and reconstructed the entire site. Conex containers, crude bunkers and makeshift shelters were removed and replaced with quonset buildings on concrete pads.
At the end of 1969, the nerve center of the divisional signal operation was located at Phuoc Vinh. The rear operations platoon had charge of all signal facilities at rear locations. That included the communications center telephone switchboard and radio network. The hub of the telephone system of the division was set up in a small sandbagged bunker. Four telephone operators presided over the two switchboards of the “Skyking” and “Phuoc Vinh” systems. The “Skyking” telephone was set aside as strictly divisional level command and staff network, while the “Phuoc Vinh” system was integral with the Corps Area Communication System.
In addition to the realm of command and control, the battalion also maintained a personal service to every Trooper of the division, known as Military Affiliated Radio Station (MARS). The signalmen dedicated to helping their fellow Soldiers talk to their Families at home. While the anxious solder waited, the Mars station made contact with one of the thousands of private “ham” radio stations in the states. Upon receiving a call, the “ham” would then connect to the local telephone system, completing the telephone call to the Soldiers home.
Although 26 March 1971 officially marked the end of duties in Vietnam for the 1st Cavalry Division, President Nixon’s program of “Vietnamization” required the continued presence of a strong U.S. fighting force. The 2nd Battalion of the 5th Regiment, 1st Battalion of the 7th Regiment, 2nd Battalion of the 8th Regiment and 1st Battalion of the 12th Regiment along with specialized support units as “F” Troop, 9th Cavalry and Delta Company, 229th Assault Helicopter Battalion and 525th Signal Company helped establish the 3rd Brigade headquarters at Bien Hoa. Its primary mission was to interdict enemy infiltration and supply routes in War Zone D.
By 31 March 1972, only 96,000 U.S. troops were involved in the Vietnam combat operations. In mid June 1972, the standdown ceremony for the 3rd Brigade was held in Bein Hoa and the colors were returned to the United States. The last Trooper left from Tan Son Nhut on 21 June, completing the division recall which had started on 05 May 1971. With the 3rd Brigade completing their withdrawal, the 1st Cavalry had been the first army division to go to Vietnam and the last to leave.
The Modern Cavalry
On 5 May 1971, the colors of the 1st Cavalry Division, minus those of the 3rd Brigade, were moved from Vietnam to Fort Hood, Texas. Using the assets of the 1st Armored Division, the 1st Cavalry Division was reorganized, reassigned to III Corps and received an experimental designation of the Triple-Capability (TRICAP) Division. Its mission, under the direction of Modern Army Selected Systems Test, Evaluation and Review (MASSTER) was to carry on a close identification with and test forward looking combined armor, air cavalry and airmobile concepts. The Division consisted of the 1st Armored Brigade, the 2nd Air Cavalry Combat Brigade (ACCB) the 4th Airmobile Infantry Brigade. Division Artillery provided the fire support and Support Command provided normal troop support and service elements. The 13th Signal Battalion continued to provide its air mobile support capability as a part of the “Division Troops”.
The main body of the 1st Cavalry Division, at Fort Hood, under the direction of MASSTER, a testing agency created in 1969 to oversee the development of surveillance, target acquisition an night observation equipment, continued to test future concepts of mobility and flexibility on the battlefield. The tests continued for three and a half years were very demanding. When all TRICAP testing was completed, the mission of airmobile anti-armor warfare was transferred to the 6th Cavalry Brigade (Air Combat) collocated at Fort Hood, Texas and on 21 February 1975, the 1st Cavalry Division was reorganized and redesignated to become the newest Armored Division in the Army. In this new designation, the 13th Signal Battalion had to give up its airmobile capability and assume a new role as Signal Battalion in an Armored Division.
In 1979 the 13th Signal Battalion exercised its Armored Cavalry capability on maneuvers in West Germany during Return of Forces to Germany (REFORGER). On REFORGER 1983, the 13th Signal Battalion reinforced its mission of providing fast and reliable communications for the 1st Cavalry Heavy Armor Division. Again in 1987, the 13th Signal Battalion deployed to West Germany to provide communications. In October 1987, the 13th Signal Battalion was chosen to test a new nondevelopmental procurement concept in tactical communications by field testing (normally accomplished by the contractor) the new Army Communications System, Mobile Subscriber Equipment (MSE).
Persian Gulf War, Southwest Asia
In August 1990, the 1st Cavalry Division was alerted for deployment to Southwest Asia as part of the joint forces participating in Operation Desert Shield. The focus at that time was the defense of Saudi Arabia against potential Iraqi attack. A factor in the successful execution of the air and ground attacks of the First Team was the timely and reliable distribution of coordinated battlefield command and control information. The mission of the 13th Signal Battalion was to setup, operate and maintain a reliable tactical communications network in the theater of operations of the 1st Cavalry Division. The centerpiece of this activity was an “antenna farm”, erected deep in the Ruqi pocket near the Kuwait border supported by Mobile Subscriber Equipment (MSE), a Corps area communication system that provides secure mobile voice/data/facsimile service.
Operation Enduring Freedom – 2001
After the attacks of 11 September 2001, the military accelerated plans for the use of joint forces to protect key national assets from terrorist attack. After extensive planning and coordination, elements of 4-5th Air Defense Artillery and 13th Signal Battalion were deployed as a task force to Washington, DC. Over 150 Soldiers arrived to man Sentinel radars, Avengers, and Stinger missiles under the command of First Air Force. The Troopers quickly prepared to engage and destroy any airborne threat declared hostile to the National Capital Region. The Task Force’s operation was the first military defense of Washington since the Anti-Ballistic Missile systems of the 1970s. They remained vigilant and ready to destroy any hostile threat 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
In June 1992, the 13th Signal Battalion continued to extend the technical use of MSE through the incorporation of an OY 4 Retrofit, which gave the division Packet Switching capability for the first time. Subsequently in MEFEX Joint Exercise the battalion established a packet switch network which interfaced with the Air Force, Navy and Marine packet switching networks.
In July 1993, the battalion fielded a long haul satellite platoon, providing the division with worldwide communication capability. The “Voice of Command” continues to ride on the wave of the future, focusing on maintaining its standards of training excellence and strides in automation enhancements. The battalion stood ready to fight, while at the same time providing the vital and necessary information networks to the “First Team” anyplace and any time.
Operation Iraqi Freedom II, 2003 – 2005
In January, 2004, the 13th Signal Battalion, as part of the 2nd Brigade Combat team, consisting of over 3,000 troops departed for Iraq. On 31 January the first elements of the 2nd Brigade Combat Team arrived safely in Baghdad after moving overland in a two day journey of 250 miles from Camp Udairi, Kuwait. There was minimal contact with any insurgents and all vehicles made it to Baghdad under their own power.
The first echelon of units, comprising of nearly 3,000 Soldiers, are being billeted at the first of eight bases on the city’s outskirts, Camp Victory North, near the Baghdad International Airport which covers over 1,000 acres and is capable of housing between 25,000 and 30,000 troops. This camp was the homebase for the 2nd Brigade Combat Team, some divisional units, and most of the supporting FORSCOM units.
Task Force 1-5, consisting of “A” Company, 2nd Battalion, 12th Cavalry, “HHC”. “B” and “C” Company, 1st Battalion, 5th Cavalry, “A” Company, 15th FSC plus 13th Signal Battalion and 312nd MI detachments, soon relocated their operation base about 12 kilometers to Banzai Patrol Base in order to provide a more strategic coverage to several critical structures and organizations such as the Kadhum Shrine which is the third holiest shrine in Iraq.
On 23 March, 2005, completing their tour of duty, additional units of the 13th Signal Battalion, 2nd Battalions, 7th Cavalry and 5th Cavalry Regiments arrived home to Ft. Hood were well received at Cooper Field by a screaming crowd of Family and friends.
Army Modular Forces – 2005
Following the long series of assignment for the 1st Cavalry Division – the 13th Signal Battalion was inactivated at Fort Hood, Texas on 15 July 2005 as part of task of reorganizing and realigning the manpower and equipment resources of the 1st Cavalry Division into the Army Matrix of Modular Forces.
Information compiled and composed by William H. Boudreau
Lineage and Honors of the 2nd Battalion, 19th Field Artillery
Lineage of the 2nd Battalion, 19th Field Artillery
Constituted 1 July 1916 in the Regular Army as Battery B, 19th Field Artillery. Organized 1 June 1917 at Camp Wilson, Texas (19th Field) Artillery assigned 12 December 1917 to the 5th Division (latter redesignated as the 5th Infantry Division). Inactivated 6 September 1921 at Camp Bragg, North Carolina. Activated 3 December 1934 at Fort Benjamin Harrison, Indiana.
Reorganized and redesignated 1 October 1940 as Battery B, 19th Field Artillery Battalion. Inactivated 20 September 1946 at Camp Campbell, Kentucky. Activated 15 July 1947 at Fort Jackson, South Carolina. Activated 1 March 1951 at Indiantown Gap Military Reservation, Pennsylvania. Inactivated 1 September at Indiantown Gap Military Reservation, Pennsylvania. Activated 25 May 1954 at Augsburg, Germany. Inactivated 1 June 1957 at Fort Ord, California and relieved from assignment to the 5th Infantry Division.
Redesignated 15 October 1957 as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 2nd Howitzer Battalion, 19th Artillery, assigned to the 1st Cavalry Division, and activated in Korea (organic elements concurrently constituted and activated). Redesignated 1 September 1963 as the 2nd Battalion, 19th Artillery. Inactivated 2 April 1971 at Fort Lewis, Washington. Redesignated 1 September 1971 as the 2nd Battalion, 19th Field Artillery. Activated 20 April 1974 at Fort Hood, Texas. Inactivated 30 March 1979 at Fort Hood, Texas.
Honors of the 2nd Battalion, 19th Field Artillery
Campaign Participation Credit
|World War I
Lorraine 1918World War II
Central EuropeVietnam War
Counteroffensive, Phase II
Counteroffensive, Phase III
Counteroffensive, Phase IV
Counteroffensive, Phase V
Counteroffensive, Phase VI
Counteroffensive, Phase VII
|Presidential Unit Citation — 23 Oct – 26 Nov 65, DAGO 40, 67
Valorous Unit Award — 1 May – 29 Jun 70, DAGO 43, 72
Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross w/Palm — 9 Aug 65 – 19 May 69, DAGO 59, 69; May 69 – Feb 70, DAGO 11,73, amended DAGO 42, 72; 21 Feb 70 – 28 Feb 71, DAGO 42, 72
Republic of Vietnam Civil Actions Honor Medal, FC — 1 Jan 69 – 1 Feb 70, DAGO 42, 72
Valorous Unit Award — 6 May 69, DAGO 39, 70
Artillery Liaison Section
Detachment of thirteen (13) personnel of the 2d Battalion
Highlights - CTA
Ghosts of Fallujah
Ghosts of Fallujah (written by Coley D. Tyler) is a first person account of the Second Battalion, Seventh Cavalry’s participation in the Second Battle of Fallujah, the largest single engagement of the Iraq War and the largest urban battle since Hue in 1968. A First Marine Division operation, it was spearheaded by one of the […]
Public Request for Division Assets (Band/Horse Cav Detachment/Honor Guard)
Need to request a Division asset: the Band, Horse CAV Detachment, or Honor Guard? Fill out the provided DD Form 2536 and email it to: SFC Kristin M. Chandler at firstname.lastname@example.org. If you have any questions about filling out the form call SFC Chandler at 254-288-2601. DD2536 Asset Request Form


Lake outburst with seismometers listening to the flood
- © Kristen Cook
On July 5, 2016, a devastating wall of water gushed down the Bhotekoshi/Sunkoshi River in Nepal. It came from a lake that had been dammed by a glacial moraine but the dam broke and discharged more than 100,000 tons of water all at once. An international team of GFZ and Nepali scientists was able to record the sudden outburst with seismometers deployed the year before in the wake of the catastrophic Ghorka earthquake in April 2015.
In a study published in SCIENCE, the authors argue that such major flood events have a greater impact on erosion rates than the annual monsoon rainfalls. The reason is that the water masses mobilize large boulders and coarse sediments that usually protect the riverbed, even under monsoon-type floods during which those large boulders remain stable. "Erosion rates may be strongly influenced by non-climatological drivers such as earthquakes and the climatic factors that affect the size and distribution of glacial lakes", the authors write in their paper.
- Left : View of the Bhotekoshi River in October 2015, before the 2016 GLOF, downstream of the Tatopani Observation Deck. Right : View of the Bhotekoshi River in November 2016, after the 2016 GLOF, downstream of the Tatopani Observation Deck. © Kristen Cook
Kristen Cook, member of Niels Hovius’ team at the GFZ and first author, visited the valley before and after the flood. Several lucky circumstances surrounded the event : The flood occurred in the evening when people were around their homes home but not asleep, and it was so powerful that it caused to ground to shake, says Kristen. She talked with two local residents who felt and heard the flood approaching. The younger one told her that he had thought of an earthquake but his elder companion remembered another flood from 1981 and urged to climb away from the river. Other people reacted similarly and fled in time so no people were hurt. However, there was substantial damage to infrastructure, bridges were destroyed as well as hydro-power stations and roads. From the scientists’ point of view, the researchers were lucky to have deployed seismometers in the valley well before the flood occurred.
- Top left : GLOF damage on the Nepalese border. The damage to the Chinese government buildings is visible on the right side of the river, while the cut off road leading to the Nepalese-Chinese Friendship Bridge is visible on the left side. Credit : Kristen Cook
Top right : The Upper Bhote Koshi Hydroelectric Project intake dam, which was seriously damaged by a July 2016 glacial lake outburst flood. Credit : Kristen Cook
Bottom left : Aftermath of a landslide near Tatopani, Nepal, triggered by a July 2016 glacial lake outburst flood. Credit : Christoff Andermann
Bottom right : GLOF erosion caused the collapse of many buildings in Kodari and left others precarious perched above the river. Credit : Kristen Cook
"With this seismic network, we observed not one wave, but two !", notes Florent Gimbert, researcher at IGE Grenoble. The first wave was essentially made out of water, and propagated downstream at a staggering speed of 30 km / h, which is about 10 times faster than regular flow in such a river setting. The second was instead essentially made out of rocks and coarse sediments mixed with water, and propagated downstream at a slower pace, although still at the particularly high speed of 18 km / h. "This second wave was the most energetic and probably responsible for the destabilization of the river bed and banks“.
From these seismic observations, the researchers also show that the sediment transport in the river remained abnormally strong (up to 30 times stronger than normal) for several weeks after the flood. This recrudescence of transport materializes a non-equilibrium dynamic that shows that rivers keep in memory past extreme events. This component will have to be taken into account in erosion models. In view of the unique contributions of seismology to study these phenomena, a new project named SEISMORIV, led by Florent Gimbert, was funded by the National Research Agency. It aims to better understand the seismic signal generated by extreme flood events, so as to better assess their impacts in the context of global warming.
Cook KL, Andermann C, Gimbert F, Adhikari BR, Hovius N (2018) Glacial lake outburst floods as drivers of fluvial erosion in the Himalaya, Science. doi : 10.1126/science.aat4981.
Local scientific contact
Florent Gimbert, IGE/OSUG | florent.gimbert univ-grenoble-alpes.fr | 04 76 82 42 11
This article has been published by CNRS-INSU


Back in the early 1940s when the U.S. Department of Defense was looking for some remote corner of nowhere to work on the Manhattan Project, maybe Texans were just a bit hurt that none of the out-of-the-way corners of our state (ahem -- the Panhandle) got picked.
Alas, Texas wasn't even on the list, though the folks in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, were more fortunate -- the federal government seized 56,000 acres of land and tossed the people living on it out for next to nothing so they could build a production facility.
No, instead of going Texan, Oppenheimer and his gang decided to go off and develop the atomic bomb in Los Alamos, New Mexico. They picked the spot because of the dry desert scenery (with the Sangre de Cristo Mountains right out the window, it was a spot right out of a John Ford western) and went to work on the bombs that would obliterate Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and pretty much end World War II, according to some.
And Texas didn't get even a tiny piece of the glory, though they did consider using Padre Island as a site to test the first bomb, so we almost had that feather in our cap.
Instead, Oppenheimer and company built some bunkers in New Mexico, created and blew up the bombs and then went and made history by using them on real people (check out John Hersey's Hiroshima if you want to get a feel for the true horrific experience of what it was like for the people who actually got the atomic bomb dropped on them). When you are working with the stuff of nuclear warfare, there's always nuclear waste. Since the project was based in Los Alamos, a whole bunch of the nuclear waste from the project and general nuclear testing was buried in the ground and kept in big old barrels at the Los Alamos laboratories in that little corner of New Mexico.
Which was all fine and basically dandy, until June 2011 when a massive wildfire got extremely close to those barrels of plutonium-contaminated waste, causing officials to start monitoring the situation intently, according to the Associated Press. You know, because when you've got a whole bunch of nuclear waste, it's generally not a great idea to set the stuff on fire. Firefighters managed to avoid that situation (thus probably avoiding creating unexpected superheroes or, you know, just wreaking cancerous havoc on anyone who happened to breathe in the stuff), and after that, New Mexico environmental officials decided they'd had enough of being the special chosen nuclear place. Last year, they made a deal with the folks over at Los Alamos to get rid of the nuclear waste by January 2014, AP reported.
But where is this nuclear waste headed? Well, Texas didn't get to learn how to stop worrying and love the bomb way back in the day, but the Lone Star State finally gets to play a part in the epic of the A-bomb.
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A couple of years back, Waste Control Specialists LLC, a Dallas-based disposal outfit -- of course they're from Dallas -- became the first company in 30 years to get a license to treat, store and dispose of low-level radioactive waste. Then, in 2011, the Texas Low Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Compact Commission voted to allow the company to start accepting nuclear waste from 36 other states.
The facility (that's a nice word for dump) is located in West Texas (the region, not the city) about five miles outside the little town of Andrews. The imported waste is buried in concrete containers 30 to 100 feet below the ground, in a vein of red clay that is supposed to keep the nuclear contents from spilling or shifting or generally sloshing around. Once the containers are full, they get buried out in that Texas soil, and there they'll stay, becoming less radioactive in a process that takes a really long time (high-level waste can take thousands of years, according to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.)
And now, after decades since that first little snub over where to locate the lab for atomic research, it looks like New Mexico is finally going to share some of that historical stuff with Texas, namely the Los Alamos nuclear waste. We know that it's a real sacrifice for New Mexico to part with it -- heck, one good wildfire could have given the whole state superhero powers -- but Texans, especially the ones out in West Texas who will be closest to the site, sure are grateful to finally be a part of all this.
Maybe the folks over in Roswell will send us some of their aliens next. Considering we didn't even get a space shuttle, that's probably a pipe dream, but fingers crossed.


int define (string name, mixed value [, int case_insensitive])
Defines a named constant, which is similar to a variable except:
Constants do not have a dollar sign '$' before them;
Constants may be accessed anywhere without regard to variable scoping rules;
Constants may not be redefined or undefined once they have been set; and
Constants may only evaluate to scalar values.
The name of the constant is given by name; the value is given by value.
The optional third parameter case_insensitive is also available. If the value 1 is given, then the constant will be defined case-insensitive. The default behaviour is case-sensitive; i.e. CONSTANT and Constant represent different values.
Example 1. Defining Constants
<?php define ("CONSTANT", "Hello world."); echo CONSTANT; // outputs "Hello world." ?>
Define() returns TRUE on success and FALSE if an error occurs.
See also defined() and the section on Constants.


Human neutrophils are mobile cells that will quickly migrate to sites of injury to help fight infection. They are attracted there by chemical signals released by other cells of the immune system or by invading microbes.
In this experiment substance is released from micropipette that makes the neutrophils polarize and move towards that location.
- Tuesday, June 12, 2007
- Category: Biology
- Viewed: 59456 times


Editor's Note: This is the latest in a series of analyses from STRATFOR on personal security issues. In an Aug. 10 analysis, "Safeguarding Personal Information in the Wireless Age," STRATFOR discussed the fact that wireless communication, though convenient, brings with it a threat to privacy. Although there is no way to completely guard against electronic eavesdroppers, steps can be taken to minimize the risk. Even in the physical world, snoopers can steal and read the private mail of others. They also can steal briefcases, tap phones and bug offices. These types of activities, however, are much more invasive, require more effort and leave more evidence than wireless snooping. Because wireless communication involves broadcasting information over a radio signal, wireless snooping can be done from a distance, is very non-invasive and almost effortless. Take as a simple example the case of a person sitting in a Starbucks reading a business document or a private letter. Someone would have to look right over that person's shoulder in order to discover its contents, which of course would not go unnoticed. Were the person reading that same document or letter in an unencrypted e-mail message, someone sitting all the way across the shop could read the letter — and no one would be the wiser. Our Aug. 10 article discussed vulnerabilities in the use of analog cellular and cordless phones. Quite frankly, those who do not want the entire world to be able to listen into their conversations should get rid of their analog cell and cordless phones. Also, if their cellular provider does not have a 100 percent digital network — there most often is a "D" on the phone's screen that shows a phone is operating on a digital network — one must assume that anyone can listen in. Even digital phones can be compromised, but the eavesdroppers must be determined professionals. The measures required to secure a wireless data network depend on whether the hookup is a personal or a public one. Networks in the home or office should be made as secure as possible — keeping in mind that no network or PC connected to the Internet can ever be considered totally secure. Wireless networks share the same vulnerabilities as hardwire networks — meaning all those vulnerabilities must be addressed as well. Some users may find it useful to consult an IT professional, although there are a few simple steps one can take to harden his or her personal system:
Turn off SSID broadcasting. By default, wireless routers will broadcast the name of a person's network. The owner knows the network is there and they have its name, so it is not necessary to broadcast it for the word to see.
Use encryption. WEP and even the newer WPA encryption can be hacked, but it will be one more obstacle for hackers to get past before getting into a network. Good password protocols also must be followed.
Enable the firewalls on routers and PCs. There are also some very good commercial firewall programs that help protect networks and computers, such as the firewall that comes free with Microsoft's Windows XP. Also, just like on hardwire network, security patches must be downloaded, and the computers must have updated anti-virus and anti-spyware software installed and activated.
Reduce broadcast strength. The signal only needs to be able to reach the area or areas where a person works on his or her computer. Reducing the signal strength reduces the chance of someone from the outside, such as a hacker, getting a strong enough signal to connect to the network. Wireless network hookups in airports, hotels and coffee shops have their own vulnerabilities. A person going to stratfor.com or looking up baseball scores on an unsecured public network is not facing a high security risk. Those who are working with sensitive information or reading private e-mail, however, should use encryption to protect their privacy. Many corporate users use VPN (virtual private network) technology on all their laptops, which provides a secure shell around all the data on their Internet connections. Those who do not have VPN can protect their privacy by using a Web e-mail provider that uses SSL (secure socket layer) encryption. A padlock icon in the bottom right corner of a browser window and usually an https at the beginning of the Web address indicate the data is being encrypted. Several companies offer SSL-encrypted Web e-mail — some for free. Bluetooth-enabled devices, such as PDAs and cell phones, also are vulnerable to information theft. It is not uncommon to find people in public places with their Bluetooth devices set to "discoverable" and their security protocols set so low that one can "pair" his or her device to theirs and read their files without them knowing it. With a cell phone, the snooper might only be able to access a person's address book and call logs. PDAs, however, often contain much more sensitive information — such as social security numbers, passwords, bank and credit card account and PIN numbers, for example — that can be ripe for the taking. The best defense against information theft from a PDA is not to enter sensitive information into such a device in the first place. If the information must be readily accessible in a PDA, the device should be set to the non-discoverable state, and turned back to discoverable only for transferring files. Even then, files should be exchanged only with a person one knows. For further protection, anti-virus software should be installed on a PDA, its operating system regularly updated with the latest security patches. Finally, it is important to take the time to read the owner's manual to learn how to turn the Bluetooth on and off, how to securely pair with other devices and how to adjust the security settings. There is no simple solution for protecting personal privacy in the wireless age. Those who take all the steps necessary to keep snoopers from peering over their electronic "shoulder," however, are far more secure than those who do not. When running from a bear, one need not run faster than the bear — just faster than the next person. Hackers often will go for the easiest mark.


“On the first lot south of the west end of the Mississippi River bridge (1914) was a shed-like building in which were kept such items as shingles, cement, building paper rolls and millwork by the Sartell Brothers.
Directly in front of that building and standing on the edge of the street, was the township scale. Except for an upright enclosure about five feet high three feet wide and a foot or so thick to protect the actual weight display mechanism, it consisted of a street-level platform, below which were the levers, rods, springs and the like which responded to weights driven onto the platform. This paraphernalia was accessible for servicing and cleaning by an opening in the base of the above-mentioned weight display mechanism structure. The platform mechanism was housed within a concrete foundation about four feet in depth.
As an official weigh master, C.F. Sartell could readily leave his tasks in the Sartell Brothers office and store building, step across the street and handle the weighing jobs of farmers, contractors, ice haulers and others. Should it be necessary, he could then issue weight receipts, gross and net.
Some of the first weights measured and recorded using that scale were for crops such as potatoes, hauled in by horse-drawn wagon. Later, trucks and trailers of many sizes and loaded with other farm produce, building materials, soil and gravel, to mention but a few materials, were weighed on the platform. This scale saw service for many years, at least until World War II.
One memory of the scale is that when we chanced to walk across the platform we couldn’t resist making it glide the inch or so of play its mechanism had built into it. This also produced a variety of low-level clanking from the working parts. Added by Rip Jr. : We would love to crawl under the scale and look up through the cracks in the scale to see the trucks and cars drive on it and watch the weighing mechanisms move and clatter. It was also a great place to hide and to read magazines.”
This is a direct quote from the book History of Sartell, Minnesota Lumber, Paper, Valves and Progress A Century of Progress Welcoming a Century of Promise. Page 184


The a in the first syllable is like the a in cat, bat and sat. The ea is like the ee in bees, sees and cheese. The s sound like the z in zoo and zip and the a that follows is like the a in china the final ce is like the s in sip and sit. The word is pronounced mal – fee zens, with the stress on the second syllable.
Malfeasance is a legal term and is is mostly used in formal contexts to refer to the dishonest and illegal behaviour of public officials.
• Several cases of malfeasance by the higher ups with in the party were never investigated.


What is the EU Digital Single Market?
It is a market which ensures the free movement of persons, services and capital, the fair competition, as well as consumer and data protection for individuals and companies carrying out activities online and participating in cross-border e-commerce transactions.
Who can benefit from the Digital Single Market?
- In a nutshell, practically everybody can benefit from the implementation of the EU Digital Single Market.
Below you can find some examples:
- SMEs and start-ups
- Established businesses
- The creative sector (artists, musicians, film producers etc.)
- Consumers from the EU member states, as well as from third countries.
What is the Digital Single Market strategy?
On the 6th of May 2015, the EU Commission adopted 16 initiatives/measures, within the frame of the Digital Agenda for Europe. The measures that are expected to be implemented by the end of 2016 are based on the following three pillars:
- Better online access to digital goods and services;
- Creation of a propitious environment for digital networks and services;
- Maximization of the growth potential of the digital.
In detail, what do these measures/initiatives include?
- Legislative proposals aiming to facilitate cross-border e-commerce transactions (i.e. proposal of contract rules between businesses and consumers);
- Review of the Regulation on Consumer Protection Cooperation;
- Implementation of more efficient and affordable parcel delivery measures;
- Legislative suggestions to end unjustified geo-blocking (forced redirection to other websites with different prices etc.);
- Identification of potential antitrust/competition issues in the e-commerce sector;
- Modernization of the copyright regime (to ensure enforcement of intellectual property rights online etc.);
- Review of the Satellite and Cable Directive, to handle issues regarding cross-border broadcasting etc.;
- Reduction of administrative burden, caused by different VAT regimes;
- Legislative proposals to amend the current EU telecoms rules;
- Review of the audiovisual media framework;
- Analysis of the role of online platforms (including ways to fight the distribution of illegal content etc.);
- Data protection (review of the e-Privacy directive);
- Measures in the area of cybersecurity;
- Proposal of a “European free flow of data initiative”, to encourage free movement of data, as well as the launch of a European Cloud;
- Definition of priorities for “standards and interoperability” in areas of public interest such as e-health, transport planning, energy and others;
- Support and promotion of an inclusive digital society, where citizens have all the necessary skills to seize all the available opportunities, as well as the creation of an e-government, which shall promote a “single digital gateway” integrating and connecting the national business registers.
And what about Cyprus?
Cyprus is an active participant in the realization and implementation of the EU objectives in this area. The EU Digital Single Market “can create opportunities for new startups and allow existing companies in a market of over 500 million people”. As a result, companies are encouraged to establish and/or expand their business in Cyprus, as a gateway to the EU Digital Single Market. Thereby, such companies can benefit from the opportunities the digital economy and the e-commerce sector can offer, while taking advantage of a favorable tax regime.
For further information and/or advice on how you can benefit, you can get in touch with our lawyers and tax consultants.


Research shows that the education of children in residential care is generally poor, in terms of both process and outcome. This has highlighted the uncertainty over how best to educate these children and a pessimism over what they can achieve. Drawing upon the findings of an evaluation of a children's home, this paper argues that children in residential care can have good educational outcomes. It also shows that it is possible to identify the processes by which these outcomes can be brought about. However, this largely positive assessment is predicated upon education being defined broadly in respect of 'process' and 'outcome'. Moreover, it is important not to underestimate the formidable challenges inherent in this work. While the multi-agency nature of this work gives rise to one of the most significant, it has to be recognized that responsibility for the education of children in residential care falls primarily to children's homes. If children's homes are to meet the increasing expectations that are being made of them, national and local government will have to undertake a radical transformation of residential childcare, especially in terms of attitudes towards, and resources invested in, this sector. Central to this is the establishment of a qualified and properly supported workforce.


Visual trickery key to luring lover
A new study claims male bowerbirds deliberately decorate their bowers to make themselves look larger to females.
If correct, the discovery makes them the only animal besides humans, known to create a scene with altered visual perspective - constructed for viewing at a particular angle.
Writing in the journal Current Biology, evolutionary ecologist Professor John Endler from Deakin University in Geelong says he noticed a consistent geometric size pattern while studying a species called the great bowerbird (Chlamydera nuchalis).
"It appears the male creates a staged scene, only visible from the point of view of their female audience," says Endler. " He places white and grey pebbles, bones, and shells in the court ... putting smaller objects near the front and larger ones further back."
"If you move stuff around, he'll move it back, not to the same spot as some reports claim, but certainly to the same distance from the front of the court."
Bowerbird males are well known for making elaborate constructions, lavished with decorative objects, to impress and attract mates.
The males construct bowers with an avenue approximately 60 centimetres long with a floor and walls made of sticks opening out to a court.
As part of the mating ritual, the female stands in the avenue watching the male displaying in his court.
Endler, who conducted the research with colleagues Dr Lorna Endler and Natalie Doerr, says this staged scene only works from one viewing angle, which happens to be the avenue.
Assuming the birds see things essentially the same way we do, that forced perspective could lead females to "perceive the court as smaller than it is and therefore perhaps perceive the male as larger than he is," he says.
"It could make him look like a better catch or it might just make him easier to see against the background."
Previous research has shown colour is important to bowerbirds. Endler says great bowerbirds prefer white and grey objects, followed by stronger colours like green and red.
"Interestingly they really seem to dislike yellow. That could be because they have a yellowish tinge on their chests, so they're looking for a contrast to make them stand out," he says.
"Satin and regent bowerbirds like blue and yellow, which is why you see things like blue clothes pegs in their bowers. In the days before blue plastic they decorated their bowers with blue feathers and fruits like blue quandong."
Endler says it's too early to say whether the male has empathy for the female perspective.
"He spends 70% of time arranging the bower, so it could just be a case of decorating the bower to suit his own tastes rather than doing it to impress the females."
The researchers are now conducting experiments using motion-activated cameras to test whether the size gradients are also related to mating success.