SDG Targets, 4.7 refers to the knowledge and skills that are necessary for a sustainable future. Specifically, it states that by 2030, we have to “[…] ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development.”
The UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) presented a webinar to look closely at the two (out of five) thematic indicators approved for SDG 4.7 monitoring - 4.7.4 (global citizenship) and 4.7.5 (environmental science). In addition, we reviewed a new proposed indicator on breadth of skills.
The 21st century demands a broad set of skills that range from respect to diversity, emotional skills to creativity, ingenuity, and ‘thinking outside the box’ - all important skills and determinants of how future generations will interact with each other and their environment. Building on two reports previously published by the Global Alliance to Monitoring Learning (GAML) describing a proposal of a measurement strategy for these two indicators, items international large-scale assessments in education (ILSA) are used to fit measurement models, generate scores, and propose a method to establish cut-off points for SDG Thematic Indicators 4.7.4 and 4.7.5.
- Indicator 4.7.4 Percentage of students in the final grade of lower secondary education showing adequate understanding of issues relating to global citizenship and sustainability
- Indicator 4.7.5 Percentage of 15-year-old students showing proficiency in knowledge of environmental science and geoscience
The 21st century demands a broad set of skills that range from respect to diversity, emotional skills to creativity, ingenuity, and ‘thinking outside the box’ - all important skills and determinants of how future generations will interact with each other and their environment. In this ever-changing world, young adults are expected to be able to determine the relevance of information, distinguish between fact and opinion, identify unstated assumptions, detect bias, suggest reasonable and plausible solutions, predict possible consequences, and make relatively quick and informed decisions. These competencies will not be acquired and mastered without the development of a broad set of cognitive skills, such as critical and creative thinking, problem solving, and social skills, such as communication and collaboration.
In order to ensure enabling environments and provide the opportunity for the development of this broad set of skills, nations need to commit to the attainment of Target 4.7 by embedding skills development through education policies and education sector planning. Therefore, an additional indicator is proposed as follows: “Extent to which national education policies and education sector plans recognize a breadth of skills that needs to be enhanced in national education systems”.
During the webinar, the invited guest speakers went into more detail on the following objectives:
- To present the methodological developments for Thematic Indicators 4.7.4 and 4.7.5, including different concepts
- To explain how International Large Scale Assessments (ILSA) can be used as powerful instruments to report on SDG Indicators 4.7.4 and 4.7.5
- To introduce the conceptual framework for a newly proposed indicator for Target 4.7 on breadth of skills
The meeting was open to the public and a recording is available here. See the section reference documents below for the presentations of the speakers.
- Concept Note
- A Measurement Strategy for SDG Thematic Indicators 4.7.4 and 4.7.5 Using International Large Scale Assessments in Education
- New Indicator Proposal for SDG Target 4.7: Conceptual Framework
- UNESCO Institute for Statistics (By S. Montoya)
- SDGs 4.7.4 & 4.7.5; An applied framework to measure indicators on education for sustainable development and global citizenship education (By A. Sandoval Hernandez & D. Carrasco)
- Conceptual framework: Breadth of Skills Indicator for Target 4.7 (By E. Care)
- Video of the webinar


As early as the Davidic era, the name torah was popularly used to designate this compilation, which, however, might not then have embraced all the enactments it now contains. After the captivity, the term became synonymous with the Pentateuch, and this usage has obtained ever since. Side by side with these meanings are others less comprehensive and more ancient. If, as is generally admitted, yarah (to cast) be the root, there would be a peculiar historic interest attaching to the word, because of the implication that the first toroth , or decisions, of whatever kind, were arrived at chiefly, or at least in important cases, by the casting of lots. The diety would then be regarded as the author of them. More developed than these are the first available historic toroth , such as were pronounced in cases of private litigation at Raphidim ( Exodus 17:13 sq. ) by Moses, relying for his direction on the analogies of precedent or custom. On the lips of the priests and prophets torah was sometimes referred to the moral and religious prescriptions of the Law alone, or again, to the ceremonial part of it, whether in theory or practice; in short, to any direction written or oral, given in Yahweh's name by one enjoying an official capacity.
Quite naturally, when the period of formal codification set in, each new code was styled a torah , and these separate toroth were the stepping-stones to, and afterwards the constituent parts of, the "Torah" or Corpus, which has always been identified with the name of Moses.
More restricted in their signification are the following Biblical terms: piqqudim , precepts ; micwah , commandment; ed(w)oth , testimonies, i.e. expressions of God's will to man, chiefly in moral and religious matters; mishpat , a judgment, usually though not exclusively relating to civil or criminal law, and, eventually, implying an obligatory force arising from the nature of moral rectitude, which is enhanced, not obscured, by the notion of theocratic economy ; and hoq, huqqah (root, to engrave), statute, or thing engraved (e.g. on stone), thereby becoming fixed, so to speak, as an ordinance. From this varied terminology, however indiscriminate the use made of it may have been as time went on, it seems right to conclude that its originators had more than a faint perception of the distinction between the different classes of law, and of their respective binding force. If in given cases, equal penalties were meted out for delinquencies from the moral and ceremonial laws it was because the nearness of the latter to the national God by reason of their universal character, seemed to give offences against them a peculiar heinoussness, not found in other crimes. The legislators understood well that when monotheistic ceremonies declined, polytheistic institutions would supplant them, and then there would be no morality left to guard.
The Torah, as a whole, was neither miraculously communicated from heaven, nor was it laboriously thought out and put together by Moses independently of external influences. It is sometimes hazardously asserted that it antedated Moses by a thousand years or more, since much that is in the Torah is found also in the Code of Hammurabi. Indeed, certain decrees in the Babylonian code are more excellent than their Mosaic parallels; in more important ones, however, the Torah takes precedence. It was the primitive condition of Hebrew society that dictated Israel's first laws by leading to the establishment of family and tribal customs. Yet it would be wrong to maintain with too much assurance that the same or a similar collection of laws would have resulted spontaneously and independently from the same natural conditions in any other period or clime. There had been precedents of just such customs and practices as Israel adopted, among other races with which the founders of Israel's laws had come in contact, and it seems an irresistible conclusion that, since Israel borrowed its language from its neighbours and could be so easily won over to heathen rites as to defy the vigilance of judges, priests, and prophets, it could not but be influenced by the social and political life of the neighbouring peoples.
The possibilities then, are the following: the migration of Abraham from Chaldea would be responsible for the nucleus of Mosaic Legislation, which is peculiarly Semetic. The sojourn of the patriarchs among the Canaanites, coupled with their relations with the Pharaohs, would impart a foreign coloring, with a slight strengthening of the original stock during Jacob's retreat to Mesopotamia. The Egyptian oppression would certainly elicit some well-defined views regarding justice and right. The education of Moses by Pharaoh's daughter would prepare a master-mind for tribal unification, while his experiences among the Semitic Midianites would teach him the necessity of certain institutions peculiar to desert life, with a due respect for established usages, such as must be taken into account even today in dealing with the Sinaitic tribes. Any real influence from the Code of Hammurabi would have to operate, as it likely did, through one or other of these channels. The direct result of these antecedents would be a transmission of principles through the knowledge of concrete examples illustrating them, the primitive mind not being capable of grasping or forming bare abstractions. What these traditionary laws were, and how they were reduced to practice in domestic and political life, is set forth at large in the article on BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
No matter how much, or how little can be explained in this way, room must always be left for direct, external, and Divine intervention, that is for an historic revelation made by God of Himself to the chosen people, in such a way as to guarantee them a special xxyyyk.htm">Providence and direction in working out their high destiny. Since such direction could be secured to future generations only through the Law by which they would be governed, the Sinaitic manifestations must be explained as placing a Divine seal upon existing laws which they did not abrogate, and upon any normal development of them in the future which would be calculated to carry out the designs of Yahweh more efficiently. Then, too, there must have been something settled and fixed on the spot, as a norm to which subsequent prophets might appeal in their judgments of future laws and contingencies. It would be strange if some such remote preparation had not been made for a stupendous event like the Incarnation. Hence it is that the more reflecting among Christian critics, whatever be their views as to the literary composition of the Pentateuch, are at one in asserting that the Pentateuchal laws even those of a ceremonial character, are traceable back to Moses as their founder; hence, too, the peculiar psychological phenomenon all through Israel's history, that observance of the law or any of its parts was superior to (non-compulsory) sacrifice, because it was a homage of obedience paid directly to the nation's God.
In its present form the Mosaic Legislation appears without logical order, and interspersed with historical reminiscences. It is largely casuistic, as might be expected from the manner of its early transmission. (1) The Decalogue, with its two versions ( Exodus 20:2-17 ; Deuteronomy 5:6-21 ) is basic, setting forth, as it does, the sovereignty and spirituality of God, together with the sacredness of His and the neighbour's rights. (2) The "Book of the Covenant", so called in Ex., xxiv, 7, embraces Ex., xxi-xxiii, 19 (or xx, 20-xxiii,33), and contains judicial, moral, and religious regulations for people living in primitive agricultural conditions. It is remarkable for its humanitarian character. (3) The Deuteronomic code amplifies the preceding and adapts it to new conditions. (4) The "Law of Holiness" as contained in Lev., xvii-xxvi has reference chiefly to holiness of a moral and ceremonial nature. It forms a small part of what is now critically styled the (5) "Priest's Code". This last group abounds in ceremonial enactments, and comprises nearly all Leviticus and Numbers, with a few chapters of Exodus. In the light of criticism there is no need of abandoning the traditional belief that Moses compiled, under the influence of inspiration, any or all of these codes as they stood originally, or in that stage of development they had attained in his time. The literary peculiarities of the Pentateuch merely entitle us to assert that these various divisions were by later writers revised, enlarged, and brought up to date, while the changes in Israel's life, from a nomadic to a sedentary state, from a dispersed to a king-ruled nation, explain full well the appearance, as time went on, of a limited amount of new legislation quite consonant with the soul and spirit of the old. Common Law, as it were, grew and developed, but the statutory enactments remained inviolable.
Abstracting from the distinction of codes, the Torah exhibits a dogmatic system that is rigorously monotheistic. A moral standard issues from this, having as its peculiar feature the identification of civil, social, and religious observance, with service performed directly and immeditely for Yahweh, and at His bidding. A ceremonial characterized by its picturesqueness and wealth of detail follows, the evident purpose of which was to keep the people constantly in mind of the Covenant into which they or their ancestors had entered, and to assure them of God's fidelity to His promises, if only they would do their part. The civil and criminal enactments are sufficiently well explained elsewhere. The article on BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES dispenses us from treating in detail any of these topics save the ceremonial. Even that is largely dealt with in the paragraph on Sacred Antiquities (loc. cit.) and the articles ATONEMENT, DEDICATION, JUBILEES, PASCH, PENTECOST, PURIM, SABBATH, TABERNACLES, TRUMPETS.
The Tabernacle was the centre of public worship. This was a portable tent measuring fifty-two by seventeen feet, and divided by a veil into two unequal parts, the Holy Place and the smaller Holy of Holies. The latter contained only the Ark of the Covenant, and might be entered by no one but Moses and the high priests. Any priest might enter the Holy Place. This was furnished with a table for the Loaves of Proposition , a seven-branched golden candlestick, and the Altar of Incense. Outside, in the surrounding court, were the Altar of Holocausts and the brazen laver for priestly ablutions. The tribe of Levi furnished the priests, and the remaining majority, Levites properly so called. The priests were consecrated, wore special vestments, offered sacrifice, attended to the Holy Place, and acted as judges and teachers. For the peculiar distinction of highpriesthood, see the article AARON (section II). The Levites were the priests' assistants. They carried the Tabernacle whenever it was moved. Bloody and unbloody sacrifices were prescribed. The former class embraced the Holocaust, in which the entire victim was consumed on the altar by fire and the Expiatory and Pacific sacrifices, when only the fat was burned on the altar. The rest was either burned elsewhere or given to the priest as in the first instance, but divided between priest and offerer as in the second. And followed by a sacrificial meal. The Unbloody sacrifices included first-fruits, tithes, meat and drink offerings, and incense. Both oblations and sacrifices were seasoned with salt.
The most striking feature of the ceremonial legislation is the distinction between legal cleanness and uncleanness, with its concomitant provision for numerous external purifications. The faithful Hebrew had always to abstain from blood. He might not use for food any quadruped that did not divide the hoof and chew the cud, nor any fish that did not have both fins and scales, nor birds of prey, nor water fowl, nor reptiles, nor insects, the locust excepted. To do so would make him unclean. The use of marriage, childbirth, and leprosy also induced uncleanness. It is true that this legislation is largely hygienic, but the Hebrews did not commonly conceive of it in that light. As diseases were regarded as direct from Yahweh, precautions against them were designed primarily to avert them by appeasing the sender. Those, therefore, who failed to take such precautions, either necessarily or otherwise, were displeasing to Yahweh, and legal defilement was the result. How effectually the Torah prepared the Hebrews for the acceptance of the New Law is attested by the work of Christ, who came not to destroy but to perfect it. It was only those who, while sitting in the chair of Moses preferred for their personal guidance the traditions of men, who proved inimical to our Saviour's work.
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If you’re looking for a flowering plant, you might have noticed that Aloe Vera does bloom. This succulent plant is rich in active ingredients and flowers during the summer. It is widespread and considered an invasive species in many parts of the world. The flowering plant attracts bees, flies and birds. It grows in desert regions. Learn more about this fascinating plant.
Aloe vera can be used as a succulent plant
Aloe vera is a plant that is succulent, meaning that it stores water in its thick leaves. It probably originated in the Sudan, but it is now grown throughout warm and tropical climates throughout the world. The plant is edible and has numerous benefits for the human body. It is known to treat sores and burns, and is an excellent topical treatment for various skin conditions.
Aloe vera is easy to grow and requires very little maintenance. It can be grown outdoors more vigorously, but it can also thrive indoors in USDA Hardiness Zones 8-11. It likes to be in a sunny area with good drainage. It can also survive drought by drawing moisture out of the soil it stores.
It blooms in summer
The winter is when your Aloe Vera plant will begin to flower. The plant will then develop flower buds that grow slowly. The flower buds will eventually turn into beautiful blooms in early spring. If you want to see the flowers, you can cut the flower stalks, but they will only last a few days. They will soon die.
Aloe vera flowers have a long, narrow shape and a tubular form. They are brightly colored and grow from the plant’s flower tuber. The flowers have no scent and are pollinated only by birds and insects.
It contains active ingredients
Aloe vera is a plant that produces a latex or gel that contains more than 75 potentially active compounds. These include vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and enzymes. These substances work to benefit the skin and digestive system. Aloe vera also contains four fatty acids, anthraquinones, and gibberellins.
Polygodial is a potent antioxidant in aloe vera and is used to reduce red, blotchy skin caused by inflammation. Arnica, another natural ingredient, has extraordinary skin healing properties. Sesquiterpene lactone is the main antioxidant and has antimicrobial as well as anti-bacterial properties. Flavonoids, another active ingredient, help reduce inflammation and speed up healing. Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant that protects skin and helps to maintain its youthful appearance.
It attracts bees, flies and birds.
Aloe vera plants attract bees, flies, and birds to feed on their flowers and nectar. The plant produces large quantities of nectar during the day, which attracts these insects. During the night, the plant produces less nectar, which attracts small mammals.
Many plants attract bees, flies. Sunbirds and short-billed birds are the most frequent bird visitors. Honey-bees, megachilid bees, and other species of pollinators are also available.
It has potential applications in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and food industries
Aloe vera has a broad range of potential uses in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. This versatile plant contains antibacterial, antiviral, and immunomodulatory properties. Its polysaccharides are useful in the formulation of poultry vaccines, because they downregulate the production of cytokines from LPS.
Many global market leaders are now fractionating aloe vera extracts to make bioactive ingredients. For example, Aloecorp produces Active-Aloe, which is a medium-molecular-weight polysaccharide fraction. Meanwhile, Carrington Laboratories favors the high-molecular-weight fraction.
- About the Author
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I’m Mercedes and I love my Jungle Garden. As a child, I spent hours in our family garden and today my little jungle garden is a popular attraction. What started as a hobby has turned into a passion for me, and I’m committed to sharing my love of gardening with everyone.


Have you ever wondered how similar or different two countries are? The Country Similarity Index attempts to quantify how similar countries are to each other relative to other countries. The index is a statistically-based way to measure this. It weighs equally five major aspects of countries: their demographics, culture, politics, infrastructure, and geography. The methodology is exactly the same for each country. The research combines 1,000 different data points to arrive at the conclusions.
Kyrgyzstan is a country in Central Asia. The five most similar countries to it were once part of the Soviet Union. They are also all landlocked and have a relatively dry climate. Most people in the top four countries are Muslim. However, unlike countries in the Middle East, their laws are not as conservative. Their infrastructure is also similar, since they were once part of one country. They all use Type C, F electrical outlets, drive on the right, and use Russian broad gauge railroad tracks.
Top 10 Places Most Similar to Kyrgyzstan
- Kazakhstan‘s language has a high degree of mutual intelligibility with Kyrgyz and both use the Cyrillic alphabet. In addition, both countries cultures have been significantly influenced by Russia. However, Kazakhstan has more Russians, who are Orthodox Christian. In addition, Kazakhstan is far wealthier due to significant natural resources. Unlike Kyrgyzstan, the majority of its energy is created by coal power plants.
- Tajikistan is another landlocked and extremely mountainous country to Kyrgyzstan’s south. They are the two of the poorest and least developed countries of the former USSR. Both countries rely on hydropower to create electricity. Although many people in both countries speak Russian and use the Cyrillic alphabet, one big difference is that Tajiks speak a Persian language, not Turkic.
- Uzbekistan is just to the west of Kyrgyzstan, but it is much less mountainous. The countries have similar demographics, culture, and infrastructure. In fact, there are many Uzbeks living in Kyrgyzstan. One difference is that Uzbekistan grows far more cotton and uses a lot more water to irrigate its crops. Their demographics are especially similar. Both countries are not especially wealthy, even though their people are relatively well educated.
- Turkmenistan is very similar to Uzbekistan. It is another country in the region where most people natively speak Turkic languages. One big difference between Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan is politics. Turkmenistan has an authoritarian government, which has some of the most censorship in the world. In contrast, Kyrgyzstan is one of the few democracies in the region, although both governments are quite corrupt.
- Armenia is the only predominately Christian country in the top five. However neither country is especially religious since they both have high rates of atheism. Armenia’s geography is especially similar to Kyrgyzstan, since they are both extremely mountainous and landlocked countries. In addition, they have similar amounts of rainfall. Their governments are also quite similar. However, linguistically they are extremely different since Armenians use a different alphabet and speak an Indo-European language.
- Azerbaijan, 7. Turkey, 8. Georgia, 9. Mongolia, 10. Albania
Few countries are extremely different from Kyrgyzstan, except in regards to their geography. Appropriately, the five least similar countries to Kyrgyzstan are located on islands that get far more rainfall. Four of the five least similar countries use English as their official language. Furthermore, these countries all drive on the left side of the road. With the exception of Solomon Islands, the top five countries are wealthier than Kyrgyzstan.
Top 10 Places Least Similar to Kyrgyzstan
- Bahamas was colonized by Great Britain and highly influenced by the United States, so its infrastructure is quite different Kyrgyzstan. It drives on the left and uses Type A,B outlets with a lower voltage. Furthermore, its people are of mostly African ancestry. In addition, the country is quite prosperous, due to tourism and the banking industry, unlike Kyrgyzstan. Furthermore, the landscape of the Bahamas is essentially the opposite of Kyrgyzstan, since the country made up of many low-lying islands in the Western Hemisphere.
- Singapore is a densely populated, tropical, low-lying island city-state, unlike the more rural and mountainous landscape of Kyrgyzstan. It is also far more prosperous. One similarity is that about 15% of people in Singapore are Sunni Muslims. In addition, although both countries have unicameral legislatures, Singapore is dominated by one-party, while Kyrgyzstan is a multiparty democracy.
- Japan is technically on the same continent as Kyrgyzstan and it is also quite mountainous. Furthermore, their ancestry is somewhat similar since both have East Asian ancestry, although Kyrgyz people have more Caucasian ancestry. However other than these aspects Japan is extremely different. One reason is that Japanese do not follow an Abrahamic religion. Furthermore, its language and writing system are completely different. Their diet is also quite different since they eat a lot of pork, fish, and rice in contrast to Kyrgyzstan.
- Solomon Islands is a heavily forested archipelago in the Pacific Ocean. Its people have mostly Melanesian ancestry. Furthermore, it is mostly Christian. Its technology is especially different from Kyrgyzstan, since it drives on the left side of the road, uses Type I electrical outlets, and creates most of its electricity using oil, not hydropower.
- Trinidad & Tobago, like the Bahamas, is another former British colony located around the Caribbean Sea. However, it is lower down on this list for a few reasons. It is more mountainous than the Bahamas. Furthermore, although the country is mostly Christian, around five percent of the country is Muslim.
- Papua New Guinea, 7. Jamaica, 8. Taiwan, 9. Equatorial Guinea, 10. Rep. of Congo
Kyrgyzstan is like if Kazakhstan was more like Tajikistan
According to the Index, Kazakhstan is the most similar country to Kyrgyzstan. However, they have a few significant differences. Tajikistan has many of the aspects of Kyrgyzstan that Kazakhstan lacks. Both countries are extremely mountainous. They also use hydropower to create electricity, while Kazakhstan uses coal. Kazakhstan is also wealthier and more developed than Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan.
Do you agree with the list?
Please leave any thoughts in the comments section.


MOON, MARS & BEYOND
Atec manufactures the fuel and oxidizer valves on the Centaur Upper Stage of the Atlas V rocket, which puts the satellite or spacecraft into the proper orbit for mission payload release. For the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) Mission, the spent Centaur stage was used as the primary projectile for the LCROSS instrumentation satellite. The Centaur engine led the way into the Cabeus Crater, making Atec-manufactured valves a permanent part of the moon’s sub-surface. As we have achieved our 150th launch, we highlight below some of the solar system destinations Atec has helped NASA explore.
Juno to Jupiter
The NASA New Frontiers mission, Juno, launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida on an Atlas V launch vehicle with Atec manufactured cryogenic valves on the RL10 final stage rocket engine. Juno took a 5 year mission to the planet Jupiter, and arrived on July 4, 2016. It was a wonderful Independence Day celebration! Juno is placed in polar orbit, of the giant planet Jupiter. The unmanned spacecraft is studying the formation of the planet to give us a better understanding of Jupiter and other planets around the stars. Juno will map the gravity fields and water vapor in the atmosphere. Juno is scheduled to make its last two of 14 flybys around Jupiter in May and July. The mission is awaiting an extension.
Launch Vehicle: Atlas V Rocket
Site: Cape Canaveral, FL
Launch Date: August 5, 2011
Jupiter Arrival: July 4, 2016
Cassini to Saturn
Cassini-Huygens launched on October 15, 1997 on a Titan IV-B/Centaur launch vehicle. The Titan IV-B had an RL10 upper stage with Atec manufactured valves. The upper stage launched Cassini-Huygens into low earth orbit, and then refired to give the spacecraft an extra push towards Saturn. Cassini went on a 7 year journey from the Earth to Saturn, and arrived on July 1, 2004. On its way it passed Venus (twice), Earth, and Jupiter. The Cassini spacecraft released its probe onto Titan, Saturn’s largest moon. Together the spacecraft and probe, have been studying the planet, its moons, and many rings and their different seasonal periods. The mission was originally to orbit Saturn for 4 years, but the mission was extended and is ongoing. The Cassini Solstice Extension Mission concluded with a phase known as The Grand Finale, deep dives and an eventual plunge into the planet’s atmosphere.
Launch Vehicle: Titan IV-B/ Centaur
Launch Location: Cape Canaveral, FL
Launch Date: October 15, 1997
Saturn Arrival: July 1, 2004


City scientists are proud about their work in trying to find new treatments for devastating conditions such as cancer or a stroke.
However, they accept there may be concerns that the early stages of their research involves testing treatments on rats or mice.
To explain how essential the work is, the Leicester Mercury was invited behind the scenes of the new £16 million research centre which has opened at the University of Leicester.
One researcher was fitting a tiny drugs pump in a mouse before a stroke was induced.
The aim is to find new and better ways of treating hundreds of people a year in Leicestershire who have a mini-stroke.
Professor Mike Barer, director of research at the university's College of Medicine, said: "I think we are all uncomfortable about studies involving animals.
"We do it because there is no alternative.
"We have to be able to see how cells interact with each other and the only way, at the moment, is to do this through using an animal.
"It is not inconceivable in the future there might be a way to recreate this without using animals."
Prof Barer, a vegetarian, is working on a treatment for tuberculosis (TB). It is one of 40 projects involving looking for treatments for cancer, heart disease, strokes and neurological diseases.
He said: "Three people a minute die from TB worldwide but we cannot try out new treatments on people without testing them first."
Prof Barer was diagnosed with diabetes 10 years ago.
He said: "All knowledge of the different causes of diabetes is down to research on animals. Insulin was first discovered in dogs."
Toads, whose eggs are used in research, along with rats, mice and fish, are the only animals used for medical research at the University of Leicester.
Care, cleanliness and constant regulation are central to the everyday operation of the new centre.
The animals live in cages equipped with food, drink and nesting materials, in rooms which are kept sterile.
There is a £2 million MRI scanner which will enable scientists to better track cancerous tumours to see how they develop in mice and rats.
Dave Hall, the university's registrar and secretary who is responsible for making sure all the legal standards are met in the centre, said: "There are always going to be those who morally don't agree with what is happening but we are trying to be transparent in what is actually happening.
"We hope it will help them understand the evidence and what science has been achieved.
"It would also be helpful if there was some NHS recognition that work on new drugs and procedures involves animals.
"There is a reluctance to recognise that a lot of the work on drugs would have been based on animal research."


When producing a map it is important to choose mapping symbols that can be easily understood by the map reader. When using colour there are some fairly obvious conventions, particularly for topographic maps, that help to readily convey information the the map reader without them having to refer to a map legend, such as using brown for land forms, blue for hydrography, and green for vegitation. Other colour conventions include red for roads, black for man made cultural symbols such as buildings, bridges and railway lines.
Topographic map legend from VicMaps.
Unsealed roads and walking track are often depicted with a broken line, buildings as black square or rectangular shapes. Bodies of water are usually a screended blue infill, while rivers and streams and coastline are usually depicted with a solid blue line, intermittent streams usually as a broken blue line.
Tourist maps will often have a set of easily understood pictorial symbols such as a picture a man and a woman to depict toilet symbols, a knife and fork for dining facilities, a tent for camping etc
A typical set of tourist map symbols
A good choice of map symbols means that the map maker can easily convey their intended message to the map reader, and the map reader can quickly find what they are looking for without too much trouble.


Solar Technology Terminologies
The voltage(s) at which the controller will take action to protect the batteries.
Amperage interrupts capability. DC fuses should be rated with a sufficient AIC to interrupt the highest possible load.
Alternating Current (AC)
Electrical current (flow of electrons) in which the direction of flow is reversed at constant intervals, such as 60 cycles per second.
A collection of photovoltaic modules electrically wired together in one structure to produce a specific amount of power.
A component of a photovoltaic system that controls the flow of current to and from the battery subsystem to protect batteries from overcharge, over discharge, or other control functions. The charge controller may also monitor system operational status.
A number that translates units of one system into corresponding values of another system. Conversion factors can be used to translate physical units of measure for various fuels into Btu equivalents.
Direct Current (DC)
Electric current (flow of electrons) in which the flow is in only one direction.
The amount of time an inverter (power conditioning unit) can produce at full rated power.
Electric Power Plant
A station containing prime movers, electric generators, and auxiliary equipment for converting mechanical, chemical, and/or fission energy into electric energy.
The process of producing electric energy or transforming other forms of energy into electric energy. Also, the amount of electric energy produced or ex pressed in watt-hours (Wh).
The capacity for doing work as measured by the capability of doing work (potential energy), or the conversion of this capability to motion (kinetic energy). Energy has several forms, some of which are easily convertible and can be changed to another form useful for work. Most of the world’s convertible energy comes from fossil fuels that are burned to produce heat that is then used as a transfer medium to mechanical or other means in order to accomplish tasks. Electrical energy is usually measured in kilowatt-hours, while heat energy is usually measured in British thermal units.
The ratio of the energy available from a battery to its volume (wh/m^3) or weight (wh/kg).
The energy that must be overcome by the pump to offset the friction losses of the water moving through a pipe.
High Voltage Disconnect Hysteresis
The voltage difference between the high voltage disconnect set point and the voltage at which the full PV array current will be reapplied.
The amount of energy in sunlight reaching an area. Usually expressed in watts per square meter (W/m2), but also expressed on a daily basis as watts per square meter per day (W/m2/day).
Any device or appliance in an electrical circuit that uses power, such as a light bulb.
Low Voltage Disconnect Hysteresis
The voltage difference between the low voltages disconnect set point and the voltage at which the load will be reconnected.
Low Voltage Warning
A warning buzzer or light that indicates the low battery voltage set point has been reached.
A number of photovoltaic cells wired together to form a unit, usually in a sealed frame of convenient size for handling and assembling into arrays. Also called a panel.
Gas by-products, primarily hydrogen, produced when charging a battery. Also, termed out-gassing.
Peak Sun Hours
The equivalent number of hours when solar insolation averages 1000 watts per square meter and produces the same total insolation as actual sun conditions.
Direct-current electricity generated from sunlight through solid-state semiconductor devices that have no moving parts.
Photovoltaic (PV) System
A complete set of interconnect components for converting sunlight into electricity by the photovoltaic process, including array, balance-of-system components, and the load.
An instrument used for measuring direct beams of solar irradiance. Uses an aperture of 5.7 deg. to transcribe the solar disc.
Energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible (unlike, for example, fossil fuels, of which there is a finite supply). Renewable sources of energy include conventional hydroelectric power, wood, waste, geothermal, wind, photovoltaic, and solar thermal energy.
Solar Insolation (Insolation)
The solar radiation incident on an area over time. Equivalent to energy and usually expressed in kilowatt-hours per square meter.


Scientists concerned about significant long-term effects of global warming discuss a
geoengineering proposal to cool the planet.
Solar Radiation Management (SRM) could reverse global warming by seeding the stratosphere with sulfuric aerosols (SO4), recreating past periods of global cooling caused by volcanic activity. Naturally reflective sulfate aerosols resulting from this seeding would be dispersed by atmospheric winds, forming a layer of fine particles that would reflect about 1% of sunlight back into space. On the basis of computer models, scientists have predicted that SRM would reduce the amount of sunlight entering earth’s atmosphere, thereby reducing global average temperatures.
Atmospheric CO2 levels were around 275 parts per million (ppm) prior to the Industrial Revolution. A level of 350 ppm is the critical threshold beyond which significant global warming occurs; current levels are around 400 ppm. Since CO2 remains in the atmosphere for a very long time, even eliminating all CO2 emissions immediately would leave global temperatures elevated far into the future. Reducing CO2 emissions alone is not enough to preserve our climate; further action is needed. Preliminary research suggests SRM may be a way to stop or even reverse global warming.
More research needs to be conducted before seriously discussing the injection of sulfate aerosols into the stratosphere. It will do nothing to affect CO2 levels, and unintended consequences of SRM are so severe that that it should not be considered as a possible "solution" to global warming. There is no way to experimentally predict the consequences of manipulating the atmosphere on a worldwide scale, as climate patterns simply cannot be isolated and manipulated on a local scale.
Injecting sulfate particles into the stratosphere would increase acid rain and have a drastic impact on Earth's protective ozone layer. One study concluded that artificial injections of sulfates could destroy between one-fourth and three-fourths of the ozone layer above the Arctic. This could affect a large part of the Northern Hemisphere because of atmospheric circulation patterns.The sulfates would also delay the expected recovery of the ozone hole over the Antarctic by about 30 to 70 years, or until at least the last decade of the century. A healthy ozone layer is critical for life on Earth because it blocks dangerous ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
Adapted from: Rotman, David. A Cheap and Easy Plan to Stop Global Warming. MIT Technology Review. 8 Feb 2013. AND National Science Foundation Press Release 08-069. “Injecting Sulfate Particles into Stratosphere Could Have Drastic Impact on Earth's Ozone Layer.”


Spring is when Florida’s alligators start getting active, and the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) is urging Floridians and visitors to be cautious when having fun in and around water.
Alligators abound in all 67 counties and have shared marshes, swamps, rivers and lakes with people for centuries. But because more individuals are seeking waterfront property and water-related activities increase during the warm months, people should be alert when they are in areas where alligators could be present.
Closely supervise children when they are playing in or around water. State law prohibits contact with alligators, and it is against the law to feed them.
There are other precautionary measures people should take to reduce potential conflicts with alligators, and they are available in the “Living with Alligators” brochure at MyFWC.com/gators.
The FWC annually receives more than 18,000 alligator-related complaints. The agency removes more than 7,000 alligators each year when the reptiles present danger to people or property.
If you encounter an alligator that poses a threat to you, your pets or your property, and the alligator is more than 4 feet long, call the FWC’s toll-free Nuisance Alligator Hotline at 1-866-FWC-GATOR (392-4286). The telephone number is the primary contact for all alligator complaints and is available to customers 24 hours a day.
Alligators are an important part of Florida’s heritage and play a valuable role in the ecosystems where they live. Visit MyFWC.com/gators for more information on alligator behavior.


This project makes use of resources from the SPF to purchase battery-operated equipment for the McGill Grounds Department, replacing the current gas-powered maintenance equipment, such as leaf blowers. Along with a reduction in air and noise pollution, the new equipment will be safer for the employees, who have responded enthusiastically to the change.
Read the full project description
Universities purchase a broad range of different goods and services and in vast quantities. The production, the transportation, the use and end-of-life management of these goods generate considerable economic, social and environmental impacts which need to be considered and managed throughout the supply chain process.
Ever been caught trying to study only to be distracted by the noise of McGill's hard-working ground crew? or concerned about the use of gas-powered grounds equipment when quieter and more eco-friendly options are available? Well fear no more!
The 'Electric Grounds Equipment' project seeks to purchase battery-operated equipment to replace all the mixed-fuel powered items currently being used by McGill's Grounds Department. Along with a reduction in carbon emissions, noise pollution on campus grounds will be reduced by an estimated 50%.
The new equipment has various benefits for its users including improved safety and enhanced performance. It will be lighter and the user will avoid inhaling exhaust while at work. Those who have tried it respond enthusiastically to the change.
Resources from the SPF are being used to purchase: ultra lithium batteries, electric chainsaws, electric tree trimmers, electric hedge trimmers, and electric leaf blowers.
Connect with this project
marc.dozois [at] mcgill.ca (Marc Dozois) (Project Leader)


Although some people like to think that they will be able to grow anything in their garden, the sad face of the matter is that there are many things that don’t really work well in a home garden. Some garden vegetables are much easier to grow than others, so you need to make sure that you do your research on your vegetables before you try growing them.
All vegetables have different needs while they are growing, so you need to know what you are doing before you even get started.
One of the most important things to think about when it comes to your garden vegetables is where you are going to be growing these food items.
You need to pick a spot in your yard that gets plenty of sun, but you also need to make sure that the area will not become flooded or too dry during certain parts of the year.
Without the right amount of water and sun, your vegetables will not be able to reach their full potential and provide you with the vitamins and nutrients that you need.
A third part of gardening vegetables that some people don’t think about is the quality of the soil that you are buying at the store. You need to make sure that you are getting the finest soil because good soil will lead to good vegetables.
The vegetables that you grow in your garden are only going to be as nutritious as the soil that you grow them in your backyard.
Garden Vegetables That You Should Grow In Your Backyard
Green beans are usually going to be the best garden vegetables to grow in your backyard because they are easy to maintain and do not cause a lot of problems for a gardener. It’s important to stick with the simple vegetables in the beginning because you need to make sure that you are a capable gardener before you start growing more exotic items. If your vegetables do not turn out that well the first time around you should not worry because you can always try again.
Your crop may not turn out to be the best when you first try, but growing vegetables is really going to be a learning process. You need to be patient when it comes to growing your own vegetables because they will not begin to appear in your garden overnight. As long as you understand the importance of taking care of your garden on a daily basis, you should end up having a garden that can provide you with some food over the course of the year.
Make Sure That You Are Doing It Right
You should always research how you are supposed to grow certain garden vegetables before you get started because there are different rules that you need to follow for different foods. It will take a lot of time to research all of the items that you wish to grow, but you should eventually get the hang of creating your own food in your backyard.


Soviet Union and the United Nations
|United Nations membership|
|Membership||Former full member|
The Creation and Joining
The Soviet Union took an active role in the United Nations and other major international and regional organizations. At the behest of the United States, the Soviet Union took a role in the establishment of the UN in 1945. The Soviet Union insisted that there be veto rights in the Security Council and that alterations in the United Nations Charter be unanimously approved by the five permanent members.
From the creation to 1955, there was a Western majority in the UN. Other nations joining the UN were limited. 1955 marked the end of American hegemony over the General Assembly, because as more nations became states, they were accepted into the UN. The new states were often just beginning to understand what being their own state meant as they were pushed into the organization where they were often asked to pick between the West and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union made many new allies this way.
The USSR initially protested the membership of India and the Philippines, whose independence was then largely theoretical (being basically colonies of the United Kingdom and the United States, respectively, in all but name). A demand by the Soviet Union that all fifteen Soviet Socialist Republics be recognized as member states in the UN was counter-demanded by the United States that all then forty-eight states be similarly recognized. Ultimately two Soviet Republics (Ukrainian SSR and Byelorussian SSR) were admitted as full members of the UN, so between 1945–1991 the Soviet Union was represented by three seats in the United Nations. The United States was also offered two additional seats, but due to political problems (regarding which two of the 48 states would be represented), it was never acted upon.
Security Council and Veto
John G. Stoessinger argued the Soviet Union did not abuse its veto power. The Soviet Union had cast its veto 109 times by 1973, out of a total 128 vetoes used by the council. The Soviet Union used the veto 18 times to protect their national interest against USA. Many more vetoes were used because of Cold War and anti-communist actions taken by Western states. Even with all the vetoes used not all stuck. It is shown that for 75 percent of the vetoes cast by the Soviet Union, further actions were taken by UN.
The Soviets believed strongly in the veto power, and insisted it be part of the UN Security Council. They voiced this option for the veto power to both the Security Council and the General Assembly. "The veto power is the paramount principle which constitutes the cornerstone of the United Nations"
Relationship with China
Debate over China's representation with the United nations began in 1949. The communist regime took over China's mainland, while the Nationalists moved to the island of Taiwan. The UN seat of China was held by the Nationalist government of the Republic of China, but conflict arose on which government should hold the China seat. The Soviet Union supported the communist party, leading to conflict with Western Powers. The Security Council sided with the United States and saw the Communist government of PRC as illegitimate, and prevented it from entering the UN until 1971. Before the China seat was transferred to the Communist government of PRC in 1971, the Soviet Union was one of sixteen states that recognized it as being the legitimate government.
A major turning point in the Soviet UN relation occurred in January 1950, when Soviet representatives boycotted UN functions in protest over the occupation of the seat of China by the Republic of China. Jacob Malik was the sole Soviet representative that walked out of the UN, and announced that they would be boycotting further Security Council meetings. In the absence of the Soviet representatives, the UN Security Council was able to vote for the intervention of UN military forces in what would become the Korean War. This was a downfall to the action of the boycott that was unforeseeable to the Soviet Union at the time.
Nations questioned Soviet actions on relations with China, and how they acted on the issue of representation. The Soviet Union always voted for China's Communist Party to have the seat.
Relationship with Western Powers
For many years, the Western powers played a guiding role in UN deliberations, but by the 1960s many former colonies had been granted independence and had joined the UN. These states, which became the majority in the General Assembly and other bodies, were increasingly receptive to Soviet "anti-imperialist" appeals. By the 1970s, the UN deliberations had generally become increasingly hostile toward the West and toward the United States in particular, as evidenced by pro-Soviet and anti-United States voting trends in the General Assembly.
Western media reported in 1987 that Eastern European and Asian communist countries that were allies of the Soviet Union, had received more development assistance from the UN than what the Soviet Union had contributed. This contradicted communist states' rhetorical support for the UN's establishment of a New International Economical Order, which would transfer wealth from the rich Northern Hemisphere to the poor Southern Hemisphere states. The Soviet Union announced in September 1987 that it would pay back a portion of its debt to the UN.
The Soviet Union did not, however, win total support in the UN for its foreign policy positions. The Soviet Union and Third World states often agreed that "imperialism" caused and continued to maintain the disparities in the world distribution of wealth. They disagreed, however, on the proper level of Soviet aid to the Third World. Also, the Soviet Union encountered opposition to its occupation of Afghanistan and the Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia and received little support (as evidenced by Third World abstentions) for its 1987 proposal on the creation of a "Comprehensive System of International Peace and Security."
After walking out of the UN in January 1950 known as the Chinese Boycott, the Soviet Union returned to various UN bodies in August 1950. The return brought with it a beginning of a new policy of active participation on international and regional organizations. By the late 1980s the Soviet Union belonged to most of the special agencies of the UN. They did, however, resist joining various agricultural, food and humanitarian relief efforts.
During the Mikhail Gorbachev era, the Soviet Union made repeated suggestions for increasing UN involvement in the settlement of superpower and regional problems and conflicts. Though these proposals were not implemented, they constituted new initiatives in Soviet foreign policy and represented a break with the nature of past Soviet foreign policy. This lessened world tensions.
When the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, it formally "notified" the UN that it was designating Russia as its successor. The Russian Federation was then given the USSR's permanent seat on the Security Council. The eleven signatories (the republics that were previously part of the Soviet Union) of the declaration titled "On UN Membership" agreed that they support Russia in taking over the USSR seat in the UN, including the permanent membership it held on the Security Council. The Soviet Permanent Representative to the UN Vorontsov sent a letter to the Security-General of the UN announcing its resignation and giving its seat to the new government of Russia.
No new credentials were presented by Ambassador Vorontsov in his new capacity as the Permanent Representative of the Russian Federation. On 31 January 1992 Russian President Yeltsin himself was in the Russian Federation’s seat in the Security Council during the ‘summit meeting’ of the Council attended by heads of state and government.
- Zickel, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress ; edited by Raymond E. (1991). "10: Foreign Policy". In Raymond E. Zickel. Soviet Union : a country study (2nd ed. ed.). Washington, D.C.: The Division. p. 445. ISBN 0160363802.
- Stoessinger, John G. (1977). The United Nations & the superpowers : China, Russia, & America (4. ed. ed.). New York, NY: Random House. p. 25. ISBN 0394312694.
- Stalin: The Man and His Era. by Adam B. Ulman
- Stoessinger, John G. (1977). The United Nations & the superpowers : China, Russia, & America (4. ed. ed.). New York, NY: Random House. ISBN 0394312694.
- Stoessinger, John G. (1977). The United Nations & the superpowers : China, Russia, & America (4. ed. ed.). New York, NY: Random House. p. 3. ISBN 0394312694.
- Stoessinger, John G. (1965). "Two; The General Assembly; Problems of Membership and Representation of China". The United Nations and the Superpowers: China, Russia, and America (third ed.). New York: Random House.
- "Soviets boycott United Nations Security Council". History. Retrieved 10 April 2013.
- Zickel, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress ; edited by Raymond E. (1991). "10 Foregin Policy". Soviet Union : a country study (2nd ed. ed.). Washington, D.C.: The Division. p. 446. ISBN 0160363802.
- Blum, Yehuda Z. Russia Takes Over the Soviet Union's Seat at the United Nations.
- This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress Country Studies. – Soviet Union (May 1989).


The trochlear nerve is the fourth cranial nerve (CN IV) and one of the ocular motor nerves that controls eye movement. The trochlear nerve, while the smallest of the cranial nerves, has the longest intracranial course as it is the only nerve to have a dorsal exit from the brainstem. It originates in the midbrain and extends laterally and anteriorly to the superior oblique muscle.
Trochlea is Latin for pulley, which appropriately describes the sling of connective tissue that houses the tendon of the superior oblique. Moreover, the trochlear nerve is a somatic efferent (motor) nerve, and along with oculomotor (III) and abducens (VI) nuclei, it is responsible for eye movement. Through its innervation of the superior oblique, the trochlear nerve controls the abduction and intorsion of the eye.
The trochlear nerve, as well as the abducens (VI), hypoglossal (XII), and oculomotor (III) nerves, is a homolog of the ventral roots of the spinal nerves. The somatic efferent columns of the brainstem give rise to these cranial nerves. The muscles that they innervate are derived from the cranial (preoptic and occipital) myotomes in early skeletal muscle development.
During the fourth week of development, the neural tube is composed of three primary vesicles, the prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon. The mesencephalon goes on to develop into the midbrain. It is from the posterior part of the midbrain that the trochlear nerve originates. From here the nerve passes ventrally to innervate the superior oblique muscle.
The midbrain is supplied by the posterior cerebral artery, superior cerebellar artery, and the basilar artery. As cranial nerve IV has a motor nucleus, it is located near the midline along the medial longitudinal fasciculus. A disruption in any of the aforementioned arterial structures could affect the medial midbrain, and thus, the trochlear nucleus.
The trochlear nerve pair originates from a pair of symmetrical trochlear nuclei within the medial midbrain at the level of the inferior colliculus. The left and right nerves then travel dorsally surrounded by the periaqueductal gray matter, decussating before their exit in the dorsal midbrain. The two nerves run on contralateral sides, extend laterally and then anteriorly around the pons, before penetrating the dura above the trigeminal nerve.
It enters the cavernous sinus where it runs anteriorly above the abducens nerve and ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve. Here in the cavernous sinus, a few sympathetic fibers join the trochlear nerve with the possibility of some sensory fibers from the trigeminal nerve. The nerve then enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure and continues to extend anteriorly to the superior oblique muscle. The superior orbital fissure is also the nerve pathway for cranial nerves III, VI, and V and is vulnerable to shearing forces in the setting of trauma.
The only muscle the trochlear nerve innervates, the superior oblique muscle, is the longest and thinnest muscle among the extraocular muscles. The muscle belly originates from the back of the roof of the orbit near the common tendinous ring, but it takes an unusual course to reach the eye. The tendon extends between the orbital roof and passes through a fibrous loop (known as the trochlea) located on the frontal bone. The tendon then reaches laterally and posteriorly prior to its insertion point on the posterior half of the eye.
This “pulley” system afforded by the trochlea makes the superior oblique unique among the extraocular muscles and allows for its muscular functions of depression, abduction, and intorsion of the eye. Because of the muscle’s placement at the posterior portion of the eye, the muscle elevates the posterior of the eye, causing the front of the eye to become depressed. The muscle also causes abduction of the eye, moving the pupil away from the nose, and intorsion, rotating the eye such that the top of the eye moves toward the nose.
The superior oblique muscle is the only extraocular muscle that can lower the pupil with the eye adducted. Thus, to isolate the function of the superior oblique muscle from the other extraocular muscles, the muscle can be tested by requesting the patient to adduct the eye and then ask to depress the eye. Failure to depress the eye during adduction indicates a problem with the superior oblique muscle or the trochlear nerve. In addition, a general rule of thumb is that “obliques go opposite”; the left superior oblique is tested by having the patient look right, while the right superior oblique is tested with the patient looking left.
The most common cause of an isolated fourth nerve palsy is congenital. These patients may commonly present with eye deviation and complain of diplopia and postural head changes. This characteristic head tilt is towards the unaffected side to compensate for a lack of intorsion from the superior oblique muscle. Congenital trochlear nerve palsies are almost always unilateral. These nerve palsies in children can be initially mistaken for torticollis because of the head tilt many of these children display. Most commonly, this can be corrected surgically or with prism. A more conservative approach for minor deviations involves patching of one eye that can alleviate diplopia. However, if patients defer or fail initial therapy, surgical approaches include tucking of the superior oblique tendon or inferior oblique weakening. Interestingly, there is evidence to suggest that congenital superior oblique palsy is more common in young males.
Because of its fragility and extensive intracranial course, the trochlear nerve is especially vulnerable to trauma compared to most cranial nerves. Thus, the most common cause of an acquired defect of the trochlear nerve is trauma. Traumatic trochlear nerve palsies are associated with motor vehicle accidents and boxing, as they involve rapid deceleration of the head. Because the trochlear nerve is so fragile, this can occur in minor head injuries that do not involve loss of consciousness or skull fracture. Shearing forces can result in disruption particularly at the superior orbital fissure, where the trochlear nerve enters the orbit.
Other significant, but less common, causes of fourth nerve palsy include microvascular disease, idiopathic, the mass effect from a tumor, or increased intracranial pressure. Microvascular trochlear nerve palsy usually occurs in the setting of diabetes in patients who are 50 years of age and older. The nerve, however, is less affected compared to the other oculomotor nerves (CN III and CN VI). These nerve injuries are relatively transient with symptom resolution in a few months without treatment. Infrequently, trochlear nerve palsy may be caused by Lyme disease, Meningioma, Guillain-Barre Syndrome, Herpes zoster, and Cavernous Sinus Syndrome.
Another condition that involves the trochlear nerve is superior oblique myokymia which causes spasms of the superior oblique muscle. Symptoms include transient vertical diplopia. The etiology is not known but may be related to other conditions that cause microtremors. Rarely this can cause superior oblique muscle weakness.
Lesions of the trochlear nerve can either involve the nucleus or the nerve, but both virtually present with similar symptoms. The only difference is that a unilateral trochlear nuclear lesion affects the contralateral nerve and superior oblique muscle, while a fascicular lesion affects the ipsilateral nerve and muscle. Most trochlear nerve palsies are unilateral. However, because the decussation of the trochlear nerve pair happens when the nerve pair is near each other, a single lesion at the dorsal midbrain can cause bilateral trochlear nerve palsy. If other ocular motor nerves are involved in the patients’ symptoms, a lesion in the cavernous sinus or midbrain is most likely, as these nerves are relatively near each other in this space and share vascular supply.
Clinical presentation of acquired fourth nerve palsy is similar to that of congenital palsy. Patients may present most commonly with diplopia but can also present with blurry vision or a minor vision problem when looking down like reading a book or going down the stairs. The diplopia presented in trochlear nerve palsy is either vertical or diagonal and is worse with a downward gaze. Compensation for the nerve palsy usually includes a head tilt to the opposing side and tucking in the chin, so the affected eye’s pupil can move up and extort, instead of downwards and intort. During clinical examination, the eyes will display hypertropia with the affected eye being slightly elevated relative to the other normal eye. Under cover, the affected eye will show an upward drift relative to the other eye.
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Capillary Refill & Shock
The critically ill infant and child can be “tricky” to spot sometimes. Often the phrase “That kid just doesn’t look right,” is heard around the room of critically ill children. So we recognize that “something isn’t right,” but have a hard time putting our finger on what is wrong. Often the problem stems from the fact that the blood pressure “reassures” us. We have discussed several topics related to shock previously (ex, Epi vs Dopa, Pediatric Shock Index, and Damage Control Resuscitation), but now let us focus on recognizing SHOCK and one important aspect – Capillary Refill.
Shock: Pediatric Sepsis
- Significant cause of Non-traumatic childhood mortality in the USA. [Osterman, 2015]
- When recognized early and treated aggressively, morbidity and mortality can be decreased by 50%. [Han, 2003]
- Definition of pediatric SIRS differs from adult definition in that at least one diagnostic criteria must be fever or hypothermia. [Prusakowski, 2017]
- SIRS Criteria (2 of the following, with one being fever/hypothermia)
- Fever or Hypothermia (>38.5 degrees Celsius or <36 degrees Celsius.)
- No criterion to adjust for tachycardia in the presence of fever.
- Leukocytosis or Leukopenia (abnormal for age)
- Bandemia (>10% immature neutrophils)
- Sepsis, as with adults, requires the patient have SIRS criteria AND a known or suspected infection (bacterial or viral).
- Septic Shock is Sepsis with cardiovascular dysfunction (tachycardia/bradycardia AND impaired perfusion).
Kid Physiology to Consider
- Infants and young children have a greater proportional amount of extracellular fluid to intracellular fluid compared to adults. [Prusakowski, 2017]
- Predisposes them to more risk with decreased fluid intake or excessive fluid losses.
- Young children cannot increase their myocardial contractility. [Prusakowski, 2017]
- Heart is already functioning at a high contractile state.
- In order to increase Cardiac Output, kids have to increase heart rate.
- The younger the child, though, the higher the baseline HR is, and the less likely increased cardiac output can be achieved solely with increasing the heart rate.
- This is why vasopressors and/or inotropes may be beneficial for fluid-refractory shock in kids.
- Cold Shock is more likely in children then adults.
- There is no single pathognomonic finding that defines shock.
- Hypotension is a late finding, but an ominous one, in kids.
- Constellation of findings:
- Poor perfusion
- Poor pulse quality
- Altered mental status
- Cold Shock findings:
- High Systemic Vascular Resistance
- Cold, clammy, mottled, or cyanotic extremities
- Capillary Refill > 2 seconds
- Diminished / thready pulses
- Narrow pulse pressure.
- Respect the “just ain’t right” findings:
- Poor feeding
Be Aggressive Early
- Once recognized, be aggressive within 1st hour!
- IV or IO 40-60 ml/kg of isotonic fluids PUSHED rapidly
- Optimize oxygenation
- Supplemental may be all that is initially needed.
- 30-40% of a child’s cardiac output goes to the work of breathing when critically ill, so often will require additional support (i.e., intubation).
- Broad spectrum antibiotics
- Press the Pressors!
- Fluid-refractory shock is present if the patient, after 40-60 ml/kg, is hypotensive or has poor perfusion.
- Fluid-refractory shock should be treated with vasopressors via peripheral IV or IO.
- Ideally, they would be given via central line…
- The ED is, however, NOT an ideal environment…
- So start them peripherally and plan to change to central line once time permits.
Moral of the Morsel
- Shock is difficult to recognize and requires vigilance! Pay attention to capillary refill!
- Be aggressive early! Push the fluids in, don’t hang to gravity.
- Respect what the skin is telling you! Monitor the capillary refill time. If it is still prolonged after IV boluses, treat it like refractory shock.


Solving an 86-Year Mystery
Oral History Leads to Piece of Missing Mission Bell
April 27, 2012
A piece of a missing mission bell more than two centuries old soon will be back where it belongs, thanks to history sleuth Kathleen R. Frazee.
Fascinated by the mystery of the missing bells of Santa Ysabel, an asistencia (or sub-mission) of Mission San Diego de Alcalá, Frazee, a staff member in the Center for Oral and Public History, did some research.
In 1926, the mission’s two original bells, which date back to 1723 and 1767, from Santa Ysabel’s chapel disappeared. While the clappers were found the next day and returned in 1959, the whereabouts of the bell shells remained a puzzle — until last year, that is, when Frazee read an old oral history by the late historian Helen Smith.
Among the collection of Smith’s oral histories, which were donated to the center by her daughter, was an interview with an individual identified only as Anonymous.
The now-deceased unknown narrator, who Frazee learned was born the year the bells disappeared, told Smith the story he had heard from his father, an auto shop owner in Redlands who heard it from his friend, Fig Tree John.
The oral history most likely was recorded around 1975, Frazee said. In it, the narrator said that Fig Tree John approached his father saying three young friends had some metal that they wanted to have assayed.
“My dad said, ‘sure, bring a chunk of it in, whatever it is, and I’ll be happy to send it off to L.A. and have it assayed for you.’ So, Fig Tree said, ‘Fine, I’ll send them in and tell them where to find you.’ ” the narrator said. “I think this probably happened within a few months after the bells disappeared.”
The three friends brought in the brassy-colored chunks of metal that they had hoped were gold, according to the oral history, which indicates that the narrator’s father sawed off a small sample and sent it off for authentication, only to learn it contained “40 different metals, a wild combination of stuff. It was not just copper and zinc, it had multiple things in it.”
So, the narrator’s father tells Fig Tree John, who reports back to his friends, and they never returned to collect the pieces.
Curious, the narrator asks Fig Tree John where the metal chunks came from and hears this story: “It was a very rainy, stormy night. ... There were three or four of them. They had one or two acetylene torches. Literally, in the dead of night, they cut the bells into pieces that could be moved, and they stashed the things into gunnysacks — an eeny-meeny-miny-mo-kind of thing, approximating the amount of weight so that each of them had their fair share of these chunks and went off with them. And that was it.”
Upon hearing that account, the narrator recalled, “My dad said, ‘oh, for God’s sake, tell them to come and get them. I don't want them in my garage.’ Fig Tree John said, ‘Well, I’ll tell them, but ... if they don’t have any gold in them, they don’t have any more interest in them. They don’t want to be caught with the things.’ And, my dad said, ‘well, I don’t really want to have them either.’ And, so, Fig Tree John said, ‘dump them. That’s okay. Take them out to the city dump and get rid of them.’ ”
But, “my dad didn’t really want to do that. It ran against the grain,” the narrator continued. “So, he kept the idiot things and kept them clear up until he retired in the mid-’40s. The war was well on its way. He retired, sold the garage, and here is this old gunnysack full of chunks of bells. So, at this point, he took them home, and they were in his garage at home for a long time.”
Later, the narrator, who had been using the top of one bell as decoration in his Lafayette home, said he read about the missing bells in a 1965 issue of Sunset magazine. Immediately, he recognized the top of the bell in the photo as a match for the one he had on display at his home and felt a need to write to Santa Ysabel, telling his father’s story.
He said his father had felt “a great deal of guilt” about how he ended up with the bell pieces, but was afraid to turn them over to authorities for fear of being accused of stealing the bells in the first place.
A Catholic priest, Father Nardi, paid the narrator a visit some weeks after receiving the letter and took the bell top back to the mission, promising not to divulge the name of the source. Today it sits in a museum at the asistencia.
Enough names and locations were mentioned in the oral history that Frazee followed the clues, made some calls and tracked down the narrator’s wife, who told Frazee she had a piece of one of the bells and would gladly hand it over to the center. The wife asked to remain anonymous, Frazee said, and it is unknown what happened to the rest of the missing bell pieces.
Last week, a center volunteer picked up the wife’s bell piece and delivered it to Frazee, who proudly clutched the 6.5-pound slab of metal to her chest, smiling wide with excitement.
“This is part of one of the oldest bells in California, maybe the oldest,” she said. “Isn’t it amazing?”
The center now is arranging a date to deliver the bell piece to Santa Ysabel, Frazee said.
Natalie M. Fousekis, COPH director, praised Frazee’s detective work, calling it a “great public service.”
“As historians, we record individual stories and memories,” Fousekis said. “When scholars and the public use one of these interviews, we expect them to do additional research to verify the historical facts and stories in them. In this case, Helen Smith's oral history helps solve the decades-old mystery of the missing mission bells. What a wonderful, surprising discovery! And, we have thousands of fascinating oral histories in our collections that reveal all kinds of untold and unknown stories like this about Southern California.”


Conventional methods of orthodontics would generally suggest that treatment is not started until all adult teeth are present. With our Non-Extraction philosophy, we believe in assessing children well before school age, especially when there are concerns about crowding or less than ideal facial balance. At this age the jaw is still growing and developing. Intervention treatments such as correcting bad habits, wearing removable plates and doing oral posture exercises can help guide the growth of the jaws into their correct positions. This facial devlopment creates room in the dental arches for all the teeth to grow into, and results in a better and much healthier facial profile.
These are removable appliances which are designed to enlarge the dental arches to reduce crowding in the teeth, to move individual or groups of teeth with springs or screws, and to align the jaws. Sometimes these appliances can be cemented into place.
They can be made in a variety of colours and need to be thoroughly cleaned after eating as most appliances need to be worn when eating.They will sometimes be the sole treatment, (especially when used in an early intervention treatment), before and in conjunction with braces, or with myofunctional trainers.
Braces are made up of two components: metal or clear plastic devices usually glued onto the front of the teeth, and wires that connect them together. The wires are made of a metal that is formed into the ideal curve for your upper and lower teeth. This provides the pattern towards which the straightening treatment is headed.
When the wires are inserted into the braces, the wire tries to move back into its original shape. This creates tension on the teeth, and it is this force which gradually moves the teeth into their ideal position along the curve of the wire’s original shape.
Myofunctional Training Appliances
These are removable appliances similar to a mouthguard that are worn at night and for 1-2 hours during the day (but not to school).
Their job is to stop the tongue, lips and cheeks from adversely moving the teeth at rest and when swallowing. Some have channels to encourage the new teeth to come down into their correct positions and others can be worn over the top of braces. They can also be used as a retainer after active tooth movement is completed.
Retainers can be removable or permanent (fixed onto the inside of the teeth), and are designed to stop the teeth from moving back away from their corrected positions.
In an ideal situation with good Oral Posture, retainers won't be necessary long term. However this is often not the case, and permanent invisible fixed retainers are often a good option to maintain the teeth in their newly corrected positions - especially in adult re-treatment cases.
There are 4 main types of retainers :-
* Clear plastic removable retainers which we issue after braces are removed
* Harder acrylic and wire retainers, also removable but stronger than plastic
* Myofunctional trainers removable, flexible and similar to a mouthguard
* Fixed (permanent ) retainers which are made of wire on the inside surface of the teeth cemented with filling material - for long-term retention of the front teeth
See other sections on stages of growth


Running the Numbers on America’s Contribution to the Meuse-Argonne Offensive
Using statistics from the American Armies and Battlefields in Europe (Blue Book), students will evaluate the United States’ contributions to the Meuse-Argonne Offensive and, ultimately, to World War I.
The Meuse-Argonne Offensive took place on the Western Front of World War I between September 26 and the Armistice of November 11, 1918. It was one of the largest military offensives in U.S. history with 1.2 million U.S. troops involved. By this time, both sides in the war had lost staggering numbers of soldiers and were facing financial ruin. With its entrance into the war in 1917, the United States provided much needed military and financial support for the Allies.
At the conclusion of this lesson, students will be able to
- Evaluate the effectiveness of statistics as a source of historical evidence;
- Interpret statistics from the Blue Book;
- Use statistics to describe the United States’ contribution to the Meuse-Argonne Offensive and World War I; and
- Evaluate the United States’ contributions to the war relative to other nations.
Connections to Common Core
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RH.9-10.2 Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of how key events or ideas develop over the course of the text.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RH.11-12.2 Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary that makes clear among the key details and ideas.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RH.11-12.7 Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media (e.g., visually, quantitatively, as well as in words) in order to address a question or solve a problem.
Connections to C3 Framework
D2.His.14.9-12. Analyze multiple and complex causes and effects on events in the past.
D2.His.15.9-12. Integrate evidence from multiple relevant historical sources and interpretations into a reasoned argument about the past.
D2.His.10.9-12. Detect possible limitations in various kinds of historical evidence and differing secondary interpretations.
D2.His.12.9-12. Use questions generated about multiple historical sources to pursue further inquiry and investigate additional sources.
Activity One: Anticipatory Set (15 minutes)
- Share with students the Representations of Sacrifice Handout and the Meuse-Argonne American Cemetery video.
- Teacher Tip: The teacher may share the Representations of Sacrifice Handout as a handout or project the resources for the entire class. If students receive a handout, the teacher will have to project the video of the Meuse-Argonne American Cemetery.
- Help students understand what is gained and what is lost when looking at statistics.
- As you review the sources as a class, give each student the Representations of Sacrifice Evaluation Handout to record the strengths and weaknesses of each source.
- Teacher Tip: Beyond the difference of scale and emotion, the statistics can also mask details that are not in the “official records” such as volunteers who were killed during the war but would not show up on military casualty lists.
Activity Two: Running the Numbers (60 minutes)
- Have students work through the exercises in the Running the Numbers packet individually or in small groups.
- Ask students to consider what they have learned about the United States' contribution to World War I after they have completed the Running the Numbers Packet.
- Teacher Tip:The teacher can have students write a short response on a sticky note for an exit ticket.
- The teacher can assess the Running the Numbers Packet using the Running the Numbers Answer Key .
Methods for Extension
- Teachers could have students write an essay to answer the question, “What was the United States contribution to World War I?” based on the statistics provided.
- Teachers can place students in mixed-ability groups for the Running the Numbers Packet.


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Studies show that mammography screening reduces breast cancer deaths by at least 28 to 36 percent.
Williamsport, PA (PRWEB) November 01, 2016
New guidelines for breast cancer screenings are fitted to the patient instead of one size fits all. UPMC Susquehanna Breast Health Center’s Susan Branton, MD, FACS says these guidelines balance the benefits and drawbacks of mammograms for women who fall into the average risk category. The American Cancer Society and the United States Prevention Services Task Force encourage screening recommendations for patients of average risk but encourage shared decision making on a case-by-case basis.
Breast cancer affects one in eight females in the U.S. and the risk increases with age. “Knowing your personal risk level is the first step,” Branton explains. Some risk factors such as smoking, alcohol use and obesity are modifiable but others such as breast density, personal history of chest radiation and family history are not.
Women are urged to be familiar with the details of their family’s medical history for two or three prior generations. Doctors rely upon family history of cancers including who had breast cancer and ovarian cancer and at what age to help determine a patient’s risk. There are several genetic syndromes that predispose to breast cancer that are now easy to test for and can prompt action before cancer develops.
“Studies show that mammography screening reduces breast cancer deaths by at least 28 to 36 percent,” says Dr. Branton. These screenings are beneficial for woman ages 40 to 74 and most beneficial from ages 50 to 74. Mammography screenings include an X-ray of the breasts with two images recorded on each side. How frequently women obtain a screening is best determined by discussing the options with a primary care doctor or advanced practice professional. Screening for breast cancer is important and insurance coverage for screening mammograms has not changed. Recommendations for screening mammograms will evolve as newer technology and studies contribute to additional data and information.
Another risk factor that is important for women to know about is breast density. Women are now provided with information on breast density as part of the screening mammogram evaluation. Additional testing may be recommended for women with dense breasts. A 3D mammogram is now available for women with dense breast tissue and Pennsylvania legislation ensures that health insurance covers these screenings. Women with dense tissue may also be candidates for additional testing such as whole-breast ultrasound and MRI.
It is important for women to be proactive, know their personal risk and develop screening plans with help from a health care provider. The Pennsylvania Department of Health offers the HealthyWoman Program for uninsured or underinsured women to provide free, early detection screening for breast and cervical cancer. For more information, call 1-800-215-7494 or visit pahealthywomen.com.
About UPMC Susquehanna
UPMC Susquehanna is an affiliate of UPMC and a northcentral Pennsylvania based health system that includes Divine Providence Hospital, Muncy Valley Hospital, Soldiers & Sailors Memorial Hospital and Williamsport Regional Medical Center. Serving patients from an 11-county region, UPMC Susquehanna has been recognized at the national and state levels for quality of care. This regional provider offers a wide array of services that include cancer care, heart and vascular care/heart surgery, neurosciences including neurosurgery, orthopedics, urology, OB/GYN, gastrointestinal services, behavioral health, physical rehabilitation, home care, long term care, assisted living and paramedic/ambulance services.
A world-renowned health care provider and insurer, Pittsburgh-based UPMC is inventing new models of patient-centered, cost-effective, accountable care. It provides nearly $900 million a year in benefits to its communities, including more care to the region’s most vulnerable citizens than any other health care institution. The largest nongovernmental employer in Pennsylvania, UPMC integrates 60,000 employees, more than 20 hospitals, more than 500 doctors’ offices and outpatient sites, a 3-million-member health insurance division, and international and commercial operations. Affiliated with the University of Pittsburgh Schools of the Health Sciences, UPMC ranks No. 12 in the prestigious U.S. News & World Report annual Honor Roll of America’s Best Hospitals. For more information, go to UPMC.com.


The acromioclavicular, or AC joint, is the joint located at the top of the shoulder where the clavicle (collarbone) meets the scapula (shoulder blade). An AC joint separation, also known as a shoulder separation, is a common injury that occurs when the ligaments that stabilize the joint are either stretched or torn.
AC joint separations are almost always caused by an event where significant force was exerted on the area, such as in a fall or a direct blow. This type of injury is most commonly seen in contact sports such as football or hockey. Other activities that involve lifting heavy objects above the head, such as weightlifting also can cause injury to the joint. An AC separation involves damage to the ligaments that support the AC joint and is considered either a sprain or tear. These separations can range in severity from minor stretching of the ligaments to complete tearing of these ligaments. AC joint or shoulder separations are classified by the degree of torn ligaments involved:
- Grade I: This is the most common type of AC joint injury. TheAC ligament is stretched but the CC (coracoclavicular) ligaments are not injured. X-rays appear normal in this scenario.
- Grade II: The AC ligament is completely torn, while the CC ligaments are only partially torn. The collarbone appears slightly elevated on x-rays in this scenario.
- Grade III: The AC and CC ligaments are completely torn, and the clavicle and the acromion are completely separated. A bump is often visible on the shoulder where the clavicle is pushed up and is easily visible on x-rays.
- Grades IV –VI: Are uncommon and usually involve significant damage to the ligaments and soft tissues around the AC joint. These injuries almost always require surgical intervention.
The typical symptoms of an AC joint separation are severe pain at the top of the shoulder, including swelling and tenderness around the affected area. Limited movement may result from pain. Bruising may also be present. A more severe injury to the AC joint will result in a visible deformity or bump that is easily seen at the top of the shoulder and will likely be tender to touch or move.
Diagnosis and Treatment
Diagnosis is usually done through physical examination and X-rays to determine the extent of the injury and whether or not there has been any damage to the surrounding ligaments or tendons. A separation is often apparent from hearing how the injury occurred as well as the external appearance of the shoulder.
Treatment for an AC joint separation may involve a combination of rest, ice, compression, and elevation (RICE). This can help reduce inflammation and pain. If the injury is severe, surgical repair may be recommended to stabilize the joint and prevent further damage and to restore appropriate shoulder positioning and function. Following surgery, a rehabilitation program will help restore strength and range of motion in the shoulder.
In some cases, an AC joint separation can heal on its own with conservative treatments such as RICE. However, if the injury is severe or left untreated, it could lead to chronic instability of the joint and decreasedfunction of the shoulder. Therefore, it is important to seek medical attention as soon as possible following an injury.
Post-operative recovery and therapy are essential for a successful outcome. Initially, this may involve gradual range of motion exercises combined with strengthening exercises to re-establish full function in the shoulder. Recovery time depends on the severity of the injury but typically takes several months. Fortunately, most AC joint injuries heal successfully with time and proper treatment.
The goal for the first few weeks is to reduce pain and shoulder joint stiffness. It is important to understand that while resting your shoulder is a necessary step for allowing an AC joint to heal, resting for any length of time may likely cause a gradual decrease in muscle strength and mobility. Therefore, during weeks 6-8, the goal will be to continue decreasing pain, increase muscular strength, and improve neuromuscular and proprioceptive control rehabilitation. Physical therapy will help you regain what you’ve lost during your recuperation period. The remaining weeks will involve transitioning to more home therapy and increased strengthening exercises. Exercises involving stretching and strengthening can play a critical role in fully restoring the health of your shoulder and upper arm.
Preventing AC Joint Separation
Preventing an AC joint separation altogether may be difficult to avoid however, it is possible to lower the risk in some instances. Strengthening exercises and proper stretching is especially important for athletes to lower the risk of AC joint separations. Strong, supple ligaments are far less likely to stretch or be injured than tight, stressed ligaments. Wearing proper fitting protective gear, including pads and braces during contact sports may reduce the risk of injury. It is also important to recognize exhaustion. An overtired and depleted body is far more susceptible to injury.
Knowing the signs and symptoms of AC joint separation, as well as how to prevent it can help you stay safe and avoid injury. If you suspect that you have an AC joint separation, seek medical attention from an orthopedic surgeon. The earlier a diagnosis and treatment plan is made; the more successful recuperation may be.
While AC joint separations are relatively common injuries, they can often be treated with conservative measures or surgery depending on severity. With proper treatment, healing without any long-term complications is likely. It is important to be aware of the signs and symptoms of an AC joint separation in order to seek care in a timely manner.
Please contact our office to schedule a consultation with Dr. McClintock.