“I am not, I will not be.
I have not, I will not have.
This frightens all children,
And kills fear in the wise.”
Nagarjuna, lived between approximately 150 and 250 AD (CE). The name means ”noble serpent”. He was born into a wealthy Hindu family, but converted to Buddhism. The teachings he revealed over the course of his life are foundational to the Mahayana schools of Buddhism. Mahayana means ”Great Vehicle”.
It would be too long to go into his philosophies but there is an excellent article about Nagarjuna here ~ http://www.iep.utm.edu/nagarjun/
Nagarjuna saw in the concept sunya, a concept which connoted in the early Pali Buddhist literature the lack of a stable, inherent existence in persons, but which since the third century BCE had also denoted the newly formulated number “zero,” the interpretive key to the heart of Buddhist teaching, and the undoing of all the metaphysical schools of philosophy which were at the time flourishing around him. Indeed, Nagarjuna’s philosophy can be seen as an attempt to deconstruct all systems of thought which analyzed the world in terms of fixed substances and essences. Things in fact lack essence, according to Nagarjuna, they have no fixed nature, and indeed it is only because of this lack of essential, immutable being that change is possible, that one thing can transform into another. Each thing can only have its existence through its lack (sunyata) of inherent, eternal essence. With this new concept of “emptiness,” “voidness,” “lack” of essence, “zeroness,” this somewhat unlikely prodigy was to help mold the vocabulary and character of Buddhist thought forever.
”Even three times a day to offer
Three hundred cooking pots of food
Does not match a portion of the merit
In one instant of love.” ~ Nagarjuna


We define someone as being bilingual as an individual who is able to make a seamless transition between the two languages of instruction. A bilingual person can read, write, understand, think and speak in the two languages without hindrance at all levels. This is to say that they are able to make the intercultural and linguistic transitions seamlessly, whether it be for study, business or leisure. Bilingual learners think, dream and tell jokes in the two languages.
At Wellington College China and Huili Education Group schools our two-way immersion comprises a balanced exposure to Chinese and English fostering bilingualism and biliteracy. We also recognise that with our early learners there are approaches that can be reinforced in the home setting to build upon the educational experience.
The bilingual immersion experience offers each and every child their own, personalised learning journey and there are a number of key approaches that can be reinforced at home to support that learning journey.
The mastery of language is an exciting lifelong journey of discovery. We must remember that all journeys start with small steps, supported by guides who help us on the way. We must celebrate and relish each of those milestones. As children transition through the phases of language development from ‘the silent period’ through ‘early production’ to ‘speech emergence’ and beyond, three practical steps are listed below that we can use as we guide them.
If a child is at the ‘the silent period’ the use of singing; which activates the right side of the brain, whereas our speech is activated from the left side of the brain; helps compensate for the later development of the language centres in the left side of the brain. Nursery rhymes and songs are excellent ways of familiarising a child with language.
Another technique is to model speaking through child directed speech. The Stanford Report, October 15, 2013 identified that young children learn language in the context of meaningful interactions with those around them. The research showed that children who had experienced more child-directed speech were more efficient at processing language.
‘The analyses revealed a cascade of effects – those toddlers who heard more child-directed talk became faster and more reliable in interpreting speech, and it was their superior skill in processing language that then increased their success in vocabulary learning.’
Source: Bjorn Carey Stanford Report, October 15, 2013
Using techniques such as the ‘3 strikes and you win’ technique enable you to model words and answers to your child. The technique can be used to teach new vocabulary, where a child’s desired object is held close to your mouth as you model the word, waiting 2-3 seconds for a response the child may or may not repeat the word. If the child repeats the word, celebrate and congratulate them. If your child does not repeat the word, then conduct the process a second time. On the third time if the child has not repeated the word you model the word clearly and give the child the object saying ‘Good, listening.’
However, being asked too many questions is daunting for a young learner and we must consider thinking time. This technique is probably the hardest one for us to do, especially in the fast moving era of the instant information superhighway that is the 21st Century. In a normal adult conversation our wait time is approximately one second. For young children the processing time can be up to ten times longer. Please give ten seconds waiting time and in those ten seconds remember that your child is decoding what he or she has been asked and then constructing a response and is then having to shape and say new words and sounds. It is a complex process! If your child is not able to respond after the ten seconds, do not ask the same question again, however re-frame it in a simpler fashion and build in an element of choice.
Child: ‘I want sandwich.’
Adult: ‘You want a sandwich. Which sandwich do you want?’
Allow thinking time.
Adult: ‘Would you like a chicken sandwich or a jam sandwich?’
Point to chicken slices and jam pot respectively.
Child: ‘A jam sandwich.’
Adult: ‘Good listening, you would like a jam sandwich.’
If we focus on these three key areas of singing, child directed speech through effective questioning and modelling and giving thinking time we will be able to help our learners on their exciting journey to true bilingualism. Where they will be able to experience their dreams equally in Chinese or English.


The ChemCam laser instrument on NASA’s Curiosity rover has turned its beam onto some unusually light-colored rocks on Mars, and the results are surprisingly similar to Earth’s granitic continental crust rocks. This is the first discovery of a potential “continental crust” on Mars.
“Along the rover’s path we have seen some beautiful rocks with large, bright crystals, quite unexpected on Mars” said Roger Wiens of Los Alamos National Laboratory, lead scientist on the ChemCam instrument. “As a general rule, light-colored crystals are lower density, and these are abundant in igneous rocks that make up the Earth’s continents.”
Mars has been viewed as an almost entirely basaltic planet, with igneous rocks that are dark and relatively dense, similar to those forming the Earth’s oceanic crust, Wiens noted. However, Gale crater, where the Curiosity rover landed, contains fragments of very ancient igneous rocks (around 4 billion years old) that are distinctly light in color, which were analyzed by the ChemCam instrument.


Luk Keng marsh is located at the inner shore area of Starling Inlet in the Northeast New Territories. It is an abandoned brackish marsh opposite to Luk Keng village. The marsh stores freshwater discharge from the hill stream and collects sea water from Starling Inlet. The marsh near the seashore supports mangrove and the area further inland is mainly freshwater marsh with short grass. The area has become a pasture for stray cattle.
Overview and HistoryHong Kong sits on the south coast of China, on the Pearl River Delta. It's got a population of more than seven million people and is one of the most densely populated places on earth. It also appears to be putting into place the template for population management, which cities around the world will be implementing as soon as they can afford it. More on that later.Archaeological evidence dates human activity beneath present-day Hong Kong back to the stone age. The area was first settled by people from the mainland during the Han dynasty, around the beginning of the common era (the P.C. term for when B.C. changed to A.D. Whoa!)For hundreds of years, Hong Kong was a small fishing community and haven for travelers, with a few pirates here and there. Then whitey showed up.Western influence reached China at the beginning of the 15th century, when all those great explorers in boats were cruising for loot in strange and mysterious places. Tea and silk were the commodities connecting eastern Europe to China, and Hong Kong was known as a safe harbor through which to pass. When you're carrying the Queen's tea, it's especially important to avoid ARRRRRRguments with pirates. Hyuk hyuk hyuk.Seriously folks -- in the eighteenth century Britain was doing a booming business with China, offering Indian opium to balance their extensive purchases of fine porcelains and everything else. The opium was ordained to be for medicinal purposes only, of course.Well, as you may imagine, the Chinese got sick of opium fiends junking up the place, so they attempted to stop the British suppliers, to no avail. The Opium Wars resulted and ended with China ceding Hong Kong to the British, in fear of their massive naval power. This took place in the year 1841.Colonization soon followed, Hong Kong shot up in value as an international port, and its population increased dramatically. In 1898 Britain acquired additional territories on a 99 year lease -- expiring in 1997. Does that year sound familiar? Read on.In the 20th century Hong Kong changed hands several times. The British surrendered it to Japan during World War Two, then took it back after Japan's defeat, then gave it to China later. Immediately following the war, Hong Kong served as a safe haven for hundreds of thousands of Chinese refugees, while the Chinese National Government was losing its civil war against communist leadership.The population of Hong Kong exploded as corporations seeking to escape Chinese isolationism arrived and set up shop. Cheap labor in the textile and manufacturing industries steadily built up the economy and ensured foreign investment. By the end of the 20th century Hong Kong had become a financial mammoth offering banking services to the world.In 1997 Hong Kong returned to Chinese rule with a few stipulations in place to guarantee its economic autonomy, as much as possible. The phrase "one country, two systems" was coined by the Chinese to describe the relationship between the mainland and Hong Kong.Getting ThereWell, where do you want to get to from the Hong Kong International Airport? There are ferries servicing six mainland ports in the Pearl River Delta Region. Airport Express Railway connects directly to downtown Hong Kong, and it has been rated the best airport in the world multiple times.The Airport Express Railway will get you into Hong Kong in about an hour, for $100. Public buses cost $10 and take a little longer. For direct service to your hotel you can take one of the hotel's private buses ($120+) or a taxi ($300+). As you can see, waiting time is optional for those who can afford it.Here's a little blurb on travel times, with further information for access to nearby cities (cross-boundary transport).TransportationGrab an Octopus card when you arrive. Octopus is the world's first electronic ticket-fare card system and the Hong Kong public transportation system is the world leader in people-moving. 90% of Hong Kongers get around on public transportation.Octopus covers the Airport Rail line, buses, ferries, the rapid-transit MTR network, supermarkets, fast food outlets, phone booths... It's how to get around the cashless economy.Nevermind the microchip built into it, you'll get used to having one of those on you at all times -- and soon they'll be internal! What do I mean? Many schools in Hong Kong even use the Octopus card to check attendance, because you read the card's data with an external scanner from a distance. This will the global norm soon. What if that chip is installed in your body? It's in the works baby!The hilly Hong Kong terrain also demands some special modes of transportation. If you've been to Pittsburgh, you may have some idea of how cool it is to ride a cable car up the side of a mountain, overlooking a majestic harbor and city. Multiply that by about ten thousand and you've got Hong Kong: vertical-travel trams, moving sidewalks, and the world's longest outdoor escalator system.People and CultureThe local currency is the Hong Kong dollar (HKD) which is pegged to the U.S. dollar. Official languages are Chinese and English. You're on your own, baby! Dive into the swarming, throbbing, pulsing, crawling and teeming mix!Things to do & RecommendationsThe Peak Tower and its shopping Galleria are the biggest tourist attraction in Hong Kong so don't miss it.Cool off in the Kowloon Park public indoor swimming pool!After that, go see what's happening at the Hong Kong Fringe Club, a non-profit organisation which puts together exhibitions for international artists and performers.Organize sports fans flock to the Hong Kong Stadium, but there's good news for disorganized sportistas too -- Mountain biking is now legal in the parks! Have at it, baby!All this excitement is going to make you hungry. Springtime is traditionally the time to celebrate seafood, summer is for fruits, and winter steams with hot pot soups to keep you warm.The best thing to do is go and find some dim sum. Dozens of plates of tasty small items, sort of like sushi but it's cooked, and the varieties are endless.Since you won't be able to walk down the street without complete and total sensory overload, I'll just whap in the Hong Kong tourist board's guide to dining and leave you to your intuition.Good luck, take it slow and above all -- DON'T SPIT OUT YOUR CHEWING GUM ON THE SIDEWALK. Gum is legal but there's a $500 fine for intentional littering. Enjoy!Text by Steve Smith.


Minos, along with his brothers, Rhadamanthus and Sarpedon, was raised by King Asterion of Crete. When Asterion died, his throne was claimed by Minos, who banished his brothers. Minos reigned over Crete and the islands of the Aegean Sea three generations before the Trojan War. He lived at Krossos for periods of nine years, where he received instruction from Zeus in the legislation which he gave to the island. He was the author of the Cretan constitution and the founder of its naval supremacy.
In Attic tradition and on the Athenian stage Minos is a cruel tyrant, the heartless exactor of the tribute of Athenian youths to feed the Minotaur.
It is to this Minos that we owe the stories of Theseus, Pasiphae, the Minotaur, Daedalus, Glaucus, and Nisus. Minos fathered numerous children, including Androgeus, Catreus, Deucalion, Acacallis, Ariadne, Xenodice, Phaedra, and Glaucus- all born to him by his wife Pasiphaë. With a nymph, Paria, he had Eurymedon, Nephalion, Chryses, and Philolaus, and by Dexithea he had Euxanthius. He was the grandfather of King Idomeneus, who led the Cretans to the Trojan War. By Androgeneia of Phaestus he had Asterion, who commanded the Cretan contingent in the war between Dionysus and the Indians. Also given as his children are Euryale, who became the mother of Orion by Poseidon, and Pholegander.
Asterios, king of Crete, adopted the three sons of Zeus and Europa: Minos, Sarpedon, and Rhadamanthus. According to the Odyssey he spoke with Zeus every nine years or for nine years. He got his laws straight from Zeus himself. When his son Androgeos had won the Panathenaeic Games the king, Aegeus, sent him to Marathan to fight a bull, resulting in the death of Androgeos. Outraged, Minos went to Athens to revenge his son, and on the way he camped at Megara. The king there at the time was Nisos and his strength came from his hair. His daughter, Scylla, fell in love with him and cut off her father's purple hair so Minos could conquer the city. After his triumph, he punished Scylla for her treachery against her father by tying her to a boat and dragging her until she drowned. On arriving in Attica, he asked Zeus to punish the city, and the god struck it with plague and hunger. An oracle told the Athenians to meet any of Minos' demands if they wanted to escape the revenge. Minos then asked Athens to send seven boys and seven girls to Crete every nine years to be sacrificed to the Minotaur. As a punishment for Minos' refusing to sacrifice a certain bull, Poseidon made his wife Pasiphae fall in love with it, giving birth to the Minotaur. Minos had his architect Daedalus construct a labyrinth in which he hid the monster. The Minotaur was defeated by the hero Theseus with the help of Minos' daughter Ariadne.


Characterization of the Mesophotic Coral Reefs in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
John K. Reed, Stephanie Farrington, María Cristina Díaz, Shirley A. Pomponi, Dennis Hanisak, Josh Voss
A 17-day research cruise was conducted to the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS), August 12-29, 2019 by the Cooperative Institute for Ocean Exploration, Research, and Technology (CIOERT) at Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University (HBOI-FAU) aboard the University of Miami ship R/V F.G. Walton Smith.
Two legs of the expedition were conducted. Leg 1 (August 13-20, 2019) consisted of Mohawk remotely operated vehicle (ROV) dives with the primary objective to document and characterize the benthic habitats, benthic communities, and fish assemblages of the mesophotic (30-100 m) coral ecosystems and deep rariphotic (>100 m) zones within and adjacent to the protected areas within the jurisdiction of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) (Figs. 1-3, Table 1). Additional dives that are not included herein were made on some shallow reefs (<30 m) within the Tortugas Ecological Reserve (TER) and also in Pulley Ridge HAPC in the Gulf of Mexico. Leg 2 consisted of technical scuba dives conducted within the FKNMS and TER to collect corals and sponges for population genetics studies and are not included in this report. The first report related to these coral connectivity assessments can be found in Sturm et al. 2021.
The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) was established in 1990 includes 13 sanctuaries and two marine monuments with in the 3,800 square miles designation. Restrictions vary within the region but include sea floor impact (e.g., mining, bottom impact fishing, anchoring) and large shipping traffic (Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and Protection Act, Pub. L. 101–605; 16 U.S.C. 1433 note; https://safmc.net/newsletters/proposed-changes-to-florida-keysnational- marine-sanctuary/). The Tortugas Ecological Reserve is made up of the northern TER encompassing Sherwood Forest and the southern TER encompassing Riley’s Hump and part of Miller’s Ledge. The regulations in the TERs include the same restrictions as the overall NMS but 3 are expanded to include ship discharge, and all fishing and diving and snorkeling are prohibited in the southern TER (https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/zones/ers/welcome.html).
This report is a step towards the characterization of a highly diverse and poorly known component of these unique deep-water benthic communities in the mesophotic zone. In addition, the accompanying publication (Reed et al., 2021; Photo Identification Guide of the Benthic Taxa Inhabiting the Mesophotic Reefs of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary) represents the first taxonomic identification photo guide to the most common benthic taxa observed while exploring the mesophotic reefs of the FKNMS. From 2011 to 2019, NOAA Fisheries and HBOIFAU CIOERT also surveyed with ROV the shelf-edge and deep-water Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and deep-water Habitat Areas of Particular Concern (HAPCs) of the southeastern US extending from South Florida to North Carolina at depths of 48 to 1240 m. This resulted in a photographic field guide of the sponges associated with these reefs (Diaz et al., 2021). Many of these species are within the mesophotic and rariphotic depth zones. We also have three photographic field guides for the mesophotic reefs of Cuba, including a sponge guide (Diaz et al., 2019), a macroalgal guide (Martínez-Daranas et al., 2018), and fish guide (David et al., 2018). Some of these species will overlap with what we have found on the FK mesophotic reefs.
The data from this 2019 cruise establish current baseline information to be referenced and compared to future research cruises to identify the long-term health and status of these important ecosystems. These data are made available to the FKNMS, SAFMC, NOAA Fisheries, NOAA Deepsea Coral Research and Technology Program (DSCRTP), NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program (CRCP), NOAA Mesophotic Reef Ecosystem Program, and NOAA National Marine Sanctuaries program to assist management of these habitats and key species.
Previous Studies of the Deep-water Reefs of Florida Keys
The first published study of the mesophotic reefs within the current region of the FKNMS was made with the HBOI research submersible, Johnson-Sea-Link I in 1979 (Jameson 1981). This was before the term “mesophotic ecosystems” was coined. Several studies in the 1970s and 1980s provide details of various reefs along the Florida Key reef tract. In the early 1970s, Harbor Branch Foundation had a field station in Key Largo which provided some of the earliest studies of the reefs in the upper keys; Antonius (1972) made the first surveys of the reefs in and around Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park (now part of the FKNMS). Although most of these studies have been on the shallow water reef systems, Voss et al. (2002; first published 1983) detailed the reefs off Key Largo and mentioned the deep (mesophotic) reefs off Molasses Reef. Bohnsack (2002; first published 1983) detailed Looe Key reefs but these do not extend beyond 30 m. Dustan (1988) described the changes of the reef community at Carysfort Reef (off Key Largo) between 1975 and 1983. Dustan’s study compared 21 permanent transects at depths between 0 and 22 m showed decrease in coral abundance due to sedimentation and disease.
Previously, HBOI-CIOERT surveyed with ROV the region between the TER South and the western border of the FKNMS (Reed et al., 2016, 2017). These dives only found mostly soft bottom habitat, along with some hard bottom reef habitat primarily at depths less than 30 m in this region. The western region of the northern TER is also shallow reef habitat (Reed et al., 2016, 2017), but the west facing fore reef slope of TER N abruptly ends in flat sand around 30- 35 m. We also have described ROV and submersible dives within the rariphotic zone of the southern 4 region of TER South, primarily along Miller’s Ledge south of Riley’s Hump (Reed et al., 2016, 2017). Weaver et al. (2006) first described the deep-water reef fishes and multibeam bathymetry of this region of Miller’s Ledge. Seaward of the Florida Keys reef tract and mesophotic reefs is the Pourtalès Terrace which is an exposed hard-bottom platform at depths of 200-450 m and consists of high-relief mounds, rocky escarpments, deep-water sinkholes and the only known deepwater Lophelia coral reef off the Florida Keys (Reed et al., 2005; Reed et al., 2006; Reed et al. 2012; Reed et al., 2014; Walker et al. 2021). This diverse deep-sea coral ecosystem is dominated by stylasterid hydrocorals, octocorals, and sponges that supports recreational and commercial fisheries.
Reed, J.K., S. Farrington, M.C. Diaz, S.A. Pomponi, M.D. Hanisak, J. D. Voss. 2021. Characterization of the Mesophotic Coral Reefs in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. NOAA CIOERT Report, 222 pp. Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution Technical Report Number 198.


#Pakistan is one of the top 1
#Pakistan is one of the top 10 countries with the lowest access to #cleanwater, according to the latest study by WaterAid (2018). 21 million, out of the total 207 million people of Pakistan do not have access to clean water.
There is a dire need to provide deprived families with access to safe water.
For almost two decades, HDF has been providing vulnerable communities, both urban and rural, with sustainable access to improved water sources.


Computer Guts and Robot Brains (1st – 2nd Grade)
Week 4 (7/10 - 7/14)
Today’s kids are wired for technology. Tech surrounds us, but have you ever wondered what’s inside that makes it all work?
In this camp, we will be taking apart some of our favorite computing devices as we explore the inside of a computer and learn the different parts. Then we’ll take that knowledge and apply it to Bee-Bots and Scratch Jr as we unlock the secrets of technology.
All this with a little Steam Punk art along the way!
Instructor: Deanna Bledsoe, founder of Kai Coders; Director of Information Technology for Delaware Office of the State Treasurer


Next: Macros Pertaining To All
Up: HEAdas Makefiles
Previous: Simplest case: A Makefile
Most if not all actions a Makefile needs to perform can be
controlled entirely by setting one or more standard macros.
In general, defining a macro to have a (non-trivial) body
enables a particular behavior, while omitting a macro or defining
it to have a trivial body (i.e. an empty definition) disables
that behavior. This way, a single Makefile can in principle
control many distinct bulid actions. Note that it is not
always a good idea to structure Makefiles this way, but this
flexibility exists to allow individual mission teams to lay
out their directories in the way they choose.


The term "mood stabilizer" is in wide use in the context of treating bipolar disorder. However, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not officially recognize the term, and investigators have no consensus definition. Some have suggested that an agent is a mood stabilizer if it has efficacy in decreasing the frequency or severity of any type of episode in bipolar disorder and if it does not worsen the frequency or severity of other types of episodes (1–3). Others have proposed a more stringent definition that requires that an agent possess efficacy in treating both manic and depressive symptoms (4). To our knowledge, no reviews have systematically assessed evidence from clinical trials in light of either of these definitions.
Based on the treatment needs of persons with bipolar disorder, we propose—similar to the more stringent definition—that an agent be considered a mood stabilizer if it has efficacy in each of four distinct uses: 1) treatment of acute manic symptoms, 2) treatment of acute depressive symptoms, 3) prevention of manic symptoms, and 4) prevention of depressive symptoms.
Doesn’t this "two-by-two" definition set the bar too high? Can we expect any single agent to treat all phases of bipolar disorder? It is clear that monotherapy is the exception rather than the rule (5, 6). Clinical practice has of necessity moved toward rational polypharmacy for various situations (3), and this approach has been endorsed by numerous evidence-based (e.g., references 7–10) and survey-based (11) clinical practice guidelines. Nonetheless, the two-by-two conceptualization clarifies characteristics of the ideal agent.
What about psychotic symptoms? These symptoms are not considered in the definition because they are not a core aspect of bipolar disorder, they occur in a minority of cases, and they are not required for the diagnosis, according to DSM-IV-TR.
What about mixed and hypomanic episodes? Debate continues regarding the definition of mixed episodes and the significance of dysphoria during hypomanic or manic episodes (12, 13). Most studies treat mixed or dysphoric mania as a subset of mania rather than of depressive episodes in terms of phenomenology (12, 14) and treatment response (12, 15, 16). The core symptom sets for mania and hypomania are identical, and the syndromes are distinguished only by the presence of functional impairment, the need for hospitalization, or psychosis in mania (DSM-IV-TR). Therefore, we consider mixed and hypomanic episodes within the overall category of mania and note results for these episodes separately.
Having proposed this conceptualization a priori, we reviewed all available English-language, peer-reviewed, controlled clinical trials of agents used for bipolar disorder through mid-2002 against this definition. We took an "FDA-like" approach, identifying as mood stabilizers those agents with at least two positive placebo-controlled trials in each of the four uses. We subsequently varied this threshold in a sensitivity analysis to provide relaxed and more stringent criteria and, where evidence permitted, also addressed the looser definition of mood stabilizer.
We sought to locate all pharmacologic treatment studies for bipolar disorder that fulfilled the following criteria: 1) published in a peer-reviewed journal through June 2002; 2) investigated an intervention in a group of patients with bipolar disorder (N=4 or more) or reported separately results for subgroups of bipolar disorder subjects from a diagnostically heterogeneous group; 3) specified quantitative outcome variables and formal statistical analyses; and 4) reported in English.
Literature databases, including MEDLINE, PsychLIT, and the Cochrane Collaboration database, were searched. Authors known to be actively working in the field in the United States and Europe were contacted regarding further work in print or in press. The bibliography of each located article was searched for additional articles. This step was repeated iteratively until no further unreviewed references were found.
From the trials that were located we culled class A studies (controlled trials), defined according to the criteria of the U.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (formerly the U.S. Agency for Health Care Policy and Research) (17) as operationalized in prior studies (9, 18) and summarized in t1. Evidence-grading agreement between co-authors was high (kappa=0.85).
The class A trials were further categorized according to the four uses. Trials of treatments for acute manic (including hypomanic or mixed episodes) or depressive episodes included subjects who were acutely ill and examined the effects of treatment during a single episode of illness. Prophylactic trials (we use this term rather than "continuation" or "maintenance," since differentiation between states of recovery and remission  was not typically made) typically included subjects with some level of subacute symptoms and examined the effects of treatment over periods of months to years.
Trials were also classified according to the use of placebo versus active control and according to whether they used parallel-groups or within-subjects (ABA) designs alternating agent (A) and no agent, placebo, or active control (B). They were also separated according to whether they examined use of monotherapy or combination therapy, with the latter group including studies of subjects who were receiving an ongoing medication regimen to which an additional agent (or control condition) was added.
The trials were also classified according to agent of interest. With placebo-controlled trials, identification of the agent of interest was straightforward. In trials in which two agents were compared to placebo, both were listed as agents of interest. With active control trials (e.g., lithium versus chlorpromazine or carbamazepine versus lithium for acute mania), a judgment of which agent was the agent of interest and which was the established comparator was made on the basis of study design features reported in the article.
Traditional reviews treat study findings as qualitative data and integrate them according to the reviewer’s judgment of the studies’ relevance, quality, etc. On the other end of the spectrum, meta-analytic techniques treat study findings in aggregate as an interval datum, converting all to a common metric and making a summary judgment based on statistical techniques (20). Recent meta-analytic reviews of treatments for bipolar disorder have evaluated the efficacy of carbamazepine in prophylaxis (21), lithium in acute mania (22), lithium in prophylaxis (23), and valproate in maintenance (24).
Although meta-analytic techniques could potentially be used for establishing each individual use considered in our definition of mood stabilzers, they cannot easily be used for the synthesis across uses. Moreover, we anticipated small numbers of class A trials in some use subcategories for several agents. We therefore treated trial findings as categorical data (positive/negative). As our a priori criterion we opted for an FDA-like approach, requiring at least two placebo-controlled trials with positive findings to be considered efficacious in that use. For placebo-controlled trials, the positive-trial criterion was a better effect of the agent of interest than of placebo at p<0.05 (for parallel-groups trials) or a ≥50% relapse rate with placebo substitution (for ABA trials). For active control trials (parallel-groups or ABA trials), the positive-trial criterion was a better effect of the agent of interest than of the comparator or an effect of the agent of interest that was equal to or better than that of the comparator and better than baseline at p<0.05.
Trials were categorized as positive or negative on the basis of the primary outcome variables. If independent analyses were done for several uses or agents, the trial was categorized for each separately (e.g., two agents versus placebo) and noted as such in the results tables. Most prophylaxis trials measured efficacy in preventing relapse to either (hypo)mania or depression rather than to each type of episode separately; where these latter more specific outcomes could be identified among primary or secondary analyses, each was used as a primary outcome variable.
After having analyzed findings for agents according to our main criterion, we conducted a sensitivity analysis both by raising the threshold to use only parallel-groups, placebo-controlled class A trials and by lowering the threshold to include active control class A trials. We also reviewed available data for mixed and hypomanic episodes. Finally, we reviewed the evidence according to a broader mood stabilizer definition suggested by some authors (1–3).
Among several thousand citations, we located 551 candidate articles, which provided 111 class A trials (81 monotherapy trials, 30 combination therapy trials; the findings from the combination trials are not presented because of space limitations, but the results are available from the first author on request). Monotherapy trials provided 95 independent analyses, including 48 for treatment of acute mania, 16 for acute depression, and 31 for prophylaxis.
Several classic trials were excluded because of a lack of study group statistics (e.g., references 25 and 26) or a lack of separation of bipolar disorder subjects from subjects with other disorders (e.g., reference 27). Several earlier reports were superseded by later extensions of the same dataset (e.g., references 28 and 29). Two prophylaxis trials were included, although they focused on subsets of bipolar disorder patients, such as those with rapid cycling (30) or with comorbid borderline personality disorder (31). One trial of treatment for acute mania was excluded because it lasted for only one day (32).
The trial characteristics and results are summarized in t2, t3, and t4. For treatment of acute mania, at least one positive placebo-controlled trial supported the efficacy of lithium, valproate, haloperidol, olanzapine, clonazepam, verapamil, or lecithin. In addition, evidence from at least one active control trial supported the efficacy of carbamazepine, lamotrigine, pimozide, risperidone, lorazepam, ECT, ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) plus ascorbic acid, l-tryptophan, and d,l-propranolol.
In acute depression, at least one positive placebo-controlled trial supported the efficacy of fluoxetine, imipramine, lithium, lamotrigine, piribedil, and ascorbic acid. Evidence from at least one active control trial supported the efficacy additionally of tranylcypromine, ECT, a low-vanadium diet, and EDTA plus ascorbic acid.
At least one positive placebo-controlled trial supported the prophylactic efficacy of lithium, valproate, and lamotrigine, with one trial indicating a trend toward significant effects of carbamazepine versus placebo (103). No additional agents were supported by evidence from active control trials. However, one trial showed equivalence among low- and high-dose carbamazepine and lithium for prophylaxis of both mania and depression (105), and one trial showed equivalence between carbamazepine and lithium (104). These are not ranked as positive trials because they did not meet the a priori criteria of both including data indicating improvement over baseline and exceeding effects of comparator(s).
Candidate Mood Stabilizers According to the "Two-by-Two" Definition
Data for agents that had at least two class A trials (positive or negative), as shown in t2, t3, and t4, and that were therefore candidates for mood stabilizer status, are summarized in t5, t6, and t7. These tables are organized with the highest quality trials (placebo-controlled, parallel-groups trials) listed in the leftmost column, other placebo-controlled (ABA) trials in the next column to the right, and active control trials following rightward.
The trial quality threshold can be conceptually "moved" to the left to raise the evidence threshold or to the right to relax the requirement in a post hoc categorical sensitivity analysis. Although this categorical analysis does not formally distinguish the weight of evidence on the basis of sample size (as a meta-analysis would indirectly do), interpretation of the findings can be tempered by inspection of such considerations, as noted below. Further, no notation is made as to whether a trial was adequately powered for specific comparisons. In most trials the authors did not comment on power, although the authors who did comment sometimes noted insufficient power (e.g., in a study of lithium versus placebo for prophylaxis ); nevertheless, by convention such trials are listed, as are those for which no comment on power is available.
For acute mania, lithium, valproate, and olanzapine unequivocally meet the definition criteria. They continue to meet the criteria if the threshold is raised to include only parallel-groups, placebo-controlled trials. Verapamil presents an equivocal case, which can easily be detected with this data array method. Its antimanic efficacy is supported by two positive placebo-controlled trials; however, the total number of subjects in these two trials, 19, is less than the 32 treated in a higher-quality negative trial. If the criterion is relaxed to include also active control trials, carbamazepine and clonazepam are included, and the evidence for verapamil is strengthened somewhat. Note also that chlorpromazine, the comparator for lithium in early trials, is also included by virtue of its being equal to lithium and better than baseline in five trials summarized in t2(35, 37–39, 41), although it is inferior to lithium but still better than baseline in two trials (36, 40). Haloperidol is also included by virtue of one placebo-controlled trial (55) and one active control trial (41).
For acute depression, only lithium is supported by placebo-controlled trials; however, none of these trials had a parallel-groups design. Relaxing the criterion to allow active control trials allows tranylcypromine and ECT to be included.
For prophylaxis, lithium and lamotrigine are each supported by at least two placebo-controlled trials, with the two lamotrigine trials providing analyses without regard to relapse polarity. Lithium is supported by five trials analyzing relapse to either episode, plus two trials reporting relapse specifically to mania and two reporting relapse specifically to depression; one trial, although underpowered for lithium (100), provided negative data for each polarity, and one trial (97) also provided negative data for depression prophylaxis. Evidence for a prophylactic role for valproate is equivocal, with primary analyses negative for mania and depression in the large trial of Bowden and co-workers (102), plus another trial that included subjects with comorbid personality disorder and that reported positive results for manic-like symptoms and negative results for depressive symptoms using measures relevant to, but not specific for, manic and depressive episodes (31).
Lithium also meets the higher threshold requiring parallel-groups, placebo-controlled evidence for manic (97, 99) and depressive (97, 98) episode prophylaxis, while lamotrigine does not (29). Relaxing the criterion to admit active control trials allows inclusion of three equivocal trials for carbamazepine that showed equivalence to lithium but no evidence for improvement over baseline.
F1 combines data from the foregoing tables for each of the four mood stabilizer uses according to the a priori definition and the sensitivity analyses. Only lithium fulfills the a priori definition. Relaxing the criterion to allow active control trials as evidence does not change this result. Raising the threshold to require at least two parallel-groups, placebo-controlled trials results in no single agent fulfilling the definition.
Subanalyses for Mixed Episodes and Hypomania
Four acute mania trials analyzed agent efficacy in mixed episodes or on depression ratings. Subjects with mixed episodes had similar outcomes to others in trials of olanzapine versus placebo (56, 57). In active control trials, depression ratings were not significantly different in comparisons of olanzapine versus valproate (59) and of carbamazepine versus lithium (48).
Four prophylaxis trials reported results specifically for hypomania. Lithium was more efficacious than placebo in preventing hypomanic episodes (99, 100). Nimodipine response did not differ between bipolar I disorder subjects and bipolar II disorder subjects (108). Lamotrigine demonstrated qualitatively better separation from placebo in bipolar II disorder subjects than in bipolar I disorder subjects with rapid cycling.
Looser Definition of Mood Stabilizer
The looser definition of mood stabilizer noted in the introduction—an agent with efficacy in decreasing the frequency or severity of any type of episode in bipolar disorder while not worsening the frequency or severity of other types of episodes—is actually difficult to evaluate in the clinical trials literature. While many agents have efficacy in at least one use (F1), few trials measured the outcomes of both manic and depressive symptoms concurrently, and lack of evidence of a negative effect does not mean no negative effect.
Two acute mania trials showed improvement in both manic and depressive symptoms, as noted earlier (48, 59), so it is unlikely that these agents worsen either type of episode, at least in the short term. Comparing data across controlled trials, no trials reported that the agent of interest had worse performance than placebo or that the outcome of treatment was worse than baseline. One therefore must rely on noncontrolled trial data to draw conclusions about an agent’s negative effects on course. This approach is clearly needed in the case of antidepressants (109), although the degree of risk from these agents versus other factors (110) and the specific agents of risk remain controversial (111). Thus, the looser definition of mood stabilizer is surprisingly difficult to address with class A data.
This study had several limitations. Only class A trials were reviewed, although much information, and indeed much clinical practice, is based on class B and C studies. The only quality weighting of individual trials was separating class A trials based on control (placebo versus active) and design (parallel-groups versus ABA). Trials were combined in categorical fashion, allowing small trials to carry the same weight as multisite trials with several hundred subjects. This issue of weighting is of clear importance in meta-analytic reviews that seek to reduce effect to a single quantity (20). The reader is encouraged to investigate in particular the Cochrane Collaboration web site (www.cochrane.org), in which meta-analytic studies for a wide range of treatments are presented, with weighting not only for size but for study quality. Trials were categorized as positive or negative on the basis of only the primary outcome variables, while secondary outcome variables may also be informative (102).
There are also several variables that are clinically relevant but that could not be addressed in this analysis. For instance, some (112, 113), although not all (114) studies suggested that among these agents, lithium may have a specific antisuicide effect. Such events are seldom reported in clinical trials and, on the basis of rates reported in clinical population-based studies (e.g., references 112 and 113), would be expected to be rare. Clinical epidemiologic methods will continue to help to address this important issue. We also could not address mechanisms of action, such as the intriguing finding that according to some studies, verapamil has an antimanic effect, even though it does not cross the blood-brain barrier and likely exerts its central effects indirectly (115). Finally, since the focus of this analysis was efficacy, side effects (also often not reported in earlier trials) were not addressed. However, it is clear that issues of tolerability are of substantial importance as one moves from the realm of efficacy trials to the effectiveness of an intervention in general clinical practice (116).
It must also be added that cohort effects and publication bias may affect these results, although these effects are due to the quality of the available literature and not to the methods of this specific study. In terms of cohort effects, agents that have been in use longer—e.g., lithium—have been better studied. The absence of positive data for efficacy for some of the newer agents should not be equated with the absence of efficacy. For instance, the first unequivocally positive trial of prophylaxis with valproate was published in 2002, and this study was a small trial involving an unusual study group (subjects with both bipolar II disorder and borderline personality disorder) (31). Many studies of bipolar disorder are in the "pipeline," and this analysis must be considered only a snapshot at this time.
Of additional interest in this regard is the relatively small number of negative studies. While the heterogeneity of the data preclude formal analysis by using funnel plots or similar methods (117), the small proportion of negative analyses published for mania (7/48, 14.6%), depression (1/16, 6.3%), and prophylaxis (8/31, 25.8%) leads the astute reader to consider whether the published literature tells the entire story—both now and for the future. Similar concerns about reporting bias against negative studies have been voiced for several years by our colleagues in medicine and public health (118).
All of these limitations were recognized at the outset. However, to address definitional issues and to cover a sample of trials this large—and to do so with uniformity—the above analytic decisions needed to be made. To compensate, we presented the data as explicitly as possible so that readers can formulate their own interpretations. Nonetheless, comparison with the conclusions of meta-analytic reviews indicates that our main interpretations are reasonable.
Key Findings and Comparison With Meta-Analyses
Among the most striking and clinically important findings are the large number of trials in acute mania and the large number of agents meeting the criteria for efficacy in acute mania. This large number of agents with efficacy for acute mania stands in marked contrast to the relative paucity of agents for acute depression. These findings underscore the " ‘bias’ towards the importance of mania over the last 50 years" (3). Moreover, the evidence for efficacy of agents in acute depression is the least robust, since raising the threshold resulted in no agents meeting the criteria for efficacy (F1).
The findings of our categorical review are in overall agreement with meta-analytic reviews that studied individual uses for agents. The findings include documentation of the efficacy for lithium in acute mania (22) and prophylaxis (23) and equivocal support for carbamazepine (21) and valproate (24) in prophylaxis.
Defining "Mood Stabilizer" and Identifying Needs of the Field
By our a priori definition, lithium alone currently fulfills the definition of mood stabilizer, and no other agents achieve that status even with the relaxed criteria (F1). It is important for clinicians and researchers to recognize the strength of the evidence for lithium’s efficacy, particularly in acute mania and prophylaxis, as well as the gaps in efficacy data for other more widely prescribed agents. Taking acute and prophylactic needs together, our analysis supports a role for lithium as first-line treatment for bipolar disorder.
Nevertheless, lithium monotherapy has been the exception rather than the rule (5, 6), and its introduction has had only modest effects on various aspects of outcome for bipolar disorder (119). These studies provide prima facie evidence of the substantial need that lithium has not met, and additional strategies must be developed.
Specific needs include most prominently additional agents with efficacy for acute depression, continued exploration of prophylaxis alternatives for cases where lithium fails or is not tolerated, and greater exploration of combination therapies in high-quality controlled clinical trials. These analyses identify potential components for trials combining agents "from above" and "from below"(respectively, for manic symptoms and for depressive symptoms, per reference 3). They also suggest a second look at several forgotten agents that may yet hold promise (e.g., verapamil, ascorbic acid).
Finally, in addition to providing a standardized review of a wide array of agents used in bipolar disorder, this report suggests a conceptual framework for the field by providing an evidence-based definition for the commonly used but ill-defined term "mood stabilizer." This conceptualization provides a yardstick by which to assess other potential agents and combinations.
From Clinical Trials to Clinical Practice
An analysis such as this presents the evidence basis from only published class A controlled trials. This literature addresses only a small proportion of the needs encountered in clinical practice, as inspection of the major evidence-based guidelines for bipolar disorder has revealed (7–10). Some suspect that the limited scope of clinical needs addressed in the literature is at least in part responsible for the poor rates of adherence to mental health clinical practice guidelines (120). Thus, the caveats that apply to the class A clinical trials literature also apply to the conclusions of this study.
We as a field are therefore left with the important questions: What is the applicability of these findings to those who are too ill or otherwise do not qualify or wish to participate in randomized, controlled trials? What of those for whom first-, or second-, and third-line treatments have failed? What of those who cannot tolerate treatment with these agents? As the field becomes more cognizant of the limitations of efficacy data in general (116, 121, 122), we must begin to consider these issues in "messier" effectiveness samples, as several large studies are currently doing (116, 123, 124).
What role, then, can these results play? This analysis may provide a kernel of organization, both conceptually and in terms of data, on which further efficacy and effectiveness studies can build. It can assist investigators in identifying lacunae in the current clinical trials literature that are not readily apparent from comparing multiple review articles with disparate assumptions and methods.
This review can also assist the clinician in evaluating claims from various quarters about this or that agent being a "mood stabilizer." This review will have served its purpose if its readers, rather than accepting or rejecting the claims at face value, respond rather with the next logical questions: "For what specific use? How strong are the data?"
Earlier versions of this work were reported at the 155th annual meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, Philadelphia, May 18–23, 2002. Received Jan. 22, 2003; revision received June 11, 2003; accepted June 13, 2003. From the Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Brown University; and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Providence, R.I. Address reprint requests to Dr. Bauer, VAMC-116A, 830 Chalkstone Ave., Providence, RI 02806; Mark_Bauer@brown.edu (e-mail). Supported in part by VA Cooperative Study 430.
Agents Meeting A Priori, Relaxed-Criterion, and Higher-Threshold Two-by-Two Definitions of Mood Stabilizera
aThis summary figure consolidates the information from Tables 2–7 to provide a graphical illustration of the agents that meet the "two-by-two" criteria for a mood stabilizer: that the agent has support from class A efficacy studies for the treatment of acute manic symptoms, the treatment of acute depressive symptoms, the prevention of manic symptoms, and the prevention of depressive symptoms. Only lithium meets the a priori criteria as a mood stabilizer (top panel). Sensitivity analysis indicates that lowering the criteria threshold does not change these results (center panel), while raising the threshold does not identify any agents as mood stabilizers (bottom panel). See text for details.
bEquivocal results (±) for this agent. See text for details.
cEfficacy of agent is supported by prophylaxis studies that examined relapse to episode, with relapse to mania versus depression not specified. In contrast, lithium is supported by enough accumulated studies to reach the mood stabilizer criteria separately for each episode type.


In the present era of modern technology, everyone wants to get more powerful and efficient services from a tiny device called Cell Phone or Mobile Phone. Now cell phones are used not only in voice or text communication, but also in multimedia, web access, entertainment, education and many other purposes through the Mobile apps. English is the de-facto international language for communication and an English to English dictionary helps to learn English in an easy way. In this paper a J2ME English to English dictionary application has been developed for Java supported cell phones. To accelerate the searching in the dictionary we have developed a new searching methodology called Indexed Binary Search based on conventional binary search. The developed searching methodology first reduces the searching domain for a word to be searched and then performs the conventional binary search for the word. In the developed dictionary with 17700 words stored, the proposed Indexed Binary Search performs conventional binary search on 681 words in average to search a word whereas the conventional binary search uses all the 17700 words for searching. Thus, in this case the Indexed binary search is approximately two times faster than the conventional binary search. © 2014 IEEE.


Based on an analysis of the 2003 financial results of clients of the AnkerAgric Farm Consultancy
This data was accumulated in the normal course of the service delivered by AnkerAgric Farm Consultants. The data is used to identify strengths and weaknesses within each participating enterprise with a view to optimising production systems and flock management to achieve maximum profitability per hectare.
The Bredasdorp region is a mixed farming region with cropping of winter cereals combined with woolled sheep on pasture and stubbles. Rain falls mostly in the winter months and varies from 300 to 400mm per annum. The clients involved are amongst the most successful and experienced farmers in the region. For this reason the data is unrepresentative of the farming community as a whole and cannot be used to draw firm conclusions regarding the relative profitability of the two major sheep breeds in all environments. It does however illustrate principles that can be used to increase the profitability of sheep production in the region.
Traditionally the conventional Merino has been the most important sheep breed, with wool the most important product. The nutritional level and climate is very suitable for Merinos and high levels of production are achieved. In the last 20 years the price of wool has decreased and that of sheep meat has increased dramatically, to the extent that currently the two products have the same value per kg. Prime lamb production has become more important than wool as component of flock income and Merino breeders have been successful in improving both the reproductive rate and growth rate of their sheep to take advantage of the ever increasing meat price.
The changing price trends of wool and meat have also resulted in an increasing shift to the dual-purpose Dohne which was developed to produce fine wool and prime lambs in the harsh environments of the Eastern Cape sour grassland, a region of high summer rainfall and low nutrition where conventional Merinos were poorly adapted. The Dohne was found to be very suitable in the Bredasdorp region and for reasons that are not always related to productivity, the majority of commercial flocks have switched to Dohnes.
The shift to Dohnes is illustrated by the following: In 1988 Merinos constituted 80% of the commercial sheep flocks in the Bredasdorp region and there were 15 Merino Studs and 2 Dohne studs. Currently 70% of commercial breeders run Dohnes and there are 5 Merino studs and 4 Dohne studs (A. Fourie, personal communication).
Table 1. illustrates the comparative productivity based on the 2003 results of the Merino and Dohne flocks of clients of AnkerAgric Consultants. Cropping of winter cereals is the most important part of the participating enterprises, with sheep production an important secondary activity and some participants also run cattle and ostriches. The averages of the 10 Merino flocks are compared with the 9 Dohne flocks and results of the flock with the highest profitability (Boontjieskraal Farms) is provided as a benchmark to illustrate the potential that is possible.
Table 2. sets out the Flock Composition and Production Norms
Table 1. Bredasdorp Sheep Enterprises 2003
|19 Participants||10 Merino and 9 Dohne|
|Average of all flocks|
|Economics||Merino||Dohne||Top Dohne Flock|
|Small Stock Units (SSU)||3372||5865||10685|
|All livestock in SSU/ha.||5.38||6.60||8.71|
|Ewes /ha. Pasture||2.24||2.70||4.23|
|Ratio: Wool/Meat Income||40/60||30/70||22/78|
|Gross income per ewe||698||658||646|
|Includes feed, veterinary, shearing and|
|marketing costs, but not labour and other overheads|
|Gross Margin/Hectare pasture||1227||1390||1998|
|Gross Margin all livestock/Hectare pasture||1522||1673||1998|
Total livestock converted to Sheep Units
|Flock Statistics||Average of all flocks|
|Merino||Dohne||Top Dohne Flock|
|Flock Composition (SSU)||(Booontjieskraal)|
|Per Ha. Pasture||21.4||19.7||27.0|
|Head marketed per Hectare Pasture||2.49||3.06||4.86|
|Price / Head||395||421||433|
*Five of the 10 Merino flocks are on an 8-months lambing cycle which inflates the average
The environment in which the data was collected is excellent for sheep, favouring Merinos which are adapted to a high quality diet. This enables Merinos to achieve high reproductive rates and still grow heavy fleeces, giving them higher per capita returns. In the current economic climate the number of lambs produced and sold is the most important factor that influences flock profitability. This is influenced primarily by the stocking density of ewes which wean a high percentage of lambs. While there are no significant differences in reproductive rates of Merinos and Dohnes in these flocks, it is the number of ewes stocked per hectare that has the major impact on profitability.
The Dohne was developed for high reproduction and growth rate in a nutritionally stressful environment. The Dohne advantage in the Bredasdorp environment is that, contrary to current scientific thinking, it can be stocked at considerably higher densities (nutritional stress) without affecting reproductive performance and growth rate. This is a classic example of environment/genotype interaction whereby the advantage of higher stocking density (stress) is exploited with the specialised genotype of the Dohne which is adapted to a lower nutritional level (hardiness) Higher stocking densities translate into substantially higher incomes per hectare. On average Dohne flocks return R163 higher Gross Margins per hectare. On 1000 hectares this totals R163 000 per annum more!
It is also interesting to note that the higher the ratio of meat to wool income in Table 1., the higher is the gross margin per hectare. In 2003 wool prices were considerably higher than they are in 2005. The lower wool prices and higher meat prices that prevail today will enhance the Dohne advantage.
In an attempt to compensate for the lower stocking densities at which Merinos could be run, five of the Merino enterprises moved to accelerated lambing seasons - mating and lambing their ewes every 8 months. The effect of this is to inflate the annual weaning percentage per ewe in Table1. (118%). However, this has had a negative effect on Gross Margin per hectare because the higher number of lambs being reared has reduced the number of ewes that can be carried on the property, cancelling out the advantage of the 8 months lambing cycle. Even with Dohnes, which are imminently suited to an accelerated lambing programme, an annual lambing cycle is more profitable than and 8-months cycle (A. Fourie, personal communication).
A further advantage of Dohnes which facilitates higher stocking rates, particularly of ewes per hectare, is the rapid growth and early marketability of lambs - most of which leave the property by 150 days of age. While Merino lambs may eventually achieve an equivalent slaughter value, they take much longer to do so, which limits stocking capacity of ewes.
There are a number of additional advantages of Dohnes that are difficult to quantify but that have had a significant influence on its increased popularity. These are primarily linked to its easy-care features, hardiness and fitness. Ease of lambing, maternal ability and excellent lamb survival reduce the amount of shepherding required at lambing. Labour costs are not factored into the data in Table 1. and had they been included, the relative net profitability of Dohnes would have been higher. Survival in cold, wet weather after shearing is very good. Plain bodies and a high degree of resistance to blowfly strike are very desirable features. It is not necessary to mules Dohnes. Cast for age ewes are always in top condition and realise top prices with minimum finishing.
At certain times of the year busy crop farmers have little time to devote to their sheep flocks and prefer hardy Dohnes that can fend for themselves. Most sheep enterprises are managed at a much lower level than the 19 participants under discussion. Lower levels of nutrition and management will favour the Dohne. In every instance where there has been a switch from Merinos to Dohnes in this region, it has been characterised by a significant increase in the profitability of the flock over a short period of time. The relative average prices of the rams sold on the annual Bredasdorp ram sale in July 2005 reflects the opinions and experience of the commercial sheep farmers in the region (Table 3.)
Table 3. Bredasdorp Ram Sale, 28 July 2005
|Breed||Rams offered||Rams sold||Average Price||Top Price|
|Merinos||60||53||R 3,603||R 9,000|
|Dohnes||69||69||R 5,296||R 11,500|
|Samms||15||14||R 2,385||R 2,700|
Cameron McMaster, Sheep and Wool Consultant, Napier
Andre Fourie, AnkerAgric Consultants, Bredasdorp


The Birds of Washtenaw County, Michigan provides a comprehensive account of the birdlife in Washtenaw County. Situated to the west of Detroit in southeast Michigan, the county has an exceptionally rich history of ornithological study, fueled by the activists of numerous amateur birdwatchers and by the interests of two major universities.
Frequency accounts of the 267 species recorded in the county during the last 15 years are framed by a discussion of the topographical history of the county. In addition, the authors present notes on another 30 species not seen in the county since 1976. A comprehensive site guide offers suggestions of the optimal locals and times to try to find the birds.


Eagle (Ukrainian: orel). Bird of prey of the Accipitridae family. In Ukraine there are two genera: Aquila and Haliaeetus. The wingspan of these birds reaches 2.5 m, and their weight varies from 650 g to 6 kg. Eagles feed on small mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and sometimes carrion. In Ukraine there are eight species of eagle. The golden eagle (A. chrysaetus; Ukrainian: berkut) has a wingspan of almost 2.3 m and nests almost exclusively in the Carpathian Mountains. The tawny eagle (A. rapax) is rare and nests only in the steppe. The imperial eagle (A. heliaca; Ukrainian: mohylnyk) nests in various regions. Two types of spotted eagles, one larger (A. clanga) and the other smaller (A. pomarina), are found in Polisia and the forest-steppe belt. The booted eagle (Hieraetus pennata), a closely related genus, is also found in several regions of Ukraine. To the Heliaeetus genus belong the white-tailed eagle (H. albicilla), which lives in Polisia, the forest-steppe , and the Carpathian Mountains; and Pallas's sea eagle (H. leucoryphus), found in the eastern steppe. Today the eagle is a rare bird, and most species are under state protection.


Benefits of Studying Nursing Courses
Nursing courses are popular at colleges and universities as there are clear benefits of working as a nurse.
The major benefits include having a steady career with plenty of variety, while enjoying the positive feeling of helping people in need.
Nursing students also need to be all-rounders. In this sense, they need to develop their technical skills in the areas of biology, chemistry and mathematics, as well as work on their ability to interact and communicate effectively with people from various backgrounds.
There are many options for specializations and nurses can choose a wide range of work settings, including hospitals, medical clinics and long-term care facilities.
Nursing Career Opportunities
The terminology to describe nurses may differ in different countries. However, nursing professionals are often qualified as follows:
A Nurse Practitioner has studied for a Master’s Degree in nursing and is able to make diagnoses without the assistance of a doctor and prescribe medication in some cases.
Registered Nurse (RN)
Registered Nurses are employed in a variety of healthcare settings and are responsible for assessing and planning care for patients.
Specific duties of the Registered Nurse can include:
- Monitoring, documenting and communicating patient information
- Administering medication according to legal parameters
- Preparing patients for surgical procedures
- Evaluating and providing rehabilitative care
- Planning and providing technical support and care
- Planning and providing physical support and care
- Providing emotional and psychological support
- Liaising with family and friends
Registered Nurses may choose to specialize in the following areas:
Agency Nurse, Ambulatory Care Nurse, Cardiac Care Nurse. Care Nurse, Emergency Nurse, Gastroenterology Nurse, Geriatric Nurse, Holistic Nurse, Neonatal Nurse, Neuroscience Nurse, Oncology Nurse, Paediatric Nurse, Psychiatric Nurse, Research Nurse, Transplant Nurse, School Nurse, Trauma Nurse, Woman’s Health
Midwives have various roles and responsibilities related to the support of mothers and their families throughout pregnancy, labour and the birth. The period following the birth is also a time when midwives provide invaluable advice and support, often in the hospital environment.
Specific midwife duties include:
- Checking for complications during pregnancy
- Arranging consultations and referrals
- Assisting with emergency procedures
- Reporting and documenting baby and mother care
- Educating expectant families and community stakeholders
Enrolled Nurse (EN)
Enrolled nurses must complete a community college qualification in nursing. In the workplace, they work under the supervision of a registered nurse.
Specific duties of the enrolled nurse include:
- Observing and assessing patient health
- Monitoring pulse, blood pressure, blood sugar levels and other vital signs
- Reporting health changes over time
- Assisting with dressing wounds
- Assisting patients with hygiene, showering, dressing and toiletry functions
- Helping with meals and physical exercise activities
About Studying Nursing
To become a Registered Nurse, students need to spend three to four years of full-time study to graduate with a nursing degree, with the most common qualification is a Bachelor of Science (Nursing).
First-year students will often cover subjects such as:
- Introduction to Health Sciences
- Communicating in a Health Care Environment Mathematics
- Cultural Awareness
Second and third-year subjects may include:
- Elderly Care
- Mental Health Care
- Cultural Dimensions of Nursing
Simulated Ward Training
Many nursing students will develop their skills in a virtual ward environment. This will often be located on campus and involve robotic patients that allow students to gain an understanding of various patient conditions while being in a safe environment.
Increasingly, nursing courses are incorporating sophisticated educational software that allows nurses to gain experience.
Student nurses are required to undertake a Practical Work Placement, sometimes called a ‘prac’. This is where nursing students can work in a real medical environment for number of weeks. This on the job experience forms part of the reflective element of nursing studies and is an opportunity to relate theoretical educational information to real-world situations.
More Information about Nursing
Find more information about Nursing at Brilliant Nurse.
There are many great reasons to study nursing at college or university. Here’s a list of some of the best reasons why you should become a nurse. 1. Nurses enjoy high levels of job satisfaction Research into job satisfaction shows that...


Summary of Alignment & Usability: Discovery Education Science | Science
The instructional materials reviewed for Grades 6-8 partially meet expectations for Alignment to NGSS, Gateways 1 and 2. Gateway 1: Designed for NGSS; Criterion 1: Three-Dimensional Learning partially meets expectations: the materials are designed to provide three-dimensional learning opportunities, but not all unit objectives are addressed by the summative assessments. Criterion 2: Phenomena and Problems Drive Learning meets expectations. The materials have some missed opportunities to elicit prior knowledge and experiences and to drive learning in more lessons via phenomena and problems; however, anchor phenomena are embedded to drive student sensemaking across multiple lessons. Gateway 2: Coherence & Scope; Criterion 1: Coherence and Full Scope of the Three Dimensions, the materials partially meet expectations. They present a coherent structure and sequence of units, but an increased sophistication of tasks and explicit connections of dimensions from unit to unit are missed opportunities. In terms of the scope, all grade-band DCIs, NOS, and ENG are incorporated with few DCI elements missing. Although the majority of elements from the CCCs and SEPs are addressed, there are missed opportunities for the materials to incorporate elements from seven SEPs and two CCCs.


America formally entered the Second World War because of one dramatic event – the Japanese attack on the US navy base at Pearl Harbour on 7 December 1941. The nature of the surprise attack, conducted whilst the Japanese were still in discussions with the USA, outraged the Americans.
'Always will we remember the character of the onslaught against us,’ said President Roosevelt on 8 December. ‘No matter how long it may take us to overcome this premeditated invasion, the American people, in their righteous might, will win through to absolute victory.’
But whilst the catalyst for war between America and Japan is clear, the origins of the Japanese decision to attack the USA are both lengthy and murky. Though it was the Japanese entry into southern Indo-China in July 1941 that precipitated the particular crisis that led to war, the roots of the conflict were much deeper and rested to a large extent on Japanese dealings with another country altogether – China.
In the early 1930s Japanese right wing politicians, together with the military elite, managed to side-line many of the burgeoning Western-looking elements within the Japanese governing class. These pro-Western Japanese had enthusiastically adopted Western ways since the accession to the throne of the Emperor Meiji in 1867, and the right wing in Japan despised them and their attempt to curry favour with nations like America and Britain.
However, the Japanese right wing and military elite did not reject one Western value – the belief in the importance of an ‘Empire’ for any country of standing in the world. And by the early 1930s the Japanese had managed to accumulate as ‘colonies’ both Korea and Taiwan as well as various island groups in the Pacific. But now some Japanese wanted to subjugate China, the biggest prize of all.
Just like the Nazis, many Japanese believed that the difficulties their nation faced could only be solved by obtaining more ‘living space’ in neighboring countries. ‘At the time the problem was our population was increasing,’ said Masatake Okumiya, a senior member of the Imperial Navy during WW2, ‘and our natural resources couldn’t sustain the increase. Ideally we hoped to receive co-operation from other countries to solve the problem, but back then the world was under the control of the West and a peaceful solution seemed impossible.'
In September 1931 Japanese military units moved into Manchuria on the Chinese mainland and claimed this land as a new colony. Many in the West were outraged, and Japan withdrew from the League of Nations, complaining about the ‘hypocrisy’ of those Western nations who had the benefit of colonies, but would not allow Japan to join their ‘club’.
Then, in July 1937, the Japanese Imperial Army moved into China proper, reaching Nanking (then China’s capital) in December 1937. The atrocities the Japanese committed in China - infamously in Nanking - are well documented and further angered many in the West.
Japan made a formal alliance with the Nazis and with Mussolini’s Italy on 27 September 1940 – the Tripartite pact. The motivation for the Japanese to join with the two European Fascist countries was clear. Germany had just conquered France and Holland and so, as far as the Japanese were concerned, Dutch and French colonies in Asia seemed ripe for the picking. Indeed, five days before the Tripartite pact had been signed, the Japanese had moved into the northern part of French Indo-China. And then, in July of the following year, they advanced into the southern half of Indo-China.
By the summer of 1941, Roosevelt had decided that America should not stand by and let Japanese aggression run unchecked.
The American government announced in July 1941 that all Japanese assets in the USA would be frozen and that there would be an embargo on selling key raw materials to Japan – including oil. It was obvious to everyone that without oil from America the Japanese industrial infrastructure would suffer hugely – almost catastrophically. Japan itself possessed virtually none of the raw materials necessary to fuel a modern state.
And so the two countries were now set on a course of considerable conflict. One of them would have to compromise or else the situation would only escalate. And it is in this context that both sides misjudged the other. Within the American leadership, for example, there was clearly a sense of massive over-confidence. ‘I think the feeling in the United States was that Japan could never defeat us,’ says Professor Dallek. ‘How could they possibly defeat the United States? We are such a larger power, we have such industrial potential. Would they be so foolish as to attack us, to go to war with us? We’ll mop them up and they can’t really fight all that effectively. So we have to take a tough line with them. American public opinion wants it and Congress is happy to see this happen. Take a tough line with them and it’s not going to lead to war. That, I think, is the perspective of the time, though of course it was absolutely wrong.’
The United States, having announced the trade embargo, then linked the Japanese aggression in southern Indo-China, which had precipitated the crisis, with the larger and seemingly intransigent problem of the Japanese war in China. This was to culminate in a demand from Secretary of State Cordell Hull in November 1941 that any settlement with the Japanese was conditional on an agreed withdrawal of Imperial Forces from China. Even though this demand may have simply been a negotiating ploy, it was always going to prove virtually impossible for the Japanese to agree to leave China given how much prestige they had invested in the attempted conquest of the country.
Throughout the summer and autumn the Japanese considered their options. And then, on 6 September, at an Imperial Conference in Tokyo, a radical plan was proposed - the brain child of the brilliant and charismatic naval commander, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto. He argued that the Imperial Navy should launch a surprise attack against the US Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbour in Hawaii and then sue for a compromise peace. ‘America is a big country and we knew that we wouldn’t be able to win against them once the war was prolonged,’ says Masatake Okumiya, explaining Japanese logic. ‘But at the time the fleet was the mainstay of military power, be it American, British or Japanese. The fleet represented a nation’s military power. So if you destroyed the fleet the damage would be huge. It would ruin President Roosevelt’s reputation as a commander-in-chief and he might then be put in a difficult situation.’
It was to prove a catastrophic misjudgement. ‘I think that this shows the extent of the Japanese self complacency,’ says Professor Akira Iriye. ‘They really did not know much about the United States - or other countries for that matter - and they did not know much about China. I mean this is their island mentality… they really had not studied other nations or anything like that, they’ve been so very self centred, there’s no question about that.’
Emperor Hirohito, who had ascended to the Imperial throne in 1926, confided his doubts about the wisdom of the impending war at the conference held in September 1941. But, typically, these were expressed elliptically – indeed, partly in the form of a poem. But Hirohito was more than a mere bystander to events. He could have chosen to act differently, with decisiveness. But he didn’t. He had never, for example, openly condemned the atrocious actions of Imperial troops in China.
And so events took on a momentum of their own, with the Japanese fleet setting sail for Pearl Harbour on 26 November. Meantime, negotiations were still proceeding in a desultory fashion in Washington. The Japanese had offered to leave Indo-China but had made little concessions on the question of China itself. Then, on 6 December, President Roosevelt sent a telegram to the Japanese Emperor. This message, says Professor Iriye, appealed ‘to the Emperor to wind back the clock, so to speak, to do something about preserving the peace between two countries. If that telegram had reached the Emperor before the attack had taken place that would have been a very interesting moment in which one could really talk about the clear responsibility for the Emperor for or against war. But the cable got into the hands of the Japanese army apparently, and so the Emperor saw the telegram only after he had signed the declaration of war and it came too late - the army sabotaged the whole process.’
Thus, on the morning of Sunday 7 December, Japanese warplanes attacked Pearl Harbour. But this was certainly not to be the devastating blow against the United States that the Japanese leadership had hoped for. For though several large warships were sunk or damaged, the American aircraft carriers were all out at sea.
However, Pearl Harbour was undoubtedly a humiliation for the Americans, especially given the fact that American code-breakers had cracked key Japanese ciphers. But it was also, according to Professor Dallek, a ‘god-send’ for President Roosevelt: ‘not because he contrived it, it was a genuine surprise’ but because it allowed the United States to enter the war in a united fashion.
Though Pearl Harbour may have been a ‘god-send’ for Roosevelt, it was a disaster for the Japanese leadership – indeed for the whole Japanese nation. ‘It mobilises American opinion,’ says Professor Iriye. ‘Even isolationists who had been opposed to US intervention in Europe all now say that this was a humiliating cheap shot against the United States and that now the nation must unite and fight against this treachery.’
For the rest of the war, the battle cry of US Marines would be: ‘Remember Pearl Harbour!’
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US Army Laboratories that developed space menus made public two fruitcake recipes from the Apollo missions in 2013 .
1 cup sifted all-purpose flour
1/2 cups granulated sugar
1/2 teaspoon salt
8 large eggs
1/2 teaspoon vanilla
1 1/2 cups chopped pecans
3 cups diced dates or whole pitted dates,cut up
1 cup cherries,quartered
Sift together flour,sugar and salt. Place nuts,cherries,quartered dates in a bowl and mix until pieces of fruit no longer stick together and nuts are well dispersed in the fruit mixture. Sprinkle the flour mixture over the fruit mixture,while mixing by hand. Beat eggs and vanilla until frothy. Add to the fruit mixture and mix until all ingredients are completely moistened. Generously grease bottoms of loaf pans,and bake fruitcake in preheated 300 degree (F.) oven for two hours. Store in airtight container.
EATING IDLI IN SPACE
Earlier this year the first items for Indias space menu for the manned mission to moon in 2016 were made ready at the Defence Food Research Laboratory (DFRL) in Mysore.
Idlis: the size of Rs 2 coins. Each one is 12 gm which can swell to 25 gm when soaked in water. Also in this pack are spicy sambar powder and coconut chutney dust. DFRL is also working on space rasgullas,made from freeze-dried cottage cheese. The syrup is packed separately in powder form. DFRLs biggest achievement is space yoghurt. In 1983,when Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian in space,the lab supplied mango bars,a twist on the traditional aam papad. Next up is space dosa,once the lab figures out the right size.
TYPES OF SPACE FOOD
Weight and volume are primary design factors in anything that goes to space.
Rehydratable Food: One way weight can be conserved during launch is to remove water in the food system. Fuel cells that produce electricity combine hydrogen and oxygen to rehydrate food.
Thermostabalised Food: Thermostabilised foods are heat processed to destroy harmful microorganisms and enzymes.
Natural Form Foods: Ready to eat foods like granola bars.
Irradiated Meat: Steaks are cooked,packaged and sterilised by exposure to ionising radiation so they are stable at ambient temperature.
Compiled by priyanka kotamraju; Illustration: C R Sasikumar
Only In The Express


To control any hazard in the workplace, the hierarchy of controls is as follows:
- Engineering controls (capture/control hazards at their source);
- Administrative controls (training, work practice controls, chemical substitution);
- Personal Protective Equipment (PPE; protective clothing, respirators and other equipment that is worn by the worker).
Engineering controls are always the first line of defense against exposure to hazardous materials in the workplace. Administrative controls are used in conjunction with engineering controls; together, engineering and administrative controls may obviate the need for worker PPE – which are considered the last line of defense against exposure to hazardous materials. At most, PPE must be considered only as a supplement to other types of controls.
Inhalation is the most important route of exposure for hazardous materials. When engineering and administrative controls are not feasible or sufficient to reduce worker exposure to hazardous materials, respiratory protection may be required. Respirator use is widespread in the workplace (estimated 5 million workers). The use of respirators must be justified and only after a thorough review of the hazards of a specific task. Respirator use is highly regulated because incorrect selection and use can result in serious injury, illness or death.
Although specific design and materials have evolved since earliest recorded use, respirators' performance is still based on one of two basic principles: removing contaminants from the air before they are inhaled (air purifying), or providing an independent source of respirable air (atmosphere supplying). Atmosphere supplying respirators are reserved almost exclusively for emergency response operations.
Before respirators can be used in the workplace, a full respiratory protection program must be implemented. The respiratory protection program covers the following elements:
- Procedures for selecting respirators for use in the workplace; Proper respirator selection involves choosing a device that fully protects workers from respiratory hazards to which they may be exposed and permits workers to perform the job with the least amount of physical burden. All respirators must be NIOSH certified.
- Medical evaluations of employees required to use respirators.
- Fit testing procedures for tight-fitting respirators; respirators must fit properly to provide protection.
- Use of respirators in routine and reasonably foreseeable emergency situations.
- Procedures and schedules for cleaning, disinfecting, storing, inspecting, repairing, and otherwise maintaining respirators.
- Procedures to ensure adequate air quality, quantity and flow of breathing air for atmosphere-supplying respirators.
- Training of employees in the respiratory hazards to which they are potentially exposed.
- Training of employees in the proper use of respirators, including putting on and removing them, any limitations on their use, and maintenance procedures.
- Procedures for regularly evaluating the effectiveness of the program.
Respirators may also be used on a voluntary basis in the workplace. Voluntary use is only permitted when it has been determined by your supervisor and EH&S director that there is no airborne hazard that would require the use of a respirator.
All respiratory protection use must be carefully considered by the worker, your supervisor and the EH&S director. Additional engineering controls or work practice controls may be implemented instead to reduce/eliminate exposure instead. However, if respiratory protection is required for the task, or if the worker would be more comfortable voluntarily using a respirator in a nonhazardous situation (e.g. dusty environment), please contact your supervisor or EH&S (x8988, or email).
- Lehman College Respiratory Protection Program (PDF on Lehman Connect)
- Health and safety topics: respiratory protection
- OSHA Technical Manual Section VIII: Chapter 2: Respiratory Protection
- Voluntary Use Respirators
- Video: US Department of Labor Respiratory Protection in Construction: An Overview of Hazards & OSHA's Program Requirements
- Video: NIOSH: What it Means to be NIOSH-Approved: A look into N95 Certification Testing
- Video: NIOSH: Respirator Certification - As Vital as the Air We Breathe
- Video: 3M™ Half Facepiece Respirator 6000 Series Training Video


How a Whole Home Humidifier or Dehumidifier Works
We install a whole-home dehumidifier or humidifier as part of your HVAC system and air ducting. It controls humidity as your furnace, heat pump or air conditioner runs.
The humidifier uses a pad and rotating drum or steaming system to raise moisture levels. The dehumidifier takes in humid air and cools it. Then it transfers excess moisture into a pan or drain.
Both systems are more efficient than their portable equals, which can only treat one room at a time. A whole-home system also needs much less service than a portable dehumidifier or humidifier.


The growth of plant organs can be followed by using artificial landmarks, as detailed in this paper:
Delivering high-resolution landmarks using inkjet micropatterning for spatial monitoring of leaf expansion. By: Lisheng Wang, Simon T Beyer, Quentin CB Cronk and Konrad Walus. Plant Methods 2011, 7:1
Link to inkjet micropatterning paper
Inkjet micropatterning is a versatile deposition technique with broad applications in numerous fields. However, its application in plant science is largely unexplored. Leaf expansion is one of the most important parameters in the field of plant science and many methods have been developed to examine differential expansion rates of different parts of the leaf lamina. Among them, methods based on the tracking of natural landmarks through digital imaging require a complicated setup in which the leaf must remain fixed and under tension. Furthermore, the resolution is limited to that of the natural landmarks, which are often difficult to find, particularly in young leaves. To study the fine scale expansion dynamics of the leaf lamina using artificial landmarks it is necessary to place small, noninvasive marks on a leaf surface and then recover the location of those marks after a period of time.
To monitor leaf expansion in two dimensions, at very fine scales, we used a custom designed inkjet micropatterning system to print a grid composed of c. 0.19 mm2 cells on small developing leaves of ivy (Hedera helix) using 40 μm dots at a spacing of c. 91 μm. The leaves in different growing stages were imaged under magnification to extract the coordinates of the marks which were then used in subsequent computer-assisted leaf expansion analyses. As an example we obtained quantified global and local expansion information and created expansion maps over the entire leaf surface. The results reveal a striking pattern of fine-scale expansion differences over short periods of time. In these experiments, the base of the leaf is a "cold spot" for expansion, while the leaf sinuses are "hot spots" for expansion. We have also measured a strong shading effect on leaf expansion. We discuss the features required to build an inkjet printing apparatus optimized for use in plant science, which will further maximize the range of tissues that can be printed at these scales.
To apply inkjet micropatterning to plant studies, we have successfully delivered landmarks on ivy leaf surfaces and achieved high-resolution, two-dimensional monitoring of leaf expansion at different growing stages. The measurement is capable of reliably identifying the fine scale changes during plant growth. As well as delivering landmarks, this technology may be used to deliver microscale targeted biological components such as growth hormones, and possibly be used to pattern sensors directly on the leaves.


Question that test students on writing the experimental plan
A student wanted to find out what temperature is the best for making the biggest crystals. (The aim)
The independent variable is temperature.
The dependent variable is the mass of copper sulphate crystals.
The constants are:
(a) The concentration of the copper sulphate solution used
(b) the total volume of the copper sulphate solution used
(c) the humidity of the environment above the beaker
(d) the mass of the seeding crystal
(e) the shape of the seeding crystal
Her hypothesis is that the lower the temperature, the bigger is the crystal grown.
Design an experiment to help her achieve this aim. You should include the following in your answers:
(a) Equipment list
(b) Diagram of your experimental set up
(c) Procedure of your experiment
(d) Describe how she should analyse her data.
- clean beaker (250 ml) x 10
- copper sulphate in powder form
- Bunsen burner
- Weighing machine
- Magnifying glass
- Silica gel
- refrigerator (-10 degree celcius to room temperature)
- incubator oven ( room temperature to 50 degree celcius)
- chopsticks x 100
1. Set up the experiment as shown in the diagram above.
2. Pour 50 grams of copper sulphate crystals into a beaker of 200 ml of distilled water and dissolve it using a stirrer.
3. To ensure that the concentration of copper sulphate is saturated, heat the beaker using a Bunsen flame so that we can dissolve the maximum amount of copper sulphate.
4. When we observe that the crystals cannot be dissolve any further due to heating and stirring, stop the heating process.
5. Pour equal amounts of the copper sulphate solution into 6 different beakers of different amounts. (e.g. 25 ml each)
6. Make sure that the seeding crystals used to make the big crystals are of the same shape by using a magnifying glass to inspect.
7. Make sure that the seeding crystals used to make the big crystals are of the same mass by using a weighing machine.
8. Place the seeding crystals into the 6 different beakers.
9. Place the 6 different beakers into refrigerator and the incubator ovens set according to the temperatures specified.
10. To ensure that the humidity of the space above the beakers remains the same, place a packet of moisture absorber (silica gel) in each of the refrigerator and the oven so as to make sure that the humidity is low. This is to make sure that there is no condensation of water vapour in the refrigerator and oven into the beaker of copper sulphate.
11. Wait patiently for a period of 5 days without disturbing the 6 beakers of copper suphate solution.
12. After 5 days, remove the beakers from the refrigerators or ovens and remove the seeded crystal using a pair of chopsticks carefully.
13. Measure the final mass of the grown crystal using a weighing machine.
14. Repeat the experiment again using a similar setup and measure the average mass of the grown crystal again.
Analysis of data:
15. Tabulate the data and calculate the average mass of the grown crystal.
16. Plot a graph of the average mass of the crystal against the temperature in which it is grown.
17. From the graph, we can find out what temperature is the best for making the biggest crystals. (The aim)