Via dell'Abbondanza, the main street in Pompeii.
|Location||"Pompei, "Province of Naples, "Campania, "Italy|
|Area||64 to 67 ha (170 acres)|
|Founded||6th–7th century BC|
|Official name||Archaeological Areas of Pompeii, "Herculaneum, and "Torre Annunziata|
|Criteria||iii, iv, v|
|Designated||1997 (21st "session)|
Pompeii was an ancient "Roman city near modern "Naples in the "Campania region of Italy, in the territory of the "comune of "Pompei. Pompeii, along with "Herculaneum and many villas in the surrounding area (e.g. at "Boscoreale, "Stabiae), was buried under 4 to 6 m (13 to 20 ft) of "volcanic ash and "pumice in the "eruption of "Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. Many of the inhabitants were also buried before they could escape.
The catastrophe was described in a surviving letter by "Pliny the Younger who saw the eruption from a distance and described the death of his uncle "Pliny the Elder, an admiral of the Roman fleet, who tried to rescue citizens. The site was eventually lost until its initial rediscovery in 1599 and broader rediscovery almost 150 years later by Spanish engineer "Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre in 1748. The city has been largely preserved because of lack of air and moisture. The artefacts preserved provide an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of the city. During excavations liquid plaster was used to fill the voids in the ash that once held human and animal bodies giving often gruesome images of their last moments.
Pompeii has been a tourist destination for over 250 years. Today it has "UNESCO "World Heritage Site status and is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Italy, with approximately 2.5 million visitors every year.
Pompeii (pronounced "[pɔmˈpɛjjiː]) in Latin is a second "declension plural (Pompeiī, -ōrum). According to Theodor Kraus, "The root of the word Pompeii would appear to be the "Oscan word for the number five, pompe, which suggests that either the community consisted of five hamlets or, perhaps, it was settled by a family group ("gens Pompeia)."
The ruins of Pompeii are located near the modern suburban town of "Pompei (nowadays written with one 'i'). It stands on a spur formed by a lava flow to the north of the mouth of the "Sarno River (known in ancient times as the Sarnus).
The city had suffered from other seismic events before the eruption. Three sheets of sediment have also been found on top of the lava that lies below the city which were created by large "landslides, perhaps triggered by extended rainfall.
Today it is some distance inland, but in ancient times was nearer to the coast. Pompeii is about 8 km (5.0 mi) away from "Mount Vesuvius. It covered a total of 64 to 67 hectares (170 acres) and was home to approximately 11,000 to 11,500 people on the basis of household counts. It was a major city in the region of Campania.
Archaeology has shown that the town was founded in the 7th or 6th century BC by the "Osci or Oscans, a people of central Italy, on what was an important crossroad between "Cumae, "Nola and "Stabiae. It had already been used as a safe port by Greek and "Phoenician sailors. According to "Strabo, Pompeii was also captured by the "Etruscans, and recent["timeframe?] excavations have shown the presence of Etruscan inscriptions and a 6th-century BC "necropolis. Pompeii was captured for the first time by the Greek colony of "Cumae, allied with "Syracuse, between 525 and 474 BC.
In the 5th century BC, the "Samnites conquered it (and all the other towns of "Campania); the new rulers imposed their architecture and enlarged the town. After the "Samnite Wars (4th century BC), Pompeii was forced to accept the status of socium of Rome, maintaining, however, linguistic and administrative autonomy. In the 4th century BC it was fortified with walls. Pompeii remained faithful to Rome during the "Second Punic War.
The "Temple of Apollo was built in the 2nd century BC as the city's most important religious structure.
Pompeii took part in the "war that the towns of Campania initiated against Rome, but in 89 BC it was besieged by "Sulla. Although the battle-hardened troops of the Social League, headed by "Lucius Cluentius, helped in resisting the Romans, in 80 BC Pompeii was forced to surrender after the conquest of Nola, culminating in many of Sulla's veterans being given land and property, while many of those who went against Rome were ousted from their homes. It became a Roman colony with the name of Colonia "Cornelia "Veneria Pompeianorum. The town became an important passage for goods that arrived by sea and had to be sent toward Rome or "southern Italy along the nearby "Appian Way.
It was fed with water by a spur from "Aqua Augusta (Naples) built c. 20 BC by "Agrippa; the main line supplied several other large towns, and finally the naval base at "Misenum. The "castellum in Pompeii is well preserved, and includes many details of the distribution network and its controls.
The excavated city offers a snapshot of Roman life in the 1st century, frozen at the moment it was buried on 24 August AD 79. "The forum, the baths, many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the "Villa of the Mysteries remain well preserved.
Details of everyday life are preserved. For example, on the floor of one of the houses (Sirico's), a famous inscription Salve, lucru ("Welcome, profit") indicates a trading company owned by two partners, Sirico and Nummianus (but this could be a nickname, since nummus means "coin; money"). Other houses provide details concerning professions and categories, such as for the "laundry" workers ("Fullones). Wine jars have been found bearing what is apparently the world's earliest known marketing pun (technically a "blend), Vesuvinum (combining "Vesuvius and the Latin for wine, vinum).["citation needed]
The numerous "graffiti carved on the walls and inside rooms provides a wealth of information regarding "Vulgar Latin, the form of Latin spoken colloquially rather than the literary language of the classical writers.
In 89 BC, after the final occupation of the city by Roman General "Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Pompeii was finally annexed by the "Roman Republic. During this period, Pompeii underwent a vast process of infrastructural development, most of which was built during the Augustan period. These include an "amphitheatre, a "palaestra with a central "natatorium (cella natatoria) or swimming pool and an "aqueduct that provided water for more than 25 street fountains, at least four public baths, and a large number of private houses ("domūs) and businesses. The amphitheatre has been cited by modern scholars as a model of sophisticated design, particularly in the area of crowd control.
The aqueduct branched through three main pipes from the Castellum Aquae, where the waters were collected before being distributed to the city. In extreme "drought, the water supply would first fail to reach the public baths (the least vital service), then private houses and businesses—and if there were no water flow at all, the system would fail to supply the public fountains (the most vital service) in the streets of Pompeii. The pools in Pompeii were mostly for decoration.
The large number of well-preserved "frescoes provide information on everyday life and have been a major advance in "art history of the ancient world, with the innovation of the "Pompeian Styles (First/Second/Third Style). Some aspects of the culture were distinctly "erotic, including frequent use of the phallus as "apotropaion or good-luck charm in various types of decoration. A large collection of erotic votive objects and frescoes were found at Pompeii. Many were removed and kept until recently in "a secret collection at the University of Naples.
At the time of the eruption, the town may have had some 11,000 inhabitants, and was located in an area where Romans had holiday villas. William Abbott explains, "At the time of the eruption, Pompeii had reached its high point in society as many Romans frequently visited Pompeii on vacations." It is the only ancient town of which the whole topographic structure is known precisely as it was, with no later modifications or additions. Due to the difficult terrain, it was not distributed on a regular plan as most Roman towns were, but its streets are straight and laid out in a grid in the Roman tradition. They are laid with polygonal stones, and have houses and shops on both sides of the street. It followed its "decumanus (main east/west road) and its "cardo (main north/south road), centred on the forum.
Modern archaeologists have excavated garden sites and urban domains to reveal the agricultural staples in Pompeii’s economy prior to AD 79. Pompeii was fortunate to have a fruitful, fertile region of soil for harvesting a variety of crops. The soils surrounding Mount Vesuvius even preceding its eruption have been revealed to have good water-holding capabilities, implying access to productive agriculture. The "Tyrrhenian Sea’s airflow provided hydration to the soil despite the hot, dry climate.
The rural areas surrounding Pompeii had abundant agricultural land that was very fertile and could produce much larger quantities of goods than the city needed. Some speculate that much of the flat land in "Campania, surrounding the areas of Pompeii was dedicated to grain and wheat production. "Cereal, "barley, "wheat, and "millet were all produced by the locals in Pompeii. These grains, along with wine and olive oil, were produced in abundance for export to other regions.
Evidence of wine imported nationally from Pompeii in its most prosperous years can be found from recovered artefacts such as wine bottles in Rome. For this reason, vineyards were of utmost importance to Pompeii’s economy. Agricultural policymaker "Columella suggested that each vineyard in Rome produced a quota of three "cullei of wine per "jugerum, otherwise the vineyard would be uprooted. The nutrient-rich lands near Pompeii were extremely efficient at this and were often able to exceed these requirements by a steep margin, therefore providing the incentive for local wineries to establish themselves. While wine was exported for Pompeii’s economy, the majority of the other agricultural goods were likely produced in quantities relevant to the city’s consumption.
Remains of large formations of constructed wineries were found in "Forum Boarium, covered by cemented casts from the eruption of Vesuvius. It is speculated that these historical vineyards are strikingly similar in structure to the modern day vineyards across Italy. "Water depressions have also been found in close proximity to the wineries and served as water wells for the produce and livestock.
Carbonised food plant remains, roots, seeds and pollens, have been found from gardens in Pompeii, Herculaneum and from the Roman villa at "Torre Annunziata. They revealed that "emmer wheat, "Italian millet, "common millet, walnuts, pine nuts, chestnuts, hazel nuts, chickpeas, "bitter vetch, broad beans, olives, figs, pears, onions, garlic, peaches, carob, grapes, and dates were consumed. All except the dates could have been produced locally.
Besides the forum, many other services were found: the "Macellum (great food market), the Pistrinum (mill), the "Thermopolium (sort of bar that served cold and hot beverages), and "cauponae (small restaurants). An amphitheatre and two theatres have been found, along with a palaestra or "gymnasium. A hotel (of 1,000 square metres) was found a short distance from the town; it is now nicknamed the "Grand Hotel Murecine". "Geothermal energy supplied channelled "district heating for baths and houses. At least one building, the "Lupanar, was dedicated to "prostitution.
In 2002, another discovery at the mouth of the "Sarno River near "Sarno revealed that the port also was populated and that people lived in "palafittes (stilt-houses), within a system of channels that suggested a likeness to "Venice to some scientists.
The inhabitants of Pompeii had long been used to minor quaking (indeed, the writer "Pliny the Younger wrote that earth tremors "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania"), but on 5 February 62, a "severe earthquake did considerable damage around the bay, and particularly to Pompeii. It is believed that the earthquake would have registered between about 5 and 6 on the "Richter magnitude scale.
On that day in Pompeii, there were to be two sacrifices, as it was the anniversary of Augustus being named "Father of the Nation" and also a feast day to honour the guardian spirits of the city. Chaos followed the earthquake. Fires, caused by oil lamps that had fallen during the quake, added to the panic. Nearby cities of "Herculaneum and "Nuceria were also affected.
Temples, houses, bridges, and roads were destroyed. It is believed that almost all buildings in the city of Pompeii were affected. In the days after the earthquake, "anarchy ruled the city, where theft and starvation plagued the survivors. In the time between 62 and the eruption in 79, some rebuilding was done, but some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption. Although it is unknown how many, a considerable number of inhabitants moved to other cities within the Roman Empire while others remained and rebuilt.
An important field of current research concerns structures that were being restored at the time of the eruption (presumably damaged during the earthquake of 62). Some of the older, damaged paintings could have been covered with newer ones, and modern instruments are being used to catch a glimpse of the long hidden frescoes. The probable reason why these structures were still being repaired around 17 years after the earthquake was the increasing frequency of smaller quakes that led up to the eruption.
By the 1st century AD, Pompeii was one of a number of towns near the base of the volcano, Mount Vesuvius. The area had a substantial population, which had grown prosperous from the region's renowned agricultural fertility. Many of Pompeii's neighbouring communities, most famously Herculaneum, also suffered damage or destruction during the 79 eruption. The eruption occurred on 24 August AD 79, just one day after "Vulcanalia, the festival of the Roman god of "fire, including that from volcanoes.
A multidisciplinary "volcanological and "bio-anthropological study of the eruption products and victims, merged with numerical simulations and experiments, indicates that at Pompeii and surrounding towns "heat was the main cause of death of people, previously believed to have died by ash "suffocation. The results of the study, published in 2010, show that exposure to at least 250 °C (482 °F) hot surges (known as "pyroclastic flows) at a distance of 10 kilometres (6 miles) from the vent was sufficient to cause instant death, even if people were sheltered within buildings.
The people and buildings of Pompeii were covered in up to 12 different layers of "tephra, in total 25 metres (82.0 ft) deep, which rained down for about six hours. "Pliny the Younger provided a first-hand account of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius from his position across the "Bay of Naples at "Misenum, in a version he wrote 25 years after the event. His uncle, "Pliny the Elder, with whom he had a close relationship, died while attempting to rescue stranded victims. As admiral of the fleet, Pliny the Elder had ordered the ships of the Imperial Navy stationed at "Misenum to cross the bay to assist evacuation attempts. Volcanologists have recognised the importance of Pliny the Younger's account of the eruption by calling similar events ""Plinian".
The eruption was documented by contemporary historians and is generally accepted as having started on 24 August 79, relying on one version of the text of Pliny's letter. However the archeological excavations of Pompeii suggest that the city was buried about three months later. This is supported by another version of the letter, which gives the date of the eruption as November 23.
People buried in the ash appear to have been wearing heavier clothing than the light summer clothes typical of August. The fresh fruit and vegetables in the shops are typical of October – and conversely the summer fruit typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form. Wine fermenting jars had been sealed, which would have happened around the end of October. Coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include one with a 15th "imperatorial acclamation among the "emperor's titles. These coins could not have been minted before the second week of September. There is no definitive theory as to why there should be such an apparent discrepancy.
After thick layers of ash covered Pompeii and Herculaneum, they were abandoned and eventually their names and locations were forgotten. The first time any part of them was unearthed was in 1599, when the digging of an underground channel to divert the river Sarno ran into ancient walls covered with paintings and inscriptions. The architect "Domenico Fontana was called in; he unearthed a few more frescoes, then covered them over again, and nothing more came of the discovery. A wall inscription had mentioned a decurio Pompeii ("the town councillor of Pompeii") but its reference to the long-forgotten Roman city was missed.
Fontana's covering over the paintings has been seen both as a broad-minded act of preservation for later times, and as censorship in view of the frequent sexual content of such paintings, as he would have known that paintings of the hedonistic kind later found in some Pompeian villas were not considered in good taste in the climate of the "counter-reformation.
Herculaneum was properly rediscovered in 1738 by workmen digging for the foundations of a "summer palace for the "King of Naples, "Charles of Bourbon. Pompeii was rediscovered as the result of intentional excavations in 1748 by the Spanish military engineer "Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre. These towns have since been excavated to reveal many intact buildings and wall paintings. Charles of Bourbon took great interest in the findings even after becoming king of Spain because the display of antiquities reinforced the political and cultural power of Naples.
"Karl Weber directed the first real excavations; he was followed in 1764 by military engineer Franscisco la Vega. Franscisco la Vega was succeeded by his brother, "Pietro, in 1804. During the French occupation Pietro worked with Christophe Saliceti.
"Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge of the excavations in 1863. During early excavations of the site, occasional voids in the ash layer had been found that contained human remains. It was Fiorelli who realised these were spaces left by the decomposed bodies and so devised the technique of injecting "plaster into them to recreate the forms of Vesuvius's victims. This technique is still in use today, with a clear "resin now used instead of plaster because it is more durable, and does not destroy the bones, allowing further analysis.
The discovery of "erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum left the archaeologists with a dilemma – between the mores of "sexuality in ancient Rome and in Counter-Reformation Europe lay a "clash of cultures. An unknown number of discoveries were hidden away again. A wall fresco depicting "Priapus, the ancient god of sex and fertility, with his extremely enlarged penis, was covered with plaster. An older reproduction was locked away "out of prudishness" and opened only on request—and only rediscovered in 1998 due to rainfall.
A large number of "artefacts from the buried cities are preserved in the "Naples National Archaeological Museum. In 1819, when "King Francis visited the Pompeii exhibition there with his wife and daughter, he was so embarrassed by the erotic artwork that he decided to have it locked away in a so-called "secret cabinet" (gabinetto segreto), a gallery within the museum accessible only to "people of mature age and respected morals". Re-opened, closed, re-opened again and then closed again for nearly 100 years, the "Naples "Secret Museum" was briefly made accessible again at the end of the 1960s (the time of the "sexual revolution) and was finally re-opened for viewing in 2000. Minors are still allowed entry only in the presence of a guardian or with written permission.
Pompeii has been a popular tourist destination for over 250 years; it was on the "Grand Tour. By 2008, it was attracting almost 2.6 million visitors per year, making it one of the most popular tourist sites in Italy. It is part of a larger Vesuvius National Park and was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. To combat problems associated with tourism, the governing body for Pompeii, the Soprintendenza Archaeological di Pompei, have begun issuing new tickets that allow for tourists to also visit cities such as "Herculaneum and "Stabiae as well as the "Villa Poppaea, to encourage visitors to see these sites and reduce pressure on Pompeii.
Pompeii is also a driving force behind the economy of the nearby town of "Pompei. Many residents are employed in the tourism and hospitality business, serving as taxi or bus drivers, waiters or hotel operators. The ruins can be easily reached on foot from the "Circumvesuviana train stop called Pompei Scavi, directly at the ancient site. There are also car parks nearby.
Excavations in the site have generally ceased due to the moratorium imposed by the superintendent of the site, Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo. Additionally, the site is generally less accessible to tourists, with less than a third of all buildings open in the 1960s being available for public viewing today. Nevertheless, the sections of the ancient city open to the public are extensive, and tourists can spend several days exploring the whole site.
Objects buried beneath Pompeii were well-preserved for almost 2,000 years. The lack of air and moisture let objects remain underground with little to no deterioration. Once excavated, the site provided a wealth of source material and evidence for analysis, giving detail into the lives of the Pompeiians. However, once exposed, Pompeii has been subject to both natural and man-made forces, which have rapidly increased deterioration.
Weathering, erosion, light exposure, water damage, poor methods of excavation and reconstruction, introduced plants and animals, tourism, vandalism and theft have all damaged the site in some way. Two-thirds of the city has been excavated, but the remnants of the city are rapidly deteriorating.
The concern for conservation has continually troubled archaeologists. The ancient city was included in the "1996 World Monuments Watch by the "World Monuments Fund, and again in "1998 and in "2000. In 1996 the organisation claimed that Pompeii "desperately need[ed] repair" and called for the drafting of a general plan of "restoration and interpretation. The organisation supported conservation at Pompeii with funding from "American Express and the "Samuel H. Kress Foundation.
Today, funding is mostly directed into conservation of the site; however, due to the expanse of Pompeii and the scale of the problems, this is inadequate in halting the slow decay of the materials. An estimated US$335 million is needed for all necessary work on Pompeii.["citation needed] A recent study has recommended an improved strategy for interpretation and presentation of the site as a cost-effective method of improving its conservation and preservation in the short term.
Fencing in the temple of "Venus prevents vandalism of the site, as well as theft.
The 2,000-year-old Schola Armatorum (House of the Gladiators) collapsed on 6 November 2010. The structure was not open to visitors, but the outside was visible to tourists. There was no immediate determination as to what caused the building to collapse, although reports suggested water infiltration following heavy rains might have been responsible. There has been fierce controversy after the collapse, with accusations of neglect.
Pompeii was the setting for the British comedy "television series "Up Pompeii! and the movie of the series. Pompeii also featured in the second episode of the fourth season of revived BBC science fiction series "Doctor Who, named "The Fires of Pompeii, which featured Caecilius as a character.
In 1971, the rock band "Pink Floyd filmed a live concert titled "Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii, in which they performed six songs in the ancient Roman amphitheatre in the city. The audience consisted only of the film's production crew and some local children.
"Pompeii is a novel written by "Robert Harris (published in 2003) featuring the account of the aquarius' race to fix the broken aqueduct in the days leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius, inspired by actual events and people.
In 2016, 45 years after the Pink Floyd recordings, band guitarist "David Gilmour returned to the Pompeii amphiteatre to perform a live concert for his "Rattle That Lock world tour. This event was considered the first one in the amphiteatre to feature an audience since the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius.
During Roman times, warm water was circulated through open trenches to provide heating for buildings and baths in Pompeii.
the city's most extravagant brothel, the Lupanare – from the Latin word lupa for prostitute
Giuseppe Fiorelli directed the Pompeii excavation from 1863 to 1875
It is the first time since the eruption of Vesuvius in AD79 that there has been an event with an audience in the venue.
The recent UK Channel 5 programme, transmitted live from Herculaneum on 29 June 2006...
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THE PROMISE OF CHEAP ENERGY
Even at the time of Indian independence, the tremendous potential of nuclear energy, for war and peace, was evident. The constraints, though, were obvious from the beginning. Uranium, the raw material for nuclear power, needed to be processed heavily before it could be used, and in this process lay many of the dangers and drawbacks of using it as a nuclear fuel. In any case, India was in a peculiar position as far as nuclear fuel was concerned, and it required the country to think differently. Homi Bhabha summed this up: “The total reserves of thorium in India amount to over 500,000 tonnes in readily extractable form, while the known reserves of uranium are less than a tenth of this. The aim of India’s long-range atomic power programme must therefore be to base nuclear power generation as soon as possible on thorium rather than uranium… The first generation of atomic power stations based on natural uranium can only be used to start off an atomic power programme… The plutonium produced by the first generation power stations can be used in a second generation of power stations designed to produce electric power and convert thorium into U-233, or depleted uranium into more plutonium with breeding gains… The second generation of power stations may be regarded as an intermediate step for the breeder power stations of the third generation, all of which would produce more U-233 than they burn in the course of producing power.”
It was an ambitious programme, which if successful could ensure energy self-sufficiency for India not just for decades but centuries. The problem is that several decades later, the country has only managed, rather haltingly, to implement the first stage of Bhabha’s vision, and that has been done mainly through imported technology. Over the next five years, a 500 MW prototype fast breeder reactor will go online at Kalpakkam, based on the experience gained by running a 40 MW test reactor. Apart from energy, it will begin the process of breeding fuel for the third stage of India’s programme that seeks to use thorium resources.
While much of this technology has been developed indigenously, and its success still needs to be established, it parallels developments in other parts of the world. India, however, is alone in even attempting the third stage of the programme. Called the Advanced Heavy Water Reactor, it is still under development at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre. Questions about India’s nuclear programme will remain relevant till the commercial viability of the second stage and scientific validity of the third stage are established. And this is true even without engaging with delays and safety problems that have been a constant part of the first stage of the Indian programme. While the scientific vision and ingenuity of the Indian three-stage cycle is not under question—in fact, if it succeeds, it will be one of the great technological triumphs of modern times—India’s ability to implement it in a practical, transparent and safe manner is woefully open to doubt.
Of all the grandiose schemes proposed in our times, none can quite match the idea of linking India’s major rivers. It is an idea that would have done Muhammad bin Tughlaq credit, but it found its true progenitors in the BJP. The intervention of the Judiciary, in a matter that should be left to the Executive and decided on grounds of scientific validity, is not helping matters. Considered dispassionately, some obvious problems show up. Rivers flow along the natural slope of the terrain. Connecting them and diverting water against their natural gradient requires energy.
Consider one recent attempt: Gujarat Chief Minister Narendra Modi’s grand vision of providing drinking water to Saurashtra through the Narmada project, in violation of its original plan. Water is being forced up against the incline with the use of pumping stations at regular intervals. This ensures that by the time the water reaches Saurashtra, the actual cost is such that the region’s residents might as well have been supplied mineral water. Multiply this a hundredfold, and some sense of the project’s absurdity begins to sink in.
That, though, is only the beginning. The cost of linking India’s rivers, and not just of pumping and diverting water, has never been estimated with any care. By the time it is done, it would require tens of thousands of kilometres of canals and huge reservoirs carved out to store water for the times when it’s actually needed, given that all of India’s rivers are in spate more or less at the same time. This would mean that while normal floods could be mitigated, abnormal ones would get magnified, with potentially catastrophic consequences.
Given India’s record of delays and cost overruns, just the rupee calculations of this exercise should halt the idea in its tracks. However, this country is run by people who refuse to understand the basic principles of compound interest. In the Narmada project, for example, cost overruns and delays have meant that even if it delivers all that was promised (which is hardly the case), it would still be a financial disaster. No matter how you do the arithmetic, that project is a write-off. The grand idea of linking Indian rivers would be a magnified version of the same idiocy—guaranteed, like Tughlaq’s hairbrained schemes, to bankrupt the State.
Last of all, India has a long history of dealing an extremely raw deal to those uprooted by such projects, regardless of the credentials of habitual protestors against the country’s relief and rehabilitation policies. In this case, forget the ethical and moral issues involved, politics should be enough to torpedo this absurd idea. In the Narmada Valley, those displaced were spread along the river’s banks, a huge number but not significant enough to affect election results in any one constituency (given the demographics), but once you multiply this number at least a hundredfold, it is difficult to see any party surviving the wrath of the displaced.
INDIAN ON THE MOON
In its most ambitious space mission yet, India wants to put a man (or woman) on the moon. Such a journey has long excited the Indian Space Research Organisation (Isro), which announced in 2007 that it would begin a moon exploration programme that will ultimately land a compatriot on its surface. In 2009, the Government okayed a budget of Rs 12,400 crore—to be spent over seven years—for the project.
As usual, though, India has woken up late in this second space race, with other Asian countries already having taken huge leaps. China plans a manned lunar base by 2020 as a launch pad for a mission to Mars and other exploratory efforts. Japan intends to match that and more within the same time frame. The search for lunar water resources for their planned bases has begun in right earnest. If India can pat itself on the back, it is for the fact that it was its moon orbiter Chandrayaan I that first found evidence of water on Earth’s sole natural satellite.
But otherwise, Isro is behind schedule. By now, according to plans submitted to the Planning Commission, it was supposed to have screened pilots as potential astronauts, set up a training facility for them, begun another unmanned moon mission, upgraded its communication links, built a third dedicated launch pad at Sriharikota for human space missions, fixed cryogenic problems with its Geo-Synchronous Launch Vehicle, and created a space recovery capsule that can put a human in space for a short duration and safely splash back into the sea. The Devas scam seems to have thrown these plans in disarray, even as the Planning Commission has suspended funding.
Former Isro Chairman Madhavan Nair, who chalked out the moon and manned space mission programmes, admits little work has been done after Chandrayaan I sent the moon an ‘impacter’ from its orbit 100 km above the lunar surface (and American sensors aboard the orbiter found traces of water at the lunar poles). As a follow up, a robotic lander on Chandrayaan II slated for 2013 is expected to drill the surface, analyse samples over a 100 km radius around a spot preferably close to a lunar pole, and relay information to Isro’s Deep Space Network antennas at Byalalu near Bangalore.
For astronauts, or ‘vyomonauts’ as Isro calls them, collaboration with the Air Force is underway. Says Assistant Chief of Air Staff (Space) Air Vice Marshal M Matheswaran: “By 2020, India would have a long queue of astronauts—in later stages, even from other government agencies, and including women too.” At first, about 200 qualified pilots will be shortlisted, of whom four will be fully trained and put into space for short durations, before two are sent off to the moon 400,000 km away. Though manned missions are scheduled to start in 2016, the Rs 1,000-crore training centre planned on a 140 acre campus in Bangalore is yet to be built. Isro has also begun work on a space recovery capsule, and is confident of developing heat-resistant materials necessary for its re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere. So, will India achieve its lunar dream? It looks as iffy as iffy gets.
India is on the cusp of change. Aadhaar, as the country’s Unique Identification (UID) project is now known, has issued over 148 million cards—each with the holder’s unique number, photograph and biometric data—since the first was handed out on 29 September 2010 in Tembhali, Maharashtra. The grand idea is to change how every Indian citizen stands up to be counted and transacts business with the Government.
The project has not been free of glitches. Parliamentary clearance remains mired in matters of detail, with the National Identification Authority of India Bill, 2010, yet to be passed. All the same, work is underway. The Cabinet Committee on the UID project gave its nod in January to expand its coverage to another 600 million enrolments. Objections raised by the Home Ministry, which had accused the project of duplicating the National Population Registry’s data collection exercise, have also been addressed, and the two are set to coordinate their efforts.
According to UID Authority Chairman Nandan Nilekani, Aadhaar will finally enable India to eliminate poverty—an aim long thwarted by systemic leakages of State handouts—by allowing the direct transfer of cash subsidies to the deserving. Middlemen and corrupt officials will be unable to steal what’s intended for the poor.
Privacy hawks are alarmed by UID cards being made mandatory for all citizens, but they may have no escape. The day may not be far that opening a bank account or getting a cellphone would require this card as proof of identity. Under a pilot project being conducted in Mysore, cooking gas customers need to present an Aadhaar car to get a cylinder. Soon, customers will be asked to pay the cylinder’s full price (about Rs 820 today), with the State subsidy (about Rs 400) sent to their bank accounts if they are eligible. This system, implemented across all of India’s entitlement programmes, would result in a decidedly more efficient economy.
Aadhar cards will also allow payments under NREGA to be made directly to intended beneficiaries, thus ensuring the money does not vanish midway. Official estimates put the cost of a complete UID rollout at Rs 18,000 crore (with Rs 1,758 crore to be spent this financial year). Some have argued that this is a waste of public money. The real worry, however, is the menace such a consolidated database could be if it gets into the wrong hands.


We are living in an age of cyber attacks. Without your knowledge your computer might have been infected and remotely being controlled by a hacker. There's also the danger of data in laptop being accessed by cyber thieves.
Here are a few simple ways to know if your computer has been infected:
- The computer slows down, even when you haven't loaded lot of data in it.
- Suddenly a browser or a popup window launches itself, without you having done anything. Even if you close them, they open by themselves.
- Security ads pop up, warning you of your laptop getting infected and asking your to download security software.
- You are redirected to a site which wasn't your destination.
- Your friend tells you about an email that's unlike the one you usually send. Or social network shows posts you never posted.
How to be safe online
- The first step to being safe online is never use a pendrive without scanning for viruses.
- Two, never click a link unless you know it's genuine.
- Treat forwarded emails and links on social networks with scepticism. The mails or the posts may be from your friend, but the attachment or the link may not be one that he or she created.
- Test the link if it's safe by typing out the URL on https://safeweb.norton.com/ or http://www.siteadvisor.com/
- Test the attachment by downloading, and running a virus scan. Open only if it's clean. Or else delete it. Make sure your antivirus is updated to the latest second.
These procedures are painful. But worth it.


an active program, policy, propaganda campaign, etc., by a national government for the purpose of terminating a war or period of hostility, lessening international tensions, or promoting peaceful cooperation with other nations.
TAKE ROUND 2 OF OUR PSAT VOCABULARY QUIZ!
Here is our second set of teacher-selected PSAT vocabulary words. Do you know the meanings of these terms?
Question 1 of 10
Origin of peace offensive
First recorded in 1915–20
Words nearby peace offensive
Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2020


Poway and Rancho Bernardo, CA
Sleeping is a vitally important part of maintaining your body’s functions, especially when it comes to making it through a busy day. Without the minimum amount of sleep, every facet of your life, from health to performance, can suffer.
For some people, their busy lives keep them from sleeping but for others, sleep disorders may be at the root of the problem. Tossing and turning all night isn’t normal which is why it’s important to see a doctor at the first sign of concern. Sleep apnea is an incredibly common form of sleep disorder that occurs when the airway is blocked during the night. This process deprives the brain of adequate oxygen and, in order to begin breathing normally, the brain wakes up, disturbing sleep. For those who suffer from sleep apnea, this process can occur hundreds of time in a night. Although you may not be aware of the interruptions to your slumber, sleep apnea can cause extreme sleep deprivation in a way that is harmful to your health.
Effects of Sleep Loss
Sleep loss can affect numerous parts of your life, both long-term and short-term, including:
- Declining physical health
- Declining mental health
- Difficulty concentrating
- Memory loss and poor judgment
- Chronic fatigue
- Loss of libido
Can Sleep Loss Hurt You?
In addition to social and physiological changes, sleep apnea can contribute to serious health risks, including:
- Heart attack
Can Sleep Loss Hurt Your Loved Ones?
Sleep apnea has numerous negative side effects, including those on your mood, behavior, and health. It can make you sad, irritable, or unable to focus when spending time with those around you, creating problems in your personal relationships.
If you have a partner, your sleep apnea may be affecting his or her life as well. Snoring is a common symptom of sleep apnea, a side effect that could be causing your partner to lose sleep as well.
Sleep Apnea Treatment
When your sleep apnea becomes too much to handle on your own, it’s time to seek treatment. Sleep apnea dentists like Dr. Nicol Cook at Smiles By Dr. Cook are able to provide you with custom treatment options designed to help you get a better night’s sleep.


Developer FAQ - Subroutines
Note: This document was written for Excel 97 - 2000.
What's the difference between a VBA subroutine and a macro?
Nothing, really. The term macro is a carry-over from the old days of spreadsheets. These terms are now used interchangeably.
What's a procedure?
A procedure can be either a subroutine or a function.
What is a Variant data type?
Variables that aren't specifically declared are assigned as a variant type, and VBA automatically converts the data to the proper type when it's used. This is particularly useful when getting values from a worksheet cell when you don't know in advance what the cell contains. Generally, it's a good idea to specifically declare your variables (using the Dim statement), because using variants is quite a bit slower.
What's the difference between a Variant array and an array of Variants?
A Variant is a special data type that can contain any kind of data -- a single value, or an array of values (that is, a Variant array). The code below creates a Variant that contains an array.
Dim X as Variant X = Array(30, 40, 50)
A normal array can contain items of a specified data type, including non-typed Variants. The statement below creates an array that consists of 12 Variants.
Dim X (0 to 2) as Variant
Although a Variant containing an array is conceptually different from an array whose elements are of type Variant, the array elements are accessed in the same way.
What's a type definition character?
VBA lets you append a character to a variable's name to indicate the data type. For example, you can declare the MyVar variable as an integer by tacking % onto the name, as follows:
Here's a list of the type-declaration characters supported by VBA:
Integer % Long & Single ! Double # Currency @ String $
Can a custom worksheet function written in VBA perform the same types of actions as a subroutine?
No. Functions called from a worksheet formula have some limitations. In general, they must be strictly "passive" -- they can't change the active cell, apply formatting, open workbooks, change the active sheet, and so on.
Functions can only perform calculations and return a value. An exception to this rule is the VBA MsgBox function. A custom function can display a MsgBox whenever it is recalculated. This is very handy for debugging a custom function.
I would like to create a function or subroutine that automatically changes the formatting of a cell based on the data I enter. For example, if I enter a value greater than 0, the cell's background color should be red. Is this possible?
It's certainly possible, and you don't need any programming. Use Excel's Conditional Formatting feature, accessed with the Format - Conditional Formatting command.
The Conditional Formatting features is useful, but I'd like to perform other types of operations when data is entered into a cell.
In that case, you can take advantage of the Change event for a worksheet object. Whenever a cell is changed, the Change event is triggered. If the code module for the Sheet object contains a procedure named Worksheet_Change, this procedure will be executed automatically.
What other types of events can be monitored?
Lots! Search the online help for events to get a complete listing.
I tried entering an event procedure (Sub Workbook_Open), but the procedure isn't executed when the workbook is open. What's wrong?
You probably put the procedure in the wrong places. Workbook event procedures must be in the code module for the ThisWorkbook object. Sheet event procedures must be in the code module for the appropriate Sheet object.
I can write an event procedure for a particular workbook. Is it possible to write an event procedure that will work for any workbook that's open?
Yes, but you need to use a class module. Details are in Chapter 18 of Excel 2000 Power Programming With VBA.
I'm very familiar with creating formulas in Excel. Does VBA use the same mathematical and logical operators?
Yes. And it includes some additional operators that aren't valid in worksheet formulas. These additional VBA operators are:
\ Division with an integer result
Eqv Returns True if both expressions are true or both are false
Imp Logical implication on two expressions
Is Compares two object variables
Like Compares two strings using wildcard characters
Xor Returns True if only one expression is true
How can I execute a subroutine that's in a different workbook?
Use the Run method of the Application object. The statement below executes a subroutine named Macro1 located in the Personal.xls workbook.
I've created several custom functions using VBA. I like to use these functions in my worksheet formulas, but I find it inconvenient to precede the function name with the workbook name. Is there any way around this?
Yes. Convert the workbook that holds the function definitions to an XLA add-in. When the add-in is open, you can use the functions in any other worksheet without referencing the function's filename.
Also, if you set up a reference to the workbook that contains the custom functions, you can use the function without preceding it with the workbook name. To create a reference, use the Tools - References command in the VBE.
I would like a particular workbook to be loaded every time I start Excel. I would also like a macro in this workbook to execute automatically. Am I asking too much?
Not at all. To open the workbook automatically, just store it in your \XLStart directory. To have the macro execute automatically, create a Workbook_Open macro in the code module for the ThisWorkbook object.
I have a workbook that uses a Workbook_Open subroutine. Is there a way to prevent this from executing when I open the workbook?
Yes. Hold down Shift when you issue the File - Open command. This technique also works with the Workbook_BeforeClose procedure. However, it does not work if the workbook you're opening is an add-in.
Can a VBA procedure access a cell's value in a workbook that is not open?
No. A formula in a worksheet can do this, but VBA cannot.
However, there is a way to do this by using an XLM macro.
How can I prevent the "save file" prompt from being displayed when I close a workbook from VBA?
Insert the following statement to eliminate this and other prompts:
Application.DisplayAlerts = False
How can I set things up so my macro runs once every hour?
You need to use the OnTime method of the Application object. This lets you specify a subroutine to execute at a particular time of day. When the subroutine ends, use the OnTime method again to schedule another event in one hour.
How do I prevent a macro from showing in the macro list?
Declare the subroutine using the Private keyword:
Private Sub MyMacro()
Or, you can add a dummy optional argument:
Sub MyMacro (Optional FakeArg)
I wrote a macro that creates lots of charts. After some of the charts are created, I get a "not enough memory" error. My system has lots of memory, so what's the problem?
Most likely, your system is running low on system resources. In some versions of Excel, creating charts uses system resources that are not returned to the system. The only way to regain the system resources is to restart Windows. Try upgrading to SR-2.
Is it possible to save a chart as a GIF file?
Yes, the code below saves the first embedded chart on Sheet1 as a GIF file named Mychart.gif.
Set CurrentChart = Sheets("Sheet1").ChartObjects(1).Chart Fname = ThisWorkbook.Path & "\Mychart.gif" CurrentChart.Export Filename:=Fname, FilterName:="GIF"
Are variables in a VBA procedure available to other VBA procedures? What if the procedure is in a different module? Or in a different workbook?
You're talking about a variable's scope. There are three levels of scope: local, module-level, and public. Local variables have the narrowest scope and are declared within a procedure. A local variable is visible only to the procedure in which it was declared. Module-level variables are declared at the top of a module, prior to the first procedure. Module-level variables are visible to all procedures in the module. Public variables have the broadest scope, and they are declared by using the Public keyword.
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It has become clear to more and more observers that Louisiana's coastal restoration effort is at a watershed moment.
From the beginning of that effort, it has been assumed that the larger share of funds to pay its total costs would come from the federal government. This was true when the projected total cost was $2 billion in mid-1990s, $14 billion in the early 2000s, and $50 billion today.
After the 2010 Deepwater Horizon Disaster, a period of optimism prevailed because state officials anticipated billions of BP dollars coming our way. The timing and amount of funds coming from a BP judgment or settlement were always uncertain. That uncertainty is greater today, but the eventual amount will likely be smaller than predicted, and they remain one-time funds.
Louisiana will receive a greater share of offshore oil and gas revenue beginning in 2017 under the Gulf of Mexico Energy Security Act (GOMESA), and U.S. Sen. Mary Landrieu, D-La., has led efforts to increase those amounts and accelerate the payment date. Uncertainty remains about the amount this revenue will actually provide. The 2012 Master Plan estimates them at $100 million to $200 million a year. These sources of funding will be crucial for the restoration program, but they leave a huge gap.
To carry out restoration on the scale envisioned, Louisiana will still need billions, not millions, in federal dollars.
That challenge has always been daunting, but the federal fiscal picture is more difficult than ever before. New federal appropriations of any significant size are unlikely for the foreseeable future. It's worth asking why that is the case — a key reason is political opposition to federal spending. Some of the fiercest opposition comes from part of Louisiana's own congressional delegation. This makes seeking billions in federal dollars for coastal restoration a harder task, especially when coupled with rhetoric about smaller government and no deficit spending.
This has caused a loss of national credibility and support for Louisiana in recent years, especially when coupled with the tendency of state officials to oppose the federal government continually, showing in the process a disdain for science as well as regulation. Treating the Corps of Engineers, EPA and the White House as enemies may play well politically at home, but Louisiana cannot restore the coast without federal partnership. The state will not get a blank check from the Treasury without oversight, nor should we want one.
Louisiana could seek to make up more of the gap itself. The state's funding for restoration has risen in recent years, using surplus funds as well as early restoration funds from BP. An oil processing tax proposed by Public Service Commissioner Foster Campbell or a natural resource extraction tax of the kind proposed by former Gov. Buddy Roemer are two examples of possible sources of additional revenue.
Today, they would be blocked by a governor who opposes any new taxes. That should change.
We face serious questions, and our politics provide only obstacles, not answers.
Dr. Paul Templet is former program manager in the Louisiana Coastal Management Program, former secretary of the Department of Environmental Quality, and a retired professor of environmental studies at Louisiana State University.


Tyrone Guthrie Outside The Guthrie – 64/365, Archive 365, BlackBerry Shots, Minneapolis, Minnesota, photo © 2010-2012 by QuoinMonkey. All rights reserved.
The Archive 365 practice and collaboration continues with a photograph taken outside the Guthrie Theater in August 2010. With each new image, I feel compelled to look into tidbits about the subject’s history. It’s no secret that Sir Tyrone Guthrie and Midwest architect Ralph Rapson did not see eye-to-eye on the design of the original Guthrie Theater (the play Tyrone & Ralph was written highlighting this piece of history). The two fought over the thrust stage which Guthrie wanted and the asymmetrical design Rapson desired. They also disagreed over the color of the seats. Guthrie ordered Rapson to make sure the seats were all the same bland color; Rapson wanted brightness and vivacity and decidedly disobeyed. By the time the hundreds of multicolored seats arrived, it was too late for Guthrie to do anything about it.
In spite of their disagreements, Rapson’s modern design prevailed and the Guthrie opened on May 7, 1963 with a production of Hamlet directed by Sir Tyrone Guthrie; it became one of the most respected theaters in the country. An idea that began in 1959 during a series of conversations among Guthrie and two colleagues—Oliver Rea and Peter Zeisler—who were disenchanted with Broadway, sprang to life. They realized their dream to create a theater with a resident acting company that would perform the classics in rotating repertory with the highest professional standards.
Sir Tyrone Guthrie was the Artistic Director from 1963 through 1966 and returned to direct each year until 1969. He passed away in 1971. Architect Ralph Rapson died of heart failure in 2008 at the age of 93. The original Guthrie was torn down in 2006; the theater dimmed its lights 43 years to the day that it opened — also with a production of Hamlet. It reopened across town by the Mississippi River in a new, $125 million three-stage complex with the faces of Tyrone Guthrie, August Wilson, Lorraine Hansberry, Tennessee Williams, Arthur Miller, Anton Chekhov, Eugene O’Neill and George Bernard Shaw etched into its walls.
Guthrie Theater History – The Guthrie
The Old Guthrie Goes Down – photos at The Masticator
Guthrie & Rapson battle again – MPR news
-posted on red Ravine, Monday, September 3rd, 2012


One of the more discussed recent books on education is Diane Ravitch’s “Reign of Error”. Ravitch argues that poverty and socioeconomic inequality produces kids who enter our educational system handicapped in their ability to learn.This poor start translates in poor performance as the individual moves through primary and secondary education.
I do not agree with Ravitch – the immigrants to the US, say in the 1880s, were poor and they were discriminated against on religious and/or cultural grounds. Yet those immigrants made sure their children, although raised in poverty, got the best education they could afford. These children became engineers, doctors, or lawyers. I am proud to count myself as a graduate of an excellent school – The City College of New York – that was developed for the very purpose of offering a free (and excellent) education to the children of poor immigrants. Therefore, I do not see poverty by itself as being the source of a sub-par educational system.
I think that cultures and nations that develop good educational systems do so because education is one of the few, or the only path to an individual’s financial well being.
When there are other avenues for achieving financial success, education takes a back seat. In the US, you can be a mattress salesman, with very little education and still be financially successful. We do have a society in which we can become wealthy in many ways – entrepreneurship, salesmanship – and, in addition, we are a wealthy country (from the point of view of natural resources that one can exploit).
In other countries, there may be many barriers to individual financial success – lack of capital, a hierarchical social order, or generalized poverty. In these societies, education becomes important to the individual primarily as an avenue for achieving financial security . I am thinking especially of the Asian countries where education has been the “classic” path to success – those who became mandarins started with the civil service examinations.
An alternative path to developing a good educational system may happen when a top-down, autocratic society (e.g. Russia) starts compensating educated people because these people can strengthen the country’s military and industrial infrastructure which is weaker than that of its neighbors’.
In summary, my thesis is that a good educational system develops due to market forces – education is a sure path to an individual’s financial well-being and there are few other paths available to achieve this well-being. In this thesis, poverty by itself, does not lead to a poor educational system. A sub-par educational system comes about when education is not the most important path to financial security.
Perhaps there can be another driver to a good educational system. After all, there were quite a few rich merchants in medieval times in Asian countries and these merchants did not get wealthy because of their classical education. It could be that a good educational system, or more precisely a selective one, also develops when education is seen as a “noble” profession, in the sense that it leads to relative wealth without physical effort. However, this is not an American concept – we actually value physical effort and one can see a proof of it every Sunday until the Super Bowl.
If I am right, what does this mean for how education will develop in the US? I don’t see much improvement soon – say on a 10-year horizon. As long as we have a high degree of elasticity in our economy – meaning that we have many paths for achieving individual financial success – education will be not be a priority for us as a society.
It may be that increasing international competition will drive us to educational reforms. After all, the genesis of Common Core was when industry and the Chamber of Commerce started going to the state governors and saying we are losing jobs and contracts because we do not have a sufficiently well educated workers. Common Core developed from an industry initiative. That’s market forces at work!


400 Koalas in Australia Will Be Part of Game-Changing Chlamydia Vaccine Trial
Chlamydia is a severe problem among koalas, researchers say. It affects about half the population in Australia.
Koalas are getting vaccinated, but not against COVID-19.
About 400 koalas will be part of a trial for a chlamydia vaccine. It's a severe problem among koalas, researchers say, affecting about half the population in Australia.
"So is it a game-changer," Peter Timms from the University of the Sunshine Coast said. "I think it'll make a significant difference, given that we haven't had this management tool before."
A 2016 study found that there are about 330,000 koalas left in the wild. It's estimated that in the past three years, 60,000 have been killed or injured by wildfires.
But researchers say there isn't much being done to prevent disease among the koalas. They say antibiotics haven't been an effective solution because the koalas have to be kept out of the wild while they are treated. Also, the medication destroys the bacteria in their gut needed to digest eucalyptus leaves.
The koalas in this study will get their vaccines and a microchip before being sent back into the wild, hopefully putting an end to this pandemic.
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The consumption of calories and the maintenance of weight seem like simple arithmetic, but it can vary from person to person. It also requires an awareness of the content of foods that you are eating. However, a good, healthy diet should not be complicated. Maintaining weight is simple if you are eating the right things.
Video of the Day
The number of calories you need depends upon several factors besides gender. They include age, weight, activity level and genetics. Individuals are different, but on average, men have more weight, and also more lean weight, than women, so this generally necessitates the consumption of more calories throughout the day. Extra weight requires more energy to do the same amount of work. Muscle mass weighs more than other tissue, and it is an active tissue, burning calories on its own.
According to work by exercise physiologists William McArdle and Frank Katch, the average total number of calories used for an adult male in the United States is 2,700 to 2,900 calories a day. This includes the basal metabolic rate, or the rate at which the body must work just to fulfill its most basic functions, plus the amount of activity that you do during the day. It is also an average and should not be applied to every single male. Weight lifters, athletes and just about any physically active person will burn more calories in a day.
Genetics is a large factor in your basal metabolic rate, but even without the ability to account for genetics, there are still generally accurate formulas available, including the Harris-Benedict formula. For men, this formula is 66 + (6.23 x weight in pounds) + (12.7 x height in inches) - (6.8 x age in year). You will have to estimate how much activity you are doing to find the total number of calories that you are burning. Sedentary individuals should multiply the basal metabolic rate by 1.2. Lightly active individuals—light exercise or sports one to three days a week—should multiply by 1.375. Moderately active individuals—moderate exercise or sports three to five days a week—should multiply by 1.55. Very active individuals—hard exercise or sports six to seven days a week—should multiply by 1.725. And extremely active individuals—hard daily exercise or sports, physical job or professional athleticism—should multiply by 1.9.
A calorie is essentially a unit of energy. According to Medline Plus, it measures the amount of food needed to raise a gram of water a single degree Celsius. Consuming the same number of calories you burn, therefore, will fulfill your exact energy requirements throughout the day. Fats, carbohydrates and proteins are the only kinds of nutrients that your body can use for energy. Fat is the most energy- dense of the three. It contains 9 calories per gram, compared to 4 calories for proteins and carbohydrates.
Besides the number of calories, the quality of the calories also matters. Extra energy is stored as body fat when there is too much energy, but eating foods such as fiber and protein will promote a feeling of fullness and slow the absorption of molecules into the bloodstream. Simple, refined carbohydrates and highly calorie dense foods have a greater proclivity to be converted into body fat.


In this lab students will work in groups to build a free standing structure out of 25 pieces of fettuccine and a meter of masking tape. The student groups will compete against each other to see who can create the strongest structure. Test the strength of the fettuccine structures using books. Students will examine the weight held by the structures as well as the force exerted by the fettuccine. They will also examine design elements to see what makes a strong structure.
When you purchase this product you will receive a student lab sheet, a teacher overview sheet with instructions and advice for doing this lab, and pictures of structures created by my students!
Other labs to check out:
Balloon Rocket Lab for Newton's Laws
Building Circuits Lab


Euphorbia tirucalli, commonly called pencil cactus, might be difficult to kill and remove because, like other succulents, it tolerates extreme neglect and roots easily from a small cutting. Pencil cactus grows in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 10 through 11, but dies back to the ground at first frost in colder climates. When grown outdoors in the right climate, a pencil cactus can grow up to 30 feet tall. The pencil-like branches contain a milky, poisonous sap, so you should wear protective clothing to avoid skin irritation when removing pencil cactus.
Cut straight through the main stem with a pair of lopping shears or a pruning saw, making the cut a few inches from soil level. You might need to prune off a few of the lower branches so you can get to the base, but make as few cuts as possible to reduce the amount of sap that leaks from the open wounds.
Spray the exposed cuts with cool water to stop or slow the sap flow.
Lay the cut plant on a hard surface away from soil for one or two days to allow the sap to drain and the cut to form a callus. Cut the plant into several pieces if you have a large pencil cactus. Dispose of the cactus with other yard waste, based on your community's policies.
Spray the exposed trunk cut with a non-selective herbicide, such as a product containing approximately 25 percent glyphosate herbicide. Allow at least one week for the herbicide to travel to the roots and kill the entire root system.
Dig a wide circle at least 12 to 18 inches out from the trunk so the circle of soil retains as many of the roots as possible. Pull back on the shovel handle as you dig to pry the roots from the soil. Lift the root ball out of the hole and shake off any excess soil.
Pick through the soil to remove any remaining pieces of the pencil cactus roots. Use a garden hoe or mattock to break up soil in a wider area if the roots appear to extend far beyond the hole where you removed the root ball. Dispose of the root ball and root pieces.
Fill the empty hole with clean topsoil and spread the soil smooth with a rake.
Things You Will Need
- Lopping shears
- Pruning saw
- Spray bottle
- Garbage bags
- Garden hoe
- Garden mattock
- If size is an issue, but you don't necessarily want to get rid of the pencil cactus entirely, you can prune it back severely at any time of year.
- Fine Gardening: Euphorbia Tirucalli (Pencil Tree, Finger Tree)
- Floridata: Euphorbia Tirucalli
- Denver Plants: Pencil Cactus or Milk Bush
- Be Water Wise: Euphorbia Tirucalli "Sticks on Fire"
- University of Greenwich Natural Resources Institute: Euphorbia Tirucalli
- Purdue University Department of Horticulture: Euphorbia Tirucalli


Read Science A-Z, The Solar System book pages 17-18 about Dwarf Planets videos below. Look for the answers to fill in the pages for Pluto.
What's Pluto like?
• Pluto's average distance from the sun is about 3.6 billion miles
• The temperature on Pluto may be about -375 °F
• Pluto is mostly brown
• It takes Pluto 248 Earth years to travel once around the sun
• Pluto cannot be seen without a telescope
• Pluto's diameter is about 1,400 miles, smaller than Earth's moon