A statue of Salford Suffragette Mary Clarke is planned to be built in Brighton to recognise the work she has done for women’s rights.
There is currently a campaign to acknowledge Mary Clarke who was recognised to be Emmeline Pankhurst’s younger sister.
With enough funding, the statue will ‘’be a figurative, bronze sculpture, either life-size or larger, which will be in keeping with the environment’’ according to Jean Calder, the chairwomen of the appeal.
Campaigners have been asked by the Brighton and Hove City Council for a report on the appeal for the sufragette statue.
They need to present the report to research how the council can work with the appeal to raise £60,000 towards the statue.
Mary Clarke co-founded The Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) who helped to implement women’s rights in the UK.
She lived in Brighton for a year before her death in 1910 and became an organiser for WSPU.
The WSPU’s slogan was ‘’Deeds, not words’’ which was demonstrated by hunger strikes and damaging property.
The suffragette was arrested three times and attended the notorious ‘Black Friday’ events where over 300 women were sexually assaulted by uniformed police officers.
Clarke died of a brain haemorrhage on Christmas Day 1910 following street violence and forcible feeding in prison.
After her death, Emmeline Pankhurst wrote “She is the first to die. How many must follow before the men of your party realise their responsibility?”
She was considered to be the first suffragette to give her life for women to have the ability to vote.
The statue has the support of campaigners who say that it would be “a symbol for the city of equality, democracy and women’s rights”.


(Files in red–history)
21. Lagrangian pts.
22. "Wind" s/c
23. The Tail
25. Auroral Currents
25H. Birkeland Currents
25b. Io Dynamo
25c. Space tether
The best we can do is station-keeping: for instance, the motion of a satellite in a synchronous orbit around the equator is matched by the rotation of the Earth below it, allowing it to permanently stay above the same equatorial spot.
Station-keeping in orbits around the SunWith enough velocity, a spacecraft can break loose from the Earth's gravity and enter an orbit around the Sun, like that of a planet. If it then orbits the Sun with the same period as the Earth--one year--it may keep a fixed position relative to Earth. In particular, if that position is between the Sun and the Earth, the spacecraft can be an "early warning station", intercepting any changes in the solar wind before they reach Earth.
However, orbital laws require planets closer to the Sun to move faster, by a formula found in 1619 by Johannes Kepler. While the Earth goes around the Sun in 365 days, Venus which is closer only needs 225 days and Mercury, closer still, only 88. Thus any spacecraft going around the Sun in an orbit smaller than the Earth's will soon overtake it and move away, and will not keep a fixed station relative to Earth.
However, there is a loophole. If the spacecraft is placed between Sun and Earth, the Earth's gravity pulls it in the opposite direction and cancels some of the pull of the Sun. With a weaker pull towards the Sun, the spacecraft then needs less speed to maintain its orbit.|
The sister-site From Stargazers to Starships discusses Lagrangian points in more detail than is done here, among other things deriving the distance of L1 (the derivation of L2 is almost identical) and also the equilibrium points L4 and L5. While neither calculation requires calculus, both are somewhat lengthy and assume familiarity with basic principles of Newtonian mechanics, covered in preceding sections of the "Stargazers" site.
Spacecraft Observatories at L1The L1 point is a very good position for monitoring the solar wind, which reaches it about one hour before reaching Earth. In 1978 the "International Sun-Earth Explorer-3" (ISEE-3) was launched towards L1, where it conducted such observations for several years. Equipped with an on-board rocket and an ample supply of fuel, ISEE-3 was later moved to the Earth's distant tail and still later was sent to intercept Comet Giacobini-Zinner. In November 1994 a new spacecraft, "WIND" was launched towards that position. It was originally scheduled to be stationed by 1996 in an orbit about the L1 point, but later it was sent on a more extended mission in a "flower petal" orbit around Earth. More recently the solar wind at L1 has been monitored by the solar observatory "SOHO" and by "ACE" whose main task is the study of energetic particles accelerated near the Sun.
Such a spacecraft must have its own rocket engine. First, the position is unstable: if the spacecraft slips off it, it will slowly drift away, and sooner or later some correcting action is needed. In fact, the preferred position is actually some distance to the side of L1, for if the spacecraft is right on the Sun-Earth line, the antennas which track it from Earth are also aimed at the Sun, a source of interfering radio waves. Thus corrections are in fact needed quite regularly. Furthermore, the most economic way of getting to L1 is letting the spacecraft pass close to the Moon and using the moon's gravity to extract an extra boost from the Moon's orbital motion. Those maneuvers too require on-board propulsion, as does the final approach to L1.
Other Lagrangian PointsThere exists another Lagrangian point L2 at about the same distance from Earth but on the night side, away from the Sun. A spacecraft placed there is more distant from the Sun and therefore should orbit it more slowly than the Earth; but the extra pull of the Earth adds up to the Sun's pull, and this allows the spacecraft to move faster and keep up with the Earth. The L2 point has been chosen by NASA as the future site of a large infra-red observatory, the "Next Generation Space Telescope", renamed in honor of a late NASA director The James Webb Observatory.
There exist altogether 5 Lagrangian points in the Sun-Earth system and such points also exist in the Earth-Moon system. Among these, the most attention has been given to the two stable points L4 and L5, located in the Moon's orbit but off the position of the Moon (see picture). These positions have been studied as possible sites for artificial space colonies in some (very!) distant future.
For those interested in space colonies at the Lagrangian points:
Next Stop: #22. The "Wind" Spacecraft


Economics of climate change in South Asia
Economics of climate change in South Asia
CDKN’s Elizabeth Colebourn and Ram Chandra Khanal report from Asian Development Bank (ADB) workshops on the Economics of Climate Change held across South Asia in July where they showcased lessons from CDKN’s work in Nepal.
New research and evidence is published every week on the impact of climate change in South Asia: changing rainfall patterns, projected temperature rises and whether and the extent to which the Himalayan glaciers are melting.
We also see and experience the complicated relationship between the physical impacts of climate change, and its effect on economic development.
In Delhi we have just survived what was reported as the hottest summer in 300 years, which caused regular power blackouts as everyone turned up their air conditioner on full. While in Nepal, repeated dry winters have in recent years caused major cereal deficits.
Governments in the region recognise that their economic growth and poverty reduction efforts are being put at risk by climate change. But, by how much, and exactly how and where is less clear.
Yet this detail is vitally important. Knowing the breakdown of the economic impact of climate change allows Governments to target their scarce resources and direct their policies at where it will have most benefit.
A growing number of donors and institutes have recognised this and an ‘Economics of Climate Change’ research agenda is developing.
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is undertaking a regional assessment of the economics of climate change in South Asia, following the successful assessment in South East Asia. National consultations were held recently where experts and policy-makers were invited to input into the national studies and models being used.
The ADB assessments will provide medium and longer-term modelling of the economics of climate change. This will produce headline economic cost estimates of the overall effects on the economy, similar to the Stern Review, as well as provide aggregate sector estimates. The primary purpose is to highlight that climate change is an economic and development issue of the highest priority.
It is using a high resolution Regional Climate Model – downscaling ECHAM 5 (RegCM version 4.1.) and plans to assess physical impacts at regional, national and sectoral level and then use these for macro- economic and sectoral economic modelling.
CDKN participated in the workshops in Delhi and Kathmandu and shared ideas and learning from our projects in the region, in particular from a new CDKN project in Nepal which is going to build on the ADB initiative.
The project, being implemented by IDS-Nepal, Practical Action Nepal and GCAP will focus in detail on the important agriculture and water sectors in Nepal. As well as considering the potential economic costs of climate change, it will also develop a climate compatible adaptation pathway, using multiple lines of evidence.
The project will start by studying existing impacts of climate variability and extremes, as well as emerging climate trends. By grounding this analysis in current and planned development policies, the project will look at the key risks – and the priorities for building resilience - in national and sector policy.
It is also considering the medium to long-term economic effects of climate change, sampling across a range of downscaled climate projections for Nepal to capture uncertainty. Adaptation pathways will then be developed which include the early actions needed to address the potential long-term economic costs.
The project has a strong capacity building theme, and will undertake extensive stakeholder consultations. The aim is to provide practical policy-relevant information and to support the Government to assess the potential effectiveness of different policy options and climate compatible development pathways.
While the work of CDKN, ADB and others is advancing the state of knowledge, the economics of climate change remains an emerging field. There are some big questions which everyone is grappling with. For example, how to consider uncertainty within the climate models and translate this into robust and resilient adaptation? How to combine bottom-up and top-down data and modelling? How to effectively link the time periods of assessment – short, medium or long term? Both the ADB and CDKN initiatives provide valuable case studies for how to tackle all such questions and advance the methodology considerably.
There is a lot to learn from these complementary studies and collaboration and cross- learning between the two studies in Nepal is already underway. For example, the ADB team is assessing the impact of climate change on agriculture (i.e. crop yield) by using Decision Support Systems for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) model, and the CDKN team will use this analysis, along with other evidence lines, to build up the analysis of long-term risks.
The workshops held provided the first of many opportunities for CDKN, the ADB and our partners to share experiences and learning. Together we will be able to advance understanding of the economics of climate change - and the economics of adaptation – which will ultimately allow us to estimate the potential cost of climate change and the most efficient way of adapting to it.
Elizabeth Colebourn is a Project Manager for CDKN Asia based in New Delhi, and Ram Chandra Khanal is a Country Coordinator for CDKN based in Kathmandu. For more information on CDKN’s project in Nepal on the Economics of Climate Change, contact firstname.lastname@example.org


Everything you need to know about inflammation
When something harmful or irritating affects a part of our body, there is a biological response to try to remove it. The signs and symptoms of inflammation can be uncomfortable but are a show that the body is trying to heal itself.
- Inflammation is the body's attempt at self-protection to remove harmful stimuli and begin the healing process.
- Inflammation is part of the body's immune response.
- Infections, wounds, and any damage to tissue would not be able to heal without an inflammatory response.
- Chronic inflammation can eventually cause several diseases and conditions, including some cancers and rheumatoid arthritis.
What is inflammation?
Inflammation is part of the body's immune response.
It can be beneficial when, for example, your knee sustains a blow and tissues need care and protection. However, sometimes, inflammation can persist longer than necessary, causing more harm than benefit.
Inflammation aids wound healing, but chronic inflammation can cause conditions such as asthma or rheumatoid arthritis.
Our immediate reaction to a swelling is to try and decrease it. However, it is important to remember that inflammation is an essential part of the healing process.
The first stage of inflammation is often called irritation, which then becomes inflammation. Inflammation is followed by the discharging of pus. The granulation stage comes next, and new tissue is formed in the wound.
Without inflammation, infections and wounds would never heal.
When a person is born, certain defenses in the immune system are naturally present in the body. This is known as innate immunity.
It is different from adaptive immunity, which we develop after an infection or vaccination when the body "learns" to fight a specific infectious agent.
Innate immunity is generally nonspecific, while adaptive immunity is specific to a particular pathogen. Inflammation is one example of an innate immune response.
Symptoms of inflammation vary depending on whether the reaction is acute or chronic.
The effects of acute inflammation can be summed up by the acronym PRISH. They include:
- Pain: The inflamed area is likely to be painful, especially during and after touching. Chemicals that stimulate nerve endings are released, making the area more sensitive.
- Redness: This occurs because the capillaries in the area are filled with more blood than usual.
- Immobility: There may be some loss of function in the region of the inflammation.
- Swelling: This is caused by a buildup of fluid.
- Heat: More blood flows to the affected area, and this makes it feel warm to the touch.
These five acute inflammation signs only apply to inflammations of the skin. If inflammation occurs deep inside the body, such as in an internal organ, only some of the signs may be noticeable.
For example, some internal organs may not have sensory nerve endings nearby, so there will be no pain, such as in certain types of lung inflammation.
Symptoms of chronic inflammation present in a different way. These can include:
Inflammation is caused by a number of physical reactions triggered by the immune system in response to a physical injury or an infection.
Inflammation does not necessarily mean that there is an infection, but an infection can cause inflammation.
Three main processes occur before and during acute inflammation:
- The small branches of arteries enlarge when supplying blood to the damaged region, resulting in increased blood flow.
- Capillaries become easier for fluids and proteins to infiltrate, meaning that they can move between blood and cells.
- The body releases neutrophils. A neutrophil is a type of white blood cell filled with tiny sacs that contain enzymes and digest microorganisms.
A person will notice inflammation symptoms after these steps take place.
An acute inflammation is one that starts rapidly and becomes severe in a short space of time. Signs and symptoms are normally only present for a few days but may persist for a few weeks in some cases.
Examples of diseases, conditions, and situations that can result in acute inflammation include:
- acute bronchitis
- infected ingrown toenail
- a sore throat from a cold or flu
- a scratch or cut on the skin
- high-intensity exercise
- acute appendicitis
- infective meningitis
- a physical trauma
Chronic or acute inflammation
These are the two types of inflammation that differ in how quickly symptoms escalate and how long they last.
The following table shows the key differences between acute and chronic inflammation:
|Caused by||Harmful bacteria or tissue injury||Pathogens that the body cannot break down, including some types of virus, foreign bodies that remain in the system, or overactive immune responses|
|Duration||A few days||From months to years|
|Outcomes||Inflammation improves, turns into an abscess, or becomes chronic||Tissue death and the thickening and scarring of connective tissue|
What is chronic inflammation?
This refers to long-term inflammation and can last for several months and even years. It can result from:
- failure to eliminate whatever was causing an acute inflammation
- an autoimmune disorder that attacks normal healthy tissue, mistaking it for a pathogen that causes disease
- exposure to a low level of a particular irritant, such as an industrial chemical, over a long period
Examples of diseases and conditions that include chronic inflammation:
- chronic peptic ulcer
- rheumatoid arthritis
- ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease
- active hepatitis
Although damaged tissue cannot heal without inflammation, chronic inflammation can eventually cause several diseases and conditions including some cancers, rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, periodontitis, and hay fever.
Inflammation needs to be well managed.
Is inflammation painful?
Inflammation can cause stiffness and restricted mobility.
When people have inflammation, it often hurts.
People will feel pain, stiffness, discomfort, distress, and even agony, depending on the severity of the inflammation. The type of pain varies. It can be described as constant and steady, throbbing and pulsating, stabbing, or pinching.
Inflammation primarily causes pain because the swelling pushes against the sensitive nerve endings. This sends pain signals to the brain.
Other biochemical processes also occur during inflammation. They affect how nerves behave, and this can enhance pain.
As mentioned earlier in this article, inflammation is part of the healing process. Sometimes, reducing inflammation is helpful, though not always necessary.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can be taken to alleviate the pain caused by inflammation.
They counteract an enzyme that contributes to inflammation. This either prevents or reduces pain.
Avoid the long-term use of NSAIDs unless advised by a doctor. They increase a person's risk of stomach ulcers, which can result in severe, life-threatening bleeding.
Acetaminophen, such as paracetamol or Tylenol, can reduce pain without affecting the inflammation. They may be ideal for those wishing to treat just the pain while allowing the healing factor of the inflammation to run its course.
Corticosteroids, such as cortisol, are a class of steroid hormones that prevent a number of mechanisms involved in inflammation.
There are two sets of corticosteroids:
Glucocorticoids: These are prescribed for a range of conditions, including:
- temporal arteritis
- inflammatory bowel disease (IBS)
- systemic lupus
- allergic reactions
Creams and ointments may be prescribed for inflammation of the skin, eyes, lungs, bowels, and nose.
Mineralocorticoids: These are used to treat cerebral salt wasting, and to replace important hormones for patients with adrenal insufficiency.
The side effects of corticosteroids are more likely if taken by mouth. Taking them with inhalers or injections can reduce the risk.
Inhaled medications, such as those used long-term to treat asthma, raise the risk of developing oral thrush. Rinsing the mouth out with water after each use can help prevent oral thrush.
Glucocorticoids can also cause Cushing's syndrome, while mineralocorticoids can cause high blood pressure, low blood potassium levels, connective tissue weakness, and problems with the levels of acids and alkalis in body tissue.
Herbs for inflammation
Ginger has anti-inflammatory benefits.
Discuss any possible use of herbal supplements with a doctor.
Harpagophytum procumbens: Also known as devil's claw, wood spider, or grapple plant, this herb comes from South Africa and is related to sesame plants. Some research has shown it may have anti-inflammatory properties. Various brands are available to purchase online.
Hyssop: This is mixed with other herbs, such as licorice, for the treatment of some lung conditions, including inflammation. The essential oils of hyssop can lead to life-threatening convulsions in laboratory animals. Caution is advised.
Ginger: This has been used for hundreds of years to treat dyspepsia, constipation, colic, and other gastrointestinal problems, as well as rheumatoid arthritis pain. Ginger may be purchased online in supplement form.
Turmeric: Current research is looking into the possible beneficial effects of turmeric in treating arthritis, Alzheimer's disease, and some other inflammatory conditions. Curcumin, a substance found in turmeric, is being invested for the treatment of several illnesses and disorders, including inflammation. Supplements with turmeric and curcumin are available.
Cannabis: This contains a cannabinoid called cannabichromene, which has been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties. However, cannabis is not legal in many places.
There are several foods that can have been shown to help reduce the risk of inflammation, including:
- olive oil
- nuts, such as walnuts and almonds
- leafy greens, including spinach and kale
- fatty fish, such as salmon and mackerel
- fruit, including blueberries and oranges
Avoid eating foods that aggravate inflammation, including:
- fried foods, including French fries
- white bread, pastry, and other foods that contain refined carbohydrates
- soda and sugary drinks
- red meat
- margarine and lard
While these dietary solutions do not alone hold the key to controlling inflammation, they can help prime the immune system to react in a measured way.
We picked linked items based on the quality of products, and list the pros and cons of each to help you determine which will work best for you. We partner with some of the companies that sell these products, which means Healthline UK and our partners may receive a portion of revenues if you make a purchase using a link(s) above.


The Forest Products Laboratory and the University of Wisconsin-Madison (UW) have a history of collaboration aimed at making electronic components from wood. From flexible electronic screens to computer chips, this partnership has produced fascinating results. Learn more about the latest development in the following article from the UW.
Critical communications component made on a flexible wooden film
By Jason Daley
In the not-too-distant future, flexible electronics will open the door to new products like foldable phones, tablets that can be rolled, paper-thin displays and wearable sensors that monitor health data. Developing these new bendy products, however, means using materials like new plastics and thin films to replace the rigid circuit boards and bulky electronic components that currently occupy the interiors of cell phones and other gadgets.
Forest Products Laboratory (FPL) researcher Zhiyong Cai, with industrial and academic partners from Domtar Corporation and Mississippi State University, was granted a patent on June 2, 2020 for their method of synthesizing graphene from lignin.
Graphene is one of the most promising materials of the future. Its potential to be implemented in tech manufacturing is huge, from medicine to medical devices, electronics to batteries, environmental protection equipment to devices used for clean-energy, and more.
One barrier to realizing the vast capabilities of this material is finding a low-cost, largely available source for graphene. The ability to produce graphene from lignin, as the patent describes, breaks down that barrier.
“Lignin is a primary component of the plant cell wall in most terrestrial plants and the second most abundant biopolymer in nature,” explained Cai. A byproduct of the pulping and papermaking process, most lignin has been used as a low-value material for fueling power and heat. Cai and his collaborators’ process now provides a higher value use for lignin. Importantly, the synthesizing method is not just limited to lignin but can be used to produce graphene from other solid carbon resources as well, especially biomass.
This novel method of synthesizing graphene allows for high-volume production. Cai best explained this now patented process:
“Few-layer graphene materials are produced through a molecular cracking and welding (MCW) method. The MCW technique is a single step process with two stages, i.e., graphene-encapsulated core–shell nanoparticles are first formed by catalytic thermal treatment of solid carbon materials. Then these core–shell structures are opened by ‘cracking molecules’ in the second stage and the cracked graphene shells are self-welded and reconstructed to form high quality multilayer graphene materials at a heating temperature with selected welding reagent gases.”
This new and innovative method has been proven “to be a scalable process for the production of low-cost, high-purity nanoscale graphene materials from renewable resources,” bringing the fabrication of tomorrow’s technologies one step closer.
To find out more about the amazing advancements our scientists are making, visit the Forest Products Laboratory at: https://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/
Like a raging forest fire, climate change has many fronts. And it won’t be fixed by a singular solution. Heroic systemic changes throughout all sectors are needed in order to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Cars, factory smokestacks, and coal are primary sources that easily come to mind when thinking about GHGs.
But turning a key on a brand-new home, whether apartment or single family? Could that really account for nearly a quarter of CO2 emissions?
A 2018 study titled, “Carbon Emission of Global Construction Sector,” found that global construction in 2009 produced 23% of CO2 emissions. That is 5.7 billion tons of carbon dioxide. And the hunger for new construction has only increased in the years since.
University of Colorado Denver (CU) professor and architect Julee Herdt, in collaboration with John Hunt of the Forest Products Laboratory (FPL), and Kellen Schauermann, architect, CU alumnus and research assistant, recently received a patent for environmental construction materials.
BioSIPs structural panels for wall, floor, and roof constructions.
The patent includes software and material science for converting 100 percent waste fibers, such as post-consumer wastepaper, agriculture residues, flowers, hemp, wood scraps, noxious weeds, dead trees, and other unwanted cellulose, into high-strength construction boards. Using the technology, these dense yet lightweight and strong boards are bent and flexed into a virtually limitless array of shapes, from flat to complex, for making energy-efficient, non-off-gassing building materials, and buildings. The software also allows for associated manufacturing, economic, and recycling scenarios to be studied while the waste fiber eco-products are being designed. Continue reading →
The following is a post on the USDA blog highlighting research from the Forest Products Laboratory and the Northern Research Station. The original post can be seen here.
The Revolutionary Role of Wood in our Future
by David N. Bengston, Research and Development, USDA Forest Service
Some people are just way ahead of their time. In the mid-20th century, when most people thought of wood as an archaic and low-tech material, Egon Glesinger foresaw the revolutionary role it would play in our future, described in his book The Coming Age of Wood.
Scientists in the Northern Research Station’s new Strategic Foresight Group developed a horizon scanning system to identify emerging issues and trends that could be game-changers. A theme that has emerged is the wave of amazing innovations in wood products that could prove Mr. Glesinger right.
For example, wood-based nanomaterials have been produced at the Forest Products Lab (FPL) for more than five years. This renewable, biodegradable material can be used to make computer chips, flexible computer displays, car panels, replacement tendons – for humans – and coatings that keep food fresh longer.
Tall wood buildings, or plyscrapers, are sprouting up across the globe today, built with cross-laminated timber (CLT) and based on research from the FPL and elsewhere. CLT is made from layers of wood crisscrossed and held together by fire-resistant glue. It is as strong as structural steel, greatly speeds up construction, and has a much lower carbon footprint than steel and concrete buildings.
Power-generating wood flooring is being tested at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, a collaboration between the University’s College of Engineering and the FPL. Made mostly from recycled wood pulp, the flooring is chemically treated to produce an electrostatic charge as people walk across it. The charge can power lights and smart building sensor networks, and charge batteries.
These and many other marvels of wood product innovation could make the 21st century the century of wood , increasing demand for wood, leading to increased tree planting to meet demand, and the development of markets for wood currently lacking market value. Importantly, thinning overgrown forests with high fuel loads to supply these markets may also decrease wildfire risk.


Similarly to Bitcoin, Dash is a digital currency that can be used to send or receive payments. Dash was built based on the blockchain technology that Bitcoin also uses, but it was significantly upgraded.
Dash… characteristics of the cryptocurrency.
Evan Duffield stumbled upon Bitcoin in 2010 and was very impressed of the technology, but wasn’t a big fan of the slow transaction speed and the lack of privacy.
He had many ideas about how to improve Bitcoin, but the Bitcoin core members never let him implement them, as it would mean changing the source code. Which is why he decided to use some of Bitcoin’s source code and create his own cryptocurrency.
Dash was first called Xcoin, which then turned into “DarkCoin”. Within the first two days after the premiere, 1,9 million coins were mined, which is about 10% of the total supply that will ever be distributed. Evan Duffield said it was caused by an error that was created when the Litecoin code was forked to create Dash.
Dash has an 16 million coins limit, while currently in circulation there are about 7,85 million coins. Every coin costs 697 USD, and the total market cap stands at 5,4 billion USD. The average mining time is 2,5 minutes, so 4 times shorter than Bitcoin.
Dash also has a changing block reward, which gets 7,1% smaller every year.
Dash in comparison to others
Bitcoin, despite its many advantages, also has a lot of downsides. One of these is a block size limit, which slows down the transaction time and the 10-minute process of creating a block, which in turn limits the actual use of Bitcoin transactions by users.
Being an open source project, Bitcoin has no financing model for programmers. It also lacks a consistent management mechanic that would allow for easy discussing and implementing protocol changes. Verifying the blockchain data is managed by lower class nodes on voluntary principle and there is no financial compensation that would encourage updating the hard- and software.
Bitcoin transactions are also lacking when it comes to privacy. Due to these and many other faults, Bitcoin is met with higher and higher entry barriers while trying to enter general market, and the dream of a true P2P electronic money was buried under the heap of neverending debates and slow updates.
The creators of Dash wanted to publish a new blockchain, which would be free of these faults. The Dash programmers created their blockchain as the first self-financing and self-managing protocol with immediate payments, working in the Masternodes network. Some of the key features introduced in Dash include:
- Masternodes. Unlike Bitcoin, Dash included Masternodes to encourage users to pay in order to secure the network and adding interesting transaction functions, like InstantSend. Masternode operators get 45% of the reward for mining a block.
- InstandSend. Instantsend uses the InstantX function of Masternode to send and confirm transactions within seconds. Distribution of Bitcoin blocks takes 10 minutes on average, and 6 typical confirmations of big transactions can take up to an hour.
- PrivateSend. Dash introduced the PrivateSend transactions, which allow a Dash user to choose full privacy with their transactions.
- Self-sufficient, decentralized device. Dash blockchain is also self-financing. A part of every block – 10% as of today – is dedicated to the network development and promotion budget. This means that Dash programmers and promoters will receive payment for their contributions, unlike with Bitcoin, where changes are voluntary and uninitiated.
The Instant Send function – how does it work
InstantSend is a function of the Dash protocol that utilizes transaction blocking and masternode consensus to enable instant Dash blockchain transactions. InstantSend allows Dash to compete with the existing centralized payment platforms like Visa, which offer fast transactions. The Dash InstantSend technology offers just that, but with a decentralized system.
The first part of the InstantSend function is transaction blocking. This mechanism serves to prevent double spending within the Dash network. Currently, for the sellers to protect against double spending in systems like Bitcoin, they usually have to wait for the block to be confirmed in order to ensure that the sent transaction is valid. The obstacle in this case is that one block on the Bitcoin chain takes about 10 minutes to be confirmed. Transaction blocking serves as a way to improve the way double transactions are currently handled in the cryptocurrency systems, which in turn allows for faster transactions.
In the case of transaction blocking, the client signals the intention of blocking the means from one entry to a certain exit in the whole network. It happens through sending a message with the transaction and the accompanying block request. When the blocking message gets distributed in the Dash network and delivered to everyone, a set of chosen in a deterministic fashion masternodes, which are the second element of the InstantSend function, create a consensus. After reaching consensus, another message gets distributed in the network, making all the clients obey the blockade.
The uniqueness, popularity, and perspectives of Dash
Despite its functions, Dash is still catching up to Bitcoin, who had 5 years of headstart. It is currently the 6th biggest cryptocurrency in total market cap.
Market capitalisation is just one of the ways to measure the status of a cryptocurrency. The fluctuation in cryptocurrency prices affect the market cap of crypto. The daily transaction volume – calculated in USD – is surely a more useful measure. The trading volume shows just how much the cryptocurrency is actually used. Today Dash’s trading volume takes 11th place with 61,27 mln USD.
Even daily trading volumes can’t provide the full picture, as most of them are transactions made on markets and not during paying in real life. It’s an important difference. Many markets use Bitcoins to trade, meaning you have to buy them first to then exchange it for other cryptocurrencies. This can distort the numbers, but it also goes to show the advantages Bitcoin has. However, looking at market limits and trading volumes it is worth noting that other cryptocurrencies that function similarly to Dash are sometimes even higher in rankings. Litecoin also generates blocks roughly every 2,5 minutes and has been maintaining higher capitalisation than Dash for a long time. Monero, another coin focused on privacy, published the same year as Dash has a higher daily trading volume. Ripple also offers fast transaction confirmations and has a strong position among the top 5.
As previously mentioned, Dash is aiming to become the currency for everyday transactions. It cast a wide net to realize this ambition. Aside from the United States it’s present in many other countries. For example, it already started initiatives in a few countries that are in dire economic straits and which experiment with cryptocurrencies.
Dash’s perspectives seem interesting. The government of Venezuela, which recently introduced their own cryptocurrency “petro”, already issued an order for government agencies to accept any cryptocurrencies. Dash was an early applicant in this country, organizing conferences with many members, to implement cryptocurrencies.


You may be surprised to hear this, but according to a Feb. 12 report, the total number of people who are struggling to pay back what they owe in medical bills has dropped during the last decade. Why? Part of the reason is believed to be the Affordable Care Act.
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) has stated that the number of families struggling to pay medical expenses is only 14% for 2018. In 2011, the total was closer to 20%.
Why is that good news? The NCHS found that households that didn’t need to struggle to pay medical bills were more likely to have firmer financial footing overall.
Previous studies had shown that not being able to pay for medical bills often led to other problems, such as not being able to afford food or having trouble paying rent. It was even linked to an increase in bankruptcies.
As uninsured rates declines, there were more people who had access to care at a more affordable rate. Better coverage made it more likely that people could pay their medical bills and avoid being trapped under expenses that were seemingly impossible to cover.
That isn’t to say that there aren’t people who still struggle. Women, children and black Americans are still more likely than other groups to live in a family that is struggling to pay medical bills. Today, if you’re someone who is struggling to make ends meet because of large medical bills, you don’t have to face it alone. There are alternatives that you can use to help you get out of debt.


Concept Developers & Coordinators: Shirin Jetha & Daphne Lappa (Association for Historical Dialogue & Research)
Educational purpose: History of Cyprus, Conflict Resolution and peace building, Geography of Nicosia and Tourism
Target audience: Young people and adults
Web: to be provided following the launch of the game in autumn 2015
Further information: firstname.lastname@example.org
Nicosia, the capital of the Mediterranean island of Cyprus and the only remaining divided capital city in the world. The inter-communal conflict between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots that began in the 1950’s transformed the shared city of Nicosia into an almost mutually exclusive ethno-religious zone, until the division of the island in 1974.
Today the dividing line or buffer zone as its commonly known remains, physically divides the old city within the walls into two, separating the northern and southern parts of the city. It is the old city that the ‘Nicosia is Calling’ game centers on. The game is a project of the Association of the Historical Dialogue & research (AHDR); an inter-communal non-governmental organization based in Nicosia, Cyprus.
One of the catalysts for the creation of the game is the fact that the divided city of Nicosia, and especially the old city within the walls, is a place that is relatively unknown and unfamiliar to Cypriots, and even the residents of the city itself.
Despite the ease of restriction of movement, with the first checkpoint being opened to the public in 2003, some people remain afraid to cross to the “other” side. Moreover, Cyprus currently has two separate educational systems that teach the history of the Island to its young people in a form that perpetuates the notion of the ‘other’ and the ‘enemy’.
‘Nicosia is Calling’ was created in an effort to combat such disengagement, by providing young people a resource enabling them to learn more about the old city of Nicosia without having to rely on the formal education process, or even needing to leave their computer! As children living in the northern part of Cyprus and children living in the southern part of Cyprus can simultaneously learn without limitation about the common history of Nicosia, the game is an invaluable resource.
Nicosia is Calling is organized into several mini-games designed to teach players about the rich history and culture of the island’s capital city Nicosia. In the Puzzle game, players must drop and drag each of Nicosia’s twenty-three quarters into its correct place on a map of the walled city before using information provided to answer questions about the quarter’s history. The Then and Now game requires players to match old photos of Nicosia with modern photos captured in the same location, thus providing players with a sense of the city’s incredible evolution throughout time. The Pin It game allows players the opportunity to learn about important landmarks throughout the city, as well as where to find them, through choosing the correct quarter for each landmark on a map of the walled city. Both the Match Pictos and Match Photos games are memory challenges in which players must identify pairs of matching landmarks or photos of Nicosia within a larger group of cards.
It is the hope of the AHDR, that the ‘Nicosia is Calling’ game will contribute to the healing of wounds, as well as prompt Nicosia’s residents (and Cypriots in general) to identify once more with their city, to empathize with its turbulent past, to understand what it means to be living in a shared city as well as to reflect on what this could mean for the future of the island.


The title of this new edition of the Turners' book is too modest. Although their 304-page geographical history contains thousands of Humboldt County place names, each name also gets its own paragraph of concise historical information, a detailed list of references, and sometimes even a photo. Take, for example, the town of Crannell, known to most of us as only a name on an exit ramp north of Clam Beach. In one concise paragraph, the Turners tell us that the place was first named Bullwinkel, that it was owned by three different timber companies, and that it was named for Levi Crannell, president of the company that bought the site in 1906 from Conrad Bullwinkle (they note the difference in spelling) and built the mill there. A Merle Shuster aerial photo shows Crannell in 1947, and there are references to 15 articles telling more about the place. The casual reader can thus spend five minutes learning the basics about Crannell while the serious researcher, using the Turners' citations, can easily spend five hours or more.
So it is that Place Names of Humboldt County becomes a portal to the past. Those of us who have spent any time in the area know that the county pulsates with history -- neighborhoods filled with century-old Victorians, remote ranches astride dusty roads, abandoned schoolhouses and bridges from another era -- but the Turners broaden and deepen our knowledge with images and information that reveal what is no longer present. We see Martin's Ferry when there was no bridge there but instead an actual ferry; we learn that there was once a town named Eel River but that anyone now alive knows it only as Rohnerville; we find that now-vanished Humboldt City (which lasted barely a year) was written about on at least 21 occasions. Open the book to any page and you can travel across 50 miles of countryside and back 150 years in time.
The Turners published the first edition of Place Names in 1993. This second edition shows how they have spent the intervening 17 years: making corrections, gathering new information and photos, polishing what was already a bright and shining book. There are hundreds of additional entries in the new edition, and numerous new images, most noteworthy a number of Merle Shuster's magnificent aerials and contemporary shots by Gloria Turner.
Unlike its predecessor, this new edition is hardcover. It was a necessary improvement, for most readers will refer to Place Names so often that anything less sturdy would soon be worn out.
Note: The Turners will be signing copies of Place Names on Thursday, Dec. 2, from 4 to 6 p.m. at the Humboldt County Historical Society, 8th and H Sts., Eureka.


Most side-impact crashes happen at intersections, where drivers run red lights or stop signs, and as a result, hit the side of another car. Individuals involved in these crashes (also commonly referred to as T-bone or broadside accidents) do not typically see the crash coming – but even if they did happen to see the vehicle barreling toward them, there would be little they could do to stop the accident from happening. Sometimes, this element can do psychological damage to the accident victim.
To make matters worse, while most cars have additional protective features for front and rear impact crashes, such as airbags and bumpers, only a small percentage of newer cars offer side curtain airbags to protect passengers from injury during side-impact accidents. Sadly, this lack of protection increases the risk of serious and debilitating injuries among T-bone accident victims.
Rear Passengers at Greater Risk of Serious Injury in Side-Impact Crashes
Side-impact accidents can affect everyone in the vehicle at different levels. In fact, you may be surprised to know that rear-seated occupants could be more vulnerable to injury than those in the front seat.
According to research conducted by the Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health Department of Epidemiology, more serious injuries were sustained by rear seat occupants because those in the front seat have more safety features to protect them. Adults were also found to be more prone to injury than infants and children in car seats.
Injuries Commonly Sustained by Victims in Side-Impact Crashes
Many of the injuries sustained in these accidents are to the head, neck, back, ribs, shoulders and arms, and hips and legs. Many experience whiplash or a bump on the head that results in a concussion, or traumatic brain injury. If left untreated, it could lead to more serious problems.
One of the main injuries that often happen as a result of a side-impact crash is a broken clavicle. In fact, a study conducted by the International Research Council on Biomechanics of Injury found that most injuries occur to the upper body, with 41.5% of occupants sustaining fractures to the clavicle. The study also noted that side‐impact collisions cause more injuries than frontal impact collisions, with most injuries resulting from contact with the door.
Arguably one of the most debilitating and long-lasting injuries from these accidents are the mental and emotional traumas that follow. Many research studies, including one published in Professional Psychology: Research and Practice Journal found that individuals who experience a serious motor vehicle accident are at increased risk for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) that can result in anxiety, depression and even chronic pain.
Contact Our Oshkosh Auto Accident Lawyers
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The Bible frequently presents war, famine and disease as punishment for the wicked. At first this was understood as a regular consequence, but eventually it was assumed to be inflicted upon the world at the end of time. See Deuteronomy ch. 28; Ezekiel 6: 11-12; and Revelation 6:8.
The New Testament also teaches that God loves all the people he has made, and forgives them their sins. If he forgives them, he will not punish them, but simply suffer the misery they cause in others, as he suffered on the cross. He will keep on loving them, and hoping they will share in his spirit of love compassion and concern for social justice.
So are war, famine and disease not a punishment after all? It appears not.
But they often are a consequence of bad dispositions. Political ambition has caused catastrophic wars; greed has kept the wealthy from relieving poverty and hunger; and carelessness has permitted diseases to flourish which could be prevented with decent sanitation, food and medicine. They are not punishment for moral failure, but a common consequence of it.
The world would suffer less from war, famine and disease if more people lived by God’s Spirit of compassion and social justice. You could say they are often a consequence of failing to live as God wants us to live. Not a punishment, but a natural consequence.
The suffering these produce is so horrific and widespread, that we should make every effort we can to reduce it.


The first synthesis is reported of high-entropy two-dimensional layered sheets of carbide MXenes with four transition metals each (TiVNbMoC3 and TiVCrMoC3).
Significance and Impact
This work significantly expands the compositional variety of the MXene family and provides a method of designing 2D materials with tailored and tunable material properties for diverse potential applications.
- Synthesis was confirmed using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, scanning transmission electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy.
- The Center for Nanoscale Materials (CNM) high-performance computing Carbon Cluster was used to compute the formation energies and explore the ability to synthesize high-entropy MAX phases.
Work was performed in part at CNM.
About Argonne’s Center for Nanoscale Materials
The Center for Nanoscale Materials is one of the five DOE Nanoscale Science Research Centers, premier national user facilities for interdisciplinary research at the nanoscale supported by the DOE Office of Science. Together the NSRCs comprise a suite of complementary facilities that provide researchers with state-of-the-art capabilities to fabricate, process, characterize and model nanoscale materials, and constitute the largest infrastructure investment of the National Nanotechnology Initiative. The NSRCs are located at DOE’s Argonne, Brookhaven, Lawrence Berkeley, Oak Ridge, Sandia and Los Alamos National Laboratories. For more information about the DOE NSRCs, please visit https://science.osti.gov/User-Facilities/User-Facilities-at-a-Glance.
Argonne National Laboratory seeks solutions to pressing national problems in science and technology. The nation’s first national laboratory, Argonne conducts leading-edge basic and applied scientific research in virtually every scientific discipline. Argonne researchers work closely with researchers from hundreds of companies, universities, and federal, state and municipal agencies to help them solve their specific problems, advance America’s scientific leadership and prepare the nation for a better future. With employees from more than 60 nations, Argonne is managed by UChicago Argonne, LLC for the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Science.
The U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States and is working to address some of the most pressing challenges of our time. For more information, visit https://energy.gov/science.


Ensuring a good supply of nutrients, in particular phosphorus, from the soil is the nutritional foundation of high yield. Yield increases after P fertilisation of up to 40% are reported under farm conditions in low P index soils. Good fertilisation practice secures this yield potential while minimising the risk of phosphorus loss to water. Placement of P close to the seed in low P soils supports good P utilisation and ensures optimum use of the investment in fertiliser.
Rate of phosphorous application
The above reported evidence on phosphorus supply being particularly important for high yielding faba bean crops grown under low soil-P supply has important implications for production practice in Ireland and in other countries. Faba bean yielding above 6.5 t/ha is common in Ireland. What are the implications for practice and what are the principles that determine these practices?
Soil analysis for plant available P is the basis of planning phosphorus applications to all crops. This involves laboratory analysis of representative soil samples following national or regional guidelines.
The Irish soil index system categorises soils into one of four soil index levels based on the soil test P result (Morgan extraction). Table 1 shows the P recommendation for each soil index for faba bean.
Soil pH and phosphorous uptake
Phosphorus exists in several different forms in soil and the occurrence of each of them depends largely on soil pH. Plant available inorganic P is most abundant when the pH is between 6 and 7. A whole-farm liming regime that maintains soil pH between 6.5 and 7 over the rotation ensures that the soil phosphorus is most available to crops.
Application time and method
Beans as with other legume crops require P for crop growth, from early development to the end of grain fill. Plants require relatively small amounts of P during establishment but have high P uptake during rapid canopy development. Ensuring the availability of P at the establishment phase is essential. This can be from soil reserves or applied P in low P sites.
Phosphorus is relatively immobile in soil and so applications on low index soils must be made at or before sowing to influence plant growth (Table 2). Placement of fertiliser in close proximity to the seed (either by placement in the same furrow as the seed or by side banding at planting/seeding) is an effective method of fertiliser application, especially to provide a starter source of nutrient for early crop nutrition and growth.
Depending on the soil P status, fertiliser may be broadcast (ideal for higher P sites), with or without subsequent incorporation, or placed close to the seed at planting (which is beneficial on low P sites). Where soil phosphorus levels are adequate, faba bean shows little response to timing and method of application.
Where P requirement is high, placing all the P with the seed at sowing may increase the risks of damaging the emerging plant. Incorporation/placement of P at sowing provides a good basis for high yields, especially in low P-soils.
Key practice points
- Research observations indicate that faba bean is responsive to good P fertilisation due to the effect of phosphorus on nodule formation and function. This impacts indirectly on the nitrogen supply from biological nitrogen fixation.
- As a pre-requisite for the effective application of P fertilisers, soil samples must be taken and analysed according to national or regional standard practices to determine the soil phosphorus levels/indices following national guidelines.
- Application methods should take into account soil phosphorus index and the rate of phosphorus to be applied. Placement of P close to seed is important on low P index soils. This is achieved using combined drilling where the fertiliser is placed in or beside the seed row. On high P index soils, placement close to the seed is less important and broadcasting before or after sowing can be used.
Watson, C. A., Reckling, M., Preissel, S., Bachinger, J., Bergkvist, G., Kuhlman, T., Lindström, K., Nemecek, T., Cairistiona F. E. Topp, C. F. E., Vanhatalo, A., Zander, P., Murphy-Bokern, D. and Stoddard, F. L., 2017. Chapter Four – Grain legume production and use in European agricultural systems. Editor(s): Sparks, D. L. Advances in Agronomy, Volume 144, 235–303. doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2017.03.003
Grant, C. A., Flaten, D. N., Tomasiewicz, D. J. and Sheppard, S. C., 2001. The importance of early season phosphorus nutrition. Can. J. Plant Sci. 81(2): 211–224.
Havlin, J. L., Beaton, J. D., Tisdale, S. L. and Nelson, W. L., 2014. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. An introduction to nutrient management. 6th ed. Prentice Hall, NJ.
Henry, J. L., Slinkard, A. E. and Hogg, T. J., 1995. The effect of phosphorus fertilizer on establishment, yield and quality of pea, lentil and faba bean. Can. J. Plant Sci. 75: 395–398.
The Fertilizer Association of Ireland in association with Teagasc, 2019. The efficient use of phosphorus in agricultural soils. Technical Bulletin Series – No. 4, February 2019 (Booklet). www.fertilizer-assoc.ie/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/The-Efficient-Use-of-Phosphorus-In-Agricultural-Soils-Tech-Bulletin-No.-4.pdf
The Fertilizer Association of Ireland in association with Teagasc, 2017. Precise application of fertiliser. Technical Bulletin Series – No. 3, May 2017. www.teagasc.ie/publications/2017/precise-application-of-fertiliser.php
The Fertilizer Association of Ireland in association with Teagasc, 2015. Soil Sampling – Why & How? Technical Bulletin Series – No. 1, October 2015. www.fertilizer-assoc.ie/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Fert-Assoc-Tech-Bulletin-No.-1-Soil-Sampling.pdf


A powerful federal arts commission is urging that the sculpture of Martin Luther King Jr. proposed for a memorial on the Tidal Basin be reworked because it is too "confrontational" and reminiscent of political art in totalitarian states.The sculpture — you can see the model of it at the link — is to be 28 feet tall. That's 8 feet taller than the statue of Abraham Lincoln in the Lincoln Monument, but Lincoln is sitting down, so the scale is somewhat smaller. If you've ever seen the Lincoln statue in person, you know it's huge, much bigger than it seems in photographs. It's actually quite weird, I think. But why shouldn't the MLK monument be on a similar scale? And once you decide you want a large statue of a man, what is going to prevent it from looking like social realist sculptures? It's inherent in the concept. If social realist statues bother you, maybe you shouldn't order a colossus.
The U.S. Commission of Fine Arts thinks "the colossal scale and Social Realist style of the proposed statue recalls a genre of political sculpture that has recently been pulled down in other countries," commission secretary Thomas Luebke said in a letter in April.
By law, no project like the memorial can go forward without approval from the commission, the federal agency that advises the government on public design and aesthetics in the capital.
A model of the statue has been built in China. The project's chief architect, Ed Jackson Jr., huddled with advisers this week in Ann Arbor, Mich., to discuss ways to address the commission's objections before sculpting of the granite statue begins.
"We said: 'Okay, this is what the commission said. How best can we achieve that and retain what we have accomplished thus far?' "
It is the second time in recent months that the memorial to the slain civil rights leader has come under fire. Last year, critics complained after a Chinese sculptor known for his monumental works of figures such as Mao Zedong was selected to create King and other elements of the memorial in China.
That said, perceptions of this particular colossus may be affected by 2 things:
1. The knowledge that the sculptor — Lei Yixin — is Chinese and made big statues of Mao Zedong.
2. Racism. You see a black man and you worry that he's angry or on the verge of a violent outburst. This man looks "confrontational."
Now, are these inappropriate considerations that we need to put aside in order to judge the statue properly? It's not obvious.
As to influence #1, the choice of the sculptor has already taken place, and it's not fair to reject him now for what we knew of him then. Nevertheless, we may expect him to express American values and even to exaggerate those values so that an average viewer who knows the sculptor made Mao statues will not see anything Maoist about the MLK statue. The sculptor has got a deficit to make up, and we ought to think about that as we judge his work. That's the argument that it's acceptable to not to overcome influence #1.
As to influence #2, you know very well that you should not be racist. But perhaps we should take into account that people viewing the statue are human and will therefore perceive a statue of a black man through whatever racism remains in their thought patterns. If there is to be a statue honoring a black man, perhaps the sculptor must make a special effort to avoid a depiction that prompts any racist perceptions. That's the argument that it's acceptable not to overcome influence #2 in judging the statue.
Now, with that in mind, what do we think of the Commission's criticism?
Its general design was approved by the seven-member federal commission that year, based on drawings of the Stone of Hope that showed a more subtle image of King, from the waist up, as if he were emerging organically out of the rock, the commission said....So the large block of stone is crucial to the design. It's abstract and metaphorical. I have to agree that it looks like the sculptor wanted to depict a freestanding human figure and mainly annoyed at the restrictive block of stone connected to it. Yet that itself is metaphorical. Those Michelangelo sculptures Luebke is talking about were slaves. Their oneness with the stone expressed slavery. The MLK image should not relate to the stone in quite the same way. I think the real issue here is whether the thing is well sculpted. To my eye, it is not. The figure-stone relationship is not interesting or beautiful.
Commission members said the sculpture "now features a stiffly frontal image, static in pose, confrontational in character," Luebke wrote. They "recommended strongly that the sculpture be reworked, both in form and modeling" and cited "precedents of a figure emerging from stone in the works of sculptors such as Michelangelo and Rodin."
The commission objected to what it perceived as the loss of the subtle way King seemed to be coming out of the stone in the drawings, Luebke said.
"I think that the metaphor of Dr. King being merged with the natural forces of this stone is absolutely essential to avoid colossal monumentalization," commission member N. Michael McKinnell said at the April 17 meeting.
But the emerging-from-the-stone problem is less troublesome than the crossed arms. Jackson (the architect) defends the stance, and notes that they had a photograph of MLK with his arms crossed like that. But of course, there are innumerable photos of MLK and most of them, I'm sure, would never suggested themselves as a good model for a large statue. The point is the sculptor and his team liked the attitude of confrontation. They wanted MLK the "warrior." One consultant said they rejected the notion of MLK as "pacifist, placid, kind of vanilla." But crossed arms expressed resistance and even rejection. Much as MLK had cause to express such things in his lifetime, the question is what one expression do we now want carved in stone. Shouldn't he be more positive and welcoming? Shouldn't he love us now that we love him?
Or are we only thinking that way because we haven't gotten used to it?
Would you reject the brooding, downcast Lincoln sculpture if you were seeing it for the first time?
Oh, good Lord, he's so depressed! His clothes are horribly sagging. And he's slumping in that chair with his big, gawky hands hanging over those big Roman fasces. Fascism!


For applying in a US college, a well-written essay is required as a part of your application. This is your chance to show the admissions officers that who you are and to provide information about yourself that may not be suitable for other areas of your application. The article also reveals your area of expertise when thinking and working on a writing project. College admission essays are an integral and important part of being selected in college in the admissions process. Here are the top ten tips to help you compose the essay best:
- Start early:
Give yourself enough time to write the essay. The admission essay is not terribly time-consuming, but you should not want to rush it. Write the draft of the article and give yourself time to reflect on it. The time to reflect and think about this article may be the most rewarding.
- Content strategy:
You can write unique things in your admission essay. Take time to describe yourself and the major things in your life. Things that make you interesting and unique, like how you entered and the struggle you are going through. In this case, the admissions office will also get a feel for your personality.
- Start with a brainstorm:
Write down your brainstorming ideas, and keep a record of them by writing them. After writing an idea, you can move on to your next idea. When the brainstorm is over, classify what you have written to develop possible good ideas. Different concepts can create more fun ideas You may be able to consider new things. It is your responsibility to decide what to do with these ideas and issues.
- Answer the college application essay questions:
To write an admission essay at a US university you have to answer certain questions. These things are very simple and can be answered only from common experience. Therefore, it is advisable that you answer the questions correctly in your essay, which will make your essay more attractive to the admissions committee.
- Describe the personal experience:
The purpose of the personal experience described in your article is to show that you have reached maturity and ability. Another strategy is to understand how important it is for you to study in the field you want because of some prior experience in your life.
- Be vivid:
A good essay often flows like a story. In many cases, this is the anecdote of an important moment. Provide some details to help the readers to get acquainted with it. Use names including your brother, teacher, or coach to make the essay lively.
- Word limit:
Word limit is particularly important in a college admission essay. The maximum words you can use in your college admission essay is 650 words and the minimum word limit is 250. You should write your essay maintaining the word limit. A long-described essay will decrease the interest to read.
- Be authentic:
Admissions officers are honoured to know if the essay is depicting a person in an authentic way. If this is a lie, you are less likely to be admitted. As such, you can truly enlighten yourself through authentic descriptions in your essay.
Punctuation errors, misspellings, grammar error can make your writing quality down. Read each sentence carefully and rectify as needed.
- Maintain the deadline:
College admission essays require a lot of work. Focus on admission deadlines and requirements as you compose and rework the work. Each school has its own system for how and when to file your application.
The top ten best tips are discussed so that a student can write their admission application essay correctly for US colleges and make it even more interesting.


The odyssey of my colleagues and I started in 1982, the day Conrado Zavala, a villager in Central America, sheepishly showed us his experiment. Skeptical about the value of the organic matter we had recommended, he had piled a huge quantity of compost into several rows of his maize field. The last two rows he left as a control, untilled and unfertilized. There, before our eyes, stood a field of maize 2-1/2 meters tall, with the last row less than 40 cm tall. That was the day we began to realize the incredible degree to which organic matter can restore soils.
Maximize organic matter production
Little by little, work in a dozen countries has convinced us that the vast majority of soils can be made highly fertile. How? By using our first principle: maximize organic matter production.
Conrado’s particular approach, however, was anti-economic. The cost of using compost on basic grains exceeds the benefit. But intercropped green manure/cover crops (gm/cc’s) can produce from 50 to 140 tons per hectare (green weight) of organic matter with very little work: no transporting of material and no cutting up, layering or turning over of compost heaps. In fact, sometimes, because of the gm/cc’s control of weeds, net labor costs decrease. And soil quality often improves visibly each year. Then, as often happens, we found we were far from the first to employ intercropped gm/cc’s. Gradually, between 1985 and 1992, we learned that villager farmers from Veracruz State in Mexico through Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras were intercropping velvetbeans (Mucuna pruriens), cowpeas (Vigna spp.) and jackbeans (Canavalia ensiformis) with their maize and sorghum.
Keep the soil covered
To our amazement, these systems, virtually all of them in the supposedly infertile humid tropics, allow farmers to plant maize every year for decades, with productivity increasing over time up to four tons per hectare. In other words, these farmers have found an answer to slash-and-burn agriculture. Migratory agriculture is most frequently motivated by decreasing fertility, increased weed problems, or both. In the Mesoamerican gm/cc systems, nitrogen fixation and biomass recycling maintain soil fertility. Mulches of crop residues and fast-growing gm/cc’s drastically reduce the weed problem. We had learned a second principle: keep the soil covered.
Gm/cc mulches provide a whole series of additional benefits. They protect the soil from irradiation and the heat of the tropical sun, thereby also reducing burnout of organic matter. They save a tremendous amount of work; farmers can sow into the plant residue rather than tilling the soil. They keep the excess nitrogen from acidifying the upper soil horizons. And they largely prevent soil erosion, even on slopes of 40 degrees. In the meantime, we had been reading Fukuoka’s book, The One-Straw Revolution. However, his recommendation of zero tillage failed to convince us. After all, most of the traditional agriculture in Latin America uses zero tillage, yet is far from productive. In mid-1993, I visited the work of EPAGRI in southern Brazil.
Having visited over 160 agricultural development programs through the years, I found this largely unpublicized effort to be the finest of its size I had seen in Latin America. Literally tens of thousands of farmers were producing harvests approaching those in the U.S.-with gm/cc’s and zero tillage.
Valdemar de Freitas, EPAGRI’s manager, showed us that the secret to achieving zero tillage is applying massive amounts of organic matter to the soil. Brazilian farmers, after some four years of applying gm/cc’s to the soil, are able to quit plowing. (This is now outdated as corroborated recently by Valdemar. “We now know that plowing down green manure is a much, much slower way to improving soil structure than going straight to zero tillage. The enhanced biological activity under ZT is the key to soil structure renovation.” August, 2001) The advantages, in terms of better soil structure, reduced soil compaction, higher fertility, and decreased cost, are impressive. Interestingly, farmers often use non-leguminous gm/cc’s to increase biomass in order to quit plowing sooner. That is, they spend scarce income on nitrogen fertilizer for three or four years in order to achieve zero tillage sooner. The Brazilians’ discovery explains why the zero tillage gm/cc systems of northern Honduras-and Fukuoka’s-produce so well, while many traditional zero tillage systems do not. Thus we added a third principle: use zero tillage.
Maintain biological diversity
EPAGRI’s investigation and dissemination of over 60 species of gm/cc partly to avoid diseases and insect pests, confirmed another, more widely known fourth principle: maintain biological diversity.
This last principle was discovered by Martha Rosemeyer, a Cornell doctoral candidate working in Costa Rica. For several years, agronomists working with a low-cost, traditional, mulched-bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) system had been trying to solve a phosphorus deficiency problem. With highly acid (pH = 4.0 to 4.5) soils, virtually all the phosphorus applied became tied up almost instantly. Farmers’ harvests averaged 500 kgs/Ha.
Feed plants through the mulch
Martha and a group of farmers tried broadcasting the phosphorus on top of the mulch. The results, since confirmed in numerous additional experiments, were astounding. Bean yields rose to between 1.5 and 2.5 T/Ha. This would help explain the success of Mesoamerica’s gm/cc systems, and coincides with the fact that plants as diverse as maize, manioc, and tropical trees tend to develop a heavy mass of feeder roots immediately under thick mulches. Furthermore, it makes simple sense: when soils are as hostile to plant growth as are the humid tropic’s acid soils, feeding plants through a mulch would seem a much more promising alternative. The fifth principle is undoubtedly the most unconventional: feed plants through the mulch.
These five principles enjoy a nice synergy. For example, if we are going to feed our plants through a mulch, we certainly cannot plow our fields. Nevertheless, the most important relation between these principles is precisely the one that took us the longest to figure out: They describe quite well the way a humid tropical forest functions. That is, all we discovered in our 12-year odyssey is something we should have guessed all along. In order for humid tropical agriculture to be both highly productive and sustainable, it must imitate the highly productive, millions-of-years-old humid tropical forest (Roland Bunch, COSECHA, Honduras).
The above works in temperate climates as well. In Honduras, farmers, working alone and using hand tools only, farm up to 10 acres using no-till. In a video that trains extension service people, the statement is made “The worst thing that can happen to a soil is the use of a rototiller.” Or a mouldboard or oneway or disk, etc. [KH]
Morrison, an ag engineer in Temple, TX, did several years of research with 100″ wide permanent beds using farm machinery. He later used 80″ and 40″ to accommodate harvesting equipment. It increased yield 10%.
No-till is great once the soil is loaded with organic matter and has become healthy with microbes and earthworms. Walking on and compacting the soil will ruin them so you need to establish permanent walkways and beds. Keeping mulch on the ground year-round is critical with any garden. Without mulch, rain can compact and erode the soil.
To do the plant-through-the-mulch procedure, you’ll have to start by planting the cover crop. Cut the plants off in the spring, leaving the cuttings on the soil to serve as a mulch. Then plant the tomatoes or other crops right into the undisturbed roots without tilling or adding fertilizer. Additional mulch might need to be added after planting if any soil is left exposed.
Tests by the USDA showed that this technique gave a 100% increase in production over conventional fertilizer and tilling. (Howard Garrett, dirtdoctor.com, Dallas Morning News, 3 March 00.)
The above principles apply to very steep field. In Honduras I visited a farm on land with a 73° slope. During Hurricane Mitch, when almost a meter of rain fell in just a few days, this farm had no soil erosion with the permanent beds. They had been built some six years before. Each bed was approximately one meter wide with each bed some one meter below the next one and on the contour. A small channel to carry runoff water, when it was needed, was on the uphill side of each bed. Each bed was made to slope just a little to the channel. On less-sloped land the beds could be wider. No grass, rocks, trees, alley cropping, etc., were used.
Ken teaches workshops in organic, no-till mini-agriculture (urban and rural): gardening, mini-farming, mini-ranching worldwide in English and Spanish.


Micro-algae are driving a small technological revolution. Their cultivation marks a new era in the production of biofuels, reinventing industrial processes as well as economic models. In the United States and Europe, several projects are now moving from an experimenting phase to actual operation.
Cultivation of phytoplankton and specifically of cyanobacteria may be in its infancy, yet it is one of the most promising areas of the biotechnology revolution. These single-celled microscopic organisms develop through a photosynthetic process similar to that of plants, which effectively makes them tiny biochemical factories; in nature, they actively participate in the regulation of CO2. Marine phytoplankton is responsible for more than half of the total CO2 fixation on our planet, and cyanobacteria, which are among the oldest living forms, were even the root of a phenomenon known as the Great Oxygenation Event (GOE) about 2.4 billion years ago: the opposite of the climate crisis threatening us today, with an imbalance of the atmosphere towards increases in oxygen.
Micro-algae develop at a pace that is significantly higher than that of most terrestrial plants: some of these unicellular organisms need as little as 24 hours to divide by mitosis, time and again. Being autotrophic (capable of producing organic matter by operating a reduction of inorganic matter), the sole contribution they require to multiply is that of light, water and CO2. In the process where they are operated industrially to produce biomass, their performance is well above that of terrestrial plants.
Even before taking into account any operations of genetic engineering, nature already has more than 30,000 known species to offer, some of which are both particularly rich in fat and particularly quick to grow.
Cleaning and production
Such remarkable diversity remains insufficiently explored, but we already know that the possibilities brought about by the cultivation of microalgae and algae in general are many. Cultivation can be carried out in a variety of environments, be they closed or open, natural or artificial, and with different purposes: cleansing the environment by benefiting from the capacity capturing carbon (algae and micro-algae) and elements such as nitrogen (algae), or otherwise producing biomass.
Patrick Kangas, professor in the Department of Agriculture and Technology of the University of Maryland, is the instigator of a project to clean up the Chesapeake Bay, while by the same token providing raw material for biofuels. In the fragile and polluted environment of this almost closed-up lagoon, algae proliferate and contribute in creating dead zones, which are oxygen-poor and harmful to aquatic life. However through the culture of seaweed in a controlled system, plants can cleanse the water of its contaminants. In this particular case, filamentous algae will be used.
More ambitious is project Salinalgue developed by the Competitiveness Cluster Mer – PACA, that regroups thirteen partners in a private-public consortium (among these is GDF Suez, one of ParisTech Review’s sponsors). This project aims at producing microalgae grown in halophilic environment over vast lagoon expanses. Its first objectives are of an environmental nature, especially regarding bioremediation (natural sequestration) of industrial CO2 in an economic and legal context marked by the emergence of a carbon tax and the need for European companies to offset their carbon emissions. In this respect the culture of algae brings solutions.
The coastal wetlands of southern France constitute a particularly favorable environment for the development of seaweed farming. They are historically involved with salt production and are in search of conversion; they offer vast untapped expanses but also a large pool of production of industrial CO2 in the vicinity (Fos-sur-Mer). The natural occurrence of micro-algae (Dunaliella salina) allows for exploitation of this CO2 while also producing biomass. After a thorough study in an area of 1000 to 1500 m2, there are plans to exploit 20,000 hectares (50,000 acres) of saltworks.
What to do with the biomass thus produced? Among the possible outlets are sales for aquaculture (to feed fish and shellfish), but also substitutes for fish oils. Rich in fat, microalgae can also be used to produce vegetable oils, which can be transformed into vegetable oil methyl esters, or in layman’s terms, biodiesel. Such is the niche that Salinalgues has positioned itself into, especially because the nearby Fos-sur-Mer site is home to major refineries. Biorefining, which converts biomass into ethanol, requires treatment with CO2, and once more the presence of industrial CO2 constitutes a resource.
Industrialization could take place as soon as 2015. Other projects, involving the production of biofuels in Europe and the United States, are already in operational phase. And the most interesting one is, undoubtedly, the production of artificial petroleum.
Oil’s whole cycle recreated in just two days
The vast majority of the oil existing today actually comes from micro-algae and was formed from their decomposition.
Under certain conditions (deprivation and stress), some species may accumulate from 50 to 80% lipids. This raw material naturally turned into oil in a process that takes tens or hundreds of millions of years: a layer of organic material, covered with sediment, undergoes an increase in temperature and pressure until it eventually turns into kerogen. If certain conditions are met, including temperatures in excess of 50 °C (120 °F), the kerogen is pyrolysed, producing oil, natural gas, or coal.
The main factors of this transformation are pressure and temperature: high pressure and high temperature, applied to a paste made of microalgae biomass, can thus accelerate the cycle. At the initiative of a French engineer, Bernard Stroïazzo-Mougin, a Franco-Spanish team has successfully developed an experimental process and then an industrial one to reproduce the cycle of oil in just two days. Not only does this bio-oil have the ability to burn just like crude oil, but it also has the added advantage of not containing sulfur nor any heavy metal elements almost always present in natural deposits – which are highly polluting.
The very first artificial oil plant was launched in 2010 in Alicante, Spain, and the start-up Bio Fuel Systems (BFS) is producing oil since March 2011. The facility is located near a cement plant rejecting the CO2 indispensable for such an operation. Intensive cultivation of microalgae and the massive absorption of CO2 take place in closed loop environments and in vertical photobioreactors to optimize implant surfaces, to better control physical and chemical properties of the farming environment and to attain maximum profitability.
The goal of this plant is to eventually produce 230,000 barrels of oil per year over an area of 100 acres. A figure that is still small and which corresponds to the consumption of about 20,000 Europeans. Yet, the big oil companies are showing keen interest in the process and Exxon, the world’s No. 1 in the industry, is said to be ready to invest heavily.
Do algae fuels have a future?
One of the advantages of these “third generation” biofuels is that compared to the first and second generations, derived from vegetable oil obtained from terrestrial plants, they do not compete with food crops and therefore do not consume arable land.
Microalgae are unrivaled in terms of biomass production capacity, both in terms of the high and steady pace of this production, but also regarding the specific quality of such biomass, which is free of lignocellulosic compounds (these provide the rigidity of terrestrial plants, from ear to tree). These characteristics make them especially suitable for industrial exploitation.
In addition, production can be carried out in natural settings but also in tanks or in cylinders, almost without contact with the environment, and with a vertical use of space limiting the footprint’s surface. BFS’ photobioreactors are eight meters tall (25 feet) and have been specifically designed to optimize the ground coverage and productivity per hectare.
There are limits, however, which are of several kinds.
The first is the dependence to the sun, which can incur variations in the production cycles. But solutions have already emerged: the company Fermentalg for instance, has recently developed a process to culture in the dark, with high yields.
The second is the rapid fouling of the tubes that happens in closed loop cultures. But again significant progress has been achieved and BFS’ cylinders, for instance, are self-cleaning.
Biorefining is one of the areas where there is room for improvements, and they are necessary. In the case of Salinalgue this is also a major issue for R&D, which is conducted under the authority of the Green laboratory at the University of Avignon. The processes for liquid extraction and fractionation of algal oil are given special attention, with an imperative on the development of clean and energy-efficient processes.
More generally the question of production costs arises, especially when the competition from fossil fuels is taken in consideration. While the production of “blue oil” and algae fuels is now too marginal, too close to the experimental stage, for a comparison with conventional oil to be possible, it is still far from equivalent. Figures vary, but the most optimistic estimates indicate production costs that are two or three orders of magnitude higher on the side of algae fuels. Today, a barrel of blue oil today would thus amount to 30 euros.
Complex and integrated solutions
However Fermentalg and the Alicante plant have something in common: they don’t limit themselves to producing biomass or blue oil. Part of their revenue originates from the sale of beta-carotene and fatty acids like omega 3, which are extracted by pressing and filtering at the beginning of the process, and these are currently trading at around 100,000 euros per ton.
Here we approach what is perhaps the most interesting part in this story: the complexity of industrial models and beyond that, of the economic models implemented to develop this brand new activity.
The production of biofuels from microalgae is part of a multi-product and multi-input structure. The basic model is as follows: among the inputs is industrial CO2. Among the outputs of the biomass are products with high added value (omega 3, etc.) and the basis for biofuels.
And yet this model can be further refined. In Shenandoah (Iowa), Green Plains Renewable Energy and BioProcess Algae Project combines the production of microalgae with a pre-existing corn ethanol production. The microalgae are used to clean residue and to enrich the first-generation biofuels… all while benefitting from the heat produced by the very same refining of these fuels.
What is being invented here are complex uses, looped industrial processes where inputs are outputs and vice versa. Refining heat is reused to grow algae, which feed on waste from ethanol production, and which are then consumed as raw material by the same production. Therefore what we are beholding here is nothing short of a life cycle grafted onto an industrial process, a circularity whose motion brings an uncanny boost to the traditional input-ouput logic.
Similarly, the cost of the raw materials used in the production of microalgae can end up being negative. Indeed, within the framework of European carbon credits, which imposes quota management on industries, the company supplying CO2 may actually make a profit from the tons of carbon saved, and may be willing to pay for the consumption of this carbon. This, clearly, is one of the major stakes in the emerging industry of algae fuels production, which anticipates the future establishment of a carbon-economy by inventing a new value chain.
Paths to improvement
The economical and industrial inventiveness of this industry’s stakeholders is really remarkable. But much remains to be done for the present experiments to give rise to real industrial lines.
There are at least two areas where substantial improvements are expected, which will not change the essence of the model but should allow it to function better.
The first area has to do with biology. There is much to be done on this point, first, regarding a deeper exploration of biodiversity and an improved selection of species best suited for different types of production. Second, regarding the control of their metabolism in order to obtain the best yields. Genetic improvement is obviously one of the most promising leads. As in the case of transgenic maize, the question of contamination risks for the environment and of potential harm to biodiversity will naturally arise. This is consequently a major research issue, beyond the sole expertise of genetic engineers.
A second area is the engineering of processes: be it in production or in extraction and refining, we are still in an era of experiments and vast progress is more than possible. On this point industrial companies are already very active, but they are still few. The expected growth of the sector and the arrival of investors are liable to stimulate this field, to increase competition and to allow for rapid and significant increases in productivity. This is not the last we’ll hear of microalgae.
Microalgae for Biofuel Production and Co2 SequestrationBei Wang
List Price: EUR 140,57
Algae Energy: Algae As a New Source of BiodieselAyhan Demirbas
List Price: EUR 144,89
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By Dr. Dirk Pleiter, Research Group Leader, Jülich Supercomputing Centre
The Human Brain Project (HBP), a flagship project funded by the European Commission, has set itself an ambitious goal: Unifying our understanding of the human brain. To achieve it, researchers need a High-Performance Analytics and Compute Platform comprised of supercomputers with features that are currently not available, but OpenPOWER is working to make them a reality.
Through a Pre-Commercial Procurement (PCP) the HBP initiated the necessary R&D, and turned to the OpenPOWER Foundation for help. During three consecutive phases, a consortium of IBM and NVIDIA has successfully been awarded with R&D contracts. As part of this effort, a pilot system called JURON (a combination of Jülich and neuron) has been installed at Jülich Supercomputing Centre (JSC). It is based on the new IBM S822LC for HPC servers, each equipped with two POWER8 processors and four NVIDIA P100 GPUs.
Marcel Huysegoms, a scientist from the Institute for Neuroscience and Medicine, with support from the JSC could demonstrate soon after deployment the usability of the system for his brain image registration application. Exploiting the processing capabilities of the GPUs without further tuning, could achieve a significant speed-up compared to the currently used production system based on Haswell x86 processors and K80 GPUs.
Not only do the improved compute capabilities matter for brain research, but also by designing and implementing the Global Sharing Layer (GSL), the non-volatile memory cards mounted on all nodes became a byte addressable, globally accessible memory resource. Using JURON it could be shown that data can be read at a rate that is only limited by network performance. These new technologies will open new opportunities for enabling data-intensive workflows in brain research, including data visualization.
The pilot system will be the first system based on POWER processors where graphics support is being brought to the HPC node. In combination with the GSL it will be possible to visualize large data volumes that are, as an example, generated by brain model simulations. Flexible allocation of resources to compute applications, data analytics and visualization pipelines will be facilitated through another new component, namely the dynamic resource management. It allows for suspension of execution of parallel jobs for a later restart with a different number of processes.
JURON clearly demonstrates the potential of a technology ecosystem settled around a processor architecture with interfaces that facilitate efficient integration of various devices for efficient processing, moving and storing of data. In other words, it demonstrates the collaborative potential of OpenPOWER.


A geratividade do comportamento verbal : divergências entre as propostas de B. F. Skinner e N. Chomsky
Bandini, Carmen Silvia Motta
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One of the most interesting questions in the study of the language is its original character. Any philosophy or science that tries to explain language must account for this peculiar characteristic. Radical Behaviorism of B. F. Skinner and the theory of Generative-Transformational Grammar of N. Chomsky were very important sources of explanation of language phenomena during the 20th Century. Chomsky was one of the most famous critics of Skinnerian behaviorism. His review of Skinner s Verbal Behavior was probably more known around the world than Skinner s original book. In this review, Chomsky asserts that the operant model can not explain the original character of language. However, recent works have shown that Skinner tries to consider this characteristic when he talks about language. Within this context, the present dissertation intended to investigate Skinner s treatment of the creative processes of verbal behavior, set against Chomsky's theory. This work also tried to search the conceptual categories used by Chomsky to criticize Skinner and use this conceptual categories to improve the analysis of Skinner s text. In addition, this dissertation also attempted an internal analysis of Skinnerian concepts involved in the explanation of verbal behavior, as well as an assessment of the truth or falseness of Chomsky s critical work. We found three conceptual categories used by Chomsky in his Review of Skinner s Verbal Behavior. The survey of such categories allowed a fruitful analysis of Skinnerian account of the generative character of verbal behavior. It is argued that Chomsky committed many conceptual mistakes in his Review and because of these mistakes his work cannot prove that Skinnerian analysis of verbal generativity is impracticable. It is also argued that Skinnerian theory about verbal (and not verbal) generativity does not seem to be in any contradiction to the philosophy of science that Skinner adopts. We then conclude that, from the theoretical standpoint, the behaviorist explanation of verbal behavior and its generativity can configure an useful model.
Apresentado os itens relacionados pelo título, autor e assunto.
Cortez, Mariéle de Cássia Diniz; http://lattes.cnpq.br/7927746584626515 (Universidade Federal de São CarlosBRUFSCarPrograma de Pós-graduação em Psicologia, 2012-03-29)The present proposal is based on the assumption that verbal responding is an operant behavior established and maintained by reinforcement contingencies. Study 1 evaluated the effects of three different correspondence ...
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