All space missions on one map
The American design studio Pop Chart Lab made a wall poster that demonstrates the progress of human space exploration to date.
Since the launch of Sputnik-1, which became the first artificial satellite of the Earth, 60 years will be celebrated in a year and a half. Since then, man has repeatedly sent into space a variety of spacecraft, animals and people.
Colorful infographics span all the way from 1959 to 2015 and graphically show more than 100 research probes, descent vehicles and rovers on a map.
At the top of the poster, you can see the path that spacecraft have covered, and the bottom shows how these vehicles looked. All devices are grouped by flight direction.
And although most of them have never left Earth’s orbit, the map shows what incredible distances man has managed to overcome in the solar system!
Outer space (outer space) - relatively empty sections of the universe that lie outside the boundaries of the atmospheres of celestial bodies. Contrary to popular belief, space is not an absolutely empty space - it has a very low density of some particles (mainly hydrogen), as well as electromagnetic radiation and interstellar matter.
In its original understanding, the Greek term "cosmos" (order, world order) had a philosophical basis, defining a hypothetical closed vacuum around the Earth - the center of the universe. Nevertheless, in Latin-based languages and its borrowings, the practical term “space” is applied to the same semantics (since from the scientific point of view the vacuum enveloping the Earth is infinite), therefore, a kind of “space cosmic” space".
There is no clear boundary, the atmosphere is rarefied gradually as it moves away from the earth’s surface, and there is still no consensus on what to consider as a factor in the beginning of space. If the temperature were constant, then the pressure would change exponentially from 100 kPa at sea level to zero. The International Aviation Federation has set a height of 100 km (the Karman line) as the working boundary between the atmosphere and space, because at this altitude, to create a lifting aerodynamic force, it is necessary that the aircraft move at the first cosmic speed, which makes the meaning of air travel impossible. Astronomers from the USA and Canada measured the boundary of the influence of atmospheric winds and the beginning of the impact of cosmic particles. It was at an altitude of 118 kilometers, although NASA itself considered 122 km as the border of space. At this altitude, the shuttles switched from conventional maneuvering using only rocket engines to aerodynamic ones with "support" to the atmosphere.
Space in the solar system is called interplanetary space, which passes into interstellar space at the heliopause points of the solstice. The vacuum of space is actually not absolute - it contains atoms and molecules detected by microwave spectroscopy, the relict radiation left from the Big Bang, and cosmic rays that contain ionized atomic nuclei and various subatomic particles. There is also gas, plasma, dust, small meteors and space debris (materials left over from human activities in orbit). The absence of air makes outer space (and the surface of the moon) ideal sites for astronomical observations at all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. Proof of this are photographs taken with the Hubble Space Telescope. In addition, invaluable information about the planets, asteroids and comets of the solar system is obtained using spacecraft.
The impact of being in outer space on the human body
According to NASA scientists, contrary to popular belief, if you enter outer space without a protective suit, a person will not freeze, will not explode, and will not immediately lose consciousness, his blood will not boil - instead, death will come from a lack of oxygen. The danger lies in the decompression process itself - it is this period of time that is most dangerous for the body, since with explosive decompression the gas bubbles in the blood begin to expand. If refrigerant (such as nitrogen) is present, then under these conditions it freezes the blood. In space conditions there is not enough pressure to maintain the liquid state of the substance (only a gaseous or solid state is possible, with the exception of liquid helium), therefore, first, water will evaporate quickly from the mucous membranes of the body (tongue, eyes, lungs). Some other problems - decompression sickness, sunburn of unprotected skin and damage to the subcutaneous tissue - will begin to affect after 10 seconds. At some point, a person will lose consciousness due to a lack of oxygen. Death can occur in about 1-2 minutes, although this is not known exactly. However, if you do not hold your breath in your lungs (an attempt to hold it will lead to barotrauma), then 30-60 seconds in outer space will not cause any irreversible damage to the human body.
NASA describes a case where a person accidentally finds himself in a space close to a vacuum (pressure below 1 Pa) due to air leakage from a spacesuit. The person remained conscious for approximately 14 seconds - approximately this time is required for oxygen-depleted blood to enter the lungs from the brain. There was no complete vacuum inside the suit, and recompression of the test chamber began after about 15 seconds. Consciousness returned to man when pressure rose to an equivalent height of about 4.6 km. Later, a man who got into a vacuum told how he felt and heard air coming out of him, and his last conscious memory was that he felt water boiling in his tongue.
On February 13, 1995, Aviation Week and Space Technology magazine published a letter describing the incident that occurred on August 16, 1960, during the lifting of a stratostat with an open gondola to a height of 19.5 miles for a record parachute jump (Project Excelsior "). The right hand of the pilot was depressurized, but he decided to continue the ascent. The hand, as might be expected, was extremely painful, and could not be used. However, when the pilot returned to the denser layers of the atmosphere, the state of the arm returned to normal.
Borders on the way to space and the limits of deep space
Atmosphere and near-Earth outer space
- Sea level - 101.3 kPa (1 atm; 760 mm Hg atmospheric pressure), density of the medium 2.7 · 1019 molecules per cm.
- 0.5 km - up to this height lives 80% of the human population of the world.
- 2 km - up to this height lives 99% of the world's population.
- 2-3 km - the beginning of the manifestation of malaise (mountain sickness) in non-acclimatized people.
- 4.7 km - MFA requires additional oxygen supply for pilots and passengers.
- 5.0 km - 50% of atmospheric pressure at sea level.
- 5.1 km is the highest located city of La Rinconada (Peru).
- 5.3 km - half the entire mass of the atmosphere lies below this height (slightly below the top of Mount Elbrus).
- 6 km - the border of human permanent residence (temporary Sherpa villages in the Himalayas), the border of terrestrial life in the mountains.
- up to 6.5 km - snow line in Tibet and the Andes. In all other places, it is located lower in Antarctica to 0 m above sea level.
- 6.6 km - the highest located stone building (Mount Lugliaillaco, South America).
- 7 km - the limit of human adaptability to a long stay in the mountains.
- 8.2 km is the border of death without an oxygen mask: even a healthy and trained person can lose consciousness at any time and die.
- 8.848 km - the highest point of the Earth Mount Everest - the natural limit of accessibility on foot.
- 9 km - the limit of adaptability to short-term breathing by atmospheric air.
- 12 km - breathing air is equivalent to being in space (the same time of loss of consciousness ~ 10-20 s); the limit of short-term breathing with pure oxygen without additional pressure; ceiling of subsonic passenger liners.
- 15 km - breathing pure oxygen is equivalent to being in space.
- 16 km - when in a tall suit in the cab, additional pressure is needed. Overhead there was 10% of the mass of the atmosphere.
- 10-18 km - the border between the troposphere and the stratosphere at different latitudes (tropopause). This is also the boundary of the rise of ordinary clouds, then rarefied and dry air extends.
- 18.9-19.35 - Armstrong line - the beginning of space for the human body - boiling water at the temperature of the human body. Internal body fluids at this height still do not boil, because the body generates enough internal pressure to prevent this effect, but saliva and tears may begin to boil with the formation of foam, swell eyes.
- 19 km - the brightness of the dark purple sky at the zenith is 5% of the brightness of the clear blue sky at sea level (74.3-75 candles versus 1500 candles per m), the brightest stars and planets can be seen during the day.
- 20 km - the intensity of primary cosmic radiation begins to prevail over the secondary (born in the atmosphere).
- 20 km - the ceiling of hot air balloons (hot air balloons) (19 811 m).
- 20-22 km - the upper boundary of the biosphere: the limit of the rise in the atmosphere of living spores and bacteria by air currents.
- 20–25 km — the brightness of the sky is 20–40 times lower than the brightness at sea level during the day, both at the center of the total solar eclipse strip and at dusk when the Sun is 9–10 degrees below the horizon and stars up to 2 magnitude are visible.
- 25 km - during the day you can navigate through the bright stars.
- 25-26 km - the maximum steady-state flight altitude of existing jet aircraft (practical ceiling).
- 15-30 km - the ozone layer at different latitudes.
- 34.668 km is the official altitude record for a balloon (stratospheric balloon) operated by two stratonauts (Project Strato Lab, 1961).
- OK. 35 km is the beginning of space for water or a triple point of water: at this altitude, atmospheric pressure is 611.657 Pa and water boils at 0 ° C, and above it cannot be in liquid form.
- 37.8 km - a record of the altitude of a turbojet aircraft (MiG-25M, dynamic ceiling).
- 38.48 km (52,000 steps) is the upper boundary of the atmosphere in the 11th century: the first scientific determination of the height of the atmosphere by the duration of twilight and knowledge of the diameter of the Earth (Arab scientist Algazen, 965-1039)
- 39 km is a record of jumping from the stratosphere without a stabilizing parachute (Felix Baumgartner, 2012).
- 41.42 km is a one-man stratospheric altitude record, as well as a stabilizing parachute jump altitude record, performed by Google Vice President Alan Eustace on October 24, 2014.
- 45 km is the theoretical limit for a ramjet.
- 48 km - the atmosphere does not weaken the ultraviolet rays of the sun.
- 50 km is the boundary between the stratosphere and the mesosphere (stratopause).
- 51.694 km - the last manned altitude record in the pre-space era (Joseph Walker on the X-15 rocket plane, March 30, 1961)
- OK. 53 km is a height record for a gas unmanned balloon.
- 55 km - the atmosphere does not affect cosmic radiation.
- 40–80 km is the maximum ionization of air (the conversion of air into plasma) from friction against the body of the descent vehicle when it enters the atmosphere at the first cosmic velocity .
- 70 km - the upper limit of the atmosphere in 1714 according to the calculation of Edmund Halley based on pressure measurements by climbers, Boyle's law and observations of meteors .
- 80 km - the border between the mesosphere and the thermosphere (mesopause); height of silvery clouds.
- 80.45 km (50 miles) is the official height of the space border in the United States.
- 100 km - the official international border between the atmosphere and space is the Karman line, which defines the boundary between aeronautics and space. Aerodynamic surfaces (wings) starting from this altitude do not make sense, since the flight speed to create lift becomes higher than the first cosmic velocity and the atmospheric aircraft turns into a space satellite. The density of the medium at this height is 12 trillion molecules per 1 dm?
- 100 km is the recorded atmospheric boundary in 1902: the discovery of the reflecting radio waves of the Kennelly – Heaviside ionized layer 90–120 km .
- 118 km is the transition from atmospheric wind to flows of charged particles.
- 122 km (400,000 ft) is the first noticeable manifestation of the atmosphere when it returns to Earth from orbit: the incoming air begins to unfold the Space Shuttle with its nose in the direction of travel, air ionization from friction and heating of the hull begin.
- 120-130 km - a satellite in a circular orbit with such a height can make no more than one revolution.
- 150-180 km - the height of the perigee of the orbit of the first manned space flights.
- 200 km is the lowest possible orbit with short-term stability (up to several days).
- 302 km - maximum altitude (apogee) of the first manned space flight (Gagarin Yu.A. on the Vostok-1 spaceship, April 12, 1961)
- 320 km - recorded atmospheric boundary in 1927: discovery of the Appleton layer reflecting radio waves.
- 350 km is the lowest possible orbit with long-term stability (up to several years).
- OK. 400 km - orbit altitude of the International Space Station
- 500 km - the beginning of the internal proton radiation belt and the end of safe orbits for long human flights.
- 690 km is the average height of the boundary between the thermosphere and exosphere (Thermopause, exobase). Above the exobase, the mean free path of the air molecules becomes greater than the height of the homogeneous atmosphere and, if they have a velocity higher than the second cosmic one, they can leave the atmosphere with a probability of over 50%.
- 1000–1100 km is the maximum height of auroras, the last manifestation of the atmosphere visible from the Earth’s surface (but usually well-marked auroras occur at altitudes of 90–400 km).
- 1372 km - the maximum altitude reached by man before the first manned flights to the Moon, the astronauts for the first time saw not just a curved horizon, but the sphericity of the Earth (Gemini-11 ship on September 2, 1966).
- 2000 km - the atmosphere does not affect satellites and they can exist in orbit for many millennia.
- 3000 km is the maximum intensity of the proton flux of the internal radiation belt (up to 0.5-1 Gy / hour).
- 12 756 km - we retired to a distance equal to the diameter of planet Earth.
- 17,000 km - external electronic radiation belt.
- 27 743 km is the smallest distance from Earth at which the discovered asteroid 2012 DA14 with a diameter of 30 m and a mass of about 40 thousand tons flew in advance (over 1 day).
- 35 786 km - the height of the geostationary orbit, a satellite in such an orbit will always hang over one point of the equator. In the first half of the 20th century, this height was considered the theoretical limit of the existence of the atmosphere. If the whole atmosphere rotated uniformly with the Earth, then from this height at the equator the centrifugal force of rotation will exceed the gravitational forces, and air molecules that go beyond this boundary will scatter in different directions. In fact, the phenomenon of atmospheric scattering takes place, but it occurs due to the thermal and corpuscular action of the Sun in the entire exosphere at altitudes from 400 to ~ 100 thousand km (see above).
- OK. 90,000 km - the distance to the head shock wave formed by the collision of the Earth's magnetosphere with the solar wind.
- OK. 100,000 km is the upper boundary of the Earth's exosphere (geocorona) seen by satellites. The last manifestations of the Earth’s atmosphere have ended, interplanetary space has begun
- 363 104–405 696 km - the height of the Moon’s orbit above the Earth.
- 401,056 km is an absolute record of the height at which a person was (Apollo 13, April 14, 1970).
- 930,000 km - the radius of the Earth's gravitational sphere and the maximum height of its satellites. Above 930,000 km, the attraction of the Sun begins to prevail, and it will pull the bodies rising above.
- 1,500,000 km - the distance to one of the libration points L2, in which the bodies that got there are in gravitational equilibrium. A space station launched to this point without being an orbiting satellite, with minimal fuel consumption for trajectory correction, would always follow the Earth and be in its shadow.
- 21 000 000 km - at such a distance the gravitational effect of the Earth on flying objects practically disappears.
- 40 000 000 km - the minimum distance from Earth to the nearest large planet Venus.
- 56 000 000 - 58 000 000 km - the minimum distance to Mars during the Great Confrontations.
- 149 597 870.7 km - the average distance from the Earth to the Sun. This distance serves as a measure of distances in the solar system and is called an astronomical unit (a.u.). Light travels this distance in about 500 seconds (8 minutes 20 seconds).
- 590,000,000 km - the minimum distance from Earth to the nearest large gas planet Jupiter. Further figures indicate the distance from the sun.
- 4,500,000,000 km (4.5 billion km) - the radius of the border of the near-solar interplanetary space - the radius of the orbit of the farthest large planet Neptune.
- 8,230,000,000 km - the far boundary of the Kuiper belt - the belt of small ice planets, which includes the dwarf planet Pluto.
- 20,000,000,000 km is the distance to the farthest today Voyager-1 interstellar automatic spacecraft on January 5, 2016.
- 35,000,000,000 km (35 billion km) - the range of the solar wind - the boundary of the heliosphere, the beginning of interstellar space.
- 65,000,000,000 km - the distance to the Voyager-1 apparatus by 2100.
- OK. 300,000,000,000 km (300 billion km) is the near boundary of the Hills cloud, which is the inner part of the Oort cloud, a large but very sparse cluster of ice blocks that slowly fly in their orbits. Occasionally breaking out of this cloud and approaching the Sun, they become comets.
- 9,460,730,472,580.8 km (approx. 9.5 trillion km) - light year - the distance that light travels at a speed of 299 792 km / s in 1 year. It is used to measure interstellar and intergalactic distances.
- up to 15,000,000,000,000 km - the range of the likely finding of a hypothetical satellite of the Sun of the star Nemesis
- up to 20,000,000,000,000 km (20 trillion km, 2 light years) - the gravitational boundaries of the Solar System (Hill Sphere) - the outer boundary of the Oort Cloud, the maximum range of the existence of solar satellites (planets, comets, hypothetical faint stars).
- 30 856 776 000 000 km - 1 parsec - a more narrowly professional astronomical unit for measuring interstellar distances is 3.2616 light years.
- OK. 40,000,000,000,000 km (40 trillion km, 4.243 light years) - the distance to the nearest famous star Proxima Centauri
- OK. 56,000,000,000,000 km (56 trillion km, 5.96 light years - the distance to the flying star of Barnard, to which it was supposed to send the Daedalus unmanned research vehicle, developed since the 1970s, capable of flying and transmitting information within one human life (about 50 years).
- 100,000,000,000,000 km (100 trillion km, approx. 10 light years) - within this radius are the 11 nearest stars.
- OK. 300,000,000,000,000 km (300 trillion km, 30 light years) is the size of the Local Interstellar Cloud through which the Solar System is currently moving (the density of the medium of this cloud is 300 atoms per 1 dm?).
- OK. 3,000,000,000,000,000 km (3 quadrillion km, 300 light years) is the size of the Local Gas Bubble, which includes the Local Interstellar Cloud with the Solar System (medium density 50 atoms per 1 dm?).
- OK. 33,000,000,000,000,000 km (33 km3 km, 3,500 light years) is the thickness of the galactic Sleeve of Orion, near the inner edge of which is the Local Bubble.
- OK. 300,000,000,000,000,000 km (300 km2 km) - the distance from the Sun to the nearest outer edge of the halo of our galaxy, the Milky Way. Outside it extends a black, almost empty and starless intergalactic space with barely visible small spots without a telescope of several nearby galaxies. The density of the medium of the intergalactic space is less than 1 hydrogen atom per 1 dm ?.
- OK. 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 km (1 quintillion km, 100 thousand light years) - the diameter of our Milky Way galaxy, it contains 200-400 billion stars, the total mass with black holes, dark matter and other invisible objects is approx. 3 trillion suns.
- OK. 5,000,000,000,000,000,000 km (approx. 5 quintillion km) - the size of the subgroup of the Milky Way, which includes our galaxy and its satellites dwarf galaxies, total 15 galaxies. The most famous of them are the Big Magellanic Cloud and the Small Magellanic Cloud.
- OK. 30,000,000,000,000,000,000 km (approx. 30 quintillion km, approx. 1 million parsecs) - the size of the Local group of galaxies, which includes three large neighbors: the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, the Triangle Galaxy, and numerous dwarf galaxies (more than 50 galaxies). The Andromeda galaxy and our galaxy are approaching at a speed of about 120 km / s and are likely to collide with each other after about 4-5 billion years.
- OK. 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 km (2 sextillion km, 200 million light years) is the size of the Local Supercluster of Galaxies (Virgo Supercluster) (about 30 thousand galaxies, mass about a quadrillion of Suns).
- OK. 4,900,000,000,000,000,000,000 km (4.9 sextillion km, 520 million light years) - the size of the even larger supercluster of Laniakei ("Immense Heaven"), which includes our supercluster Virgo and the so-called Great Attractor, attracting to surrounding galaxies, including us at a speed of about 500 km / s. In total, there are about 100 thousand galaxies in Leniakey, its mass is about 100 quadrillion suns.
- OK. 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (10 sextillion km, 1 billion light years) - the length of the Pisces-Ceti Supercluster Complex, also called the galactic filament and Pisces-Ceti hypercluster, in which we live (60 clusters of galaxies, 10 masses of Lenakei or near the quintillion suns).
- up to 100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 km - the distance to Eridan's Super Void, the largest known void today with a size of about 1 billion St. years old. In the central regions of this huge empty space there are no stars and galaxies, and generally there is almost no ordinary matter (density 10% of the average density of the Universe). An astronaut in the center of the void without a large telescope could not see anything but darkness. In the figure on the right, in a cubic clipping from the Universe, many hundreds of large and small voids are located, like bubbles in a foam, between numerous galactic filaments.
- OK. 100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (100 sextillion km, 10 billion light years) is the length of the great wall of the Hercules-Northern Crown, the largest superstructure known today in the observable Universe. It is located at a distance of about 10 billion light years from us.
- OK. 250,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (approx. 250 sextillion km, over 26 billion light years) is the size of the limits of visibility of matter (galaxies and stars) in the observable Universe (over 500 billion galaxies).
- OK. 870,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 km (870 sextillion km, 92 billion light years) is the size of the limits of visibility of radiation in the observable Universe.
The speeds required to enter the near and far space
In order to enter orbit, the body must reach a certain speed. Cosmic speeds for the Earth:
- The first cosmic speed - 7.9 km / s - the speed for entering into orbit around the Earth;
- The second cosmic velocity - 11.1 km / s - is the velocity for moving away from the sphere of gravity of the Earth and entering interplanetary space;
- The third cosmic velocity - 16.67 km / s - the speed to escape from the sphere of gravity of the Sun and exit into interstellar space;
- The fourth cosmic speed - about 550 km / s - is the speed for moving away from the sphere of gravity of the Milky Way galaxy and entering the intergalactic space.
For comparison, the speed of the Sun relative to the center of the galaxy is approximately 220 km / s.
If any of the speeds is less than indicated, then the body will not be able to enter the corresponding orbit (the statement is true only for launching at the indicated speed from the Earth’s surface and further movement without traction).
The first who realized that to achieve such speeds when using any chemical fuel, a multi-stage rocket using liquid fuel was needed, was Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky.


Area teachers spend summer in TTU engineering labs to help high school students
To learn more about RETainUS and from teachers and faculty, watch this YouTube video.
COOKEVILLE, Tenn. (June 26, 2009) — If you think area high school math and science teachers are basking in summer fun with no thought of the classroom, you’ve not met the nine teachers who are laboring and learning over research at Tennessee Tech University.
They’ve become exceptional students themselves under the direction of TTU’s Mohamed Abdelrahman and colleagues who are putting teachers of science and mathematics through the paces as researchers.
“Our main theme is to have teachers become investigators and benefit from the full experience of research,” said Abdelrahman. “Understanding the full process means they experience the full excitement that engineering can bring to their classrooms.”
RETainUS, or Research Experience for Teachers in Manufacturing for Competitiveness in the United States, offers select teachers a chance to see how different disciplines interact to address real world engineering problems with focus on manufacturing.
“Many students do not realize how fertile the manufacturing field is with fulfilling and challenging career opportunities,” Abdelrahman said. “This program aims to change this perception starting with teachers and, in turn, their students.”
But participants, including White County High School’s Angela McCulley, had little idea of the demands the program would command of them.
“When we found out what was expected of us the first week, our stress level shot through the roof,” McCulley said.
Cookeville High School science teacher Lynn Thurber says she didn’t expect the pressure put on her to come up with a research question and plan.
“But now I see how the expectation was good,” Thurber said. “How can I teach a student to design an engineering process when I’ve never done it, when I’ve never studied it? I now have an actual feel for what goes on in engineering so that I can bring back that excitement into my classroom.”
During the six-week program, participants find themselves immersed in the research and development process through hands-on experience and real world problems that relate to conventional manufacturing processes such as metalcasting, rapid prototyping, nanomaterials, fuel cells and special coating materials, and enabling technologies such as intelligent optimization.
Abdelrahman says it is a sacrifice of time and a true commitment by these teachers to complete the program, but the benefits exponentially reach into area schools where STEM education needs a boost.
“These teachers deserve all the praise and appreciation from all of us for serving as models for teachers willing to take the extra effort to better educate the next generation,” said Abdelrahman.
Funded by the National Science Foundation and supported by TTU’s Center for Manufacturing Research, the program offers funding for classroom equipment and supplies and stipends for completing the program.
Bridgett Pugh of Monterey High School says hands-on activities are essential to capturing student interest, but they almost always come with a personal price tag.
“If you do anything extra that is fun or new or exciting in science, you pay for it out of your pocket,” Pugh said. “I’m here because this program allows me to buy equipment and other resources for my classroom that I wouldn’t have.”
The capstone benefit is the Legacy Cycle of teaching that the program prepares teachers to implement in their schools. The Legacy Cycle is a teaching module where students are given a big challenge and their task is to decide what education and information is needed to address the challenge. Teachers charge students with going out and finding information on their own and coming back to them with questions.
“When the students come back to me, I give them lesson plans based on their needs,” Virginia Mayfield, a Monterey High School math teacher, said. “It all leads to a public phase where students have to present and validate their findings to the class.”
Anthony Giest of Gordonsville High School says he’s been in a lot of group projects as a teacher and this is the best he’s ever experienced because he gained an in-depth understanding of research.
“In my classroom, I can talk about my research, specifically what I’ve done,” said Geist. “I’ve got my Gordonsville tiger cast sitting on my desk and I can say ‘When I was doing the research I ran into this problem.’
“Through this program you’ve experienced enough that you can talk with passion about what goes on in the research field,” he added. “That part of the teaching goes beyond the Legacy cycle to all your teaching.
Both Mayfield and Geist participated in the program’s pilot run last year; they were so impressed that they applied to take part again this summer.
Mayfield agrees that the engineering experience makes her a better teacher.
“So many times students don’t go in to fields because they are scared of them,” said Mayfield. “What I learn here I can take back, and I can pump those kids up about their futures.”
McCulley says the biggest hurdle with many students is to create a learning environment that’s fun and interesting so that they will even consider going to college and then pursue STEM fields.
“The easiest way to do that is with science hands-on activities,” she said. “If they know that they can have a career that they enjoy, they will start considering going to college and working in one of these fields.”
This year’s participants are McCulley, Thurber, Pugh, Mayfield, Cindy Stowers, Joe Harris, Josh Price, Rachel Sparkman and Robert Sircy.
Because RETainUS is a three-year project, more Upper Cumberland teachers will have an opportunity to participate during Summer 2010 and 2011.
Abdelrahman says this is a collaborative effort built on the talents and contributions of many TTU faculty, including co-director Holly Anthony, research training mentor Sally Pardue and engineering research project mentors Joe Biernacki, Ken Currie, Holly Stretz, Cynthia Rice-York, Dalton York and Ying Zhang.


Hearing Loss Causes
Hearing loss can be caused by many things: aging, trauma, earwax, loud noises, certain drugs and a variety of illnesses ranging from ear infections to tumors. Doctors categorize hearing loss causes into four general groups: sensorineural hearing loss, conductive hearing loss, Retro-Cochlear hearing loss, and mixed hearing loss depending on the part of the ear that is affected. Once doctors identify the cause of a patient’s hearing loss, they assess the hearing loss in terms of its severity, from mild to severe. They also assess hearing loss by a host of other criteria, such as if the patient is deaf in one or both ears. They also determine whether the degree of hearing loss is the same in both ears or different, and whether the hearing loss is stable, or changes over time.
Conductive Hearing Loss Causes
When something blocks sounds from passing through the middle or outer ear, this is known as conductive hearing loss. This kind of hearing loss is caused by complications with the eardrum, ear canal or the middle ear. Conductive hearing loss may result from tumors, congenital malformation of the ear, one or more foreign bodies in the ear or head trauma, all of which may be treated with surgery. It may also result from a middle ear infection, in which case it may be treated with drugs.
Sensorineural Hearing Loss Causes
Hearing loss that is nerve-related and affects the inner ear is known as sensorineural hearing loss. The inner ear contains the acoustic nerve and other nerves that transmit signals to the brain. Damage to the hearing nerve may result from trauma, inflammation, systemic disease or viruses. Doctors may treat inflammation or underlying autoimmune disease with corticosteroids, or tumors and ear compartment fluid rupture with surgery.
Another phenomenon called Sudden Sensorineural Hearing Loss can make a person go deaf immediately, or over a period of a few days. This sudden hearing loss should be considered a medical emergency; people who have sudden hearing loss should seek medical care right away to prevent a potentially permanent loss of hearing. A doctor will run hearing tests to determine whether a patient’s sudden hearing loss is due to this condition.
Mixed Hearing Loss Causes
A doctor may diagnose a patient with mixed hearing loss if their deafness seems to be due to more than one cause. A case of mixed hearing loss could result from having both sensorineural hearing loss and conductive hearing loss. There might be damage to many parts of the ear at once in such cases -- from severe trauma, for example. A doctor would address each concern with the goal of saving as much of a patient’s hearing as possible.
Retro-Cochlear Hearing Loss
This kind of sensorineural hearing loss does not occur in the inner ear. It occurs beyond the ear. The patient sometimes loses hearing because of a tumor in the brain stem or the brain that is affecting the function of the auditory nerve. This kind of hearing loss is usually treated with surgery.
Signs of Hearing Loss
People who experience ringing in the ears, who have trouble hearing in large groups and who find themselves turning up the radio and television may be experiencing the first signs of hearing loss. Hearing problems usually don't resolve on their own. People experiencing signs of hearing loss should visit an audiologist for a medical evaluation. An audiologist can diagnose the causes of hearing loss and may reverse the problem, or prevent it from getting worse.


Content on this page was developed during the 2009-2010 H1N1 pandemic and has not been updated.
- The H1N1 virus that caused that pandemic is now a regular human flu virus and continues to circulate seasonally worldwide.
- The English language content on this website is being archived for historic and reference purposes only.
- For current, updated information on seasonal flu, including information about H1N1, see the CDC Seasonal Flu website.
Deaths Related to 2009 H1N1 Influenza Among American Indian/Alaska Natives (AI/ANs) — 12 States, 2009December 18, 2009 11:30 AM ET
Twelve states participated in this investigation : AK, AL, AZ, MI, ND, NM, OK, OR, SD, UT, WA, WY. In addition to these states, the investigation workgroup included the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists, 5 Tribal Epidemiology Centers (TEC) (Arizona, California, Northwest Portland Area [OR, ID, WA], Oklahoma, and the TEC representing all southern/eastern states), the Indian Health Service, and CDC.
Of the 426 deaths attributable to 2009 H1N1 virus infection, forty-two (9.9%) occurred among AI/ANs; AI/ANs make up approximately 3% of the total population in these 12 states. When age-adjusted rates per 100,000 population were compared, the 2009 H1N1 influenza death rate in AI/ANs in these states was 4 times the 2009 H1N1 influenza death rate in all other races combined
Yes, in all age groups, AI/ANs had a 2009 H1N1 influenza death rate that was higher than the 2009 H1N1 influenza death rate in other populations in these 12 states.
AI/ANs aged >65 years had the highest age-specific death rate at 7.2 per 100,000 population.
The age-adjusted death rates per 100,000 population for each racial/ethnic category were as follows:
Did AI/ANs in this investigation have co-existing medical conditions associated with more severe 2009 H1N1-related disease?
The proportion of AI/AN deaths falling into any high-risk category was 81.0% compared to 77.6% for all other racial and ethnic groups. The prevalence of asthma was 31.0% among AI/AN decedents versus 14.1% in the non-AI/AN racial/ethnic groups; the prevalence of diabetes was 45.2% among the AI/AN deaths versus 24.0% for the non-AI/AN racial and ethnic groups.
- The factors that place AI/AN populations at higher risk for influenza-related deaths are unknown, but may include higher rates of underlying chronic illness such as diabetes. The age-specific prevalence of diabetes in AI/AN adults is two to three times higher than for U.S. adults in general.
- Poverty and other social determinants of health may place AI/ANs at higher risk. The AI/AN poverty rate for households with children under 18 years of age is 30% —a rate that is twice the national rate and three times the rate for non-Hispanic whites. Poverty may result in living conditions that contribute to higher risk due to factors such as less-than-optimal sanitation (e.g. lack of running water) or household crowding.
- Half of the AI/ANs in the U.S. live on reservations, many in very remote locations. Remoteness can be a barrier affecting access to both preventive services and acute clinical care.
Is this the first time that this increased risk of death from 2009 H1N1 has been documented among AI/AN populations?
- Increased risk of death from 2009 H1N1 has been reported to occur in indigenous populations in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand previously.
- In the fall of 2009, two states (Arizona and New Mexico) observed a disproportionate number of 2009 H1N1-associated deaths among AI/ANs. In Arizona, where AI/ANs represent 4.9% of the state’s total population, AI/ANs comprised 19% of all confirmed 2009 H1N1 deaths. In New Mexico, state officials observed that 20% of 2009 H1N1 deaths in the state were AI/ANs, who make up 9% of the state’s total population.
- Although data on the effects of the 1918 pandemic on AI/AN populations are limited, government reports from 1919 and 1920 found that the epidemic among American Indians was ‘‘extremely severe,’’ with mortality rates 4 times higher than that reported for larger cities in the United States during the pandemic.
- Multiple investigations spanning the last 90 years have shown that AI/ANs are at increased risk of hospitalization and death from influenza and pneumonia. During the 1918-1919 influenza pandemic in the United States, government sources documented that AI/ANs were 4 times more likely to die from influenza than people living in urban areas. A 1980 investigation in New Mexico documented that AI/ANs were 2 to 3 times more likely to die from pneumonia and influenza than Whites. In 2009, an investigation comparing mortality data for the years 1999-2003 found that the pneumonia and influenza death rate of Alaska Natives was 60% higher that the pneumonia and influenza death rate of Whites. Many other investigations have found the same or similar pattern over many decades. The question, however, of why AI/ANs are more likely to die from influenza and pneumonia has not been answered.
- Mortality for pneumonia and influenza (P&I) in all age groups is twice as high for the AI/AN population compared to the rest of the U.S. population. Among AI/AN infants, P& I mortality is 4 times higher compared to the U.S. general population; among AI/ANs <24 years of age, rates are from 1.7 to 2.8 times as high; among AI/ANs 25 – 54 years of age, rates are 3.3 times higher. P&I mortality rates for those 55 and older are 1.7 times higher than the U.S. population.
- Increase awareness among AI/AN populations and their healthcare providers about the potential severity of influenza and about current recommendations regarding the timely use of antiviral medications, especially among persons known to be at high risk (e.g., children, the elderly, pregnant women, and anyone with certain chronic medical conditions such as asthma, diabetes, heart disease, kidney disease, or immunosuppression).
- Efforts to promote the use of 2009 H1N1 influenza vaccine in AI/AN populations should be expanded.
- Ensure that all state and federal mortality surveillance systems are capable of
accurate and complete reporting of race/ethnicity.
- Factors that might contribute to increased influenza-related mortality in the AI/AN population, including the impact of underlying chronic medical conditions and social determinants of health, should be topics for future investigation.
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When you have peripheral neuropathy caused by diabetes, your feet and skin need extra care and attention.
Very small, repetitive injuries to the feet, like those caused by poorly fitting shoes, can lead to bigger problems, says Tom Elasy, M.D., director of the Diabetes Clinic at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tenn.
"Calluses, blisters, sores, infections and foot ulcers may appear on numb areas of the foot because pressure or injury goes unnoticed. This happens simply because you can't feel the problem."
Also, people with uncontrolled diabetes have a hard time fighting infections. They may also have poor circulation that can lead to problems with healing. That means a minor cut in your skin could become an ulcer or develop into a serious infection. With good foot care, you can prevent most of these problems.
Inspect Your Feet Daily if You Have Diabetes
"We recommend that patients inspect their feet on a daily basis for cuts, any signs of redness, calluses or blisters," says Elasy. "Using a little mirror can help. Also, it's important to moisturize. But avoid getting (lotion) between the toes, because that area is already moist. So extra moisture tends to cause fungal infections."
Caring for your feet is easy. It's best to do it when you are bathing or getting ready for bed. Good foot care also involves getting medical help early if a problem develops. It's important to see your doctor for treatment right away to prevent serious complications like infections.
Here are good everyday foot care habits:
|Listen to podcast:||
David Trenner, D.P.M. is a Senior Associate in Orthopaedics at Vanderbilt University Medical Center, specializing in podiatry, orthopaedics and rehabilitation. Good foot care is very important for anyone with diabetes. Dr. Trenner will explain what specific problems are related to diabetes, how to assess any complications and what preventative medicine and treatments are available.
To learn more about what can be done to prevent foot complications, please visit:
Preventing Foot Complications


Now, art and design have come into the business. From the standpoint of having been a management consultant and a painter for many years, it seems that the two areas, art/design and the business finally have been merged. Business and art have been said to be the opposite counterpart in the past. Business is problem-solving, based on "left brain". Art is based on free ideas and comes from "right brain". Usually, these consepts are described like this. But actually, it's not such simple. Business problem-solving also uses a considerable amount of "right brain"; for defining the issues and jumping ideas for problem-solving. On the other hand, although art has a huge degree of freedom, it is an expression that conveys things, concepts and ideas of ideas to people, logical-thinking should be used as well as using the "left brain", and if you do not adopt logic in the method, it will not spread. In other words, distinctions such as the "left brain" and "right brain" are meaningless.
When we are involved in the areas of new business, design and art or something, we are required to be "creative"or to have "creativity". It is a very exciting and rewarding scene. However, no creativity can be established without basics or a lot of basic practises. Creativity is made up of a very basic part of problem solving skills. This has a strong correlation with the area of design in particular. What is the problem and how to solve it? Where do you concentrate on creativity? How does human psychology work? Even though we are thinking freely, nothing is born.Based on the foundation of problem solving, B O D A I will realize various new values using creativity.
Recently, research to explain the effect of art and design has developed by behavioral economics and brain science. "Art Thinking" and art activities have the same effect as meditation / mindfulness. Also, design can be proven scientifically. And the result of brain science proves that art and design give for human wellness.
On the other hand, since corporate activities are people's behavior, management issues strongly related to the feelings of people. Needless to say, people are 90% of management. However, issues of people and issues of how people feel have not been easily grasped by management. The isssues of this human mind can be changed by the way of art-thinking and design-thinking. How do we see things differently? How do we see what we cannot see? Even if we see the same thing, why do we feel the different things? How can we find the different meaning?. How can we challenge forward with limited time and resources? How do you share it with your team? A big hint is hidden in the problem of human mind.
Now, the boader of every indusrty melts out, and the integration of various industries is occurring. By thinking from a different viewpoint, the axis of new growth will be visible. Let's get out of the existing concept and be fully open our creativity and let us create a new and exciting future together.
Yuji Machida, The founder and CEO of B O D A I, Co., Ltd
Graduated from Kyoto University in 1991, BA in law. joined McKinsey and Company Inc. on the same year. Was IT, high-tech, internet related practice leader at Osaka office, Tokyo office, Seoul office and Shanghai office. Did a lot of studies of strategy, change organization, M&A, urban development and many others mainly in IT, internet, Mobile area. Was in charge of recruitment / education as well. The Roger Klein award winner. Associate principal.
Opend his own office after joined for Rimnet Corporation, Unison Capital, etc.
Establised B O D A I, Co., Ltd in September 2013. Developed personnel gratitude-expression sending service named "Rigato" , which enhance team relationship. Business consulting, change organization for new business. Faculty for ISL Management Seminar .
Advisor to Too Corp., specialized in creators/ design / art industries.
Advisor to "AERTS ECONOMICS" of Endored Research Chair Innovation Management Science of Kyoto Univercity.
Advisor to the Govener of Tokyo (2017-18).
Painter based in New York and Tokyo. A solo exhibition was held in New York in 1999.


On this page:
What is glanders?
How do you become infected?
Can you get it from other people?
Why is it considered a possible terror weapon?
Can glanders be treated?
Can glanders be prevented?
What should I do if I think I may have been exposed to glanders?
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Glanders is a disease caused by a kind of bacteria. It primarily affects horses, mules and donkeys, but is also seen in animals like goats, dogs and cats. Glanders is rare in humans – no human cases have been reported in the U.S. since 1945. However, people can become infected through direct contact with infected animals. There is also concern that glanders could be used as a weapon – by releasing the bacteria into the air, or by exposing people to contaminated materials.
In nature, glanders primarily affects horses, mules and donkeys
Depending partly on how people are exposed to it, glanders can affect people in a number of different ways. They include:
- localized skin infections, at the site of a cut or scratch
- pneumonia and other serious lung problems
- an infection of the blood, which is the most dangerous form of glanders
- a chronic form of the illness involving abscesses (places where fluid collects) in a number of different locations – including the arms and legs, the spleen and the liver
More general symptoms of glanders include fever, muscle aches, chest pain, muscle tightness, headache, watery eyes, sensitivity to light and diarrhea.
If the glanders bacteria are inhaled, symptoms usually develop in ten to 14 days. Inhaling the bacteria is the most likely way that a person might become infected if glanders is used as a weapon.
Glanders is a very dangerous illness, and it has a high fatality rate if left untreated. Blood infections with the bacteria that cause glanders are especially dangerous.
When people get glanders from animals, the bacteria can enter the body through the skin, eyes and nose. In the past, cases have been reported in veterinarians, people who work with horses, and lab workers. However, no cases have been reported in the U.S. since the 1940s. The disease is still seen in domestic animals in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Central America and South America.
Even when glanders is present in animals, spread of the disease from animals to humans has been rare. However, there is evidence that the risk of infection is much higher if the bacteria are inhaled – as they would be if the bacteria were used as a weapon, and released into the air.
Some cases have been reported where glanders was spread from one person to another. Those include cases where the illness was spread through sexual contact, or by caring for family members who had the illness.
Deliberately releasing glanders bacteria into the air would be a very effective way to infect people. The result would be an outbreak of very serious, life-threatening illness.
It is believed that glanders was used as a weapon during World War I, to infect horses and mules used by the military. In World War II, glanders was used against horses, civilians and prisoners of war. It was also used against horses by the former Soviet Union, during its war with Afghanistan.
As long as the disease isn’t present in animals, any human cases would automatically raise suspicion of a terrorist attack.
Because the disease is so rare in humans, there is limited information about different kinds of treatment and how well they work. However, a number of different antibiotics appear to work with glanders. Treatment may need to be continued for a long time.
There is no vaccine for glanders. People can avoid getting it from animals by taking steps to eliminate it from the animal population. When and if human cases do occur, steps should be taken to prevent spreading it in health care settings.
not be possible to tell if you’ve been exposed. However,
if you are concerned about it, you should see your doctor right away.
Any suspicious activity, involving possible use of a disease agent as
a weapon, should be reported to law enforcement officials.


As many as 60,000 American women each year are told they have a very early stage of breast cancer — Stage 0, as it is commonly known — a possible precursor to what could be a deadly tumor. And almost every one of the women has either a lumpectomy or a mastectomy, and often a double mastectomy, removing a healthy breast as well.
Yet it now appears that treatment may make no difference in their outcomes. Patients with this condition had close to the same likelihood of dying of breast cancer as women in the general population, and the few who died did so despite treatment, not for lack of it, researchers reported Thursday in JAMA Oncology.
Their conclusions were based on the most extensive collection of data ever analyzed on the condition, known as ductal carcinoma in situ, or D.C.I.S.: 100,000 women followed for 20 years. The findings are likely to fan debate about whether tens of thousands of patients are undergoing unnecessary and sometimes disfiguring treatments for premalignant conditions that are unlikely to develop into life-threatening cancers.
Diagnoses of D.C.I.S., involving abnormal cells confined to the milk ducts of the breast, have soared in recent decades. They now account for as much as a quarter of cancer diagnoses made with mammography, as radiologists find smaller and smaller lesions. But the new data on outcomes raises provocative questions: Is D.C.I.S. cancer, a precursor to the disease or just a risk factor for some women? Is there any reason for most patients with the diagnosis to receive brutal therapies? If treatment does not make a difference, should women even be told they have the condition?
Such questions are unlikely to be resolved by the new study. Some doctors, including the chief breast cancer surgeon at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, said they did not see reason to change the current approach.
The new data are helpful, said Dr. Barnett S. Kramer, director of the division of cancer prevention at the National Cancer Institute, and are consistent with other data pointing in the same direction. The new study, he added, provides, “the type of evidence that builds the justification for less morbid treatment.”
Dr. Otis W. Brawley, chief medical officer at the American Cancer Society, said he was not ready to abandon treatment until a large clinical trial is done that randomly assigns women to receive mastectomies, lumpectomies or no treatment for D.C.I.S., and that shows treatment is unnecessary for most patients. But Dr. Brawley, who was not involved in the study, also said he had no doubt that treatment had been excessive.
“In medicine, we have a tendency to get too enthusiastic about a technique and overuse it,” Dr. Brawley said. “This has happened with the treatment of D.C.I.S.”
A majority of the 100,000 patients in the database the researchers used, from a national cancer registry, had lumpectomies, and nearly all the rest had mastectomies, the new study found. Their chance of dying of breast cancer in the two decades after treatment was 3.3 percent, no matter which procedure they had, about the same as an average woman’s chance of dying of breast cancer, said Dr. Laura J. Esserman, a breast cancer surgeon and researcher at the University of California, San Francisco, who wrote an editorial accompanying the study.
The data showed that some patients were at higher risk: those younger than 40, black women and those whose abnormal cells had molecular markers found in advanced cancers with poorer prognoses.
D.C.I.S. has long been regarded as a precursor to potentially deadly invasive cancers, analogous to colon polyps that can turn into colon cancer, said Dr. Steven A. Narod, the lead author of the paper and a researcher at Women’s College Research Institute in Toronto. The treatment strategy has been to get rid of the tiny specks of abnormal breast cells, just as doctors get rid of colon polyps when they see them in a colonoscopy.
But if that understanding of the condition had played out as expected, women who had an entire breast removed, or even both breasts as a sort of double precaution, should have been protected from invasive breast cancer. Instead, the findings showed, they had the same risk as those who had a lumpectomy. Almost no women went untreated, so it is not clear if as a group they did worse.
But some women who died of breast cancer ended up with the disease throughout their body without ever having it recur in their breast — many, in fact, had no breast because they had had a mastectomy. Those very rare fatal cases of D.C.I.S. followed by fatal breast cancer, Dr. Narod concluded, had most likely already spread at the time of detection. As for the rest, he said, they were never going to spread anyway.
Dr. Esserman said that if deadly breast cancers started out as D.C.I.S., the incidence of invasive breast cancers should have plummeted with rising detection rates. That has not happened, even though in the pre-mammography era, before about 1980, the number of women found to have D.C.I.S. was only in the hundreds. Nearly 240,000 women receive diagnoses of invasive breast cancer each year.
Those facts lead Dr. Narod to a blunt view. After a surgeon has removed the aberrant cells for the biopsy, he said, “I think the best way to treat D.C.I.S. is to do nothing.”
Others drew back from that advice.
Dr. Monica Morrow, chief breast cancer surgeon at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, said it made more sense to view D.C.I.S. as a cancer precursor that should be treated the way it is now, with a lumpectomy or mastectomy. She questioned whether those women who were treated and ended up dying of breast cancer anyway had been misdiagnosed.
In some cases, pathologists look at only a small amount of tumor, Dr. Morrow said, and could have missed areas of invasive cancer. Even the best mastectomy leaves cells behind, she added, which could explain why a small number of women with D.C.I.S. who had mastectomies, even double mastectomies, died of breast cancer.
Dr. Brawley said the new study, by showing which D.C.I.S. patients were at highest risk, would help enormously in defining who might benefit from treatment. It could not show that the high-risk women — young, black or with tumors with ominous molecular markers — were helped by treatment because there were too few of them, and pretty much every one of them was treated. But Dr. Brawley said he would like to see clinical trials that addressed that question, as well as whether the rest of the women with D.C.I.S., 80 percent of them, would be fine without treatment or with anti-estrogen drugs like tamoxifen or raloxifene that can reduce overall breast cancer risk.
The notion that most women with D.C.I.S. might not need mastectomies or lumpectomies can be agonizing for those, like Therese Taylor of Mississauga, Ontario, who have already gone through such treatment. Four years ago, when she was 51, a doctor sent her for a mammogram, telling her he felt a lump in her right breast. That breast was fine, but it turned out she had D.C.I.S. in her left breast. A surgeon, she said, told her that “it was consistent with cancer” and that she should have a mastectomy.
“I went into a state of shock and fear,” Ms. Taylor said. She had the surgery.
She regrets it. “It takes away your feeling of attractiveness,” she said. “Compared to women who really have cancer, it is nothing. But the mastectomy was for no reason, and that’s why it bothers me.”
But if D.C.I.S. is actually a risk factor for invasive cancer, rather than a precursor, it might be possible to help women reduce their risk, perhaps with hormonal or immunological therapies to change the breast environment, making it less hospitable to cancer cells, Dr. Esserman said.
“As we learn more, that gives us the courage to try something different,” she said.
The stakes in this debate are high. Karuna Jaggar, executive director of Breast Cancer Action, an education and activist organization, said women tended not to appreciate the harms of overtreatment and often overestimated their risk of dying of cancer, making them react with terror.
“Treatment comes with short- and long-term impacts,” Ms. Jaggar said, noting that women who get cancer treatment are less likely to be employed several years later and tend to earn less than before. There are emotional tolls and strains on relationships. And there can be complications from breast cancer surgery, including lymphedema, a permanent pooling of lymphatic fluid in the arm.
“These are not theoretical harms,” Ms. Jaggar said.