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China-Mao Essay, Research Paper
The Cultural Revolution was designed to destroy all of the culture of pre-communist China, to establish a new more perfect communist society, and to punish his critics of the Great Leap Forward. He sought out to do this by any means possible. The plan he came up with was clever but yet very destructive on the whole of China. Through Mao’s domestic diplomacy, he convinced the easiest influenced people in China, the peasants and the youth, to join in the fight to cleanse China from all Western and Capitalist evils, and to establish the ultimate communist society.
After the failure of the “Great Leap Forward”, Mao and the communist government were receiving an overwhelming amount of criticism from his colleagues and the general public so Mao decided to take things into his own hands(Duiker,1048). Mao took the criticism personally and sought out to get his power and popularity back. To achieve this Mao created the “Cultural Revolution”. This Revolution’s goal was to rid China of all that represented Western and Capitalist ideals and thoughts. He also set out to destroy all traditional Chinese vestiges by getting rid of the “four olds”, old thought, old culture, old habits, and customs.(Duiker,1049) He saw the four olds as representative of former Nationalist China, which in essence were capitalist because they were not communist, so therefore deemed as evil.
Mao used the simple lives of the peasant farmers as the ideal communist lifestyle. He had sympathy for this group, because he was born a peasant farmer. At that time the majority of China was peasants, so it makes sense that Mao would try to convince this group that they were the best example of a communist. Mao said things that would give the peasants pride in their class. He said that the peasants can do anything if they organize and do it together. This is very similar to what Lenin preached to the proletariat of the Soviet Union in the early 1920’s. To a certain extent Mao was right, the peasants had the numbers to do whatever they wanted. The peasants were a group of people who had been looked down upon since the beginning of China, so it seems fitting that if they are given any power or recognition that they take advantage of it to the utmost of their ability. Whether Mao felt that the peasants were really the true example a communist or not, he still used them to achieve his personal goals.
The policies of the Cultural Revolution that Mao set forth were carried out by a group of teens called the Red Guards. Mostly 14-20 year olds born into communist China. The Red Guards were the designated protectors of Mao(Zhu,37). They were given the authority, by Mao, to question all authorities on their dedication to the party(Zhu,37). The reason Mao chose the youth of China to be his protectors was that they had not been polluted with capitalist propaganda, like the older generations.(Zhu,41) This is the youth that was given picture books at the young ages of five and six years old that promoted the communists(Zhu,30). Mao changed the educational system for his benefit, to more specifacally focus on pride of the country and the government than on what we would consider normal school subjects like writing and math(Zhu,31). This is also the first generation that was growing up without any Western influence whatsoever, because of the strict filtering of western media. Mao knew that these teenagers would be loyal only to him because communism did not allow any religion, so Mao ended up being their God. Since the communist takeover in 1949 it seems as though that Mao had been grooming this generation to reshape China into his ideal state. When these teenagers caught wind that Mao was hailing them as the future of the country and the only non-corrupted communists, of course they took advantage of this authority given by their leader.
Since the youth had not been corrupted by the west or former Nationalist China, they knew the true meaning of communism, and therefore they could distinguish who and who was not Mao’s enemies. The Red Guards were given the authority to search out the enemies of the state in anyway possible. Some of the main people who were questioned were those in authority. The Red Guard questioned the accused by first searching their houses for anything the Red Guard considered Western or anti-Mao, and then they would question the accused to see their loyalty to the party. If the Red Guard found anything questionable from the house, they would confiscate it imediately. The questioning process went as follows, the Red Guard interrogated the accused, and more times than not the accused were guilty whether or not there was evidence to convict.(Zhu,64+) From the government workers like Zhu’s dad to a manager of a theater company like Zhu’s mom all persecuted and condemned on false accusations. A lot of the time the convicted would be beaten badly by the Red Guards. Most of the convicted were also sent to labor camps.
Sending the convicted to the labor camps was all a part of Mao’s plan to make China into the ultimate communist society. Since the peasants did manual labor for their job, and the peasants were seen as the ideal communist citizen then it makes sense to send them to labor camps. Those that were sent to the labor camps, according to Mao, had lost their Revolutionary focus, and working as a peasant was supposed to re-focus them.(Zhu,64+) This process, of Mao’s chosen generation persecuting those who allegedly were against Mao, and sending them to do the peasant’s work, was all apart of his plan for a perfect communist society.
Mao’s Cultural Revolution had quite a different effect on Zhu than it had on most of the youth of the day. Initially in Zhu’s early life the picture books and the education reforms had the same brainwashing effect on him as it did on the rest of the youth. Early in his schooling Mao established himself as the authority figure in the students’ life. He did this by replacing the loud speaker at the front of the classroom, which had been a symbol of authority because that is where the principal spoke from, with a picture of himself. (Zhu,36) Also in Zhu’s English class, their first lesson was not the basic A’s and B’s, but were communist sayings. Zhu’s view of the communist government started to change when his parents were taken into custody for crimes they never committed. He then strarted to question the morality and effectiveness of the government. This effected Zhu more than just that the fact that his parents were gone, he was discriminated against now because his parents were convicted “capitalists”. Because od this experience Zhu was able to look at what had happened from the outside and notice how corrupt the party actually was.
Mao knew very well that the easiest influenced people in China would be the peasents and the the youth, so he exploited them to his advantage. He did achieved one of his goals, he got revenge on all of his “evil” critics by throwing them out of office and putting them in labor camps. In the end Mao was the creater of his own monster
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An Act for Rectifying a Mistake in a certain Act of this present Parliament, For the Amoving Papists from the Cities of London and Westminster.
Date Published: 1689
Description: title vignette, engraved initial. pp. 299-300. 4to, disbound. London: Charles Bill and Thomas Newcomb, 1689.
Comments: Anno Regni Gulielmi et Mariae, Regis & Reginae Angliae...Primo. On the Eleventh Day of May, Anno Dom. 1689. In the First Year of Their Majesties Reign, this Act Passed the Royal Assent.Edition: First Edition
Book ID: 149863


Aceralia was a large Spanish steel producer formed in 1997 by restructuring of a group formed from earlier mergers of the steel producers ENSIDESA and Altos Hornos de Vizcaya. The company merged into Arcelor in 2001, and became part of ArcelorMittal in 2006.
|Predecessor||Corporacion de la Siderurgia Integral (1991)|
Altos Hornos de Vizcaya (1902)
In 1950 the state owned company Empresa Nacional Siderúrgia Sociedad Anónima (ENSIDESA) was formed to increase Spain's steel production, part of the industrialisation and modernisation of Spain that led to the Spanish economic miracle of the 1960s. In 1973 the state owned company was forced to take over the Asturian steel company UNISA, which had invested heavily in a fully integrated steel works and did not have the capital to fund it.
In 1991 the state owned company ENSIDESA was merged with Altos Hornos de Vizcaya to form the Corporacion de la Siderurgia Integral from which the Corporación Siderúrgica Integral (CSI) was formed in 1994 from the more profitable parts (as part of a privatisation process).
In 1997 Aceralia Corporación Siderúrgica was formed by reorganisation of CSI, the same year the company formed a strategic alliance with the Luxembourg-based steel group Arbed. As soon as it was formed it was also privatised. The group also acquired the Aristrain Group (steel sections), and Ucín (rebar, wire rod), in the process becoming the largest steel company in Spain. In 2001 the company merged with two other European steel producers; Arbed, and Usinor to form Arcelor.
- Pierangelo Maria Toninelli (2000). "The rise and fall of state-owned enterprise in the western world". books.google.co.uk. Cambridge University Press. Public versus private growth patterns: Case studies : The Iron and Steel Industry, pp.220-222.


A strong fortification was ordered and approved to be built here and Colonel Waul was placed in charge of the supervision of the construction. The walls were made of bales of cotton in zigzag fashion stacked four high and covered with dirt. The stacks were fourteen feet high and stretched from river to river. Cannon of various kinds were spaced evenly across the walls and guns were stationed to be used on approaching ships seen on either river. (From The von Rosenberg Family of Texas: The Civil War Years, by Ann Barnes) Read more here.


Please note that Mommsen uses the AUC chronology (Ab Urbe Condita), i.e. from the founding of the City of Rome. You can use this reference table to have the B.C. dates
From: The History of Rome, by Theodor Mommsen
Translated with the sanction of the author by William Purdie Dickson
Metellus led it over the Numidian frontier. When Jugurtha perceived the altered state of things, he gave himself up as lost, and, before the struggle began, made earnest proposals for an accommodation, requesting ultimately nothing more than a guarantee for his life. Metellus, however, was resolved and perhaps even instructed not to terminate the war except with the unconditional subjugation and execution of the daring client-prince; which was in fact the only issue that could satisfy the Romans.
Jugurtha since the victory over Albinus was regarded as the deliverer of Libya from the rule of the hated foreigners; unscrupulous and cunning as he was, and unwieldy as was the Roman government, he might at any time even after a peace rekindle the war in his native country; tranquillity would not be secured, and the removal of the African army would not be possible, until king Jugurtha should cease to exist.
Officially Metellus gave evasive answers to the proposals of the king; secretly he instigated the envoys to deliver their master living or dead to the Romans. But, when the Roman general undertook to compete with the African in the field of assassination, he there met his master; Jugurtha saw through the plan, and, when he could not do otherwise, prepared for a desperate resistance.
Do you see any typos or other mistakes? Please let us know and correct them
Reference address : https://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/rome/4-04-rule-restoration.asp?pg=43


Introduction to the Edo Period and its Significance in Katana History
The Historical Context of the Edo Period
The Edo period, a pivotal era in Japanese history, was characterized by over two centuries of peace and stability under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate. This epoch, stretching from the early 17th to the late 19th century, fostered a flourishing of the arts and culture, including the meticulous craft of the Japanese sword, or katana. Swords from this time weren't just weapons; they were symbols of samurai status, embodying the warrior ethos and aesthetic sensibilities of the age. The tranquility of the Edo period allowed for the refinement of sword-making techniques, making the katana not only a deadly tool but a work of art.
Diving into the annals of this time, one can't help but marvel at how the Edo period's relative isolation contributed to the development of a distinctly Japanese craft. Swordsmiths, freed from the demands of constant warfare, turned their attention to perfecting the beauty and durability of their blades. These antique Japanese swords are now treasured not only for their historical value but for their craftsmanship and design, a testament to a period that significantly shaped the evolution of the katana.
The Evolution of Japanese Swordsmithing
Throughout the Edo period, the art of Japanese swordsmithing underwent remarkable transformations. Innovations in forging techniques and the introduction of new materials allowed smiths to create swords that were both more resilient and more refined. The pursuit of the perfect blade led to the development of various sword styles, each with its own unique characteristics and intended use. This period saw the rise of the wakizashi and tanto, complementing the katana in the samurai's arsenal, showcasing the diversity in sword types that the period fostered.
The evolution of swordsmithing during the Edo period was not merely about enhancing the weapon's practicality. It was an era where the aesthetic dimension of the sword received unprecedented attention. Artisans experimented with different patterns of folding the steel, varying the mix of materials to produce blades with distinctive, beautiful hamon (temper lines) that are highly prized by collectors today. These developments reflect a deep appreciation for the sword as an art form, a sentiment that continues to inspire enthusiasts and craftsmen around the world.
The Artistry Behind Edo Period Katanas
Materials and Techniques in Blade Making
The mastery of Edo period swordsmiths is nowhere more evident than in their choice of materials and techniques for blade making. These artisans sought out the finest tamahagane (jewel steel), smelted from iron sand in a labor-intensive process that produced the raw material for their swords. By carefully controlling the temperature and timing of the smelting process, smiths could create steel with varying carbon contents, essential for forging blades that were both flexible and capable of holding a razor-sharp edge.
The folding technique, where the steel was folded and hammered out repeatedly, was not just about purifying the steel; it was a method that imbued the katana with its soul. Each fold, each strike of the hammer by the smith, was a step closer to achieving a blade that was as much a piece of art as it was a weapon. This painstaking process resulted in a distinctive pattern on the blade, a visual testament to the skill and dedication of its creator. It's in these details that the true artistry of the Edo period katana shines through, captivating collectors and enthusiasts to this day.
Signature Styles of Renowned Swordsmiths
The Edo period was marked by the emergence of swordsmiths whose names have become legendary, each associated with signature styles that distinguish their work. These master craftsmen, such as Masamune and Muramasa, left behind legacies that are not just about the quality of their blades but also about the innovative techniques and artistic expressions they pioneered. Their katanas are celebrated for their exquisite balance, unparalleled sharpness, and the beauty of their hamon, which are often compared to natural landscapes.
Collecting these antique Japanese swords is not merely an investment in a tangible piece of history; it's an appreciation of the individual stories and craftsmanship that each blade carries. Enthusiasts seek out these pieces for their authentic qualities, the connection to a samurai past, and the embodiment of the swordsmith's spirit. The signature styles of these Edo period swordsmiths continue to influence modern katana making, a tribute to their enduring legacy.
Understanding the Variety of Blade Styles
Characteristics of Popular Blade Shapes
The Edo period saw the development of a wide variety of blade shapes, each designed to serve specific purposes or cater to the aesthetic preferences of the samurai class. The tachi, with its deep curvature and long blade, was favored for its cutting ability while mounted. Conversely, the uchigatana and later, the katana, with a more moderate curve and shorter length, were optimized for foot soldiers, reflecting shifts in warfare tactics. This period also saw the emergence of specialized swords like the wakizashi and tanto, offering samurai a versatile arsenal for close combat or ceremonial purposes.
Each blade shape from this era tells a story of the samurai's evolving role in society, from warriors to bureaucrats. The subtleties in the curvature, length, and balance of these swords are a testament to the swordsmiths' response to changing martial needs and aesthetic tastes. Collectors and enthusiasts are drawn to these variations, seeking out specific blade shapes that resonate with their personal interests or represent pivotal moments in Japanese history.
The Functionality of Different Blade Types
While the aesthetic appeal of Edo period katanas is undeniable, the functionality of these swords was paramount. The design of each blade type was a direct response to the practical needs of the samurai. The katana, with its sharp edge and sturdy construction, was ideal for swift, precise cuts, making it a formidable weapon in hand-to-hand combat. The wakizashi served as a secondary weapon, useful in confined spaces where a longer blade would be impractical. Together, these swords represented the versatility and adaptability of the samurai, prepared for any combat scenario.
The appreciation for these blade types extends beyond their martial utility, capturing the imagination of modern enthusiasts who see in them the embodiment of samurai principles and values. The pursuit of authentic, antique Japanese swords is not just about owning a piece of history; it's about connecting with the spirit of the samurai. Collectors and martial artists alike study these blades, not only to admire their craftsmanship but to understand the principles of balance, timing, and precision that they embody.
The Cultural Impact of Katanas in the Edo Period
The Role of the Katana in Samurai Culture
The katana was far more than just a weapon to the samurai of the Edo period; it was a symbol of their soul, status, and the very essence of their being. Carrying the katana was a privilege and responsibility bestowed only upon the samurai, setting them apart from other classes in the highly stratified society of feudal Japan. The intricate rituals surrounding the creation, care, and wearing of these swords reflected their deep spiritual significance. Samurai viewed their katanas as trusted companions in life and death, imbued with honor and loyalty — the same virtues that defined the samurai code of bushido.
This reverence for the katana fostered an environment where swordsmiths were highly respected figures, their forges considered sacred spaces. The process of creating a katana involved rituals and prayers, emphasizing the spiritual connection between the swordsmith and the samurai. This deep bond between warrior and weapon has left a lasting legacy, influencing modern martial arts and the way in which the samurai and their katanas are mythologized in contemporary culture.
Symbolism and Status: The Katana as More Than a Weapon
In Edo society, the katana also served as a powerful symbol of authority and honor. The right to wear a katana in public was an emblem of the samurai's social status, instantly recognizable and respected. Beyond its practical use in combat, the katana was integral to the ceremonial attire of the samurai, worn at the hip as a badge of rank. The aesthetic qualities of the katana, including its fittings and decoration, were tailored to reflect the personal taste and status of its owner, making each sword a unique work of art.
The cultural impact of the katana extends into the realm of philosophy and art, symbolizing the transient beauty of existence as well as the virtues of discipline, honor, and artistry. These values, encapsulated in the spirit of the katana, continue to resonate in Japanese society and beyond. The fascination with these swords, whether as historical artifacts, objects of aesthetic beauty, or symbols of a bygone era, underscores their enduring appeal and significance.
The Craftsmanship of Edo Period Swordsmiths
Secrets of the Forge: Techniques Passed Down Through Generations
The forges of Edo Japan were more than mere workshops; they were sanctuaries where the ancient alchemy of sword making was perfected over generations. Swordsmiths were custodians of this sacred craft, blending spiritual practices with physical toil to create blades unmatched in beauty and quality. The secrets of the forge — the precise control of temperature, the selection of the finest tamahagane, and the meticulous folding and hammering of the steel — were closely guarded, passed down from master to apprentice. This lineage of knowledge ensured that each katana was not just a weapon but a legacy.
The dedication to perfection and the relentless pursuit of innovation characterized the craftsmanship of Edo period swordsmiths. They experimented with different carbon contents and folding techniques to enhance the strength, flexibility, and aesthetic appeal of the blades. The creation of each katana was a labor of devotion, imbued with the spirit of the artisan. Collectors today treasure these swords not only for their historical significance but for the authentic craftsmanship that defines them.
Innovations in Swordsmithing During the Edo Period
The peaceful years of the Edo period provided the perfect backdrop for swordsmiths to refine their art, leading to significant innovations in swordsmithing techniques. These artisans were not content with maintaining tradition; they constantly sought ways to improve the durability, sharpness, and beauty of their blades. Innovations included the development of new tempering techniques, which resulted in more resilient and lethal edges, and the introduction of intricate designs in the hamon, or temper line, that added to the sword's aesthetic value.
These advancements were not merely technical; they were artistic. The Edo period saw the katana transform from a simple weapon of war to a symbol of the samurai's soul, a reflection of the artisan's skill and the warrior's spirit. Today, the legacy of these innovations continues to inspire swordsmiths and collectors around the world, a testament to the enduring appeal of the katana's craftsmanship.
Preservation and Study of Edo Period Katanas
Modern Efforts in Preserving Ancient Blades
The preservation of Edo period katanas is a crucial concern for collectors, historians, and cultural institutions worldwide. These antique Japanese swords are not only artistic masterpieces but also invaluable historical documents that offer insights into Japan's feudal past. Modern preservation efforts involve meticulous care, from controlling environmental conditions to prevent corrosion, to employing traditional swordsmithing techniques for restoration. Museums and private collectors alike are dedicated to maintaining these swords in their authentic condition, ensuring they can be appreciated by future generations.
The challenge of preserving these blades is matched by the passion of those who undertake it. Techniques that were once secrets guarded by ancient swordsmiths are now shared among a global community committed to saving these artifacts. This collective effort bridges past and present, highlighting the katana's enduring legacy as a symbol of beauty, craftsmanship, and history.
Studying the Katana: Techniques for Authenticating and Appraising
The study of Edo period katanas involves more than admiration for their beauty; it requires a deep understanding of their historical context, craftsmanship, and provenance. Experts in the field use a variety of techniques to authenticate and appraise these swords, from analyzing the steel's grain patterns to deciphering the inscriptions on the tang. Authenticating a katana is a meticulous process that combines art, science, and history, ensuring that each sword's legacy is preserved.
For collectors and enthusiasts, the authenticity of a katana is paramount. This has led to a heightened interest in the NBTHK (Nihon Bijutsu Token Hozon Kyokai) certification, a mark of authenticity and quality for Japanese swords. Obtaining this certification is a rigorous process, but it underscores the value placed on preserving the integrity and heritage of Edo period katanas. Through these efforts, the katana remains not just a relic of the past but a living piece of art that continues to inspire awe and respect.
Exploring the Evolution of Blade Styles Over Time
Transitions in Blade Styles: From War to Peace
The transition from the Sengoku period, marked by constant warfare, to the peaceful Edo era brought significant changes to the design and functionality of Japanese swords. During the tumultuous times of war, the demand was for swords that could withstand brutal combat. However, as the Edo period ushered in an era of peace, the focus shifted towards the aesthetic and ceremonial aspects of the katana. This evolution in blade styles reflects the changing needs and values of samurai society.
The blades became more slender and the curves more subtle, mirroring the refined tastes of a culture that had begun to place greater emphasis on art, poetry, and the tea ceremony. This was not just a change in physical design but a reflection of the sword's evolving role from a tool of war to a symbol of status and identity. The appreciation for these refined blades remains strong among collectors and enthusiasts, who see in them the embodiment of Japanese aesthetics and philosophy.
Comparative Analysis of Early and Late Edo Period Blades
A comparative analysis of early and late Edo period katanas reveals the nuanced developments in sword-making techniques and aesthetic preferences over the period. Early Edo katanas often carried forward the robust and practical designs necessitated by the preceding era of conflict. As the period progressed and the samurai's role transitioned from warrior to bureaucrat, the katana evolved into a more ornate and symbolically rich object.
Late Edo period blades are distinguished by their intricate craftsmanship, with more elaborate hamon patterns and the use of precious metals and alloys in the tsuba (handguard) and other fittings. These changes not only represent the technological advancements in metallurgy and swordsmithing but also reflect the cultural shifts within Japanese society. The enduring fascination with these variations speaks to the katana's role as a cultural icon, capturing the spirit of an era defined by its pursuit of perfection in both martial and artistic endeavors.
How to Appreciate the Art of the Katana
Understanding the Aesthetics of Blade Design
The art of the katana lies not just in its function but in its form. Appreciating the aesthetics of blade design involves a nuanced understanding of the balance between beauty and utility that defines these swords. The graceful curve of the blade, the subtle patterns of the steel, and the intricate details of the fittings all contribute to the katana's allure. Each element, from the hamon to the kissaki (tip), is a testament to the swordsmith's skill and artistry. Enthusiasts and collectors are drawn to these aspects, recognizing the deep cultural and historical significance embedded in each design.
Moreover, the aesthetic appreciation of katanas extends beyond visual admiration to an understanding of the materials and techniques used in their creation. The selection of tamahagane steel, the precision of the folding process, and the art of tempering the blade are all critical to achieving the perfect balance of hardness and flexibility. This appreciation deepens one's connection to the katana, transforming it from a mere object to a revered artifact of Japanese heritage.
Appreciating the Craftsmanship: What to Look For
To truly appreciate the craftsmanship of a katana, one must look beyond the surface. Key indicators of a masterfully crafted sword include the clarity and complexity of the hamon, the uniformity and texture of the steel, and the fit and finish of the sword's components. Authentic Edo period katanas often bear the signature of their maker, a mark of pride and proof of their origin. Understanding these elements allows enthusiasts to discern the quality and authenticity of a katana, enhancing their appreciation of these exquisite weapons.
Additionally, the context in which these swords were made adds another layer to their appreciation. Knowing the historical background, the specific uses of different blade types, and the symbolism imbued in each sword enriches the experience of collecting and studying katanas. It's a journey through history, art, and philosophy that connects the past with the present, inviting a deep reverence for the craftsmanship and cultural legacy of the samurai era.
The Legacy of Edo Period Katanas Today
Influence on Modern Martial Arts and Swordsmanship
The legacy of Edo period katanas extends far beyond their historical context, influencing modern martial arts and swordsmanship practices around the world. The principles of balance, precision, and discipline embodied in the katana have been integrated into various martial arts, teaching practitioners not only how to wield a sword but also instilling values of respect, honor, and perseverance. This enduring influence is a testament to the katana's integral role in Japanese culture and its universal appeal as a symbol of the warrior spirit.
In contemporary swordsmanship, practitioners often seek out authentic Edo period katanas or faithfully reproduced replicas as a means to connect with the traditions and techniques of the past. These swords serve as tangible links to the samurai, enabling martial artists to experience the weight, balance, and sharpness of a genuine katana, enriching their practice and understanding of the art.
Collecting Edo Period Katanas: A Guide for Enthusiasts
Collecting Edo period katanas is a pursuit that combines passion for history with an appreciation for artistry. For enthusiasts embarking on this journey, understanding the historical significance, recognizing the marks of authentic craftsmanship, and acquiring knowledge about preservation are crucial. Collectors must navigate the market with care, seeking reputable sources and verifying authenticity, often through certification by recognized bodies like the NBTHK.
The allure of collecting these antique Japanese swords lies not only in their physical beauty but in the stories they carry and the connection they offer to a bygone era. Each katana is a piece of history, a work of art, and a testament to the skill of its maker. For collectors, these swords are treasures that hold immense cultural and historical value, embodying the spirit of the samurai and the enduring legacy of the Edo period.
Legacy and Reverence: The Enduring Spirit of the Edo Period Katana
The journey through the world of Edo period katanas reveals a tapestry rich with history, artistry, and cultural depth. These blades, more than mere weapons, are enduring symbols of the samurai spirit, encapsulating the values of honor, discipline, and beauty that defined an era. The craftsmanship of the swordsmiths, the evolution of blade styles, and the swords' role within the societal fabric of Edo Japan have left an indelible mark on history and on the hearts of those who continue to study, collect, and admire these remarkable artifacts. As we look back on the legacy of the Edo period katana, it becomes clear that these swords are not just remnants of the past but vibrant relics that continue to inspire admiration, study, and reverence. Their story is a bridge connecting the bygone days of the samurai with the modern world, reminding us of the timeless pursuit of excellence and the enduring beauty of Japanese tradition.


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Jucha art and music is a blog devoted to books, collages and music.
March 19, 1967
The Star Club
On March 19, 1967, The Jimi Hendrix Experience was concluding a weekend stint at the Star Club in Hamburg, Germany where The Beatles had honed their act five years earlier. The Experience played two shows each night so as Mitch Mitchell put it in his autobiography Inside The Experience, the Experience “didn’t have to do the whole matinee thing – it was winding down a bit by then anyway.” The Beatles had put it on the European rock map and some of the performers and bands associated with Jimi Hendrix who played there before it closed for good on December 31, 1969, included Little Richard, Cream and Soft Machine. (Alvin Lee, who Jimi called “the Gene Cochran of rock and roll” after his scene stealing bit in Woodstock playing “I’m Going Home” (“by helicopter” as he said in the movie) also played the Star Club as member of The Jaybirds, which was his pre-Ten Years After band.) The building burned down in 1987.
It wasn’t The Jimi Hendrix Experience’s first shows in Germany. After concluding the recording of “Hey Joe”, “Stone Free”, and “Can You See Me” at De Lane Lea Studios in late October-early November, The Experience had flown off to play six shows at The Big Apple in Munich on November 9-11, 1967. Bassist Noel Redding had played Germany previously with The Loving Kind but for Jimi, it was his first visit to Germany. By the time he departed he had acquired a new tool in his arsenal of live act tricks: the smashing of the guitar. Just a few years later he was to say “… I didn’t know it was anger until they told me what it was, you know, all their releases, where they can do a releases at. So my room was a stage.” And that first room was in The Big Apple in Munich.
It was much more an act of spontaneous combustion than the first time he set his guitar on fire, which was carefully planned to upstage better known acts on a package tour. In Munich, the power trio was playing two 45-minute sets each night. The Experience’s first hit single was in the can but nobody had heard it yet. In Germany it didn’t matter. The Germans had taken to The Experience and according to Redding in his autobiography “… the crowd was going crazy and began to pull Jimi into the audience. He panicked, and to save his guitar, he threw it onto the stage.” But instead of saving the guitar, he had damaged it and Jimi – upset at damaging his Fender Stratocaster – “just went barmy” according to Chas Chandler, his manager. “The German audience loved it and we decided to keep it in as part of the act.”
The same guitar was smashed each night, carefully glued back together and then smashed again, no doubt during at least one of the six shows in Hamburg’s Star Club.
Next post in 365 Days In The Life of Jimi Hendrix will be on March 21st.


The University Libraries has obtained access to Black Thought and Culture, which offers the full text of approximately 100,000 pages of non-fiction writing by leading figures in African American life and culture, including Frederick Douglas, W.E.B. Du Bois, Ida Wells, A. Phillip Randolph, Martin Luther King, Jr., Jesse Jackson and many others.
The collection includes the complete run of the Black Panther newspaper and a wide selection of abolitionists' writings from the 19th century. The coverage of documents include the early 18th century to the 20th century. Materials include articles and essays, monographs, speeches, interviews, pamphlets, and correspondence. Approximately twenty percent is previously unpublished, including transcripts from the Columbia University Oral History Project.
For a complete list of databases available through the University Libraries, visit our A-Z Database guide.


Today we're excited to spotlight Votes For Women by Winifred Cinkling! Read on for more Winifred and her book, plus the top 5 things you (probably) don't know about the suffrage movement!
Meet Winifred Conkling!
Winifred Conkling is an award-winning author of fiction and nonfiction for young readers, including Passenger on the Pearl and Votes for Women! and the middle-grade novel Sylvia & Aki.
On August 18, 1920, American women finally won the right to vote. Ratification of the 19th Amendment was the culmination of an almost eighty-year fight in which some of the fiercest, most passionate women in history marched, protested, and sometimes broke the law in to achieve this huge leap toward equal rights.
In this expansive yet personal volume, author Winifred Conkling covers not only the suffragists’ achievements and politics but also the private journeys that fueled their passion and led them to become women’s champions. From Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who founded the suffrage movement at the 1848 Seneca Falls convention; to Victoria Woodhull, the first female candidate for president; to Sojourner Truth and her famous speech, “Ain’t I a Woman?”; to Alice Paul, who was arrested and force-fed in prison, Conkling combines thorough research with page-turning storytelling to bring the battle for the right to vote to vivid life. Votes for Women! also explores the movement’s often powerful, sometimes difficult relationship with the temperance and abolition movements, and takes unflinching look at some of the uglier moments in the fight for the women’s vote.
Votes for Women! is a mesmerizing read perfect for fans of propulsive narrative nonfiction stories like Most Dangerous and The Family Romanov.
5 Things You (Probably) Don’t Know About the Suffrage Movement
1.) In 1848—the time of the first women’s rights convention—women didn’t have the legal right to own property, sign contracts, or speak in public meetings. Women could be beaten by their husbands and fathers (as long as the whip was not thicker than a thumb). Still, the most controversial topic at the convention was giving women the right to vote.
2.) Suffragist Susan B. Anthony voted for president in 1872, more than fifty years before the 19th Amendment was ratified. (Later she was arrested and almost sent to jail.)
3.) Nearly one hundred women were arrested and jailed for carrying signs demanding the right to vote. Some of them went on a hunger strike while in prison. To tempt the women to eat, the warden hired six cooks to fry ham and bacon 24-hours a day. None of the women gave in.
4.) The ratification vote for the 19th Amendment came down to a single vote in the Tennessee House of Representatives. Everyone thought the vote was tied, but one man changed his mind and voted “yes” to suffrage because his mother asked him to.
5.) Only one woman who attended the Women’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls in 1848 lived to see the passage of the 19th Amendment. That woman, Charlotte Woodard, was 91 years old in 1920. She died before she ever made it to the polls.


Dwars door West-Vlaanderen
This article needs additional citations for verification. (February 2017)
|Region||West Flanders, Belgium|
|Local name(s)||Dwars door West-Vlaanderen (in Dutch)|
|Competition||UCI Europe Tour|
|Editions||72 (as of 2018)|
|First winner||Marcel Kint (BEL)|
|Most wins|| Gustaaf Desmet (BEL)|
Patrick Sercu (BEL)
Wilfried Peeters (BEL)
Erik Dekker (NED)
Niko Eeckhout (BEL)
|Most recent||Rémi Cavagna (FRA)|
The race was originally created unter the name Omloop der Vlaamse Ardennen (English: Tour of the Flemish Ardennes) in 1945 as a one-day race. It remained like that until 1999, when it became a two-day stage race and was renamed Guldensporentweedaagse. In 2003 it was extended to three days and became known as the Driedaagse van West-Vlaanderen (English: Three Days of West Flanders), and held on to this format until 2016. It was also known as the Johan Museeuw Classic. From 2006 to 2016 the race was organized as a 2.1 event on the UCI Europe Tour.
Since 2017 the race morphed into a one-day event again and was rebranded Dwars door West-Vlaanderen; initially as a 1.1 event of the UCI Europe Tour but with the aim of becoming a 1.HC event in the near future.
- "Driedaagse van West-Vlaanderen wordt eendagskoers". sporza.be. Retrieved 25 May 2016.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Driedaagse van West-Vlaanderen.|
- Official website (in Dutch)


BRISTOW marriages (males) 1850-1910 South Australia
BRISTOW marriages (males) 1850-1910 South Australia.
married: 1850 Eliza WATTS.
married: 1852 Eliza PITMAN.
married: 1855 Susan Anne SIMS.
married: 1859 Susannah PETHICK.
married: 1871 Sarah Ann YATES.
married: 1873 Rebecca Elizabeth MOORE.
married: 1878 Hannah LUDLOW.
married: 1879 Sarah Ann HODBY.
married: 1879 Alice SKINNER.
married: 1881 Jane WHITE.
married: 1884 Harriett Alice Hall BEECHING.
married: 1886 Emeline BULL.
married: 1887 Margaret Saunders ROGERS.
married: 1887 Florence JACKSON.
married: 1890 Elizabeth BROADHURST.
married: 1894 Clara SANDS.
married: 1894 Mary Annie HURLEY.
married: 1895 Isabella BURGES.
married: 1899 Annie Maria FRANCIS.
married: 1904 Emma Jane COON.
married: 1905 Elsie Ann REDDEN.
married: 1908 Lydia Florence Elizabeth HAY.
married: 1910 Florence Maude GILMOUR.
Married: 1910 Elsie May MOORE.
Compiled from the South Australian Marriage Indexes to assist others researching the BRISTOW lines.
on 2010-05-15 01:45:59
TONKIN lives in Victoria, Australia.
Journals are intended to assist new researchers locate family lines in Australia and should only be used as a guide for follow up research and record searches as intended. Due to spelling and informant errors appearing in the records, typo errors and my misreading of the records mistakes must be expected. Errors will be corrected when detected.


The following post is a collection of photos from my visit today to The National Museum of American History in Washington, DC. I was very excited to walk through the museum for a while since it has been closed for a while and recently re-opened to the public.
Battle of Yorktown Display
George Washington's field glasses and travel desk used in the Revolutionary War Chairs used at Signing of Surrender Papers to End the Civil War
Coffee cup used by Lincoln on the night he was assassinated
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California Genealogy and History Archives
Amador County History
A Memorial and
Biographical History of Northern California -
Chicago, Lewis Publ. Co., 1891
This county is seventy miles long by twenty broad, though narrowing in the eastern portion to four or five miles.
The eastern half of Amador, extending into the high Sierras, is elevated and rugged, the surface being cut by many deep ravines. In this elevated region are several small but deep and beautiful lakes, the water cold and of surpassing purity. This part of the county is covered with magnificent forests of pine, spruce, and cedar. The western half of Amador occupies the foothill country, more sparsely timbered, but almost as rugged as the mountain section, these foothills being the site of the gold mines. The upper part of Amador is one mass of granite, the geological formation, lower down, consisting mostly of slate, belts of limestone, and diorite (greenstone).
Amador, while admirably adapted for fruit and vine growing, possessing also some other agricultural resources, is notably one of our foremost mining counties, its annual bullion product being now the largest, probably, of all counties in the State. There are in this county not less than twenty-five quartz mills, nearly all of them in active operation. These mills carry a total of over six hundred and fifty stamps. Along the broad gold-bearing belt, known as the "mother lode" of California, which holds its course across the county, the principal mines and mills are situated, there being here within a distance of fifteen miles, as many as twenty large companies engaged in vein mining, the properties of nearly all being equipped with first-class plants.
Besides her quartz mines and auriferous deposits, Amador produces some copper and coal (brown lignite), and is rich in marble, limestone, freestone, etc. At a number of localities in the county, notably near the towns of Volcano and Oleta, diamonds have been found by the miners engaged in gravel washing. Some of these diamonds have been of fair size and good quality, and occurred in sufficient quantity to have made search remunerative, had the gravel accompanying them been more easily disintegrated. Some of the stones found here sold in the local market for $50 or $60, their intrinsic value having been much greater.
In the famous trip across the mountains, Fremont and Carson traveled northward from Walker's River, crossing the river bearing Carson's name in their course, and making the crossing of the summit by way of Truckee and Lake Tahoe. The river was then named in honor of Carson, the pass and valley being named from the river, so that it is quite probable that Carson never crossed the mountains at that point until 1853, when he came through with a division of United States troops under Colonel Steptoe.
The first authentic report of the presence of white men in the county was in 1846, when Sutter, with a party of Indians and a few white men, sawed lumber for a ferry-boat in a cluster of sugar pines on the ridge between Sutter and Amador creeks, about four miles above the town of Amador and Sutter.
At this time (1846) the country was one unbroken forest from the plains to the Sierra Nevada, broken only by grassy glades like Ione valley, Volcano flats and other places. The tall pine waved from every hill, the white and black oak alternating and prevailing in the lower valleys. The timber in the lower foothills and valleys, though continuous, was so scattering that grasses, ferns and other plants grew between, giving the country the appearance of a well cared-for park. The quiet and repose of these ancient forests seemed like the results of thousands of years of peaceful occupation; and at every turn in the trails which the emigrants followed, they half expected to see the familiar old homestead, orchard, cider-press and grain-fields, the glories of the older settlements in the eastern States. These things, after years of residence, are beginning to appear. How much the ancient sylvan gods were astonished and shocked at the irruption of the races that tore up the ground and cut the trees, the poets of some other generation will relate.
In the latter part of March, 1848, Captain Charles M. Weber, of Tuleburg (now Stockton), fitted out a prospecting party to search for gold in the mountains east of the San Joaquin Valley; but haste and want of experience prevented them from finding any of the shining metal until they reached the Mokelumne River in this county, when they found gold in every gulch to the American River. They commenced mining at Placerville, on Weber's Creek. Afterward they found fine specimens of gold south of the Mokelumne, and a mining company was formed which afterward gave name to Wood's creek, Murphy's Creek, Angel's Camp and other places. Then commenced the general working of the "Southern Mines," and the rush of miners and the general immigration which finally filled the country.
In 1850, the two places contesting for the county seat were Jackson and Mokelumne Hill. After the election, when the first count or estimate was made out, Mokelumne Hill was said to have been the successful town, and a team was sent to Double Springs to remove the archives; but a subsequent count by Judge Smith made Jackson the county-seat. Smith was openly charged with fraud in the second counting. The whole affair was probably as near a farce as elections ever get to be. The seat of justice remained at Jackson until 1852, when it was transferred by election to Mokelumne Hill.
El Dorado County was first organized with Dry Creek as its southern boundary; Calaveras County, with the same stream as its northern limits. From these two territories, Amador was afterward carved, first on June 14, 1854, by setting off the territory north of the Mokelumne from Calaveras, and in 1856–'57, by the addition of the strip from El Dorado lying south of the Cosumnes, the boundaries further east being rather indefinite.
The first officers were William Fowler Smith, County Judge; John Hanson, Sheriff; Colonel Collier, County Clerk; A. B. Mudge, Treasurer; H. C. Carter, Prosecuting Attorney. Pleasant Valley, better known as the Double Springs, was designated as the county-seat. The courts were held in a long tent, eight or ten feet wide, imported from China. The first grand jury held its session under a big tree. According to all accounts, justice was anything but a blind goddess.
In 1853–'54 the Legislature passed an act calling for a vote of the people in regard to division, fixing the 17th of June following as the day and appointing W. L. McKimm, E. W. Gemmill, A. G. Sneath, Alex. Boileau and Alonzo Platt as commissioners to organize the new county in case the people voted for a division. The bill was drawn by E. D. Sawyer, one of the senators from Calaveras, Charles Leake being the other senator. The name originally given in the bill for the new county was Washington; but the name Amador was substituted in the Assembly and concurred in by the senate. The bill was read three times and passed in one day, the motive for such haste being expected opposition. A delegation from Mokelumne Hill had arrived to oppose the measure, but they had been wined until all ideas of county seats were obliterated; so a bill was hurried through before the drunk was off, lest convincing arguments should be urged against it when they returned to their senses. Ione, Sutter Creek, Volcano and Mokelumne Hill were the rival aspirants for a county seat. The election resulted in giving a small majority for a division of the county; but a thorough examination revealed the fact that the returns from several precincts had been tampered with; still it was resolved to proceed and organize a new county. The votes for county-seat were, for Jackson 1,002; for Volcano, 937; for Sutter Creek, 539; and for Ione, 496. The two first mentioned were therefore declared to be the seats of government for the respective counties, and real-estate in those towns and in their vicinity went up with a boom.
Amador County was named in honor of José Maria Amador, who mined in that county in 1848 with a number of Indians. There was nothing remarkable in this man's character or position, but his father, Sergeant Pedro Amador, was a faithful servant of the Government for many years. He died in 1824, at the age of eighty-two years. As a common word, amador is Spanish for lover.
The general vote in 1851 was, Democratic, 1,780; Whig, 1,207. The county officers elected in 1852 were: Sam. Booker, District Attorney; A. Laforge, Treasurer; Joe Douglass, Clerk; Ben. Marshall, Sheriff; C. Creamer, District Judge. For President of the United States,—Pierce, 2,848; Scott, 2,200. In 1853 the officers of Calaveras County were: A. Laforge, Treasurer; Joe Douglass, Clerk; Ben. Marshall, Sheriff; Win. Higby, Prosecuting Attorney; and Henry Eno, County Judge. Members of the Legislature; Senators—E. D. Sawyer and Charles Leake; Assemblymen—A. J. Houghtaling, Martin Rowen, W. C. Pratt, C. Daniels vice Carson, deceased. The vote for Governor was: John Bigler (Democrat), 2,545; Wm. Waldo (Whig), 2,212.
In 1856 the vote of the county for President of the United States was, Democratic, 1,784; Know-Nothing, 1,557; and Republican, 657. In 1860, Douglas (Northern Democratic), 1,866; Breckenridge (Southern Democratic), 945; Bell (Constitutional Union), 178; and Lincoln (Republican), 995: total vote for that year, 3,984. In 1864, Democratic, 1,200; Republican, 1,392. In 1868, Democratic, 1,223; Republican, 1,098. In 1872, Grant, 964; Greeley, 772. In 1880, Garfield, 1,345; Hancock, 1,411.
The Representatives to the State Assembly from Amador County have been: A. B. Andrews, 1863; John H. Bowman, 1860; R. M. Briggs, 1858; A. C. Brown, 1863–'66, 1869–'70; J. C. Brusie, 1887; L. Brusie, 1873–'74; R. Burnell, 1861; A. Caminetti, 1883; H. A. Carter, 1875–'76; Cyrus Coleman, 1871–'72, 1880–'81; W. W. Cope, 1859; R. C. Downs, 1880; Thomas Dunlap, 1875–'78; John A. Eagon, 1859, 1871–'72; James T. Farley, 1855–'56; Miner Frink, Jr., 1865–'66; J. B. Gregory, 1867–'68; U. S. Gregory, 1885; T. M. Horrell, 1861; J. M. Johnson, 1869–'70; P. C. Johnson, 1860; Homer King, 1858; Harvey Lee, 1865– '66 ; J. Livermore, 1857; Robert Ludgate, 1877– '78; W. B. Ludlow, 1863–'64; S. A. Nott, 1875–'78; L. Miller, 1873–'74; J. W. D. Palmer, 1855; George M. Payne, 1867–'68; G. W. Seaton, 1862; W. M. Seawell, 1857; E. M. Simpson, 1863; Robert Stewart, 1883; W. H. Stowers, 1873–'74; C. B. Swift, 1881; Wm. A. Waddell, 1862; George W. Wagner, 1856; Chapman Warkins, 1881.
In 1855 a band of twelve robbers and murderers was formed, consisting mainly of Mexicans who undertook to execute vengeance upon the white settlers disregarding that clause in the treaty that required them to respect the rights of the Mexicans to their lands. These brigands committed many depredations in this region, creating consternation among the people generally; for a time business was suspended; extravagant rumors of the intention of the Mexican population to rise and take the country got into circulation, and the result was that the Americans arose and disarmed and even expelled the Mexican people from the town of Rancheria. The most criminal class of the Mexicans were the horsemen who rode about the country helping themselves to whatever they wanted, and thus obtaining a livelihood without honest work. Many outrages were committed.
The famous bandit Joaquin commenced his career in El Dorado County, when it included Amador. His first operations were to mount himself and party with the best horses in the country. Judge Carter, in 1852, had a valuable and favorite horse which for safety and frequent use was usually kept staked a short distance from the house. One morning the horse was missing. Cochran, a partner in the farming business, started in pursuit of the horse and thief. The horse was easily tracked, as in expectation of something of this kind the toe corks on the shoes had been put on a line with the road instead of across it.
The track led Cochran across Dry Creek, across the plains and thence toward the mines several miles, where the rider seemed accompanied by several horsemen. Coming to a public house kept by a Mr. Clark, he saw the horse with several others hitched at the door. Going in, he inquired for the party who rode his horse, saying that it had been stolen. He was told that it was a Mexican, and was then at dinner with several others. Clark, who was a powerful and daring man, offered to arrest him, and, suiting the action to the word, entered the dining room in company with Cochran, placed his hand on Joaquin's shoulder (for it was he) and said You are my prisoner."I think not," said Joaquin, at the same time shooting Clark through the head, who fell dead. A general fusilade ensued, in which one of the Mexicans was shot by the cook, who took part in the affair, Cochran receiving a slight wound. The Mexicans mounted their horses and escaped, leaving Carter's horse hitched to the fence.
Charles Boynton was the father of the newspaper in Amador County. Though many recollect him, few can give an idea of his character, which seemed to be as changeable as a kaleidoscope, now foaming over with fun and good nature, now seriously discussing political economy, now poring over some old volume of forgotten history and now going for the gold in the bed of the Mokelumne with all has might, mind and strength, with a woman's emotion and a man's power. He was in some way connected with the Mokelumne Hill Chronicle; at any rate he had sufficient access to the types and press to work off several numbers of the Owl, 1853—'54, which set the whole country crazy with its fun. This, however, being of a local nature is now understood only by those who remember the incidents referred to. It is said that Boynton used to swim the river with the edition tied to the top of his head; and that he never went over to the Hill without having a fight or two on account of the little paper.
Soon after the organization of the county he started the Sentinel, an independent paper devoted to no party or clique. O. D. Adaline, from Fort Wayne, Indiana, became the proprietor of it about 1857 or '58, and continued its publication until the great fire of 1862, when he abandoned it and went to the war.
The Amador Ledger was started by Thomas H. Springer in Volcano in 1855, during the boom in that town. It was at first independent, then Republican, then Democratic and finally Republican again.
Up to 1860 the placers yielded undiminished returns; the quartz mines were beginning to show their inexhaustible treasures; agriculture had assumed a permanent and profitable character; schools were established and in a working condition; churches and other beneficial institutions were prosperous, proving that society was being built on a healthy basis; and, last though not least, the county finances had been generally economically managed, so that, notwithstanding the unavoidable expenses of organization and inaugurating a government, moderate taxes were sufficient to liquidate all expenses. According to the assessor's report there were fifteen saw-mills, cutting 11,500,000 feet of lumber per year. Thirty-two quartz mills crushing yearly 61,000 tons of quartz; 600 miles of main canal, besided distributors; 10,000 acres of cultivated land, yielding 6,000 tons of hay, 34,800 bu. of wheat, 46,000 of barley and 28,000 of corn, besides other produce. There were nearly 10,000 head of cattle, 1,700 head of horses, 6,000 swine, 60,000 fruit trees and 300,000 grape vines.
The following notices of mining claims were once found posted up:
" tack Notes thee unter singd clant two Huntent foot Sought on thes Loat from thee mans Neten bushes
February 12 1863
Clamte sought ter Pint three
Nota Bean Is here By given notes ter tinter signed clame too cooben clames of too Hunter feet square sought Nort too 200 hunter feet
AmTore contry feb 12 63
Takes Notes the untersiGent chlames North 400 foot to a mains nee ten Bush for Preubens of Mining Coper
Febuary 12 one thousand 800 63
Lest people should think this style was owing to the absence of the schoolmaster, the following notice for the sale of property in Berkeley in the shadow of the university is appended:
Ferr Sall Tar Mes Ezi.
Amador claims to be the leading mining county in the State. This claim rests upon the amount of its output of gold—$2,145,997.63 in 1885, which sum was larger in 1886, but the official figures are not at hand; the small size of its mining district, and the almost certain possibilities for largely increasing the yield of bullion through the coming into being of new mines now being prospected. The mining district is much smaller than any in the State and the yield of bullion is exceeded only slightly by two counties, both many times larger.
While gold-bearing quartz is found in almost every portion of the county, the section that has attracted the most attention is comparatively small in area. The historical "Mother Lode" belts the county entirely across, extending north into El Dorado and south into Calaveras, and in Amador are found the most important and most numerous leads upon it. From Plymouth south to the Mokelumne River, there is a succession of paying quartz mines, the equal of which is found in no other mining district in the world. Along this line are most of the leading towns and the bulk of the population of the county.
More than one-sixth of the gold put into circulation in the State from its mines comes from "Little Amador," and the leading mines which produce this vast sum yearly are not on the market, and never have been, which should serve as an indication that legitimate mining is here carried on, and the mine owners have the utmost confidence in their property. In good truth, mining in Amador County is carried on for legitimate profit and not for speculation, and the results fully justify the confidence of those who invest their capital.
The prevailing idea of the uninitiated as to a mining region is that it is a barren, rocky soil, where vegetation does not exist and where civilization is at a low ebb. No greater fallacy could exist than such a view regarding the mining region of Amador. Green fields and trees stretch in every direction; the soil is most fertile, and it is by no means an unusual sight that of a bearing orchard on top of ground where underneath thousands of dollars in gold are taken out monthly. In 1887 there were 1,132 men employed in the mines, operating 582 stamps. Besides, there were probably 250 more men engaged in prospecting and operating smaller mines.
The Q ranch was taken up in 1850, by James Alvord, Dick Tarrier and others. Henry Gibbons, who was a member of Company Q of the Ohio volunteers, gave the ranch its name. A D ranch was named after a brand used on the cattle there. The 2 L was similarly named. Perhaps the largest orchard is that of the
in Ione Valley, containing 120 acres of orchard and vineyard, and famous from the early days of this county for its great fertility, and as being the home station of the Forest line of stages, that were such an important factor to the traveling public in the ante railroad period. Many an old resident of the county remembers when on a summer's day, after a hot, dusty ride over the plains from Sacramento, with what delight the long, shady road of this beautiful ranch would break on the vision. Then it was devoted to raising corn; now the greater portion is in bearing fruit trees, and the beauty of former years is enhanced by the long avenues of different varieties of trees, all pruned in beautiful symmetry over a ground clean as a garden.
There is much more rain in Amador County, than in the valley, and during the winter the temperature sometimes falls ten to fifteen degrees below freezing point. The desiccating and destructive north wind is not so bad as in the plains below. While much irrigation is not needed for fruit culture in the foothills, there is very little land in this county which cannot be irrigated. The water problem, which is a cause of so much trouble and expense in the southern part of the State, is no bugbear here, as thousands of inches of water that could be utilized are running to waste. On the south the county is bounded by the Mokelumne River, and on the north by the Cosumnes River. Jackson, Sutter, Rancheria, Amador and Dry Creeks flow through it, having numerous branches. Numerous canals and ditches take out the water, which primarily is used for mining purposes, but which can again be taken up and used for agriculture. The McLaughlin ditch property of Volcano in its various branches carries 3,000 inches of water, nearly all of which could be applied to irrigating the twelve miles width of country between Volcano and Jackson. The Amador Canal carries 4,000 inches from the Mokelumne River to the mines, and could all be utilized below the mineral belt, after it has done service in running the mills, for purposes of irrigation. So could the Empire Mine Ditch, of Plymouth, which takes water from the Cosumnes River. Other ditches take water from the different creeks, and in all the present water supply of the county will not fall short of 13,000 to 15,000 inches. This supply could be largely increased by conserving the supply in the higher Sierras by means of reservoirs. The water supply is immense and capable of supplying the wants of many times the present population, and its purity is not excelled, as the major portion of it is fed from the snow-clad mountains to the east. In the towns of Jackson, Sutter, Amador and Plymouth, the water supply for domestic purposes is furnished by the Amador Canal.
The grains and deciduous fruits do well in Amador County; and fine timber is inexhaustible. Commencing four miles above Volcano the forests run up thirty miles into the high Sierras. They are of spruce, fir, yellow and the beautiful and rare sugar pine, towering from 200 to 300 feet skyward, many feet in diameter, and which provide a quality of lumber whose superior is not to be found. These forests are ample for the requirements of the county forever, and it would require very heavy export drafts to cause any perceptible diminution of the supply. Four saw-mills supply the local market:
In 1887 $5 to $8 per acre would buy good uncleared fruit land, and $10 to $30 improved property near the towns; but the land is of course rising permanently in value.
The taxable property in 1887 was over four million dollars, and the debt of the county was but $11,000. Population, about 4,000.
The Amador branch of the Central Pacific Railroad runs from Galt to Ione, within twelve miles of the principal towns of the county. The San Joaquin & Sierra Nevada Narrow Gauge Railroad runs through the northern part of San Joaquin County to a point within twelve miles of Jackson. Both these roads are now operated by the Southern Pacific Company.
The location of the county-seat at Jackson, in 1854, gave that place great prosperity; but the town lost heavily by a flood in 1861, which carried away some twenty houses and destroyed property to the amount of about $50,000; and August 28, the very next year, the place was almost totally destroyed by fire. In 1878 another flood occurred, causing as great a loss as that of 1861. For several years past Jackson has been improving substantially. Besides the court-house, it has also the county hospital, erected in 1887 at a cost of $8,000 to $10,000. Three newspapers were then published there,—the Sentinel, Ledger and Dispatch. The Ginocchio Brothers have a large Alden fruit-drier.
Ione Valley, one of the most beautiful in California, is situated about twelve miles west of the county-seat, and is formed by the junction of Dry Creek, Sutter Creek and Jackson Creek, soon after they leave the mountains. The first white men to settle in this valley were William Hicks and Moses Childers, in 1848, who had crossed the plains five years previously in company with J. P. Martin. Hicks built the first house, an adobe covered with poles and hides, on the knoll where Judge Carter's house now stands. He and Martin bought cattle in Southern California and fattened them here for the market. The grass was "as high as a man's head." In the spring of 1849 Hicks converted his house into a store, the first in the valley, with Childers as manager.
This valley was named before the town was started, by Thomas Brown, who had read a historical romance of Bulwer entitled Herculaneum, or The Last Days of Pompeii, one of whose heroines was a beautiful girl named Ione. The town, however, was first named Bed-Bug, and then Freeze-Out. It is 270 feet above tide water.
The first flour-mill in Ione Valley was built in 1855, by Reed, Wooster & Lane. There are now two well-equipped flouring-mills. This town has the fair-grounds of the district agricultural association.
Sutter Creek, four miles north of Jackson, is one of the prettiest towns in the foothills. Quartz-mining has recently been revived there. Two foundries are in operation, also an ice-factory, etc.
Amador City, a mile and a half north of Sutter Creek, is also a thriving town.
Drytown, three miles north of Amador, is in the "warm belt," and most favorably situated for fruit-raising. Sulphuret works exist here, and also at Sutter Creek.
Plymouth, three miles farther on, is also prosperous, is the seat of a consolidated mining company which employs 25 men, mostly men of families. Their mine has paid nearly $2,000,000 in dividends. There are also other mines in that vicinity.
At Oleta, six miles east of Plymouth, the curious-minded can see two genuine cork trees (Quercus suber), twenty-eight years old.
Clinton, six miles east of Jackson, is in the midst of a fine vineyard section,
Volcano is a mining town twelve miles from Jackson.
Pine Grove, Aqueduct City, Buena Vista and Lancha Plana are other towns in Amador County.
Transcribed by Kathy Sedler.


Trip Planner : Europe / UK / England / Yorkshire / West Yorkshire / Leeds / Museums / The Royal Armouries
The Royal Armouries, Leeds
Categories: History Museums, Specialty Museums, Museums
Arms and armories have played an important role in the history of the UK, and The Royal Armouries serves to preserve and document this. Located in a modern, imposing building, the museum contains collections dedicated to ancient and medieval warfare, as well as warfare from the 17th to the 20th centuries, hunting, oriental weaponry, tournament warfare, and self-defense. Arrange your visit to The Royal Armouries and discover more family-friendly attractions in Leeds using our Leeds vacation builder.
Create a full itinerary - for free!
During a week off from work my wife and I planned a day in Leeds with the Armouries first on our list of places to visit, we could have done with a longer stay as you simply cannot rush round the armo... read more »
What a great place to visit for all ages. There is lots to see and you need a good few hours to walk round and look at all the exhibitions. During the day thay have various talks On I enjoyed the talk... read more »
Really pleased that this is on my own door step. Taken me a while to go and visit for the first time. Really enjoyed it all. Kids loved seeing all the weapons and my youngest all the police memorabili... read more »
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Wyoming February 06, 2020
A Trip To The Ancient Legend Rock Petroglyph Site In Wyoming Is Truly Fascinating
When it comes to historic places, Wyoming has done an incredible job of preserving some of the most culturally significant sites in America. Our petroglyph sites are second-to-none, and you can visit one of the most delicate and impressive places just outside of Thermopolis.
Legend Rock is maintained by Hot Springs State Park, and it's considered one of Thermopolis, Wyoming's most impressive and culturally significant attractions.
The cliffside follows Cottonwood Creek and shows off prehistoric artwork that's sure to impress you.
Legend Rock is a significant petroglyph site that preserves the history of Wyoming's first residents.
Over thousands of years, indigenous people carved their art into the rock. You'll see depictions of wildlife, domestic animals, and humans here.
You could spend hours browsing this incredible ancient art! Be sure to respect the history and observe the work quietly.
The rock consists of 92 prehistoric petroglyph panels and over 300 petroglyph figures depicting the most important aspects of indigenous life.
Over the years, local concern led to the official designation of the rock as a state petroglyph site. In 2011, a visitor's center and interpretive trails were established on the site.
The site is open year-round, but in the winter months (October to April), you need to pick up a key from the Hot Spring State Park office in order to access the site and trails.
Make time to visit the incredible and historic Legend Rock in Thermopolis for a glimpse back in time.
You can read more about Legend Rock on the
Wyoming State Parks’ website, here.
For more information on attractions in Thermopolis and the surrounding area, read
Why This One Tiny Town Is Secretly The Best Place In Wyoming.
Know of a cool place or even a restaurant you think we should feature? Tell us all about it
at this link! Address: 220 Park St, Thermopolis, WY 82443, USA


#Ciena25: The Story Behind the Founding of Ciena
By Bruce Watson – The company that would eventually become Ciena began its life as an inspiration inside the head of David Huber. The former General Instruments engineer had an idea for how to help cable companies squeeze more television channels through their lines to end consumers. In 1992, he set out to turn those ideas into a reality, and on November 8, 1992, the paperwork was officially filed in Delaware for the new company.
Huber immediately began searching for venture capital funding. In late 1993, Huber was introduced to Pat Nettles, a veteran leader of several telecom companies. By early 1994, Nettles was brought on-board to run the business side of things and was soon the company’s first CEO (though owning a doctorate in particle physics, Nettles was no stranger to the technology side of things himself).
Nettles quickly convinced Huber that it was the long-distance phone companies, not the cable TV industry, that would be the best target for Huber’s invention.
The introduction between the two was orchestrated by Jon Bayless, a venture capitalist who’s firm Sevin Rosen Funds provided $3 million in start-up funding for the business in February 1994. more> https://goo.gl/ZdVzLE


New book by Orange author documents bitter wide comb shearing dispute
It was one of the most violent chapters in Australian rural history: The fight to overturn the longstanding ban on wide-toothed shearing combs in the early 1980s saw shearing sheds and pubs become battlegrounds and for four years the wool industry was thrown into chaos.
Now, for the first time, the history of the Australia’s wide comb shearing dispute is documented in a new book released this month.
In Three Steel Teeth: Wide Comb Shears and Woolshed Wars, Orange-based writer and former journalist Mark Filmer has documented the industrial chaos that beset the wool industry when a small group of ‘rebel’ shearers sought to overturn the ban on wide-toothed shearing combs.
The 13-toothed combs, which were about 2 cm wider than the standard-gauge 10-toothed shearing combs, had been outlawed from use in Australia since 1926.
The rebels, led by the late Blayney district shearing contractor Robert White, believed the newer versions of the wide combs were more productive and efficient than the standard 10-toothed combs.
However, the Australian Workers’ Union, which tightly regulated the shearing industry in Australia’s eastern states, was strongly opposed to wide combs and fought to prevent them being approved.
Mr White and many members of his shearing teams were attacked and bashed several times by union thugs and a national shearers’ strike from March to May 1983 paralysed the wool industry.
The dispute was punctuated by numerous incidents of violence, as disgruntled union shearers raided sheds where ‘rebel’ shearing teams were working and attacked them. There were many fights in country pubs sparked by bitter rivalry between wide comb and narrow comb shearers. There was even an open gun battle between two groups of rival shearers in a sleepy country town in central Victoria.
The book, Three Steel Teeth: Wide Comb Shears and Woolshed Wars, is published by Ginninderra Press and can be purchased through Collins Booksellers in Orange.


From an unpublished manuscript, Indian Atrocities Along the Clinch, Powell and Holston Rivers, pages 60-62.
Burton Litton, brother of Solomon Litton, was a son of John Litton, and this family were early settlers of the Elk Garden section of present Russell Co., VA. At the time of his death, Burton Litton had a brother, James Litton, and wife, Elizabeth. (1) Burton Litton was a member of Captain Daniel Smith’s militia company in 1774, while that part of Russell County was then Fincastle Co.
Of William Priest little is known, except that he lived on Priest Mountain, at Elk Garden. He served in the militia company of Captain Daniel Smith, at the Elk Garden Fort from the 13th of August to 18th of November, 1774 (2), along with a Thomas and David Priest, who were probably brothers, or maybe sons. During this term of service, sometime between August and October of 1774, he was paid for 7 days as an Indian Scout. (3) The only court record I find relating to him was in the court of Fincastle Co. On November 2, 1773, where he, along with others was appointed to view a road from the Maiden Springs settlement into the Great Road, the latter perhaps, being the Fincastle main road leading from the east to the western country.
The details of this killing are best told in the words of Isaac Crabtree in his pension statement filed in Overton Co., TN, September 27, 1832. Isaac was born in Baltimore Co., MD in 1757. (4) Crabtree says:
"...In the next year, 1778, he again turned out a volunteer ranger, he thinks about the last of May, and went to the Elk Garden Fort and joined Captain John Kinkead (Kincaid) and ranged about that fort. He states that Colonel (then Captain, later Colonel) Daniel Smith came to the fort and took him and several other men, making ten, and went down Clinch, and as they came to Glade Hollow Fort, they met about the same number of Indians. He, and Burton Litton and William Priest were some distance in front of the others when they met the Indians. The Indians were laying in ambush in two sink holes (5), and on each side of the Trace (6) and when they arose and placed themselves in a fighting attitude and fired on him. When the firing commenced Colonel Smith, and the balance of the men with him, wheeled and ran. He, and his company kept their ground waiting for them to come up, until the Indians, or some of them, were within 30 or 40 yards of affiant and the balls flying around him like hailstones from a thunder storm. He began to think it was time to take care of himself, seeing by this time the whole of his company had taken flight and left him. He retreated a short distance and was closely pursued by the enemy, an dhe wheeled to see how close they were to him and saw one within thirty yards. He immediately raised his gun and taking aim at his breast, he fired, and the Indian fell back and uttered some coarse, loud noise. He then overtook some of his company and tried to rally them, but without effect. They continued their retreat and two of them were killed while they were running before him. He then began to mend his gait and soon overtook the foremost men and went by Col. Smith, but was unable to rally. Thence the two men killed were the two who went in advance of himself, Burton Litton and William Priest.
Burton Litton, was a brother of Solomon Litton, who along with Captain John Dunkin, was captured by the Indians in 1780 at Riddles’ Station and carried to Canada, where they were held until the end of the Revolutionary War.
At a court held for Washington Co., VA, on August 17, 1779, is entered this order:
"On motion of Elizabeth Litton and James Laughlin (7), administration is granted them on the estate of Burton Litton, deceased, who made oaths thereto with John Kinkead and Samuel VanHook as securities." Appraisers of the estate were, Thomas and Richard Price, James Scott and John Lewis.
(1) Washington Co., VA Order Book 1, page 69 & Survey Entry Book 1, page 75.
(2) Draper Mss 6 XX 106
(3) Draper Mss 5 XX 2
(4) Crabtree statement also in Draper Mss 3 DD 40
(5) There are huge sink holes around the upper end of Glade Hollow.
(6) This suggests that Glade Hollow Fort lay on the Kentucky Trace.
(7) James Laughlin was a brother-in-law of Burton Litton, having married his sister, Elizabeth Laughlin.
Revolutionary War pension record from National Archives
State of Kentucky
On the 12th day of December 1833, personally appears before the distingushed Justice of the Peace for the county aforesaid now sitting, Edward Dorton a resident of Kentucky in the county of Floyd, aged eighty two years: who being first duly sworn according to the law doth on his oath make the following declaration in order to obtain the benefit of the act of Congress passed June 7, 1832; that he entered in the service of the United States under the following named officers and served as herein atated; that in the spring of 1776 the Indians became troublesome in the western part of Virginia so much so that it prevented a band of immigrants from proceeding to Kentucky. Said applicant was then residing in Washington County, Virginia and on the waters of Powell's River in Powell's Valley. Col. William Campbell the Col. of the county ordered that a volunteer company should be raised to supress the Indians: which company this applicant states he enlisted in as a volunteer for "six months" in the month of March 1776, the day of the month not recollected.
Under Capt. Bickley and Lieutenant Cowan, Ensign Robinson the company immediatley commenced their march down Powell's Valley to "Cumberland Gap" and there we were fired upon by the Indians. The firing was continued warnly by both sides for some time and the Indians gave way and fled. From their painted appearance we apprehended a more formidable band against us and accordingly retreated in all possibe speed to the stellements and ascertained that the Indians we fought was the Cherokees. We remained but a short time and being joined by more volunteers we again marched to the frontier. We got back on the last of July 1776. Having been back but a short time we was attacked near Cumberland Mountain by about forty Indians. We outnumbered them a few. The fighting commenced first by the Indians who lay concealed behind old logs and rocks. The skirmish lasted for three hours in which a few Indians were killed. Our company lost several--Dickenson, Humphery and Solomon Kendrick. We remained here till August (the last part) and went back to the settlement all broke up and forted as they had done for six years before. We guarded the fort till late in November. We all recieved discharges certifying our service.
On the first day of April next year 1777 the Indians again returned to Clinch and Powell's Valley and commenced murdering and plundering the settlements in that region. A volunteer company was raised by Capt. John Snoddy and Lieutenant Robinson (my ensign the year before) this pursant to Col. Campbell's orders, who was our Col., I volunteered for six months again. The fort was useless unless a force was kept in the field against the Indians, the settlements had no security. Col. Campbell did not accompany us but gave us his orders.
About this time the Tories in North Carolina continued their operations and they were aided by a few from the South Fork of the Holston who frequently stole horses belonging to the Whigs and carried them to the Tories in Carolina. Our company marched down to the mouth of the North Fork of the Holston and took a western direction for Powell Valley on the frontiers. Here we remained scouting till August 1777, when we was attacked by a band of hostile Indians at day break. After an hour skirmish and running fight we was forced to retreat. The brother of this applicant was killed and skelpt by the Indians, also a man by the name Michael Auxier and another by the name of Litton and one William Priest was killed and several wounded. The Cherokee Indians was assembling in large numbers down Holston to commence war. They had painted themselves and had the war dance and for fear of being cut off we retreated to the settlements.
Cocke of Carolina and Christy of Virginia marched to beat down the Cherokees. The Indians formed a plan to fall on the settlements on the Clinch and Gen. Christy sent one Martin to inform the fort of it. We all broke up and went to Abingdon. Not long after this Christy made peace with the Indians at the Long Islands which according to the applicants recollection in June 1777.
He wishes to be understood that he cannot be positive as to dates but knows it was sometime before Col. Campbell went to Carolina when the applicant and his brother went with him. He then received his discharge from duty for his "six months". In the spring of 1778 the Shawnee Indians from over the Ohio broke out in the Clinch settlements in March 1778. The applicant enlisted for one year to scout and spy under Capt. Lewis and Lieutenant Hawkins. This was the manner in which the company was engaged. Col. Campbell states he was authorized to run the company for the purpose and that each man should recieve pay. The company divided in two's and four's and we ranged and spied all that summer and winter and until April 1779.
We crossed frequently behind Cumberland Mountain down on the Kentucky and Big Sandy Rivers. They would generally leave the country for Kentucky or thier nation in November to hunt and return early in the spring.
This applicant served out his time and applied for his pay and Governor Patrick Henry stated that the state was not bound to pay; this applicant never got his pay. In July 1780 the day of the month not recollected this applicant and one of his brothers was prevailed on by Col. Campbell to accompany him against the Tories and British in the Carolinas and they did so and enlisted as new volunteers for no certain time. Something prevented us from starting immediately.
Col. Campbell got word from Col. Cleveland that the Tories had fled from the Haw River and many from PeeDee and they had joined Ferguson (Major or Col.). We started from Abingdon all on horses and our Capt. was by the name of Looney. He thinks Col. Campbell's brother was a Capt. also. We crossed the Catawba high up in Burk's County, N.C. and came up with the British at a place called King's Mountain. Campbell was joined by Col. Cleveland and Major Shelby and Col. Sevier. There was a Frenchman there also by the name of Malmaday (this applicant thinks he was a Major) and Gen. McDowell were all on horses. When we got within one mile of the mountain we all hitched our horses and left them in care of some militia companies.
The whole of us was divided; part of Campbell's men fell under Cleveland and one Sevier and Wilson. This applicant was one of them and marched up. They were on the side of the mountain. The firing commenced on the right wing (commanded by Campbell) and Shebly on the left, Cleveland in the center. The British with bayonets charged upon Cleveland's men and forced us to give back, but we all took turns. The battle lasted for some time and we made them all prisoners. The troops, or part, went over to Charlotte and we took some of the prisoners along. Gates' army was at Charlotte. From there we went to Hillsboro, N.C. and remained there but a few days and again went back to Charlotte where we all ------. Gen. Greene took command, this was in December 1780 or 1781.
In January I hired my horse to the Government of N.C. and belonged then to the light infantry. Our whole army went to Cheraw Hills, after the battle of the Cowpens we all retreated to Virginia. In February or March we gave the enemy battle at Guilford where we was defeated. A few days after this I left the service and returned home. I knew many officers during the service, to wit: Col. Washington, Capt. Charles Y. Wilson, Gen. Gates, Gen. Huger, Gen. Davis and Col. Davidson, Maj. Malmady, Col. Sevier, Maj. Shelby, Col. Wilson, Capt. Thomas H. Davis, and Lieutenant Hinner, Col. Hogan, Gen. Rutherford and many others. I have no documentary evidence in my favor. I received three discharges, the last time I did not receive a discharge but a recommendation. I do not know what has become of them. The fact was I cared nothing about them for it has been more than fifty years since. He hereby relinquishes his every claim whatever to a pension or annuity except the present one. He declares his name is not on the pension roll of the agency of any state: Sworn and subscribed the day and date aforesaid:


Me at Grytviken sat on old whale bones with the James Clarke Ross in the background.
Grytviken church was originally from Norway and was dismantled
and brought to South Georgia in 1913, the church sits amongst
the rusting remains of the old whaling station of Grytviken
|Ernest Shackleton's grave|
|The South Georgia museum was established in 1992 by Nigel Bonner, |
a previous deputy director of the British Antarctic Survey
Information for this piece came from Sally Poncet and Kim Crosbie’s book: A visitors guide to South Georgia.
Melanie Leng is on the final stages of an expedition to South Georgia, see her previous blogs, and follow her on twitter @MelJLeng


All transferred in Carlton Cemetery that I maintained.
I got back out to look at the stone of Chloe Rash today. It looks to me that the rest of the stone says:
Jan. 11, 1841
Aged 81 Years
I added this info to the caption of the photo. Hope this helps.
|blackcrepe||George B. Rash|
I went to Montcalm Cemetery website and this stone was read in 1974. From what it says, stone reads,
"GEORGE W.B. SON OF J & FC. DIED NOV 1863. AGE 7 YEARS, 8 MONTHS, 28 DAYS."
|Phil Carpenter||RE: solomon filkins|
You're very welcome. I'm glad I could find it for you.
|Wanda White||RE: Leonard S Dyer and Susan Dyer|
I changed their death dates to birth dates. I found a death certificate on Ancestry for a Leonard Dyer Born March 4,1843 died October 30, 1920 in Bridgeville. Would that be him? Still looking for Susan. If you would like a transfer of the memorials, let me know.
|Glenn Ellis||RE: Robert Rash|
At present I don't have an immediate reference on the birth of Robt. Rash. I came across many reference some listing his birth in Muderkill Hd, Kent Co, MD and others in Wilkes County, NC. Records show variations. I opted for NC, and have forgotten my rational. It appears that these Robert Rashes are the same people, same Rash families. Thank you and also for the interesting record.
|Ken Root Jr.||RE: Susan Catherine Thompson Haywood|
The 1841 date is her birth year, her date of death was never put on the stone...
|Wilfred Agosta||Jane Bull|
My wife's family name was Buell / Bull and they lived in the Lake Orion, Michigan area. Her Great-Great-Grandfather was David Bull. In reviewing the 1871 Census Jane Bull was 5 yrs old living with David Bull in Canada and then in the 1880 Census she was 13 years old living with David Bull in Lapeer, Michigan. If this Jane Bull was 14 days old, is there any connection to the David Bull family? Thank you very much for any information on the Bull family that you might provide.
My pleasure. It's just down the road and I was going there this morning anyway.
No name on the top of the headstone that we could deteremine. There is a headstone next to it but it appears to be face down and too heavy to be lifted. No other stones are close by.
We dug down below grade and it revealed the '14 days' inscription
Added by drbuck on Aug 01, 2011 11:20 AM
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