Pathologists use tests to determine the size, stage, grade, lymph node involvement, and receptor status of a tumour.
These diagnostic tests include histopathology (microscopic examination of tissue which has been sliced and preserved on glass slides) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) which is a process using antibodies to detect specific proteins in tissue. This allows clinicians to decide which treatments will work best for each individual patient.
For example, high risk tumours benefit more from chemotherapy to reduce the risk of recurrence, but in low risk tumours the side effects of chemotherapy would most likely outweigh the benefits.
However, in some tumours this risk distinction is not clear and additional tests are needed to help make a decision about whether chemotherapy would add extra benefit compared to hormone therapy alone.
This is where gene expression profiling can be helpful.
Gene expression profiling is a relatively new technology that assesses the tumour at a genetic level to further understand its biological behaviour and help oncologists decide whether chemotherapy is needed or could safely be avoided.
Many tests have been developed over the last 5-10 years and research around the use and effectiveness of gene expression profiling is ongoing.
Even though none of these tests are publicly funded in New Zealand yet, tumour samples can be sent overseas for testing. If you are interested, do discuss these tests with your specialist team.
All of these tests are performed on tissue that has been used for diagnostic purposes, so no additional biopsies are needed.
This is one of the first developed tests. It analyses 70 genes from within the tumour and can be used on breast cancer that’s stage 1 or 2, oestrogen receptor positive or negative, HER2 negative and with 0 – 3 positive lymph nodes.
The Mammaprint test calculates a score to indicate the risk of distant recurrence – either low ( 10%) or high (29%) after hormonal therapy.This helps to determine whether a patient would benefit from the addition of chemotherapy.
This is a molecular diagnostic test which predicts the likelihood of a patient's tumour recurring over a ten year period and whether any benefit is gained by adding chemotherapy to the patient's hormone therapy. It analyses 21 genes in the tumour and develops a three tier recurrence score between 0 and 100.
If the Recurrence Score is:
- lower than 18: There is a low risk of recurrence. The benefit of chemotherapy treatment is likely to be small and outweighed by the risk of side effects.
- 18 up to and including 30: There is an intermediate risk of recurrence and it's not clear whether the chemotherapy benefits are greater than the risks of side effects.
- greater than or equal to 31: There is a high risk of recurrence and the benefits of chemotherapy are likely to be greater than the risks of side effects.
The test is used for stage 1 or 2, oestrogen receptor positive, lymph node negative or 0-3 positive , HER2 negative breast cancer that will be treated with hormone therapy.
Initial results from the TAILORx trial, published in 2015, showed that women with a recurrence score of 10 or lower could safely be treated with hormone therapy and omit chemotherapy. However, it wasn't clear what was the best treatment for women with an intermediate score.
New results from this trial, presented at the 2018 ASCO ( American Society of Clinical Oncology) meeting, show that about 70% of women in this group,with hormone receptor-positive, HER2-negative, lymph node- negative breast cancer, may also be able to avoid chemotherapy.
Read more about these trial results Here
This test combines two types of results. It divides tumours into their molecular subtypes – Luminal A, Luminal B, HER2 enriched and Triple Negative. It then looks at 50 genes and combines these results to provide a risk of recurrence score – either low, medium or high.
The test is suitable for use in postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive, early-stage (stages I, II and IIIA), node negative or positive breast cancer that will be treated with hormone therapy.
Conventional classifications of breast cancer, along with size, stage, grade and receptor status are used to try and predict the likely outcome of a cancer and the likelihood that it will respond to a particular treatment. However, it is now known that there are also intrinsic molecular subtypes of tumours, which explain why seemingly identical tumours can have differing outcomes.
Five main intrinsic or molecular subtypes have been identified , based on the particular genes expressed in a tumour.
- Luminal A - Hormone receptor positive ( ER and/or PR positive) HER2 negative,and low levels of Ki67( a marker of proliferation). Luminal A cancers tend to be low grade and have the best prognosis of all the subtypes.
- Luminal B - Hormone receptor positive HER2 positive or negative and high levels of Ki67. These cancers have a slightly worse prognosis than Luminal A cancers.
- Triple negative/basal-like - Hormone receptor negative and HER2 negative.More common in women with BRCA1 mutations and younger women.
- HER2 enriched- Hormone receptor negative andHER2 positive. These cancers grow faster than luminal cancers and can have a worse prognosis but treatment with therapies which specifically target the HER2 protein have markedly improved outcomes.
- Normal-like - Hormone receptor positive, HER2 negative and low levels of Ki67. Similar to Luminal A but has a slightly worse prognosis.
Researchers are continuing to develop methods of accurately identifying the molecular types so that treatments can be better targeted. The next step is to develop genetic profiling to better predict whether a particular tumour will respond to a specific treatment and research in this area is ongoing.


Parents who wish to provide their children with a strong start to their academic careers may already plan on sending them to preschool. It is likely parents understand how much early childhood education programs can benefit their kids' personal and academic development. What they may not realize is that preschool could actually boost their IQ as well.
The Association for Psychological Science's journal, "Perspectives on Psychological Science," recently published a new study from researchers at New York University's Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development, which focused on ways of improving people's intelligence. As it turns out, early childhood education can do just that.
In the study, researchers found that children who enrolled in preschool ended up boosting their IQs by more than four points. In addition, if a program featured a language development component, kids could receive an IQ increase of more than seven points.
The researchers believe that the cognitive complexity of preschool, as well as an increased exposure to language, could fuel the rise in intelligence some children experience.
If children have already completed preschool, parents who are curious to learn how much it has helped them may want to have them take an IQ test for kids and find out.


For Release: February 14, 2012
Childhood obesity is a serious concern, with more than 18 percent of American 4-year-olds considered obese. A new study of marmosets, small South American monkeys, indicates that obesity may begin very early in life and suggests that marmosets may be a helpful model for obesity in humans. In the study, scientists traced the difference between normal and obese adolescent monkeys to determine how much body fat they had at different ages during the first year of life. The findings were published in the March issue of the American Journal of Primatology.
“It seems like these animals are dividing into two groups at a very early age,” said Michael Power, a scientist at the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute's nutrition lab based at the Smithsonian's National Zoo in Washington, D.C. “It appears that developing obesity is something that can happen to an animal or a human before they have a real choice.”
Power is one of a team of researchers that studied white-tufted common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) at the Southwest National Primate Research Center in San Antonio, Texas, from infancy through 12 months. The team found that fat marmosets, defined as those monkeys that ended the year with more than 14 percent body fat, also had more body fat at just one month old compared to monkeys that grew up to have normal weight. A 1-month-old marmoset is at about the same developmental stage as a human infant between 5 and 8 months old.
Marmosets that ended up obese at one year could not be distinguished at birth from normal marmosets. Larger newborn marmosets did not necessarily grow up to be fat. However, the scientists did identify two risk factors that made marmoset obesity at one year somewhat more likely: an obese mother and access to high-fat food. This finding aligns with the results of previous studies of other species.
Marmosets serve as an appropriate model for obesity in humans because while most animals are born with little fat on their bodies, normal marmoset and human babies are quite fat at birth. A better understanding of obesity in marmosets, therefore, can help scientists identify risk factors, like a high-fat diet or an obese mother, and potential indicator measurements, like hormone levels or percentage of body fat, that could help identify a vulnerability to obesity in humans earlier.
From other unpublished results of this study, the researchers think the key may lie not in energy uptake, but in energy expenditure, the other side of the coin that makes up weight change.
“If I give you a sandwich, you're going to store some of that energy as fat,” Power said. “Of course eventually you'll use up that stored fat, especially if you are active and keep moving around. The problem comes when you consistently store more energy than you use. It's a very simple idea, but the biology behind it is extremely complex. Unfortunately, many people and marmosets are better at storing fat than they are at remobilizing it and using it for energy.”
While the marmosets Power studies are fairly common, zoos are also home to other, more endangered monkeys, whose health and breeding potential could be crucial to their species' continued survival. A better understanding of the development of obesity will enable zoo nutritionists to developed healthier diet plans for a variety of species. Visitors to the National Zoo can see Geoffroy's tufted-eared marmosets, which are related to white-tufted common marmosets, in the Zoo's Small Mammal House.
In addition to Power, the study's authors are Suzette Tardif and Corinna Ross from the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio and Jay Schulkin of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. The paper is available online.
The Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute plays a key role in the Smithsonian's global efforts to understand and conserve species and train future generations of conservationists. Headquartered in Front Royal, Va., SCBI facilitates and promotes research programs based at Front Royal, the National Zoo in Washington, D.C., and at field research stations and training sites worldwide.
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A podcast is a type of digital media consisting of an episodic series of audio, radio, or video files. It could be subscribed to and downloaded through web to a computer or a mobile device. As has been mentioned by Cassinelli, C in the video Integrating Podcasting into Your Classroom , “our students today are digital natives”. In order to provide the best learning experiences to our students, educators today should update our instruction methods. Podcast is a very effective classroom instruction tool.
Take the ESL podcast for example, it provides English learners with stories embedded with useful vocabularies. Both the script and voice explanation for each story are available so that readers could better understand the key ideas of each story. This could be a great supplement for ESL classroom teaching.
Take episode 12 Dining at a restaurant for example, the story details the process of dining at a restaurant: how does the waiter greet you, how do you respond to the waiter and so on. Almost everything one needs to know about restaurant conversation is listed and explained in the corresponding radio. This makes it perfect for oral English classes. Teachers could set one topic each time and use the podcast as a supplementary material. For example, if today's topic is dining out, teachers could have students listen to this exact episode and then have students discuss the key phrases used in the conversation. After that, role play could be carried out so that students could have a chance to practive what they have just learned.


Filmmaking is one of the best medium to convey a message. It can also serve as a medium for people who want to raise awareness about something. It has become a strong means of communication that shows the realty and truths that the mainstream media refuses to show. However, others find it hard to start in filmmaking especially if they don’t have any idea on how or where to start. If you want to know more on how to start in filmmaking, read on and discover the basic steps that you can follow.
Get reference from the internet
Like this one you’re reading right now. There are a lot of tips and guides that you can easily follow. You can also find other filmmakers who are sharing their techniques and ways in making a good film. This will also be part of your research in getting new ideas and other concepts that can help you with working on your next project.
Try to do what others do
This step is for educational and practice purposes only. By recreating others’ works, you will get to see if you’re getting better with your techniques and the technical aspect of filmmaking. It will serve as a review and critic of your work to point out the areas of improvement. Extra tip: don’t have mercy in criticizing your own work.
Simple equipment will do
Don’t stress yourself if you don’t have high- end equipment for filmmaking. A video camera and outdoor microphone are enough for a simple shoot of a film or project that you can start with. While it’s true that investing in your equipment is important, don’t be too hard on yourself if you can’t afford it at first.
Planning is imperative
I can’t stress enough how important preparation is. Each part of the project should be planned and well- supervised. You have to be hands- on even though you’re managing a crew. It will also give you a chance to prepare a contingency plan if ever one of things you have prepared goes wrong.
Experiment on different kinds of project
You can try doing a silent movie, a short film, a sample advertisement, a full length movie; it does not matter as long as you continue doing something that can practice you and your skills.
Learn how to use lighting and audio to tell story
Learning how to use the appropriate lighting and sound effects for a certain scene or part of your work can make a big difference. It can intensify the emotions that you want to convey. Imagine a dramatic scene with the actress just crying her eyes out; it can make you feel something but having the right lighting and scoring can make you cry too.
Be positive and patient
It takes time before you can actually master all the techniques and the methods in producing a good film. It takes time to finally establish yourself on what kind of filmmaker you want to be. Just never lose hope and keep on making film after another film and another and another.


As explored in the article Using 3D Technology to Find Water for Refugees, water is a key resource challenge for every population centre in the world. The Republic of Chad in Central Africa is no exception.
Like many countries in the region, Chad suffers from water scarcity. Most of the population is rural and work as either farmers or pastoralists, so water is needed for drinking and agriculture.
To help Chad manage their water, the ResEau project was launched by the Operational Satellite Applications Program (UNOSAT) after a request from the Ministry of Hydraulics in Chad. The UNOSAT team was well positioned to do this project, since they had already completed a similar water resource mapping project in Eastern Chad during the Darfur crisis in 2004.
The ResEau project is jointly financed by the Government of Chad and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, and will last for ten years until August 2019. The overarching goal of the project is to support integrated water resource management in Chad, through education and enhanced resources and technologies.
The first phase of the ResEau project focused on mapping the north and eastern areas of Chad. The focus is currently on mapping and compiling data in the central region. Later, the southern region of Chad will be mapped.
Seequent software Leapfrog is being used to create 3D models of the areas.
To learn more about the project, watch UNOSAT’s video:
Although the ResEau project is still underway, it has already had significant impacts for Chad. The project has so far vastly improved the success of drilling for water in Chad. Before the project, only 30-40% of the drilled boreholes in the northern and eastern part of the territory were successful, but now, the success rate is above 60%.
In addition, the ResEau project is making great strides in building Chad’s expertise in hydrogeology and related fields. As part of the ResEau project, a Masters degree programme in Hydrology and GIS (HydroGIS) was established at the University of N’Djamena in 2013 with the support of University of Neuchâtel. As of today, 25 students have graduated with a 2nd level Master’s, and 9 of these graduates were from the Ministry of Water and Sanitation (MEA). 68 students have completed their 1st level Master’s, half of whom are also from the MEA.
The ResEau project will enrich the livelihood of all those who live in Chad, by providing the skills and knowledge needed for a robust integrated water management system. Seequent is proud to support the creation of 3D geological models for the ResEau project, and is excited to follow its progress in the coming years.
Special thanks to Ivann Milenkovic Associate Program Officer, United Nations Institute for Training & Research (UNITAR)
Read the full case study


You may be aware of, or indeed be using, new Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies that have become publicly available. One of these technologies in particular, ChatGPT, has received a lot of media coverage this year.
At the start of Term 1, 2023, the Department of Education restricted access to ChatGPT in Victorian government schools. This was because the terms of service restricted access to those aged 18 years or over.
Those terms have now been changed to permit access for those aged 13 years and over. As a result, the interim restriction on ChatGPT has been lifted and secondary school aged students who are at least 13 years old can now access these technologies (the current restriction on use with primary school-aged students will remain in place).
If we at WSSC determine that the use of generative AI tools should be part of our teaching and learning program, we will seek your consent if your child’s personal details (such as a mobile phone number) are required to register for the use of the tool. We will also continue to ensure our compliance with all department policies, including those in relation to the safe and responsible use of technology, and privacy and information sharing.
Please remind your child that they should not enter any personal information such as name, age or address into generative AI platforms they might be using at home as this can be a risk to their privacy. This is because content typed into some generative AI tools may be used and reused by the platform and its users.
One area of concern with generative AI tools relates to student assessment. We are aware of these concerns and will use existing assessment policies and processes to understand what students know about the topics being taught and ensure that assessments are completed without undue assistance.
The Department of Education is working with the non-government sector authorities and other state and territory education departments on the use of generative AI tools in schools. We will provide any updates as the term and year progress.
If you have any questions, concerns, or suggestions, please get in touch.


The Diet-Climate Connection
How the foods we eat affect the planet we inhabit
Sure, saving energy is important, but other aspects of our lifestyles also have a considerable impact on climate change. The food choices we make – what we eat, where our food is grown, and how it is grown – have a huge impact on the planet. You can help to reduce global warming by making more sustainable food choices. Check out the links below, and learn what you can do.
The Diet-Climate Connection
The Climate Friendly Food Guide is a great resource about climate-friendly eating choices, with information about healthy eating, ways to add more fruits and vegetables to your diet, recipes, tips on shopping and eating out, and much more.
Eat Less Meat & Dairy
You don’t have to be a vegetarian to have meat-free or dairy-free meals – just substituting a meal with beans or lentils 1-2 days each week can make a big difference on your global warming impact. Or you can reduce your impact by choosing more fish and chicken over meat/dairy, as the former have a lower carbon footprint.
Try these vegetarian recipes
NRDC blog post Less Beef, Less Carbon.
BBC article “Can eating less meat help reduce climate change”
BBC article “Food waste reduction could help feed world’s starving”
BBC article “Cutting food and carbon waste-lines for healthy climate”
Eat More Local Foods
Because locally grown foods are transported shorter distances to your table, they use less fossil fuel and therefore have a lower impact on global warming. Moreover, since transportation takes time, local foods are usually fresher. And finally, buying locally grown foods supports Massachusetts farmers.
Eat More Organic Foods
Locally grown foods are often grown organically, so they don’t use fossil fuel based fertilizers. And because no chemical pesticides are used, they are healthier.
Organic Foods: Are they safer? More nutritious? (June 9, 2014)
Is Organic More Nutritious? New Study Adds to the Evidence (Feb. 18, 2016)
Reduce Food Waste
Reducing food waste is one of the easiest and best ways to lower your impact on the planet – and you can save money while doing it.
Growing Your Own Food
Growing some fruits and vegetables in your own back yard is easy and fun, and a great way to enjoy being outdoors. You don’t need much space, and some things can even be grown in pots on your deck or patio. Need some tips on how to start? Take a class with the Needham Community Farm. Or just dig a small plot in a sunny location and start planting!
The Needham Community Farm offers beginner and intermediate gardening classes.
Get online tips on how to get started from Eartheasy’s Backyard Vegetable Gardening
Some food waste is inevitable, but you can keep this out of the waste stream with a home compost bin. It’s easy – learn how with some basic home composting information. Or, hire a home composting service.


“Listen to me, you who pursue righteousness, you who seek the Lord . . .” (Isaiah 51: 1 ESV) In the scene of the Transfiguration, the Father calls on us to listen to the Son. The voice from the cloud says, “This is my beloved Son, listen to him.” (Mark 9: 7b ESV) We are to listen to the words of the Lord. In these words are wisdom and righteousness.
We are also to listen carefully to the words of others, not that they always are words righteousness and truth. They are not. The ” . . . tongue is a fire, a world of unrighteousness.” (James 3: 6 ESV) So we are to discern and distinguish the words of others for truth and untruth. To do this, carefullistening is required.
We must listen so that we understand as thoroughly as possible what the other person is saying. We can not respond to that person with accuracy if we do not listen to attain accuracy. No understanding can be achieved without careful listening. To listen carefully is an instance of love of neighbor and love of the enemy.
We must take seriously instances when we are corrected by another in our listening. “I did not say this, I said that.” We must consider such responses seriously, not brushing them off as mere obfuscations. The goal is to get an accurate picture of what the other is saying. We would wish the same for ourselves. We must seek understanding, not a confirmation of our prejudices.
What are some simple rules to follow?
- Prayer that you may be an instrument of God. As Saint Francis’ great prayer says, “Grant that we may not so much seek . . . “to be understood as to understand.” (Lutheran Book of Worship, Pew Edition, p 48).
- Ask the Lord to open your ears.
- Listen to what God has to say to you. Many passages of the Holy Scriptures will help you in this.
- When in dialogue with another in an informal or formal setting, be intent on understanding what he/she had to say. You may help clarify their own thinking. Ask questions to clarify for yourself. When necessary, repeat what is said to you to confirm whether you are hearing correctly or incorrectly.
- Do not use a strategy of misrepresentation or rely on a straw man.
- Do not be tempted to entertain a crowd at the expense of truth. Humor can be used effectively without falling into such temptation.
- Keep as a goal, especially in formal debate, of clarity of both or several points of view whether they are right or wrong.
- Understand our own limitations as well as those of the other person. Sometimes, we do not intend to misunderstand. We just do.
- Listen to the Word of the Lord. Again, listen to the Word of the Lord for guidance and truth. Frequent reading of Scriptures with a deep intention to understand them will help.
Michael G. Tavella
July 1, 2019


Presently the process for analysis and detection of pollutants in seawater can take up to weeks as a sample must be collected and then transported back to land for examination. SHOAL has instead developed artificially intelligent fish they believe can take this analysis from the usual weeks to mere seconds, thanks to inbuilt chemical sensors and on board WiFi systems for communication back to land. Allowing for quicker action to be taken.
Originating with Professor Dr. Huosheng Hu at the University of Essex, the British technology firm BMT Group Ltd. has expanded upon Dr. Hu’s research, and seems to have a promising platform for monitoring our ocean waters. Capable of moving up to 70 KMH (43 MPH) while being smart enough to map its location and report back any findings it might come across while on patrol, SHOAL promises to be a much needed step in the ongoing struggle for cooperative management of the planet’s resources.
If the tests off the Northern Spanish port of Gijon prove successful with the less ornate ocean models, SHOAL hopes to have the fish in mass production for cheaper than the current $31’000 price tag.
You can read more about the fish and read an interview with BMT’s Senior research scientist Luke Speller at the BBC.


What is Anxiety?
(including generalized anxiety disorder, panic attacks, PTSD, OCD, agoraphobia, nervous illness, nerves, overwhelming stress, traumatic stress, and other anxiety disorders)
Panic attacks are a part of our body's fight, flight, or freeze response. They reach their peak within a matter of minutes at which time they can be very uncomfortable and includes some (or many) of the following Anxiety Sensations:
- Chest pain or discomfort
- Nausea or abdominal distress
- Feeling dizzy, unsteady, light-headed, or faint
- Chills or heat sensations
- Derealization (feelings of unreality) or depersonalization (being detached from oneself)
- Fear of losing it or “going crazy”
- Fear of dying
- General sense of dread.
- Feeling constantly "on edge"
- Difficulty concentrating.
- Feelings of panic, fear, and uneasiness
- Problems sleeping
- Cold or sweaty hands and/or feet
- An inability to be still and calm
- Dry mouth
- Numbness or tingling in the hands or feet
- Muscle tension
Palpitations, pounding heart, or accelerated heart rate
- Trembling or shaking
- Feeling shortness of breath or smothering
- Feelings of choking
This is not a comprehensive list of the sensations that you may feel when panic arises from your anxiety or PTSD, simply a list of some common occurrences. Since anxiety impacts nearly all of the parts of our bodies, we may feel any number of different things when we are anxious.
If you are reading this and thinking, "that's me alright, but what do I do now?" Then you have come to the right place!
Step one is to start teaching your body to calm down and begin living a more mindful life. Other factors may include diet, lifestyle, movement for healing anxiety, and many more which you will learn though our podcast, blog posts, and 1-on-1 coaching with any of our Anxiety Coaches.
Even Better, all of our Anxiety Coaching is done by phone or Skype so you can get help from wherever you are!
What could be more convenient than online or phone anxiety coaching?
Now where do you turn for help?
We often look for a process or magic cure that will "fix" our anxiety.
We try all sorts of stuff, like:
- wearing magnets
- consult a shaman
- check out eastern medicine
- study zen
- try yoga
- art therapy
- find a guru
- eat special diet
- drink medicinal teas
- give up caffeine
- cut our sugar intake
- go organic
- see a psychic
- find religion
- and just about anything else that someone, somewhere claimed on the internet to help with their anxiety.
That is a pretty long list --right!?
Look, we're not putting any of that down...we've been there too. In fact several of those things are very helpful and good for you, BUT they don't take away your anxiety.
We have tried a bunch of that stuff. You'll even hear us recommend some of those things on the podcast as steps to help you out, but those are for more immediate and acute situations and for learning to calm down enough to get some perspective and begin to learn the truth about what you need to do...or NOT DO. The truth is we just need to learn to accept and surrender rather than fighting and seeking out something or someone to do it for us. Anyone who has recovered from anxiety will tell you, as soon as they stopped trying so hard, they started to feel better...and stopped caring so much when they didn't feel great!
Once we begin to let go and start "being" instead of always "doing" things begin to change. The reality is that the things on that list that help us the most actually lead us to acceptance and surrender.


The headlines have been nearly ecstatic–and almost uniformly uncritical. Here are just a few:
- The Verge: Computer passes Turing Test for first time by convincing judges it is a 13-year-old boy
- Venture Beat: Talk to the computer that passed the Turing Test, a historic artificial intelligence milestone
- Yahoo Tech: Turing Test Bested, Robot Overlords Creep Closer
- NBC News: Turing Test: Computer Program Convinces Judges It’s Human
- Washington Post: A computer just passed the Turing Test in landmark trial
- The Independent: Turing Test breakthrough as super-computer becomes first to convince us it’s human
As several commentators have pointed out, the “victory” is pretty dubious. Mike Masnick at TechDirt was quick to question the alleged result, listing several important points that call it into question:
- It’s not a “supercomputer,” it’s a chatbot. It’s a script made to mimic human conversation. There is no intelligence, artificial or not involved. It’s just a chatbot.
- Plenty of other chatbots have similarly claimed to have “passed” the Turing test in the past (often with higher ratings). Here’s a story from three years ago about another bot, Cleverbot, “passing” the Turing Test by convincing 59% of judges it was human (much higher than the 33% Eugene Goostman) claims.
- It “beat” the Turing test here by “gaming” the rules — by telling people the computer was a13-year-old boy from Ukraine in order to mentally explain away odd responses.
- The “rules” of the Turing test always seem to change. Hell, Turing’s original test was quite different anyway.
- As Chris Dixon points out, you don’t get to run a single test with judges that you picked and declare you accomplished something. That’s just not how it’s done. If someone claimed to have created nuclear fusion or cured cancer, you’d wait for some peer review and repeat tests under other circumstances before buying it, right?
- The whole concept of the Turing Test itself is kind of a joke. While it’s fun to think about, creating a chatbot that can fool humans is not really the same thing as creating artificial intelligence. Many in the AI world look on the Turing Test as a needless distraction.
I personally think that the test still has an important place in our thinking about artificial intelligence, but there’s certainly nothing wrong with questioning its value–in science there is no such thing as unquestionable canon, after all–and Masnick’s other points are pretty much on the money.
The Guardian also ran with the original dramatic story (“Computer simulating 13-year-old boy becomes first to pass Turing test“), prompting a number of comments taking it to task, which it had the good sense to publish as well (“Claims that the Turing test has been passed are nonsense“).
For instance, Professor Robert Epstein of the American Institute for Behavioral Research and Technology (bio here) wrote:
Professor Warwick’s claim that a computer has now passed the Turing Test […] is nonsense. Turing never set a 30% mark as a criterion for “passing” his test. In his famous essay on this topic, which is reprinted with commentaries in my book, Parsing the Turing Test: Methodological and Philosophical Issues in the Quest for the Thinking Computer, Turing merely conjectured that by 2000 a computer program would be able to fool an “average interrogator” into thinking it was a person 30% of the time in a five-minute conversation. He didn’t propose that as a test of anything; he was merely speculating.
Turing never actually said how his test could actually be passed, but a blue ribbon panel of computer scientists and philosophers from Harvard, MIT, and elsewhere which I directed for several years in planning the first Loebner Prize contest in 1990, came up with with a brilliant method that I am sure would have pleased Turing greatly: after lengthy conversations with both hidden humans and hidden computers, a panel ranks the humanness of each, and when the median rank of a computer exceeds the median rank of a human, it wins. No computer has ever crossed that line in the more than 20 years the contest has so far been held, but it will happen eventually.
Of course the Turing Test hasn’t been passed. I think its a great shame it has been reported that way, because it reduces the worth of serious AI research. We are still a very long way from achieving human-level AI, and it trivialises Turing’s thought experiment (which is fraught with problems anyway) to suggest otherwise.
And The Verge, which reported the alleged “pass,” also reported on some skeptical reactions (“Google futurist Ray Kurzweil and other experts say chatbot didn’t pass Turing Test“), including one from Ray Kurzweil:
I chatted with the chatbot Eugene Goostman, and was not impressed. Eugene does not keep track of the conversation, repeats himself word for word, and often responds with typical chatbot non sequiturs.
Others echoed his distrust of the hyped announcement:
New York University cognitive science professor Gary Marcus agrees, writing in The New Yorker that the test wasn’t taken by “innovative hardware but simply a cleverly coded piece of software.” Marcus writes that the chatbot often resorts to misdirecting the person it’s speaking with using humor so that it can avoid questions that it doesn’t understand. “It’s easy to see how an untrained judge might mistake wit for reality, but once you have an understanding of how this sort of system works, the constant misdirection and deflection becomes obvious, even irritating,” Marcus writes. “The illusion, in other words, is fleeting.”
Marc Andreessen, co-founder of Netscape and one of today’s biggest names in tech investing, isn’t taking much stock in the claims over this chatbot either. “My view is that [the] Turing Test has always been malformed,” he writes on Twitter. “Humans are too easy to trick, passing [the] test says almost nothing about software.”
Marcus gave a sample of the chatbot’s chatting in his New Yorker piece (“What Comes After the Turing Test“):
Marcus: Do you read The New Yorker?
Goostman: I read a lot of books … So many—I don’t even remember which ones.
Marcus: You remind me of Sarah Palin.
Goostman: If I’m not mistaken, Sarah is a robot, just as many other “people.” We must destroy the plans of these talking trash cans!
At least in this small sample, it doesn’t seem distinguishable from other chatbots I’ve seen.
As much as I would enjoy the drama of seeing the Turing test actually passed, a little more critical thought would have made for less hyped, more accurate reporting.
If the horizon is populated by terminators, it’s a ways off yet.


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A narrative is often defined, as we have done here, as "the semiotic representation of a series of events." But there is another more restricted definition which is equally common: according to Bal, "a narrative text is a text in which an agent tells a story" (Narratology 119). Semiotic representation through signs is always the work of an agent, and the narrator is, in this sense, the agent who enunciates the narrative text. The narrative text, then, is a linguistic enunciation like many others. We will draw a basic opposition between the subjects of the enunciation, the characters in the text, and the subject of the enunciating, the instance whose words represent those characters and the rest of the textual universe.
We could at this point draw on a linguistic analogy to introduce an important analytical concept, narrative person. According to Jakobson, the verbal category of person characterizes the protagonists of the enunciation (spoken about) with reference to the protagonists of enunciating (the addresser and the addressee).
A first person form, such as "I," means that the addresser, the main protagonist of the activity of enunciating, is positing himself as the subject of both enunciating and enunciation. A second person form, "you," equally locates the person spoken about with respect to the speaking situation: if "I" does the speaking, "you" is present in some way or other. On the other hand, "he" or "she" are characterized by their absence from the speech situation, if still by reference to it. This verbal category translates easily into narratology, according to the structuralist principle that narrative is an expanded verb or sentence. Just as we have first, second and third person pronouns, we have works of literature in the first and in the third person, and even in the second (many love songs, and even long narratives like La Modification).
So far we might have characterised the enunciative structure of narrative. But here we are dealing with literary narrative, and this adds some further complications. Literature is a linguistic game, a peculiar mode of enunciating. The difference between the subject of the enunciating and the subject of the enunciation, the difference between the speaker and the person spoken about, is not as clear-cut here as it is elsewhere. Who does the enunciating in literary narrative? Sometimes we shall find that it is a character, as in Great Expectations, and sometimes we seem to hear the voice of the author himself, as in El Quijote or Fielding's novels. There is a clear difference in principle between the subject of the enunciating and the subject of enunciation, since all novels have authors and all have characters. But we shall often need to posit an intermediary figure, the narrator, who shares some characteristics of both author and character. The narrator is a bridge between the enunciation and the enunciating, and one of the tasks of literary analysis is to determine the extent to which each of these poles is the more relevant in his composition. The narrator will be defined as the enunciator of a narrative text which nevertheless does not account for the full complexity of the literary work.
The basic problem of this complexity begins to appear at a linguistic, non-literary level, in the phenomenon of quoted speech. Plato was the first to analyze the fact that the "I" of a narrative text need not refer to the author. He separates "simple" narrative from "imitative" narrative. In imitative narrative, the speaker "speaks through somebody else's mouth" and "tries to conform as far as possible to the language of the person in whose name he speaks."
Drama uses imitative narration, dithyrambs use simple narration, and epic poetry uses both: its mode is, therefore, mixed. This is the first critical passage devoted both to the issue of narrative persona and to the question of direct and indirect style, and we must recognize that the problems have some structural as well as historical relation.
Plato did not appreciate imitative narration, since imitations may degrade the speaker if the imitated object is unworthy. But Aristotle will use opposite criteria. If Plato criticized Homer because of his extensive use of direct speech, Aristotle praises him for the same reason. According to him, "the poet should speak as little as possible in his own person, for it is not this that makes him an imitator" (Poetics 63, XXIV.7). This idea that the narrator should efface himself, to let the action unfold dramatically before the audience, to let the characters expand freely with a minimum of narratorial control, returns again with the development of the realist novel: we find different versions of this creed in Spielhagen, in Henry James, in Joyce.
However, we can hardly say that Aristotle has a definite concept of a narrator as an entity different in any way from the poet. In the case of fiction, the difference is obviously easier to establish in the case of first-person narratives. Thus, Wordsworth speaks of the "dramatic parts" of his poems, "those parts when the poet speaks through the mouth of his characters."
These parts must preserve a strict decorum (a decorum of psychological realism, of course--after all, it is a Romantic who speaks). An excessive linguistic elaboration would go against verisimilitude, and is to be reserved in any case for the voice of the poet. Wordsworth wants his lyrical ballads written in the language of men, and that is why he uses narrators so often. But still his narrators are introduced by the voice of the poet. A more advanced concept of a narrator is introduced by Spielhagen, who differentiates in this respect first and third person novels:
In the language of art, we call a novel in which the hero appears as the narrator of his fate a first person novel, in opposition to other novels, where the hero is a third person and we are told of his adventures by the writer.
We see that the aim here is to tell apart those fictions which are told by a fictional character from those in which an authorial voice is in charge. The difference established here, then, is not so much one of author versus narrator as (once again) one of author versus character. There is a "narrator" only when a fictional character tells the story.
Tomashevski further develops the notion of "narrator": in his view, there is a narrator different from the author in those novels which are written in imitation of an oral narrative (skaz), where a specific fictional character tells a story with a language that characterizes him as a specific individual in his own right, not a neutral, self-effacing and transparent medium, or "abstract narrative" (Teoría 253-4).
We have to wait until the New Critics and other immanent students of literature to find the opposition author / narrator extended to the point of being applied to all kinds of novels, in first or third person, with a neutral or an obstrusive speaker. The New Critics consider the literary text as a self-sufficient object, which in order to be understood does not require a knowledge of the author's context or ideas (other than the one provided by the language of the text). Therefore there will be no more talk of authors: instead we find only the implied image of the author provided by the text. This is no longer a flesh-and-blood person properly speaking, but a textual construct, which is called by the critics in a number of ways: dramatic speaker, lyrical subject (in the case of poetry), implied author, author, narrator. Terminology, once again, is confusing, and we should look into a critic's assumptions in this respect, not merely into his set of favourite terms. A typical pronouncement is given by Wolfgang Kayser: "the narrator is not the author . . . ; the narrator is a fictional being the author has turned into."
And for Genette, in a fictional narrative,
the role of narrator is itself fictive, even if assumed directly by the author. . . . The narrator of PŹre Goriot 'is' not Balzac, even if here and there he expresses Balzac's opinions, for this author-narrator is someone who 'knows' the Vauquer boardinghouse, its landlady and its lodgers, whereas all Balzac himself does is imagine them; and in this sense, of course, the narrating situation of a fictional account is never reduced to its situation of writing. (Narrative Discourse 213).
So, for modern criticism, the very act of writing literature carries along with it a fictionalization of the speaker. The real self of the author becomes to some extent irrelevant, and we understand the work in terms of his "official" self in the institution of literature, the image of the author which emanates from his works.
However, this fact does not rule out the simple phenomenon of narration through the mouth of a fictional character. The real author is not the implied author, all right, but this does not always mean that the implied author is always in charge of producing the narrative text, of being the immediate subject of enunciating. Therefore we have three candidate figures to fill in this subject position: the author, the implied autor, and the narrator. They are perhaps first identified by Barthes, when he argues that in literature "he who speaks (in the narrative) is not he who writes (in life) and he who writes is not he who is."
Booth had already observed that "'Narrator' is usually taken to mean the 'I' of a work, but the 'I' is seldom if ever identical with the implied image of the artist."
--which in turn is seldom if ever identical with the artist.
We can study narrators in many possible ways. Since narrators are, in part, characters, we can study their personality in the way we would study the personality of any other character. Greimas and Courtés provide a systematic framework for the study of the competence of any discursive subject.
We can study the different modalities that bear upon the textual subject and constitute him as such. This analysis can be applied to characters and narrators alike, although the results will obviously vary because of their different positions in the textual structure.
MODALITIES : Virtualising Actualising Performative
Exotatic : MUST CAN DO
Endotaxic : WANT KNOW BE
But we shall postpone this study until we introduce a further level of analysis, the narrative as literary work, in which a new textual subject, the implied author, is introduced. As we shall see, it is helpful to characterize the narrator and the implied autor differentially, with respect to each other's stance and competence. We see that Genette does not introduce this kind of considerations just as he does not introduce the concept of the implied author-–a choice of limits which is legitimate for a particular essay, but too restrictive for narrative theory as a whole.
What Genette does very well is to systematize the varieties of narrators according to purely formal criteria: their structural position with respect to the fabula and the different enunciative levels of the work. The two criteria he uses result in the fourfould characterization of narrators into extradiegetic / intradiegetic on one hand, and homodiegetic / heterodiegetic on the other. Before we examine these concepts further, it will be convenient to remember an important difference between different analytical problems: fictionality on one hand, and enunciative hierarchy on the other.
The relationship of fictionality is the one established between real and fictional phenomena. Fiction is a kind of parasitic or alternative reality, one which is grounded in a real world with respect to which it is defined as fiction. So a fictional event or a fictional world can be represented as a framed section in the middle of reality: the frame, by definition, cannot be crossed:
Author / Inventor
Fictional world Fictional
characters and happenings
Fictional characters and happenings
The relation of fictionality is recursive: it can be applied again and again to the object it produces.
Any relationship of embedding can therefore multiply in two directions inside a text:
• Horizontally, a number of fictional worlds may coexist at the same fictional level. That is, we find a recursivity in length, an enchaining of embedded texts:
• Vertically, the signified world of a text may include another text or semiotic element which introduces an embedded fictional reality, which in turn may contain a further fictional reality, and so on. That is, we can find fictional words where characters give rise to other fictional worlds, by dreaming them, imagining them or writing about them; the levels of fictionality assume here the form of a Chinese box:
These two modalities of embedding (enchained embeddings or embedded embeddings) can be combined in an infinite number of ways. The fictional relation can establish multiple embeddings, enchainings and hierarchies until a complex pattern of relationships is constituted between the different realities of the discursive activity. An author or inventor, real or fictional, may invent different fictional worlds which are independent from each other, or he may establish further relations of fictionality between those fictional worlds.
Real world Real author
The other hierarchic relationship we mentioned, enunciative hierarchy, is established between a main text and a subordinate text which is embedded inside it. The simplest instance is the use of direct speech, with an introductory speech verb (the main text) and a quoted sentence:
John said, "I can't find my umbrella."
At textual level, this relationship is established between whole texts, and not just between sentences. For instance, the stories in The Canterbury Tales are hierarchically dependent on the main story, which frames them by telling us about the circumstances of their telling and the identity of the different narrators. When the characters in the Miller's Tale speak, their enunciation is hierarchically inferior to the enunciation of the tale by the Miller, just as the Miller's enunciation is hierarchically inferior to Chaucer's. This kind of embedding is also potentially recursive: in Lost in the Funhouse John Barth exploits this multiple embedding with comical effects.
Enunciative embedding can be developed in the horizontal and the vertical relation in the same way as fictional embedding, and it may combine those two modalities of development in just the same way.
It is obvious that these two kinds of embedding are different in nature. The contents of an embedded text may be fictional with respect to those of the main text, but they may also refer to the same (real or fictional) world. Therefore, a change in enunciative level, the introduction of a speaker through the words of another, does not necessarily involve a change in fictional level. Conversely, a change in fictional level does not necessarily involve a change in enunciative level. A fictional world must certainly consist in a semiotic representation of some kind: it is something referred to, signified, rather than something which is present in itself. But this representation need not be made by means of language. A fictional world may appear in a dream, a picture, a film, not only in a literary narrative. The same thing happens when we project the fictional relationship to the inside of a literary narrative: when the narrator tells us of a character's dream, we enter a second-degree fictional world without entering a second-degree narrative.
There is still a third kind of semiotic embedding which appears in narrative texts and which should be kept in mind, even if it not directly related to the discursive position of the narrator. Not all embedded semiotic structures must assume the form of discourses. When speaking of fiction we have already mentioned the possibility of pictures, dreams, etc., which appear as elements of the main fabula. Some of these elements can be used to introduce an embedded fragment which nevertheless refers to the same fictional world of the main narrative (for instance, the description of a photograph in a novel). There is a change in level here, but it is not in enunciative level nor in fictional level. We shall call these changes in semiotic level. Of course, direct speech is also a semiotic device, but it is used to represent speech--itself, in a way. A photograph, on the other hand, cannot be quoted the way a letter is quoted.
Furthermore, if we look back to the concept of perspective or focalization, we shall soon see another possible kind of embedding, an embedding which does not involve semiotic artifacts present in the fabula (verbal or other). What is embedded are different kinds of cognitive structures, or perspectives. Bal speaks in this respect of changes in the level of focalization, usually introduced by verbs of perception or cognition and structured very much like the shifts in enunciative level introduced by speech activity verbs.
We have already introduced the general notion of enunicative level, relative to the use of direct speech in a text. Narrative levels are simply enunciative levels where the quoted speech is a narrative. A character in a story tells a story (about his past, for instance, or a fictional story) and that story is situated at a narrative level which is secondary with respect to the main story.
What Genette calls intradiegetic story is a story within a story,
not only in the sense that the first frames it with a preamble and a conclusion . . . but also in the sense that the narrator of the second narrative is already a character in the first one, and that the act of narrating which produces the second narrative is an event recounted in the first one. (Narrative Discourse 228).
Although the identity of the intradiegetic narrator and his status as a character need not always be that clear, this might be taken to represent the standard situation. It should be kept in mind, however, that many other types of embedded enunciations can be found, in which the embedded element is not a narrative. It may be a poem or a piece of statistics, and even if it is a narrative it can be very different from the main one: for instance, a piece of news report, or a letter, embedded in a novel.
An intradiegetic story can contain another story which is intradiegetic with respect to it. In absolute terms, from the point of view of the complete structure of the work, this story will therefore be intradiegetic in the second degree (metadiegetic, according to Genette). The "main" narrator, the one who introduces the hierarchically superior level, is situated in an extradiegetic position--insofar as he is a narrator; he may, of course, be at the same time a character inside the story and be inside the diegesis in that sense, but Genette will use there the term homodiegetic. There is always an extradiegetic narrator of some kind or other in a narrative work, though there need not be any intradiegetic narrators. It is important to separate this issue of narrative level from the question of narrative person we have mentioned before: an extradiegetic narrator may tell the story in the first or in the third person; in Genette's terms, he may be either homodiegetic or heterodiegetic. The same goes for intradietetic narrators. That is, the opposition intradiegetic / extradiegetic situates the narrator with respect to the whole narrative hierarchy of the work, whereas the opposition homodiegetic / heterodiegetic defines the narrator in terms of his own narration--which need not encompass the whole work.
Genette observes the peculiar use of intradiegetic stories in a whole tradition of narrative writing, and proceeds then to an examination of the main relationships between the embedded narratives and the main text. In his Nouveau discours, he adds some indications by John Barth to distinguish five main types:
1) Causal relationship: when both narratives refer to the same fabula, the intradiegetic narrative may be analeptic and explicative of the events in the main fabula.
2) When we find an intradiegetic proleptic narrative, the function is of prediction.
3) The third type of relationship is purely thematic. This often happens in the case of fictional embedded stories. An extreme form, in Genette's view (Narrative Discourse 233) is the structure of mise en abyme.
4) Sometimes the thematic relationship is made explicit by one of the characters, and the story acquires an explicit exemplary, persuasive value. This is the case, for instance, of exempla in medieval narrative.
5) Sometimes it is not the story but its narrating which establishes the significant connection with the main story: Genette's favourite example is the Thousand and One Nights, where only the narrating keeps the intradiegetic narrator alive. In other cases, the function of the narrating may be purely distractive (as in the Decameron).
These five types are classified according to a greater importance of the narrative act itself. And all of these values may be mixed in a variety of degrees in concrete narratives.
We have said that by definition the barrier between reality and fiction cannot be crossed. This is also the case for the other kinds of barriers that we have studied, deriving mainly from the difference between the sign and the referent. The sign cannot suddenly become its referent--in those cases when it comes, we feel that it should not.
But we have alsoo witnessed the prolifereation of barriers and distinctions within those fictional, represented or quoted worlds. And these barriers, intradiegetic or fictional in the second degree, are no longer impassable. Although they lay a claim to the same logical status as the border between the first and the second level, they are in fact very different: they are textual constructions which can be modified and transgressed at will--as long as we do not care so much about verisimilitude. Genette uses the term metalepsis to refer to the transition from one narrative level to another. In spite of this definition, he seems to include there the transitions from one semiotic level to another and from a fictional level to another as well. But we could divide these "metalepses" into as many kinds as the barriers they overstep. So, if an intradiegetic narrator suddenly becomes extradiegetic (as it happens at one moment in Marguerite de Navarre's Heptaméron) the phenomenon is analogous to, but not to be confused with an illegal mixture of fictional worlds--for instance, in Marguerite Yourcenar's "Comment Wang-Fô fut sauvé", where a painter avoids execution by painting a picture and escaping through that fictional landscape.
We have already introduced the concept of narrative person. Jakobson's definition of the grammatical category of person gave us a starting point:
First person signals the identity of one of the protagonists of the enunciated process with the agent of the enunciating process, and second person his identity with the actual or potential patient of the enunciating process. ("Embrayeurs" 182)
It would be tempting to transpose these grammatical categories directly into the field of literary narrative. But in fact it is impossible, since just as we saw there is no one-to-one connection between verbal tense and narrative temporality, there is no one-to-one connection between grammatical person and narrative person. The most usual terminology opposes first-person narratives to third-person narratives, meaning presumably that the main character is referred to in the first or in the third person. Genette introduces a distinction along different lines: homodiegetic narratives are told by a narrator who is present (though not necessarily as a protagonist) in the story he relates; heterodiegetic narratives are told by a narrator who is absent from that story. The purest form of homodiegetic narrative is autodiegetic narrative (what is normally understood by "first-person" narrative, where the narrator is also the protagonist).
It is to be noted that a heterodiegetic narrator need not be an authorial narrator--nor an "omniscient" one. From Genette's definition, indeed, it is not ruled out that the narrator belongs to the same world (fictional or otherwise) as his characters; it is only required that he must not figure as a character in his narrative. But, as Genette points out, these categories cannot be rigid, since the concept of identity itself is not rigid, but manipulable to some extent at least through discursive activity. And in some kinds of narrative, the problematic borderline between different identities is already given from the start: in autodiegetic narrative, the same "person" is split into two completely different textual roles: hero and narrator. The concepts of homodiegetic and heterodiegetic narration are nevertheless useful as ideal poles, as fixed reference points against which we can measure the ambiguities or displacements that will inevitably occur in most narrative texts.
(End of Narrative Theory)
More Structural Narratology
Cf. Genette, Narrative Discourse 214 n.
 Roman Jakobson, "Les embrayeurs, les catégories verbales et le verbe russe" 183.
 Plato, República 101, III.
 William Wordsworth, "Preface to the Second Edition of Lyrical Ballads" 439.
 Friedrich Spielhagen, Beiträge zur Theorie und Technik des Romans 131. Translation mine.
 Wolfgang Kayser, "Qui raconte le roman?" 72.
 Roland Barthes, "Introduction ą l'analyse structurale des récits" 26.
 Wayne Booth, The Rhetoric of Fiction 73.
 A. J. Greimas and J. Courtés, Sémiotique 124.
 Mieke Bal, Narratologie 38; "The Laughing Mice: Or, on Focalization" 203ff.
 The original use of"metalepsis" as defined by Genette's source Pierre Fontanier, covers a range of rhetorical phenomena much wider than the one Genette implies.


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See also:Type I and type II errors for more context
In statistics, a Type II error , also called a false negative or miss, exists when a test incorrectly reports that a result was not detected, when it was really present.
Detection algorithms of all kinds often create misses. For example, if a radar does not detect an enemy air plane when an enemy air plane is present within the radar scanned area, that is a false negative.
False negative rate Edit
The false negative rate is the proportion of positive instances that were erroneously reported as negative. It is equal to 1 minus the sensitivity of the test.
In statistical hypothesis testing, this fraction is given the symbol β, and is defined as the power of the test. Increasing the sensitivity of the test lowers the probability of Type II errors, but raises the probability of Type I errors (false positives that reject the null hypothesis when it is true).
When developing detection algorithms or tests, a balance must be chosen between risks of false negatives and false positives. Usually there is a threshold of how close a match to a given sample must be achieved before the algorithm reports a match. The higher this threshold, the more false negatives and the fewer false positives.
False negatives are a significant issue in medical testing. In some cases, there are two or more (often many) tests that could be used, one of which is simpler and less expensive, but less accurate, than the other. For example, the simplest tests for HIV and hepatitis in blood have a significant rate of false positives. These tests are used to screen out possible blood donors, but more expensive and more precise tests are used in medical practice, to determine whether a person is actually infected with these diseases.
False negatives in medical testing provide false, incorrect reassurance to both patients and physicians that patients are free of disease which is actually present. This in turn leads to people receiving inappropriate understanding and a lack of better advice and treatment to better protect their interests. A common example is relying on cardiac stress tests to detect coronary atherosclerosis, even though cardiac stress tests are known to only detect limitations of coronary artery blood flow due to advanced stenosis.
False negatives produce serious and counterintuitive problems, especially when the condition being searched for is common. If a test with a false negative rate of only 10%, is used to test a population with a true occurrence rate of 70%, many of the "negatives" detected by the test will be falsely incorrect. (See Bayes' theorem below.)
False negatives are also a problem in biometric scans, such as retina scans or facial recognition, when the scanner incorrectly identifies someone as not matching a known person, when in actually, it is the same person whose scan was in the system.
The probability that an observed negative result is a false negative versus a true negative may be calculated (and the problem of false negatives demonstrated) using Bayes' theorem. The key concept of Bayes' theorem is that the true rates of false positives and false negatives are not a function of the accuracy of the test alone, but also the actual rate within the population. Often, the more powerful issue is the actual rates of the condition within the sample being tested.
False negatives and Anti-SpamEdit
The term False negative is also used when Spam email is not detected as such but rather classified as good email. A low number of false negatives is an indicator for the efficiency of Spam filtering methods.
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