home > infectious disease center > infectious disease a-z list > german measles index German Measles German MeaslesRelated Tools & References « Back to German Measles Index Sorted Alphabetically A-Z Sort by popularity Chronic Cough Doctor: Checklist to Take To Your Doctor's Appointment Doctor: Getting the Most from Your Doctor's Appointment Fever Hearing Loss How to Choose a Doctor Joint Pain Rash Swollen Lymph Nodes (Lymphadenopathy) Sorted by Popularity (as on MedicineNet) Sort alphabetically Joint Pain Swollen Lymph Nodes (Lymphadenopathy) Rash Fever How to Choose a Doctor Chronic Cough Hearing Loss Doctor: Checklist to Take To Your Doctor's Appointment Doctor: Getting the Most from Your Doctor's Appointment Suggested Reading on German Measles (Rubella) by Our Doctors Related Diseases & Conditions 15 articles Swollen Lymph Nodes Lymph nodes help the Rash The word "rash" means an outbreak of red bumps on the body. The way people use this term, "a rash" can refer to many different skin conditions. The most Pregnancy (Week By Week, Trimesters) There are many symptoms involved in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd trimesters of pregnancy. The first early pregnancy symptom is typically a missed period, but others Thrombocytopenia (Low Platelet Count) Thrombocytopenia (low platelet count) refers to a decreased number of platelets in the blood. Symptoms of thrombocytopenia include: Increased Fever Although a fever technically is any body temperature above the normal of 98.6 F (37 C), in practice, a person is usually not considered to have a significant Cough (Chronic Cough) Chronic cough is a cough that does not go away and is generally a symptom of another disorder such as Miscarriage Miscarriage is the medical Mumps Mumps is an acute viral illness caused by the mumps Cataracts A cataract is an eye disease that causes the eye's lens to become cloudy and opaque with decreased vision. Causes of cataracts include diabetes, hypothyroidism, Measles Measles (rubeola) is a highly contagious disease that's caused by a virus. Symptoms include a rash, high fever, cough, runny nose, and red eyes. Treatment Microcephaly Microcephaly is a genetic condition where the circumference of the head is smaller than normal due to underdeveloped brain. Microcephaly is caused by genetic Pregnancy Planning Pregnancy planning is an important step in preparation for starting or expanding a family. Planning for a pregnancy includes taking prenatal vitamins, Are Skin Rashes Contagious? Direct and indirect contact can spread some types of rashes from person to person. Rash treatment depends upon a rash's underlying cause. A rash that sheds Birth Defects Birth defects have many causes and currently, are the leading cause of death for infants in the first year of life. Some of the causes of birth defects Children's Health Children's health is focused on the well-being of children from conception through adolescence. There are many aspects of children's health, including Medications 4 articles Procedures & Tests 4 articles Pictures, Images & Quizzes 3 articles Doctor's & Expert's Views 2 articles Health News 14 articles Health Features 2 articles STAY INFORMED Get the latest health and medical information delivered direct to your inbox! From WebMD Infectious Disease Resources Common Signs of Hep C Is It a Cold, Strep, or Tonsillitis? Tips to Prevent Cold Sores Featured Centers Feeling Short of Breath? What to Eat When You Have Cancer Top 3 Anaphylaxis Triggers Health Solutions From Our Sponsors Frequent Constipation? Greater Food Accessibility Exclusives What Does Psoriasis Look Like? How to Prevent Muscle Cramps Blood Clot? Know the Signs and Symptoms Allergy Triggers: Do You Know Yours?


Why are plants often sterile when their parents are from different species? How do species remain separate entities in nature?
Andrea L. Case, Ph.D., associate professor in the Department of Biological Sciences in the College of Arts and Sciences at Kent State University, co-authored an article that may provide some answers to these basic questions in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B, which was recently published online.
In their article, "Selfish evolution of cytonuclear hybrid incompatibility in Mimulus", Case and her co-authors from the University of Montana (Findley R. Finseth, Camille M. Barr, and Lila Fishman) describe their use of genomic data to document natural selection on genes responsible for hybrid male sterility in Mimulus, commonly known as monkeyflowers. To read the full article, visit: http://rspb.
One of the ways that biologists can identify distinct species of animals and plants is to show that they cannot make viable or fertile offspring after they mate.
"Many closely related species, those that were recently members of a single species, have lost the ability to make viable or fertile offspring with each other," Case said. "The process of how that happens is still under investigation, and it's particularly important to figure out the genetic mechanisms for the evolution of reproductive incompatibilities between species."
The article also addresses the consequences of genetic conflict, which arises when one genetic element reduces the fitness of others in the same genome. Male sterility genes in plants have been predicted to cause genetic conflict between maternally inherited mitochondrial genes that aren't transmitted by males, and nuclear genes that are inherited from both males and females.
"Our results are consistent with the 'selfish' spread of a maternal mitochondrial male-sterility gene in a single population, followed by strong selection for nuclear suppressors that restore male fertility," Case said. "This is an example intragenomic conflict driving the evolution of selfish genes and suppressors within species, and it may often underlie sterility in hybrids between flowering plant species."
The specific genes that are in conflict in their study are those that plant breeders use to create new varieties of crops. According to Case, there is little data out there from non-crop plants like Mimulus that show how evolutionary forces like natural selection have acted on these genes in the past.
In the paper, the researchers explain how genes that cause male sterility in hybrids between two closely related plant species have evolved. They show that it was not by chance -- natural selection was involved-- and they show that natural selection was strong and direct, acting on the incompatible genes themselves. They show that the outcome of natural selection was the resolution of genetic conflict between a selfish male-sterility gene and its co-evolved suppressor.
"The genes we have identified as being involved in male sterility are ones that are ubiquitous in flowering plants, so the genetic mechanism we are studying might also be ubiquitous," Case said. "It may be a very common mechanism that helps maintains species as separate entities in nature."
Case spent the spring of 2015 conducting this research and analysis, on sabbatical, at the University of Montana followed by further analysis in 2016. While the data in this paper shows what has happened in a single population, future research will address if this population is unique or typical. They also want to know if any other elements in the genome are involved in the resolution of genetic conflict, and the potential consequences of conflict for other parts of the genome.
Photo captions:1. Yellow monkeyflowers (Mimulus guttatus) at the base of Cone Peak in the Oregon Cascades, USA. Photo credit: Arpiar Saunders, used with permission.
2. Flowers of hybrid monkeyflowers (Mimulus guttatus x M. nasutus), dissected to show the morphology of the male sex organs (extending from the top of each flower). The flower on the left is from a male-fertile hybrid, right from a male-sterile hybrid. Photo credit: Andrea Case.
3. Deformed male sex organ from the flower of a male-sterile hybrid between Mimulus guttatus and M. nasutus, stained blue and viewed through a microscope. Photo credit: Camille Barr.
Jim Maxwell, 330-672-8028, firstname.lastname@example.org


September is Tourism Month in this year we will again be making a number of posts linking our research to the challenges and opportunities in this sector:
Scuba divers of all experience levels need to be educated to reduce ecological impacts on reefs by Serena Lucrezi, TREES.
Scuba diving is a growing form of tourism reflecting positively on the economy of coastal communities. However, negative impacts associated with scuba diving need to be prevented to safeguard the critical ecosystem services provided by reefs. Studies have explored the behaviour of scuba divers by psychological and skill-related factors to formulate plans for the management of reefs and diving tourism.
In Sodwana Bay, South Africa, scuba divers (n = 410) were interviewed on their diving motivations, excitement for marine life, experience, and perceptions of impacts, reef condition, and norms. The majority of interviewed divers preferred undisturbed and diverse areas, and those people who had already experienced diving in degraded seascapes supported the implementation of diving restrictions. Some divers lacked basic knowledge on marine ecology and diving impacts. Only direct physical contact with reef organisms such as corals was seen as damaging, while impacts such as associated with special gear, boats, and crowding were not considered severe. Although motivations to dive varied substantially according to diving experience, such experience did not boost environmental awareness among scuba divers.
These findings highlight the importance of a stronger educational component across all diving specialisation levels. This could take place in the form of revising diving curricula to prioritize conservation education and awareness. This is particularly relevant for diving instructors in their position as knowledge multipliers. The researchers also recommend that education persist beyond certification through the application of pre-dive briefings and adherence to best practices. Embracing codes of conduct and green initiatives such as the Green Fins initiative in Southeast Asia facilitates environmentally sound diving tourism. Increasing divers’ environmental awareness and minimizing human impacts are not easy tasks for managers. Designing and implementing the recommended actions at different dive sites around the world can help finance conservation of marine species, support local economies, and provide rich wildlife encounters for divers.
Lucrezi, S., Saayman, M., van der Merwe, P. 2013. Managing diving impacts on reef ecosystems: Analysis of putative influences of motivations, marine life preferences and experience on divers’ environmental perceptions. Ocean and Coastal Management 76: 52-63.
Lucrezi, S., Saayman, M., van der Merwe, P. 2013. Perceived diving impacts and management implications at a popular South African reef. Coastal Management doi:10.1080/08920753.2013.822278


Nowadays, people have become fonder of exercising and working out not solely for the sake of attaining a toner body but more so, for achieving a healthy lifestyle. People of all ages are now doing regular exercises. The most common exercise is cardio.
What Are Cardio Exercises?
From its root word, cardio, these are exercises that work out the cardiovascular muscles the most to increase heart rate and as a result, burn fats and turn it to carbon dioxide or sweat. If your “exercise” doesn’t make you pant, it just means it won’t have any effect on you if you’re trying to lose weight. For your exercise to produce the best weight loss result, you must execute your cardio workout continuously for at least ten minutes, and then slow down (not stop) for a minute, and then back to a faster pace in the next ten minutes.
Cardio exercises should be done for a minimum of fifteen minutes and a maximum of thirty minutes. People often have mistaken cardio workouts to burn more calories if they go on for more extended periods, but the body only burns fats in thirty minutes max. It automatically stops after that period, so any exercises that are done after thirty minutes does not affect the body.
Examples of Cardio Exercises
Cardio exercises are the easiest workouts that can be done by anyone anywhere, with or without equipment. Here are some examples:
- Bike riding/cycling
- Stair Climber
- HIIT(High-Intensity Interval Training)
- Circuit Training
In the list above, cycling for cardio will be our focus as our exercise in trying to lose weight.
Cycling for cardio is one of the best exercises for those who aim to burn fat and lose weight fast. Mainly, the equipment needed in cycling for cardio is a bicycle. People might think that cycling can be done by just about anyone since most people have experienced riding a bike for extended hours during their childhood, but cycling for cardio requires proper discipline and endurance. Build your stamina, if you want to produce the best results from your workouts. Also, the activities you think that might still be easy for you to do since you regularly did it during your childhood (example, biking, and jump rope) are more challenging to practice now that you’re an adult with less stamina.
Why Should You Consider Cycling For Cardio?
Cycling may be out of context for people trying to lose weight since the most common cardio exercise is running (whether on treadmills or outdoors). However, one benefit of cycling is it builds up your cardiovascular endurance (you can go more extended hours and distances of running or biking without panting and getting tired easily) and strengthens your legs as well. If you are recovering from an injury, cycling for cardio is also a good option since this is a low-intensity workout.
Cycling For Cardio Can Be Done In Two Ways And In Two Locations:
Nowadays, cycling for cardio can be done indoors with the use of stationary bikes. This is suitable for people who prefer to exercise in the comfort of their homes, or those who live in metro areas where outdoor space for pedestrians isn't available, or those whose work schedules don’t work with gym operating hours. A stationary bike normally costs $180 to $280, depending on the brand.
Outdoor cycling for cardio is best for those who seek more thrill and adventure in strolling through different roads. If you want to build more endurance and resistance in your body, outdoor cycling for cardio is the best practice. Commonly, outdoor cycling is included in the agenda of triathlons. With outdoor cycling, you can learn to increase and decrease speed and resistance depending on the road they are trailing. Uphill and downhill roads will best stretch the biker’s muscles and best cardio practice.
Best cycling routines according to location
Unlike running on treadmills, cycling isn’t an exercise that you can push yourself easily. Cycling alone can be dragging and boring, so the best way to push oneself in doing this cardio exercise is imagining on what terrain you’re on so you can gauge your pace and resistance. Some keywords that you need to master are:
- Easy – imagine pacing in your neighborhood on a flat road
- Moderate – This one needs a slight pull, so you need to increase the resistance of your bike a bit. On a scale of 1 to 100, set it on 30, like you’re climbing a small hill in town.
- Hard – Set resistance on 50 to 70, as if you’re driving through a winding uphill road.
- All-out – set resistance to 100, as if trailing a mountain.
A quick cardio workout you can do only for 30 minutes.
- Five minutes warm up (easy), thirty seconds hard, and thirty seconds moderate. Repeat four times.
- One minute easy, one minute hard, thirty seconds moderate. Repeat four times.
- One minute easy, 45 seconds all-out, fifteen seconds easy, 2 minutes easy. Repeat thrice.
Outdoor cycling for cardio sets the person on a real resistance, pace and endurance since they face the reality of the road ahead of them unlike in indoor cycling. During outdoor cycling, one will learn proper pedaling, gearing and braking. According to experts, the proper pedaling should be the force of the legs starting at the top (12 o’ clock) pushing downwards (6 o’ clock) and releasing pressure upwards.
Cyclers also need to learn how to use and change gears. If you’re going downhill or uphill, you need to adjust the rear cassette to a lower gear.
The use of brakes in outdoor cycling is also essential. New cyclers must be aware that there are two brakes in their bikes: one in front and another at the rear. Front brakes are stronger in stopping your bikes than the rear brakes. However, they must be mindful that using the front brakes in wet roads is risky. If they need to brake while trailing a wet road, one tip is to push themselves back while pressing on the brakes so that the weight will be at the back of the bike.
Cyclers should also consider their posture when biking outdoors. If they want to be free of strains and muscle pains, their heads must be parallel to their backs (which are leaning forward) so as not to put all the tension to their arms and necks.


Summer’s just about ½ over! That means along with camp, sports practice and summer fun, children and teens also need to find time for reading. Many schools provide a summer reading list beginning in the fourth or fifth grades requesting that students read two or more books from a selection. Requirements vary from one to five books and students may be asked to either write something about each book or take a “test” on them once they are back at school.
If your child has a list and has not started it here is a way to create a plan and avoid the last minute rush. First figure out how many books are required and either borrow them from the library, download them onto an ipad or tablet or buy them. Look at the calendar and divide the number of weeks left by the number of pages in the book. For example, if you have two books to read and each is 200 pages then your child would need to read 400/5=80 pages a week (based on 5 weeks left of summer) to finish both books. That would mean reading about 16 pages a day five days a week. A reality check with a calendar and the books required will help your child develop a better sense of time management. Or you can divide the book by its chapters and figure out how long it would take to finish if your child read a chapter a day.
To encourage children to read, there is no better way than to model it yourself. Set aside 20-30 minutes of reading time for the whole family each day. Find a time that works for your family such as, after a meal, late afternoon, or before bedtime. Summer is a great time for you to get some reading in too. Nothing beats reading a good book in the shade while sipping an iced tea. Sharing and discussing books is a great way to keep those communication lines open. What are you reading? Let me know on my Facebook page or in the comment section below.
“Connecting a child and a book is like dropping a pebble into the water. You never know where the ripples will end up.” Ronald Jobe


A brief description of the occupation of Dorchester Heights appears below. For a much longer and illustrated telling of the story, you can open the pdf version of Dorchester Heights: Prelude to Independence by Charles H. Bradford, MD. by
Dorchester Heights is now a small park atop a high hill lost in the side streets of a great city that grew up and expanded around and beyond the location that hosted a great moment in American history. The site functions now as any park in the city does. It is a place to enjoy the fresh air, to walk the dog or to jog around.
But in 1898 the General Court of Massachusetts, i.e, the legislature, commissioned a monument of white marble in Georgian Revival style to commemorate a Revolutionary War victory. So, what was the story that was so compelling as to construct a major monument? Well, some people think it was simply a very expensive way for an overwhelmingly-Irish city to make St. Patrick?s Day an official holiday by calling it Evacuation Day. The real story may be just as interesting.
Why is there a place called Dorchester Heights in South Boston? Until 1804 all of what is now South Boston was a subsection of Dorchester. In the earliest European settlement of Dorchester in the 1630s, the South Boston peninsula was used as the Cow Pasture. Later some of Dorchester families constructed homes there, and at the time of the Revolution there were perhaps 10 to 20 families living there.
It might be a good idea to provide a little of the context of colonial life leading up to the Revolutionary War. The colonies were under the rule of the King and Parliament, and all the people considered themselves English citizens. It was part of normal life that everything was English, including the security forces comprised of English soldiers and sailors who defended the colonies from foreign invasion.
Over the course of the 18th century, there were negative reactions among colonial residents over the various taxes imposed by the British Parliament without representation from the colonies in the New World. Until the 1770s the result was mostly grumbling without action. But emotions rose to a fever pitch following the so-called Boston Masscacre on March 5, 1770. The event that provoked an increasingly high level of British forces in Boston occurred on December 16, 1773, when the Sons of Liberty costumed themselves as native Indians and dumped the tea into Boston harbor.
Boston became a city under occupation. The surrounding towns prepared for possible conflict by stockpiling arms, training their inhabitants and setting people to watch for signs aggression. Their embankments and camps in a ring around the city figured prominently in the Siege of Boston, an attempt by the colonials to take back their city. The British were increasingly concerned about rumors that the colonial forces were stockpiling munitions in the countryside, and this led to forays outside the city beginning the night that Paul Revere and others alerted the countryside to the marching of British forces to Lexington and Concord in April, 1775, when the first shot was fired.
The next battle in what we now call the American Revolution was the Battle of Chelsea Creek, the first naval action, on May 27-28, soon followed by the Battle of Bunker Hill on June 17th.
Fortifications were quickly thrown up to defend the county against further incursions from the British, and the Siege of Boston had truly begun.
On June 16th, George Washington had accepted his post as head of the Continental Army, and on July 3rd, 1775, he assumed command in the field in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
One of Washington?s early actions was to authorize Henry Knox, a young man twenty-one years old and a bookseller by trade to travel to Fort Ticonderoga to retrieve cannons and other artillery pieces and drag them to Boston with oxen. Knox?s determination was the reason for the success of that venture, and he arrived in Framingham with the guns on January 20, 1776. Knox sledged, dredged, skidded and sledded across freezing lakes and rivers, up and over the precipitous slopes of the Berkshires and through the unplowed snowdrifts that covered western Massachusetts. The train included 55 guns: cannon, howitzers, cohorns and mortars. They thought this was a large enough number to meet though not to equal British firepower. Some of these pieces are still mounted on Cambridge Common, bearing the royal monogram GR (George Rex) and with the motto ?ultima ratio Regis? the last argument of Kings.
Washington was in favor of a direct assault, and various plans were considered, including
1. an attempt to break through the strong defenses at Bunker Hill and enter Charlestown
2. a surprise at Boston Neck
3. a beach landing on the river shore approaching by rowboat down the Charles River.
Washington?s advisers were very cautious and seemed never to be ready to commit to the idea of a direct assault. Boston was connected to the mainland by a very narrow neck of land called Boston Neck, making any approach very visible. In the unusually extreme cold of that winter of 1775-1776, it seemed possible that the shallow part of the Charles River near Boston might become solid enough to land on, but that approach was as visible as any other. The Neck itself was guarded by a British Fort at its narrow section, so the likelihood of taking Boston via that route seemed low.
Washington?s orders from Congress required him to discuss any major move with his eight general officers. These eight officers had not previously held any high rank in any professional army, nor had any of them with the exception of Israel Putnam ever served in anything other than frontier battles against native Americans. The General staff met at Washington?s headquarters in the house we now call the Longfellow House.
The group included two Major Generals: Artemas Ward and Israel Putnam. Artemas Ward was the senior of the group in rank, having formerly served as commander-in-chief until Washington?s arrival. Ward is considered to have been calm, cool and thoughtful, and he deserved credit for holding the army together. He is credited with opposing Washington?s hoped-for assault on Boston.
In contrast Israel Putnam was a fiery genius, a man whom troops might love but not a strategist nor a tactician. This 58 year old first came to join the army on hearing the Lexington Alarm, leaving his yoked oxen standing in the field.
Among the brigadier generals, John Sullivan had been Washington?s colleague in the Continental Congress where they both served. He was loyal and could be relied on to lead in battle.
Horatio Gates who had been born in England had been a professional officer in the British military. He was well-acquainted with army routine, and as adjutant-general, he managed to bring some order out of the total chaos that prevailed.
Joseph Spencer had served in the French and Indian War, but had little to recommend him. He was jealous that Putnam had been promoted over his head, but he never accomplished any distinguished service, so it seems that he hadn?t deserved higher appointment.
William Heath, was agreeably and honestly outspoken but cautious. For those of us looking back, we must appreciate him because he left a book of Memoirs that gave eyewitness accounts of his experiences.
John Thomas was a key officer. He served in the French and Indian War and retired to practice medicine. At the start of the siege of Boston, he brought troops that he raised himself and assumed command of the army?s right wing in defense of Roxbury. To intimidate the British he once marched his command around a hill in Roxbury over and over again to give the impression of more manpower than he actually had. Thomas was the first officer that Washington himself nominated for a major generalship. At the siege he served under Artemas Ward with direct, personal command of the troops who occupied Dorchester Heights.
The last of the six brigadier generals was Nathaniel Greene, the most gifted of them all. He was 32 years of age and had begun as a Quaker and school teacher. But he realized the importance of the patriots? cause and joined the militia, engaging in intensive study of military theory and science.
On February 16th, these generals met with Washington to discuss his desire for a direct assault on Boston. Their discussion referred to the crushing news that had arrived from Quebec. In January, Montgomery and Arnold had tried a direct assault on the city of Quebec and met with disaster. Direct assaults on fortified garrisons were shown to be unsuccessful. The generals now argued that Washington had underestimated the strength of the British garrison in Boston.
At this meeting the generals proposed the alternative maneuver of occupying the Dorchester peninsula. This would provoke the British because the position would be highly visible and would have the advantage of being a defensive position that would afford an opportunity of directly bombarding the Boston waterfront. General Ward is credited with the proposal, which makes sense due to his position on the right wing, where he would have been most familiar with the territory in Dorchester. Washington had appeared indifferent to the fortification of Dorchester.
As yet neither army had occupied Dorchester. Both armies had felt they did not have sufficient resources to maintain the position. The Point or Dorchester Neck lay across the Bay at a distance of only a half mile or so from Boston Neck and three-quarters of a mile from the docks along the Boston waterfront. (Neck is a word that can mean the narrow piece of land that connects a larger peninsula to the mainland as in the case of Boston or can mean the whole peninsula as in the case of Dorchester Neck). Three hills merged into conjoined summits, an area known as Dorchester Heights. The heavily fortified Castle Island or Castle William occupied by the British stood a half-mile off shore.
Washington had reconnoitered this area on Feb. 11th and 12th. He rode out over the causeway accompanied by Generals Ward, Putnam and Thomas along with Gridley, chief engineer Lt. Col. Rufus Putnam and Henry Knox who was in command of artillery. The offices continued to the end of the peninsula and left their horses with orderlies and strolled along for about a half mile. At this point someone noticed that British forces were riding furiously toward their batteries on Boston Neck. If the guns opened up, Washington?s return over the causeway would be cut off. This danger sent them all scampering for their life to get back to their horses and out of reach of possible fire. The success of the American Revolution depended on such tenuous moments.
British General Howe received reports that the rebels might be planning to fortify the Dorchester peninsula, so he decided to eliminate any possibility by a surprise raid on Feb. 14th that would scorch the earth. The operation was a complete success except for the fact that they found no fortification. The British burned ten or so houses with barns and sheds to the ground in full view of the citizens who had lived in them. As inconsequential as this raid may appear, it gave Howe an enhanced sense of security and he only increased his batteries on Boston Neck where he felt the British guns could easily dislodge any rebels who might attempt to annoy the British from Dorchester.
So on in Washington?s council of war on Feb. 16th when the suggestion of occupying Dorchester again came up, the question became how to obtain a foothold once they moved troops to Dorchester. The causeway and the hills were fully open to sweeping British artillery fire, since the whole peninsula was exposed.
A large combat labor force would be secretly assembled by nights and would march to the peninsula, taking the British by surprise and being prepared to fight the next morning.
Superficial parapets could be made up of fascines. These were bundles of sticks laid parallel and bound together. The bundles could then be laid end-to-end and side-to-side in a breastwork that could stop a musket ball. Still these constructions were unstable.
More substance could be obtained from gabions, which were wicker bags or baskets that could be carried onto the field empty, then filled with surface stones or gravel. They could be interspersed throughout the fascines to provide greater stability.
Huge numbers of fascines and gabions would be required, but it was just this type of work that an army of farmers, aided by a local population, could and would do.
There was still a need for even greater stability. By luck Rufus Putnam was visiting General Heath and noticed a copy of Muller?s Military Field Manual. He borrowed it and came across a description of chandeliers. These were skeleton-like frames of light timbers nailed together to from cribs or cradles for fascines or gabions thereby giving strength. These too were manufactured by the amateur army along with local woodcutters, carpenters, mechanics and handymen.
Still the only approach to the peninsula was over the causeway with exposure to British guns. For the moment the ground was frozen, so the road could be widened. To answer the question of how stay hidden while carting fortification material over the road, they came up with hay ? at that the time there were no machines for baling hay, but instead the farmers would take strands or skeins of long hay stalks and twist them rapidly together with a spiral motion to form ropes of hay that could be bound together. These were called screwed hay. These were to be laid on the side of the causeway facing Boston Neck to shield the road from the eyes of the British. The greatest quantity of hay came a long distance from across the Mystic and Charles Rivers, even all the way around from Chelsea.
Washington would need one more trade to complete the mission, the teamsters. To transport all this material in a single night seemed nearly impossible, but men like James Boies of the upper mills in Dorchester (Mattapan Square) brought three hundred and sixty teams or horses and oxen to Dorchester and Roxbury. Schedules were worked out for the timing and number of trips.
The operation began on March 2nd on Lechmere Point?in an act of drawing the British attention elsewhere, some of Knox?s guns fired on the west part of Boston. Heavy guns from Roxbury?s high fort were moved closer to fortifications on Boston Neck to offer another barrage.
All the troops and the civilian volunteers, numbering in the thousands were quartered in the homes and barns of the local population. These men had to be fed and so did their animals. Some had to take what they could get in vacant houses and old cellars.
All the able men from Dorchester took part including Captain Lemuel Clap, Colonel Sam Pierce, Captain James Swan, and the aforementioned James Boies among many others.
March 4 was chosen as the date to fortify Dorchester because the next day would be the anniversary of the Boston Massacre, when emotions would be at their maximum. On March 4th a full moon was shining and at 7 pm Gen. Thomas gave the word to move. From every lane and roadway, from every square, from every shed and barn and stable, men and teams issued forth. At the same time the artillery thundered from all around the rest of Boston to give the British something to think about elsewhere. The roar of the cannon and the light could be seen by Abigail Adams from the top of Penn?s hill in Quincy.
The teams kept up a semi-continuous circuit, some of them returning three or four times, bringing the prefabricated fortress across the marsh to the tops of the hills. The day had been mild so there may have been a couple of inches of surface dirt that thawed out so that it could be shoveled. To keep as quiet as possible the wheels of the carts were wrapped in straw. They were covered the sounds of the bombardment from elsewhere, especially as the British returned the fire they received.
By 3 am the workers would ordered to lay down their tools, and they were replaced by a contingent of 2500 fresh men, carrying muskets and powder and shot. They completed the fortifications and reinforced them.
At some time during the night twenty or so 12-pounder cannon arrived.
So it was that when dawn broke on March 5, 1776, the British were surprised. General Howe said that the rebels had done more in one night than his whole army could do in a month. He though it must have taken the work of ten thousand men.
The British intended to dislodge the patriots, but their tardiness in preparing boast to embark gave Howe more time to consider his position. Coincidentally by late afternoon, the storm that had been rising became a serious factor, tossing ships at their moorings and swamping smaller boats. Thus the evacuation of Boston was decided by the evening of March 5th. Extricating an army with all its goods and stores takes a bit of effort, but by March 17th the British embarked on their way to Nova Scotia. They did stay within the outer harbor for 10 days, and Abigail Adams counted 127 ships.
The success of the venture
1. crystallized public opinion throughout the colonies by demonstrating that the immense power of the British could be defeated
2. gave the countries of Europe notice that provincial Americans were worth their consideration
3. brought a change in thinking ? no longer was the argument over rights or representation within the British government, it was now about Independence.
Here are some images from the Atheneum archive related to this topic. Click on any of these images to open a slideshow of all 1499 images.
Do you know something about this topic? Do you have
other pictures or items or knowledge to share? What
about a personal story? Are you a collector? Do you
have questions? Contact us
Created: April 10, 2009 Modified: April 10, 2009


They are now ready to eat all by themselves, and to take part in meals with the rest of the family.
Something new on the menu!
- Fruit can now be given raw in small quantities or mashed with a fork. You can alternate this with compotes.
- The quantity of meat increases to around 15 to 20g per day, i.e. 3 level teaspoons or one third of a hard-boiled egg, preferably given to them at lunch.
> The quantity of dairy products increases, gradually replacing some of their milk consumption. Opt for the most basic dairy products: plain and with no added sugar. They must be pasteurised, because baby’s system is sensitive to the bacteria which may be found in raw milk.
> Cereals and cereal products: rice, small pasta shapes, semolina, etc.
Now that baby is able to chew small pieces, you can offer them cereals other than in powdered form.
Rice and pasta must be well cooked and blended if necessary. You can also get them used to the taste of bread by giving them the crumb minus the crust, which can go down the wrong way.
Don’t forget to add fat to these preparations (butter or oil such as rapeseed, etc.).
N.B. Honey which has not been specially produced for inclusion in baby products is not recommended for children under one year old. It can contain clostridium botulinum spores which may develop and produce a toxin in the child’s intestine, which is more sensitive than that of an adult due to the immaturity of their digestive system.


Men and boys are the forgotten casualty in gender warfare. This paper examines how a renewed understanding of marriage and family life can help boys and men succeed.
Boys and men today lag on a number of different factors. Males experience a higher dropout rate from school, they attend university less, they have a higher suicide rate, higher rates of homelessness and they are more likely today than in the past to live at home with their parents between the ages of 20 and 29. Canadians are marrying less, living together more, and experiencing higher rates of marital breakdown than in prior decades.
Research shows family breakdown (which amounts today to father absence) has detrimental effects. Conversely, fathers are an integral element of family life. In face of a feminist outlook which demonizes masculinity, men and marriage, an alternate thesis puts men and women in cooperative partnership and credits marriage with human flourishing.
This thesis, put forward by scholars such as Margaret Mead, George Gilder, David Popenoe and David Blankenhorn, among others, views marriage as a civilizing force for men, an institution created to include men in the procreative capability of women. Marriage allows men to compete with the “sexual superiority” of women, as per George Gilder.
A strong marriage culture brings untold benefits to men, women and children. However, the benefits of marriage for men and boys are the focal point of this paper. Married men earn more money, enjoy greater health benefits and have connectivity with the long-term future through children. Married men help raise children in unique ways. Boys learn appropriate masculinity, how to be less violent and how to respect and include women through healthy role modeling.
Recommendations fall into the realm of culture and community, not government public policy. These include changing attitudes to male/female relationships, changing attitudes toward the nature of sex in relationship and remembering that marriage was designed as a cultural institution that allows children to be affiliated with both parents, particularly fathers.
Download the full report below


Appendix I: Glossary of Terms¶
An element of data that is associated with all instances of a given class, and is named at the class level. 19 In most cases, attributes are stored and assigned separately for each instance (for the exception, see class attribute). Synonyms include “data member” and “instance variable”.
- class attribute¶
An element of data that is associated with a class, and is named at the class level. There is only one value for a class attribute, associated with the class itself. In contrast, for an instance attribute, there is a value associated with every instance of a class.
A button on a window that globally controls the window. Examples include OK, Cancel, Apply, Revert, and Help.
- dialog box¶
A secondary window whose purpose is for a user to specify additional information when entering a command.
A user interface component for editing the value of a trait attribute. Each type of trait has a default editor, but you can override this selection with one of a number of editor factories provided by the TraitsUI package. In some cases an editor can include multiple widgets, e.g., a slider and a text box for a Range trait attribute.
- editor factory¶
An instance of the Traits class EditorFactory. Editor factories generate the actual widgets used in a user interface. You can use an editor factory without knowing what the underlying GUI toolkit is.
An object used to produce other objects at run time without necessarily assigning them to named variables or attributes. A single factory is often parameterized to produce instances of different classes as needed.
An object that specifies an ordered set of Items and other Groups for display in a TraitsUI View. Various display options can be specified by means of attributes of this class, including a border, a group label, and the orientation of elements within the Group. An instance of the TraitsUI class Group.
A TraitsUI object that implements GUI logic (data manipulation and dynamic window behavior) for one or more user interface windows. A Handler instance fills the role of controller in the MVC design pattern. An instance of the TraitsUI class Handler.
A class defined in the Traits package to specify objects whose attributes are typed. That is, any attribute of a HasTraits subclass can be a trait attribute.
A concrete entity belonging to an abstract category such as a class. In object-oriented programming terminology, an entity with allocated memory storage whose structure and behavior are defined by the class to which it belongs. Often called an object.
A non-subdividable element of a Traits user interface specification (View), usually specifying the display options to be used for a single trait attribute. An instance of the TraitsUI class Item.
A term used to describe a window that is linked directly to the underlying model data, so that changes to data in the interface are reflected immediately in the model. A window that is not live displays and manipulates a copy of the model data until the user confirms any changes.
A design pattern for interactive software applications. The initials stand for “Model-View-Controller”, the three distinct entities prescribed for designing such applications. (See the glossary entries for model, view, and controller.)
A term used to describe a window that causes the remainder of the application to be suspended, so that the user can interact only with the window until it is closed.
A component of the MVC design pattern for interactive software applications. The model consists of the set of classes and objects that define the underlying data of the application, as well as any internal (i.e., non-GUI-related) methods or functions on that data.
Synonym for instance.
A user interface region similar to a window except that it is embedded in a larger window rather than existing independently.
- predefined trait type¶
Any trait type that is built into the Traits package.
A variation on a panel that ignores (i.e., does not display) any command buttons.
- trait attribute¶
An attribute whose type is specified and checked by means of the Traits package.
- trait type¶
A type-checked data type, either built into or implemented by means of the Traits package.
An open source package engineered by Enthought, Inc. to perform explicit typing in Python.
A high-level user interface toolkit designed to be used with the Traits package.
A template object for constructing a GUI window or panel for editing a set of traits. The structure of a View is defined by one or more Group or Item objects; a number of attributes are defined for specifying display options including height and width, menu bar (if any), and the set of buttons (if any) that are displayed. A member of the TraitsUI class View.
A component of the MVC design pattern for interactive software applications. The view component encompasses the visual aspect of the application, as opposed to the underlying data (the model) and the application’s behavior (the controller).
A View, Group or Item object. The ViewElement class is the parent of all three of these subclasses.
An interactive element in a graphical user interface, e.g., a scrollbar, button, pull-down menu or text box.
An interface composed of a series of dialog box windows, usually used to guide a user through an interactive task such as software installation.
This is not always the case in Python, where attributes can be added to individual objects.


The American Soldier, 1855
Experience in the Seminole and Mexican Wars had demonstrated that campaigns in the swamps, forests, prairies, and lonely highlands of North America had to be waged in undress or fatigue uniforms. After the Mexican War many Army officers felt that the full dress uniform adopted in the early 1830's and retained without modifications was too expensive, complicated, and old-fashioned and requested a change. Their requests were heeded, and in 1851 radical changes were made in the style of the dress uniform. The uniform coat with sloping skirts and turnbacks worn since 1810 was replaced by a frock coat, and the tall, stiff dress cap by a cloth "gig" cap; also, some of the arms lost their established distinguishing colors. The infantry received light blue for the white worn since the Revolution, the dragoons orange instead of yellow, while the mounted rifles, over their strong protests, were given green to replace their black and gold.
In the scene depicting a battery of light artillery in 1855, a first sergeant of the light artillery is shown in the left foreground in the new jacket issued for the mounted troops in 1854, with the red piping denoting the light artillery. His grade is indicated by the three bars and lozenge of red worsted on his sleeve and by the red sergeant's sash. The red pompon on his cap and the red stripe at the base of the crown show his arm -- artillery -- and the letter on his cap, his battery.
In the right foreground is a quartermaster officer in the blue frock coat prescribed in 1851 for all officers.The buff welting on his trousers and the ornament on the front of his cap (U.S.) identify him as a general staff officer, and his pompon-- the lower two-thirds buff and the upper third light or Saxony blue -- indicates he is an officer of the Quartermaster Corps.
In the background is a battery of light artillery.


Day 537. Why are we angry? We can be angry at somebody or at something. Anger is an emotion. It can spearhead action and call for a change. This is what psychologists consider the good side of anger. However, it’s easy to cross the line that delineates the good warning system from the harmful reaction to our health and relationships.
Although, as for all emotions, we cannot control anger, we can however control our response to anger. Anger expressed with violence is destructive, anger expressed with assertiveness is helpful. Anger is actually the result of our ineffectualness, of our inability to handle a situation that we feel goes beyond our control.
We are angry at a kid breaking a glass while trying to drink. We are angry at a situation that goes haywire in a direction that we did not forecast. We are angry at an action somebody takes while we expected something else. In all those situation, it’s normal to get angry, it’s not constructive to react violently and vehemently. It may feel good, but it will always destroy trust, confidence and relationship. It’s much better to breathe and confront the reality by evaluating the situation and its outcome. One of the methods I found useful in most cases is to ask two questions to yourself or to the other party involved: Is this really important? What should have been different?
Generally, even if it’s an important event, there’s always a lot to learn from it. And as I was saying recently, either you win our your learn! When angers comes in, better learn!


What is the history of this great logic puzzle, the sudoku?
Well, we have already seen what the word sudoku means in the sudoku FAQ.
Tracing the origin is a little harder, even with the relatively short history of the puzzle, and ultimately comes down to how strict we are being. If we are talking literally about sudoku, then the answer is very recent.
However, if we are talking about number games in general from which sudoku might be thought to be derived, then the answer is a little different.
That's because the idea of the Magic Square has been around for many centuries, and it could have been these which sparked the idea for sudoku - since the sudoku is a special case of this puzzle.
Additionally, Euler developed the Latin Square, another relation. Moving to the present era, a similar puzzle called Number Place appeared in American magazines in the 1970s. It is, therefore, perhaps a myth that sudoku is actually a Japanese puzzle, given that the puzzle was printed previously under the name of Number Place.
Nikoli magazines in Japan have indeed printed the puzzle under the name sudoku for many years, and this seems to be why the puzzle is thought to be Japanese originally. It first came to prominence in the West when it appeared in the Times newspaper around the start of 2005 and took off from there.
If you have any more information on the history of sudoku, please do Let us know


Bait collection – the harvesting of organisms for use as bait for sea angling – has been an integral part of coastal life for generations. There are an estimated one million UK anglers fishing in the sea and tens of millions worldwide, all of whom rely on bait for fishing, with the vast majority collecting bait from the wild. In recent years, bait collection has become a highly contentious issue, often polarising anglers, local communities and those managing marine coastal resources; it has even led to incidents of intimidation and violence. Marine ecosystems face increasing threats from human activities and it is now recognised that management of bait collection is a high priority in coastal marine protected areas. This article looks at our current research on this topic and discusses how successful local management has been in meeting its objectives. Locally driven approaches also have high relevance for a diverse range of human impacts on the coast, from recreational activities to fishing. As the marine conservationists’ management toolbox is under ever-increasing financial pressure these types of schemes are likely to be increasingly used as they are often relatively cheap to implement and run.


On 14 January 2011, Science published an article by Lyall et al. entitled 'Suppression of Avian Influenza Transmission in Genetically Modified Chickens'. The authors state themselves that their research and results are about a 'proof of principle' - something which by definition is a long way away from actual applicability and does not consider any safety issues. The ‘proof-of-principle’ claimed is “that genetic modification can be used to prevent avian influenza infection in chickens”. Genetically engineering chicken with a so-called decoy element, Lyall and colleagues can show in experimental setting that whilst influenza infected GM chicken will get sick and die they will not transmit the disease to other chicken, whether these are GM as well or not. The authors also state, that “the specific mechanism underlying this effect is not known.” The decoy itself was first described by Luo et al. in 1997,1 who designed the decoy molecule to resemble an artificial binding site for the polymerase enzyme of the influenza virus. This viral enzyme is crucial for the replication of the virus within the host organism, and if the viral polymerase binds to the decoy it can no longer fulfill its tasks sufficiently. Yet viruses will still replicate in the infected chicken, though for reasons speculated on but not understood, they can no longer efficiently infect other chicken.
Realities of bird flu and chicken farming
- Avian Influenza A viruses are widespread in the animal kingdom and consisting of some 144 possible subtypes. 2
- Birds can be hosts for all known subtypes of influenza A viruses, particular the low pathogenic strains.
- Low pathogenicity or virulence of subtypes in wild birds is seen as the consequence of a long co-evolution between birds and the influenza viruses, allowing the viruses to remain in their hosts without destroying them.
- Upon infection, wild birds typically will not get sick. This is also partially the case for some local poultry breeds, which are still prevalent in the Global South, which may carry or be in contact with bird flu viruses but not get seriously sick or die from it.
- Hybrid chickens and inbred lines, however, easily get sick. Intensive factory farming requires expensive biosecurity measures to protect them from the infections, which are facilitated by factory farming in the first place.
- The immune systems of these factory farm breeds and hybrids often respond less well to challenges due to a number of factors. These include: - reduced genetic diversity (which is crucial for immune responses on the population level), and non-selection in breeds (e.g. Pinard et al. (1991) - too much protection e.g. from exposure to germs and thus lack of training of immune system (due to the biosecurity measures), - stress (e.g. overcrowded living conditions, see below).
- Due to their flock size, the living conditions of the chickens and the narrow range and uniformity of the breeds used, huge losses can easily occur, if a factory farm is infected. The whole population will need replacing, often referred to as “depop-repop” by industry experts.
- The pathogenicity of a virus (such as the speed and ability to infect and kill) can easily increase under favorable conditions. High animal population density is a major contributing factor to the development of viruses from low pathogenicity to high pathogenicity, such as the H5N1 avian influenza virus. “When bird densities are low, a very virulent subtype leading to high host mortality may disappear because of the impossibility of transmitting quickly to healthy birds before the death of sick ones.” (Gauthier-Clerc et al. 2007). In European broiler farms the average density is 22 animals per square metre. The birds can not exercise their natural movements. The air is highly loaded with dust and pathogens. A considerable percentage of animals die before reaching the slaughter weight, indicating their poor health status.
- Only some 30 breeding lines of broiler and layer chicken are used in chicken factory farming globally. Broiler genetics are provided by only four internationally operating livestock genetic companies; only two of them share the global market for layer hen genetics.
- Farmers in the South are increasingly outcompeted by huge factory farms owned by large investors. Patents on GM poultry could increase the cost of day old chicken and contribute further to industrial concentration and loss of livelihoods. This is comparable with the higher costs to farmers of GM seed.
Some tragic consequences of avian flu responses
- Thousands of wild birds were culled before it became clear that the disease travelled along the trade routes of farmed chickens rather than along the migratory routes of wild birds. (see below).
- Millions of local poultry were culled before it became clear that bird flu was spread by factory farms.
Facts and Figures
- In September 2006 the World Bank estimated the potential costs of a severe avian influenza (bird flu) pandemic in humans globally to be US$ 2 trillion. This would represent a cut of more than 3 percent of the global economy’s gross national product due to its impact on trade and economic activity (FAO AIDE news 3 and Asian Economic News 4.
- Over 250 million domestic birds were culled by 2007 in connection with bird flu (S. Cointreau, World Bank 2007: Livestock Interjurisdictional and Intersectoral Issues)5.
- The costs of the epidemics is not only monetary. Victims are also the priceless diversity of local breeds and specific races. In the Netherlands alone, more than 20 million birds were culled, including rare breeds, as a preventive measure. Lack of understanding, misconceptions, misrepresentations and the interests behind factory farmed poultry have resulted in eradication of local breeds. In many developing countries bird flu was used as an excuse to eliminate local breeds. Once lost these cannot be reproduced easily. Industrial poultry is now understood by many to be at the heart of the epidemic of bird flu. To continue pointing at local breeds and free range production and attempting to curtail these is not only ill advised but will most likely worsen the situation. (Grain 2006: Fowl play)6.
- In March of 2007 scientific proof was published in the British Ornithologists’ Union journal Ibis, that bird flu did not follow the routes of migratory birds, but rather the routes of poultry trade, both legal and illegal (Gauthier-Clerc et al. 2007).7 A summery of this science paper and additional commentary is provided by Birdlife International 8.
- After hundreds of thousands of birds had been culled, FAO concluded from a study that contrary to expectations, the small farmers' poultry in Thailand (so-called back yard flocks) had the lowest risk of infection (measured by incidence of detected infection) as compared to in commercial layer and broiler flocks.9
- The report ‘The Role of the Intensive Poultry Production Industry in the Spread of Avian Influenza’ by Compassion in World Farming (February 2007) adds to the evidence that the development of highly pathogenic strains of bird flu is a direct consequence of factory farming: "Selecting generation after generation of birds for their faster growth rates and higher meat yields has left the birds' immune systems less able to cope with infections and there is a high degree of genetic uniformity in the population, making spread of the virus all the more easy." The report further summarises: "An intensive poultry farm provides the optimum conditions for viral mutation and transmission - thousands of birds crowded together in a closed, warm and dusty environment is highly conducive to the transmission of a contagious disease."10
Addressing the research in question: the GM approach and transgenic chickens
When applying genetic modification technology (GM) it is important to find out whether the modification and the ensuing trait is stable and durable and also whether it has direct or indirect negative side effects and consequences, none of which is known so far.
- Gene Silencing - if and when gene silencing occurs, the GM trait is not reliable: Organisms have the ability to switch genes or gene sequences off. This is thought to be in part a defence mechanism against ‘intruders’ (e.g. viral sequences), an adaptation mechanism or at times a gene regulation mechanism. Such gene silencing has repeatedly been observed for example in GM plants and their GM traits/genes, especially when introduced sequences are doubled up or repeat already existing sequences (e.g. as in the promoter sequence in the case of the chickens). Whilst gene silencing is also being observed in GM animal systems, this is largely found in situations with genetically modifying somatic cells (body cells) rather then germ line (reproductive) cells. Another trigger for gene silencing can be stress, of which chickens will experience a great deal in intensive factory farming conditions. There is still insufficient knowledge about all the different mechanisms involved in gene silencing stimulated by environmental cues. Only long-term studies over many generations and under different conditions can offer any further clues and information on such concerns and risks.
- Adaptive responses by viruses: Furthermore, viruses are amongst the most adaptive organisms on the planet, constantly out-manoeuvring and overcoming defence mechanisms. The fact that the current polymerase binding sequence is a highly conserved region (stable over a considerable period of evolutionary time) across all influenza A sub-types might be due to the fact that host organisms (e.g. chickens) have not yet found a way to counter it. Genetic engineering presents a new challenge to and pressure on viruses, and we should be ready for them to find ways – perhaps rather novel or unexpected ways - to circumvent our strategies in the not too long term.
- Risks & negative and harmful side effects: The paper is not dealing with this issue at all. As an attempt to provide a proof of principle the authors do not touch any other concerns, such as risks to health (to either chicken or humans) or environment, biodiversity, livelihoods, food security. It is known though in general, that genetic engineering in itself as well as the addition of new genetic sequences and traits result in unintended and unexpected changes and consequences (for example see EcoNexus paper on Genome Scrambling).
- The muted virus – an uneasy risk. The virus produced by the GM chicken has to be regarded as a risk in itself. Though the virus produced by the GM chicken seems to be the same virus as before, yet, for unexplainable reasons, it no longer seems to be infective to chicken. It is not clear, what has changed, it is equally not clear, what this change might mean in terms of altered host range, altered pathogenicity, or latency. And if it is no threat yet, it may mutate into one over not too long a time period, given its adaptive potential.
Should this application of GE technology be intended for further development towards actual application to chickens, many long term studies would be required, including investigating whether the chickens might in turn have become more susceptible to other pathogens (including other viruses) and stresses, whether there are alterations in behaviour, nutritional value, growth parameters, etc.. Long term studies would also have to cover the effect on the virus, and the altered behaviour of the virus. In view of the fact that viruses have plainly adapted over time to infect new species, we have to be certain that genetic modification does not stimulate or force the virus to adapt so as to infect different species more readily, including humans.
The real causes for the emergence of highly pathogenic bird flu viruses such as H5N1 strains, and their spread are found in the current practices of factory farming and global trade in poultry. High chicken density for example is key contributor to the development of such highly pathogenic viruses, aided by other factors like untrained immune systems due to high biosecurity measures and genetic uniformity of poultry. A GM approach cannot offer a solution to these problems but might instead unintentionally add to them. In depth deliberations and rethinking are required.
- 1. Luo G, Danetz S and Krystal M (1997). Inhibition of influenza viral polymerases by minimal viral RNA decoys. Journal of General Virology 78 (9): 2329–2333
- 2. Avian Influenza A viruses are categorised according to the varying combination of two surface proteins of the virus, namely 16 types of H combined with 9 types of N, e.g. H5N1 virus.
- 3. FAO AIDE news (Avian Influenza Disease Emergency): Situation Update 43, 30 September 2006, page 3, ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/aj085e/aj085e00.pdf
- 4. Asian Economic News, 18 September 2006, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0WDP/is_2006_Sept_18/ai_n16729771/
- 5. Sandra Cointreau, Solid Waste Advisor, World Bank, Urban Anchor (June 2007). “Livestock Interjurisdictional and Intersectoral Issues”. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMF/Resources/339747-1181596204611/...
- 6. Fowl play. Grain (2006). www.grain.org/briefings_files/birdflu2006-en.pdf
- 7. Gauthier-Clerc M, Lebarbenchon C, Thomas F, 2007. ‘Recent expansion of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1: a critical review’. Ibis 149(2): 202-214. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2007.00699.x/full & gemi.mpl.ird.fr/PDF/cl2007b.pdf
- 8. Bird flu follows trade, not migration routes. Birdlife International, March 2007, http://www.birdlife.org/news/news/2007/03/avian_flu_report.html
- 9. FAO Policy Brief. HPAI risk, bio-security and smallholder adversity. Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Initiative (PPLPI) http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/pplpi/docarc/pb_hpaibiosecur... based on: Otte J, Pfeiffer D, Tiensin T, Price L, and Silbergeld E (2006). Evidence-based Policy for Controlling HPAI in Poultry: Bio-security Revisited. PPLPI Research Report Nr. 06-12; December 2006 – http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/pplpi/docarc/rep-hpai_demand...
- 10. The Role of the Intensive Poultry Production Industry in the Spread of Avian Influenza by Compassion in World Farming (February 2007) http://www.ciwf.org.uk/includes/documents/cm_docs/2008/i/intensive_poult...


Territorial conflicts and people in Africa: forced migration
The global level of forced displacement across international borders continues to rise. By the end of 2016, the total number of refugees and asylum seekers in the world was estimated at 25.9 million representing 10.1 per cent of all international migrants. The developing regions hosted 82.5 per cent of the world’s refugees and asylum seekers.
In Africa, as a form of migration, conflict-induced or forced migration has also been a long-standing phenomenon across the world, although it gained prominence in recent times as a result of its severity, magnitude and frequency. Protracted conflicts in countries such as Syria, Libya, Mali, Democratic Republic of Congo, South Sudan and Central African Republic as well as the heightened activities of terrorists, violent extremists and radicalized groups in North and West Africa and the Middle East have contributed to increased and widespread forced displacement of persons, in search of basic safety and security.
Africa is disproportionately affected by conflict-induced or forced migration, with four of the top ten refugee accepting countries in the world being in Africa; and over 25 percent of the world’s refugees residing in Africa – this is excluding migrants who are internally displaced within different African countries. Based on this, participants collectively underscored the important need for accelerated and targeted regional action, and international support, to address the challenges faced by forced migrants and the root causes of conflict-induced migration in Africa.
Contestations over porous and artificial borders in Africa remain a cause of disputes and violent conflicts, which can lead to forced migration. For instance, borders disputes between Eritrea/Ethiopia, Sudan/South Sudan, Kenya/ Uganda, as well as Somalia and Ethiopia, Djibouti and Kenya, have led to various forms of conflicts. In addition, the porosity and poor management of borders in Africa, coupled with the effects of the war on terrorism, make border crossing dangerous and create strict border controls and enforcement. Often this has implications for the safety and protection of migrant populations, who are increasingly vulnerable to exploitation and abuse at border points by state and non-state actors.
The porosity of borders in Africa also tends to create disjoints in national identities, as communities on either side of the border are merely divided artificially, despite having family ties on either side. Given this artificiality and the fact that often people tend to simply migrate across the border, participants reaffirmed the need to promote migration for development, as espoused in Agenda 2063, including by identifying and focusing on connectors such as cultural heritage and language ties that exist across borders. Such an approach could help in fostering the receptivity of host communities to migrants.
This post is based on Jorge Emilio Núñez, Territorial Disputes and State Sovereignty. International Law and Politics (Routledge 2020).Previous published research monograph about territorial disputes and sovereignty by the author, Jorge Emilio Núñez, Sovereignty Conflicts and International Law and Politics: A Distributive Justice Issue London and New York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group, 2017.
Territorial conflicts and people in Africa: forced migration and where it all started.
Wednesday 14th October 2020
Dr Jorge Emilio Núñez


As Alberta Premier Notley and BC Premier Horgan square off over the Kinder Morgan / Trans Mountain pipeline, as Alberta and then Saskatchewan move toward elections in which energy and pipelines may be important issues, and as Ottawa pushes forward with its climate plan, it’s worth taking a look at the pipeline debate. Here are some facts that clarify this issue:
1. Canada has committed to reduce its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 30 percent (to 30 percent below 2005 levels by 2030).
2. Oil production from the tar sands is projected to increase by almost 70 percent by 2030 (From 2.5 million barrels per day in 2015 to 4.2 million in 2030).
3. Pipelines are needed in order to enable increased production, according to the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP) and many others.
4. Planned expansion in the tar sands will significantly increase emissions from oil and gas production. (see graph above and this government report)
5. Because there’s an absolute limit on our 2030 emissions (515 million tonnes), if the oil and gas sector is to emit more, other sectors must emit less. To put that another way, since we’re committed to a 30 percent reduction, if the tar sands sector reduces emissions by less than 30 percent—indeed if that sector instead increases emissions—other sectors must make cuts deeper than 30 percent.
The graph below uses the same data as the graph above—data from a recent report from the government of Canada. This graph shows how planned increases in emissions from the Alberta tar sands will force very large reductions elsewhere in the Canadian economy.
Let’s look at the logic one more time: new pipelines are needed to facilitate tarsands expansion; tarsands expansion will increase emissions; and an increase in emissions from the tarsands (rather than a 30 percent decrease) will force other sectors to cut emissions by much more than 30 percent.
But what sector or region or province will pick up the slack? Has Alberta, for instance, checked with Ontario? If Alberta (and Saskatchewan) cut emissions by less than 30 percent, or if they increase emissions, is Ontario prepared to make cuts larger than 30 percent? Is Manitoba or Quebec? If the oil and gas sector cuts by less, is the manufacturing sector prepared to cut by more?
To escape this dilemma, many will want to point to the large emission reductions possible from the electricity sector. Sure, with very aggressive polices to move to near-zero-emission electrical generation (policies we’ve yet to see) we can dramatically cut emissions from that sector. But on the other hand, cutting emission from agriculture will be very difficult. So potential deep cuts from the electricity sector will be partly offset by more modest cuts, or increases, from agriculture, for example.
The graph at the top shows that even as we make deep cuts to emissions from electricity—a projected 60 percent reduction—increases in emissions from the oil and gas sector (i.e. the tar sands) will negate 100 percent of the progress in the electricity sector. The end result is, according to these projections from the government of Canada, that we miss our 2030 target. To restate: according to the government’s most recent projections we will fail to meet our Paris commitment, and the primary reason will be rising emissions resulting from tarsands expansion. This is the big-picture context for the pipeline debate.
We’re entering a new era, one of limits, one of hard choices, one that politicians and voters have not yet learned to navigate. We are exiting the cornucopian era, the age of petro-industrial exuberance when we could have everything; do it all; have our cake, eat it, and plan on having two cakes in the near future. In this new era of biophysical limits on fossil fuel combustion and emissions, on water use, on forest cutting, etc. if we want to do one thing, we may be forced to forego something else. Thus, it is reasonable to ask: If pipeline proponents would have us expand the tar sands, what would they have us contract?
Graph sources: Canada’s 7th National Communication and 3rd Biennial Report, December 2017


Prescription Drug Abuse on the Rise
Prescription drugs are currently the second most commonly abused category of drugs in America, only behind marijuana. While the majority of prescription drugs are taken as prescribed, a recent study showed that 20% of people in the United States have used prescription drugs for non-medical reasons. While prescription drugs can be very helpful in treating various illnesses and coping with moderate to severe pain, they can also be very addictive, especially when they are used in a manner inconsistent with the way their prescribed. The most commonly abused prescription drugs are prescription painkillers like oxycontin, vicodin, xanax, valium, percocet and codeine.
Common Misconceptions about Prescription Drug Abuse
There are many commonly held misconceptions about the abuse potential of powerful prescription drugs. Because these substances are obtained legally, and have legitimate use in the medical profession, many people are unaware of the highly addictive qualities many of these drugs contain. There are also many misconceptions among young people that prescription drugs are safer than illegal drugs. Because these powerful prescription drugs are readily available in many households and medicine cabinets around the country, they are easily accessible and are often easier to get then most common illegal street drugs. However, what many teens and young adults don’t realize is that some of these prescription drugs they are misusing are some of the most addictive substances in the world, and can be fatal if taken with other substances such as alcohol, cocaine, or combined with other prescription drugs.
Drugs such as oxycontin, codeine, percocet and vicodin are opiate based drugs, and some of the most powerful and addictive drugs known to man. While these drugs are quite effective in treating pain, they can often be misused and lead to long term drug addiction and dependence. Oxycontin is so addictive that many experts have compared it’s addictive effects to be comparable with the addictive qualities of heroin and morphine.
Dangers of Prescription Drug Addiction
Prescription Drug Addiction can produce serious health effects, including long term abuse and physical dependence. Physical dependence takes place when the body has become so used to the influx of the prescription drug in their system, that their body adapts to this influx and can no longer function normally without the drug. Physical drug dependence is often characterized by an increasing tolerance and powerful withdrawal symptoms that could start hours after the last dose was taken.
Opiates, such as Oxycontin and Vicodin can produce drowsiness, constipation and depending on the amount taken, can slow down heart rate and depress breathing. Central nervous depressants slow down brain function, and if combined with other medications or alcohol can lead to a dangerous decrease in heart rate, respiration and blood pressure. These drugs taken repeatedly or in high doses, can cause anxiety, paranoia, dangerously high body temperatures, irregular heartbeat, respiratory failure, seizures and fatal overdose.


What is VoIP DDoS?
DDoS attacks threaten VoIP networks and attempt to take them down. Preventing a DDoS attack is an important step to securing your organization's phone system and protecting it from hackers who want to harm your network. Unfortunately, DDoS attacks are a fact of life for having a VoIP system at your company. You can't always avoid them, but you can proactively protect your network so it can be better at withstanding a DDoS attack when it happens. This can help your business improve the functionality of your phone network and eliminate threats.
VoIP DDoS is just one of the threats to VoIP networks, so it's important to have a comprehensive plan with the right security measures to keep your network from going down or losing functionality, particularly during key use times or in situations where you really need reliable phone service.
How Do VoIP DDoS Attacks Work?
DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) attacks are designed to basically take down a network, at least temporarily, making it difficult if not impossible for the network to function as it was designed to do. To understand the basis for this, it helps to know a few key terms and understand the basics of these attacks.
Here is some information that is helpful to remember:
- DDoS attacks: Using a network of rogue computers, hackers launch a large number of requests at a target all at once. As a result, the network is overwhelmed with the requests and doesn't know what to do. It can't serve the normal requests it has, so it effectively stops working. It's like a supermarket counter with a large number of teenage bullies standing there asking the three cashiers so many questions that they can't serve the line of customers. Until the kids step away, it's almost as if the store service desk is closed, even though it's working frantically. That's a DDoS attack in a nutshell. Say there are a hundred kids yelling at the store employees---wow, that's probably going to be a lot to manage, and the store will have to control the crowd before service goes back to normal.
- VoIP network: VoIP networks allow VoIP phone service to connect between phone call recipients and callers. The network relies on a few different connections---the Internet connection, LAN (Local Area Network), national network, etc., depending on the phone system and needs of the organization.
- VoIP service: VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) uses the Internet to transmit phone service.
With the right equipment, software, and configurations, you can set up your own VoIP system and you can reduce the likelihood that you'll suffer a DDoS attack.
Why Do Hackers Launch DDoS Attacks?
It depends. Sometimes, hackers are just intent on causing mayhem. Often, though, hackers will use DDoS as an opportunity to ask for ransom or try to extort information or some type of response from your company. DDoS could have a wide range of different motives---just like the people who create them.
The exact reason isn't always the important thing. Protecting your phone system is. And remember that the reason for the attack might not simply be money; it could be targeting your reputation or serving as a distraction or hindrance. DDoS attacks are serious because they can have wide-ranging consequences. This is why it's important to plan for them.
Preventing DDoS Attacks
While in many respects it's hard to truly prevent DDoS attacks because it's difficult to completely close down phone lines, there are protocols that can be used to help filter out known attack calls. This way, if phone numbers have been registered as bad numbers in the past, then future DDoS attacks from the same numbers could be prevented. Many DDoS attacks feature simple repeated automated calls, so in theory you can completely prevent an attack in the first place if you can block the numbers that are calling you.
VoIP servers do, however, use open lines to receive communications, so there's inevitably going to be a small amount of vulnerability to future attacks.
Learn More about DDoS
DDoS attacks overwhelm servers and can be devastating to phone networks. As such, it's important to do with you can to try and prevent them. Securing your servers can help.
When it comes to VoIP, 8x8 provides a reliable and compliant cloud solution at a demanding level rarely seen by other cloud providers. Don't take your chances with a subpar cloud-based telecom system. Call 1-866-879-8647 or fill out an online form to request a no-obligation quote from an 8x8 product specialist.


Benefits of Learning Coding in School
Coding is fast becoming one of the most important subjects taught in schools. Here are five reasons why it’s beneficial to students.
1. Coding is the new literacy
It’s no secret that children grow up with an almost innate ability to adapt to new technologies. The way they pick up smartphones, computers and games consoles seems like second nature – but it’s just the nature of being young. Our ability to quickly pick up complex or technical tasks diminishes with age. For example, the older you become the harder it is to learn a new language.
The same goes for technology use and, more precisely, coding. Today, the importance of learning to code rivals even that of reading and writing. It’s a core skill that can help a child develop a deeper understanding of how technology works. Given the extent to which technology shapes our lives, learning to code helps develop a better understanding of the world around us.
2. Prepare for the future jobs market
Schools have a responsibility to provide their students with all the tools and skills they need to succeed in the modern workplace. Increasingly, that means an ability to code. Glassdoor reported that eight of the top 25 jobs in the US are tech-based and require some level of coding proficiency. These don’t necessarily have to be computer programmers but include roles such as Data Analysts and Scientists.
Similarly, a 2016 Burning Glass report found seven million job openings that year which value coding, with roles such as computer programmer rising 12% faster than the market average. These roles are also among the best paid around.
There is little point in focusing on skills that leave students with limited options when it comes to hitting the jobs market. By incorporating coding into the curriculum, children are given an essential tool for building a successful career.
3. Develop problem-solving skills
Coding can often be daunting. Presented with a significant problem, frustration can quickly build if you find yourself constantly walking down dead ends. But coding teaches a child that complex problems are simply a series of smaller problems that can be fixed in sequence.
Coding can often be compared to hypothesis testing in science, particularly when testing whether a set of code will stand up and work correctly. Children will be taught to identify a problem, break the code down into segments and test each one, repairing faulty parts before moving onto the next problem.
It’s this mindset that makes great coders, and one that pupils will benefit from regardless of subject or circumstance.
4. Instil perseverance
To succeed in the method of hypothesising, testing and refining, you need one characteristic more than any other – perseverance. Creating a set of code only to see it fail upon testing is disheartening, especially if the solution isn’t immediately obvious. But if at first you don’t succeed, try, try and try again.
Coding takes incredible levels of perseverance to try new things, test and find solutions to problems. It’s another vital life skill that students will draw upon for the rest of their lives.
5. Heighten language skills
Recent research for the University of Washington found that a natural aptitude for learning languages is a better predictor of coding proficiency than maths. Instinctively, you might think there are strong comparisons between maths and coding, but code is a language, and mastering it requires many of the same logical steps to be taken.
Code has a natural grammar and vocabulary to unlock. If you find your child is particularly good at it, you should also find their ability to learn new languages is heightened.
Compass International School recognises the importance of coding in a modern curriculum that skills students up for today’s jobs market. Learn how we nurture the skills your child needs to succeed in the 21st century.


Septic tanks are a major concern for people living in urban areas, especially in close proximity buildings. Gone are the days where sewerage was left to ooze out into the open, polluting not only the ground but the entire environment in general. Human and animal refuse can cause very serious diseases or disorders for people if not properly put in check. Septic tanks are the solution to this problem where sewerage is stored in airtight tanks underground for treatment and occasional testing.
How do you notice a defective septic tank?
Normally septic tanks should be tested frequently, at least twice a year. The average lifespan of septic tanks is five years. After such time, if they’re not inspected and treated by professionals, you will observe wet spot or areas of stagnant water above the location of the septic tank drainage. Bad odours in or around your house may be the result of a full septic tank.
How do septic tanks work?
Most private developers and real estate owners employ the services of excavating contractors for the purpose of septic tank construction and installation, as well as septic tank repair in the case of defectiveness. Excavating contractors dig up a sizable hole in the ground and construct a septic tank which is subdivided into two compartments separated by a concrete wall, or at times fiber glass. One system holds the septic tank, which is watertight, with only an inlet and outlet pipe. The other system is the drain field. Waste water usually flows from houses through the sewer pipe where it is treated in the septic tank where it is then held long enough for the layers to separate. The heavy bottom greasy sludge and the floating scum cannot be broken down and are the ones that are pumped out after some time.
Maintenance of septic tanks
Your local excavation contractors may offer maintenance services on your septic tank, where they can keep it in check through inspection. Experts on septic tanks advise a minimum of three to five years for pumping to be done on septic tanks. Meanwhile any defects should be reported accordingly for septic tank repairs to be made. However, pumping of septic tanks also varies with size. Smaller tanks should be pumped more often, compared to larger tanks. The size of tanks varies with the type of houses around where it is built. Proper pumping is usually observed, as when the water level is lower than the outlet pipe you may have clogging. If the water level is higher than the outlet pipe, then the septic tank needs pumping. Standing water above the ground may mean a broken sewer pipe or full septic tank.
Septic tanks are an important aspect of keeping the environment clean and rid of waste. As such, a follow-up should be done now and then on them. There are many possible causes of defects, but the first milestone should be to reach out to a professional septic tank repair expert.


Whatsapp, a Facebook-owned messaging app, up until now reputed as one of the most secure communication tools, gave its users an ultimatum. Either agree to share your personal data with Facebook or stop using the app. In turn, this re-sparked the topic which are the most secure messaging apps.
These apps make it easy to communicate and connect with people and colleagues. And for some professions, such as executive protection, using a safe and protected channels of communication is a priority.
Technological advances opened up new avenues in this regard. However, with those advances, new avenues arose immediately through which your privacy and security can be breached. Sadly, some private messages and apps can potentially be exploited by third parties, companies behind those apps, as well as governments collecting private information on their citizens.
Some of the most popular apps like Twitter, Instagram, Facebook Messenger or Snapchat do not use end-to-end encryption. This means that your conversations and files are not fully secure. Conversely, other services have upped their game significantly in terms of security.
This is why it’s so important to stay abreast with the most secure messaging apps and security trends in today’s tech-fueled world.
What is Secure Messaging?
As we said, we all rely on messaging services to carry out our regular, daily communications, both for personal and business use. They are an integral part of our lives and often we exchange sensitive info, location and other data.
So what happens then when we are in country with an autocratic regime that closely controls and monitors the internet?
This is why it’s important to familiarize yourself with the security features of an app before deciding which service to use. Generally, secure messaging combines several elements, but the three most important are: end-to-end encryption, multi-mode messaging and synchronization with other platforms or devices.
Many claim to know secure messaging is a vital resource for EP however the number of EP practitioners who continue to send unsecured text messages is disheartening. The risks of using traditional and inadequately secured communications methods can be greatly reduced by using emerging messaging technologies. This allows EP practitioners to use a more secure communications platform with minimal adjustments to our standard protocols.
– Caleb Gilbert, Head of Security for the CEO of PayPal
In a nutshell, end-to-end encryption refers to applying encryption to messages for device A in such a way that only device B – to which the message was sent, can encrypt it. Basically, the message travels encrypted all the way from the sender to the recipient.
This technique is used by secure messaging apps to exclude parties such as your Internet service provider, app makers, governments or anybody else from being privy into your communication. From the moment the message is written, while it’s in transit and until it’s received, no one else can see it.
Currently, this represents the most private messaging method – and if messages are not end-to-end encrypted, they are non-private. Messages are decrypted by using locally stored keys or secret codes, once they pass from sender to receiver.
Also, encryption does not allow anywhere the storing of the copies of messages.
Multimodal texts combine two or more modes such as written language, spoken language, visual, audio etc. Creating digital multimodal texts involves the use of communication technologies.
This feature allows users to include different forms of communication into their messages – like video or audio files. Messaging aps where you can utilize multiple modes, often allow their users to delete whatever type of message comes through.
This element allows users to use the same messaging app on different platforms at the same time. You can sync your messages across web, mobile or desktop platforms.
So, if you as a user would feel more secure with the possibility of, say, storing private messages in one location and then deleting them from another – this element will up your feeling of safety and privacy.
The Most Secure Messaging Apps
Online privacy is a subject on which we are much more aware of now than in recent years. Identity theft or online snooping a dangers that we have on our minds on a daily level.
Luckily, as governments and agencies grapple with privacy and public security issues for years, app makers were no idle and they created a number of effective encryption tools.
Number of Users: 1.5 billion
With users making up nearly 20 percent of the global population, WhatsApp is one of the most well-known messaging apps out there. It not only utilizes end-to-end encryption, it uses the crazy-strong encryption protocol developed by Signal.
One of the biggest arguments in favor of using it is that your contacts probably already have it installed on their devices. However, what might give you pause is the fact that it’s owned by Facebook.
This means that you are actually contributing in data collection practices by the social media giant. While Facebook cannot read your messages, they can still log certain data about you for their marketing endeavors. Data like the location of your phone.
- Your contacts probably already use it.
- Very secure encryption standard.
- User-friendly and offers extra features.
- Owned by Facebook.
- Has experienced major breach.
Number of Users: 200 million
Telegram is a hugely popular platform if you are looking to have heavily-encrypted convos. End-to-end encryption is used also for group chats or voice call – though, only if everyone involved has Telegram. Apart from this, you can self-destruct messages, files, videos long after they have been sent or received.
And if you are looking for that extra bit of security, you can force the other side to delete the conversation and messages by turning on the secret chat option. However, some of these features depend on the type of device you use – and can be utilized only from a specific device.
But, if your device is secure, don’t worry about your secret chats.
- Offers all the key IM features.
- Polished and intuitive interface.
- End-to-end encryption isn’t default.
- Uses a proprietary encryption protocol.
- It’s not an Open Source app.
Number of Users: 4.5 million
This is another secure messaging app that tries hard to keep your data safe from corporations, governments and cybercriminals. Threema can be used anonymously – which a huge plus, and apart from secure messages, its calls can also be encrypted.
The app ensures that no contact details are saved on their servers and all messaging data is deleted after being sent. This makes your files more secure since they remain on your device – and not some third-party server where they can be intercepted.
Also, you do not need to use an email to sign in – or any other identifiable information. All in all, a good combo of security and anonymity.
- Secure connection.
- Minimum data use.
- Anonymous messaging.
- The app is not free of charge and costs USD 2.99.
Number of Users: Less than 1 million
Wire ticks some very important boxes in terms of security. It offers end-to-end encryption, complies with the GDPR, its open-source and not obligated to share its data with surveillance services.
Wire uses end-to-end encryption with SRTO and DTLS for calls, while using Proteus for text messages and images. It is completely open source, so users can inspect, verify or even improve on the source code through GitHub.
However, it also collects and stores some user data.
The company admitted to keeping records of whom their users contacted – and saving those records in plain text. They also store emails, phone numbers and usernames. But, Wire does not sell analytics or usage data to third parties.
- Open source.
- Complies with European Union data laws.
- Can be used with most internet browsers.
- Collects some data about their users.
Number of Users: Exact number unclear, but the app has between 1 and 5 million downloads
Most regard Signal as the gold standard of secure messaging apps. Apart from cutting edge encryption, the app is pretty simple with a straightforward interface.
A particularly interesting feature is the option to replace your default SMS app – since basic text messages are not encrypted. On top of the very tight security, Signal offers video calling, and disappearing messages that vanish after a certain time.
Signal is the only apps that has its privacy tech always enabled. By default, the system ensures that there is never a risk of sharing moments or sending messages to a non-intended recipient.
- Open source, industry-leading encryption.
- Supports disappearing messages.
- Uses phone’s data connection to void SMS and MSS fees.
- Somewhat sparse interface.
When WhatsApp came out with the changes to its terms of service, this caused a major backlash from users all over the world. A lot of people interpreted this move as an unwelcome shift in the company’s data-sharing practices.
They believe that WhatsApp – and Facebook in turn, will now be able to read their messages and access their personal data. This is not quite true.
Further loss of user trust was caused by Elon Musk, who immediately suggested that people move to Signal instead.
Even though, WhatsApp officially rushed to assure its users that the upcoming changes are minor and that the company will not be able to read messages, confidence in the app is very low.
But the funny thing about trust is that, while a single sentence can definitely destroy it, rebuilding it takes more than a nice statement or well-worded press release.
And if you and your team are on a quest to find more secure messaging apps, we hope this article was useful and beneficial in your search.