The Psychological Bases of Social Science
Floyd Henry Allport
School of Citizenship and Public Affairs,
I. THE SOCIAL BEHAVIOR OF THE INDIVIDUAL: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Within the last few years the entrance of psychologists into the socio-psychological field has tipped the scales of interest toward the psychological side. Though still important to sociologists, social psychology is now regarded by many as a branch distinctly of psychology, dealing with the responses of the individual to the social part of his environment and describing the social consciousness of the individual.
Thus Hunter (50) regards " interstimulation and response " as the fundamental fact to be studied. Broadening the field to include the social behavior of animals, he rejects Ellwood's limitation of the social category to "consciously interacting" groups. Hunter recognizes that behavior often serves not only as response, but as stimulus, to other individuals. Gault (37) similarly defines social psychology as a study of "interactions among animals " and, more specifically, of reactions of human beings to one another. His illustrations refer to responses of individuals in the presence of others, rather than exclusively to one another. Such situations are classified by Allport (1) as responses to "contributory social stimulation," which underlie the influence of the social surroundings in the " co-acting group" and the crowd. They are distinguishable from the "direct" social stimulations which occur in conversation, discussion, conflict, and all face-to-face groups. Allport also includes the behavior comprised in the " making of social stimulations " (language, expression,
(562) gesture) as a portion of the field. Dunlap (27), though developing a slightly different emphasis, gives both formulation and respect to the viewpoint stated above; while Smith and Guthrie (94) employ a double definition embracing the " individual's response to his fellow men " and " concerted behavior " within groups.
Sociological writers are approaching the same definition. Bogardus (17) designates the field as one of " intersocial stimulation and response." He throws the emphasis upon the development of personalities and social attitudes out of interstimulation. In the latter and more interesting portion of his book he parts company with the casual and psychological viewpoint, and discusses group aspects and leadership descriptively and sociologically. The reviewer would regard Bogardus' attempt to ascribe causal significance to the group (as in the " interaction between group and individual" or "between one group and another") as a failure of analysis. Individuals stimulate and respond, but groups do not (except as individuals). Williams (103) defines social psychology as "the science of the motives of people living in social relations," and develops his definition through a survey of the rivalries of economic and social conflict. The discussion is practical, but it seldom penetrates to the psychological foundations. Keeping close to the concrete interactions of individuals, his work falls within the scope of the definition of social psychology which we have been tracing. Bogardus and Williams are telic and ethical' in their outlook, rather than explanatory.
Social psychology therefore has become fairly identified with situations in which individuals stimulate and respond to one another, a formulation which, for convenience, we may call the "social behavior viewpoint." Although in many ways an advantage, this somewhat precise definition narrows the field to data in which the psychologist, preëminelitly, is interested. Many human responses, for example, reactions to tools, soil, and Climate are psychological facts as important to the sociologist as reactions to other human beings,. The "group" standpoint also remains as the legitimate center of sociological interest. Hence Ellwood (29) prefers a study of the psychic factors involved in the "origin, development, structure, and functioning of social groups." The expression of this view becomes somewhat metaphorical when Ellwood (30) speaks of "a web of intercommunication " (language) along which are transmitted "mental patterns" from individual to individual, thus permitting the group-wide dissemination of " ideals," " values," and culture in
(563) general. The social behavior viewpoint would reduce the transmission of these mental patterns, which are described as if floating at large in society, to terms of stimulus and response between individuals.
II. THE PLURALISTIC APPROACH : "SOCIETAL PSYCHOLOGY"
The more definite delimitation of the field of social psychology has thus left out of account a number of problems for whose classification a new socio-psychological science seems to be indicated. These problems may best be summarized under Professor Giddings' viewpoint of " pluralistic behavior ". The basic fact here is not interaction (social behavior) but a plurality of separate and similarly acting individuals. Giddings (38) begins, on the subjective side, with 'a plurality of like-minded individuals, each conscious of his similarity to the others. Objectively the situation is a " plurum " of similarly reacting units. Stimulations from the others, being closely like stimulations received from one's self in the same activities, develop on the one hand a consciousness of kind, and upon the other, a reinforcement of one's behavior through the like responses of others. We tend to respond more readily to reactions which are like our own. The phenomenon agrees closely with that which, under the name of "social facilitation", Allport (1, Ch. 11) has recognized as basic in the co-acting group. Giddings' principle, however, is deeper than the social behavior setting, and prior to it; for he assumes a plurum of reacting units similar in constitution and therefore 'in response before any interaction has taken place. Two important conditions influence the extent and pattern of the plural response. They are (1) the range (number of individuals reached by the stimulus), and (2) the "reaction area" of the collective response as determined by imperativeness of the stimulus, degree of homogeniety, and similar factors (39). The Willeys (102) attempt to explain the consciousness of kind as due to a conditioning stimulus (common element, i.e., "kind ") which evokes the reaction attaching to the original situation in which kind was experienced. Humphrey (49) has made a similar use of the conditioned response to explain that resistance to the unfamiliar in conduct upon which adherence to custom is based.
The pluralistic approach as developed by Kantor rests upon uniform (or institutionalized) responses to stimulating objects (e.g., weather, culture objects, and personages) common to the group. He rejects both instincts and physiological psychology as false or irrelevant viewpoints (54, 55, 56). Natural biological similarities are recognized ; but the acquired or cultural reactions learned in the social environment (tradition) and common to the group he regards as the true field for scientific social psychology (54, 56, 58). This theory, which throws valuable light on the nature of institutions, belongs rather to the pluralistic than to the interactional field of socio-psychological science. Only genetically, that is, in the individual's learning of cultural reactions, is social behavior involved. Smith and Guthrie (94) also list a number of situations which call forth, common, or " concerted ", responses. These " coenotropes " are the basis of tradition, morality, and institutions. A similar conception in terms of social attitudes (approval, etc.) is suggested by Reuter (85).
Summary. The two psychological approaches described in sections I and II may be summarized and differentiated as follows. The second position will be stated first.
A. There is, first, the mass of similar responses of the members of a group or society to the common objects (other than persons) of their environment. These like responses, innate or acquired, are the very stuff of tradition, custom, institutions and organized social living. The science dealing with them is fundamental, 'relatively simple, and constitutes a psychological restatement, in behavior terms, of all the social sciences. Using the term, and in part the conception, of Giddings (39), we may call it societal psychology.
B. Secondly, there arises upon the simple pluralistic basis phenomena of a secondary and complex nature. These are the responses of individuals to one another, that is, the making of social stimulations and the responding to them. Facts belonging to this class comprise the field of social psychology.
Since both sciences are psychological, both deal only with individuals as units of explanation. Group aspects are used merely to depict and delimit the mass phenomena to be explained. There is no " psychology of society " as contrasted with the psychology of the individual. Societal psychology deals with individuals as discrete units of pluralistic aggregates; social psychology deals with individuals as stimulating and responding to one another. In spite of
(565) the obvious overlapping and interweaving of these two fields, the distinction seems to be both warranted by the literature, and useful.
III. PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL CAUSATION
A few dying echoes of the social mind metaphor are still to be heard. With the "collective racial unconscious" of the Jung school we may class Rivers' elaboration of social conflict upon the analogy of mental conflict in the individual (87). Bodenhafer (16) argues that every sort of datum studied really begins as an aggregate of units. Opponents of the group mind have been aggressive. M. Ginsberg (40) finds the " group mind " and " general will " to be concepts quite incompatible with psychological notions of mind and will. . Perry's amusing analysis (79) deflates collective mind to verbalism and abstraction of inconsequentials. Laird (62) and Hubert (48) have given further penetrating analyses. Allport has assailed Rivers' pathological metaphor, and has urged against the practice of prefixing the term "social " to psychological terms (e.g., "social habits "), a usage likely to prove a veiled form of the group mind fallacy (4). Sociologists have objected to Allport's contention, in the same paper, that such concepts as " the group " and " the super-organic order " are valid only for descriptive, not for explanatory, purposes. Every science, he says, draws its causal principles from the science just beneath it in the hierarchy of complexity of data. The social sciences, therefore, may depict phenomena in group and culture terms, but they must explain them through the individual, that is, by the aid of psychology. Sacred sociological soil is here invaded.
IV. SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Instinct versus Social Determination. Many sociologists, welcoming support for their social determinism, have joined forces with the critical movement, current in psychology, against the theory of instincts. McDougall has striven doughtily against his critics, and has renewed his appeal to sociologists (71, 72). There have been a few recent books on social topics written from the standpoint of instincts. The most important are those by Groves (44, 45), Bartlett (11), and Eldridge (28). Miller (75) has argued for the existence of a powerful "group instinct". A number of writers, however, use the term " instinct " with guarded reservations or apologies. The following are among the social psychologists who
(566) have rejected specific and complex instincts: Dewey (26), Bogardus (17), Gault (37), (retains indifferentiated "instinct"), Josey (52), Kantor (57), Williams (103), (substitutes "dispositions"), Dunlap (27), (substitutes physiologically grounded " desires "), Allport (1), (criticizes in particular the maturation theory), and Bernard (12). The " gregarious instinct " has been especially attacked by Cason (23), and Suttie (95) ; and the "maternal instinct " by R. Reed (83). Balz and Pott (8) emphasize the obscuring of instinctive elements by later modification in relation to habit, intelligence, and special Capacities. Bernard, in his monumental work (12), catalogues inconsistencies and obscurities in the use of the concept, and considers that so-called " instincts " are really habits built up through the play of the social environment upon innumerable, nonspecific, reflex tendencies which are present at birth. He further analyzes systematically the formative influences present in the environment throughout life (13). Having in, his book bustled instincts unceremoniously out of the house, Bernard, in a subsequent discussion (14), slams the door on them.
Dewey's position (26) may be instructively compared with that of McDougall in his Introduction to Social Psychology. The latter asserts an elaborate innate basis of behavior as an explanation of societal facts. Instincts are definite, specific, and socially oriented. Dewey, on the other hand, maintains that, although simple and random instinctive activities may have existed at birth, they have been overlaid by learning through social agencies to an unrecognizable extent. Society rather than instinct is responsible for the nature, conduct, and morality of mankind. Social psychology in this sense is fundamental to all psychology. In criticism, it may he said that Dewey's view, in its extreme, involves the " group fallacy ". " Society " does not teach the individual anything, but only other individuals who are members of the "society ". Balz and Pott (8) make the same error of considering the elementary social situation, a group of two, as the primary causal fact. Secondly, it is possible to overdo the theory of social determination. Few indeed of the critics of instinct have given fair recognition to McDougall for his insistence that there is something directive and formulative (though it need not be interpreted as purpose) behind the learning process. There is a determining tendency or drive which directs habit acquisition along useful lines (protection, sex, etc.), rather than toward haphazard patterns. This is the truly inherited factor; it may be mechanistically explained, but it can not he denied.
The reviewer (1, Ch. 3) has conceived this innate factor to be a relatively small number of reflexes, present in infancy, which are prepotent (i.e., control the final common path) over other reflexes. Upon this basis he has worked out, through conditioning and learning, a substitute for the doctrine of instincts. McDougall and Dewey seem to him, therefore, to be both partially right, though neither exclusively. There is an innate dynamic factor (prepotent responses) directing the social life of the individual; and at the same time other individuals, as " vehicles " of tradition. and culture, help to modify these responses, through social stimulation (language, etc.), into socially accepted patterns of behavior. The individual makes society; society (other individuals) makes the individual.
Personality, Social Attitudes, Adjustments. Much of the modern treatment in this important field is derived from psychoanalysis. All the recent textbooks have given attention to the social adjustments of personality. The family environment is studied by Groves (45), and Allport (1). Klüver (60) finds difficulty in connecting sociological types (e.g., criminal) with proposed psychological categories. G. W. Allport applies the Gestaltlehre (6) in a demonstration that a personality must be socially "intuited " as a whole, whose meaning is lost upon analysis into traits or profiles. Burgess (19) and Bogardus (17) show the importance of social factors in determining the trend of personal development. Through their definition of " the person " as an " individual with status " they attempt (unjustifiably, the reviewer thinks) to lift the main problem of personality over into sociology. Social-self attitudes derived through identification with the mother are discussed by Burrow (20), while Willey and Herskovitz (100) find identification to he important in the relation of employer and employee. Ream's results (81) indicate that people prefer as working mates individuals with an activity level similar to their own.
Social and Religious Problems. Ames (7) has developed a definition of religion as the highest social consciousness within the group. Suggestion and other social behavior phenomena have been found by Shepherd (90) to be regularly employed in revival services. In addition to further crowd studies (70) Martin has given us a stimulating work showing the presence of neurotic manifestations and regressional attitudes toward the father throughout religious practices and symbols (67). Mecklin's account of the Ku Klux Klan (73) reveals such psychological factors as fear, love of ritual, and compensation for mediocrity. Intelligence levels in the general
(568) population and in the flux of immigration have received attention from Brigham (18) and Gault (37). Willis (104) finds first-born children to be slightly less intelligent than second-born. Psychological problems of rural communities are considered by Groves (44), while Friedman (34) suggests reasons for the nervousness of the Jew.
Experiment in Social Psychology. Using groups for experimentation Whittemore (99) found differing effects of competition upon quantity and quality of work. Gates (36) discovered very slight effects upon performance due to being watched at work. Marked influences upon attention to lectures were found by Griffith to result from the social stimulations received from surrounding members of the audience (43).
V. PSYCHOLOGY IN RELATION TO HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
The work of psychoanalytic interpretation of historical leaders and movements has been profitably continued by Hartman (47), Barnes (10), and O'Higgins (78). Kallen (53) argues significantly that since political science studies political behavior, it is really a form of psychology. Merriam (74) and Gosnell (42) have pointed out vital relations between psychological measurement and political procedure. Governmental process and the concepts of sovereignty, rights, liberty, and progress have been lucidly analyzed by Barnes (9). Psychological weakness of representation and detachment of executives and legislators from their constituents have been dealt with by M. Ginsberg (40) and Weeks (98). Garth (35) bases successful democracy upon freedom for learning by trial and error. The crowd-like speciousness of public opinion and political control is the theme of Martin (68, 69) ; while Lippman's challenge (64) portrays the " stereotyping " of. popular beliefs through habit and conditioned emotional response. Willey and Rice (101) have measured the influence of a speech by W. J. Bryan upon the religious and scientific convictions of Dartmouth students. Eldridge (28) bases the hope of progress upon the ability of the sponsors of enlightened control to get possession of the popular suggestion process and other forms of the " technique of democracy."
Social and political attitudes (radicalism, conservatism, etc.) are vividly treated in current writing. The intricate mazes of inferiority conflict, projection, anger, rationalization, biased reasoning, hypocrisy, and distortions of scientific attitude are discussed by Wolfe
(569) (106, 107, 108), Rice (86), E. F. Reed (82), Reid (84), Ogburn (77), Taylor (96), Allport (1), B. Ginzburg (41), Pruette (80), and Schmalhausen (88, 89). Very important contributions have been made to problems of leadership and group conflict adjustment by Follett (32) and Lindeman (63). Suppression and compromise are both rejected, and the possibility of an " integrated " solution involving, by finer analysis, the real needs of all claimants is concretely illustrated. Miss Follett applies her " participation theory " suggestively to existing political practice. Recent Freudian contributions to the origin of leadership and the State are worthy of notice. Contributors to this field are Freud (33), Rivers (87), Kelsen (59), and Kolnai (61). A discussion of these tendencies is also given by Allport (5). Symbolization of the father by the leader, " libidinal fixation " resembling hypnotic suggestion between leader and followers, sublimation of thwarted sexual impulses into bonds of group affiliation, and regression to infantile utopian ideas are among the principal themes.
VI. PSYCHOLOGY IN RELATION TO SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY
The culture problem has come to the fore through Ogburn's brilliant discussion of social change (76). Though recognizing psychology, this author states his laws of culture-dynamics (rate of change, accumulation, inertia, lag, etc.) from an inductive survey at the cultural level itself. Allport's criticism (2) alleges that this treatment is too much limited to description, explanation being possible only by considering the human individual (biological and psychological) as the unit of social change. The rôle of the individual has also been stressed, in respect to leadership, racial traits, capacity, and biological aspects, by Blackmar (15), Hankins (46), Chapin (24), and Huxley (51). But the strongest support has come from the anthropologist himself. Wissler (105) significantly asserts that culture is founded upon human behavior, which may be both innate and acquired. Although culture transmission may account for the content of the culture pattern (acquired behavior) in any people, it can not explain the form of that pattern, a form which is peculiar to mankind and universal among all races. Wissler's effort to link up the various complexes of the universal pattern with instinctive categories, though tentative, is nevertheless ingenious. Allport offers an explanation of the cultural trait-complexes through the universal operation of the prepotent responses (2, 4, 1).
(569) Case (21) ascribes war to a combined instinctive and cultural causation. Culture patterns have been given a " mentalistic " or " psychic " reference by Wallis (97) and Ellwood (30). A further discussion of the culture concept containing some socio-psychological definitions has been given by Case (22).
Folkways and customs characteristic of a group have been termed by Bartlett " group difference tendencies " (11). He considers them as the adequate bases for the popular acceptance of folk-tales and similar culture elements. Allport (3) maintains that this view over looks the psychological (i.e., individual) factors upon which the continuance of folkways itself depends. Faris (31) turns the tables again by showing how much the psychologist himself might learn from ethnology. Notwithstanding the over-petulant invectives of G. E. Smith (91, 92), Malinowski, a first-hand observer, has shown that, with some revision as to the nature of the " nuclear complex ", Freud was essentially right in his interpretation of conflict and repression as forces underlying and explaining primitive social organization (65, 66). Though fraught with disputes and misunderstandings, the liaison between psychology and anthropology seems interesting and full of promise.
NOTE.-This review was received in manuscript in November, 1924.
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97. WALLIS, W. D. Mental Patterns in Relation to Culture. J. Abnor. Psychol. and Soc. Psychol., 1924-25, 19, 179-184.
98. WEEKS, A. D. The Control of the Social Mind. Appleton, 1923.
99. WHITTEMORE, I. The Influence of Competition Upon Performance. J. Abnor. Psychol. and Soc. Psychol., 1924-25, 19, 236-253.
100. WILLEY, M. M., and HERSKOVITZ, M. J. Servitude and Progress. J. Soc. Forces, 1922-23, 1, 228-234.
101. ———— and RICE, S. A. William Jennings Bryan as a Social Force. J. Soc. Forces, 1924, 2, 338-344.
102. WILLEY, N. B., and WILLEY, M. M. The Conditioned Response and the Consciousness of Kind. Amer. J. Sociol., 1924, 30, 22-28.
103. WILLIAMS, J. M. The Principles of Social Psychology. Knopf, 1922.
104. WILLIS, C. B. The Effect of Primogeniture on Intellectual Capacity. J. Abnor. Psychol. .and Soc. Psychol., 1923-24, 18, 375-317.
105. WISSLER, C. Man and Culture. Crowell, 1923.
106. WOLFE, A. B. The Motivation of Radicalism. Psychol. Rev., 1921, 28, 280-300.
107. ————. Conservatism, Radicalism, and Scientific Method. Macmillan, 1923.
108. ————. The Rôle of Sympathy and Ethical Motivation in Scientific Social Research. J. of Phil., 1923, 20, 225-234.


Hubbard Glacier, the largest calving glacier on the North American Continent (25 percent larger than Rhode Island), advanced across the entrance to 35-mile-long Russell Fiord (fig.1) during June 2002, temporarily turning it into a lake. Hubbard Glacier has been advancing for more than 100 years and has twice closed the entrance to Russell Fiord during the last 16 years by squeezing and pushing submarine glacial sediments across the mouth of the fiord (figs. 2 and 3). Water flowing into the cutoff fiord from mountain streams and glacier melt causes the level of Russell Lake to rise. However both the 1986 and 2002 dams failed (fig. 4) before the lake altitude rose enough for water to spill over a low pass at the far end of the fiord and enter the Situk River drainage, a world-class sport and commercial fishery near Yakutat, Alaska.
|Figure 1. Hubbard Glacier and Russell Fiord study area.|
Hubbard Glacier is defying the global paradigm of valley or mountain glacier shrinkage and retreat in response to global climate warming. Hubbard Glacier is the largest of eight calving glaciers in Alaska that are currently increasing in total mass and advancing. All of these glaciers calve into the sea, are at the heads of long fiords, have undergone retreats during the last 1,000 years, calve over relatively shallow submarine moraines, and have unusually small ablation areas compared to their accumulation areas.
Ablation: All processes by which snow and ice are lost from a glacier.
Accumulation: All processes by which snow and ice are added to a glacier.
|Figure 2. Submarine glacial sediments emerging from the sea May 20, 2002. Photo by Bill Lucey, U.S. Forest Service.|
For example, Hubbard Glacier retreated about 38 miles between 1130 A.D. and late in the 19th century (fig. 1). The fiord bottom lies 1,300 feet below sea level under the glacier, shallows to a depth of 200-250 feet at the glacier calving terminus, and then deepens again to as much as 750 feet below sea level down Disenchantment Bay. The accumulation area of Hubbard Glacier is 95 percent of the entire glacier area and, like the other growing calving glaciers, is far from being in equilibrium with climate.
|Figure 3. Ice and moraine dam blocking the entrance to Russell Fiord, July 7, 2002. Photo by U.S. Forest Service.||Figure 4. Outburst flood on August 14, 2002, about 9 hours after Russell Lake began to lose volume. Photo by Al Grillo, Associated Press(published with permission).|
The large calving glaciers that are currently advancing have been discordant with climate-driven glacier changes for a very long time. The glaciers that are currently growing and advancing in the face of global warming were retreating throughout the Little Ice Age (AD1350 or 1450 to AD1900) when most glaciers were growing.
The 1986 closure occurred near the first of June; the 2002 closure was gradual and was complete about June 16. The newly closed Russell Lake basin filled at the average rate of 0.7 feet per day in both 1986 and 2002 (fig. 5). No water was visibly leaking through or over the dam during the 1986 closure. However, relatively small amounts of lake water overflowed the 2002 moraine dam during most of the period of closure (fig. 3). This observation suggests that the damming moraine was being squeezed higher above sea level throughout the 2002 closure period. The volume of water flowing into the lake can be calculated from the rates of lake level rise (fig. 6). During the 1986 closure, the average inflow rate was 15,000 cubic feet of water per second (ft³/s). The maximum rate of inflow was about 44,000 ft³/s, which occurred on August 13 in response to a 2-week-long rainstorm in the area. During the 2002 closure, the average net inflow rate was about 18,700 ft³/s and the maximum rate was about 92,000 ft³/s, which occurred on August 12, also in response to a rainstorm (fig. 6).
|Figure 5. Filling and emptying of Russell Lake during 1986 and 2002 .|
|Figure 6. Russell Lake filling rates and 2002 precipitation at Yakutat, Alaska.|
The 1986 dam failed catastrophically during the night of October 8 (fig. 7) releasing a flood that rapidly accelerated to a maximum of about 4,000,000 ft³/s about 6 hours after the initial failure (fig. 7). The 2002 dam began to fail when the lake surface altitude reached about 49 feet above sea level (fig. 5). A rainstorm caused a rapid lake rise that increased the volume of water flowing over the moraine dam, which also increased the rate of erosion of the dam. The growth of the moraine dam by glacier flow did not keep pace with erosion and the dam progressively failed (fig. 7). Dam failure released a flood that reached a maximum discharge of 1,850,000 ft³/s about 21 hours later (about midnight on August 14). These two floods are the largest recorded glacial-lake outburst flood events in historical time (table 1).
|Figure 7. Russell Lake 1986 and 2002 outburst floods.|
|Table 1. Peak discharges of largest known historic glacial lake outbursts|
|Location||Data||Peak discharge (ft³/s)|
|1.||Russell Lake, Alaska||1986||3,970,000|
|2.||Russell Lake, Alaska||2002||1,850,000|
|4.||Chong Kumdan, India
|5.||Berg Lake, Alaska||1983||600,000|
|6.||Chakachamna Lake, Alaska||1971
|7.||Lake George, Alaska||1958||360,000|
|Peak discharge of Mississippi R. at Memphis, Tennessee||1937||1,980,000|
|The maximum recorded discharge of the Mississippi River upstream from the flood-control structures on the lower river is about 7 percent larger than the maximum discharge during the 2002 outburst flood from Russell Lake and about one-half the size of the 1986 outburst flood from Russell Lake.|
Hubbard Glacier has advanced at a rate of about 80 feet per year since 1895 (fig. 8). Although the timing is uncertain, the prospect of the glacier continuing to advance and again blocking the entrance to Russell Fiord is much more certain.
|Figure 8. Terminus positions of Hubbard Glacier in 1895, 1948, 1988, and 2001 showing advances over/during the last 106 years.|
|Hubbard Glacier, June 13, 1986. Photo by Rod March, U.S. Geological Survey.|
Mayo, L.R., 1989, Advance of Hubbard Glacier and 1986 outburst of Russell Fiord, Alaska, U.S.A.: Annals of Glaciology, v. 13, p. 189-194.
Seitz, H.R., Thomas, D.S., and Tomlinson, B., 1986, The storage and release of water from a large glacier-dammed lake: Russell Lake near Yakutat, Alaska, 1986: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 86545, 10 p.
Trabant, D.C., Krimmel, R.M., and Post, A., 1991, A preliminary forecast of the advance of Hubbard Glacier and its influence on Russell Fiord, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 904172, 34 p.
U.S. Forest Service
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Gifted, Creative and Talented at a Glance
In Wisconsin, intelligence is viewed as multifaceted because students think, learn, and create in many different ways. It is now understood that intelligence is not a single entity, but multifaceted and it translates into five areas of identification: general intellectual, specific academic, creativity, leadership, and the visual and performing arts.
Because of unique experiences and backgrounds students vary in their exposure and pace of learning, therefore, students should be instructed, participate in varied learning experiences and given opportunities to exhibit their talents through product and performances which expand the development of the students identified as Gifted, Creative and/or Talented.
In West Allis-West Milwaukee the majority of identified students will have their academic needs met in the regular classroom because learning is personalized for students within a framework of balanced instruction building upon the notion that “one size does not fit all”. Learning that is appropriate for each child is integrated with school wide initiatives and tier 1 instruction across all grade levels in the regular school day. Within the Enrichment model, learning is further personalized with the Enrichment Specialist to empower the learners and engage them through explicit and implicit choices. The Enrichment Specialist provides instruction that is paced to the learning needs, tailored to the learning preferences and designed around the specific interests of the learners.
Enrichment: Gifted, Creative and Talented Program
Administrative Rule PI 8.01(2)(t)2
Each school district shall establish a plan and designate a person to coordinate the gifted and talented program. Gifted and talented pupils shall be identified as required in s. 118.35(1), Stats. This identification shall occur in kindergarten through grade 12 in general intellectual, specific academic, leadership, creativity, and visual and performing arts. A pupil may be identified as gifted or talented in one or more of the categories under s. 118.35(1), Stats. The identification process shall result in a pupil profile based on multiple measures, including but not limited to standardized test data, nominations, rating scales or inventories, products, portfolios, and demonstrated performance. Identification tools shall be appropriate for the specific purpose for which they are being employed. The identification process and tools shall be responsive to factors such as, but not limited to, pupils' economic conditions, race, gender, culture, native language, developmental differences, and identified disabilities as described under subch. V of ch. 115, Stats. The school district board shall provide access, without charge for tuition, to appropriate programming for pupils identified as gifted or talented as required under ss. 118.35(3) and 121.02(1)(t), Stats. The school district board shall provide an opportunity for parental participation in the identification and resultant programming.


Why study Plant Science at Dalhousie?
The BSc (Agriculture) in Plant Science is designed to provide you with a solid understanding of the ideas, achievements and methods in biological, physical and behavioural sciences. You’ll acquire a very sound knowledge of plants, along with practical and life-long learning skills while studying at Dalhousie's beautiful Agricultural Campus in Truro, NS.
The Plant Science program builds on plant-soil environment and ecosystem relationships to include production, storage, and use of plants as food, medicine, nutraceuticals, and emerging fibre sources—as well as for ornamental purposes. As you become more deeply involved with the discipline of Plant Science, you’ll strive to find useful, creative, and innovative solutions to real-world problems, such as food security and safety issues, both at home and abroad.
You’ll learn about aspects of plant production and use, including plants grown in laboratories, greenhouses, nurseries and on farms. The major focus is on food production, an area of plant science with environmental, economic, and ethical challenges for the future of humanity. Contemporary issues related to the environment and food quality, biotechnology, plant breeding, and responding to changing consumer demands are also addressed.


Childcare Essentials for Kids with Special Needs
Parents of children with special needs go through a struggle few can understand. Childcare in these situations becomes an uphill climb, and the more tools they have in their arsenal, the easier the load becomes. Children and young adults with special healthcare needs often require various forms of Pediatric durable medical equipment (DME) and supplies. This includes devices or consumables that help those with disabilities improve or maintain their ability to function in everyday life.
Here are some of the essential special needs equipment for children, that have been useful in improving the quality of life of both the child and their caregivers.
Speech Therapy Devices:
Opening Doors to Communication
Speech Therapy Devices are for special needs children with conditions that make verbal communication difficult. These can range from developmental delays to autism, mutism, deafness, aphasia, cerebral palsy, or dysarthria. Commonly considered as AAC equipment for disabled children (Augmentative and Alternative Communication), speech therapy devices are a critical element in childcare services.
AAC devices fall under the broader umbrella of assistive technology and allow children with disabilities to express their thoughts, feelings, wants, and needs, through unconventional ways. They have a variety of non-verbal tools, ranging from the use of sign language and picture boards to mobile device applications, specialized keyboards, and speech-generating devices (SGDs). Studies have shown that speech therapy devices enhance speech development as well as social interactions in disabled children.
Finding the AAC device that’s a perfect fit … Don’t let your child’s thoughts go unspoken!
Picture Boards or Touchscreens
These use symbols of pictures of daily items. For example, a person might touch a picture of a bed to indicate that they are sleepy. Some picture boards can be personalized and expanded to suit the child’s age, education, hobbies, or interests.
Keyboards with a text display
The display panel typically faces outward so that two people can face each other while “talking”. Recently the use of spelling and word prediction software has made it easier and faster to use keyboards for communication.
These translate words or pictures into speech. Some versions even allow users to choose different voices, like male or female, child or adult, regional accents, etc. These devices use a pre-recorded vocabulary while advanced versions simply synthesize the words that are typed in, providing an unlimited vocabulary.
Before obtaining a speech therapy device from a local medical device supplier or pharmacy, a licensed speech pathologist should document the child’s special needs requirements and the results when attempting any other form of communication. After obtaining a prescription from the treating Physician, Physician Assistant, or Nurse Practitioner, Arvada Pharmacy, is happy to provide Pediatric special needs equipment, essential for childcare. We also facilitate the necessary paperwork for prior authorization from the insurance companies, to make the process as seamless as possible.
Phototherapy for Newborn Jaundice
Let there be Light!
Newborn jaundice or hyperbilirubinemia is the yellowing of a baby’s skin and eyes, that occurs when they have a high level of bilirubin in their bodies. Bilirubin is a yellow pigment that is released when the body routinely breaks down red blood cells. In older babies and adults the liver gets rid of the excess bilirubin and doesn’t allow it to build up in the body. But in newborns, the underdeveloped liver may not be mature enough to remove all the bilirubin, causing the pigment to get deposited in the eyes and skin, which is perceived as a yellow discoloration. In most cases, newborn jaundice disappears in 2-3 weeks as the baby begins to feed. However, if the yellowing persists after 3 weeks then it could be a signs of an underlying condition. This needs active treatment as the high levels of bilirubin in the body could lead to deafness, cerebral palsy, or brain damage.
The most common treatment for bilirubin build-up is phototherapy, where the baby is placed under fluorescent light with their skin uncovered, that is they are either naked or wearing just a diaper. This light emits waves with a special wavelength that can break down bilirubin particles in the skin so that it is easily absorbed by the body and eliminated through the urine and stools.
Arvada Pharmacy provides portable bilirubin light devices that enable phototherapy easily and safely, through the Medicare and Medicaid programs, enabling the supply of equipment for disabled children. Having a phototherapy machine as a Pediatric durable medical equipment (DME) makes it easy for new parents, struggling to provide childcare for their special needs baby. They can work around feeding and sleeping schedules, as the treatment is available 24/7, anytime they need it.
Pediatric Nutrition and Supplements
A Healthy Future Begins Now!
As every parent knows, childcare includes a balanced diet, good nutrition as well as regular physical activity. These factors are even more important when it comes to children with special needs. The correct amount of nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, fibers, and protein is essential for the body to function well, providing muscle strength and promoting healthy digestion.
Children with special needs require a wide range of medical and dietary needs, especially if they are fed through feeding tubes. There are many formulations available that aim to provide a mix of delicious flavors as well as adequate nutrition.
That is why we offer oral nutrition and supplements, which include a wide range of Boost products that act as nutrition boosters for physical well-being.
Diapers for the Win!
Peaceful Nights, Playful Days…
Diapers are an extremely important consumable for children with special needs, because they may have changing bowel and bladder habits. From toddler-sized diapers and pull-ups to incontinence products for children and teens, the range is extensive.
Diapers or pull-ups are available in moderate to heavy absorbance levels and should offer leak prevention, odor reduction, and skin protection.
At Arvada Pharmacy, we have a wide selection of diapers for all children from newborns to toddlers, as well as a range of incontinence supplies like bladder control pads, protective underwear, underpads, catheters, urine drainage bags, sheaths, alcohol pads, and much more, to suit each one’s unique childcare requirements, especially in children with special needs.
Surgical dressings and Wound Care
A Solution for Scrapes and Bruises!
Children have a tendency to hurt themselves and those with special needs, face these challenges to a larger degree. Having a first aid kit stocked with supplies becomes an essential need for childcare in these cases.
Some useful items to include are skin cleansers, packing strips, and sponges. MediHoney products, which draw fluid from the deeper tissues to the surface of the wound to promote healing. Hydrogel dressings keep wounds moist and help protect the body from infections. They also provide a cooling sensation to reduce burning pain.
How can medical suppliers help parents with childcare for children with special needs?
Sourcing equipment for disabled children doesn’t need to be an uphill climb. Keeping the DME provider updated about the child’s individual requirements, as well as insurance plans can help them find the items most suited for their childcare and healthcare needs. DME suppliers can also facilitate paperwork and prior authorizations from insurance companies.
At Arvada Pharmacy, Colorado, we believe in providing the essentials for childcare, especially for those with special needs, easily and efficiently. Visit our website or our instore location, to find out more about our full range of services.


Thailand has played a vital role in promoting human rights and peace education at both the national and regional level. The country has developed, strengthened, and expanded human rights education as a result of national, regional, and global influences.  Among the major influences include widespread human rights violations committed throughout the country; an increasing demand for educated/trained human rights experts and academics in the Asian region; and Thailand’s need to fulfill its commitments to seven core international human rights treaties from which Thailand is a state party.   Importantly, the ultimate goal of human rights and peace education in Thailand is to create a peaceful and harmonious society under the rule of law, where everyone has mutual respect for rights and dignity. Since this goal requires a great deal of commitment, understanding, and continuous learning from every related stakeholder, there is much work to be done before it is realised.
One important milestone that led to the development of human rights education in Thailand was the emergence of the first National Human Rights Education Plan of Action brought about by the 1997 Constitution. This Education Plan was drafted by representatives from both the Thai government and civil society, and it eventually became a part of the first National Master Plans of Action on Human Rights.
The Plan’s objectives are mainly to integrate human rights within formal and informal education in a more systematic and comprehensive manner, as well as to further develop the methodology of teaching human rights in Thailand. It also aimed at training education-related personnel in the field of human rights by providing adequate teaching materials and providing adequate funding support from related stakeholders.
University courses on peace studies and conflict resolution were approved by the 29 November 2005 Cabinet Resolution. This enabled universities to prepare their appropriate curriculum, then hand the curriculum to a university committee for a revision, and submit it to the University Council for approval before getting a final official approval by the Higher Education Commission. The partial role of the Higher Education Commission is to support or promote human rights education. The universities incorporate human rights and peace studies both directly and indirectly in other subject areas like political sciences, social sciences, international relations and education.   This process is common not only in Thailand, but also in the higher education institutions of other ASEAN countries like Malaysia, the Philippines, Cambodia, Singapore and Brunei.
Most human rights and peace studies courses in Thailand are offered mainly as electives through several university departments including law, education, political science, social science and pharmaceutical science. This is despite the fact that the number of university courses dedicated to human rights and peace studies in law and other departments are increasing across state and private universities and colleges. There are also some universities that include human rights and peace studies in their general education curriculum, offering them to students studying in any program or major. However, the university law departments are the ones that directly teach the concept of human rights which touch upon, for example, legal philosophy, international law, public law, and international humanitarian law.
At present, Thailand’s Mahasarakam University’s College of Politics and Governance is the only academic institution in the ASEAN region that provides an undergraduate program on human rights and peace studies.   Mahidol University’s Institute of Human Rights and Peace Studies (IHRP) is the only higher education institution in Thailand that offers graduate-level programmes on human rights and peace studies. It is also the first university in Thailand and Asia which offers an international graduate programme on human rights. Besides, as a member university of the ASEAN University Network (AUN), Mahidol University has played a leading role for AUN’s human rights education Network.
Several universities have set up centres on human rights and peace studies in Thailand, thus leading to increasing academic collaboration among universities at national and regional levels. Although human rights and peace education in Thailand have been developed and expanded to some extent, their serious and proper implementation and sustainability should be increasingly prioritized despite social or political challenges.  A lot more needs to be done for human rights and peace education for the full promotion of human rights in the country.
With regard to higher education level, human rights and peace education in Thailand should, first of all, be supported by every university-related stakeholder including teachers, students, academics, and parents.  In order to instil a belief on the importance of human rights education in Thai society, it is also noteworthy that those people should actively study human rights courses and fully realize/understand the importance of human rights, which can lead to national stability and developments.
In terms of the coursework, one main recommendation is that a core course on human rights and peace studies should be included under general education curriculum in all university departments, so that students of all majors are required to study human rights as a mandatory course. Human rights and peace studies should also become a mandatory core course for all law students and the students taking program on peace and conflict studies. Additionally, human rights and peace education should be incorporated into several other subjects from first year coursework.
Concerning the content of the subject, the content of any human rights and peace related course is recommended to embrace both theoretical and practical realms. For instance, it might cover a wide range of theoretical studies on fundamental concepts; philosophy; conventions, laws and regulations; national and international mechanisms; conceptual analysis; as well as human rights practical study in the form of role-play.
Interestingly, since Thailand is an overwhelmingly Buddhist country, human rights might also be taught extensively based on Buddhist ideology and Asian philosophy such as the ideology/perception that after all “Everyone is equal under the same Dharma.”, as said by the Buddha. In case there is a reaction to the concept/principle of “human rights” as a result of several different reasons (i.e. negative perception on human rights, western influence on the concept, a belief that human rights leads to attack on the status quo, etc.), all human rights and peace studies might be taught by avoid using the words “human rights” itself.
Teaching techniques and materials are viewed as important factors in human rights and peace education. Indeed, human rights and peace studies should be incorporated into all aspects of learning instead of remaining just a university course, for both teachers and students to comprehensively learn about and understand human rights.  This can be done through proactive and practical activities such as fieldwork, field trips, or working with local communities on human rights or peace related issues. Importantly, apart from having adequate teaching materials, instructors should develop their teaching methods by shifting from a teacher-centered to a student-centered approach so as to allow more creative thinking from students.
Another essential factor for human rights and peace studies is a more systematic academic collaboration among universities and between all related stakeholders in the field of human rights and peace education. Among prime recommendations are to provide an efficient training course on human rights and peace studies for teachers and lecturers; to systematically exchange lecturers with other universities/institutions so as to enable the exchange of information, ideas and experience; as well as to promote the transfer of coursework units as another option for students.
Although Thailand has already achieved significant development in the field of human rights and peace education at both national and regional levels, many problems remain. All of those mentioned recommendations are thus of great importance for the effective development of human rights and peace education, which can promote concern regarding human rights issues throughout the country.


The adoption of exaggerated forms of monoculture and the progressive reduction of the time reserved for forest fallows have led to the degradation of the land and the consequent impoverishment of the local populations, dedicated to subsistence agriculture. Only in the territories that, due to their more favorable climatic and environmental conditions, lent themselves to the settlement of Europeans (South African Republic, Zimbabwe, Kenya) has agriculture taken on more rational and varied forms, as well as in Algeria and Tunisia, with the ‘introduction of citrus growing, viticulture, olive growing, etc. Elsewhere, however, a clear separation has been established between crops destined for export (cocoa, coffee, tea, cotton, sugar cane, tropical fruit, oil seeds) and crops intended for local food (mainly cereals and tubers: cassava, batata), the former – which often account for 80-90% of the exports of individual countries – subject to price fluctuations on international markets, the latter less and less able to cover needs of the population. In fact, the productivity allowed by the traditional techniques of soil exploitation is very low, which have remained unchanged in many areas over the centuries and are characterized by itinerant forms and the clearing of woodlands by means of fires. Even breeding, especially in the areas of the savannah and pre-desert steppe, is still linked today to seasonal transhumance, typical of a nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralism, constantly oppressed by the scarcity of water and pastures. which in times of drought often leads to the death of tens of thousands of cattle. The result is a strong depression also in this field, although the African livestock heritage is anything but negligible for the number of heads. However, it is not adequately reflected in the production of meat and dairy products, with the exception of the regions with more advanced agriculture, where the yield of slaughtered cattle is close to European averages.
While in the past the problem of hunger did not arise in Africa with the gravity of other underdeveloped areas, it has been assuming dramatic proportions, accentuating a trend that had appeared since the 1960s, when the increase in gross national product was, for various countries, already less than population growth. In the last decades of the twentieth century, the average annual rate of increase in agricultural and food production for the entire African continent (excluding the Republic of South Africa, see countryaah) has progressively decreased and, taking into account the rate of demographic increase, the values are now globally negative. The decline was general, but not uniform, resulting particularly accentuated for central and western Africa, including the sahel hardest hit by drought. Overall, for cereals alone, it is estimated that the rate of food self-sufficiency has greatly decreased and the forecasts for the future are even more worrying, given the difficulty of promptly implementing an adequate policy in this sector; it is also necessary to stop a process that has led to wild clearing at the expense of the forest and savannah, favoring the advance of deserts and, consequently, the loss of agricultural land. However, since approximately half of Africa’s agricultural land is actually cultivated, the lines of development indicated by the FAO and from other international organizations no longer tend, as in the past, to expand the agricultural area, but to make better use of the land and to increase production, through the use of fertilizers, of selected seeds, of irrigation systems, also intensifying the fight against parasites and perfecting systems for preserving products. The scarcity of financial means and the severe difficulties deriving from environmental conditions and technological delay, however, tend to slow down the development and diversification programs of crops, not allowing to reduce dependence on foreign countries for the supply of agricultural and food products. To tackle the problem, even in the face of the recent and repeated drought crises, FAO has also organized a satellite information system capable of monitoring the progress of vegetative cycles on a continental scale and, above all, of predicting any new crises: this allows, if nothing else, to estimate the overall situation of the food supply in relation to bioclimatic conditions and to plan interventions both, where possible, within the framework of cultivation techniques, and international aid. The panorama of the primary sector is completed by the huge forest resources, especially in the equatorial belt, only partially used for transport difficulties. New attention is then dedicated to fishing, a traditional activity of inland riparian, river and lake areas, but today more and more intensely practiced in the rich Atlantic banks.


Education & Help
Tire load index & speed symbols
3 min read time
We’ve deciphered all those details on your tire sidewalls.
Federal law dictates that tire manufacturers place standardized information on the sidewalls. The information (letters and numbers) identifies and describes basic tire characteristics and also provides a safety standard certification in case of a recall.
What does it all mean?
Let’s use P215/65R15 95H M+S as an example.
P indicates the tire is for a passenger car. (LT would be for a light truck and N would be for a spare tire.)
This is the width of the tire in millimeters from sidewall edge to sidewall edge.
65 is the aspect ratio, which designates the tire's ratio of height to width. Numbers 70 or lower indicate a short sidewall for improved steering response and better overall handling on dry pavement.
R stands for radial, as in radial ply construction, which has been the industry standard for the past 20 years.
The tire’s rim diameter is 15 inches, meaning your replacement tire should also have a 15-inch diameter.
The number 95 designates the load index, which tells you how much weight each tire can support. In this case, the tire can support 1,521 pounds. This information is available in the owner’s manual. Not all tires will have a load index because it’s not a requirement.
H is the speed rating. It denotes the speed a tire can handle for extended periods of time. The ratings range from 99 mph to 186 mph. You may not find this information on all tires because federal law does not require it. You should never exceed posted speed limits, even if your tires have higher speed ratings.
Also shown as M/S, this indicates that the tire has some mud and snow capability. Most radial tires have these markings.


Itrary criterion, and also other values can of course be made use of, but we take into account that it corresponds to robust optimistic or damaging associations. With regards to percentages, anTable 1. Schematic and illustrative two-way Sodium polyoxotungstate Epigenetic Reader Domain tables from the number of surveys in which every of two species was present or absent. Letters c, d, e, and f represent percentages of sites at which the two species were present or absent. Species B Species A Present Absent Total Present c e c+e Species B Species A Present Absent Total Present 15 5 20 Absent 35 45 80 Total 50 50 one hundred Absent d f d+f Total c+d e+f c+d+e+fMeasurement and visualization of species pairwise associationsOur strategy for examining species pairwise association seeks to quantify the strength of association amongst two person species in terms of two odds ratios: the odds in the initial species getting present when the second a single is (i.e., P(1 ), exactly where P is definitely the probability on the 1st species getting present when the second one particular is), divided by the odds on the 1st species occurring regardless of the second; and vice versa. The first odds ratio is often a measure2014 The Authors. Ecology and Evolution published by John Wiley Sons Ltd.P. W. Lane et al.Species Pairwise Association Analysisodds ratio of three corresponds to any from the following adjustments: from 10 to 25 , 25 to 50 , 50 to 75 , or 75 to 90 . Conversely, an odds ratio of corresponds to any of these changes reversed (e.g., 25 to ten ). We use the term “indicated,” as in “Species A indicated Species B,” to imply that the odds ratio for the presence of Species B, with respect for the presence of Species A, was three. PubMed ID:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21347021 Conversely, we use “contraindicated” to imply that the odds ratio was . In employing such terms, we do not imply causality, which can not be inferred from observational research like ours. Note that the two odds ratios for each association are equal if (and only if) the two species are equally common across the websites or don’t cooccur at all. One particular house of the measure is that if a single species is widespread (50 presence), it is not possible for it to indicate a species with significantly less than half the presence price from the frequent species, even though the reverse is probable. Two species can contraindicate each and every other on the other hand prevalent one particular of them is (unless a single is ubiquitous) and surely will do so if they usually do not co-occur at all. It is not attainable to get a to indicate B, and B to contraindicate A. In our case study, we concentrated on these species that have been “not rare” across our array of internet sites (observed in at least ten of surveys). Additionally, in analyses of subsets of surveys, we assessed the association in between two species only if each occurred in ten of those surveys. We constructed an association diagram to show the pattern of association amongst species (e.g., Fig. 1). The nodes represent species and are color-coded as outlined by overall presence; the edges (the lines inside the diagram) represent indications (red) and contraindications (blue), with arrows indicating path, and line thickness representing the strength on the association (the bigger of the two, if you will find indications or contraindications in both directions). The spatial arrangement of points (representing species) in our association diagram is derived from the method detailed in Appendix 1. We drew our figures using GenStat, with manual arrangement in the points to illustrate our discussion, but have also created an R function which arranges points automatically (see R package and worked example at https:.


- Research Article
- Open Access
Preparing for the CU-TEP Examination: Methods Used by Thai Students
- Jane M Scrymgeour1
© Language Testing in Asia 2011
- Published: 15 March 2011
This paper discusses how a group of students from Chulalongkorn University prepared for the CU-Tep examination. In order to gather the information, a questionnaire was given to 16 students from the Education Department of Chulalongkorn University. The findings indicated three things. First, was the general lack of preparation by approximately half of the candidates. Second, was that all of the students found the examination difficult, even those who said they did some preparation. Third, was the relatively poor scores received by Thai students as noted in the research cited. Some recommendations for the students: listen to and follow the advice of those who have previously taken the exam, do lots of preparation by taking practice tests and seek help from others.


The term ‘allergy’ is used to describe the body’s immune response when it detects a particular substance in the body. The substance may not necessarily be harmful (hayfever is a response to pollen for example ) but the body detects it as foreign and sets about an immune response in reaction to it. This reaction causes varying symptoms and disease in a predisposed people.
Allergy is widespread and affects approximately one in four of the population in the UK at some time in their lives. Each year the number of people suffering from allergies increases by 5%, and as many as half of those affected are children.
Most allergies can be successfully diagnosed and treated by GPs. The Trust provides a service for problematic patients, where the diagnosis may not be clear, or when more specialised treatment is required.
Our allergy services include:
- Allergy testing (skin prick testing and/or blood testing)
- Detailed planning of treatment and self-help
- One-stop diagnosis and treatment clinics
- Immunotherapy (allergy vaccination) for suitable patients
Conditions treated include:
- Urticaria and angio-oedema
- Food allergy
- Insect sting allergies
- Allergic rhinitis (hay fever, dust and animal allergies)
- Drug allergies
Information for GPs
If you would like to receive specialist advice where you feel a referral to an outpatient appointment could be avoided, we provide this through the national Choose and Book system. This is the most secure and convenient way to contact our Consultants.
The link to the Choose and Book application is https://nww.ebs.ncrs.nhs.uk (requires Internet Explorer version 6 or above).
We aim to respond within 5 working days but often exceed this. Read Page 10 of this document http://www.chooseandbook.nhs.uk/staff/communications/fact/adviceandguidance.pdf to explain in more detail how to request advice through Choose and Book.


Sunchokes, or Jerusalem artichokes, aren't pretty, but they sure are tasty. Although they look like ginger roots, these tubers are members of the sunflower family and are so named because of their slightly sweet, nutty taste that is reminiscent of artichokes.
Sunchokes were brought to Europe in 1605 when a French explorer named Samuel Champlain found them in Cape Cod. They are native to North America, not the Middle East, so there's some dispute as to why they are also called Jerusalem artichokes. One idea is that people called them "girasole," or "flower that looks towards the sun," which sounds like Jerusalem. Another idea is that European settlers relied on these tubers and called them food for the new Jerusalem.
No matter what you call them, sunchokes are a great source of Vitamin C and iron. They are also rich in inulin, a substance that turns into fructose when digested and is, to put it politely, really good for your digestive system. Cooking helps cut down on any socially undesirable effects though!
Look for: Firm, wrinkle free knobs that are free of sprouts. Some sunchokes may be smooth and really, that makes no difference from a bumpier one as far as taste is concerned. It just makes it easier to prepare if peeling.
Storage: Sunchokes can keep for up to two weeks when refrigerated.
Preparation: Sunchokes can be eaten raw and appreciated for their pleasant crunch, similar to water chestnuts. They may look intimidating, but you can treat them like you would a potato-- boil and use as a thickener for soups or mash them for a tasty side; bake or fry them; eat them skin on or peeled; or try roasting them (see recipe below.) One note though, if you peel them, add a little lemon juice to keep them from discoloring.
Personally, I love slicing sunchokes, leaving the skin on, and roasting them. They get crunchy, sweet and nutty and add wonderful texture, such as for this salad which you can serve as a first course for an early spring dinner party.
Roasted Sunchoke, Pear and Arugula Salad*
Preheat oven to 375 degrees F. Line a rimmed baking sheet with aluminum foil. Take 2 pounds of sunchokes and slice them crosswise, about 1/4 inch thick. Toss the sunchokes with 2 tablespoons of olive oil, 1 teaspoon of kosher salt, and 1/2 teaspoon of black pepper. Lay out the sunchokes on your prepared baking sheet in a single layer. Roast for 20-30 minutes, flipping the pieces over about halfway through cooking time, or until pieces are golden brown and crisped at the edges.
While sunchokes roast, whisk together 2 tablespoons extra virgin olive oil with 2 tablespoons rice vinegar, juice of half a lemon, 1 teaspoon of agave syrup, and a pinch of salt and pepper. Toss 1/4 inch thick slices of 2 ripe Anjou pears and 2 cups of baby arugula leaves in the prepared dressing. Add roasted sunchokes and toss to combine. Plate individually or serve on a platter for a buffet or family style dinner.
Serves 4 to 6.
*Your vegan friends will rejoice, as this salad is totally animal product free!


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Simple Questions About Eating Disorders
nervosa is a psychiatric illness in which there is a preoccupation with dieting and thinness.
2. One percent of teenage girls in the U.S. develops anorexia nervosa and up to 10% of those may die as a result of the illness.
nervosa (bulimia) is described as a disorder characterized by frequent episodes of binge eating (rapid consumption of food in one sitting) which are almost always followed by purging (ridding the body of food).
4. Bulimic individuals always purge their meals by vomiting.
5. After purging their meals, bulimic individuals often feel a sense of euphoria (euphoria also means "having really good feelings," also know as "getting high"). This euphoric feeling is one of the main reasons why bulimic behavior is addictive.
6. Individuals with
nervosa frequently eat large quantities of food and then purge it by vomiting or using laxatives.
7. A stressful life in combination with poor "coping skills" may lead to anorexia.
8. Most eating disorders, such as anorexia and bulimia, occur in young women, but may effect either males or females of any age.(
9. The percentage of men getting eating disorders is
in the United States. (
10. Anorexic individuals may actually believe that they are overweight.
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If you’re planning a future in the medical field, there are many ways to prepare long before you hit medical school, including shadowing physicians, volunteering at clinics and participating in medically-focused missions trips. Another great way to prepare, and get paid while you’re at it, is to work as a medical scribe.
A medical scribe essentially serves as a personal assistant to a physician. Scribes take notes throughout physician-patient encounters; gather data for the physician such as nursing notes, prior records, labs and radiology results; and document patients’ electronic health records (EHRs). This allows the physician to focus on what he or she does best – treat patients – while scribes get the benefit of a firsthand glimpse into the field.
Five top benefits of working as a medical scribe before or while attending medical school include:
- The chance to shadow physicians: Admissions committees of most reputable medical schools expect or even require prospective students to have shadowed a physician for some period of time. After all, the experience is the single best way to see just what your own future as a healthcare provider holds and to learn how best to handle the inevitable stress of the job.
- The chance to witness patient encounters: Perhaps more important than observing a physician is the opportunity to listen to and observe patients during doctor-patient encounters. First, you’ll learn to be in the moment, so to speak, blocking out all distractions to assure accurate documentation for EHRs. You’ll also learn about effective communication between providers and patients, particularly in cases where patients are fearful, upset or uncertain.
- You’ll develop diagnosis skills: Over time, you’ll begin to recognize and even anticipate patient symptoms and signs that inform a physician’s diagnosis, as well as all the pertinent medical terms and language – something that many students don’t learn until well into medical school.
- You’ll learn teamwork: Effective medicine relies not just on a physician, but on a full team of interdisciplinary healthcare providers including nurse practitioners, physician assistants and even administrative support staff. Many medical students have no idea what roles these providers play until their third year of school.
- You’ll get paid: Being a medical scribe is a paraprofessional job, which means that it’s a task trusted to a person who is not licensed to practice as a fully qualified professional but who is highly skilled and capable. It’s a paid position, which means you’ll be financially compensated for learning more about your chosen profession.
Another great way to prepare for the rigors of medical school is to enroll at St. Augustine, FL-based WOLFPACC, which offers a Pre Med Head Start program as well as USMLE and COMLEX preparation courses that employ revolutionary approaches to the study and practice of medicine. Call 904-209-3140 to talk with an admissions representative today.


The Englishman William Caslon punchcut many roman, italic, and non-Latin typefaces from 1720 until his death in 1766. At that time most types were being imported to England from Dutch sources, so Caslon was influenced by the characteristics of Dutch types. He did, however, achieve a level of craft that enabled his recognition as the first great English punchcutter. Caslon's roman became so popular that it was known as the script of kings, although on the other side of the political spectrum (and the ocean), the Americans used it for their Declaration of Independence in 1776. The original Caslon specimen sheets and punches have long provided a fertile source for the range of types bearing his name. Identifying characteristics of most Caslons include a cap A with a scooped-out apex; a cap C with two full serifs; and in the italic, a swashed lowercase v and w. Caslon's types have achieved legendary status among printers and typographers, and are considered safe, solid, and dependable.A few of the many interpretations from the early twentieth century were true to the source, as well as strong enough to last into the digital era. These include two from the American Type Founders Company, Caslon 540 and the slightly heavier Caslon #3. Both fonts are relatively wide, and come complete with small caps, Old style Figures, and italics. Caslon Open Face first appeared in 1915 from the Barnhart Bros & Spindler Foundry, and is not anything like the true Caslon types despite the name. It is intended exclusively for titles, headlines and initials, and looks elegant whether used with the more authentic Caslon types or by itself.
Caslon No. 540 supports 71 different languages such as Spanish, English, Portuguese, German and French in Latin scripts. (Please note that not all languages are available for all formats.)