There’s no question that light pollution is a growing problem. Thankfully many scientists and advocates are working for change. And you can be a part of that change with a simple app that you can download to catalog the street lights in your neighborhood.
The continued expansion of street lights, traffic lights, security lights, and home lighting across the globe has a variety of disastrous consequences. For one, increased light pollution reduces our access to the night sky. We simply don’t get to see the same stars and constellations that our ancestors did, and we can potentially lose that rich cultural heritage.
In addition, the increased use of lights at night by humans also disrupts many biological processes. For example, animals that rely on night vision can have their rhythms disrupted. Or certain blooms that only happen in periods of strong moonlight can be reduced due to human interference.
While many satellites can map out the total amount of light pollution in a given area on the globe, they have one major weakness. Satellites have difficulty measuring the amount of blue versus red light, because the blue light more easily scatters in the atmosphere. Different satellites and different measuring techniques can give wildly different estimates for the amount of blue light pollution, differing by as much as 200%.
Measuring the color of the light is important because not every biological process is sensitive to the all colors of light equally. For example, one species of nocturnal animal may be absolutely fine with redder colored night lighting, but be completely disrupted by blueish hues.
To tackle this, a team of astronomers have proposed a new citizen science project. The project consists of an app that you can download onto your smartphone. You then simply take pictures of any of the light sources that you see. The app then measures the spectrum of that light and estimates the amount of different colors. For example, common street lights usually use sodium, which gives them an orange hue, while home security lights and headlights tend to be bluer.
The app will then upload the information to a database tagged with your location and correlate that information with light pollution maps given by satellites. This way, the astronomers hope to correct and calibrate the information provided by the satellites so that we have a more accurate measurement of the color spectrum of our light pollution.
The team of astronomers have already completed a pilot program to demonstrate that their app pipeline and data acquisition and calibration steps all work correctly. They are now advocating to roll out the app worldwide to engage more citizen scientists. If you’d like to participate, you can check out this link.


May 20, 2013
Credit: Karl Edquist/ NASA Langley Research Center
For all the attention focused on how hard it will be to keep astronauts alive while they fly from Earth to Mars, the challenge of setting them safely down on the Martian surface will be just as difficult.
Entry-descent-and-landing (EDL) experts who spoke at a Humans To Mars symposium here say the “sky crane” that landed the robotic Curiosity rover on Mars last year will not scale to the huge sizes need for humans. And even if it did, the “seven minutes of terror” controllers at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory experienced at a distance during the first sky-crane landing may be a little too tame for a human mission.
“While the Curiosity rover has been described as a small nuclear-powered car on the surface of Mars, what we're really talking about here today is landing a two-story house, and perhaps landing that two-story house right next to another two-story house that has been autonomously prepositioned and has fuel for the astronauts when they get there,” says Robert Braun, a Georgia Tech space-engineering professor who was NASA's chief technologist.
At a little less than 1 ton, Curiosity and its sky crane hardware required four distinct phases to get to the surface: atmospheric entry using a heat shield to shed hypersonic kinetic energy; parachutes for aerodynamic deceleration to speeds slow enough for propulsive deceleration of the sky-crane platform; and the final touchdown on the rover's wheels via cables lowered from that platform.
“When we got to thinking about very big objects, the size of houses, things like parachutes don't come along for the ride,” says Adam Steltzner, who headed the Curiosity EDL team at Jet Propulsion Laboratory that developed the sky crane approach. “They don't scale. A parachute the size of the Rose Bowl, which is what it would need to be for human exploration, is something that we already know from our experience on Earth, is not practically manageable.”
To land a house-sized cargo carrier or human habitat on Mars, Steltzner says, it probably will be necessary to go directly from hypersonic speeds to propulsive deceleration—essentially firing some kind of rocket to slow down enough to land. And that, the experts say, will be as difficult to accomplish as developing efficient radiation protection, the traditional long pole in the tent for a human trip to Mars.
Kendall Brown, an EDL expert in the Exploration and Mission Systems Office at Marshall Space Flight Center, said a cross-agency study using then-current design reference missions (DRMs) took parachutes entirely out of the landing sequence for a human expedition. Instead, either a rigid or inflatable aerodynamic decelerator would slow the entry vehicles from hypersonic speeds to supersonic speed in the Mach 2.5-3 range. At that point, the EDL system would shift to rocket propulsion for the remainder of the landing. It will not be easy to ignite a set of downward-facing rocket engines as they fly through the Martian atmosphere at three times the speed of sound.


Titan Moon Facts
How did Cassini unlock the watery secrets lying below the outer crust of Saturn’s largest moon?
Cassini has been trying to peek below the mysterious surface of Titan for some time now, as NASA has long suspected there was more to the moon than meets the eye.
In its most recent flyby, Cassini recorded the most compelling evidence yet to suggest there is a subsurface ocean.
As the moon orbited Saturn, researchers saw bulges appear on its surface as Titan was squeezed and stretched under the immense gravity of Saturn.
This is a phenomenon common to all satellites including Earth, as the gravity of both the Sun and the Moon doesn’t just cause the oceans to bulge by as much as 60 centimetres (23 inches), but our planet’s crust too, by up to 50 centimetres (20 inches).
These are known as ‘solid tides’ and, if Titan were solid rock, scientists calculated that it would be bulging by up to a metre (3.3 feet). Instead, Titan’s solid tides are as big as ten metres (33 feet) in height, indicating there is an ocean beneath its surface. Using data from Ave previous flybys, NASA was able to calculate Titan’s internal structure layer by layer, including a global body of water between its silicate core and its solid surface.
Why Titan’s unique
So what if there’s water on Titan, a moon that’s over 1.5 billion kilometres (932 million miles) from Earth? We’re searching for the presence of water on Mars because there it’s in contact with rock, but on Titan scientists aren’t sure whether the bottom of this ocean is rock or ice. Instead, NASA is interested in the presence of methane and the effect of a liquid water ocean on methane escaping to the surface. According to the Cassini team, the abundance of methane on Titan is what makes everything that is unique about this moon.
Yet we don’t fully understand how the methane gets to the surface in sufficient quantities, because once there it dissipates in a relatively short time. A subsurface ocean of liquid water would act as a reservoir for methane and would also free gas from the ice.


Bad things happen when spacecraft aren’t safely decommissioned. In 1978, NASA scientist Donald Kessler considered a scenario in which collisions between low Earth orbiting objects create more and more debris in a domino effect that may one day make orbit – or even spaceflight – impossible. We saw the ramifications of this in 2009 when American and Russian satellites collided and created thousands of small but dangerous pieces of debris, some of which ended up in the International Space Station’s (ISS) flight path two years later.
Luckily, the European Space Agency is investigating means to remove dangerous debris from space. But massive nets and robotic arms aren’t the only ways to get objects out of Earth’s orbit – they can also be instructed to crash into a “spacecraft cemetery” once their service is complete.
Russia has already buried over 190 objects in the cemetery (formally known as the Oceanic Pole of Inaccessibility), which comprises a patch of Pacific Ocean 2,000 miles north of Antarctica, reports Popular Science. The United States meanwhile has crashed 52 objects there, Europe has crashed eight, Japan six, and SpaceX one.
The goal is to keep these decommissioned objects out of orbit and at a safe distance from any human being. When orbiting objects return to Earth’s atmosphere, they’re often accompanied by immense heat and destruction. By crashing the objects in this isolated region in the Pacific Ocean, NASA and others calculate a less than 0.0001 percent chance that an object or part of its debris will kill a person upon its reentry.
ISS still has more than a decade left in service but will find its final resting place in the space cemetery around 2028. The mission to decommission and return will be tremendous and quite a spectacle, as the 500-ton, football field-sized station comes barreling down to Earth. But we don’t recommend you hang around the Oceanic Pole of Inaccessibility around that time.
- Watch a NASA astronaut jettison part of the ISS into space
- SpaceX’s ISS astronauts have just achieved a new record
- SS Katherine Johnson spacecraft is on its way to the International Space Station
- What happened to NASA’s spacecraft after it dropped off the Perseverance rover?
- Flight test for troubled Starliner capsule pushed back to April


MINNEAPOLIS (WCCO) — Minnesota is under a solar storm watch for Saturday night, meaning you might be able to see the northern lights.
NOAA categorized this particular solar storm watch as G3, which is a stronger chance to see the northern lights, also known as the aurora borealis. The area covers much of the northern part of the United States — including all of Minnesota — and much of Canada.
“Like a severe thunderstorm watch, (a solar storm watch means) the ingredients are there for this to develop, but we don’t know if it’s going to happen yet,” meteorologist Mike Augustyniak said.
It might be tough to see the northern lights in the Twin Cities due to light pollution.
“Certainly in some of the suburbs and exurbs and greater Minnesota and Wisconsin, we’ll be able to see the Northern Lights,” Augustyniak said.
Stay with WCCO to follow the latest on your chances to see the atmospheric light show!


How do conventional rockets work?
Photo Credit: NASA.From the John F. Kennedy Space Center Photo Archives at http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/captions/1997/aug/97pc1287.htm
The Delta II rocket is a chemical rocket designed to have enough thrust to lift its payload out of Earth's gravity well and into orbit. A launch vehicle has to go fast enough to get to Earth's escape velocity. Like many launch rockets made for this purpose, the Delta II is a kind of rocket called a multi-stage rocket. That means that it is made of several components, called stages, all stacked onto each other. Each stage is a rocket with its own propellant.
The reason for a multi-stage rocket is as follows. The larger the rocket, the more thrust it can provide. However large rockets are also massive, which means they are heavy. This makes them harder to lift away from gravity. A multi-stage rocket allows for a lot of thrust power, but as a part of the fuel is used, the fuel tank containing the fuel can be dropped, lightening the rocket.
How did DS1 get into space?
How are rockets designed?
What is a propellant?
How does propulsion work?
What is gravity?
What is thrust?
What is chemical propulsion?
Why is mass important?
Why does it take so much energy to launch DS1?
What is escape velocity?
What are some rocket propellants?
What's a gravity well?


Stephen was not called till some minutes later, and had not seen him since.
By meridian altitudes of sun, Lyrae (Vega), 32 degrees 15 minutes.
Latitude 25 degrees 52 minutes from mean of two observations.
By meridian altitude of sun, camp is in latitude 31 degrees 53 minutes South.
Barlee Spring is in longitude about 127 degrees 22 minutes East.
By observation, the ...


41) Similar calculations made from the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa to Melbourne, Australia at an average latitude of 35.5 degrees South, have given an approximate figure of over 25,000 miles, which is again equal to or greater than the Earth’s supposed greatest circumference at the equator. Calculations from Sydney, Australia to Wellington, New Zealand at an average of 37.5 degrees South have given an approximate circumference of 25,500 miles, greater still! According to the ball-Earth theory, the circumference of the Earth at 37.5 degrees Southern latitude should be only 19,757 statute miles, almost six thousand miles less than such practical measurements.
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That the mariners' compass points north and south at the same time is a fact as indisputable as that two and two makes four; but that this would be impossible if the thing, were placed on a globe with "north" and "south' at the centre of opposite hemispheres is a fact that does not figure in the school-books, though very easily seen: and it requires no lengthy train of reasoning to bring out of it a pointed proof that the Earth is not a globe.
We have abundance of evidence that the Sun moves daily round and over the Earth in circles concentric with the northern region over which hangs the North Star; but, since the theory of the Earth being a globe is necessarily connected with the theory of its motion round the Sun in a yearly orbit, it falls to the ground when we bring forward the evidence of which we speak, and, in so doing, forms a proof that the Earth is not a globe.
10.) That the mariners' compass points north and south at the same time is a fact as indisputable as that two and two makes four; but that this would be impossible if the thing, were placed on a globe with "north" and "south' at the centre of opposite hemispheres is a fact that does not figure in the school-books, though very easily seen: and it requires no lengthy train of reasoning to bring out of it a pointed proof that the Earth is not a globe.
In 2004, the society was resurrected by a man named Daniel Shenton (no relation to Samuel), who created the Flat Earth Society forum, which as of February 2016 has over 8,200 members and 1.4 million posts. In addition, the forum runs a Facebook page with over 14,000 likes, Twitter, Instagram, and Tumblr profiles with several thousand followers each, and a Flickr profile where they advertise a variety of different posters with proofs for why the world is flat. In addition, a variety of independent researchers have attempted to prove that the earth is flat, documenting their work in YouTube videos. The most popular of these videos (shown below) has over 4 million views.
Despite overwhelming scientific proof, flat-earthers are out there spreading their not so level ideas. Some have even gone so far as to create an official organization known as the flat earth Society. And, of course, what society can call itself a veritable one without a few conspiracy theories? With the flat earth theory henchmen, NASA is the one to blame for our wrongful belief that the planet earth, is indeed round.
Another false law of Newton is that gravity increases with the increase of the mass of the object. There is no such thing as mass (no one in the world can define it) - there is only density of the object (total density volume of the object, including it's electric field that surrounds it), and it is enough to understand how the laws work. Rubber ball pumped with helium goes up irrespective of the "gravity law" which supposed to bring everything down. Ball goes up because the density of the helium is smaller than the density of air above it. There is also no resistance of the environment above the ball.
171) NASA claims there are upwards of 20,000 satellites floating around Earth’s upper-atmosphere sending us radio, television, GPS, and taking pictures of the planet. All these supposed satellite pictures, however, are admittedly “composite images, edited in photoshop!” They claim to receive “ribbons of imagery” from satellites which must then be spliced together to create composite images of the Earth, all of which are clearly CGI and not photographs. If Earth were truly a ball with 20,000 satellites orbiting, it would be a simple matter to mount a camera and take some real photographs. The fact that no real satellite photographs of the supposed ball Earth exist in favor of NASA’s “ribbons of composite CG imagery,” is further proof we are not being told the truth.
100.) The Sun, as he travels round over the surface of the Earth, brings "noon" to all places on the successive meridians which he crosses: his journey being made in a westerly direction, places east of the Sun's position have had their noon, whilst places to the west of the Sun's position have still to get it. Therefore, if we travel easterly, we arrive at those parts of the Earth where "time" is more advanced, the watch in our pocket has to be "put on"or we may be said to "gain time." If, on the other hand, we travel westerly, we arrive at places where it is still "morning," the watch has to be "put back," and it may be said that we "lose time." But, if we travel easterly so as to cross the 180th meridian, there is a loss, there, of a day, which will neutralize the gain of a whole circumnavigation; and, if we travel westerly, and cross the same meridian, we experience the gain of a day, which will compensate for the loss during a complete circumnavigation in that direction. The fact of losing or gaining time in sailing round the world, then, instead of being evidence of the Earth's "rotundity," as it is imagined to be, is, in its practical exemplification, an everlasting proof that the Earth is not a globe.
20) If Earth were truly constantly spinning Eastwards at over 1000mph, vertically-fired cannonballs and other projectiles should fall significantly due west. In actual fact, however, whenever this has been tested, vertically-fired cannonballs shoot upwards an average of 14 seconds ascending, 14 seconds descending, and fall back to the ground no more than 2 feet away from the cannon, often directly back into the muzzle.
90.) "Is water level, or is it not?" was a question once asked of an astronomer. "Practically, yes; theoretically, no," was the reply. Now, when theory does not harmonize with practice, the best thing to do is to drop the theory. (It is getting too late, now to say "So much the worse for the factsI") To drop the theory which supposes a curved surface to standing water is to acknowledge the facts which form the basis of Zetetic philosophy. And since this will have to be done sooner or later, – it is a proof that the Earth is not a globe.
145) Heliocentrists believe the Moon is a ball, even though its appearance is clearly that of a flat luminous disc. We only ever see the same one face (albeit at various inclinations) of the Moon, yet it is claimed that there is another “dark side of the Moon” which remains hidden. NASA states the Moon spins opposite the spin of the Earth in such a perfectly synchronized way that the motions cancel each other out so we will conveniently never be able to observe the supposed dark-side of the Moon outside of their terrible fake CGI images. The fact of the matter is, however, if the Moon were a sphere, observers in Antarctica would see a different face from those at the equator, yet they do not – just the same flat face rotated at various degrees.
The Flat Earth Society is a group actively promoting the Flat Earth Movement worldwide. Descending from Samuel Shenton's International Flat Earth Research Society, and the Universal Zetetic Society before it, we continue the age-old tradition of questioning the Round Earth doctrine and challenging authorities. Acknowledging the link between various unconventional beliefs, the Society also occasionally engages in other unconventional debates, striving to provide a voice for all free thinkers and Zeteticists.
As the mariners' compass points north and south at one time, and as the North, to which it is attracted is that part of the Earth situated where the North Star is in the zenith, it follows that there is no south "point" or "pole" but that, while the centre is North, a vast circumference must be South in its whole extent. This is a proof that the Earth is not a globe.
98.) Mr Hind speaks of the astronomer watching a star as it is carried across the telescope by the diurnal revolution of the Earth." Now, this is nothing but downright absurdity. No motion of the Earth could possibly carry a star across a telescope or anything else. If the star is carried across anything at all, it is the star that moves, not the thing across which it is carried! Besides, the idea that the Earth, if it were a globe, could possibly move in an orbit of nearly 600,000,000 of miles with such exactitude that the cross-hairs in a telescope fixed on its surface would appear to glide gently over a star "millions of millions" of miles away is simply monstrous; whereas, with a FIXED telescope, it matters not the distance of the stars, though we suppose them to be as far off as the astronomer supposes them to be; for, as Mr. Proctor himself says, "the further away they are, the less they will seem to shift." Why, in the name of common sense, should observers have to fix their telescopes on solid stone bases so that they should not move a hair&
146) The ball-Earth model claims the Moon orbits around the Earth once every 28 days, yet it is plain for anyone to see that the Moon orbits around the Earth every single day! The Moon’s orbit is slightly slower than the Sun’s, but follows the Sun’s same path from Tropic to Tropic, solstice to solstice, making a full circle over the Earth in just under 25 hours.
When a man speaks of a "most complete" thing amongst several other things which claim to be what that thing is, it is evident that they must fall short of something which the "most complete" thing possesses. And when it is known that the "most complete" thing is an entire failure, it is plain that the others, all and sundry, are worthless. Proctor's "most complete proof that the Earth is a globe" lies in what he calls "the fact" that distances from place to place agree with calculation. But, since the distance round the Earth at 45 " degrees" south of the equator is twice the distance it would be on a globe, it follows that what the greatest astronomer of the age calls "a fact" is NOT a fact; that his "most complete proof' is a most complete failure; and that be might as well have told us, at once, that he has NO PROOF to give us at all. Now, since, if the Earth be a globe, there would, necessarily, be piles of proofs of it all round us, it follows that when astronomers, with all their ingenuity, are utterly unable to point one out - to say nothing about picking one up - that they give us a proof that Earth is not a globe.
I just watched a time lapse of the night sky that shows all the stars of heaven moving at once. This proves to me that they are something other than planets and suns far away. But I also noticed that there were really fast moving objects in the sky. Planes? meteors? I have looked up in the night sky and seen shooting stars. If its possible there is no ´´space´´, then what could they be? What are we really seeing when we look into the night sky?
20.) The common sense of man tells him – if nothing else told him – that there is an "up" and a "down" in -nature, even as regards the heavens and the earth; but the theory of modern astronomers necessitates the conclusion that there is not: therefore, 'the theory of the astronomers is opposed to common sense – yes, and to inspiration – and this is a common sense proof that the Earth is not a globe.


Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935) was a visionary Russian scientist, often hailed as the “Father of Astronautics” and one of the 3 “Fathers of Rocketry.” His groundbreaking work in space exploration laid the foundation for modern rocketry.
Specifically, he pioneered rocket and space research and the development & use of wind tunnels for aerodynamic studies. He was also among the first to work out the theoretical problems of rocket travel in space.
“Earth is the cradle of humanity, but one cannot live in a cradle forever.” – Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
Tsiolkovsky’s Early Life and Interest in Science
Born in 1857 in Russia, Tsiolkovsky was an avid learner from an early age. Despite losing his hearing at the tender age of nine, he nurtured an insatiable curiosity for scientific knowledge.
His fascination with physics and mathematics led him on a path that would eventually revolutionize the field of rocketry.
“I do not remember a time when I did not want to fly.” – Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
With his immense thirst for knowledge and relentless curiosity, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky achieved a plethora of remarkable advancements and accomplishments that have had a profound impact on the world of science and space exploration.
Let’s take a look at them.
1. The Wind Tunnel
In 1897, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky constructed the first Russian wind tunnel. This innovative engineering feat allowed him to study the aerodynamics of various objects, paving the way for advancements in aviation and rocketry.
With the wind tunnel, Tsiolkovsky could simulate and analyze the flow of air around different shapes, providing crucial insights into lift, drag, and other crucial flight characteristics.
2. The Tsiolkovsky Equation
One of his most notable contributions to aerospace engineering is the Tsiolkovsky equation. This mathematical equation, also known as the ideal rocket equation, describes the motion of vehicles that follow the basic principle of a rocket: action and reaction.
Δv = vₑ ln(R)
In this equation:
Δv represents the change in velocity,
vₑ refers to exhaust gas speed,
ln denotes natural logarithm,
R stands for mass ratio (the total mass before burn divided by total mass after burn).
The Tsiolkovsky equation profoundly impacted our understanding of rocket propulsion. It established a relationship between the mass of a rocket, its speed, and the speed of its gas exhaust.
This equation has been instrumental in designing rockets that can overcome Earth’s gravitational pull.
3. Multistage Rockets
In 1903, in his work titled “Exploration of Outer Space using Rocket Devices,” Tsiolkovsky proposed the ingenious idea of using staged rockets to overcome the limitations of reaching high altitudes and achieving escape velocity.
In his revolutionary concept, each rocket stage would ignite sequentially, one after another, as the previous stage exhausted its fuel and was detached.
This brilliant innovation allowed for more efficient use of propellant, reducing the weight of the rocket at each stage and enabling it to reach greater heights and velocities.
Today, multistage rockets remain the cornerstone of space missions, propelling us beyond our planet’s confines and into the vastness of the cosmos.
Tsiolkovsky’s visionary idea of airlocks brought a groundbreaking concept to the realm of space exploration.
Before his ingenious proposal, the prospect of conducting extravehicular activities (EVAs) was fraught with challenges.
As it required depressurizing the entire spacecraft, exposing the crew to hazardous conditions, and wasting valuable resources.
The concept of airlocks introduced a solution that allowed astronauts to exit and re-enter the spacecraft safely and efficiently, without the need for decompression.
At the heart of this innovative design were specialized compartments equipped with double doors, forming a sealed and airtight passage between the spacecraft’s interior and the vastness of space.
Today, Tsiolkovsky’s airlock concept not only ensured the safety of astronauts during EVAs but also proved to be instrumental in conducting a wide range of activities in space, such as repairing and maintaining spacecraft, conducting experiments, and even exploring other celestial bodies.
The ability to exit the spacecraft without compromising its internal environment became a fundamental aspect of human space exploration.
5. Closed Biological Systems
Understanding the harsh realities of extended missions beyond Earth, Tsiolkovsky proposed the ingenious idea of creating self-sustaining ecosystems within spacecraft, effectively transforming them into miniature, self-contained worlds.
He envisioned a carefully designed closed-loop system, where everything essential for survival – from oxygen generation to food production and waste recycling – would be intricately interconnected.
The system would operate as an ecosystem, mirroring the delicate harmony of Earth’s biosphere, but adapted to the unique challenges of the space environment.
In Tsiolkovsky’s closed biological system, plants and algae played a pivotal role.
They generated oxygen from carbon dioxide and acted as natural carbon sinks. Exhaled breath from astronauts would be condensed, providing valuable water for both humans and plants.
The continuous cycle of water, nutrients, and gases ensured a perpetually self-renewing environment, utilizing waste products as invaluable resources.
Although Tsiolkovsky’s closed biological systems were initially met with skepticism and technical challenges, his visionary ideas laid the groundwork for further research and advancements in life-support technologies.
Today, elements of closed-loop life-support systems are integral to long-duration missions, like the ISS, as they offer the potential for self-sustainability and reduced reliance on Earth for critical resources.
Tsiolkovsky’s Influence on Modern Aerospace Engineering and Astronautics
Tsiolkovsky’s legacy lives on through his influence on modern aerospace engineering. His work inspired Sergei Korolev, often referred to as the father of practical astronautics.
Korolev led the Soviet Union’s space program which launched Yuri Gagarin into orbit, marking humanity’s first venture into outer space. Even NASA’s Apollo missions owed much to Tsiolkovsky’s pioneering work; his multistage rocket concept played a crucial role in sending humans to the moon.
“Man will not always stay on Earth; the pursuit of light and space will lead him to penetrate the bounds of the atmosphere, timidly at first, but in the end to conquer the whole of solar space.” – Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
Tsiolkovsky’s wisdom and vision are timeless and inspiring. His passion for knowledge and belief in humanity’s potential to explore space continue to drive us forward.
Today, Tsiolkovsky’s pioneering spirit lives on, as evidenced by the groundbreaking advancements in rocketry achieved by companies like SpaceX and other private aerospace pioneers.
Hello, fellow aerospace enthusiasts! I’m Matthew, a high school student at Portola High School and the creator of The Aero Blog. My journey with aerospace started as a childhood fascination and has grown into a full-blown passion that I am thrilled to share with you through this blog.


New unmanned moon mission may unlock planets mysteriesDecember 17th, 2007 - 4:25 pm ICT by admin
Washington, Dec 17 (ANI): New images taken from NASAs orbiting HiRise camera have revealed surprising details about two bizarre features that are in the form of spiders and fans, on the surface of Mars.
These formations appear during the spring in a region near the planet’s south pole, which is dense with unusual features.
For example, fan shaped layers of dust, which are in fact gas jets; accumulate on top of the region’s polar ice, spreading in the direction of the prevailing winds.
According to scientists, the polar ice is made up of carbon dioxide, which is warmed by spring sunshine, causing it to transform directly into gas and spew out dust like a dirty geyser.
The warm dirt transfers heat to the bottom layer of ice, which turns to gas. As pressure builds, the gas scours channels beneath the ice, picking up dust. When the moving gas finds a hole or breaks through a weak spot, the dust spews into the air and then rains back to the surface downwind.
The new HiRise images clearly show the network of pipelike channels feeding each jet. Some are simply lacelike patterns, but others have legs extending in all directions.
“You can see the sort of spiderlike shape,” said Candice Hansen of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. “They drape over the local topography. In fact, they love to sit on top of little hummocks,” she added.
HiRise was also able to determine the composition of bright streaks that often angle outward from the dust deposits, like slightly wider fans.
These streaks are comprised of carbon dioxide rather than dust, said Tim Titus of the U.S. Geological Survey in Flagstaff, Arizona. The fact that the white streaks and the black fans don’t perfectly align indicates that they were produced at different times of the day, he added.
According to Titus, at dawn, there isn’t enough heat from the sun to melt any gas. Later gas flows form, but they’re not fast enough to pick up any dust. When this gas escapes into the air, it expands and cools rapidly, raining back carbon dioxide “snow” to the surface.
“Our calculation is that as much as 2 percent of the gas can get converted back into frost,” Titus told National Geographic News. “That’s plenty to form these white fans,” he added.
According to scientists, the pictures also provide insights into wind patterns and daily cycles on the red planet.
“Like the Earth, Mars experiences seasons. Unlike the Earth, the polar cap is made out of carbon dioxide, or dry ice,” said Hansen. “The carbon dioxide ice is translucent. That allows sunlight to penetrate and warm the surface below,” she added. (ANI)
Tags: bottom layer, bright streaks, dust deposits, flagstaff arizona, gas jets, hirise, hummocks, jet propulsion laboratory, moon mission, new images, polar ice, prevailing winds, s south, scours, spew out, spews, spring sunshine, u s geological survey, warm dirt, weak spot


Famous Supernova Reveals Clues About Crucial Cosmic Distance Markers
This is the remnant of Kepler's supernova, the famous explosion that was discovered by Johannes Kepler in 1604. The red, green and blue colors show low, intermediate and high energy X-rays observed with NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the star field is from the Digitized Sky Survey.
As reported in our press release, a new study has used Chandra to identify what triggered this explosion. It had already been shown that the type of explosion was a so-called Type Ia supernova, the thermonuclear explosion of a white dwarf star. These supernovas are important cosmic distance markers for tracking the accelerated expansion of the Universe.
However, there is an ongoing controversy about Type Ia supernovas. Are they caused by a white dwarf pulling so much material from a companion star that it becomes unstable and explodes? Or do they result from the merger of two white dwarfs?
The new Chandra analysis shows that the Kepler supernova was triggered by an interaction between a white dwarf and a red giant star. The crucial evidence from Chandra was a disk-shaped structure near the center of the remnant. The researchers interpret this X-ray emission to be caused by the collision between supernova debris and disk-shaped material that the giant star expelled before the explosion. Another possibility was that the structure is just debris from the explosion.
-Megan Watzke, CXC
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A constellation is a group of stars that forms an imaginary outline or pattern on the celestial sphere representing an animal, mythological person or creature, a god, or an inanimate object. The origins of the earliest constellations go back to prehistory. People used them to relate stories of their beliefs, creation, or mythology. Different cultures and countries adopted their own constellations, some of which lasted into the early 20th century before today's constellations were internationally recognized. Adoption of constellations has changed over time. Many have changed in shape; some became popular. Others were limited to single nations; the 48 traditional Western constellations are Greek. They are given in Aratus' work Phenomena and Ptolemy's Almagest, though their origin predates these works by several centuries. Constellations in the far southern sky were added from the 15th century until the mid-18th century when European explorers began traveling to the Southern Hemisphere. Twelve ancient constellations belong to the zodiac.
The origins of the zodiac remain uncertain. In 1928, the International Astronomical Union formally accepted 88 modern constellations, with contiguous boundaries that together cover the entire celestial sphere. Any given point in a celestial coordinate system lies in one of the modern constellations; some astronomical naming systems include the constellation where a given celestial object is found to convey its approximate location in the sky. The Flamsteed designation of a star, for example, consists of a number and the genitive form of the constellation name. Other star patterns or groups called asterisms are not constellations per se but are used by observers to navigate the night sky. Examples of bright asterisms include the Pleiades and Hyades within the constellation Taurus or Venus' Mirror in the constellation of Orion.. Some asterisms, like the False Cross, are split between two constellations; the word "constellation" comes from the Late Latin term cōnstellātiō, which can be translated as "set of stars".
The Ancient Greek word for constellation is ἄστρον. A more modern astronomical sense of the term "constellation" is as a recognisable pattern of stars whose appearance is associated with mythological characters or creatures, or earthbound animals, or objects, it can specifically denote the recognized 88 named constellations used today. Colloquial usage does not draw a sharp distinction between "constellations" and smaller "asterisms", yet the modern accepted astronomical constellations employ such a distinction. E.g. the Pleiades and the Hyades are both asterisms, each lies within the boundaries of the constellation of Taurus. Another example is the northern asterism known as the Big Dipper or the Plough, composed of the seven brightest stars within the area of the IAU-defined constellation of Ursa Major; the southern False Cross asterism includes portions of the constellations Carina and Vela and the Summer Triangle.. A constellation, viewed from a particular latitude on Earth, that never sets below the horizon is termed circumpolar.
From the North Pole or South Pole, all constellations south or north of the celestial equator are circumpolar. Depending on the definition, equatorial constellations may include those that lie between declinations 45° north and 45° south, or those that pass through the declination range of the ecliptic or zodiac ranging between 23½° north, the celestial equator, 23½° south. Although stars in constellations appear near each other in the sky, they lie at a variety of distances away from the Earth. Since stars have their own independent motions, all constellations will change over time. After tens to hundreds of thousands of years, familiar outlines will become unrecognizable. Astronomers can predict the past or future constellation outlines by measuring individual stars' common proper motions or cpm by accurate astrometry and their radial velocities by astronomical spectroscopy; the earliest evidence for the humankind's identification of constellations comes from Mesopotamian inscribed stones and clay writing tablets that date back to 3000 BC.
It seems that the bulk of the Mesopotamian constellations were created within a short interval from around 1300 to 1000 BC. Mesopotamian constellations appeared in many of the classical Greek constellations; the oldest Babylonian star catalogues of stars and constellations date back to the beginning in the Middle Bronze Age, most notably the Three Stars Each texts and the MUL. APIN, an expanded and revised version based on more accurate observation from around 1000 BC. However, the numerous Sumerian names in these catalogues suggest that they built on older, but otherwise unattested, Sumerian traditions of the Early Bronze Age; the classical Zodiac is a revision of Neo-Babylonian constellations from the 6th century BC. The Greeks adopted the Babylonian constellations in the 4th century BC. Twenty Ptolemaic constellations are from the Ancient Near East. Another ten have the same stars but different names. Biblical scholar, E. W. Bullinger interpreted some of the creatures mentioned in the books of Ezekiel and Revelation as the middle signs of the four quarters of the Zodiac, with the Lion as Leo, the Bull as Taurus, the Man representing Aquarius and the Eagle standing in for Scorpio.
The biblical Book of Job also
In astronomy, metallicity is used to describe the abundance of elements present in an object that are heavier than hydrogen or helium. Most of the physical matter in the Universe is in the form of hydrogen and helium, so astronomers use the word "metals" as a convenient short term for "all elements except hydrogen and helium"; this usage is distinct from the usual physical definition of a solid metal. For example and nebulae with high abundances of carbon, nitrogen and neon are called "metal-rich" in astrophysical terms though those elements are non-metals in chemistry; the presence of heavier elements hails from stellar nucleosynthesis, the theory that the majority of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium in the Universe are formed in the cores of stars as they evolve. Over time, stellar winds and supernovae deposit the metals into the surrounding environment, enriching the interstellar medium and providing recycling materials for the birth of new stars, it follows that older generations of stars, which formed in the metal-poor early Universe have lower metallicities than those of younger generations, which formed in a more metal-rich Universe.
Observed changes in the chemical abundances of different types of stars, based on the spectral peculiarities that were attributed to metallicity, led astronomer Walter Baade in 1944 to propose the existence of two different populations of stars. These became known as Population I and Population II stars. A third stellar population was introduced in 1978, known as Population III stars; these metal-poor stars were theorised to have been the "first-born" stars created in the Universe. Astronomers use several different methods to describe and approximate metal abundances, depending on the available tools and the object of interest; some methods include determining the fraction of mass, attributed to gas versus metals, or measuring the ratios of the number of atoms of two different elements as compared to the ratios found in the Sun. Stellar composition is simply defined by the parameters X, Y and Z. Here X is the mass fraction of hydrogen, Y is the mass fraction of helium, Z is the mass fraction of all the remaining chemical elements.
Thus X + Y + Z = 1.00. In most stars, nebulae, H II regions, other astronomical sources and helium are the two dominant elements; the hydrogen mass fraction is expressed as X ≡ m H / M, where M is the total mass of the system, m H is the fractional mass of the hydrogen it contains. The helium mass fraction is denoted as Y ≡ m He / M; the remainder of the elements are collectively referred to as "metals", the metallicity—the mass fraction of elements heavier than helium—can be calculated as Z = ∑ i > He m i M = 1 − X − Y. For the surface of the Sun, these parameters are measured to have the following values: Due to the effects of stellar evolution, neither the initial composition nor the present day bulk composition of the Sun is the same as its present-day surface composition; the overall stellar metallicity is defined using the total iron content of the star, as iron is among the easiest to measure with spectral observations in the visible spectrum. The abundance ratio is defined as the logarithm of the ratio of a star's iron abundance compared to that of the Sun and is expressed thus: = log 10 star − log 10 sun, where N Fe and N H are the number of iron and hydrogen atoms per unit of volume respectively.
The unit used for metallicity is the dex, contraction of "decimal exponent". By this formulation, stars with a higher metallicity than the Sun have a positive logarithmic value, whereas those with a lower metallicity than the Sun have a negative value. For example, stars with a value of +1 have 10 times the metallicity of the Sun. Young Population I stars have higher iron-to-hydrogen ratios than older Population II stars. Primordial Population III stars are estimated to have a metallicity of less than −6.0, that is, less than a millionth of the abundance of iron in the Sun. The same notation is used to express variations in abundances between other the individual elements as compared to solar proportions. For example, the notati
Minute and second of arc
A minute of arc, arc minute, or minute arc is a unit of angular measurement equal to 1/60 of one degree. Since one degree is 1/360 of a turn, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a turn – it is for this reason that the Earth's circumference is exactly 21,600 nautical miles. A minute of arc is π/10800 of a radian. A second of arc, arcsecond, or arc second is 1/60 of an arcminute, 1/3600 of a degree, 1/1296000 of a turn, π/648000 of a radian; these units originated in Babylonian astronomy as sexagesimal subdivisions of the degree. To express smaller angles, standard SI prefixes can be employed; the number of square arcminutes in a complete sphere is 4 π 2 = 466 560 000 π ≈ 148510660 square arcminutes. The names "minute" and "second" have nothing to do with the identically named units of time "minute" or "second"; the identical names reflect the ancient Babylonian number system, based on the number 60. The standard symbol for marking the arcminute is the prime, though a single quote is used where only ASCII characters are permitted.
One arcminute is thus written 1′. It is abbreviated as arcmin or amin or, less the prime with a circumflex over it; the standard symbol for the arcsecond is the double prime, though a double quote is used where only ASCII characters are permitted. One arcsecond is thus written 1″, it is abbreviated as arcsec or asec. In celestial navigation, seconds of arc are used in calculations, the preference being for degrees and decimals of a minute, for example, written as 42° 25.32′ or 42° 25.322′. This notation has been carried over into marine GPS receivers, which display latitude and longitude in the latter format by default; the full moon's average apparent size is about 31 arcminutes. An arcminute is the resolution of the human eye. An arcsecond is the angle subtended by a U. S. dime coin at a distance of 4 kilometres. An arcsecond is the angle subtended by an object of diameter 725.27 km at a distance of one astronomical unit, an object of diameter 45866916 km at one light-year, an object of diameter one astronomical unit at a distance of one parsec, by definition.
A milliarcsecond is about the size of a dime atop the Eiffel Tower. A microarcsecond is about the size of a period at the end of a sentence in the Apollo mission manuals left on the Moon as seen from Earth. A nanoarcsecond is about the size of a penny on Neptune's moon Triton as observed from Earth. Notable examples of size in arcseconds are: Hubble Space Telescope has calculational resolution of 0.05 arcseconds and actual resolution of 0.1 arcseconds, close to the diffraction limit. Crescent Venus measures between 66 seconds of arc. Since antiquity the arcminute and arcsecond have been used in astronomy. In the ecliptic coordinate system and longitude; the principal exception is right ascension in equatorial coordinates, measured in time units of hours and seconds. The arcsecond is often used to describe small astronomical angles such as the angular diameters of planets, the proper motion of stars, the separation of components of binary star systems, parallax, the small change of position of a star in the course of a year or of a solar system body as the Earth rotates.
These small angles may be written in milliarcseconds, or thousandths of an arcsecond. The unit of distance, the parsec, named from the parallax of one arc second, was developed for such parallax measurements, it is the distance at which the mean radius of the Earth's orbit would subtend an angle of one arcsecond. The ESA astrometric space probe Gaia, launched in 2013, can approximate star positions to 7 microarcseconds. Apart from the Sun, the star with the largest angular diameter from Earth is R Doradus, a red giant with a diameter of 0.05 arcsecond. Because of the effects of atmospheric seeing, ground-based telescopes will smear the image of a star to an angular diameter of about 0.5 arcsecond. The dwarf planet Pluto has proven difficult to resolve because its angular diameter is about 0.1 arcsecond. Space telescopes are diffraction limited. For example, the Hubble Space Telescope can reach an angular size of stars down to about 0.1″. Techniques exist for improving seeing on the ground. Adaptive optics, for example, can produce images around 0.05 arcsecond on a 10 m class telescope.
Minutes and seconds of arc are used in cartography and navigation. At sea level one minute of arc
ArXiv is a repository of electronic preprints approved for posting after moderation, but not full peer review. It consists of scientific papers in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, electrical engineering, computer science, quantitative biology, mathematical finance and economics, which can be accessed online. In many fields of mathematics and physics all scientific papers are self-archived on the arXiv repository. Begun on August 14, 1991, arXiv.org passed the half-million-article milestone on October 3, 2008, had hit a million by the end of 2014. By October 2016 the submission rate had grown to more than 10,000 per month. ArXiv was made possible by the compact TeX file format, which allowed scientific papers to be transmitted over the Internet and rendered client-side. Around 1990, Joanne Cohn began emailing physics preprints to colleagues as TeX files, but the number of papers being sent soon filled mailboxes to capacity. Paul Ginsparg recognized the need for central storage, in August 1991 he created a central repository mailbox stored at the Los Alamos National Laboratory which could be accessed from any computer.
Additional modes of access were soon added: FTP in 1991, Gopher in 1992, the World Wide Web in 1993. The term e-print was adopted to describe the articles, it began as a physics archive, called the LANL preprint archive, but soon expanded to include astronomy, computer science, quantitative biology and, most statistics. Its original domain name was xxx.lanl.gov. Due to LANL's lack of interest in the expanding technology, in 2001 Ginsparg changed institutions to Cornell University and changed the name of the repository to arXiv.org. It is now hosted principally with eight mirrors around the world, its existence was one of the precipitating factors that led to the current movement in scientific publishing known as open access. Mathematicians and scientists upload their papers to arXiv.org for worldwide access and sometimes for reviews before they are published in peer-reviewed journals. Ginsparg was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship in 2002 for his establishment of arXiv; the annual budget for arXiv is $826,000 for 2013 to 2017, funded jointly by Cornell University Library, the Simons Foundation and annual fee income from member institutions.
This model arose in 2010, when Cornell sought to broaden the financial funding of the project by asking institutions to make annual voluntary contributions based on the amount of download usage by each institution. Each member institution pledges a five-year funding commitment to support arXiv. Based on institutional usage ranking, the annual fees are set in four tiers from $1,000 to $4,400. Cornell's goal is to raise at least $504,000 per year through membership fees generated by 220 institutions. In September 2011, Cornell University Library took overall administrative and financial responsibility for arXiv's operation and development. Ginsparg was quoted in the Chronicle of Higher Education as saying it "was supposed to be a three-hour tour, not a life sentence". However, Ginsparg remains on the arXiv Scientific Advisory Board and on the arXiv Physics Advisory Committee. Although arXiv is not peer reviewed, a collection of moderators for each area review the submissions; the lists of moderators for many sections of arXiv are publicly available, but moderators for most of the physics sections remain unlisted.
Additionally, an "endorsement" system was introduced in 2004 as part of an effort to ensure content is relevant and of interest to current research in the specified disciplines. Under the system, for categories that use it, an author must be endorsed by an established arXiv author before being allowed to submit papers to those categories. Endorsers are not asked to review the paper for errors, but to check whether the paper is appropriate for the intended subject area. New authors from recognized academic institutions receive automatic endorsement, which in practice means that they do not need to deal with the endorsement system at all. However, the endorsement system has attracted criticism for restricting scientific inquiry. A majority of the e-prints are submitted to journals for publication, but some work, including some influential papers, remain purely as e-prints and are never published in a peer-reviewed journal. A well-known example of the latter is an outline of a proof of Thurston's geometrization conjecture, including the Poincaré conjecture as a particular case, uploaded by Grigori Perelman in November 2002.
Perelman appears content to forgo the traditional peer-reviewed journal process, stating: "If anybody is interested in my way of solving the problem, it's all there – let them go and read about it". Despite this non-traditional method of publication, other mathematicians recognized this work by offering the Fields Medal and Clay Mathematics Millennium Prizes to Perelman, both of which he refused. Papers can be submitted in any of several formats, including LaTeX, PDF printed from a word processor other than TeX or LaTeX; the submission is rejected by the arXiv software if generating the final PDF file fails, if any image file is too large, or if the total size of the submission is too large. ArXiv now allows one to store and modify an incomplete submission, only finalize the submission when ready; the time stamp on the article is set. The standard access route is through one of several mirrors. Sev
A red dwarf is a small and cool star on the main sequence, of M spectral type. Red dwarfs range in mass from about 0.075 to about 0.50 solar mass and have a surface temperature of less than 4,000 K. Sometimes K-type main-sequence stars, with masses between 0.50-0.8 solar mass, are included. Red dwarfs are by far the most common type of star in the Milky Way, at least in the neighborhood of the Sun, but because of their low luminosity, individual red dwarfs cannot be observed. From Earth, not one is visible to the naked eye. Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to the Sun, is a red dwarf, as are fifty of the sixty nearest stars. According to some estimates, red dwarfs make up three-quarters of the stars in the Milky Way. Stellar models indicate that red dwarfs less than 0.35 M☉ are convective. Hence the helium produced by the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen is remixed throughout the star, avoiding helium buildup at the core, thereby prolonging the period of fusion. Red dwarfs therefore develop slowly, maintaining a constant luminosity and spectral type for trillions of years, until their fuel is depleted.
Because of the comparatively short age of the universe, no red dwarfs exist at advanced stages of evolution. The term "red dwarf" when used to refer to a star does not have a strict definition. One of the earliest uses of the term was in 1915, used to contrast "red" dwarf stars from hotter "blue" dwarf stars, it became established use. In terms of which spectral types qualify as red dwarfs, different researchers picked different limits, for example K8–M5 or "later than K5". Dwarf M star, abbreviated dM, was used, but sometimes it included stars of spectral type K. In modern usage, the definition of a red dwarf still varies; when explicitly defined, it includes late K- and early to mid-M-class stars, but in many cases it is restricted just to M-class stars. In some cases all K stars are included as red dwarfs, even earlier stars; the coolest true main-sequence stars are thought to have spectral types around L2 or L3, but many objects cooler than about M6 or M7 are brown dwarfs, insufficiently massive to sustain hydrogen-1 fusion.
Red dwarfs are very-low-mass stars. As a result, they have low pressures, a low fusion rate, hence, a low temperature; the energy generated is the product of nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium by way of the proton–proton chain mechanism. Hence, these stars emit little light, sometimes as little as 1⁄10,000 that of the Sun; the largest red dwarfs have only about 10% of the Sun's luminosity. In general, red dwarfs less than 0.35 M☉ transport energy from the core to the surface by convection. Convection occurs because of opacity of the interior, which has a high density compared to the temperature; as a result, energy transfer by radiation is decreased, instead convection is the main form of energy transport to the surface of the star. Above this mass, a red dwarf will have a region around its core; because low-mass red dwarfs are convective, helium does not accumulate at the core, compared to larger stars such as the Sun, they can burn a larger proportion of their hydrogen before leaving the main sequence.
As a result, red dwarfs have estimated lifespans far longer than the present age of the universe, stars less than 0.8 M☉ have not had time to leave the main sequence. The lower the mass of a red dwarf, the longer the lifespan, it is believed that the lifespan of these stars exceeds the expected 10-billion-year lifespan of our Sun by the third or fourth power of the ratio of the solar mass to their masses. As the proportion of hydrogen in a red dwarf is consumed, the rate of fusion declines and the core starts to contract; the gravitational energy released by this size reduction is converted into heat, carried throughout the star by convection. According to computer simulations, the minimum mass a red dwarf must have in order to evolve into a red giant is 0.25 M☉. The less massive the star, the longer this evolutionary process takes, it has been calculated that a 0.16 M☉ red dwarf would stay on the main sequence for 2.5 trillion years, followed by five billion years as a blue dwarf, during which the star would have one third of the Sun's luminosity and a surface temperature of 6,500–8,500 kelvins.
The fact that red dwarfs and other low-mass stars still remain on the main sequence when more massive stars have moved off the main sequence allows the age of star clusters to be estimated by finding the mass at which the stars move off the main sequence. This provides a lower limit to the age of the Universe and allows formation timescales to be placed upon the structures within the Milky Way, such as the Galactic halo and Galactic disk. All observed red dwarfs contain "metals", which in astronomy are elements heavier than hydrogen and helium; the Big Bang model predicts that the first generation of stars should have only hydrogen and trace amounts of lithium, hence would be of low metallicity. With their extreme lifespans, any red dwarfs that were a part of that first generation should still exist today. Low metallicity red dwarfs, are rare. There are several explanations for the missing population of metal-poor red dwarfs; the preferred explanation is. Large stars burn out and exp
Mass is both a property of a physical body and a measure of its resistance to acceleration when a net force is applied. The object's mass determines the strength of its gravitational attraction to other bodies; the basic SI unit of mass is the kilogram. In physics, mass is not the same as weight though mass is determined by measuring the object's weight using a spring scale, rather than balance scale comparing it directly with known masses. An object on the Moon would weigh less than it does on Earth because of the lower gravity, but it would still have the same mass; this is because weight is a force, while mass is the property that determines the strength of this force. There are several distinct phenomena. Although some theorists have speculated that some of these phenomena could be independent of each other, current experiments have found no difference in results regardless of how it is measured: Inertial mass measures an object's resistance to being accelerated by a force. Active gravitational mass measures the gravitational force exerted by an object.
Passive gravitational mass measures the gravitational force exerted on an object in a known gravitational field. The mass of an object determines its acceleration in the presence of an applied force; the inertia and the inertial mass describe the same properties of physical bodies at the qualitative and quantitative level by other words, the mass quantitatively describes the inertia. According to Newton's second law of motion, if a body of fixed mass m is subjected to a single force F, its acceleration a is given by F/m. A body's mass determines the degree to which it generates or is affected by a gravitational field. If a first body of mass mA is placed at a distance r from a second body of mass mB, each body is subject to an attractive force Fg = GmAmB/r2, where G = 6.67×10−11 N kg−2 m2 is the "universal gravitational constant". This is sometimes referred to as gravitational mass. Repeated experiments since the 17th century have demonstrated that inertial and gravitational mass are identical.
The standard International System of Units unit of mass is the kilogram. The kilogram is 1000 grams, first defined in 1795 as one cubic decimeter of water at the melting point of ice. However, because precise measurement of a decimeter of water at the proper temperature and pressure was difficult, in 1889 the kilogram was redefined as the mass of the international prototype kilogram of cast iron, thus became independent of the meter and the properties of water. However, the mass of the international prototype and its identical national copies have been found to be drifting over time, it is expected that the re-definition of the kilogram and several other units will occur on May 20, 2019, following a final vote by the CGPM in November 2018. The new definition will use only invariant quantities of nature: the speed of light, the caesium hyperfine frequency, the Planck constant. Other units are accepted for use in SI: the tonne is equal to 1000 kg. the electronvolt is a unit of energy, but because of the mass–energy equivalence it can be converted to a unit of mass, is used like one.
In this context, the mass has units of eV/c2. The electronvolt and its multiples, such as the MeV, are used in particle physics; the atomic mass unit is 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom 1.66×10−27 kg. The atomic mass unit is convenient for expressing the masses of molecules. Outside the SI system, other units of mass include: the slug is an Imperial unit of mass; the pound is a unit of both mass and force, used in the United States. In scientific contexts where pound and pound need to be distinguished, SI units are used instead; the Planck mass is the maximum mass of point particles. It is used in particle physics; the solar mass is defined as the mass of the Sun. It is used in astronomy to compare large masses such as stars or galaxies; the mass of a small particle may be identified by its inverse Compton wavelength. The mass of a large star or black hole may be identified with its Schwarzschild radius. In physical science, one may distinguish conceptually between at least seven different aspects of mass, or seven physical notions that involve the concept of mass.
Every experiment to date has shown these seven values to be proportional, in some cases equal, this proportionality gives rise to the abstract concept of mass. There are a number of ways mass can be measured or operationally defined: Inertial mass is a measure of an object's resistance to acceleration when a force is applied, it is determined by applying a force to an object and measuring the acceleration that results from that force. An object with small inertial mass will accelerate more than an object with large inertial mass when acted upon by the same force. One says. Active gravitational mass is a measure of the strength of an object's gravitational flux. Gravitational field can be measured by allowing a small "test object" to fall and measuring its free-fall acceleration. For example, an object in free fall near the Moon is subject to a smaller gravitational field, hence
Jupiter radius or Jovian radius is the distance equal to the radius of planet Jupiter. It has a value of 11.2 Earth radii. Jupiter radius is a unit of length used in astronomy to describe the radii of gas giants and some extrasolar planets, it is used in describing brown dwarfs. In 2015, the International Astronomical Union defined the nominal equatorial Jovian radius to remain constant regardless of subsequent improvements in measurement precision of RJ; this constant is defined as exactly: R e J N = 7.1492×107 mSimilarly, the nominal polar Jovian radius is defined to be exactly: R p J N = 6.6854×107 mThese values correspond to the radius of Jupiter at 1 bar of pressure. The common usage is to refer to the equatorial radius, unless the polar radius is needed. For comparison, one Solar radius is equivalent to: 400 Lunar radius 109 Earth radius 9.735 Jupiter radius


- SpaceX could become a $50 billion juggernaut, Morgan Stanley analysts wrote in a report Thursday.
- The private space company Wednesday launched its 15th rocket this year.
- Morgan Stanley says SpaceX developing reusable rockets is "an elevator to low Earth orbit."
Elon Musk is making rocket launches mundane and that could be worth tens of billions of dollars.
SpaceX could become a $50 billion juggernaut through its launch of a satellite broadband network, a team of Morgan Stanley analysts wrote in a report Thursday.
The private space company on Wednesday launched its 15th rocket this year, and the second this week. More importantly, the Falcon 9 rocket launch was the third time SpaceX reused the first stage booster, and with each of these so-called "flight-proven" launches, it should be easier to attract new customers.
Morgan Stanley says SpaceX developing reusable rockets is "an elevator to low Earth orbit."
"When Elisha Otis demonstrated the safety elevator in 1854, the public may have struggled to comprehend the impact on architecture and city design. Roughly 20 years later, every multistory building in New York, Boston, and Chicago was constructed around a central elevator shaft," Morgan Stanley said. "It all comes down to SpaceX."
Reducing the cost to launch a satellite to about $60 million, from the $200 million that United Launch Alliance charged through most of the last decade, was a monumental breakthrough. SpaceX is trying to reduce its cost to $5 million per mission, and Morgan Stanley says the launch business "generates limited operating income."
The cash cow, to Morgan Stanley, is the SpaceX plan to launch a satellite broadband network in two years and send humans to Mars in seven.
"The goal of the satellite internet business is to generate enough cash to be able to go to Mars" the research firm said, adding that it believes Musk is serious about his goal of planetary expansion.
SpaceX has denied that it is preparing an initial public offering, but Morgan Stanley says the prospect should not be counted out. Upcoming projects will require significant amounts of money. "It seems reasonable to us to consider whether the company could look to access capital in the public markets," the analysts said.
With "substantial room to increase the investment in space," Morgan Stanley says that "public investors will start to pay more attention to space when or if SpaceX decides to IPO."


Earth Horizon with UFO or Star
View of earth horizon from space with UFO, or large star approaching.
Cropped, color enhanced, shade enhanced, sharpened, stars background added and UFO added.
The source image for the earth is a photo in the public domain from the Image Science and Analysis Laboratory, NASA-Johnson Space Center. "The Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth."
The source image for stars in space is a photo in the public domain from NASA/JPL.


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Over the weekend, skywatchers got a rare treat. The planet Mars was bigger and brighter than it has been in a decade. That’s because Mars and the sun were aligned in “opposition.” When that happens, the planet shines extra bright in the night sky.
A bonus was the fact that Mars is nearing its closest approach to Earth, so it appears larger than usual to us.
In the weeks before and after opposition, Mars is easy to view with the naked eye. So what happens, then, when you point humanity’s most famous telescope at it?
Behold Mars, the cheddar-colored marble.


Julian Calendar Vs Gregorian Calendar: Numerology
2023 March Equinox, New Moon and Solstices: The More you Know
Welcome a New Cycle of Life
Our hearts and minds intentions for this New Moon cycle that start on February 20th 2023, are, first of all, protection for our people and for our children all ways, always,+ and cleansing; getting rid of what no longer serves us. Getting rid of what no longer serve the greatest good.
Over. Is. Done. With.
Our intentions are for health, prosperity, wealth, courage; bravery, responsibility, discernment, family, spiritual wisdom, continuing learning, honor, liberty, natural law, and harmony, Be Read more [...]
The Winter Solstice, a Time for Reflection: Christmas
By looking at this picture, all that comes to mind, is the symbolic meeting of the planets at certain positions, according to Astrology in the Northern Hemisphere. And according to the times we are navigating through right now, that is the Winter Solstice on the 21st, follow on the 23rd with a new moon in Capricorn. Capricorn is an earth sign govern by Saturn, and it is the number ten sign.
We are still navigating through the energy of Sagittarius, that is govern by Jupiter. Sagittarius is the number Read more [...]
Astrology and Eclipses Rules: New Moon Cycle in Scorpio+ Sam Bankman FTX
Remember when we said, that eclipses always anticipate changes whether personal changes, or on a larger scale as that of earth’s changes, social economical changes, or changes in government, and or changes for the greatest good, etc. Well, not only eclipses anticipate changes, but astrology in general rules.
Actually, serious changes have been taking place since 2012 on earth, but more than ever, since the GREAT conjunction between planet Jupiter and Saturn on December 21st 2020 in Read more [...]
Full Moon in Pisces on 9-10 of October 2022: Big Changes Ahead
This Full Moon in Pisces is Very significant. Significant because Pisces is the last sign of the zodiac. Pisces is a water sign. Pisces is also known as the sign that “let things go.” Meaning, it is the sign where all ends.
Then next, right across from Pisces, is Aries. Aries as being the sign where all New things begins.
This Full Moon starts at midnight on the 9th of October and early morning on the 10th of October.
As we all know, Full Moon indicates some culmination and or a breaking Read more [...]
Full Moon in Aquarius on 11th of August 2022: Planetary Events
This Full Moon in Aquarius, and according to astrology, is a sign for our humanity moving forward to a New Direction. This is very significant.
As we all know, the moon is about intuition, emotions; gut feeling, nurturing, and big meaning. Which is why she went to Aquarius for support! For support in our new way of living; new creation, and a new norm. And here as well, the moon has the support of Saturn and Uranus squaring the deal. Squaring this event that start a new beginning that will Read more [...]
The Astrological Sign of Leo: Rare Events
According to astrology, from July 22 to August 23, the Sun is transiting the sign of Leo. Leo is the Latin name for Lion. This sign is the only one in the zodiac having a beast of prey for a symbol.
We all know that the characteristic of the lion is to blot out, to destroy; to annihilate. Literally, the sign of Leo means motion, and it has to do with the fifth parts of our body that are the heart and motor nerves. Further, we all know that August is the hottest period of the year, and August in Read more [...]
Summer Solstice of 2022, and the Astrological Sign of Cancer: Wonders in the Sky
The Summer Solstice means that the Sun has reached the Highest point in the sky after a long journey that started where it ended. And that is in the Sign of Cancer on the date of June 21st, that is as well, the date of the Summer Solstice!
On that day of the 21st of June, the Sun entered the sign of Cancer, that for a fact is the house of the Moon; the house of the Mother, and there it is said, he rests for the longest day. Translation,= the Summer Solstice is the return of the Son= Read more [...]
Full Moon in Sagittarius on June 14, 2022 : Signs in the Heavens
Big Events in the heavens are taking place during the Full Moon in Sagittarius on June 14, 2022 and beyond. We have the Father and the Mother= Sun and the Moon both at 23 degrees opposites from each other. Twenty three= five= sovereignty.= the Holy Man. On one side we have the Sun in Gemini, whilst the Full Moon is in Ophiuchus/ Sagittarius. Ophiuchus is the Healer! The one that comes to self-realization in his life time by redeeming all his archetypes. Ophiuchus is Asclepius in Greek astrology. Read more [...]
Navigating through the Lunar Eclipse on May 15-16 2022: Astrology
Lunar eclipses occur at the full moon phase. When Earth is positioned precisely between the Moon and Sun, Earth’s shadow falls upon the surface of the Moon, dimming it and sometimes turning the lunar surface a striking red for as long as six hours.~ quote
As we all should be aware of, lunar eclipses and solar eclipses are signs of changes occurring and or about to occurs all throughout our solar system. These changes occurs in a timely manner all throughout the year energetically, and that Read more [...]


The first Open-ended Working Group on Reducing Space Threats that’s been meeting all week in the Swiss city, is the result of a UN General Assembly resolution last December, seeking to promote “norms, rules and principles of responsible behaviours” among countries already present in the cosmos – or which are planning to have a presence in space.
“The situation has changed dramatically in the last few decades. We have so many space activities there is a growing number of space-faring nations – and even those that are not space-faring are sending their own satellites,” explained Hellmut Lagos, chair of the working group talks.
“There are so many activities and the regulations …are not enough to deal with the different risks and threats to the security of all those activities.”
Progress on disarmament is a key priority of UN Secretary-General António Guterres, who recently reported on ways to reduce the “risks of misunderstanding and miscalculations” on outer space issues.
Treaty revamp push
An international Outer Space Treaty already exists that forms the basis of international space law.
Its main focus is on the peaceful “exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies…for the benefit and in the interests of all countries…and shall be the province of all mankind”.
In keeping with the optimism of the era surrounding the space race, astronauts are described “as envoys of mankind”, and there is also a nod to today’s concerns over space pollution, with explicit wording that States must avoid the “harmful contamination” of space, the moon and other “celestial bodies”.
Russia, the UK and the US provided the original impetus for the treaty, whose impressive title in full is “Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies”.
But the Outer Space Treaty is 55 years old and needs updating urgently, to take account of new space-based threats to global security – and the fact that all nations rely on space today for everything from navigation to communication, broadband and finance, explained Mr. Lagos:
“The most basic things that we do in in modern life, they are dependent on these technologies and services that come from space: GPS, critical infrastructure, energy, everything, everything is controlled by space technologies…everyone is becoming increasingly aware of this issue.”
Chilean diplomat Lagos also pointed out that although nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction are banned in the 1967 space accord – “the cornerstone of the international space regime”, in his words – there was no way of knowing about today’s new generation of missile systems that can target satellites.
Equally important, there is no review mechanism of the treaty as there is with other major treaties, Mr. Lagos noted, which is why all Member States need to find “common ground” on new norms, rules and principles, to plug legal gaps that might be exploited by space-faring nations.
To date, China, Indian Russia and the US have reportedly used anti-satellite (ASAT) technology, sparking concerns about attempts to weaponise space – and the fact that an unknown number of fragments may now be hurtling around around earth in low orbit, threatening spacecraft including the International Space Station.
NASA astronaut Scott Kelly is seen floating during a spacewalk on 21 December 2015 as he and fellow astronaut Tim Kopra released brake handles on crew equipment carts on either side of the space station.
Underlining the increasing number of non-State actors involved in space exploration, Mr. Lagos welcomed the significant number of civil society representatives at the talks in Geneva, and the fact that countries from all regions of the world attended.
“Civil society is extremely important, not only because there are an increasing number of non-State actors in space, but also because their participation in these multilateral processes, they give an additional layer of legitimacy to the result, to the outcome of the process.”
And although global tensions are higher than they’ve been for decades, as a result of the Russian invasion of Ukraine on 24 February, the underlying push for consensus of the working group’s agenda has kept discussions on track, Mr. Lagos insisted.
Last week, the head of Russia’s space agency reportedly confirmed that in response to sanctions over the war in Ukraine, Russia was planning to pull out of the International Space Station.
“It is obvious that the geopolitical context now is really concerning and it has an impact on all the discussions and all the processes all over the world – that does not exclude us,” said Mr. Lagos.
“But we are trying to have a positive momentum in this process at least to try to make progress because it is in everybody’s interest, and so far we have achieved that – we see that there is big engagement and interest in moving things forward.”
The next session of the Working Group is planned for September, where the item will be “current and future threats by States to space systems, and actions, activities and omissions that could be considered irresponsible”.
Next year, the group will take up its item on the preparation of recommendations to the General Assembly.


On 24 November China’s Chang’e-5 spacecraft blasted off to the moon in a historic mission that saw China attempt to become the first nation since 1976 to successfully bring samples of lunar rock back to earth.
Now, it looks as though the Chang’e-5 spacecraft has moved one step closer to achieving that goal after it entered orbit around the moon on 28 November. The Chinese space agency reported the news after the spacecraft successfully fired its main engine at a distance of 400 kilometres away from the moon. Chang’e-5 fired its 3,000-Newton engine for around 17 minutes in total, which allowed the spacecraft to slow down enough to be captured by the moon’s gravity.
THIS. IS. JUST. AWESOME. !!!
This is video decoded from the 8455MHz high rate downlink @uhf_satcom received yesterday. All the work on the decoder and data analysis really paid off in the end!
Video shows solar panel of Chang’e-5 glistening in the sun and dust floating around. pic.twitter.com/FKc92kgskl
— r00t (@r2x0t) November 25, 2020
The Chang’e-5 spacecraft is equipped with a lander that features a drill and a scoop which will be used to collect around 2 kilograms of lunar material that will then be placed a container aboard an ascent vehicle atop the lander, according to reports from Space.com.
The accent vehicle will then attempt to rendezvous and dock with the orbiter module waiting in lunar orbit after the material has been collected. If the Chinese space agency is able to land and collect lunar samples before successfully sending them back to Earth, they would be the first to do so since the Soviet Union in 1976.


The Lunar “X” is an interesting formation created by the walls of craters Blanchinus, La Caille and Purbach that appears in the form of the letter X when illuminated by the Sun for a brief period of time around first quarter. The formation is also known as the Purbach Cross and the Werner X.
The optical illusion is relatively unknown because it is visible for only about 4 hours just before first quarter. The X stands out when just the rims of the craters are illuminated and the floors are in the deep shadows of lunar night along the terminator. When the Sun shines into the craters, the X blends into its surroundings, looking like the normal cratered lunar landscape.


The Machinists Union played a major part in the May 17 successful launch of the United Launch Alliance’s Atlas V rocket carrying the U.S. Space Force X-37B autonomous spacecraft to orbit.
The launch from the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida was the successful start of USSF-7, which is the seventh flight of the Atlas V. ULA teamed with Boeing for the mission. Both aerospace companies employ IAM members who build rockets, work on launch teams and maintain facilities.
The classified mission was dedicated to health care workers, first responders and anyone else who has been affected by COVID-19.
“We owe so much to the men and women of the Machinist Union who have made the space industry what it is today,” said Southern Territory General Vice President Rickey Wallace. “Day in and day out, IAM members working on the space coast put this country’s economy a step ahead by producing and maintaining some of the most sophisticated technology known to man. I am proud that the expertise of our dedicated membership continues to be an integral part of space exploration.”
Congratulations 🎉 to our many IAM members who played a key part in Sunday’s successful launch of @ulalaunch #AtlasV rocket carrying the US Space Force X-37B autonomous spacecraft to orbit https://t.co/ABMyFflXhR
— Machinists Union ✈🚊🚀 (@MachinistsUnion) May 18, 2020
The U.S. Space Force is a new service branch of the U.S. Armed Forces.


This week the Moon dances with the planets Mercury and Jupiter. At the end of the week you have a chance to see a few Delta Aquarid meteors. Make sure you take some time to look up. Here is your guide to the sky for July 24 – 30 , 2017…
Spotless Sun, Dancing Moon
Sunrise this week is at 5:15 am and sunset at 8:08 pm. The past week it has been devoid of any sunspots which is a bit unusual. The Moon this week dances with Mercury early in the week, and Jupiter near the end of the week. On Monday and Tuesday a very thin waxing crescent frames Mercury immediately after sunset. On Monday look for it just below Mercury and very low on the horizon, Tuesday it is about a degree above Mercury and a bit easier to see. On Friday it passes three degrees south of the bright planet Jupiter. The Moon reaches First Quarter on Sunday at 11:23 am.
Planets for the week
Mercury visible in twilight after sunset reaches greatest elongation on Sunday, so this week is your best chance to see it for the month. With Moon assisting on Monday and Tuesday, why not try to catch the elusive one after sunset! Brilliant Jupiter is easy to spot in the southwest at sunset being the brightest object other than the Moon after twilight, and the Moon passes by it at the end of the week. Saturn is visible from sunset until around 2:30 am when it sets in the west. Mars is in conjunction with the Sun on Wednesday and it will be several weeks before we see the red planet in our skies again.
Late July Meteors – Find Aquarius
The Delta Aquariid Meteor Shower is active beginning in mid-July until late-August, peaking at the end of this week. During the peak one can expect a maximum of 20 meteors. The shower is the remains of 96P Machholz. Aquarius rises around 11:00 pm in the southwest. It is a relatively faint group of stars. To find it, look for the Summer Triangle. Imagine drawing a line to the southwest from Vega going between Deneb and Altair and going past Delphinus and about the same distance again. There you will find the water jar, or main arrow head shaped group of stars that marks Aquarius. This is where the meteors will emanate from. Hope you see a few of these this week!
ISS and Mayak
Tuesday morning from 1:57 am to 2:04 am catch the International Space Station moving from northwest to east. Wednesday see it from 8:58 pm to 9:05 moving from west to east. On Friday see it from 8:50 pm to 8:57 pm travelling from west ti northeast for this week is the same day from 3:50 am to 3:56 am moving from northwest to east-southeast. A new Russian satellite called Mayak also makes some nice passes this week. Try seeing it on Wednesday morning from 12:06 am to 12:09 am moving from north to east. It makes a brighter pas on Thursday from 12:26 am to 12:29 am moving from north-northeast to north. On Saturday see it from 12:45 am to 12:49 am moving from north to northwest.
Check out the Moon and planet dance, see a few meteors, or catch the new Russian satellite. Happy summer stargazing and keep your eye on the sky!


There's plenty to do if you re sleepless in Seoul
The best time to see the Milky Way is on a summer night the only part of the year when you can see its center. By Kwon Hyuk-jae
Summer nights in Korea can be cruel.
During the rainy season, wet unpleasantness envelops the city, turning even a short stroll after work into a daunting and often damp task. Then summer kicks in full force, leading to sweltering, sleepless and sweaty nights.
It s an interesting irony, as the shortest nights of the year can actually seem like the longest.
So here we find ourselves today, weary from battling through most of the rainy season and bracing for the steamy humid nights.
In fact, it s already getting hot outside. On July 17, the lowest temperature of the day was 25 degrees Celsius (77 F), according to the Korea Metrological Administration. That s defined as a tropical day the first of the summer. It was the same story across the nation that day as well, with the lowest temperatures at 25.3 degrees in Gangneung, 25 in Gwangju, 28 in Jeju and 26.2 in Seogwipo.
The KMA said the hot temperatures are the result of a weakened monsoon that s lingering over the South Seas, causing gray, dreary weather that is blocking direct sunlight but is still pushing through warm, moist air.
So how can you beat the heat on these sleepless summer nights?
Well, you can groan and whine about how hot it is.
Or you can try to enjoy it by taking advantage of some sites and scenic spots that come to life when the sun goes down.
In fact, summer nights often are more splendid than summer days.
The bright city lights seem to glow with a greater intensity during the hot months, perhaps because so many people are having trouble sleeping.
Some of the top nighttime views can be seen on and around the Han River bridges.
A highly recommended spot is the new Cafe Rainbow on the Hannam Bridge, which provides visitors with views that previously could only be seen from a ferry. Gwangjin Bridge, built especially for pedestrians, is also a good place to view the night scenery.
Young people wind surf on the Han River near Banpo Bridge on a tropical night. By Kwon Hyuk-jae
The lower part of the bridge, which has been converted into an observation platform, has glass floors (don t worry, they re strong), making it seem as though you re floating over the river.
If you want a bird s-eye view of the shimmering city, stroll on over to N Seoul Tower. Or just look at it from a distance, as the structure itself serves as a giant LED light, changing colors and patterns every so often throughout the night.
Perhaps the best way to enjoy a summer night is to find a secluded spot to relax and gaze up at the majestic Milky Way. Summer is in fact the only time of the year when you can see its very center. For those who are a bit bolder, you can join plenty of other Koreans and take a leisurely night hike up a mountain.
By Han Eun-hwa, Son Min-ho [email@example.com]
Look toward the heavens to beat the heat
Stargaze in the summer? Under that dreary gray thing you call the sky? Amid the suffocating humidity? Ha!
O.K., perhaps spending an evening sprawled out in a grassy area staring toward the heavens doesn t initially sound like the best way to spend a summer night. Many locals say the prime stargazing season is autumn, when the nights are long and the skies are clear.
But you shouldn t write it off entirely for the summer. After all, there are plenty of stars that can only be seen by the human eye in the summer. And did we mention you can also catch a glimpse of Jupiter for the next few months? We ll get back to that in a bit.
For now, let s explore some of the best stargazing sights and observation spots in and around Seoul.
The highlight this summer is easily the Milky Way, a sparkling river of 100 billion shimmering stars. The best time to see it is from 9 to 11 p.m. But this celestial beauty, which resembles a sprinkle of fine powdered silver, can be a bit difficult to spot. You must find a secluded area where there isn t much man-made light, which can be a challenge in Seoul. Considering this, the outskirts of the city are better than the center.
An elevated area such as a hill or the top of a high-rise building is recommended. You also must remember to give your eyes time to adjust to the darkness, so avoid looking at bright lights such as cell phone screens.
While viewing the Milky Way, spend some time searching for the star Vega, located in the constellation Aquila, and the star Altair in the constellation Lyra. These stars are on the same plain, with the Milky Way flowing between them. By connecting them with the Deneb at the tail of the constellation Cygnus, you can make the great summer triangle. Because all three of them belong to the brightest class of stars, they can all be located even amid the bright city lights.
A must-see this summer is Jupiter, which is fitting, given that it s also the 400th anniversary since Galileo created the first telescope. Through this telescope, Galileo observed four moons circling Jupiter, proving that the Earth did indeed move around the Sun. To honor this achievement, the International Astronomical Union and Unesco dubbed 2009 the year of astronomy. Jupiter is visible from now until September. By observing the moons of Jupiter through a telescope, you can ponder the significance of Galileo s discovery.
Now, you ve just got to find the perfect place to see these nighttime sights.
Here are some suggestions:
Astrovil is located at the top of the 650-meter (2,132 feet) Mount Chiak in Gangwon Province. In 1999, it was designated as a starlight reserve, so any type of light that might hamper observation is strictly prohibited. Because of this, it s even easy to mistake the shimmering Milky Way for a cloud. Astrovil is hosting a children s summer stargazing camp called Finding the Milky Way next Wednesday and again on Aug. 10,
It is located in Hoengseong County, Gangwon. For more information, call (033) 342-9023.
It takes about 20 minutes by car to get to the Songam Observatory from Gupabal-dong, Eunpyeong District, northern Seoul. Public transportation also serves the area. The largest observatory in the nation, visitors can stay overnight to fully immerse themselves in the experience. A program called The Challenger Learning Center, created by the U.S.-based Challenger Foundation, allows people to experience what it s like to be in outer space. If you have time, be sure to check out the nearby Jangheung Art Park and Jasaek Arboretum.
It is located in Yangju City, Gyeonggi Province. (031) 894-6000.
This place is filled with programs that offer stargazing activities. Its main program lets visitors see the Moon, Jupiter and Saturn in addition to other planets, star clusters and outer galaxies. Reservations are required for this program. Also, because the observatory is located in a nature reserve on Mount Myeongji, you can also see fireflies weaving through the dark fabric of the night.
It is located in Gapyeong County, Gyeonggi. (031) 585-0482.
Nature and Star Observatory
This observatory allows visitors to view the stars and participate in discussions focusing on such topics as why stars shine and how they are born. Tucked deep inside a nearby forest, it is a cute and cozy structure built with Finnish pine trees.
It is located in Gapyeong County, Gyeonggi. (031) 581-4001.
Astro Cafe (Mount Jungmi Observatory)
Located in the middle of the Jungmi Recreation Forest, one can enjoy both a therapeutic walk through the forest and a stargazing experience simultaneously. Astronomy specialists serve as guides, telling captivating stories about the stars above.
It is located in Yangpyeong County, Gyeonggi. (031) 771-0306.
Nocturnal climb offers stellar views both above and below
One of the most popular leisure activities during the summer is nighttime mountain climbing.
Once considered an extreme sport suitable only to professional mountain climbers, it has evolved into a popular activity among everyday Koreans.
At exit 6 of Sadang Station, for example, you ll often see people with backpacks at night preparing for a hike. Sadang Station is the starting point of the Mount Gwanak climbing route.
However, there are things to keep in mind before you decide to take up this challenge.
First, it is better to choose a mountain in the heart of the city where you can enjoy the lights down below and catch public transportation after you re done.
That s why Mount Gwanak, Mount Acha and Mount Surak in Seoul are particularly crowded during summer nights. The same can be said for Mount Palgong in Daegu and Mount Geumjeong in Busan. Remember, however, that you cannot climb Mount Bukhan at night. Climbing a mountain in a national park at night is prohibited and carries a fine of 500,000 won ($396.80).
Many night climbers enjoy 12-hour excursions that last until dawn.
One such course starts from Uijeongbu in Gyeonggi Province, winds to the peaks of Mount Surak and Mount Bulam and finally ends at Mount Acha, where you can enjoy the sun rising over the Han River.
However, this is not an easy challenge for inexperienced mountain climbers, and novices or casual hikers should probably choose a hike that takes no more than three hours.
When selecting a hiking path, it s a good idea to make sure that there are plenty of ridge lines.
This way, you will be able to enjoy a beautiful night view and cool breezes. Without these views, there would really be no point in climbing mountains smack dab in the dead of night, after all.
Planning a route that winds through valleys is also a good idea, as the sound of water will help you find your way should you get lost.
There are also several other precautions you should follow.
Don t plan a night hike alone even if you re an experienced professional climber. And make sure you bring a long-sleeved shirt or a windbreaker.
Also, it is vital that you bring a lantern or a flashlight. It s best to get the kind of light attached to a headband so you can keep both hands free for climbing. You can find these in the city for as little as 30,000 won.
Additionally, avoid climbing on a cloudy night. Instead, choose a crisp, clear evening, preferably one with a full moon, to get the most out of the experience.