Intro to Space Activities
The Space Foundation created Introduction to Space Activities, a broad educational and informative tool for individuals interested in learning more about space activities. This introduction includes basic information about the mechanics of space activities and the space industry.
The Space Foundation embraces the entire global space community. We are a leader in space awareness activities, industry services, research and analysis for the global space industry and educational programs that bring space into the classroom. We are one of the few space-related organizations that address the totality of the space community. The Space Foundation annually conducts the premier space industry event, the Space Symposium, and other focused events.
Sectors of Space
The space industry is commonly divided into four sectors: civil, defense, intelligence and commercial. Although these sectors operate programs largely independent of one another, they share an industrial base, workforce and infrastructure.
Often, the defense and intelligence sectors are jointly referred to as “national security space.” The defense sector refers primarily to Department of Defense (DoD) activities in support of the military. The intelligence sector encompasses all space-based or space-enabled intelligence capabilities that support national interests.
Civil space includes all non-defense government space activities, primarily those of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
Commercial space is generally segmented into satellite manufacturing, support ground equipment manufacturing, and the launch industry. The commercial sector includes prime contractors, entrepreneurial space companies and emerging markets for space capabilities.
For more information about space industry sectors, please refer to The Space Report: The Authoritative Guide to Global Space Activity.
U.S. Government Space Program
The U.S. government pursues space activities in a number of areas. The President creates space policy for all government agencies and initiatives, while Congress is responsible for approving funding for and routine oversight of the space activities of the federal government.
Various White House offices are involved in setting out and implementing space policy – including the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), the National Security Council (NSC) and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). These federal agencies are charged with executing the space activities of the U.S. government.
Another executive body called the National Space Council plays a large role in the formulation and execution of U.S. space policy. This group of advisors and experts existed from the early years of NASA through the Apollo program under a different name, and was reestablished once in 1989 for four years, and again in 2017. It is chaired by the Vice President of the United States.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Headquartered in Washington, D.C.
NASA was formed in 1958 after the Soviet Union launched the first satellite, “Sputnik” in 1957. The mission of NASA is to pioneer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery and aeronautics research.
NASA carries out its work across four mission directorates: Space Technology, Aeronautics Research, Science, and Human Exploration and Operations. It also operates multiple Earth-observing and remote sensing scientific satellites. NASA Headquarters provides overall guidance and direction to the agency. The ten NASA field centers are:
- Joseph S. Ames Research Center, Moffett Federal Airfield, CA
- Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center, Edwards Air Force Base, CA
- John C. Stennis Space Center, Bay St. Louis, MS
- John H. Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field, Cleveland, OH
- Robert H. Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA
- John F. Kennedy Space Center, Cape Canaveral, FL
- Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX
- Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA
- George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Headquartered in Washington, D.C.
NOAA was established in 1970 and is charged with providing reliable information about the oceans and atmosphere, including weather warnings and forecasts, as well as climate, ecosystems and commerce.
NOAA has nine key focus areas: Weather, Climate, Oceans & Coasts, Fisheries, Satellites, Research, Marine & Aviation, Charting, and Sanctuaries. Using space capabilities is vital for NOAA to complete many of its activities.
The Office of Space Commercialization (OSC), part of the NOAA Satellite and Information Service, is the principal unit for space policy activities within the Department of Commerce. Its mission is to foster the conditions for the economic growth and technological advancement of the U.S. commercial space industry. Other organizations across the Department of Commerce that handle space include: NOAA’s Commercial Remote Sensing Regulatory Affairs Office; NOAA’s National Geodetic Survey; International Trade Administration; Bureau of Industry and Security; National Telecommunications and Information Administration; National Institute of Standards and Technology; NOAA Weather Satellites; and NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service (NESDIS).
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
Headquartered in Washington, D.C.
The Federal Aviation Administration of the United States is a national authority with powers to regulate all aspects of civil aviation. Within the Federal Aviation Administration exists the Office of Commercial Space Transportation (FAA AST), which is responsible for ensuring protection of the public, property and the national security and foreign policy interests of the U.S. during a commercial launch or re-entry activity. AST also encourages, facilitates and promotes U.S. commercial space transportation.
The FAA was formed in 1958. AST was established by the Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984, but was originally an agency of the Department of Transportation until its move to FAA in 1995.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
Headquartered in Washington, D.C.
The FCC has regulated interstate communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable since 1934. The Office of Engineering and Technology (OET) within the Federal Communications Commission oversees policies, rules, procedures and standards for licensing and regulating orbital assignments for satellites. The OET also conducts technical studies of advanced phases of terrestrial and space communications.
Department of Defense (DoD)
Headquartered in Washington, D.C.
The Department of Defense is charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government concerned directly with national security and the United States Armed Forces. Within the Department of Defense are multiple organizations and offices that take part in the department’s space activities, both classified and unclassified. The DoD was formed in 1947.
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)
Headquartered in Springfield, VA
The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) is a combat support agency for the DoD and a member of the intelligence community. The NGA has been the nation’s primary source of geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) for the DoD and the U.S. Intelligence Community since 2003. The NGA uses imagery from space-based, national intelligence reconnaissance systems, as well as commercial satellites and other sources, to develop imagery and map-based intelligence solutions and provide geospatial intelligence support for global world events, disasters and military actions.
Missile Defense Agency (MDA)
Headquartered in Fort Belvoir, VA
The Missile Defense Agency’s (MDA) mission is to develop, test and field an integrated, layered, ballistic missile defense system to defend the United States, and its deployed forces, allies and friends against all classes and ranges of enemy ballistic missiles in all phases of flight. The MDA uses satellites and ground-based sensors to provide worldwide coverage. The MDA was established in 1983.
National Reconnaissance Office (NRO)
Headquartered in Chantilly, VA
The National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) designs, builds and operates U.S. reconnaissance satellites. The NRO’s mission is to develop and operate unique and innovative overhead reconnaissance systems and conduct intelligence-related activities essential for U.S. security.
U.S. Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM)
Headquartered at Offut Air Force Base, NE
Established in 2002, U.S. Strategic Command is one of nine U.S. unified commands under the DoD. It is charged with multiple missions, including full-spectrum global strike, space operations, integrated missile defense and global C4ISR (command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance). Under USSTRATCOM are Joint Functional Component Commands (JFCCs), responsible for day-to-day planning and execution for the primary mission areas. JFCC-Space is involved with coordinating, planning and conducting space operations. It even monitors orbiting satellites and space debris, allowing high-value spacecraft including the International Space Station to maneuver and avoid collision.
Army Space and Missile Defense Command (SMDC)
Headquartered at Redstone Arsenal, AL
Established in 1997, the Army Space and Missile Defense Command’s (SMDC) mission is to provide dominant space and missile defense capabilities for the Army and to plan for and integrate those capabilities in support of combatant commanders. SMDC serves as the Army-specific proponent for space, high-altitude and ground based midcourse defense.
SMDC conducts space and missile defense operations and provides planning, integration, control and coordination of Army forces and capabilities in support of strategic deterrence, integrated missile defense, and space operations. SMDC also serves as the Army force modernization proponent for space, high altitude and global missile defense and as the Army operational integrator for global missile defense.
Air Force Space Command (AFSPC)
Headquartered at Peterson Air Force Base, CO
Activated in 1982, Air Force Space Command is the primary space force for the US Armed Forces. AFSPC is a major military command that organizes, trains and equips forces to supply combatant commanders with the space and intercontinental ballistic missile capabilities necessary to defend the U.S. and its national interests. AFSPC supports U.S. military operations worldwide through the use of many different types of satellite, launch and cyber operations. AFSPC’s mission is to defend the United States through the control and exploitation of space and to provide resilient and affordable space and cyberspace capabilities for the Joint Force and the Nation.
Defense Space Council (DSC)
Headquartered in Washington, D.C.
Created in 2010, the Defense Space Council (DSC) is chaired by the Principal DoD Space Advisor (PDSA), currently the Secretary of the Air Force. The DSC is the principal advisory forum to inform, coordinate and resolve space issues for DoD. The DSC is charged with aligning requirements, acquisition and budget planning and execution of strategy and policy.
Global Space Programs
Most space activities are inherently dual-use. In the U.S., government space programs are separated as either civil or national security; however, space programs in other nations rarely have such distinctions. Many countries carry out military space activities in conjunction with civilian space activities. The information in this segment is focused on the publicly recognized space activities of other nations.
While many countries have different means of collaborating with others, when it comes to international concerns, regulations, and laws in outer space, most turn to the United Nations for guidance. The UN has its own body for deliberation and cooperation on space issues and activities. The UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) has met regularly since its establishment in 1959 to govern uses of outer space and ensure compliance with basic principles of peace, security, and development. It has two sub-committees; the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee and the Legal Subcommittee.
The Algerian Space Agency (ASAL) consists of a central structure and four operational entities that are: Center of Space Techniques (CTS), Space Applications Center (SAC), Satellite Development Center (SDC), and Telecommunications Systems Operating Center (TSOC). ASAL promotes the development of space activities intended to contribute to Algeria’s economic, social, and cultural development. ASAL implements the Algerian National Space Program for 2006-2020, which is reviewed and updated every five years.
In 2010, the Algerian remote sensing satellite Alsat-2A was successfully placed into orbit. Alsat-2A was the second remote sensing satellite launched by Algeria; Alsat-1 launched in 2002. In 2016, satellites, Alsat-1B (a satellite designed for agricultural and disaster monitoring) and Alsat-1N (containing amateur radio payloads) were launched. Alcomsat-1 is a communications satellite scheduled to launch before 2018.
Government programs include the Agencia Espacial Brasileira (AEB) and the Alcântara Space Centre. Brazil’s strategy for space is outlined in its 2005 National Program of Space Activities (PNAE) 9-year plan. Brazil’s stated aim is to develop and use space technology to address its national needs, while contributing to the improvement of its citizens’ quality of life. Brazil also actively participates in international space programs. Beginning in 1988, Brazil and China established an ongoing space relationship centered on the joint China-Brazil Earth Resources Satellite (CBERS) program.
Canada became the fourth nation to operate a satellite in space with the launch of Alouette 1 in 1962. Government programs include the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), the Canadian Center for Remote Sensing and the Canadian Forces. Canada employs a niche strategy, focusing on expertise in three areas: space robotics, radar technology for Earth observation and advanced satellite communications. Budgets focus heavily on space science and Earth observations, as well as human spaceflight. Canada’s space program is uniquely tied to the European Space Agency (ESA) and U.S. civilian and military programs. Canada has a cooperation agreement with ESA, collaborates on many NASA missions and is a contributor to the International Space Station (ISS). Many CSA astronauts have served on board the ISS, and in 2017 Canada unveiled its most recent astronaut class selection, the fourth in its space program’s history.
Government spending on space programs and activities in Europe comes from three distinct sources: activities funded by the European Union (EU), executed by the European Commission (EC) and implemented by the European Space Agency (ESA); activities funded by the member states of the ESA; and national activities funded and carried out by the European countries themselves. The EC focuses its resources on three primary areas: space research, the Earth observation program Copernicus, and the satellite navigation program Galileo. ESA is the primary space actor in Europe, with 22 member states that contribute a set amount, based on gross domestic product, for space science and some mandatory technology programs. Voluntary contributions from countries can also be made to other optional programs, such as human spaceflight, Earth observation, launchers, or telecommunications. The biggest contributors are France, Germany, Italy, and the UK, with a collective contribution of 68.0% of the total 2017 contributions. ESA has focused its efforts on upgrading and developing its launch vehicles, Earth observation activities, and space science missions.
The French space program is the third oldest institutional space program in history, and France became the third nation to launch a satellite to orbit on its own domestically produced rocket in 1965. France is the top contributor to the ESA budget. France’s national space agency is the Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES), with main facilities in Paris, Toulouse, and ‘Europe’s Spaceport’ Kourou (French Guiana). The activity of CNES is focused on five main fields: Ariane (launchers), sciences, observation, telecommunications, and defense.
In 2018, CNES and CNSA (China) will launch the CfoSat mission to study ocean surface winds and waves. CNES is overseeing development of the SEIS instrument, a major component of the InSight (Interior exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport) satellite from NASA, also to be launched in 2018. Ten French astronauts have flown aboard the International Space Station.
The German Aerospace Center (DLR) is Germany’s largest research and development center in aeronautics, space, transportation, energy, and security research. It is also the German national space agency. DLR focuses on planetary science and Earth observation and is conducting applied research for protecting the environment and development of environmentally friendly technologies to promote NextGen aviation, autonomous mobility, communication, navigation, and security. Major German space programs have continued to emphasize applied Earth observation and space robotics. This includes the merging of optoelectronics and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) to generate extremely high-resolution remote sensing imagery, such as on the TerraSAR-X / TanDEM mission which launched in 2007 and 2010. In the realm of human spaceflight, Germany has sent many astronauts into space with the Space Shuttle and Soyuz, including three astronauts who worked onboard the ISS.
Established in 1988, Italy’s national space agency is the Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI), which promotes, coordinates, and conducts space activities in Italy, including developing space technology. ASI plays a key role at the European level, where Italy is the third largest contributor country to ESA. In 2010, Italy launched the fourth and final satellite in the COSMO-SkyMed Earth-observation satellite constellation. COSMO-SkyMed provides dual use radar Earth observation data intended to meet civilian and military needs. ASI led Europe’s development of the Vega small-class launcher, which now complements the larger Ariane V launcher. Multiple Italian astronauts have flown on the ISS over its lifetime.
China owns the second-largest fleet of spacecraft in orbit. China’s space agency has two parts, the China National Space Administration (CNSA), which is an internal structure of the State Administration for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense (SASTIND), and the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC), which consists of multiple, smaller, state-owned companies. The manned spaceflight program is operated by the Chinese Manned Space Engineering Office (CMSEO), which is within the General Armaments Department (GAD) of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA). Funding for space is part of military budgets, which are only partially disclosed. China’s goals include facilitating economic development, ensuring self-reliance, promoting national prestige, and projecting power. Programs focus on manned spaceflight and space applications, such as remote sensing, communications, navigation, and space science and technology. In parallel, China has developed capabilities to limit or prevent the use of space-based assets by potential adversaries during times of crisis or conflict.
The country launched its first astronaut (taikonaut) into Earth orbit in 2003, performed its first spacewalk in 2008, and made a successful soft landing on the Moon with its lander, Chang’e-3, in 2013. It was the first soft landing on the Moon since 1976, making China the third country to land on the Moon. CNSA announced it would conduct 30 launches in 2017, a new record. CNSA plans to be the first to land on the far side of the Moon with Chang’e-4 and to land a rover on Mars in 2018 and 2020 respectively. CNSA has its own small space station, with plans to launch another station, Tiangong 3, in the 2020s. China is not involved with the International Space Station.
India’s government space program is structured around the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), which manages civil space programs. ISRO’s vision is to “harness space technology for national development while pursuing space science research and planetary exploration.” India’s space program has generally focused on technological, scientific, and social development through space capabilities. Only recently has the country migrated toward programs such as space exploration and military applications. India often emphasizes its strategy of international collaboration with leading space powers and has strengthened its relationships with Europe in its efforts to commercialize its launch capability. India’s first satellite was launched by the Soviet Union in 1975. India has also worked with Russia to develop its own geostationary launch vehicle, and successfully launched its own spacecraft to the Moon in 2008.
ISRO developed and operates the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and the Geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), both of which have successfully launched numerous satellites and payloads. In 2013, ISRO launched its Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) aboard a PSLV. The MOM probe reached orbit around Mars in 2014 and began carrying out scientific observations, making ISRO the fourth space agency to reach Mars behind NASA, Roscosmos, and the European Space Agency.
The Israel Space Agency (ISA) coordinates government space activities and focuses on satellite development for communication and remote sensing. ISA partners with a number of nations on various space activities, including technology development and human spaceflight. ISA developed and operates its own launch vehicle, Shavit. The Earth observing satellite EROS-C was set to launch in 2008, but has been postponed several times to 2019. A joint American-Israeli proposal for ULTRASAT was submitted to NASA by a team from Caltech. The Israeli contribution will be funded by the Israel Space Agency and launch is expected before 2021. Today, Israel is the smallest country with indigenous launch capabilities.
Japan became the fourth nation to launch its own satellite with a domestically produced launcher in 1970. In 2008, Japan enacted a new Basic Law of Space, allowing the country to use space for national security purposes. In addition, the law established the Strategic Headquarters for Space Policy (SHSP), chaired by the prime minister, to formulate Japan’s “Basic Plan for Space Policy.”
In a continued effort to consolidate its space programs, Japan has merged three air and space research organizations into a single integrated institution named the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), which focuses on launchers, space science, human space activities, space applications, and aeronautics. Its space science program includes successful missions to asteroids and the Moon, with follow-on return missions planned. For human space activities, along with contributing the Japanese Experimental Module (JEM) to the ISS, 10 Japanese Astronauts have flown into space, including multiple long-duration missions on ISS since 1992. Some of the most important new developments among JAXA programs are the new H3 launcher aimed to launch in 2020, and development of the upgraded HTV cargo spacecraft. Due to increased regional security concerns, Japan has been increasing its focus on a national security satellite system that will improve its information gathering capabilities. This direction was reconfirmed by updates to the Basic Plan for Space Policy in 2016.
In the 1980’s, Luxembourg, a small and wealthy country originally known for its iron and steel industry, recognized potential value in the space industry and began to provide financial support and pro-industry regulations for its domestic satellite industry. Luxembourg now has one of the largest commercial satellite industries, second only to the U.S. military.
In recent years, Luxembourg has also taken interest in the asteroid mining industry. Luxembourg is providing numerous benefits to budding private mining companies willing to locate their headquarters in Luxembourg (including tax cuts, R&D grants, direct investments, and purchasing equity). In 2016, the Ministry of Economy announced the Space Resources initiative, which “will be the development of a legal and regulatory framework confirming certainty about the future ownership of minerals extracted in space from Near Earth Objects such as asteroids.” A law on space resources was adopted on July 20, 2017, to provide this legal and regulatory framework. Also in 2017, the Deputy Prime Minister of Luxembourg announced that to become a leading nation in asteroid mining, Luxembourg will soon be introducing a national space agency, as well as a new national space law.
The Mexican Space Agency (AEM) was founded in 2010 to pursue further education and development in the space industry in Mexico. While Mexico has yet to create a space infrastructure, it is well on its way.
In 2015, the Mexican Space Agency and ProMéxico released a plan for Mexico’s space involvement called Orbit Plan 2.0. This plan lays out a detailed timeline that includes plans to increase communications connectivity in Latin America by 25% by 2026, and for Mexico to be in the top three leaders of the global space market and have assured space access by 2036. This plan will establish Mexico’s space sector and engage the country in the global space economy.
The Dutch established the Netherlands Space Office (NSO) in 2009 to run all space programs for the Netherlands and to educate its general population on matters of space. Even though the Netherlands established the NSO, they are a member of the European Space Agency (ESA), and roughly 70% of the Dutch space budget goes directly to ESA.
The Netherlands has always shown a strong interest in space. In August 1974, they launched the Netherlands Astronomy Satellite (ANS) from the U.S., more than 30 years before the creation of the NSO. This was the first Dutch satellite in Earth’s orbit, and its purpose was to record ultraviolet and x-ray data. From this mission, three new types of x-ray sources were identified. In 1993, with some commercial help, the Netherlands launched the Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS) from the U.S. The goal of this satellite was to survey the sky for sources of infrared radiation, particularly from the Milky Way. In more recent years, the Netherlands’ space activity has been centered on ESA efforts. Two Dutch astronauts have flown into space, one of whom stayed onboard the International Space Station.
Established in 2001, Nigeria’s space program is administered through its National Space Research and Development Agency (NASRDA), which consists of six geographically distributed centers that include the Center for Basic Space Science, the Center for Satellite Technology Development, the Center for Geodesy and Geodynamics, the Center for Space Transport and Propulsion, the National Center for Remote Sensing, and the Center for Space Science and Technology Education. In recent years, Nigeria worked with China to develop and launch an Earth-observation satellite in 2003, Nigeriasat-1, as part of the international Disaster Monitoring Constellation (DMC). Nigeriasat-2 is the follow-on Earth-observation satellite and launched in 2011.
Russia’s space program is organized around the State Corporation Roscosmos, which was established in 2015 on the basis of the now-defunct Federal Space Agency, and before that, the Soviet Space program (1957-1991). A branch of Russia’s armed forces (Russian Aerospace Forces or VKS) is dedicated to all military satellites, launch facilities, and space situational awareness (SSA) programs. Russia owns one of the largest fleets of spacecraft in orbit. The agency focuses on human spaceflight, space sciences, communications, remote sensing, and navigation. The Soviet/Russian Space Program was responsible for many firsts in space, including the first satellite, Sputnik 1, the first animal, first man, and first woman in space and in Earth orbit, and the first spacewalk, as well as records for the longest flight and amount of time in space.
Russia remains a world leader in space and continues to make investments in launch infrastructure and systems. Russia still allocates funds to support the ISS, including crew and cargo transportation. With the retirement of the U.S. Space Shuttle in 2011, Russia became solely responsible for the transport of all crew to and from the ISS.
The Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) is South Korea’s space agency. KARI’s objective is to contribute to the development of the national economy and improvement of the public life through aerospace science and technology. In addition to continued development of scientific and remote sensing satellites, Korea’s national space plans include further work on its new Korea Space Launch Vehicle (KSLV) rocket, participation in international space exploration initiatives including the ISS, a continued astronaut training program, and long-term plans for lunar orbiter and lander spacecraft.
A Korean Space Launch Vehicle 1 rocket, called Naro-1, was launched from South Korea’s Naro Space Center in 2013, successfully carrying the science satellite STSAT-2C into orbit. In 2015, The Korea Multipurpose Satellite-3A (Arirang-3A) was launched from the Yasny launch base in Russia. In 2016, South Korea and the U.S. reached an agreement for bilateral cooperation between their space programs on the use of space technology.
The State Space Agency of Ukraine (SSAU) is a government body coordinated by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine and is responsible for the formation and implementation of state policy in space activities.
SSAU, through 5-year National Space Programs, (today in the Fifth National Space Program for the period 2013-2017) ensures the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, coordinates research and development work on design, production and testing of space technologies, including interests of national security and defense, and ensures the application, support, and improvement of objects of space activities. SSAU also carries out international space activities in accordance with international treaties signed by the state and performs other functions in space activities pursuant to Ukrainian legislation.
The space projects of Ukraine include production and launching of the ERS satellites Sich-2-1, Sich-2M, Sich-3R, Sich-3O and scientific satellite Microsat-M, creation of the National Satellite Communication System, participation in the space projects Antares (USA), Vega (ESA), and in EU projects via Horizon – 2020.
United Arab Emirates
The United Arab Emirates established its national space agency in 2014, with the goals of promoting research and innovation in the Emirates’ scientific community, encouraging younger generations to get involved, and strengthening international relations. It is the first space agency in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region, and is committed to advancing the space sector in the Middle East and beyond. Although the UAE has launched satellites prior to the establishment of their space agency, launches are not yet a primary focus. One of the main initiatives for the agency was to establish a degree program for advanced sciences in the Middle East, which has been implemented at the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology. The Mars Hope Mission is another large initiative of the UAE Space Agency, which will put the Hope probe into orbit around Mars by 2021.
The UAE also plans to launch KhalifaSat in 2018. This is the first satellite that will have been completely developed by Emirates engineers at the Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre. This Earth observing mission will focus on taking high-resolution imagery for environmental measures, urban planning, and area classification.
United Kingdom (UK)
In 1962, the United Kingdom launched its first satellite into space in partnership with the U.S., making it the third nation to operate a satellite on orbit. Then in 1971, the UK launched a British-built satellite into orbit on a British-built rocket, research from which went on to inform the European Launcher Development Organisation (later part of the European Space Agency).
The UK Space Agency (UKSA) was created in 2010 to replace the British National Space Centre and bring all UK civil space activities under one single management. Currently, the UK is one of the four largest contributors to ESA and actively participates in its many scientific and exploratory missions. In 2017, the UKSA announced plans to enable commercial operations of small satellite launch vehicles and sub-orbital flights out of UK spaceports by 2020.
72 Nations Have Space Interests
Many nations now recognize the strategic value and practical benefits of space assets and are pursuing space capabilities. By the end of 2017, government, commercial, or academic organizations in at least 72 nations - including 19 member states of ESA – were operating one or more satellites, or planning to launch a satellite before the end of 2020. Some of those nations include: Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belarus, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, Czech Republic, Denmark, Egypt, France, Germany, Greece, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Laos, Lithuania, Luxembourg, New Zealand, North Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, the Netherlands, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, United Kingdom, United Arab Emirates, United States of America, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Ukraine, Venezuela and Vietnam. Only three nations currently have human spaceflight capabilities, the U.S. (NASA), Russia (Roscosmos), and China (CMEO – China Manned Space Engineering office).
Orbits of the Earth
Space Situational Awareness/Space Traffic Management
The U.S. Air Force made an upgrade to its Joint Space Operations Center (JSpOC) to improve space surveillance, collision avoidance, launch support, and the ability to provide more precise and timely orbital information. Another space surveillance system is currently being built by the U.S. Air Force known as the Space Fence. As a second-generation system, it will be able to detect space debris the size of a marble, as well as improve the precision and timing of tracking potential threats in space. Space Fence is expected to be operational by 2019.
The Space Based Space Surveillance (SBSS) system’s first ‘pathfinder’ satellite provides one of the few space-based sensors in the U.S. Air Force Space Surveillance Network (SSN) with the ability to detect debris, spacecraft or other distant space objects without interference from weather, atmosphere or time of day. Others include Air Force Technical Training Renewal (ATTR) and Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program (GSSAP).
Current SSA policy is looking to establish standards that would better enable the integration of data from multiple sources; different countries, as well as commercial and civilian providers. There is broad agreement that it would be ideal if there were a more active space traffic management system, and more open access to data.
Commercial operators established the Space Data Association (SDA) in 2009 to provide satellite operators with a way to share controlled, reliable and efficient data for increased safety of satellite operations. As the commercial space sector continues to grow, private organizations could play a larger role in developing standards and practices in areas such as limiting debris, satellite servicing, and the tracking of small satellites.
Unfortunately, space debris is not the only component in space situational awareness. Ground-based electronic and cyber threats are issues on the rise, especially with current Chinese and Russian advancements in anti-satellite weaponry. They have the potential to disrupt satellite activity in space, and thus directly affect military efforts by interfering with ground-based communications and surveillance. It’s anticipated that any future conflict will involve space warfare.
Space Weather refers to any anomalies caused by the Sun that affect near-Earth space as well as Earth’s upper atmosphere.
Geomagnetic storms are a type of space weather that temporarily disturb Earth’s magnetosphere. A geomagnetic storm can be initiated by either solar coronal mass ejections (CME) or solar flares. These produce solar winds, which travel across the expanse of space, and usually hit Earth’s magnetic field 24 to 36 hours later.
Solar wind is another variation of space weather, and is associated with what we classify as auroral lights. They are the most visible effects of the Sun’s activity on Earth’s atmosphere, and can be seen at the northern and southern poles. Electrically charged particles from the Sun make contact with Earth’s magnetic field, and collide with atoms and molecules in our atmosphere, resulting in a release of energy that produces what we know as auroral lights.
Solar storms can last anywhere from a few short minutes to several hours. However, the effects of geomagnetic storms can lurk even longer in the Earth’s magnetosphere and atmosphere for days or even weeks.
Unfortunately, space weather isn’t preventable, so our technology is susceptible to these strong electrical currents. However, risk can be mitigated if preventative action is taken. NOAA is tasked with this responsibility. It can predict the severity of geomagnetic activity within a few minutes, and with the one to three-day delay of space weather, warn assets in space to adjust accordingly.
Space weather has the power to disrupt electric power grids, contribute to the corrosion of oil and gas pipelines, and interfere with high-frequency radio communications and Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation. Objects in space during one of these space weather events, such as satellites, are subject to temporary operational aberrations, damage to electronics, and the degradation of solar arrays.
A prime example of the effects of space weather is an event that took place on March 13, 1989, due to geomagnetically induced currents (GICs). The Hydro-Québec power network collapsed because of a CME ejected from the Sun four days earlier. This caused a blackout that lasted for more than nine hours, and affected over 6 million people.
Communications: Radio Frequencies
Satellites use a small portion of the radio frequency band to receive signals and relay them back to Earth. Interference with a satellite’s radio signal can be the result of solar weather, conflicting satellite signals, or terrestrial commercial technologies. Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) is characterized as any unwanted signal received by a device that prevents clear or best signal reception.
No nation owns the radio frequency spectrum, but all nations depend on keeping it free from interference. Space-based services can be particularly vulnerable to interference because satellites in space cannot easily increase their transmitted power when faced with increased noise. Many space services are not traditional two-way communications, but include passive monitoring (weather), active sensing (remote sensing) and/or one-way broadcasting (GPS). As a result, critical frequency bands require special international protection.
There is growing pressure on all frequencies from terrestrial commercial technologies, making regulatory protection more important than ever. International management of the use of the radio-frequency spectrum and satellite orbits is regulated by the International Telecommunication Union. In the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission, in partnership with the National Telecommunications and Information Agency, is entrusted with protecting national security, public safety requirements and scientific federal agencies relying on space systems.
Frequency Bands Allocated to Satellite Transmission
|Letter Designation for Satellite Frequency Band||Frequency
|Examples of Satellite Services at Different Frequency Bands||Advantages||Disadvantages|
|L||1-2 GHz||Mobile satellite services and GPS||Moderate antennas about 2 ft or less; Negligible atmospheric effects; Popular in terrestrial communications||Moderate to low capacity; Susceptible to jamming|
|S||2-4 GHz||Maritime radio navigation; deep space research and radiolocation||Minimal disturbance from rain fade*||Moderate to low capacity|
|C||4-8 GHz||Fixed satellite services and VSAT||Less susceptible to disturbance from heavy rain fade||Requires a large satellite dish; Interference from terrestrial microwave systems|
|X||8-12 GHz||Military and satellite imagery||Enable sharp, high-resolution radar images; Provides a communication option to the heavily populated C and Ku bands||Sensitive to heavy rain fade|
|Ku||12-18GHz||Fixed satellite services and VSAT||More bandwidth; No interference from terrestrial microwave links and other technologies; Operates with a smaller satellite dish||Sensitive to heavy rain fade|
|Ka||18-40 GHz||Fixed satellite services and broadcasting satellite services||Greater bandwidth; Increased data throughput; Smaller receiver antenna||Severe sensitivity to heavy rain fade|
*Rain fade refers primarily to the absorption of a microwave radio frequency (RF) signal by atmospheric rain, snow or ice; losses are especially prevalent at frequencies above 11 GHz.
"Executive Summary of the Commercial Satellite Communications (SATCOM) Report." Federation of American Scientists. Web. 05 Jan. 2011.
"Level 421: C-Band versus Ku-Band." Level 421: Level 421 English. Web. 05 Jan. 2011.
"Ka-Band: Military and Commercial Sectors Gear Up - Page 2 of 4: Satellite Today." Guest Edition: Satellite Today. Web. 05 Jan. 2011.
"Satellites 101." Satellite Industry Association. Web. 05 Jan. 2011
According to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), small launch vehicles are defined as those with a payload capacity of less than 2,268 kilograms (5,000 pounds) at 185 kilometers (100 nautical miles) altitude and in a 28.5-degree inclination orbit. Medium to heavy launch vehicles are capable of carrying more than 5,000 pounds at 100 nautical miles altitude and in a 28.5-degree inclination orbit.
A launch vehicle’s main goal, whether sub-orbital or orbital in nature, is to achieve the needed velocity to propel a spacecraft or payload out of Earth’s gravity and into a desired course or orbit. With technological advancements, and a constant quest for cost efficiency, commercial companies are now investing in launch vehicles that can be recycled and reused. Although a completely reusable orbital vehicle has yet to be developed since the Space Shuttle, multiple private companies have developed, or are working on, reusable rocket systems that utilize vertical take-off and vertical landing. Others are developing more shuttle-like systems that would utilize vertical take-off and horizontal landing.
Any launch vehicle with no recoverable components after its mission is complete is an expendable launch vehicle (ELV). These systems are only used once and then discarded. ELV’s are used frequently in practice launches or for launching satellites due to their lower risk of mission failures.
For a detailed review of various commercial launch vehicles, the FAA provides a compendium of commercial space transportation each year:


Kids love a good story. It’s not a secret, but so do big kids, you know those who are often disguised as adults.
It is worth considering what it is that kids love about a good story, then applying those techniques to our own storytelling when we are in front of a crowd.
Alliteration: Preachers use this a lot – each point of their message starts with the same letter.
Acronyms: The first letter of the points in your talk spell out a memorable word.
Rhyme and Rhythm: Think catchy, like diddies and jingles.
Funny names: There are sites devoted to this.
Distinctive Voices: I don’t do impressions, but I can do emotions.
Exaggeration: your voice, your feelings, your sensations, soooo, veerryyy.
Putting your audience or yourself in a story: I don’t poke fun at others any more. But I can make others the hero in my story.
Repetition: Tell them what you are going to tell them. Tell them. Remind them from time to time what you are telling them. Then tell them what you told them.
Anthropomorphization: Giving animation, voice and movement, to inanimate objects.
Giving Characters the Stage: Was it Twain who said, “Don’t tell me the lady screamed. Bring her up on stage and let me hear her scream?”
Simple techniques? Not really.
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About the Greek Red Wine Limnio
Comments Off on About the Greek Red Wine Limnio
Limnio is a variety of Greek red wine that is made from grapes that have been used in the production of wine for over 2,000 years. The grape is native to the island of Lemnos, but doesn’t grow there as much as it once did. Today, the grape the Limnio grape is grown in abundance on the peninsula of Halkidiki and in Rapsani, a town in Thessaly.
The Limnio grape is hardy, with strong resistance to drought. It is a dark-skinned grape that was first mentioned by Greek writers including Home, Polydefkis, and Hesiod. Aristotle is thought to have said the grape variety, Lemnia, produced the well-known Lemnian wine. The grape is able to produce high must weights (sugar content), which leads to the high alcohol level.
Limnio wine is also known as: Limniona, Lemniotiko, Lemniotico, Lemnio, Kalabaki, and Ntoyrou Kara to name a few. The wine is full-bodied with moderate acidity and tannins. Tannins are the textural element that makes a wine taste dry. The wine has a mineral aroma. When blended with other wines, Limnio adds an herbal aroma, color, and acidity. Limnio is known to be herbaceous, with the taste of bay leaves.There is also a more mild red berry flavor to the wine.
Pure Limnio wine can age for up to 4 – 7 years, but both single Limnios and blends with Limnio can be consumed on release. Limnio wine goes well with fish dishes and pasta dishes with meat as well as mild yellow cheeses. Don’t be afraid to experiment with Limnio wine and food pairings, it goes well with many dishes.
Type of Greek Wine
Limnio is a red wine made from a dark-skinned grape.
Wine Region for Limnio in Greece
Limnio is produced in Lemnos, Halkidiki, and Rapsani.
Limnio Greek Wine Flavor Description
Limnio wine has an herbaceous flavour that strongly resembles that of the bay leaf. There is a mild red berry flavor as well. Limnio wine has a mineral aroma.
Food Pairing for Limnio Greek Wine
Limnio wine goes well with fish and pasta dishes with meat especially, but it’s an easy wine to experiment with:
- Baked lamb with eggplant
- Shrimp Youvetsi (Greek orzo with shrimp)
- Pastitsio (Greek pasta bake)
- Giouvetsi (Greek beef stew with orzo)
Facts About Limnio Greek Wine
- Limnio wine is indigenous to Lemnos, Greece
- It was mentioned by early Greek poets Homer and Aristotle
- Limnio grapes have been used in the production of wine for over 2,000 years
Limnio grapes are hardy and produce a lovely Greek red wine that easy to experiment with when it comes to food.
Categorized in: Greek Wine List: White Wines, Red Wines
This post was written by GreekBoston.com


South Africa’s president Jacob Zuma has promised black South Africans that the government would push through a new law to compensate them for their stolen lands.
The promise by the president in an address to the Gauteng province branch of the ruling African National Congress (ANC) is considered a populist move aimed at shoring up support for the ruling party ahead of crucial local elections in August.
The ANC must relook the Land Question. This is one of the biggest impediments to attaining complete freedom – Pres Zuma #ANCPGC— ANC (@MYANC) May 13, 2016
In 1913 ... the land that had been stolen from us was legalised. And that is when we believe it was taken from us.
The embattled president has thrown his weight behind the bill which is making its way through South Africa’s parliament.
Under the proposed legislation, the state can acquire land without the owners’ consent by paying an amount determined by the office of the Valuer-General, effectively scrapping a “willing-buyer, willing seller” formula. Owners can challenge the compensation offered in court.
It is meant to redress racial disparities in land ownership in a country where land is an emotive issue.
“In 1913 … the land that had been stolen from us was legalised. And that is when we believe it was taken from us,” Zuma said in reference to a legislation that year which put just 13 percent of South Africa’s land, for farming and other purposes, in the hands of the black majority.
Experts have estimated about 8 million hectares (20 million acres) of farmland have since been transferred to black owners at the end of apartheid, but this is only a third of the ANC’s 30 percent target.
Zuma said to rectify the situation, his government would work “within the law … If it means amending the law.”
He described South Africa as “the only country in the world where the majority do not control the economy.”
Meanwhile, the Economic Freedom Fighters party, led by former ANC youth leader Julius Malema has also promised to seize white-owned land for redistribution to landless blacks.


Diversity in science matters to breakthroughs. When more scientists with varied backgrounds and experiences fill laboratories and collaborate on teams, outcomes in innovation and discovery surpass those of less diverse scientific groups, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH)….
Physicists Awarded $3 Million Grant to Build Particle Detector
Physicists in the College of Arts and Sciences have been awarded a $3 million grant from the National Science Foundation (NSF) to support their involvement with the construction of an upgrade to the Large Hadron Collider beauty (LHCb) experiment at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland.
Specifically, they will use the three-year award to build an inner tracking device, known as the Upstream Tracker (UT), which will increase the amount of data that LHCb can handle by factors of five to 10. The award will also support data analysis needed to produce physics results.
The UT is scheduled to be installed in early 2019, and is expected to help revolutionize the study of Beyond the Standard Model (BSM) of Physics.
“Our goal is to enhance the capabilities of the UT, above and beyond the requirements that data can be taken,” says Sheldon Stone, Distinguished Professor of Physics, who oversees the Syracuse team at CERN. “The new detector will substantially increase the luminosity that LHCb can handle, thus providing more accurate measurements of fundamental particles and enabling observations of rare processes that occur below the current sensitivity level.”
The UT project is directed by Professor Marina Artuso, and, along with Stone, involves professors Steven Blusk and Tomasz Skwarnicki. The team is augmented by researchers from CERN; the National Institute of Nuclear Physics in Milan, Italy; the University of Zurich in Switzerland; AGH University of Science and Technology in Krakow, Poland; the universities of Maryland and Cincinnati; and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Artuso says the UT will replace the LHCb’s existing tracker, and will consist of four ultra-thin, silicon detector planes. Each 25-square-foot plane, in turn, will produce data that is “read” by custom-built electronic integrated circuits.
“The Standard Model of Physics has succeeded in classifying all known subatomic particles, based on how they interact with one another,” Artuso says. “But for all its success, the Standard Model still raises questions, such as those involving the relationship between matter and anti-matter, the properties of dark matter, and the values of the masses of quarks and leptons [the building blocks of matter]. Much of what we do at CERN—identifying new forces that are manifested by particles—seeks to answer these questions.”
At CERN, Syracuse physicists study hadrons, which are composite particles that are divided into two groups: baryons (e.g., protons and neutrons), each containing three quarks; and mesons, containing a quark and an anti-quark. Blusk says their job is to find particles that could be carriers of new forces.
“The building blocks of all known things—including cars, planets, stars and people—are quarks and electrons, which are tied together by strong, electromagnetic forces,” says Blusk, who recently made headlines with his discovery of two never-before-seen baryons. “The UT will take the LHCb’s already-excellent hadron identification system to a new level of precision and sensitivity.”
Traditionally, direct searches for new particles have required the accelerator’s energy to be high enough for the particle to be produced. But scientists at LHCb think indirect evidence—so-called “virtual footprints,” caused by the decaying of mesons and baryons with bottom quarks—will yield traces of BSM particles.
“The effects of these [indirect] searches are quantum in nature because they’re emitted and absorbed over short periods of time,” Stone says. “So far, none of our results have demonstrated new physics. The upgrade should enable us to probe more aggressively, and better understand such phenomena as charge parity violation, which explains the dominance of matter over anti-matter in the Universe.”
Skwarnicki is excited about the upgrade. In addition to discovering a meson named Z(4430), containing two quarks and two antiquarks, he and Stone helped prove the existence of a pentaquark (i.e., four quarks and an anti-quark). Skwarnicki thinks the UT project will help scientists better understand the structure of matter.
“Having a new detector will, among other things, shed light on how quarks bind together,” he says. “Of course, this is just the tip of the iceberg, as far as major unsolved problems are concerned. The UT will push the boundaries of theoretical and experimental physics in bold, new directions.”
Another, more tangible, benefit of the UT project involves the campus community. Artuso says the NSF grant will enable graduate and undergraduate students at Syracuse to participate in the construction and testing of the detector. Results of the upgrade will then be integrated into QuarkNet, a multiyear educational program at the University that provides professional development and ongoing support for area high school physics teachers.
Artuso says, “It’s important for our students, particularly at the graduate level, to have hardware experience, as well as data analysis capabilities. What we’re doing is vital to the overall LHCb upgrade, and is essential for the collaboration to continue producing cutting-edge physics results.”


Invasive plants degrade and diminish Florida's conservation lands and waterways. Some invasive aquatic plants pose a significant threat to human welfare by impeding flood control and affecting recreational use of waterways and its associated surrounding economy. The Invasive Plant Management Section is the lead agency in Florida responsible for coordinating and funding two statewide programs controlling invasive aquatic and upland plants on public conservation lands and waterways throughout the state. The section also ensures that beneficial native aquatic plants in Florida's ponds, lakes and rivers are protected through its permitting programs and funding research to find more cost-effective management techniques.
Public Services, Field Operations and FAQs
The program designs, funds, coordinates and contracts invasive nonnative aquatic plant control efforts.
Plant Control Operations By Waterbody
The program addresses local upland invasive plant management issues on public conservation lands and funds individual invasive-plant-removal projects on public conservation lands.
Invasive Plant Photo of the Month: Air potato vine
A native to tropical Asia, air potato, Dioscorea bulbifera, was introduced into the Americas from Africa, where it is naturalized, and in 1905, introduced into Florida. It forms unique or novel habitats by forming dense canopies over native tree communities, causing them to become degraded and diminished. It was placed on the Florida Noxious Weed List by the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services in 1999.
The historical Aspects of Invasive Plant Management in Florida
Florida's aquatic plant management program is one of the oldest invasive species removal programs, with its beginnings dating back to the late 1800s. South American floating waterhyacinths were introduced into the St. Johns River near Palatka in the late 1880s and soon after made navigation on the river for steamboat traffic almost impossible. Later, a 1950s plant invader, hydrilla (a native of Southeast Asia), began to infest and degrade Floridas's lakes and rivers when it produced dense canopies at the surface. Beginning in the 1960s, the Australian melaleuca tree and the South American Brazilian pepper tree began to rapidly spread into and on south Florida's conservation lands. These nonnative invasive plants, along with others, now impact approximately 1.5 million acres of Florida. With the addition of the upland program, the section oversees the largest invasive plant management program of its kind in the United States.


Learn about atmospheric brown clouds, the dangers they pose on indoor air quality, and why they highlight the need for commercial air filtration.
Much has been said about the severe seasonal bouts of air pollution in the Indian capital city of New Delhi, which is also the primary reason the Delhi government is pushing for the installation of commercial air filtration systems in homes and buildings in the National Capital Territory.
But the “why” behind this recurring air pollution problem isn’t well understood.
Atmospheric Brown Clouds vs. Commercial Air Filtration Systems
If one were fortunate enough to be viewing the Indian subcontinent while sitting inside the International Space Station, one would see a striking change in how the clouds blanketing the region appear during the months of October and November. It’s when Indian farmers burn millions of tons of crops in Punjab and Haryana, creating a haze of smoke so thick and toxic it becomes dangerous for the people living in India’s capital.
These massive clouds of haze and smoke are often referred to as Asian Brown Clouds or Atmospheric Brown Clouds (ABCs), and they can be observed in many parts of Asia, Africa and the Amazon Basin. And as mentioned earlier, they are a result of widespread combustion.
“Combustion generates H2O, NO, NO2, CO, CO2, and particulate matter. Combustion can also emit hydrocarbon gases, vapors, and organic particles,” notes Camfil USA’s Charlie Seyffer, Manager of Marketing & Technical Materials for commercial air filters and 37-year ASHRAE member and active committee participant. “Some of the particles are large and settle out, but the majority of the particles are submicron and remain suspended in the air for long periods of time.”
What are ABCs and How Can HEPA Air Filtration Systems Help?
Atmospheric brown clouds are clouds that often result from the burning of organic material and fossil fuel emissions from both mobile sources such as cars and trucks and stationary sources. ABCs can extend vertically from the ground by as much as 3 kilometers and can penetrate homes and buildings, affecting indoor air quality. Fortunately, the particles and aerosols commonly found in ABCs can be removed by proper-strength HEPA air filtration systems.
HEPA filters are also certified to capture gaseous pollutants that contribute to the formation of ABCs, such as:
- Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
- Sulfur oxides (SOx)
- Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
- Carbon monoxide (CO)
- Methane (CHR)
- Ozone (O3)
ABC Health Issues Prevented by Commercial HEPA Filter and Air Purifiers
For humans, the impacts of ABCs are manifold. As mentioned earlier, haze pollutants can enter homes and buildings, causing allergy attacks, asthma, and other respiratory issues. It’s precisely for this reason that commercial HEPA filters and air purifiers are necessary in parts of the world struggling with heavy air pollution.
A 2008 UNEP report on atmospheric brown clouds found that around 337,000 excess fatalities occurred in China and India alone due to airborne pollutants found in ABCs. This finding, along with estimates from the World Health Organization, suggests that there may have been under a million deaths attributable to poor air outdoor air quality caused by the burning of solid fuels.
Effects of ABCs That Go Beyond Commercial HEPA Filters
Unfortunately, commercial HEPA air filters only address the health-related effects of ABCs. These haze clouds also affect the ability of plants to use sunlight in photosynthesis. For example, rice productivity in parts of Southeast Asia where rice is grown can fall by as much as 10 percent due to haze. Data shows that the annual growth rate of rice harvests in Asia has consistently fallen since the 1960s—right around the same time slashing and burning of forests for palm oil production began.
To see the effects of ABCs in a much more visual manner, one need only to look at the Taj Mahal, the jewel of India, which has slowly turned brown over the years due to poor air quality. In the 1980s, this discoloration was attributed to high levels of sulfur dioxide in the air. If nothing is done to solve the problem of ABCs, it’s only a matter of time for the beloved structure to completely turn yellow.
How Are Commercial Air Filter Manufacturers Responding to Atmospheric Brown Clouds?
The good news is that many commercial air filter manufacturers are manufacturing air filtration systems specifically designed to capture and remove the airborne pollutants left by ABCs in indoor spaces, whether it’s in schools, airports, manufacturing facilities, or medical facilities among many others.
The key is to choose the proper-strength HEPA filter for the job. A true HEPA filter will remove 99.97 percent of particulate matter and toxic aerosols from inside a room, but this performance needs to be supported with other measures such as sealing the room and keeping it clean.
Prevention vs. Cure with Commercial HEPA Filters
Remember that while effective in “treating” indoor air quality, commercial HEPA filters only address the symptoms of ABCs. As with all pollution problems, the key is to go to the source of the issue and provide cleaner and more sustainable alternatives. In the case of ABCs, this may involve providing access to clean fuel, advancing vehicle emissions norms, and implementing tougher laws against the burning of forests and crops.
Camfil USA Air Filters


Tuesday, August 26, 2014
“The Importance of Press Freedom”
by Devyn J. White
In 1791, three years after the Constitution was ratified, the first amendment to the Constitution was passed by Congress. Included in it is a vital passage, which declares that “Congress shall make no law ... abridging the freedom ... of the press.” This one clause is absolutely essential to the liberty of an individual. However, there have been many who denied this right to the American public, and their actions have badly affected citizens. Those who uphold the Constitution should always speak out against aggressions toward the free press, because there are several consequences of not doing so.
Two great persons, though not Americans themselves, provided excellent reasons to support press freedom. The first was stated by the English poet John Milton, near the time of the English Civil War. In a convincing letter, he said that forming opinions as free citizens involves gathering information, and a free press makes this information available to the people. The second reason was shown in the 19th century by an English philosopher named John Stuart Mill. He believed that by silencing one viewpoint by a controlled press, it is probable that the truth could be concealed from the public.
However, to the dismay of Americans everywhere, actions contrary to the first amendment were directed specifically against the freedom of the press. One prominent assault occurred in 1798, when President Adams and Congress passed the Sedition Act. This made it lawful to penalize those who spoke against the government, regardless of whether the truth was spoken or not. Thomas Jefferson later wrote against this issue, “I know not which mortifies me most, that I should fear to write what I think, or my country bear such a state of things.” Many supporters of the free press hated this act, and they were thankful when it expired on March 3, 1801.
If citizens allow the press to be controlled by the government, a number of consequences arise. They will not gain access to the information they need to form opinions, because only viewpoints supporting the government will be mentioned. Those who oppose it will have a nearly impossible chance of expressing their own ideas, even if they are stating facts. Furthermore, voters will have a limited ability to know which candidates to elect for government positions, because the press would only favor those who share their opinions.
The freedom of the press is a great gift which everyone in this nation should cherish. By increasing personal liberty, its benefits have largely influenced the American society. Although abuses may be made against this freedom, the opposition of several good Americans, who care for their Constitutional rights, will stop them. Finally, by understanding the consequences that could arise from a controlled press, citizens should remember that America is truly a great nation and that press freedom has helped make it so.


Newsletter of the Mercurians, in the Society for the History of Technology
Volume 10, No. 1, November 1997
Joseph Henry, Radio Pioneer
Joseph Henry used an elevated antenna more than twenty years before Loomis. He sent signals between a tuned transmitter and receiver nearly fifty years before Lodge or Hertz. He invented a magnetic detector sixty years before Marconiwell, just kidding about that one. But it was magnetic, and it registered impulses from thunderstorms eight miles away.
So why is Joseph Henry's name forgotten with regards to radio history, with but a few exceptions to this neglect? In a biographical article in the January 1926 Bell System Technical Journal, Bancroft Gherardi and Robert W. King considered this question.
Henry's work contained the germ of yet another important discovery. Some of his experiments on induction by Leyden jar discharges involved the transmission of electric force without wires through distances as great as two hundred feet, and through the floors and walls of buildings. And in similar experiments in which he observed the effects of lightning flashes in place of sparks from a Leyden jar, he found that he could get the lightning to magnetize needles up to a distance as great as eight miles. This was about 1842. Here we have the earliest evidence of ether waves of the type that the radio engineer employs (pp. 9-10).
Gherardi and King surmised that the significance of Henry's experimentation had not been recognized earlier because that required "much fuller investigation" into radio technologies. But they also speculated that "had Henry not been called to other work, the world might have possessed a wireless telegraph capable of sending messages over substantial distances many years before it did."
Henry described this work briefly in what was issued posthumously in 1880 as the "Memorial of Joseph Henry" and subsequently republished as Volume 21 of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections in 1881. Of course at that time it was just an interesting observation from forty years before, hardly worth expanding on, since radio didn't yet exist.
Perhaps the best way to appreciate just what Henry did in 1841 or 1842 is to read his account, published in 1860, and reprinted below. This was carefully buried in the Report of the Commissioner of Patents for 1859, Agricultural Section, in a lengthy paper on Meteorology, part V in a series begun in the 1855 Report (pp. 477-478). Charles Alfred Coulson asserts in Joseph Henry: His Life and Work (1950) that "scarcely anyone but his more intimate friends" read Henry's account, but it might be noted that 300,000 copies of this book were printed for distribution by members of Congress.
Granted, it takes some creative interpretation to credit Joseph Henry with transmitting and receiving intelligence by radio in 1842. But as noted earlier, the germ of the idea was there, and Henry certainly anticipated some later discoveries. In addition, who is to say that Loomis didn't read the 1859 Report and start thinking?
Alan S. Douglas has worked for more than thirty years for Benthos, Inc., makers of underwater research equipment. Recently, one of the firm's vehicles photographed a warship from Benedict Arnold's fleet at the bottom of Lake Champlain. Douglas's publications on radio and electronics history include three volumes of Radio Manufacturers of the 1920s and many journal and magazine articles, placed in periodicals ranging from the IEEE Spectrum to club bulletins.
Editors' note: Henry described the roof of his residence with relative precision, insofar as it pertained to his experiment: a "tinned iron. . . in the condition of an insulated plate, on account of the imperfect conduction of the wood and brick-work which intervened between it and the ground." Do you ever wonder if tin roofs, corks, and gimlet holes in window frames will again be instruments for conducting state-of-the art, technical experiments?
Illustration of Henry from: Cyrus F. Brackett, et al, Electricity in Daily Life: A Popular Account of the Applications of Electricity to Every Day Uses (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1893), p. 37.


19/06/2013 by noonobservation
My first two blog posts about airships both came to rather tragic conclusions, so I’m relieved to say that this one merely ends in dramatic failure and a lucrative book deal.
The second aerial attempt on the North Pole was made by American newspaperman and part-time adventurer, Walter Wellman. Not content to simply write about events, in the 1890s Wellman took to filling slow news weeks with his attempts to trek to the North Pole on foot, which always ended in heroic failure (usually involving fist fights with polar bears). Inspired by the extreme tediousness and discomfort of pedestrian Arctic exploration, in 1906 Wellman turned to airships as a means of avoiding further months spent eating seal blubber and Bovril.
Since the expedition was financed by the Chicago Record-Herald, many at first dismissed Wellman’s efforts as an advertising stunt. If this was the case, then he went to considerable cost and bother trying to make his advertising stunt reach the newspaper readers of the North Pole.
His airship, named the America, was built for him in France with guidance from Santos-Dumont and several French aeronauts. At 6,300 cubic metres, it was the second largest balloon in the world at the time (after Count Zeppelin’s), and constructed from three layers of fabric and three of rubber glued together to give extra leak protection.
It also sported a novel device, which Wellman called the “equilibrator” (or affectionately, his “stuffed serpent” or “sausage”). The equilibrator was a long leather tube, clad in steel “scales” and packed with reserve food. It was designed to drag along the ice/sea and automatically regulate the ship’s height without the need for tossing out ballast or venting gas: if the ship descended, more of the equilibrator’s weight would be on the ice, lightening the ship and causing it to rise; if the ship rose, more of the equilibrator’s weight would be carried by the ship, causing it to descend. Like most serpents however, it caused endless trouble, which ultimately led to a fall.
Attempts to reach the North Pole
Wellman shipped out to Spitzbergen in 1906 and built “Camp Wellman”, heartlessly demolishing Andree‘s ruined balloon house for timber. Not being a subscriber to the suicidal polar explorer club, Wellman stocked the America with 10 months’ food for the three-man crew, sledges and 10 emergency huskies.
Delayed by bad weather, the America finally took flight in September 1907, rather late in the adventuring season. The ship travelled a disappointing 35 miles before being forced down onto a glacier by a snowstorm, leaving Wellman to be rescued by sailors.
After taking a break to report on the US elections, Wellman returned to Spitzbergen in 1909 with an enlarged America, determined to try again. The second attempt started promisingly, until 65 miles in when the equilibrator embarrassingly fell off. This caused the ship to soar up to 1500m, from where it could only be brought down again by venting hydrogen. Wellman was rescued again, this time by Norwegian sailors, who towed the America, her disappointed crew and terrified dogs back to Spitzbergen.
Contrary to the opinions of most, Mr Wellman felt that, “but for the accident to the auxiliary device, the equilibrator… the America might easily have reached the Pole or its vicinity in from 25 to 30 hours.” Wellman vowed to return in 1910 with an even bigger America.
However, it was at about this time that people started claiming they had already got to the Pole using sledges and Inuits. Believing that Robert Peary (or possibly Frederick Cook) had already thoroughly discovered the North Pole, Wellman decided that the Arctic was old news.
Attempt to cross the Atlantic
Despite her longest flight having been only 65 miles, Wellman was confident that, with a few adjustments, the America could make the 3,500 mile trip across the Atlantic.
With the financial assistance of the London Daily Telegraph, the New York Times and the Chicago Record-Herald, Wellman had the America enlarged again and fitted out with a new car, new engines, a radio and a new equilibrator (this time composed of gasoline cans attached to a 300 foot steel cable). Demonstrating once more his keen survival instincts, Wellman also had a sturdy mahogany lifeboat (which doubled as the ship’s look-out post and smoking room) slung under the keel.
All this extra safety came at a price however, and the airship came in sadly overweight. Wellman’s view (which hopefully his crew bought into) was that, “…duty at times compels a man to take an imperfect apparatus, and… go out with it and do the best he can, no matter at what cost or risk.” Thus the America set off from a fog-bound Atlantic City in October 1910 dragging her submerged equilibrator through the sea.
The most famous member of Wellman’s crew (thanks to the internet being run by cats) is now Kiddo: a grey tabby brought along as a mascot. His main contribution to the voyage was to keep everyone awake: initially by his terrified yowling during the early stages of the voyage and later by his habit of trying to sleep on people’s faces.
Almost from the start of the voyage, the America ran into trouble. One of her two engines refused to run at all; the other had the delightful habit of shooting burning matter from its exhaust, the sparks skittering playfully across the underside of the hydrogen-filled balloon. Wellman calculated their chances of being blown up at 50:50.
With a great deal of effort, the America managed to avoid the embarrassment of being shipwrecked on the luxury coast of New England, however the crew was soon reduced to jettisoning necessary fuel, supplies and the broken engine in order to maintain altitude. In rough seas, the 2-tonne equilibrator bounced from wave to wave, tugging the balloon down each time so that it nearly hit the water.
After drifting powerless through the third day, by shear luck, they made contact with the Royal Mail steamer, Trent. The America‘s crew got into their lifeboat and cut it loose from the balloon. Freed from the tedious weight of Wellman’s ambitions, the America rose and continued on her merry way, though the equilibrator couldn’t resist having one last go at killing them all as it departed. Fortunately, the large hole it made in the lifeboat was above the waterline.
The only person disappointed was F Murray Simon, the British navigator. Since his favourite sport was boating, he had been perversely looking forward to spending a few days on the mid-Atlantic in an open boat.
The crew of the Airship America returned to a hero’s welcome. They failed to cross the Atlantic, but did set a new airship distance record of 1,008 miles. Kiddo was much fêted and later displayed in a gilded cage in the window of Gimbels department store, before going into retirement.
Walter Wellman was quite clearly a publicity-hungry arse. Though he liked to say a lot about advancing science and human progress, he didn’t really do any science on any of his trips, preferring to gawp at the scenery and write self-aggrandising journals. His goals of “reaching the pole” or “crossing the Atlantic” were mainly chosen because they made good headlines.
If Wellman had been serious about advancing aviation, he would have slowly developed a practical and reliable ship through – I don’t know – perhaps some test flights or something. Instead he sailed off in needlessly dramatic, all-or-nothing haste in untried ships.
His main contribution to aviation was to prove that equilibrators are stupid.


Origen and Allegory | Introduction to History and Spirit: The Understanding of Scripture According to Origen | Henri de Lubac
Dom Capelle was recently obliged to devote a scholarly article to proving that Saint Ambrose did not take Melchizedek to be the eternal Father.  What a lengthy book would be required if we wished to establish with equal care, by the minute examination of so many misquoted texts and by the production of so many others that are usually misunderstood, that Origen was not the mad "allegorist" he is so often thought to be! The error is so deep-rooted, it has so many authorities for it, it concurs, we must admit, with so many of our prejudices, that even today we find good historians reviving it without a closer look. Even those who every now and then rise to combat it make concession to it again in spite of themselves. Such was the case in the nineteenth century with Bishop Freppel, who thought he was being generous to Origen in saying that "even with regard to the books of the Old Testament, his preferences do not go so far as to exclude systematically" all literal exegesis.  Closer to our own time, this was also the case with Abbé Jules Martin, even though he was working on texts.  René Cadiou himself, in the course of an excellent chapter on Origenian symbolism, writes: "The Alexandrians easily sacrificed history in their desire to impose symbolism, even though Christian revelation is, in the first place, a historical event."  Nevertheless, as paradoxical as this might appear to a modern mind, was not one of the motives for this symbolism, in the Christian thinking of the first centuries, precisely to assure history a meaning that pagan antiquity had denied it? And did not Origen, perhaps better than any other, comment on this verse from the Letter to the Hebrews that, in its uniqueness, so well confirms the value of the "historical event" in which we believe: "[Christ] has appeared once for all at the end of the age to put away sin by the sacrifice of himself "?
The word allegory is automatically associated with Origenian exegesis. This is certainly not wrong, if we do not intend to express the whole of his exegesis by that word, and neither are all the objections summed up in that word inapplicable. But still, it is necessary to have a good understanding of it. It is a vague word with a variety of meanings.  Many have too much disdain for it to waste their time being precise about the characteristics of the thing it designates, or that they think it designates in Origen's case, so that, by its very inconsistency, the idea they form of it eludes any orderly discussion. When they speak, in fact, of an "excess of symbolism" or "exaggerated allegory", what exactly do they mean by these expressions? Is it merely a question, for example, of a "lack of sobriety" or of too rich a profusion of symbols, so that the error would be "rather in the application than in the substance of things" ?  Or, on the other hand, is it a question of some corrosive principle that sound exegesis is obliged to reject? It has been my desire to try to clear up a question that has become so obscure by, first of all, forcing, so to speak, the accepted judgments to be more explicit. I have sought, not to "defend" Origen, but simply to know what in fact he thought and said.
Several friends had undertaken to translate the Homilies on the Hexapla from Rufinus' version. These translations naturally appeared some time later in the Sources chrétiennes series, and I was asked to write an introduction. That was the occasion for this study. Since the Homilies on the Hexapla are, from one end to the other, little more than one vast repertoire of "allegorical" interpretations, the subject was inescapable. The very strangeness of it was stimulating to me. But it was quickly apparent to me that in order to discuss this subject to any advantage, it was necessary to consider it at the same time within the framework of Origen's entire work. As E. Klostermann wrote quite recently,  commentaries and homilies cannot be dissociated in this work on the pretext that they correspond to two distinct genres: just as the homilies are filled with details that attest to a concern for scientific order, the commentaries are full of spiritual preoccupations. As for the other works, such as the Peri Archôn or Contra Celsum, their contribution is equally essential. But as I looked in those works for the necessary information, the subject I had at first envisioned assumed a broader scope in my eyes. It was no longer a matter of measuring, in any given exegesis, the part allotted to the "letter" or to history. It was no longer even a matter solely of exegesis. It was a whole manner of thinking, a whole world view that loomed before me. A whole interpretation of Christianity of which Origen, furthermore, despite many of his personal and at times questionable traits, was less the author than the witness. Even more, through this "spiritual understanding" of Scripture, it was Christianity itself that appeared to me, as if acquiring a reflective self-awareness. This is the phenomenon, one of the most characteristic of the early Christian period, that, in the final analysis, I sought to grasp.
Similar essays have become increasingly frequent in recent years, some simply historical and others with a doctrinal purpose. Theologians and exegetes are examining the subject thoroughly, each according to his discipline. Everywhere, in every sense, they are speaking of the "spiritual sense". Discussions have taken place that were not at all unproductive. New points of view have evolved. Traditional truths have been elucidated more clearly. My task is easier because of this. The time is not ripe, however, for a complete synthesis. Rather than consider the question in all its breadth, which would have required a rather adventurous foray into the biblical field, I have therefore stayed with my original plan. Origen remains at the center of my perspective. It is he whom we are examining; it is within his axis that we place ourselves. A mere chapter--though one of unparalleled importance, it is true--of that history of spiritual exegesis that might itself be an important chapter in the history of theology.
My purpose is thus historical--and I intend my method to be so as well. Let me repeat, I am seeking to discover what Origen thought by finding out, without any preconceived decision, what it was he said, through as extensive a reading and as literal an exegesis as possible. To the best of my ability, I am employing with regard to him that "basic objectivity that consists in seeing him accurately within the framework of problems contemporaneous to him and in understanding his doctrine according to the questions to which it was actually responding". This is precisely what seems to me to be lacking in some earlier works, and it is this above all that I have sought to provide. But such a concern carries us far. It forces us to react against that kind of unjust objectivity of those who can see only the outside and the fixed endings of a work that has become distant. It also leads us very quickly to go beyond too extrinsic a method, one by which we could at best obtain only an almost insignificant exactitude--a betrayal worse than many misinterpretations. Many interpretations have in fact been made of Origenian texts. But what is perhaps more regrettable is that this immense question of the spiritual understanding of Scripture, as ancient Christian tradition envisaged it, has so often been reduced to the narrow proportions of a debate over the number and value of certain "spiritual meanings" hidden like riddles in certain corners of the Bible; just as it is also regrettable that, of the whole profound doctrine elaborated by Origen on this subject, so often only the "excesses" or the "subtleties" of his "allegories" are retained.
It is possible, without taking particular precautions, to make a "historical contribution" to the history of a rite or an institution, indeed, with a few reservations, to that of an idea or a dogma. It is enough to apply the customary rules. But when a spiritual synthesis, lived and reflected within a great intellect, is at issue, what gross or subtle distortions occur in reconstructions produced by an "objective" and "strictly historical" method! This is said, not at all to make excuses for the weaknesses of the method, but to establish its inevitable insufficiency. To reach the heart of a vigorous thought, nothing is as inadequate as a certain pretension to pure objectivity. If we want to have any chance of understanding it, even as a mere historian, it is necessary, whether we like it or not, to explain to ourselves what we read; it is necessary to translate, to interpret. That cannot be done without risk, but this risk must be run. Truly illuminating analysis is neither a photograph nor a material summary. It must bring out the essence, which is nearly always implicit. It must lay open hidden categories, determine lines of force. It must penetrate beneath the particularities of time and place to what is eternal. This is, without doubt, a task that is always incomplete, an interpretation necessarily partial. Every epoch, every historian, returning to the great works of the past, illuminates one aspect of them while leaving others in shadow. In that sense, too, subjectivity is unavoidable. Yet the work is indispensable, all the more indispensable as the thought being studied is more actually thought. Thought is not rediscovered in the same way as a fact is reconstructed. Whether it be from today, yesterday, or long ago, whether it offers greater or fewer difficulties of approach to be overcome by the resources of historical science and its auxiliaries, it has an interior that historicism is obliged to disregard.
In the present case, such historicism would be doubly deceptive. For we are not at all concerned with the work of one solitary thinker or with a problem that in no way affects us. This work fits into a tradition that touches us ourselves. This problem--in assuredly very different forms according to the century--has commanded the attention of all Christian generations. In the final analysis, all have to resolve it in the same light. If, therefore, our historical effort must not deviate into historicism, neither must our parallel effort at objectivity deviate into objectivism. Living the same faith as Origen, members of the same Church, afloat, so to speak, in the same stream of tradition, it would be pointless for us to wish to behave like outside observers in everything concerning him--or concerning anyone else in the long chain of witnesses that goes back to the apostles of Jesus. It would prohibit us a second time from understanding him. It would deprive us of any valid principle of discernment with which to judge him. The methodological principle put forward by Möhler for the history of the Church is, a fortiori, true for the history of Christian thought: "We must live the Christianity of the history to be described, and this Christianity must live in us, for Christianity is above all a living thing, and the history of the Church is a living development."
Finally, let me add that, with texts that very often disconcert us, an extra effort becomes necessary in order to reproduce within ourselves the movement of the spirit that once made them come alive. An intentional sympathy, methodical docility--which are not grounds for concluding that I am presenting Origenian exegesis as a model to be followed in every respect. I am far from doing that. My endeavor would be misconstrued if ascribed to even a limited or amended "anti-scientific reaction", which I am told "is prevalent currently in spiritualist circles". I know, of course, that there is blind criticism and false science. Authentic science itself is not everything, especially when its object is books containing the Word of God. It is nevertheless invaluable, and I would consider harmful to the highest degree anyone in the least inclined to contest its domain or scorn its results. I am furthermore convinced that if it is necessary to note an insufficiency here in what concerns Origen, it is much less one of spirit than one of technique. On the other hand, I find the distance to be as great as anyone else does, that distance which separates us irremediably from this Alexandrian of the third century and from his intellectual universe. The river does not flow back to its source. No more than life itself does thought retrace its steps. Even if it wished to do so, no miracle would allow such a dream to be realized. Yet perhaps after the long course it has just run through the parched lands of rationalism and positivism, it will find itself more likely to be understood and even taken in today--many signs seem to attest to this--in order to bring to life in us what is expressed of the eternal in these forms now dead. The wells once dug by Origen have long been covered over with sand. But the same deep layer of water is still there, which he can help us find once again in order to quench the same thirst.
1 Dom B. Capelle, "Notes de théologie ambrosienne, 1: La Personne de Meichisédech", in Recherches de théologie ancienne et médiévale, 1931: 183-89.
 Charles Freppel, Cours d'eloquence sacrée 10:140.
 Martin, "La Critique biblique chez Origène", Annales de philosophie chrétienne 151:241ff.
 René Cadiou, La Jeunesse d'Origène (1936), p. 54.
 Heb 9:26. Verse cited in PA 2, 3, 5 (p. 120). Cf. CC 4, 12 (p. 282). "It will be noted", writes Father Daniélou, Origène, p. 280, "that in that long succession of centuries (inaugurated by Origen), the one during which Christ became incarnate has a unique importance that has no more been exhausted by the centuries-old vastness of Origen than the unique place on earth, the site of Christ's Incarnation, has been exhausted by the discovery of stellar vastness."
 See "Typologie et allegorisme", RSR 34 (1947).
 Bainvel, De Scriptura sacra (1910), p. 199.
 E. Klostermann, "Formen der exegetischen Arbeiten des Origenes", Theologische Literatur-zeitung, October 1947, cols. 203-8.
 I do not think it possible to respond lightly to the reproach addressed by Karl Barth to those who profess respect for history: "This famous respect for history," he wrote, "which, despite the beauty of the expression, simply means that one is renouncing all serious and respectful understanding and explanation."
 J.-A. Möhler, first preface to L'Unité dans l'Église. Cf. the commentary that Father de Grandmaison gives for this passage, RSR 9 (1919): 314.
 I am grateful to Father Chifflot, director of Éditions du Cerf, for permitting me to use for this work my introductions to Homélies d'Origène, which appeared in the Sources chrétiennes series.
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Henri de Lubac, S.J. (1896-1991) was a French Jesuit and one of the greatest theologians of the twentieth century. De Lubac was ordained a priest on August 22, 1927, pursued further studies in Rome until 1929, and then became a faculty member at Catholic Faculties of Theology of Lyons, where he taught history of religions until 1961. His pupils included Jean Daniélou and Hans Urs von Balthasar. De Lubac was created cardinal deacon by Pope John Paul II on February 2, 1983 and received the red biretta and the deaconry of S. Maria in Domnica, February 2, 1983. He died on September 4, 1991, Paris and is buried in a tomb of the Society of Jesus at the Vaugirard cemetery in Paris. For more about his life and a listing of his books published by Ignatius Press, visit his IgnatiusInsight.com author page.
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1817 (undated) 19 x 25 in (48.26 x 63.5 cm)
1 : 6500000
This is the 1817 map of India with inset maps of the Ganges River by Edinburgh cartographer John Thomson. This magnificent map is the rarest of the Thomson India series. It depicts the whole of India from Lahore to the idle of Ceylon (Shi Lanka). Numerous cities, towns, rivers, mountains and beautifully depicted deserts are noted throughout. The right hand side of the map is dedicated to a careful mapping of the Ganges River and includes a cross-section of the Ganges, a map of the course of the Ganges in the dry season, and a map of the Inland Navigations routes along the river from the Bay of Bengal to Allahabad. This map's magnificent size, beautiful color, and high detail make this one of the finest maps of this region to appear in the early 19th century. Prepared by John Thomson for inclusion in the 1817 edition of Thomson's New General Atlas.
John Thomson (1777 - c. 1841) was a Scottish cartographer, publisher, and bookbinder active in Edinburgh during the early part of the 19th century. Thomson apprenticed under Edinburgh bookbinder Robert Alison. After his apprenticeship he briefly went into business with Abraham Thomson. Later the two parted ways, John Thomson segueing into maps and Abraham Thomson taking over the bookbinding portion of the business. Thomson is generally one of the leading publishers in the Edinburgh school of cartography which flourished from roughly 1800 to 1830. Thomson and his contemporaries (Pinkerton and Cary) redefined European cartography by abandoning typical 18th century decorative elements such as elaborate title cartouches and fantastic beasts in favor of detail and accuracy. Thomson's principle works include Thomson's New General Atlas, published from 1814 to 1821, the New Classical and Historical Atlas of 1829, and his 1830 Atlas of Scotland. The Atlas of Scotland, a work of groundbreaking detail and dedication would eventually bankrupt the Thomson firm in 1830, at which time their plates were sequestered by the court. The firm partially recovered in the subsequent year allowing Thomson to reclaim his printing plates in 1831, but filed again for bankruptcy in 1835, at which time most of his printing plates were sold to A. K. Johnston and Company. There is some suggestion that he continued to work as a bookbinder until 1841. Today, Thomson maps are becoming increasingly rare as they are highly admired for their impressive size, vivid hand coloration, and superb detail.
Thomson, J., A New General Atlas, (Edinburgh) 1817.
Thomson's New General Atlas was first published in 1817 and continued to be published until about 1821. This is the first of Thomson's major cartographic works and the atlas for which is most celebrated. The New General Atlas follows in the Edinburgh School, which eschews excessive decoration in favor of a more minimalistic fact-based cartographic vision, as established by John Pinkerton, Laurie and Whittle, John Cary, and others in the previous decades. The maps are notable for their massive scale, heavy stock, elegant color work, and easy-to-read typefaces. Although the atlas stopped being published after 1821, Thomson continued to offer 'supplementary' maps that could be tipped into the atlas as late as 1830, when he declared bankruptcy. The maps in the Thomson Atlas were engraved by Thomas Clerk, William Dassauville, Nathaniel Rogers Hewitt, James Kirkwood, Robert Kirkwood, John Menzies, George Menzies, Edward Mitchell, John Moffatt, Samuel John Neele, Robert Scott, and James Wyld.
Very good. Minor wear along original centerfold. Original platemark visible. Overall toning and foxing at places.