Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) in Welding Inspection (Part I): General
By: Eng. Jesus Eduardo Contreras
When talking about this topic, we must consider at least 3 important aspects:
i) Welding, which is already an extensive topic, but here we can define very briefly that it is a process that leads to the union of two or more materials together, in such a way that they remain as a single piece. For the purposes of this article, we are talking about metallic materials.
There are many welding processes (At SOLDOZA we are experts in everything related to welding, see references), in other articles we will describe the welding processes in detail.
ii) The defects present in the weld,
as in the previous point, we will detail these defects in other related articles (see references). And the…
iii) Non-Destructive Testing including:
…techniques both surface detection and volumetric inspection. Each technique has its own advantages and limitations, but in most cases, they can be complementary and combined to provide operators with the most comprehensive data. Thanks to the continued advances in NDT technology enables improved detection of defects and sizing.
Let us start with the most traditional methods to detect volumetric discontinuities:
|Radiography (RT)||Is the general term given to material inspection methods that are based on the differential absorption of penetrating radiation–either electromagnetic radiation of short wavelength or particulate radiation–by the part or test-piece (object) being inspected.|
It detects volumetrics discontinuities such as porosity, inclusions, and even cracks if the crack opening runs parallel to the radiation beam.
Can be used on almost any material
Well established standards and codes of practice
The radiogram or film provides a ‘visual’ indication of flaws
X-Rays and gamma rays are hazardous radiations
Access to both sides of the test object is necessary to produce a radiograph
Discontinuities such as cracks, laminations, lack of fusion, etc., must be aligned with or parallel to the radiation beam to be detected clearly
Choice of radiation energy for a particular thickness of weld is a critical factor
Location of defect in test object’s cross section is difficult to determine
Digital & Computerized
On site immediate results Instant image transmission, no developing, no scanning. Results appear on laptop/tablet screen in seconds of shooting
Minimal surrounding safety distance
No more film consumables (Films paper, Chemicals, etc.) More inspections a day are made possible
No more dark rooms
Very portable systems
|Less photosensitive than traditional films|
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION is a nondestructive method in which beams of high-frequency sound waves are introduced into materials for the detection of surface and subsurface flaws in the material.
The sound waves travel through the material with some attendant loss of energy (attenuation) and are reflected at interfaces.
The reflected beam is displayed and then analyzed to define the presence and location of flaws or discontinuities.
Capable of detecting planar defects not detectable by radiography.
High sensitivity, permitting detection of minute defects.
Great penetrating power, allowing examination of extremely thick sections, e.g., up to 10 inches of steel.
Accuracy in the measurement of flaw position and estimation of flaw size.
Fast response, permitting rapid and automated inspection.
May be performed with access to only one surface of the object.
Test conditions which may limit the application of ultrasonic methods usually relate to one of the following factors:
Unfavorable geometry of test object; for example, size, contour, complexity and defect orientation.
Undesirable material structure; for example, grain size, structure porosity, or inclusion content.
Coupling and scanning problems, surface conditions etc.
When using normal probes, defects located less than 4-5 mm below the test object’s surface is difficult to detect. (This is due to the equipment dead zone, the width of the pulse, and the probes near zone where interference will affect the measurements).
Due to high sensitivity false or irrelevant indications may occur.
Called Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) can be used for a variety of applications, its primary use is rapid weld testing of circumferential and axial weld seams
Based on diffraction, so relatively indifferent to weld bevel angles and flaw orientation Uses time of arrival of signals received from crack tips for accurate defect positioning and sizing
Precise sizing capability makes it an ideal flaw monitoring method
Quick to set up and perform an inspection, as a single beam offers a large area of coverage
Rapid scanning with imaging and full data recording
Can also be used for corrosion inspections Required equipment is more economical than phased array, due to conventional nature (single pulser and receiver) and use of conventional probes
Extremely sensitive to all weld flaw types
|Requirement to operator’s qualifications|
|Phased Array (UTPA)||
Phased array is an advanced pulse-echo technique utilizing multiple miniaturized transducers and time-delays to shape the ultrasonic sound beam in a desired angle and focus.
Therefore, the technique has a wide range of applications Phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT) probes are composed of several piezoelectric crystals that can transmit/receive independently at different times.
To focus the ultrasonic beam, time delays are applied to the elements to create constructive interference of the wavefronts, allowing the energy to be focused on any depth in the test specimen undergoing inspection.
PA can reduce inspection times by eliminating or reducing the need for mechanical scanning and by taking advantage of the ability to perform electronic scanning
A single phased-array probe allows the user to change the shape and focal point of the ultrasonic beam to optimize each inspection.
Digital storage of all data, location, and system settings
Visualization of indications in weld and/or base material, using B-, C-, D- and S-scans (with all A-scans included)
Compared to measurements with conventional single-element probes, the detection and sizing of defects is much easier and more robust
Possibility to facilitate inspections of complex geometries
Requirement to operator’s qualifications
Materials as SS alloys sometimes need special transducers to increase the PoD.
|Total Focus Method (TFM)||
The Total Focusing Method (TFM) is an ultrasonic array technique which is used to synthetically focus on every point of a region of interest
Optimal focusing and spatial resolution everywhere
Direct imaging of a large area for one probe position
All reachable angles with the array simultaneously
In some application files will be very heavy
The data processing speed could be slow in some cases
Next time, we will be talking about NDT techniques for evaluating surface and sub-surface defects.


ISO/TR 13353:2002 gives a test procedure for evaluating the initial efficiency of an internal combustion engine fuel filter by submitting the filter to a constant flowrate of test liquid.
ISO/TR 13353:2002 is applicable to diesel and petrol filters having a rated flow of from 50 l/h to 250 l/h. By agreement between filter manufacturer and customer, the procedure, with some modification, may be used for fuel filters with higher flowrates.
Status: WithdrawnPublication date: 2002-08
Edition: 1Number of pages: 17
Technical Committee: ISO/TC 22 Road vehicles


A Look at Corneal Pachymeters
BY MARJORIE J. RAH, OD, PHD
Whether you're co-managing refractive surgery, treating glaucoma or monitoring corneal edema, you may find yourself in need of a corneal pachymeter. Pachymetry has changed how we manage glaucoma. Likewise, determining eligibility for refractive surgical procedures depends on accurate corneal thickness measurements.
Medical plans cover pachyme-try when practitioners use it to determine the treatment plan for a glaucoma suspect or glaucoma patient. It's billed as bilateral code 76514 and requires interpretation and report. Some plans may cover it only once per lifetime.
Several pachymeter models are available in a wide range of prices and portability. I had the opportunity to observe some of the available instruments at the 2005 American Academy of Optometry meeting. Not surprisingly, the highlighted feature was IOP correction. In fact, many pachyme-ters now have a function that automatically calculates the correction.
The Pachmate DGH 55 (DGH Technology, Inc.) is a portable handheld model. It's only 6.9 inches long, 1.7 inches wide and weighs a mere 3.6 ounces. A running average and standard deviation in microns are displayed on the screen and it will accommodate up to 25 measurements bilaterally. It also displays IOP correction on the screen. The instrument features an adjustable probe angle that detaches for cleaning. Standard measurement range is 200μm to 1,100μm and it has a flap option of 95μm to 1,100μm. The company states an accuracy range of ± 5μm.
Also from DGH Technology is the Pachette 3. It's portable, but not handheld. It shares the same features and specifications (with the exception of size) as the Pachmate DGH 55.
The Corneo-Gage Plus (Sonogage, Inc.) is a slightly larger, but portable, ultrasonic pachymeter that includes a built-in dot matrix printer. The manufacturer says a 50 MHz transducer provides accuracy of ± 0.4μm and a measurement range of 25μm to 2,000μm. This instrument doesn't average individual readings. The printout displays each individual measurement. The instrument also has a built-in IOP correction nomogram.
For gadget lovers, Heidelberg Engineering offers the IOPac Standard and IOPac Advanced pachymeters with a platform based on Palm technology. The probe ultrasound frequency of 20 MHz provides a measurement range of 300μm to 1,000μm. The manufacturer says the accuracy range is ± 5μm. The probe is adjustable to either a straight or a 45-degree angled position. Both models automatically average readings, display individual measurements and are compatible with medical, pharmaceutical and ICD-9 Palm software. The Advanced model includes automatic CCT corrected IOP calculations. It also has refractive measurement capability and infrared capability for printing.
There is also a slit-lamp mounted pachymeter available from Haag-Streit which uses optical coherence reflectometry. According to the company, it has the ability to measure epithelial corneal thickness and has a non-contact measurement that is accurate to ± 1μm. A thermal printer is provided with the instrument along with connections to a PC or laptop computer.
Features and Price
The price for pachymeters begins around $1,995 and increases with additional features. This list is by no means exhaustive of all the available models, but represents many of the popular instruments currently available.
Dr. Rah is an assistant professor at the New England College of Optometry where she works primarily in the Cornea and Contact Lens Service in patient care, teaching and research.


Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics (Kobo eBook)
Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics, Volume 200, the latest release in a series that merges two long-running serials, Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics and Advances in Optical and Electron Microscopy features extended articles on the physics of electron devices (especially semiconductor devices), particle optics at high and low energies, microlithography, image science, digital image processing, electromagnetic wave propagation, electron microscopy, and computing methods. Topics in this latest release include Past and Present Attempts to Attain the Resolution Limit of the Transmission Electron Microscope, Phase Plates for Transmission Electron Microscopy, and X-Ray Lasers in Biology: Structure and Dynamics.
- Contains contributions from leading authorities on the subject matter
- Informs and updates on all the latest developments in the field of imaging and electron physics
- Provides practitioners interested in microscopy, optics, image processing, mathematical morphology, electromagnetic fields, electron, and ion emission with a valuable resource
- Features extended articles on the physics of electron devices (especially semiconductor devices), particle optics at high and low energies, microlithography, image science, and digital image processing


Compact and easily carried with one hand.
Battery operated—measurements can be taken anywhere.
Fully digital display allows for anyone to easily read results.
Capable to measure with only a small amount of sample.
Easy set-up and simple, one-button operation.
Package A Extra £50 – Capable of taking measurements with containers other than the included beakers, such as disposable paper cups.
Package B Extra £350 – Ultra Low Adapter will allow to measure low viscosity samples (1～2,000mPa・s).


The steering of electrons with the electric field of well-controlled femtosecond laser pulses makes it possible to resolve atomic processes on an attosecond time scale.
Metal tip irradiated with a laser pulse. Foto: Thorsten Naeser, MPQ
Typical time structure of the electric field of femtosecond laser pulses. The maximum of the oscillation of the carrier wave (blue) depends on the phase relative to the maximum of “the envelope” (green). In the left pulse the phase difference amounts to 180 degree whereas in the right pulse it is 0 degree. Graphics: MPQ
The independent Research Group Ultrafast Quantum Optics of Dr. Peter Hommelhoff has now applied this method to solid state surfaces, i.e., to extremely sharp metal tips (Nature, 07 July 2011) This way the scientists were able to show that comparable small laser intensities are sufficient to steer the emission of electrons from the metal tip with the phase of the optical cycle.
The modulation observed in the resulting energy spectrum can be explained with the occurrence of a phase dependent coherent interference of electron wave packets, in agreement with numerical calculations. The new technique is of interest not only for fundamental research. The experimental device represents a simple, compact and very sensitive system for the precise measurement of the phase of laser pulses and could lead to the development of ultrafast optical transistors.
In the experiment a tungsten tip (fig.1) is irradiated with light pulses of few femtoseconds duration (one femtosecond corresponds to a millionth of a billionth of a second, fig. 2). If the intensity of the laser pulse is high enough the electrons can absorb the amount of energy that is necessary to be released from the metal tip. Then they can be registered by a detector in front of the tip.
As the tip is extremely sharp, having a curvature radius of about 10 nanometres only, the intensity of the laser light gets greatly amplified. With this, relatively weak laser pulses are sufficient to set free electrons from the metal surface. Because of their short duration the laser pulses contain a few cycles only. Therefore the electric field acting on a particular electron is strongly dependent on the phase shift of the carrier wave relative to the envelope of the pulse (see fig. 2).
In the experiment the number and the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons are measured for different phase shifts. As is demonstrated in fig. 3 the structure of the electron spectrum is strongly influenced by the phase shift. Here two spectra are displayed that have been taken with phase shifts differing by 180 degrees. First of all differences can be noticed concerning the number of electrons at high energies. “The higher the electron energy, the more we approach the situation that we are able to switch the current on or off by simply changing the phase shift by 180 degrees”, Michael Krüger explains, who is, with Markus Schenk, doctoral student at the experiment and one of the two main authors of the publication.
From the slope of the spectrum the scientists conclude that the laser field continues to influence the motion of the electrons even after emission from the metal tip. The almost constant count rate at medium high energies implies that the released electrons are driven back into the tip by the laser field and scatter elastically off the tip before being detected. “As is demonstrated in the experiment this scattering process does not destroy the interference of the electron wave packets, that means, it takes place in a coherent way”, Markus Schenk points out. The resulting spectra are surprisingly well reproduced with numerical calculations based on a simple model that describes the motion of the electrons in the electric field of the laser classically but takes their wavelike nature into account.
For the first time the physicists have succeeded in the steering of electrons emitted from a solid state by the field of a femtosecond laser pulse. Even more, much less intensity was required compared to experiments with electrons in atomic or molecular gases. On the one hand, the new method is an important tool for gaining insight into the dynamics of electrons in solid state surfaces. For example, it is not known whether the scattering process takes place at the entire surface or at a single atom inside or on the surface. On the other hand, because of the low laser intensities required, there is a high potential for practical applications. Combining a metal tip, a retardation grid, and an electron multiplier, compact devices for the measurement and stabilization of phases of laser pulses could be realized. Also the development of optical field effect transistors can be envisaged in which the electric current can be switched on and off by the light field with attosecond precision. Olivia Meyer-StrengOriginal publication:
Dr. Olivia Meyer-Streng | Max-Planck-Institut
Astrophysicists measure precise rotation pattern of sun-like stars for the first time
21.09.2018 | NYU Abu Dhabi
Halfway mark for NOEMA, the super-telescope under construction
20.09.2018 | Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie
The building blocks of matter in our universe were formed in the first 10 microseconds of its existence, according to the currently accepted scientific picture. After the Big Bang about 13.7 billion years ago, matter consisted mainly of quarks and gluons, two types of elementary particles whose interactions are governed by quantum chromodynamics (QCD), the theory of strong interaction. In the early universe, these particles moved (nearly) freely in a quark-gluon plasma.
This is a joint press release of University Muenster and Heidelberg as well as the GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung in Darmstadt.
Then, in a phase transition, they combined and formed hadrons, among them the building blocks of atomic nuclei, protons and neutrons. In the current issue of...
Thin-film solar cells made of crystalline silicon are inexpensive and achieve efficiencies of a good 14 percent. However, they could do even better if their shiny surfaces reflected less light. A team led by Prof. Christiane Becker from the Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin (HZB) has now patented a sophisticated new solution to this problem.
"It is not enough simply to bring more light into the cell," says Christiane Becker. Such surface structures can even ultimately reduce the efficiency by...
A study in the journal Bulletin of Marine Science describes a new, blood-red species of octocoral found in Panama. The species in the genus Thesea was discovered in the threatened low-light reef environment on Hannibal Bank, 60 kilometers off mainland Pacific Panama, by researchers at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama (STRI) and the Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología (CIMAR) at the University of Costa Rica.
Scientists established the new species, Thesea dalioi, by comparing its physical traits, such as branch thickness and the bright red colony color, with the...
Scientists have succeeded in observing the first long-distance transfer of information in a magnetic group of materials known as antiferromagnets.
An international team of researchers has mapped Nemo's genome, providing the research community with an invaluable resource to decode the response of fish to...
21.09.2018 | Event News
03.09.2018 | Event News
27.08.2018 | Event News
21.09.2018 | Physics and Astronomy
21.09.2018 | Life Sciences
21.09.2018 | Event News


The Versatile Role of Micro Switches in Light Guns
Light guns have been widely used in various applications, including gaming, virtual reality, and industrial processes. These devices allow users to interact with digital screens or virtual environments by pointing and shooting. At the core of these intuitive devices lies the micro switch, a small but essential component that enables precise and responsive trigger functionality. This essay explores the use of micro switches in light guns and highlights their significance in enhancing user experience and control.
Understanding Light Guns: Light guns are handheld input devices that detect and respond to light or infrared signals emitted by a display or target. These devices typically incorporate a trigger mechanism, allowing users to simulate shooting actions accurately. Micro switches play a crucial role in translating the physical actuation of the trigger into electrical signals that trigger the desired response in the connected system.
Role of Micro Switches in Light Guns:
Trigger Detection: Micro switches act as the trigger sensors in light guns. When the user pulls the trigger, the mechanical action of the switch is activated, generating an electrical signal that is sent to the connected system. This signal serves as an input to initiate various actions, such as firing a virtual weapon, interacting with on-screen objects, or registering a hit in gaming applications.
Responsiveness and Accuracy: Micro switches provide excellent responsiveness and accuracy, allowing for precise trigger detection and quick response times. They are designed to offer a tactile feedback that enhances the user’s experience, providing a satisfying click or tactile sensation when the trigger is pulled. This feedback ensures a reliable and immersive interaction with the light gun.
Durability and Longevity: Light guns are subject to repetitive and vigorous trigger actuations during gameplay or industrial operations. Micro switches are engineered to withstand frequent and intense usage, providing high durability and long service life. They are designed to endure millions of actuations, ensuring the light gun’s reliability and longevity in demanding environments.
Customization and Design Flexibility: Micro switches offer design flexibility, allowing manufacturers to customize the trigger feel and response characteristics of the light gun. By selecting micro switches with specific actuation forces, travel distances, and click feedback, manufacturers can tailor the user experience to meet the desired ergonomic and functional requirements of the light gun.
Conclusion: Micro switches play a crucial role in the functionality and performance of light guns. Their ability to detect trigger actuation, provide precise responsiveness, and offer durability make them indispensable components in these devices. Whether in gaming, virtual reality, or industrial applications, micro switches ensure accurate and reliable trigger detection, enhancing user control and immersion. As technology advances and the demand for interactive experiences grows, the role of micro switches in light guns will continue to evolve, contributing to the evolution of immersive and intuitive user interfaces.


What Are Pneumatic Tools Powered By?
Have you ever wondered what your most handy construction tools are powered by? Click here to learn about what powers pneumatic tools.
Keyword(s): Pneumatic Tools
Studies show that musculoskeletal disorders for most newly reported work injuries account for 33% of on-the-job illnesses. Companies and professionals in labor-intensive industries use pneumatic tools to reduce the occurrence of these kinds of injuries over time.
If you’ve been considering pneumatic tools for your company or trade, you may wonder how they’re powered. Today, we’ll look at the basics of air tools. We’ll also examine what air tools are available. What’s more, we’ll go over how to use them with an air compressor.
Keep reading to learn more about what powers pneumatic tools.
How Pneumatic Tools Work
Pneumatic tools and air tools are one and the same. They’re powered by compressed air.
Air tools aren’t like conventional tools. Conventional tools receive power from electricity.
Air Tool Terms
First, you’ll need to understand some basic terms related to air tools. For instance, if you’re curious about the word pneumatic, it simply refers to compressed or pressurized air.
You should also familiarize yourself with the term CFM. CFM is cubic feet per minute. It’s the amount of compressed air an air compressor can supply or that a tool needs.
You should also understand pressure as it applies to air tools. An air compressor squishes air to a fraction of its value and stores it in a tank.
You’d measure this pressure in bars, pounds per square inch (PSI), or kilopascals. These measurements correlate as follows:
1 bar = 14.5 PSI = 100,000 Pascals (100 kPa)
More Air Tool Terms You Should Know
BSPT, or BSP, means British Standard Pipe Thread. Even countries that use the metric system use the Imperial BSPT standard for air tools, except for the US.
US manufacturers use the NPT standard, which stands for National Pipe Thread. The NPT standard is an inch-based thread.
You should also understand the term gauge as it applies to air tools. The gauge is the size of a fitting or the internal diameter of a hose used for air tools.
Powering Your Air Tools
The air compressor is what squeezes air into a fraction of its normal volume. Once the air compressor does its job, the air takes up eight to ten times less space.
When the compressor squeezes the air, it increases its volume and pressure proportionately. In other words, if the compressor squeezes air into a space that’s eight times smaller, the pressure will increase eight times higher.
Boyle’s Law describes this phenomenon. It states that with constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to value. The formula for this law is:
PV = constant
When air remains the same temperature, pressure increases as volume decreases. Conversely, when pressure decreases, volume increases.
Compressed Air in Action
Most often, you’ll see reciprocating compressors in workshops. They use a cylinder and piston.
An electric motor or gas engine drives the cylinder and piston. These components work together to compress air.
Once the compressor does its job, it feeds the compressed air into a storage tank. The tank serves as a reservoir.
Now, the storage tank can serve large pulses of compressed air when needed. In this way, a compressor system can serve more compressed air as opposed to if there were no storage tank.
Benefits of Pneumatic Tools
The top advantage of air tools is that they have a high power-to-weight ratio. Air tools are lighter than professional cordless and corded hand tools of the same rating.
An air tool has a simple air motor or piston. These components are lighter than the components in professional electric power tools.
This kind of benefit is vital for assembly-line workers, for instance, which use a power tool all day. A lighter power tool offers the advantage of creating less fatigue.
Also, air tools have a simple construction compared to electric tools. There’s less that can go wrong with air tools for this reason.
Precision Control and Safety
You can stall an air tool indefinitely. Alternatively, the electromotive force of an electric-power tool drops to zero when you stall it.
Also, the current that flows through the motor gets very large. If you don’t release the trigger right away, the motor can burn out quickly.
In addition, professional electric power tools have a universal motor that can run on AC or DC power. The motor produces sparks at the brushes of the commutator.
Alternatively, air tools don’t produce sparks. They provide an advantage in hazardous environments. For example, they’re safer to use around gas and flammable liquids.
Examples of Air Tools
There are many kinds of tools you can pair with an air compressor. In fact, just about any tool you use most likely has an air-powered equivalent. Let’s look at a few tools you may find in a garage, for instance.
Impact Drill and Driver
Just as with standard power tools, you’d use an impact drill and driver with driver bits. This combo makes it easier for you to do dozens of routine jobs.
If you work in a trade, you’re probably in pretty good shape. Still, an air hammer allows you to do the same amount of work without using up your energy.
Air Die Grinder
You can use a variety of small rotating tips with an air die grinder. This equipment lets you grind, sand, machine, and polish surfaces.
You can use an angle grinder to cut, sand, and machine surfaces. Most often, tradespersons use an angle grinder to cut metal.
Air Blow Gun
You can use an air blow gun to remove dust, dirt, leaves, and sawdust. This air tool is ideal for removing debris from large areas, like service bays.
Sanding is one of the most tedious jobs in a shop. A single sanding job can take hours.
You can get the job done much faster with an air sander. There are different kinds of air sanders, including:
- Random orbit
These sanders are among the most popular air-powered tools in garages.
Pneumatic Paint Sprayer
A pneumatic paint sprayer works with a paint vessel. Before you can use one, you must prepare the surface. However, an air-powered paint sprayer makes painting much simpler than doing so by hand.
Painting surfaces requires many rounds of sanding and painting. When you’re done with these steps, however, you’ll need to polish the surface to finish the job.
An air polisher saves you a ton of elbow grease. It’s a rotating polisher that takes the hard work out of getting the job done.
An air nibbler is two tools in one—a saw and a punch. Instead of cutting metal, you’d use an air nibbler to slowly eat away at metal by biting away at it in pieces.
Air Needle Scaler
An air needle scaler is an excellent tool for agitating and breaking away rust. For instance, a mechanic may use an air needle scaler to remove rust from a car frame.
Air Cutting Tools
Air cutting tools make it easy for you to cut through materials like sheet metal. If you need to get through metal fast, you’ll want an air cutting tool.
Impact Wrench and Ratchet
No matter your field, you’ve most likely come across stubborn nuts and bolts. With an impact wrench and ratchet, however, you can make easy work of loosening tough fasteners.
You could dispense grease manually. Still, why do it manually when you can use an air dispenser to distribute grease easily, cleanly, and simply? This air tool is ideal for shops that go through a large volume of grease every day.
You’d use an air blasting tool to clean materials. You can also use it to remove surface paint, grime, and rust with ease.
Air Punch and Flange
With an air punch and flange, you can cut through and create holes in a variety of materials. Most often, shops use this air tool to work with metal.
An air scarifier enables you to remove surfaces from materials. You can also use an air scarifier to texture surfaces.
Air Stapler and Nailer
You won’t always find an air stapler or nailer in a garage. However, they’re among the most common and useful construction tools around.
Setting up a Pneumatic Tool System
Start with an air compressor to set up your pneumatic tool system. The air compressor compresses and stores air in its tank.
Air compressors come in many types, sizes, and capacities. Most importantly, you should consider the horsepower (HP) of an air compressor. The HP of an air compressor is the delivery rate measured in cubic feet per minute (CFM) or liters per minute.
You must also consider the tank air capacity in gallons or liters. Likewise, you should consider whether the air compressor gets powered by electricity or gas.
You must also consider the delivery rate of an air compressor. If you overlook this vital characteristic, you could end up with a compressor that can’t meet the flow rate demand for your shop. In other words, you’ll have to wait every so often for the tank to refill before you can use your air tools again.
Let’s go over some other things you should consider when setting up a pneumatic tool system.
Filter, Regulator, and Lubricator
The filter removes dust and water from the air. Dust can scour and damage to working parts of your air tools.
Eventually, dust can also cause your air tool system to clog. Over time, it will cause wear and poorly sealing surfaces, which will reduce the air pressure and, in turn, reduce power to the system.
The regulator serves as a faucet to control the pressure of air. It lets you adjust the power of your air tool up and down.
The lubricator makes a mist of small oil droplets in the airflow of your air tool system. The droplets lubricate the moving surfaces inside your tools.
You’ll also need an air hose to set up your pneumatic tool system. You’ll need one hose to connect the compressor to the filter/regulator/lubricator. You’ll need another hose to connect to your air tools.
When it comes to hoses, you have a couple of options. For example, you can purchase a coiled hose. A coiled hose curls up like the cord on a phone handset.
Alternatively, you can purchase a non-coiled hose. Manufacturers make these hoses using rubber or plastic.
Plastic is rigid, and it can crack over time. Rubber, however, is more flexible.
Air hoses also come in different internal diameters. If you’re using a tool that requires a large amount of air, it’s important to buy the right diameter air hose.
Regulating Air Pressure
Shops usually operate their air compressors at a set pressure. The pressure cut-out switch usually sets the pressure at around 8 to 10 bar.
You should always make sure your air compressor is working at its recommended setting.
In many cases, your air tool will have a lower max pressure compared to your air compressor. If you’re unsure, you can check the max pressure on the label of your tool.
You can also check the manual for your tool. With this information, you can set your air compressor regulator appropriately.
The Safety Relief Valve
The air compressor safety relief valve releases pressure when it becomes excessive. For example, you may have the pressure set too high. In these instances, the safety relief valve is your failsafe.
You should check your safety relief valve regularly. You must ensure that it’s operational and hasn’t seized up. Usually, you can identify the safety relief valve easily because it has a pull that looks like a key ring that allows you to release the pressure.
Know Your Fittings
Finally, remember to always check for BSP/NPT compatibility. Globally, most air equipment manufacturers use the BSP standard.
In the United States, however, most tools use the NPT standard. Both of these standards use inch measurements rather than metric ones.
However, NPT and BSP standards have different profiles. For example, they have different diameters for thread sizes and pitches. They’re incompatible for these reasons.
It’s possible that you could mate an NPT and BSP connection. However, the mating would result in a very poor seal. You would need an adapter to make the connection properly.
Also, you should consider sealing your fittings with Teflon tape, as you would with a plumbing fitting. To do so, you’d wind the tape clockwise, working from the entry point of the fitting. A few layers of Teflon tape will ensure a tight seal.
Level up With Pneumatic Tools Today
So, there you have it, a quick introduction to pneumatic tools and how they work. We’ve also given you a few tips on how to power your air tools and some of the benefits of using them.
If you’re looking for precision control and safety combined with portability, Contractor Tool Supply has the perfect air tools for your operation. To see our entire lineup of professional-grade pneumatic tools, check out our inventory today.


Current Postdoctoral Researchers
|In Soo Kim|
|Irene Calvo Almazan|
|Jae Hyung Park|
|Jae Jin Kim|
James Jeffryes received his bachelor's equivalence in chemical engineering from the Rose Hulman Institute of Technology and his Ph.D. from Northwestern University.
Jason’s work has involved a mixture of millimeter-wave detector characterization and instrument design for cosmic microwave background (CMB) polarization experiments as well as CMB data analysis sp
JD Emberson is a computational cosmologist interested in using high performance computing to study various fields in astrophysics including large-scale structure, reionization, galactic substructure, neutrinos, and


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Lab Stirrer SH-2 Magnetic Stirrer Laboratory Heating
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Warming Clean box
From cells to organoids, tissue, and organs...
The optimal, clean, and temperature controllable bioreactor that sits on your table
Laminar flow and forced circulation method "Shiraito"
Although it is a tabletop system, it achieves a clean environment through forced circulation.
* Equivalent to ISO class 5
Excellent temperature control
The box has a built-in heater. Achieves temperature control with laminar flow.
* The image is an example combined with an inverted microscope.
The name Shiraito means white in Japanese, even though the box is completely black!
Dark box designs are ideal for long-term culture. They are also effective for fluorescence imaging. There is an option to switch between white and red LED lights, with an IR motion sensor.
Set and control temperature, clean and LED light.
Fan filter unit
Two units installed at the top of the box. Achieves cleanliness with a forced circulation system.
Large working area with temperature control. The door has a double structure, and you can check the inside with a clear panel.


Augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) are still in the early stages of development, but companies are exploring applications of it and moving beyond pilot projects. VR technology allows viewers to be immersed in an immersive world where they can interact with digital objects through a headset.
VR is a more advanced version of AR technology that can be used when safety is the primary concern. Virtual reality (VR) technology allows users to move around a virtual environment without moving their eyes or hands. Augmented reality technology enables people to see objects in a new way, using special industrial AR glasses or headsets. Augmented reality technology also allows people to interact with digital objects, such as virtual 3-D product models or real-time video feeds for inspection. Such technology is used in many industries, including healthcare, education, manufacturing, and aviation.
This type of remote access is similar to what we see on the moon and other distant locations, but it allows users to feel at the scene. That’s because they can interact with digital objects through a headset that fits over the eye and is worn on the user’s head like goggles or sunglasses. This access method allows users to stay present in the environment while interacting with digital objects and doesn’t require them to touch anything physical.
Augmented reality and virtual reality digitalize processes in the oil & gas industry, one of the major powers of the energy sector, solving many of the core challenges.
Oil and gas companies are already looking at the potential of virtual reality (VR) technology to solve some of the challenges they face in their drilling operations. For instance, a team at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), has developed a VR headset that allows users to explore remote areas onshore, without physically moving their eyes or hands. The headset uses a camera system that tracks movement in space around the user so that they can move freely without being restricted by physical limitations. The VR technology is currently being tested by scientists investigating earthquake hazards in California’s San Andreas Fault. The UCLA team is also working with oil and gas organizations such as Chevron, ExxonMobil, and ConocoPhillips to help them test the effect of VR technology on drilling operations. This type of research will enable companies to learn more about how well their current technologies work in virtual reality environments before investing resources into developing new technologies for AR applications or developing existing technologies for VR applications. One way companies are using VR technology is through head-mounted displays (HMDs), which allow users to see holographic images projected inside headsets instead of through flat screens that are small enough to fit over users’ heads like glasses or goggles worn by people who watch TV shows or movies at home or work—and also prevent users from touching any physical objects while wearing HMDs.
The Future of Augmented Reality in the Oil and Gas Industry
The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) released a report that found that AR/VR technology can help increase the accuracy of oil field seismic data. With the ability to see an image in 3D utilizing an HMD, researchers can use this technology to help improve their data interpretation. Technology provides additional information such as a 3D rendering of what they see on the surface of an oil field. The report also found that VR environments have an impact on the performance of real-world geological data during seismic testing. This has led some researchers to believe that AR/VR systems could be used with other geophysical tools such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
In January 2019, Oil Search announced it would begin using augmented reality (AR) for seismic imaging in its exploration and appraisal operations in North America. Oil Search will use its VR system developed by General Electric (GE) called GE-Vive, which was first introduced at GE’s 2017 annual general meeting in Redondo Beach, CA. Oil Search will also use its existing handheld Geovision systems developed by GE to collect data from the ground during seismic testing. These handheld Geovision systems are similar to those used by geologists who conduct oilfield research at drilling sites around the world.
Augmented reality platforms can successfully tackle challenges faced by the oil and gas industry. Employing AR helps reduce occupational hazards, operational downtimes, and various flow disruptions. As a result, the augmented reality oil and gas industry is a tool for improving business performance and continuity.


Radio Spectrum Monitoring (24/7)
During their extensive TSCM experience, CYBER ICS consultants have encountered numerous situations where in-place continuous monitoring would constitute a complementary solution with one-shot TSCM assessments. We spent several years developing, testing and perfecting a radio spectrum monitoring capability, in order to protect durably customers' offices and meeting rooms.
CYBER ICS unique Continuous Radio Spectrum Monitoring (CRSM) is now commercially available to CYBER ICS customers, with various procurement methods:
Surveillance of a meeting or a specific indoors area, for a short duration (usually a week),
'Monitoring as a Service' with monthly or annual subscription, with durable and discreet installation of hardware components,
Complete procurement of a Monitoring system, along with maintenance and support provided by field experts.
CRSM uses state-of-the-art hardware and software, allowing radio monitoring from 0 to 20 GHz, configurable alert thresholds and customized reports. For remote or foreign locations, CRSM can be coupled with dedicated remote access capabilities to provide experts the tools to analyze data remotely.
Future additions to the CRSM line of products will include:
Real-time Wi-Fi device database,
Behavioural analysis using multiple antennas and receivers.
Please contact us to know more about this product.


Samplestate has released Main Room Deep House Vol. 2, a sample pack featuring a collection of samples for deep house production.
Vol 2 provides more solid drum grooves and basslines, with dusty sampled chords and effect loops rounding out the collection. As well as loops this collection has an extensive range of single drum hits, chord stabs, bass stabs and effects.
Solid upfront grooves ideal for basements, warehouses and back room systems are crammed into this pack. Keeping both an ear on current deep house sounds and also raising the stakes with fresh, edgy and forward thinking elements.
Main Room Deep House Vol 2 features
- 845MB content, 572 samples recorded at 24bit quality.
- Includes 231 drum loops, 53 bass loops, 58 chord loops, 30 mixed loops, 100 drum hits, 9 FX, 47 chord stabs and 44 bass stabs.
- 95 sampler instruments patches in both EXS24, Kontakt, Reason and Halion formats so drums, chord stabs and basses are all instantly playable.
The sample pack is available to purchase for £ 29.95 GBP. Individual packs are also sold separately.


HFS01 High Heat Flux Sensor
The HFS01 High heat flux sensor for concentrated solar radiation and flames, water cooled is a water-cooled sensor that measures high-level radiative and convective heat fluxes. It is designed for studies of concentrated solar irradiance (800 x concentrated direct solar radiation) and high-intensity flames (gas burners, coal fires). HFS01 has a very robust all-metal / ceramics instrument body and sensor, and is equipped with a high-temperature cable to survive the extreme conditions of a typical experiment.
The HFS01 measures heat flux in the range of (0 to 800) x 10³ W/m²; the extremely high fluxes as generated by flames and solar concentrators. Equipped with a black absorber, the instrument is designed for measurement in an environment in which heat flux includes radiation as well as convection. HFS01’s thermopile sensor generates an output voltage proportional to the total absorbed heat flux. The sensor must be water-cooled, usually by tap water. A removable flange that can be used for mounting is supplied with the sensor. Also, a type K thermocouple is included, to measure the sensor body temperature.
The part of the cabling closest to the sensor is a special high-temperature metal sheathed cable with an interlocked spiral stainless steel armour. The high-temperature cable and armour withstand temperatures up to 900 °C. Because the sensor body is water cooled, it will remain relatively cool. The surface temperature of the sensor may reach 650 ˚C. The low-temperature extension cable has a jacket of PTFE type plastic.
The HFS01 sensor can also be ordered without black coating, so that HFS01’s absorption of radiation is reduced, while it remains sensitive to convective radiation. Users may also coat HFS01 with their own coating, to create a different response to radiation.
HFS01 has several advantages:
- very robust all-metal / ceramics instrument body and sensor
- high-temperature signal cable
- signal wires electrically insulated from the sensor body and from cooling water
Using HFS01 is easy. It can be connected directly to commonly used data logging systems. The heat flux, in W/m², is calculated by dividing the HFS01 output, a small voltage, by the sensitivity. The sensitivity is provided with HFS01 on its product certificate. Equipped with heavy-duty cabling and a fully stainless steel casing which prevents moisture from penetrating the sensor, HFS01 has proven to be very reliable.
HFS01 calibration is traceable to international standards. The factory calibration method follows the recommended practice of ASTM C1130-07 (2012).
- longer cable (specify total cable length for both cable types in m)
- connector at HFS01 cable end
- low-temperature extension cable with 2 connectors, matching cable connector and chassis connector
- chassis connector with internal wiring (colour code of wiring identical to cable colour code)
- blank metal sensor surface, no coating
- solar concentrators
- flame research
- fluidised beds


The output of two grating-stabilized external-cavity diode lasers was injected into a semiconductor tapered amplif ier in a master oscillator–power amplif ier (MOPA) configuration. At a wavelength of 671 nm this configuration produced 210 mW of power in a diffraction-limited mode with two frequency components of narrow linewidth. The frequency difference δ was varied from 20 MHz to 12 GHz, while the power ratio of the two components was freely adjustable. For δ < 2 GHz additional frequency sidebands appear in the output of the MOPA. This configuration is a f lexible and simple high-power cw laser source for light with multiple narrow-linewidth frequency components.
© 1999 Optical Society of America
(140.0140) Lasers and laser optics : Lasers and laser optics
(140.3280) Lasers and laser optics : Laser amplifiers
(140.3600) Lasers and laser optics : Lasers, tunable
(140.4480) Lasers and laser optics : Optical amplifiers
(140.5960) Lasers and laser optics : Semiconductor lasers
Gabriele Ferrari, Marc-Oliver Mewes, Florian Schreck, and Christophe Salomon, "High-power multiple-frequency narrow-linewidth laser source based on a semiconductor tapered amplifier," Opt. Lett. 24, 151-153 (1999)


Compact, high-tech optics for homogeneous, exceptionally-bright illumination.
– Ultra-light, highly-flexible fiber optic cable with gown clips, length 3m.
– Height and angle of illumination adjustable by a single control.
– Lightweight, flexible headband: Professional L. Adjustable for height and width with detachable soft leather forehead cushion.
– Adjustable light spot with sterilizable lever.
– Can be combined with HEINE High Resolution Binocular Loupes for magnification from 2x – 6x.
– Can be fitted with a CCD camera.
– Light sources: HK 7000, HK 7000D, XENON 1000 F.O. Projector. Length of the F.O. cable: 3 m. Adaptors for other manufacturers’ projectors available.
50,000 lux light output at 20cm with HK 7000 projector.


The 83280 is a unique tool in that it may be used as a conventional phasing meter, or the meter probe may be used as a stand-alone voltage detector on primary or secondary voltages or capacitive test points.
The 83280 has the following features:
The 5-Position Selector Switch Consists of:
Each 83280 Kit comes standard with a straight probe (81280LPM), hook probe (81280LHM), 8ft. interconnect cable (81280ML), 8ft. extension cable (81280FL), 3kV power supply (PA25T), 6VDC battery (81280B1), instruction manual, padded storage case.


The LV150 Series high level indicators provide a unique solution for tank overfill indication requiring self-checking. This indicator is designed with a 2" NPT mounting, making it ideal for use in underground and aboveground storage tanks. When mounted vertically at the tank top, it reliably indicates high liquid level.
To operate, simply press the brass tube fitting down to perform the self-check test. This manual operation physically moves the inner reed switch assembly while the float remains stationary (wet or dry). By doing this, the switch logic is inverted, checking the integrity of the circuitry without the need to remove the unit from the tank.
Adjustable versions are available for varying tank sizes. A special cinch nut on the mounting allows the stem to travel up or down to fine-tune actuation points. The extent of the adjustment depends on the unit’s length and distance from the mounting to the highest float stop.
The LV150 Series is offered in integral one foot lengths. For other lengths, adaptor systems are available. They consist of 2 parts: the LVR-C6S coupling (2 x 2" FNPT) and an LVR-6S pipe nipple (2 x 2" MNPT) of various lengths to change the insertion depth of the sensor. When using the adaptors, retaining clip pliers are required to remove the float for installation.
SPECIFICATIONS Wetted Materials: Stem and Mounting: Brass or 316 stainless steel Float: BUNA or 316 stainless steel Operating Temperature: BUNA Floats: Water: to 82.2°C, Oil -40°C to 121.1°C (-40°F to 250°F). 316 SS Floats: -40°C to 148.9°C (-40°F to 300°F) Pressure Limitations: Up to 150 PSIG for BUNA float units or when used with 316 SS adaptors; up to 750 PSIG for 316 SS float units. Accuracy: ±3 mm ±1⁄8") Switch Rating: 20 VA, 120-240 Vac pilot duty; 20 W, 50-240 Vdc resistive Cable: 24" 2-Conductor PVC jacketed Weight: 1¾ lbs. + 1⁄3 lb. per foot for indicators; 1¼ lbs. for LVR-C6S