Why the British Wore Red —- Oliver Cromwell and the New Model Army.
In Georgian and Victorian Era Britain red was always the color of the British Army. Over time British soldiers earned the nickname “redcoats” or “lobsters” because of their bright red attire. During colonial wars such as the French and Indian War and the American Revolution, these bright red coats were often a liability as they stood out in the frontier wilderness, making them an attractive target for French, Native Americans, and Colonial Militia’s. So how did red become the color of choice for the British Army? The redcoat can trace his origins to the mid 1600’s, before the formation of the United Kingdom and in the midst of the bloody English Civil War.
In 1642 England was split between the Royalists who supported King Charles I and the Parliamentarians who were staunch Puritans. The Royalists believed that the king held absolute power granted by God, and as such the king had the right to dictate how people worshiped within his realm. The Parliamentarians believed that power should be wielded by the English Parliament. Furthermore the Parliamentarians were on a religious mission to end the highly stylized religion of the Church of England and replace with it a simpler Puritan religion. Both armies were of equal size and equal quality. As a result neither side could gain a decisive advantage. After two years of bloody warfare one Parliamentarian general decided that something had to be done.
Oliver Cromwell was a brilliant and ambitious military commander and a fanatical believer in the Parliamentarian cause. While perhaps the most talented general in England, he often found that his abilities were limited by the army he commanded. In the 1600’s there were no professional armies in Europe, rather the military was a hodgepodge force of local militia’s, each with varying degrees of training, different weapons, and different uniforms. Some of the militia’s had very poor training and inferior equipment, carrying old and out of date weaponry and wearing regular clothing rather than uniforms. The biggest fault of the Parliamentarian army was the lack of a professional officer corps. Officers were chosen by their social rank and wealth, not because of their expertise. As a result the army was led by a corps of over-priviledged nitwits who had no military experience and were clueless when it came to running an army. The weaknesses of the Parliamentarian Army was made apparent in 1644 at the Second Battle of Newbury. There Cromwell devised an ingenious plan to ambush, trap, and destroy the Royalist forces, decisively ending the war. His plan almost succeeded if not for the incompetence of one of his commanders, the Earl of Manchester, who failed to carry out Cromwell’s orders. The ambush collapsed and the Royalist forces escaped.
Cromwell realized that if he was to end the civil war he would need a better army and he went to Parliament to institute new reforms. The first was a new law called the Self Denying Ordinance, which forced all government officials who held military command to resign. Instead of status, officers were chosen based on their skills, ability, and proven merit. This shook Europe to the core, as officership of nobility was considered a right at the time. Now it was not uncommon for officers to be former cobblers, tailors, blacksmiths, and others sorts of commoners. A second act by Parliament established a full time standing army manned by professional soldiers rather than part time militiamen.
Cromwell also had other demands when it came to his “New Model Army”. The first was personal; his soldiers were chosen from the ranks of the most fanatical Puritans; they were required to attend daily worship services and were forbidden from drinking, having sex outside of marriage, and swearing. The army was even taught a special creed, used as a war cry,
Officers: No mercy!
Men: No mercy!
Officers: No Popery!
Men: No Popery!
Officers: No bishops!
Men: No bishops!
Officers: Who is our king?
Men: King Jesus!
Secondly Cromwell instituted an intense regimen of drill and training, transforming his army from a ragtag band into a disciplined and deadly fighting machine. Finally Cromwell standardized the equipment of the army. Rather than having a plethora of different weapons and equipment, everything the army used would be standardized to ease the logistical demands of the army. Soldiers carried the same types of pikes, muskets, and swords, and wore the same type of armor.
A part of Cromwell’s reforms was the creation of a common uniform for his army. Cromwell chose red because it was the cheapest dye available at the time. Not only was Cromwell trying to save a shilling, but the use of a cheap dye helped strengthen the Puritan ethic of his army; to avoid anything that may seem to be vain, proud, or ostentatious. Cromwell’s New Model Army were history’s first redcoats.
The end result was a highly organized force of religious zealots who were well armed, well trained, disciplined, and fearless. Imagine today the Taliban, armed with the best weapons and equipment and trained like Army Rangers. In 1645 Cromwell led the New Model Army in a crushing defeat of Royalist forces with only two decisive battles: the Battle of Naseby and the Battle of Langport. King Charles himself would be captured, and after instigating a failed counter-revolution was beheaded. Cromwell would be named Lord Protector of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland and became a virtual military dictator. His army would go on to crush rebellions in Ireland and Scotland. After Cromwell’s death in 1658 the Parliamentarian government collapsed, and Charles II became King of England. The New Model Army was disbanded but its legacy continued. The ideal of a well trained and professional army was maintained thenceforth, although the tradition of appointing officers based on wealth and privilege returned. The red uniforms of the army continued with the English, and later British Army until it was replaced with green and khaki uniforms in the early 20th century.
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The likelihood for you to get cancer in your nose is not that high. If you are not in the list of people who are exposed to risk factors the possibility of you getting cancer in your nose is quite low. Risk factors include age (above 40), gender (men are more likely to get nose cancer), smoking, exposure to chemical substances, exposure to human papillomavirus (HPV). The question is “Can you get cancer in your nose if you are exposed the risk factors?” If there is a real concern about the possibility of having nose cancer, it would help to know what we are talking about.
Cancer in the nose often grows in two places: inside the nasal cavity (big space behind the nose) or in the sinuses (tiny holes all around your nose). If a tumor grows in the empty spaces of the nasal cavity or sinuses it produces symptoms that indicate that a foreign entity is present or lodged in the area.
Symptoms of a growing tumor appear similar to symptoms of common obstructions associated with colds or allergies that block or irritate your nasal cavity or sinuses. Symptoms include a stuffed nose, nosebleeds, nasal drips, and runny nose. However, if these symptoms do not go away or worsen over a period of time, it may be an indication of a growing tumor. If you are beginning to experience numbness on the neck area it might be best to seek the help of your doctor.
At this point, your doctor will take a tissue sample of the tumor inside your nose for biopsy. This will confirm if the tumor is malignant or not. In case the results return positive, the most common treatment option for cancer of the nose is the surgical removal of the tumor. Radiotherapy is also recommended pre- and post-operation, to shrink the tumor before the operation and to remove whatever remnants of the tumor are seen after surgery, respectively. Chemotherapy or the use of medicines to kill remaining cancer cells may also be prescribed.


Today's treatments for many mental disorders still have a long way to go. However, one area in which psychology has made great progress is in the treatment of fear-related disorders, like phobias fears. This progress can be attributed almost entirely to the development and use of exposure therapy1-3, which relies on a basic learning mechanism called extinction. First described by Ivan Pavlov4, extinction is the process by which an association is unlearned.
In Pavlov's famous experiments, dogs were trained to associate a bell with a food reward. After the dogs learned this association, they needed only to hear the bell to begin salivating, even if the bell was presented without food. Importantly, this association was not permanent. After several presentations of the bell without the food, the dogs' salivation slowly decreased until eventually, they stopped responding altogether. In psychological terms, the response was extinguished, meaning that dogs had learned that the bell no longer predicted food. The discovery of extinction learning provided the basis for exposure therapy.
Exposure therapy works by exposing patients to a feared thing (i.e., animal, object, or situation) until the fear response to that thing is extinguished. One way of speeding this process along is to associate the formerly feared thing with a positive experience, like deep breathing or remembering happy memories. This process of pairing a feared object with a positive experience is known as "counterconditioning"3,5-6.
Exposure therapy has proven effective for a number of disorders, including phobias7 and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)8-9. Recently, some researchers have been developing exposure therapies using virtual reality (VR)10-12 technologies, which allow the patient to experience any number of feared scenarios in the safety of a doctor's office. These advances have made exposure therapy one of the most successful therapies for fear-based disorders; however, there is a major roadblock to treatment. Patients often find that, after exposure therapy is complete, the previously extinguished fear will suddenly reappear, necessitating further treatment. This common experience is called "spontaneous recovery,"4,13. Spontaneous recovery can greatly slow treatment and be a major source of frustration for patients. Consequently, understanding the processes of extinction and spontaneous recovery are of utmost importance so that we can reduce the chances of spontaneous recovery.
Neural Mechanisms of Extinction
In a study recently published in eLife, Dr. Susana Correia and her colleagues at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) sought to better understand the neural mechanisms associated with extinction and spontaneous recovery14. The researchers were interested in two brain regions: the nucleus accumbens (NAc), which plays an important role in processing rewarding experiences15 and fear extinction16-17, and the basolateral amygdala (BLA), which is critical for fear learning18-19. Interestingly, the NAc is highly connected to the BLA20, suggesting that there may be a connection in the brain between reward and extinction. Based on these findings, the researchers asked whether extinction involved brain circuits connecting the BLA and NAc.
To test this possibility, the researchers conditioned rats to fear simple tones by pairing these sounds with small electrical shocks. After the rats learned that the tone predicted shock, the researchers began the extinction phase of the experiment by exposing the rats to the sounds without shock. During this phase, they found that more BLA-NAc activity meant more extinction learning – specifically decreased spontaneous recovery of fear. They hypothesized that if the BLA-NAc connection is important for fear extinction, then increasing this activity during extinction learning could decrease spontaneous recovery of fear. In this regard, they found that when they used counter-conditioning with the rats, rewarding them with food in the presence of the previously feared tone, that this resulted in greater BLA-NAc activation, which in turn predicted decreased spontaneous recovery of fear. Taking these findings even further, they next directly stimulated the BLA-NAc connection in the brain, which also led to decreased spontaneous recovery.
Important Implications for Treatment
These findings have implications for humans who suffer from fear-related disorders. First, this research may have uncovered the neural mechanism by which counter-conditioning works – through activation of the circuit connecting the BLA and NAc. This finding will allow researchers to better understand how counter-conditioning occurs and determine the best way to administer counter-conditioning, potentially improving treatment.
This work also paves the way for more advanced treatments based on direct stimulation of the brain. For example, researchers have found that deep brain stimulation (DBS), where doctors directly stimulate particularly areas of the brain using small electrical charges, can greatly improve the symptoms associated with extreme depression21-22. This breakthrough began by identifying the circuitry involved in depression. Given that direct stimulation of the circuitry connecting the BLA and NAc leads to improved fear extinction in rats, DBS directed at the BLA-NAc connection may be an effective treatment for patients suffering from PTSD or phobic fears. Although more work is needed to examine whether such an approach would be effective for humans, this study is an exciting step forward in our understanding of the process of extinction. Findings like those of Dr. Susiana Corriea and her colleagues could lead to improvements in the treatment of fear-related disorders in the future.
Recommended For You
1. Jones, M. C. (1924). The elimination of children's fears. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 7(5), 382.
2. Jones, M. C. (1924). A laboratory study of fear: The case of Peter. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 31, 308-315.
3. Wolpe, J. (1958). Psychotherapy and reciprocal inhibition. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
4. Pavlov IP. 1927. Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex. London: Oxford University Press.
5. Paunović N. (2003). Prolonged exposure counterconditioning as a treatment for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 17, 479-499.
6. Paunović N. (2011). Exposure inhibition therapy as a treatment for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: A controlled pilot study. Psychology, 2, 605-614.
7. Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Horowitz, J. D., Powers, M. B., & Telch, M. J. (2008). Psychological approaches in the treatment of specific phobias: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(6), 1021-1037.
8. Bradley, R., Greene, J., Russ, E., Dutra, L., & Westen, D. (2005). A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. American journal of Psychiatry, 162(2), 214-227.
9. Taylor, S., Thordarson, D. S., Maxfield, L., Fedoroff, I. C., Lovell, K., & Ogrodniczuk, J. (2003). Comparative efficacy, speed, and adverse effects of three PTSD treatments: exposure therapy, EMDR, and relaxation training.Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 71(2), 330.
10. Opriş, D., Pintea, S., García‐Palacios, A., Botella, C., Szamosközi, Ş., & David, D. (2012). Virtual reality exposure therapy in anxiety disorders: a quantitative meta‐analysis. Depression and anxiety, 29(2), 85-93.
11. Parsons, T. D., & Rizzo, A. A. (2008). Affective outcomes of virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety and specific phobias: A meta-analysis. Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry, 39(3), 250-261.
12. Powers, M. B., & Emmelkamp, P. M. (2008). Virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety disorders: A meta-analysis. Journal of anxiety disorders, 22(3), 561-569
13. Rescorla, R. A. (2004). Spontaneous recovery. Learning & Memory, 11(5), 501-509.
14. Correia, S. S., McGrath, A. G., Lee, A., Graybiel, A. M., & Goosens, K. A. (2016). Amygdala-ventral striatum circuit activation decreases long-term fear. eLife, 5, e12669.
15. Ambroggi, F., Ishikawa, A., Fields, H. L., & Nicola, S. M. (2008). Basolateral amygdala neurons facilitate reward-seeking behavior by exciting nucleus accumbens neurons. Neuron, 59(4), 648-661.
16. Holtzman-Assif, O., Laurent, V., & Westbrook, R. F. (2010). Blockade of dopamine activity in the nucleus accumbens impairs learning extinction of conditioned fear. Learning & Memory, 17(2), 71-75.
17. Rodriguez-Romaguera, J., Do Monte, F. H., & Quirk, G. J. (2012). Deep brain stimulation of the ventral striatum enhances extinction of conditioned fear.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(22), 8764-8769.
18. Herry, C., Trifilieff, P., Micheau, J., Lüthi, A., & Mons, N. (2006). Extinction of auditory fear conditioning requires MAPK/ERK activation in the basolateral amygdala. European Journal of Neuroscience, 24(1), 261-269.
19. Laurent, V., Marchand, A. R., & Westbrook, R. F. (2008). The basolateral amygdala is necessary for learning but not relearning extinction of context conditioned fear. Learning & Memory, 15(5), 304-314.
20. Brog, J. S., Salyapongse, A., Deutch, A. Y., & Zahm, D. S. (1993). The patterns of afferent innervation of the core and shell in the "Accumbens" part of the rat ventral striatum: Immunohistochemical detection of retrogradely transported fluoro‐gold. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 338(2), 255-278.
21. Bewernick, B. H., Hurlemann, R., Matusch, A., Kayser, S., Grubert, C., Hadrysiewicz, B., ... & Brockmann, H. (2010). Nucleus accumbens deep brain stimulation decreases ratings of depression and anxiety in treatment-resistant depression. Biological psychiatry, 67(2), 110-116.
22. Lozano, A. M., Mayberg, H. S., Giacobbe, P., Hamani, C., Craddock, R. C., & Kennedy, S. H. (2008). Subcallosal cingulate gyrus deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. Biological psychiatry, 64(6), 461-467.
Date of original publication: November 01, 2016


The Dark Sky Initiative
About Light Pollution
So, there are many reasons to reduce light pollution. In fact, it helps maintain a natural environment for nocturnal birds and animals, which supports our overall ecosystem. Also, energy efficient lighting reduces energy use and energy dependence, which in turn helps to conserve our natural resources.
Additionally, reducing the amount of artificial light aids in resetting the human circadian rhythm — we all know how important sleep is! With busy lives, stress, and constant light from our TVs, phones, and other devices, our sleep patterns these days can be unpredictable and unnatural. When we take steps towards eliminating light pollution outside, we support our bodies in the process of resetting into a more natural, less stressed rhythm. The beautiful skies we get to experience are, of course, an added bonus.
Sterling Ranch is Proud to be a Part of the Movement
- We make sure that exterior security lighting is directed downward so that the light “cone” does not cause glare to adjacent properties or onto the street.
- If we have solar in-ground lighting, we make sure it is less than 12 inches in height, each light is less than 5 lumens, and the fixtures are placed at the edges of walks, driveways, and planting beds.
- We limit outdoor decorative lighting to the back yard, making sure each light is less than 5 lumens and does not cause glare to adjacent properties.
- We turn off decorative lighting by 10pm.
- Our community street lighting comes on fully at dusk and at 10:00pm reduces automatically by 50%. All community street lights turn off at dawn.
- As a part of our community governance, we make sure we receive approval from the Design Review Committee if we are modifying or adding any exterior lighting such as motion-detector spotlights, security lighting, landscape lighting, accent lighting, ballasted fixtures, or additional lighting to doors or windows.


Fans of coin collecting probably already know that one of the greatest aspects of numismatic auctions is the rich history that accompanies each lot that comes up for bidding. You could be bidding on a coin that was carried in the pocket of a resident of the original 13 colonies, a true piece of history itself. One thing that’s less frequently discussed, though, is the inventions that were designed to function strictly through uses of these tiny pieces of metal. Coin-operated machines are often thought of as a relatively recent invention, but that couldn’t be further from the truth. In fact, collectors of coin-operated devices may even be surprised with how long, detailed and rich a history these contraptions have.
The earliest instances of coin-operated machines in history are, somewhat unsurprisingly, centered around commercial usage. As far back as 2,200 years ago, in fact, Egyptians were using these inventions to push high-demand products to consumers. According to the Coin Operated Collectors Association, the Ancient Egyptians were using a coin-operated machine as early as 215 B.C. Apparently, an Egyptian would insert a coin worth five drachma into a slot on a machine in order to receive a small amount of holy water. It is believed that the purchaser would then sprinkle the water on themselves as a sort of worship ritual. Moving forward, coin-operated vending machines had made their way to London as early as the 1700s. During this time period, it was not uncommon for English people to purchase pipe tobacco (practically a necessity at that point in time) from coin-operated machines on the street.
The late 1800s represented an important shift in the role played by coin-operated machines, particularly in the Western world. Until this point, these machines had typically operated under the pretense that customers would use them to purchase small items while on the go. In the United States, for example, citizens would frequently purchase small staples such as gum, matches, stamps and cigars while out and about during the 1880s.
The turn of the century, though, would bring great change to the coin-operated industry. Around the 1890s, the first coin-operated forms of entertainment appeared, offering coin-bearing individuals the opportunity to gamble through simplified forms of dice games, roulette and poker. These machines would experience a meteoric rise in popularity throughout the ensuing decades, peaking in the years immediately prior to the United States’ involvement in World War II.
While the popularity of coin-operated forms of gambling was soaring, it was about to hit several snags in its progression. According to Collectors Weekly, many of these machines were outlawed during Prohibitionunderneath ordinances that made gambling illegal by associating it with drinking. While this caused a drop in the widespread use of the machines around the country, it also paved the way for one area to emerge as a coin-operated paradise.
In the early 1940s, gambling was legalized in several counties in Nevada, including those that hold both Reno and Las Vegas, two of the world’s largest gambling centers both then and now. These changes brought a massive influx of coin-operated machines into production, all aimed at capitalizing on the Southwestern state’s law changes. This reemergence of these machines into the mainstream American economy also prompted changes in the composition of the devices themselves. While the machines had historically been designed using different forms of metal and glass, simpler materials such as cast iron, oak, mahogany and plastics were now frequent choices in the design of coin-operated entertainment. In addition to being more durable, this allowed engineers to create simpler, more easily repaired layouts for these devices.
An archive of Coin-op collectibles sold at auction can be found here


The precautionary principle is frequently cited in major international statements. However, implementing it still stirs up a lot of debate: is it feasible, is it advisable? Today with hindsight, controversy and experience have enabled us to better frame a somewhat abstract idea that is still seeking its path forward. Two countries only, France and Ecuador have appended the principle to their respective Constitutions and in the former we see some emblematic examples of difficulties to be overcome in enforcing the Principle.
The Precautionary Principle was devised and developed at the end of the 1960s, firstly in a 1969 Swedish law referring to environmental protection, followed by Germany and its “Vorsorgeprinzip.” Formulation of the Principle, modulating as it does between innovation and protection, has never been fully stabilized.
Annex 1 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992) adopts an open stance and affirms in its Principle 15 that “where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.” The Final Declaration of the first European conference on “Endangered Seas” (1994) is far more demanding, quote “If, for a given activity, the worst-case scenario is sufficiently threatening, then even a small degree of doubt will suffice to justify its being postponed.”
The French experience
France took the decision, in 2005, to append the Principle to its Constitution, heading a list of applicable standards. This very decision was and remains controversial. Elsewhere in the World, only Ecuador went this far. In many other countries, policy-makers are awaiting the first ten-year status report on the effects of constitutionalizing the precautionary principle. This principle is written into Article 5 of the “Environment Charter” placed as a preamble to the main Constitutional text, worded as follows: “when there is a risk of damage, however uncertain given the latest state of scientific knowledge, of serious and irreversible impact on the environment, public authorities, applying the precautionary principle, will assure, in their respective areas of competence, that the procedures to assess risk and adopt provisional and proportionate measures to counter possible damage are duly applied and enforced.”
Since 2005, several court proceedings in France invoked the precautionary principle. For example, in March 2009, the Angers High Court placed an interdict order on the mobile phone operator Orange, thus preventing installation of relay antennae on the church spire at Notre-Dame d’Alençon. In handing down his sentence, the judge explained that “given the uncertainties surrounding the technical characteristics of the installation, and the recognized risks of impacts on public health should the existing emission level standard be exceeded, and given the uncertainties in regard to guarantees about protecting the nearby sensitive structure, viz., the primary school house, the precautionary principle leads us to ordering an interdict on this project, which order constitutes an effective and proportionate measure to prevent risk of serious and irreversible damage to the environment at an acceptable economic cost”. In January 2014, however, a French member of Parliament proposed to abandon the precautionary principle, per se, replacing the notion by “sobriety” in the case of exposure to mobile phones, wifi stations and relay antennae radiation.
The debate is still raging. For the promoters of the precautionary principle, the latter is a universal and international principle that translates our sense of belonging to an interdependent ecosystem, where the fate of Humanity is tied to the results of human activities. It is also a pragmatic principle inasmuch as it takes into account the power acquired by science and technology today, plus the difficulty to forecast impact and the time delay between the speed at which damage can occur and the time needed to repair its effects. Moreover, it also enables methodological doubt to be applied to the issue. But above all other considerations, it is an action principle that promotes the need for research to solve crises and in no way a principle of abstention that demands proof of innocuousness as a prior step to any authorization.
The fact that the French law-makers decided to append the principle to the country’s Constitution – at a time when several sanitary scandals had hit the headlines (HIV contaminated blood, mad-cow disease, growth hormones) – corresponded to the need to distinguish between two possible situations: real risks (with known probability such as cancer linked to tobacco) that call for preventive measures and uncertain situations (impossible to measure the probability) that call for precaution such as measures taken to stop imports of British cow meat in 1996 following the BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy) epidemic better known as “mad-cow” disease.
Appending the precautionary principle to the Constitution conferred a strong legal value, i.e., it can be used in court but also, following the legal principle in France that “no one can ignore law” can become a commonly accepted text to which policy-makers can refer spontaneously.
This alone is a non-negligible challenge, as it was reported in 2013 by the European Environment Agency: “Warnings were ignored or set aside until the point was reached that damage to health and the environment became inevitable”. “This was the case”, says the EEA, “for industrial mercury poisoning, drops in human fertility due to use of pesticides, impact of endocrinal disturbance agents in plastics and eco-systems modified by pharmaceutical compounds.”
The European Environment Agency is also concerned by the economic aspects. “In certain cases, says EEA, companies have privileged short-term profit, thereby neglecting public safety, hiding or ignoring the existence of potential risk factors. In other cases, scientists have minimized the risks, sometimes faced with the pressure from groups defending vested interest [lobbies].”
On the other hand, a strict implementation of the principle may have some economic and social costs. Whatever one’s point of view, enforcing the precautionary principle raises the question of whether the text should be seen as applicable not only to a society but to a country’s economy. And this is where matter get complicated, given that national economies today are tied to a vast system of exchanges with confrontations of very different legal systems in each country.
France is a Member State in the European Union but the almost 30 Member States have not harmonized how the precautionary principle could/should be applied. Depending on the country, the principle may only represent a political reference, a jurisprudence text, a legal disposition or a text carrying constitutional value.
Yet the principle of precaution was inscribed in Art.174 of the 1992 Treaty of Maastricht. It authorized States to invoke higher interest of the environment and health to derogate from EC law in terms of, e.g., free circulation of goods.
In reverse, the World Trade Organization has manifested a degree of defiance to the precautionary principle. WTO agrees that a State may wish to take precautionary/preventive measures when faced with a risk that has not yet been scientifically proven, but “shall endeavour to clearly identify the scientific rigor with which the risk assessment was conducted”. The USA have seized the WTO on several occasions regarding the stance taken by certain European States in the area of GMOs, in particular pursuant to the moratorium decided by several European States, including France, about the use of the hybrid GM corn variety MON810 marketed by Monsanto as of 2011. This matter will one of the numerous points of discussion in the drafting of the free-exchange agreement between the USA and the EU. In like manner, in the conflict opposing the USA and the EC in regard to the Directive dated April 29 1996 placing an interdict on administration of growth hormones to animal farm stock. The WTO Panel made two decisions August 18, 1997 and one in Appeal Court, February 13, 1998 in which it was deemed that the European Community could not reasonably invoke the precautionary principle to justify restricting commercial trade exchanges. Such restrictions, explained the WTO, can only be applied when there is a proven risk and not just a scientific conjecture or speculation;
The caution expressed by WTO points to the potential serious economic consequences of increased application of the precautionary principle. In so doing the Geneva based institution is perfectly within its rights (protecting access to open trade exchange) and clearly raised the question of arbitration or at least adjustments where necessary between the two dimensions of public well-being: public health at large and economic activities. It is patent that a maximalist use of the precautionary principle would have economic consequences.
A case in point, often cited, is that of Denmark, where the local authorities panicked in February 2000, placing a total interdict on imports of cow meat (the Danish Government fearing a new outbreak of BSE when only a single case was reported). Obviously, the reaction here was disproportionate.
The tenets of the precautionary principle have learned their lesson and the idea of a degree of proportionality in terms of results has been brought to the fore. Nonetheless, it is a difficult issue and we often see decisions that lead to rife debate.
To exemplify this point, the local authority in the Gironde Department placed an interdict on oysters and mussels from the nearby Bay of Arcachon, justifying this administrative decision via the precautionary principle. Oyster farmers, supported by local politicians, contested what they saw as an unfounded decision and application of the principle, taken with “no discernment.” Their argument singled out the oyster disease test and deplored the economic and thoughtless impact on the oyster market outlets and farmer’s income.
The question is, how must one arbitrate between the possibility – even if it is not real and attested – that serious sanitary problems can arise and the economic viability of a local employment sector (oyster-culture)? Do the decision makers – judges or local authority service heads – have the skills and even the legitimacy to make such decisions and arbitration?
This economic aspect has brought up one of the central questions of enforcing the precautionary principle: if, on one hand, it is acceptable to invoke the principle in a public debate on future challenges and issues, it is difficult, on the other hand, to base an uncontested legal or administrative decision on the same grounds.
Paradoxes and contradictions
Economics is only part of the story. Gradually, as the precautionary principle came to be seen as a standard, new and violent forms of controversy arose in regard to the impact the principle might have on scientific research. The fear the scientists aired was that enforcing the principle would simply bring certain forms of research to a halt (stopping future economic development) inasmuch as the principle called for a proof of zero risk.
Emeritus Professor Michel Prieur, University of Limoges, finds exactly the opposite, as he puts it “the precautionary principle stimulates scientific research in order to reduce the degree of uncertainty. Of course, the principle per se calls for a reversal of the onus of proof. It is up to the person requesting authorization to prove that his intended action/activity will not have unknown consequences on the environment. However, reversing the onus of proof does not at all imply that he applicant has to prove absence of risk; there is an explicit invitation that enterprise adopts a responsible attitude with respect to non-intentional and cumulative effects that arise through use of the innovation they would like to operate/use.”
The opponents to the precautionary principle assert that the principle runs counter to the interests of science, research and innovation, and hence slow down economic growth, discouraging enterprise and universities form engaging in research in certain areas, in short encouraging them to apply self-censorship and stymie their plans. If one were only to apply the precautionary principle to the principle itself, the latter would auto-destroy itself. Adversaries are legion, including in France where the Academy of Sciences issued a negative advice note early on. The Academy recommended “that the precautionary principle should not be attached or included in constitutional texts or in the high level ‘organic laws’, to the extent that doing so could induce a deleterious effect with disastrous consequences for future progress of well-being, health and our environment”.
To justify this stance, the partisans of a more sceptical approach to the principle evoke the case in point of the insecticide DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane) to demonstrate that applying the precautionary principle can have dramatic consequences. In 1948, the Swiss born chemist Paul Hermann Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine for his discovery of the high level efficiency of DDT (synthesized some 70 years earlier) as an pesticide. A dozen years later, DDT was considered to be THE reference product to fight malaria and was seen as the agent that helped eradicate this disease from developed countries (and control it elsewhere). In the USA, the National Academy of Sciences assessed that over two decades DDT had saved the lives of 500 M persons round the world from dying of malaria.
But in 1962, DDT was accused of making certain bird species suffer (they lost their basic mosquito food to DDT spray operations) and became a target for ecologist movements. FDDT was gradually prohibited in developed countries as of the 1970s. The WHO (World Health Organization) moved away from DDT spray campaigns in its efforts to control malaria outbreaks. The consequences have been serious, to say the least. In India, recent studies recall that DDT had made malaria drop significantly from 100 M cases /yr. to 100 000/yr. in 1965. Following the DDT interdict, the number of cases rose to 6M in 1976. Faced with malaria, the use of DDT inside homes was again recommended by the WHO in 2006. The Organization recommended that substitute compounds be found as of 2020. However, just as was the case for the judiciary at Arcachon, the choices ahead will be difficult, almost impossible.
It was these contradictions that came forward in France when the precautionary principle was evoked in stormy debates after the law of July 23th, 2011 placed an interdict on exploration and operation of shale gas/oil. This provided a stage for opposing stances, with a certain level of subtlety, not to say of contradictions. The partisans of shale gas have listed the consequences of the interdict: in the USA the cost of primary gas as an energy source has dropped sharply with the introduction of shale gas to the residential networks; the energy operators are now closing down coal burning power stations, replacing the units with gas burning plant. Coal is now looking for new market outlets and is coming over massively to Europe, where gas is still more expensive than coal. In the near future, we shall see coal replacing gas as the energy source, knowing that a coal burning station produces twice as much CO2/kWh.
Partisans of shale gas exploitation have questioned the legality of the law before the Constitutional Supreme Court. Their case and plea were rejected. In October 2013, the French Conseil Constitutionnel (Supreme Court) validated the law, ruling that “the interdict to carry out exploration drilling wells followed by hydraulic rock fracturing to seek and exploit hydrocarbon fuels in France is a general and absolute principle; the law effectively blocks research not only in the development of classic hydrocarbon fuel exploitation with the process; the law-makers rightfully pursued the overarching objective of protecting the environment”. Court added that “the grievance aired by the objectors to violation of the precautionary principle has no effect since the law-makers based their decision and vote on the principle of prevention.”
Between ‘catastrophism’ and the principle of innovation
Criticism levelled at the precautionary principle also came from candid defenders of the environment. While some experts accuse the principle of immobilizing scientific thought and research, others paradoxically accuse the principle of inducing half measures. Professor Jean-Pierre Dupuy, University of Stanford, California and Ecole Polytechnique accuse the precautionary principle not for blocking technological developments but rather making everyone powerless when a catastrophe occurs as a result of the development – in short, the promises are not upheld.
As Dupuy sees it, “is a form of instrumental rationality, technicalities and economic calculations, given that the base is a probabilistic analysis of risks, whereas the reasonable thing to do is to foresee a catastrophic event.” To replace the precautionary principle, Dupuy advocates another approach “enlightened catastrophism”: think about catastrophes today to completely avoid them tomorrow. “The reasoned and accountable serenity of risk managers would tie well with that extraordinary capacity Men have to be resigned when unacceptable events occur, and it is this resignation that is the major stumbling block to defining a carefulness adapted to our times.”
We could of course argue with Prof. Dupuy that the precautionary principle is somewhat removed from a probabilistic approach, such as is used in risk management. It deals with uncertainty, i.e., with the possibility that a catastrophe could occur. But the precautionary principle does not stop there. It constitutes an encouragement to clear the route of its uncertainties. It stands mid-way, so to speak, between catastrophism and the so-called “risk management” which does not always match the stakes of the issues as they may happen.
In this light, a rigorous application of the precautionary principle leads to encouragement of research, so as to remove the elements of uncertainty and move back into what is measurable, debatable and can be discussed in its own rights: risk itself.
The precautionary principle here points to further scientific progress and to development of techniques rather than seeing us bathe in gloom and nostalgia. Its aim is not to immobilize all Mankind but to induce a smooth, reasoned changeover from precaution to prevention, thanks to new research.
A good example here for this ‘progressive’ conception of the precautionary principle can be the thorny topic of climate change. A catastrophic approach or blind enforcement of the precautionary principle would cause the planet to go into a downturn of the economies. Obviously nobody today seriously defends such an approach. An intelligent application on the contrary will incite us to open up every possible line of research to throw light on possible futures and to provide for the means to understand and prevent then more serious aspects from impacting us. This goes from green techs to research into the factors of behavioural change so that Mankind moves to adopting more sustainable ways of life.
Framed and conceived in this way, the precautionary principle has the challenging role to open the scope of possible futures. This does not entail being fearful about the most ominous possibilities ahead, but it will serve to mobilize our energies to innovate, again and again. This calls for a proactive stance and for us to embrace a brave new vision of the world today and ahead.
Michel Callon, Yannick Barthe and Pierre Lascoumes who co-authored a reference text-book (Agir dans un monde incertain. Essai sur la démocratie technique [Acting in an uncertain world/ An essay on technical democracy] go even further in their analysis and recommendations. They defend the idea of “open air” research, associating civilians with scientists – to both enrich and enhance the diagnosis and to better identify solutions that are more inventive. Others may prefer protecting scientific investigations from interference stemming from public debate. Both stances are defendable. But the key point they make is that the precautionary principle, in fact goes hand in hand with the principle of innovation.
More on paristech review
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By the author
- Agriculture and food: the rise of digital platformson February 12th, 2016
- The education tsunami – 9 pieces to make sense of a revolutionon July 22nd, 2015
- Energy transition Series – Smart consumption: technology to the rescueon June 26th, 2015


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The United States used 97.8 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) of energy in 2016. That’s 3.5 times more energy than Russia used the same year. Burning fuel to meet these energy demands affects the environment, but a shift in the last decade to lower-carbon natural gas has had a significant impact.
Natural gas also emits less carbon dioxide (CO2) than other fossil fuel sources, so its greater use drives down the number overall. In fact, the U.S. Energy Information Administration’s (EIA) projections show that in 2019 energy-related carbon emissions will have decreased 13 percent from 2005.
Why has this shift occurred? Technology and innovation have provided access to abundant supplies of natural gas – an energy source that produces fewer emissions than other fossil fuels. Its increased availability has increased its affordability, making natural gas the leading choice for electric generation and supporting renewable energy.
Innovation in Access
Though people have used natural gas since 1000 B.C., innovations over the past few decades have improved the efficiency and effectiveness in how we extract it. Advanced technologies, like hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling, allow operators to access larger amounts of natural gas trapped in shale and other tight rock formations. While conventional vertical drilling requires spacing out many individual wells over a wide area, horizontal drilling allows for up to 20, or more, wells from a single surface location. Utilizing these techniques has reduced the surface footprint of natural gas development by 90 percent.
Continuously evolving technologies have pushed production to reach record highs by streamlining the extraction process. These innovations have also impacted the amount of methane emitted from hydraulically fractured natural gas wells, which dropped 14% between 1990 and 2016, even as production rose more than 50 percent.
Increased Use of Natural Gas
Increased access to natural gas has made it more abundant and affordable. This energy source fueled more than 31 percent of U.S. electricity generation in 2017, leading all other fuels and the EIA projects that number will rise to 41 percent by 2050. The surge stems from the construction of new natural gas plants to meet growing demand, in addition to replacing facilities that use more carbon-intensive fuel, like coal. This is already evident in regions like the northeastern U.S., where natural gas has nearly doubled its generation portfolio.
Flexibility for America’s Electricity Grid
A rise in renewable generation is another way power is becoming cleaner. These carbon-free technologies are an important part of our energy future, but most sources can’t produce energy 24 hours a day. For example, solar panels can only generate electricity when the sun is shining.
Natural gas can act as a stable back-up, providing power when renewables cannot. By quickly ramping up and down production to match the changing output from these emissions-free sources, natural gas has asserted itself as a key ally in bringing more renewables online. The benefits of this partnership are demonstrated in a 2016 study by the National Bureau of Economic Research, which found that for every 1% increase in natural gas’ share of electricity generation, there was a .88% increase in long-term renewable capacity.
The U.S. is primed to lead the way in clean energy development. Whether its providing cleaner baseload power, or integrating more innovative, variable renewable energy sources, natural gas is cleaning up our energy options.


Bernard Courtois of France
Necessary for all life.
Named from the Greek word meaning “violet,” iodine is a shiny blue-black solid. Like other halogens, iodine is very reactive, although it is the least reactive of the group. Like arsenic, iodine sublimes directly from a solid to a purple vapor when it is heated. Iodine compounds are used as medicine and potassium iodide is used for a disinfectant. Silver iodide is used in photography and in cloud seeding. Iodine is also used as a nutrient additive to table salt. Like carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous, iodine cycles through the biosphere.
Iodine is an essential trace element to many species, including humans. It is a component of thyroid hormones. Lack of iodine will cause goiter, a thyroid deficiency disease. Iodine is believed to be the heaviest element required by humans.
Role in Life Processes
Critical for life processes in plants and animals.
Percentage Amount in the Human Body: 0.00002%
Minerals of iodine are uncommon—iodargyrite (silver iodide) and lautarite are two iodine-bearing minerals. Iodine is obtained mainly from seawater, old salt brines and salt wells, as well as nitrate deposits found in Chile. Some iodine is also obtained from seaweed.


According to timedictionary, East Grand Forks, Minnesota, is a quaint city located in the northwestern part of the state, situated right on the eastern banks of the Red River of the North. Nestled in the Red River Valley, the city is bordered by the neighboring state of North Dakota to the west. The geography of East Grand Forks is characterized by its flat and fertile landscape, which is a result of the glacial activity that occurred thousands of years ago.
The Red River Valley, where East Grand Forks is situated, was formed by the retreat of glaciers during the last ice age. As the glaciers melted, they left behind rich deposits of sediment, creating a flat and fertile plain. This makes the region ideal for agriculture, and the area surrounding East Grand Forks is predominantly used for farming, with vast fields of crops stretching as far as the eye can see.
The Red River of the North, which flows through East Grand Forks, is a prominent geographical feature of the area. The river serves as a natural boundary between Minnesota and North Dakota, and it is an important waterway for both recreational activities and commerce. The Red River Valley is known for its seasonal flooding, as the river frequently overflows its banks during the spring thaw. This has led to the development of levees and flood control measures in East Grand Forks to protect the city from potential damage.
In addition to the Red River, East Grand Forks is also home to several smaller bodies of water, including rivers, creeks, and lakes. The city is surrounded by numerous parks and green spaces, offering residents and visitors ample opportunities for outdoor recreation. These natural features contribute to the overall beauty and charm of East Grand Forks, making it an attractive destination for nature lovers and outdoor enthusiasts.
The climate of East Grand Forks is characterized by cold winters and warm summers. The area experiences all four distinct seasons, with snowfall during the winter months and pleasantly warm temperatures during the summer. The flat terrain of the region allows for strong winds to blow through the area, leading to occasional blizzards during the winter and thunderstorms during the summer.
Overall, the geography of East Grand Forks, Minnesota, is defined by its flat and fertile landscape, the presence of the Red River of the North, and an abundance of parks and green spaces. These natural features, combined with the city’s proximity to North Dakota and its agricultural heritage, contribute to the unique charm and appeal of East Grand Forks. Whether it’s exploring the scenic riverfront, enjoying outdoor activities, or immersing oneself in the beauty of the surrounding countryside, East Grand Forks offers something for everyone to enjoy.
History, Economy and Politics of East Grand Forks, Minnesota
East Grand Forks is a small city located in northwestern Minnesota, situated along the Red River of the North. It is part of the Grand Forks Metropolitan Area, which includes the neighboring city of Grand Forks in North Dakota. With a rich history, a diverse economy, and a vibrant political landscape, East Grand Forks has become an important community in the region.
The history of East Grand Forks dates back to the late 19th century when settlers began to establish a presence in the area. The city was officially incorporated in 1887 and was named after its geographical location at the eastern fork of the Red River. The region was primarily agricultural, with farming and livestock playing a crucial role in the early economy. Over time, the city grew and developed, attracting more residents and businesses.
The economy of East Grand Forks has evolved significantly over the years. While agriculture remains an essential part of the local economy, the city has diversified into other sectors as well. Manufacturing, healthcare, education, and retail trade are some of the key industries driving economic growth in the area. The presence of the University of North Dakota in nearby Grand Forks also contributes to the economy of East Grand Forks, attracting students and creating employment opportunities.
The city’s politics are characterized by a vibrant and engaged community. East Grand Forks operates under a mayor-council form of government, with a mayor and six council members elected by the residents. The city council is responsible for making policy decisions and overseeing the administration of various municipal services. Local elections are held regularly, providing residents with the opportunity to participate in the democratic process and shape the future of their community.
In recent years, East Grand Forks has faced several challenges, including natural disasters. The city was severely affected by the devastating Red River flood of 1997, which caused extensive damage to homes, businesses, and infrastructure. However, the community rallied together, demonstrating resilience and determination in the face of adversity. Efforts to rebuild and revitalize the city were successful, and East Grand Forks has since undergone significant redevelopment and improvement projects.
In terms of amenities and quality of life, East Grand Forks offers a range of recreational activities, parks, and cultural attractions. The Greenway, a scenic park along the Red River, provides opportunities for outdoor activities such as hiking, biking, and fishing. The city also boasts a vibrant arts and cultural scene, with museums, theaters, and community events that promote local talent and creativity.
Overall, East Grand Forks has a rich history, a diverse and growing economy, and an engaged political landscape. The city continues to evolve and adapt to the changing needs of its residents, ensuring a bright future for this community in northwestern Minnesota.


Engraving of a Vigée Le Brun Portrait The Princess de Lamballe was born in 1749. She was married to Louis Stanislas, the Prince de Lamballe (1747-68), the brother of Louise Marie Adélaïde de Penthièvre (the future Duchesse de Chartres). She was widowed at the age of 19. The Princess de Lamballe died on 3 Sept 1792 in Paris after she returned from England to help her queen. She was decapitated and her body was lacerated.


Resource Allocation: Tasks assigned to employees and displayed in a time-based bar chart.
Consider this "Part 2" of the Employee Availability video. This video expands upon the concepts of scheduling projects and tasks so that employees have steady work into the future. That is really the definition of Project Resource Allocation. The concept seeks to allocate task work to employees so they have something to work on. Of course G&A projects and planned time off have their place in the mix as well. It's not all just project work. Consider this one of the many project management features in addition to our timesheet, expenses, invoicing, and PTO accruals.
The basis of resource allocation is projects and tasks. Either the project, or the tasks under it, must be set up to allocate hours to employees. Traditionally, this has been purely a project task duty, but our product also allows projects with no tasks to serve as sources of allocated hours. That simplifies things.
Assuming you are using project tasks to check resource allocation, you will need to enter an estimated duration of hours for each task, at a minimum. Adding a starting and due dates help define the exact time when you expect employees to work on tasks, but they are optional because you may not know those dates or the dates may change too frequently for micro-management. Simply add some tasks to a project, assign them to employees, and enter a duration, and you have all you need to view the effect in the Resource Allocation window.
The graph you see deals chiefly with task remaining hours. So, even though you entered hours into the duration field, it is really the number of remaining hours, after subtracting actual timesheet hours, that are plotted on the graph. Why? Because those are the only hours relevant to future work. In other words, employees will apply themselves to what remains of their tasks. So all we care to see in the graph is what remains to be done.
If you can envision a graph showing tasks allocated by time period, you instantly realize that employees are expected to work a certain number of hours during those periods. You also begin to see that an inverted chart represents employee availability. For example, if a person is allocated to work on 10 hours in a certain week, they would have another 30 hours available for new work. So whereas the resource allocation chart would show a bar for 10 hours, the availability chart would show 30. The two work hand-in-hand to help you visualize future working hours.


Fourth Assertion: Attaching the prefix ‘neuro’ to a discipline with a long-standing history creates a new sub-discipline.
“It is plainly contrary to the law of nature…that the privileged few should gorge themselves with superfluities, while the starving multitude are in want of the common necessaries of life”
Discourse on the Origins of Inequality -Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The word “neuro-historian” first appeared in the 1970 edition of Webb Haymaker and Francis Schiller’s The Founders of Neurology. Haymaker and Schiller applied this moniker to Jules Soury (1842-1915), who (along with Leonard Guthrie, Max Neuburger, and Fielding Garrison) was one of the first historians of the science and medicine of the nervous system. In this instance, Haymaker and Schiller used the word “neuro-historian” to demarcate an historian who had taken “neurology” as a special interest. It is not clear why they thought Soury the only historian deserving of this title. What is clear, however, is that Haymaker and Schiller were not seeking to carve out a new disciplinary space called “neuro-history.”
Neuro-history, launched by among others Daniel Lord Smail, Iain McGilchrist, and David Lewis Williams in the first decade of the 21st century, and subsequently lauded by philosopher Steve Fuller (PDF), is a species of history-making that adopts an interdisciplinary style of thinking about historical narrative that assumes that certain neurobiological or genetic facts are universal, true, and therefore as meaningful as archeological findings, anthropological observations, or historical sources. In this sense, neuro-history is different from Charles C. Mann’s 1491, which pulls from a range of methodologies in the human sciences to reconstruct life in the Americas before Europeans arrived, because Mann does not assume the transcendence of biology and evolution.
Neuro-history's program is not to undo history per se, rather the program claims that science has established certain facts that can be meaningful when retrospectively read back into the historical record to establish a deep history. Thus, as Roger Cooter has critically reviewed, McGilchrist’s The Master and His Emissary: The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World claims that the origins of modernity were a dialectic of the lateralization of the brain, where the left (logical) “master” hemisphere of the brain competes with its (empathetic) “emissary” on the right. And McGilchrist’s monograph underscores the best critique of these attempts: As neurophilosophy pointed out a while ago:
the notion that someone is "left-brained" or "right-brained" is absolute nonsense. All complex behaviours and cognitive functions require the integrated actions of multiple brain regions in both hemispheres of the brain. All types of information are probably processed in both the left and right hemispheres (perhaps in different ways, so that the processing carried out on one side of the brain complements, rather than substitutes, that being carried out on the other).
The flaw with the neuro-history approach is that the science often changes more rapidly than the professional historians who seek to master the science are aware, and indeed the historiography changes more rapidly than the professional physicians, scientists, and philosophers who write or argue for such histories bother to recognize. It would seem that neuro-history is doomed methodologically. But was it ever a discipline? For that matter, can we judge neuro-economics, neuro-aesthetics, neuro-philosophy, neuro-law, etc to be disciplines? (What follows is somewhat wonkish.)
If judged by the sociology of professions, disciplines, and specialties, then the answer must be an emphatic no.
Let us examine some of the varied approaches to these topics in the sociology of work. Firstly, consider various definitions of professions: In 1958, Harvey Smith claimed that professions are “complex social institutions, which select people of varied skills, often from several social strata, and organise them” (p.410-411). In that same year, Ernest Greenwood claimed that professions could be understood as social workers with defined attributes including: (1) systematic theory, (2) authority, (3) community sanction, (4) ethical codes, (5) a culture. In 1977 Ivan Illich refined these views further by claiming that professions are social groups seeking to appropriate areas of human existence and to exercise social control over others, chiefly through the power of the state and bureaucracy. There is little sign that any of these fields have acquired structural characteristics like these, although I am suspicious that Illich’s description fits the motives of these ‘entrepreneurs’.
Do neuro-prefixed fields amount to disciplines? Foucault suggested in Discipline and Punishment that "The disciplines characterize, classify, specialize; they distribute along a scale, around a norm, hierarchize individuals in relation to one another and, if necessary, disqualify and invalidate." (Foucault p. 223). Judged in post-structural terms, it is clear that the motivation of these domains might well accord with Foucault’s views, but structurally the fields to not yet rise to the level of seriousness.
With the exception of neuro-ethics and neuro-law, there are no academic departments; no academic journals; no professional societies devoted to these issues. While they live and breath in the blog-sphere, the blog-sphere also makes clear that these new creatures survive mainly on the fringes of academia and think tanks. Their best bet for survival is to establish footholds in neuroscience departments, and institutionalization in such a manner will almost certainly mean that they will forever have to contend with scientists pointing out the is/ought dichotomy against which their post-structural imperatives will almost certainly rail and recoil. (Of course, as Sheila Faith Weiss’s recent excellent monograph The Nazi Symbiosis: Human Genetics and Politics in the Third Reich makes quite clear, there are reasons for fearing that neuroscientists will embrace their disciples in the humanities and social sciences. Socially-engaged science can be very ugly and so it is important to continue to resist those who laud what these fields are doing, for they almost certainly have an ideological agenda far from the actual domain of neuroscience.)
If neuro-prefixed areas of work are not professions or disciplines, then can we say that they are specialties? Specialization, according to Talcott Parsons's old definition, is a process that divides professions. In this sense, we might see them as forming divisions of professional labor (Abbott 1992). Nassau Senior (1836) defined the Division of Labour as the “Division of Production…the confining as much as possible of each distinct producer and each distinct class of producers to operations of a single kind.” George Rosen extended Senior’s theory to his own theory of the specialization of medicine, explaining in 1946 that: “medical specialism is an extension of that social division of labour, which first brought into being the medicine man. Furthermore, the foundation of medical specialism is heterogeneous, some specialties having developed around technical procedures, others taking as their province specific age groups, while still others have confined themselves to organs and organ systems” (p. 3). Scholars such as Rosemary Stevens and George Weisz have sought to expand upon Rosen’s definitions, examining the ways that changes in technology, hospital administration or political practices changed the specialization of medicine and science.
Most scholars agree that specialization-processes can been seen as equivalent to the creation of expert divisions of labor but often without the economic consequences recognized by Adam Smith. In any case, regardless of the consequences, fields in the humanities and social sciences that have sought to embrace neuroscientific knowledge have not succeeded in specializing, precisely because they are not seeking to narrow their professions – history, philosophy, economics, ethics, aesthetics, or law. Rather, they are claiming that we - humanists and social scientists - have a choice before us: we can learn from neuroscience and expand our professions' knowledge bases. Or we can resist neuroscience and suffer the humiliation of falling further and further behind.
It is this appeal to choice that reveals quite explicitly what many of these neuro-prefixed individuals are up to. They are entrepreneurs, bent on selling a product. A product that is often little more than a utopian vision or ideology dressed-up in the newest scientific fashions. Seven decades ago it was eugenics; four decades ago it was socio-biology. In the last thirty years, we’ve seen genes, green florescent proteins, and now brain scans become the currency of ‘debates’ about making history, philosophy, ethics, and law scientific. And a number of people have become quite famous selling us those debates and fairy-tales.
But just as Walter Morley Fletcher, the first Secretary of Britain’s MRC, once famously suggested that biomedicine would “cure death itself”, we have been waiting for our scientific pixies, hobgoblins, or superheroes in the humanities and social sciences to prove their worth and actually deliver something beyond the banal or ideological. Indeed, for all of their protestations, they need us first and foremost.How many of their books could exist without an inherited legacy of hard-work in history, philosophy, ethics, economics, law, etc.? The facts these workers bring are made in the image of debates long established in the humanities and social sciences; despite their best efforts, they cannot re-make us into theirs because we were there first.
Yet, if in the end we do purchase the currency of these debates, if we "blink," then we should recognize that it is because we like the marketing, the slick-packaging, and even the opportunity to moralize against this stuff. Admitting that we like this stuff is like admitting that we like sugar. We need to recognize that these workers are intellectually closer to Coca-Cola and Brittney Spears than they are to professions, disciplines, or specialties. They are bubble-gum, vanilla flavoring: a caramel macchiato with a double shot of espresso that keeps you awake about as long. You see, it takes a lot of hard-work, persuasion, brilliance, autonomy, determination, rigor, and truth to construct a profession, discipline, or specialty. Such work may well fall into the darker functions alluded to by Illich or Foucault, but say this for what the sociology of work has show us about those ‘disciplinary projects,’ they took the work of many brilliant people over a great deal of time. The neuro-tide, so far, is but window-dressing in comparison. Make them earn their status. Don’t give it to them because it is a convenient shorthand.


The article below, originally appearing in Phys.org*, is one of the best overviews of string theory – clear, concise and precise. While there are dozens of books published on the topic, this article provides the perspective necessary for the continued journey to formulate The Theory of Time.
This is an image of a two-dimensional hypersurface of the quintic Calabi-Yau three-fold. Credit: Jbourjai/Wikipedia.
“(Phys.org) —Scientists at Towson University in Towson, Maryland, have identified a practical, yet overlooked, test of string theory based on the motions of planets, moons and asteroids, reminiscent of Galileo’s famed test of gravity by dropping balls from the Tower of Pisa.
String theory is infamous as an eloquent theoretical framework to understand all forces in the universe —- a so-called “theory of everything” —- that can’t be tested with current instrumentation because the energy level and size scale to see the effects of string theory are too extreme.
Yet inspired by Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton, Towson University scientists say that precise measurements of the positions of solar-system bodies could reveal very slight discrepancies in what is predicted by the theory of general relativity and the equivalence principle, or establish new upper limits for measuring the effects of string theory.
String theory hopes to provide a bridge between two well-tested yet incompatible theories that describe all known physics: Einstein’s general relativity, our reigning theory of gravity; and the standard model of particle physics, or quantum field theory, which explains all the forces other than gravity.
String theory posits that all matter and energy in the universe is composed of one-dimensional strings. These strings are thought to be a quintillion times smaller than the already infinitesimal hydrogen atom and thus too minute to detect indirectly. Similarly, finding signs of strings in a particle accelerator would require millions of times more energy than what has been needed to identify the famous Higgs boson.
“Scientists have joked about how string theory is promising…and always will be promising, for the lack of being able to test it,” said Dr. James Overduin of the Department of Physics, Astronomy and Geosciences at Towson University, first author on the paper. “What we have identified is a straightforward method to detect cracks in general relativity that could be explained by string theory, with almost no strings attached.”
Overduin and his group —- including Towson University undergraduate research students Jack Mitcham and Zoey Warecki —- expanded on a concept proposed by Galileo and Newton to explain gravity.
Fable has it that Galileo dropped two balls of different weights from the Tower of Pisa to demonstrate how they would hit the ground at the same time. Years later Newton realized that the same experiment is being performed by Mother Nature all the time in space, where the moons and planets of the solar system fall continuously toward each other as they orbit around their common centers of mass. Newton used telescope observations to conclude that Jupiter and its Galilean moons fall with the same acceleration toward the Sun.
The same test could be used for string theory, Overduin said. The gravitational field couples to all forms of matter and energy with precisely the same strength, an observation that led Einstein to his theory of general relativity and is now enshrined in physics as the equivalence principle. String theory predicts violations of the equivalence principle because it involves new fields which couple differently to objects of different composition, causing them to accelerate differently, even in the same gravitational field.
Building on work done by Kenneth Nordtvedt and others beginning in the 1970s, Overduin and his collaborators consider three possible signatures of equivalence principle violation in the solar system: departures from Kepler’s Third Law of planetary motion; drift of the stable Lagrange points; and orbital polarization (also known as the Nordtvedt effect), whereby the distance between two bodies like the Earth and Moon oscillates due to differences in acceleration toward a third body like the Sun.
To date, there is no evidence for any of these effects. Indeed, the standard astronomical ephemeris assumes the validity of Kepler’s Third Law in deriving such fundamental quantities as the length of the Astronomical Unit. But all observations in science involve some degree of experimental uncertainty. The approach of Overduin’s team is to use these experimental uncertainties themselves to obtain upper limits on possible violations of the equivalence principle by the planets, moons and Trojan asteroids in the solar system.
“The Saturnian satellites Tethys and Dione make a particularly fascinating test case,” said Warecki, who is presenting this work at Session 109 at the AAS meeting today. “Tethys is made almost entirely of ice, while Dione possesses a significantly rocky core. And both have Trojan companions.”
“The limits obtained in this way are not as sensitive as those from dedicated torsion-balance or laser-ranging tests,” said Mitcham. “But they are uniquely valuable as potential tests of string theory nonetheless because they cover a much wider range of test-body materials.”
Moreover, in an era of increasingly big-budget science, they come at comparatively little cost, said Overduin.
The Towson-based team presents its finding today, January 6, 2014, between 10 a.m. and 11:30 a.m., at the 223rd meeting of the American Astronomical Society, in Washington, D.C. The work also appears in the journal Classical and Quantum Gravity”
Read more at: http://phys.org/news/2014-01-scientists-theory.html#jCp
* Reprinted from the January 6, 2014 online issue of Phys.org
**The image is of a two-dimensional hypersurface of the quintic Calabi-Yau three-fold. Credit: Jbourjai/Wikipedia.
More to follow . . .


The 3D Digitisation of the Hadrian's Temple
The Hadrian’s Temple, discovered in 1956 in Ephesus, Turkey, is undeniably one of the most significant historical monuments in the region. As far back as the summer of 1957, comprehensive restoration work had begun and was completed in 1958. Questions about the building’s chronology, function or reconstruction details, however, could never be conclusively answered. A special project, initiated by the Austrian Archaeological Institute (ÖAI) and funded by the Austrian Science Fund, has set out to shed light on these unsolved aspects.


Striving for an education
Many countries have managed to get more children into school by putting an end school fees. But, there are still various problems making it impossible for many children to go to school.
A shortage of schoolhouses and trained teachers are just some of the problems that many governments face in providing an education for children in their country.
Explore the Issue
Two Steps Forward, One Step Back
Although many countries have managed to get more kids into school, many families still face problems as they try to get their children an education, such as having to pay for school uniforms and books. A lack of education also increases the likelihood that children won’t have access to clean water and sanitation, becoming more susceptible to malnutrition and sickness.
Weighing the Odds
For many poor families it is hard to see the good of sending their children to school when they could be earning money for the family instead.
Many countries that have managed to get more kids into school now face the problem of not having enough teachers for the children. Some classrooms have as many as 80 students to one teacher.
Right to Read
Did you know that around the world 69 million children are currently out of school and more than 700 million cannot read? Teaching children to read is the first step to solving a number of critical health, social and development issues.
Questions about Education
- What are the main factors inhibiting education in some countries?
- How is education around the world different than education in Canada?
- Why are girls less able to go to school?
- What can we do to help?
Resources for Grades K-6
Resources for Grades 7-12
Links to Partner Resource Libraries
Links to more Educational Materials KGG Partner? Country Change For Children yes Canada
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Send us an email with the details - and we'll check it out.
How to Take Action
Do you want to get involved either locally or internationally in this issue?
If so, check out the Explore column to the right. It contains NGO projects that you could support, as well as links to the showcases.
- Ainembabazi Children’s Project
- Calgary Wildlife Rehabilitation Society
- Canadian Catholic Organization for Development and
- Canadian Humanitarian
- CAUSE Canada
- Change for Children
- Doctors Without Borders
- Education Beyond Borders
- Ghost River Rediscovery
- Hands at Work in Africa
- John Humphrey Centre for Peace and Human Rights
- Light Up The World
- Mennonite Central Committee Alberta
- One Child’s Village
2Act Out the Issue


September 4, 2006
Playing It Smart, Health-Wise, With Your Computer
By Michael D. Shaw
Many years ago, when I was in junior high (middle school to you young folks), a recurring theme was that the biggest problem in the 21st century would be how we would occupy all of our leisure time, since the “machines” would be doing everything for us, and our workweeks would be so limited. If only…
Perhaps, we should have been warned instead about what these machines would do TO us. For example, are video display terminals (VDTs), the monitors that accompany most desktop computers, a possible cancer threat? What about the radiation emanating from that monitor on your desk or work station—notably those so-called cathode-ray tube (CRT) devices?
The good news is that lead crystal, which has been used in the face of every CRT television and computer monitor manufactured since the 1950s, is highly effective at stopping radiation. In fact, these monitors emit about 2% of the radiation that one might absorb from the sky at night, and that’s about zero.
Yet, some alarmist critics allege that these video display terminals can be extremely harmful, and offer dubious protective measures such as admonishing users to sit at least two feet from the monitor. Ironically, as I was writing this very article, I measured the distance that I was sitting from the monitor and found it to be about two feet! However, none of these experts explain how being a few inches farther away from a supposedly dangerous source of radiation is going to make any difference in the long run. And, you can take comfort in the absence of any rational science proving such claims.
So, forget about getting cancer from your computer. But, before you breathe too great a sigh of relief, since video monitors are increasingly a big part of our lives, it is prudent to focus on a few modern day maladies that CAN be caused by computer work.
Most of us have experienced eyestrain, that can be quite severe, caused by uninterrupted sessions staring at the monitor. While your mileage may vary, it is recommended to award yourself with short vision breaks at least every 30-45 minutes. But, even if you don’t always do the right thing, according to the American Academy of Ophthalmology, “There is no convincing scientific evidence that computer video display terminals are harmful to the eyes.”
Studies indicate that most of the problems stemming from VDT use are related to poor ergonomic design of the workplace, lack of attention to the lighting and reflectance level of work surfaces, and the quality of the VDT itself. Besides all of these factors, make sure that your glasses are properly adjusted to the demands of the computer workstation environment.
Of course, vision complaints are not the only area of occupational hazards here. Many types of painful disorders can develop involving muscle groups in the hands, arms, and legs. Indeed, even the best conceived work station is not a cure-all. Again, getting up and walking away from the “one-eyed monster” will do wonders for those of us who seem to be locked into a sitting position, freezing various large muscle groups, that can throw our entire lower body support mechanism into disorder.
Fortunately, there are many good resources relating to the hazards that can affect today’s office worker. A good starting point is at the Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s website.
While computers and their monitors, like all tools, can be misused, it only takes small adjustments in our work habits to greatly improve the situation.


Human Flourishing and Quality Education: Little Drops of Water Make a Mighty Ocean
One of the many aspirations set forth in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals is the attempt to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all,” everywhere around the world. This is a monumental task, if only because the circumstances people live under differ so drastically from country to country, and even from county to county. One of the biggest challenges of fulfilling the SDGs is that while the finish line may theoretically be the same for everyone, people and nations are starting from very different points. Wealthy schools in the United States or Europe, for instance, are often miles ahead of low-resource institutions in the developing world. Delivering quality education to everyone under these conditions can seem like an insurmountable challenge requiring the commitment of vast resources by poor governments. However, reframing the problem to focus on principles that can be universally applied and human capacities that exist everywhere—and can be developed using a human flourishing approach—offer a pathway to success.
Sierra Leone is a case study of the challenges of delivering quality education. The country overall struggles to provide quality education to its children. Only 82 percent of school age children attend primary school, according to UNICEF, and attendance rates fall to a dismal 64 percent for senior secondary school. Completion rates, are even worse, with 64 percent completing primary school and just 22 percent finishing upper secondary. And the schools themselves often lack basic resources such as textbooks and chalk and receive little to no government support, relying mostly on volunteer teachers and support from community donations. Cultural practices such as child marriage and female genital mutilation further erode the ability of girls to receive an education, and regular harassment and a lack of quality facilities, or even restrooms, is an additional roadblock.
Yet some schools buck these trends, and surprisingly, they’re not the ones with the most money or government support. Consider, for instance, the case of Barmin JSS, a school in the remote village of Gbogbodo. Reaching Gbogbodo requires an arduous journey deep into the interior of Sierra Leone via dirt tracks and canoes or hand-pulled ferry, and the roads are often made impassable by erosion. Gbogbodo’s secondary and primary schools share a single, run-down building with latrines. Barmin JSS, the secondary school, receives no government support or funds and relies on a volunteer staff and donations from the impoverished agricultural community. On paper, this school should be a failure, representative of all of the problems in Sierra Leone’s educational system. Yet it is actually a case study in success; in 2019, the school was the best performing in its district in both mathematics and English, and its student regularly outperform on national assessments, with 100 percent passing the Basic Education Certificate Examination in 2017, and 89 percent and 90 percent passing in the subsequent two years. Barmin JSS students regularly surpass those in some elite academies in the capital.
How does this happen? How does a school with a voluntary staff paid by donated rice produce some of the best students in the country? And how do those students succeed despite a complete lack of computers and a reliance on textbooks purchased piecemeal at local markets?
While success of this kind is rare and there’s no single tactic that can be used to reproduce these results, it appears to result from a combination of community engagement and good leadership on the part of the school’s principal, Samuel Kargbo. In general terms, Kargbo’s use of management innovations and incentives tailored specifically for his staff and the community have cumulatively changed the culture of the school and the educational outcomes for students. The innovations at Barmin JSS radically improve outcomes for students by encouraging the community to embrace the school and students.
For instance, the oldest member of the community, a man nearing 100 years old, sits every morning at the gate of the school and watches as the children enter the school. This demonstrates the importance of education to older generations and also helps ensure that children are not loitering around the village and not coming to school. Likewise, because the school and teachers are entirely supported by donations from the community, Kargbo has been assiduous in maintaining transparency. The teachers and the community members all know exactly what kind of resources the school has and what they are being used for. This prevents petty corruption and provides everyone with a sense of ownership in the students’ education. He also works closely with his teachers to ensure that they have a pathway to success; the feeling that they are able to succeed in educating their students makes them more likely to do so. In concrete terms, one of the biggest discoveries at Barmin JSS was that the syllabus was too big to be taught exclusively in normal school hours; additional classes were added after hours to help students, and the school reached an agreement with community leaders that cultural practices—such as initiation ceremonies—would only be held on school breaks so that students would not miss class. As principal at Barin JSS, Kargbo built a close working relationship with the primary school so that he knows which students need help before they enter secondary school.
These are small, marginal things that individuals do every day, but they have can have an outsized impact over time. The ability to conceive and successfully institute these sorts of innovations derives from the character and inner strengths of the principal and his teachers, and the trust and support it engenders from the community. Collectively, they have created a culture of reciprocal respect, transparency and shared incentives, and his leadership, based on these principles, has turned Barmin JSS into a treasure in the forest of Sierra Leone.
The success of Barmin JSS is an example of how a human flourishing approach—encompassing things like character, inner strength, community engagement and cultural awareness—can complement or even (in some cases) replace technocratic policy interventions to achieve the UN SDGs. Investing in developing educational leaders with character strengths such as empathy, transparency, fairness and leadership skills will be key to achieving the SDGs in nations like Sierra Leone. Naturally, there are limits to how successful character and management interventions can be, and governments should not be let off the hook for providing educational resources. However, outlier cases like Barmin JSS demonstrate that resources alone do not determine whether a person receives a good education.
Sourovi De leads Oxford Policy Management’s Education, Early Childhood Development and Labour portfolio. She focuses on primary and secondary grade learning assessments, teacher development, early childhood development, school quality, education technology, maternal and child health, and water and sanitation. Sourovi leads the monitoring, evidence and learning workstream of the FCDO-funded Sierra Leone Secondary Education Improvement Programme. In this role, Sourovi provides evidence-based technical assistance to senior ministerial officials in the Ministry of Basic and Senior Secondary Education (MBSSE), senior education advisors at FCDO and implementing agencies. Sourovi holds a BA in Economics from the University of Delhi, and an MSc in Development Economics from the University of Oxford.
Diana Ofori Owusu is a senior researcher at Centre for Economic and Social Policy Analysis in Freetown Sierra Leone and earned a Master of Philosophy in Sociology from the University of Cape Coast


Our digital world is reliant on passwords and will be for a long time. As the pandemic forced almost all aspects of life online, protecting privacy and staying safe on the web has become a time-sensitive and growing issue.
Passwords have a terrible reputation as the weak link in our approach to cybersecurity in many areas. However, the reality is that bad habits like password reuse are the real issue, not passwords themselves.
On World Password Day, take a moment to ‘observe the holiday’ by appreciating what good password practice can do for us if we use the right tools. Today, consider doing the following:
Using easy and weak passwords is a dangerous habit. Hackers can guess millions of iterations of these common words very easily. Recent research has revealed that arbitrary character requirements like capital letters and special character use, as well as required password changes, have been shown to result in weak and repeated passwords. If your password is something similar to ‘Password123!’ or ‘Administrator2021’, it’s time to change.
Password reuse is a bad common habit. Even if you have a complex password and use simple iterations of it for many accounts, you still make it very easy for bad actors to break into your digital world. Now is the time to stop reusing that favorite password you have, even if you think it’s secure.
If you’re concerned that one of your accounts might be compromised, or a third-party site may have been breached, there are ways to find out. By checking your passwords against a list of compromised credentials, you can react by changing passwords and reconfirming your accounts. You should especially take this step if there is one password that you’re using for multiple accounts. It might shock you to know that it’s quite likely to already have been part of a breach.
Manually turning on multifactor authentication for your important accounts can be an excellent way to help yourself. Enabling MFA is a beneficial step because no single factor can be considered completely secure on its own. While MFA doesn’t ‘fix’ the issue of weak and repeated passwords, it can help your accounts stay secure.
4. Set Up a Line of Defense at Home
An easy self-defensive strategy many people take is to password-protect their routers and/or get a virtual private network (VPN). With the confluence of work and leisure devices, and often multiple family member’s devices, all connected to the same network, it’s crucial to protect your router with a strong, unique, uncompromised password. This step is particularly apropos in 2021, a year still under the shadow of the pandemic, with many more folks than usual working from home and heavily relying on personal WIFI networks.
By keeping a finger on the pulse of cybersecurity, you can stay ahead of the curve, and keep your identity and accounts safe. Take five minutes regularly to read an article about best practices could mean safer accounts for you. Here are some top articles about password reuse, password hygiene, and MFA.
With billions of stolen passwords on the Dark Web, we need to be mindful of the risks that surround us. Let’s break the cycle of poor password hygiene that fuels data breaches and compounds the issues of account theft.
Strong, unique, and uncompromised are the only passwords you need.
Share this with someone you know who could use a reminder not to use the same password for everything! Happy World Password Day.